GEOCONSERVATION ANALYSIS AT ACKENDOWN, JAMAICA DEFINING GEOARCHITECTURE Patricia Elaine GREEN,1 Sherene Andrea JAMES-WILLIAMSON 2 Department of Geography and Geology, The University of the West Indies, Mona Campus, Kingston 7, Jamaica, W. I. (1)patgreen2008@gmail.com (2) sherene.james02@uwimona.edu.jm

Abstract

Plasters and mortars from historic buildings have been considered useful on style, formulation and cultural provenance where several transformations and stratifications have taken place over time. On the Caribbean island of Jamaica with its culturally diverse heritage holding Aboriginal, Spanish, African and English legacy, the former Ackendown Estate contains a cluster of buildings that convey this. Of significance is an ‘Old Castle’ that has received concurrently16th century Spanish, 18th century British, and 19th century Scottish dating.

This paper presents aspects of an on-going Historic Structures Report for Ackendown with scientific techniques to determine appropriate analysis for mortar composition. The aim is to investigate how historic mortars and the geology of architecture may become a useful instrument, which can contribute to the identification of different building phases to establish provenance within historic periods. A comparative analysis of heritage mortar and geology across the island having established dates from archaeology and primary documentation is being developed to facilitate interpretation.

The results will inform conservation techniques and restoration principles in hot humid tectonic environments. Outcome of this work is the launch of the concept ‘Geoarchitecture®’ embracing the multi-disciplinary approach of architecture with the science of geology in Geoconservation. Keywords: archaeology, geoscience, mortars, preservation, tectonics

Introduction Christopher Columbus landed on Jamaica during his second voyage of exploration in 1494

claiming the island for Spain. He returned twice during his fourth voyage in 1503 and was shipwrecked on the north coast for one year. He encountered an Aboriginal Taino population of 600,000 although it is argued that this was an exaggeration and may have been 60,000 [1]. Within five years of his departure, the Spanish founded two towns, Sevilla as the principal on the north coast where Columbus has taken refuge, and Oristan on the south coast [2]. In the ceremonies of possession, houses and forts marked the occupation of a place or territory [3]. These Jamaican towns were established by ca.1510 with the erection of a stone fort-house, and other stone houses [4]. By 1513 the Aboriginal population had diminished and Africans were being imported into the island for enslaved labour [5]. These Spanish Jamaica towns were relocated inland from their coastal founding sites ca.1519, and a third town, La Villa (now called Spanish Town) was founded ca.1520 [6]. Sevilla and Oristan were officially abandoned in 1534, and La Villa survived as the principal and only Spanish Jamaica town [7]. The island remained as a Spanish colonial settlement for over 146 years until it was conquered in 1655 by England, and remained under English rule until it gained independence in 1962.

Whereas archaeology has established evidence of the Spanish Jamaica town of Sevilla, the footprint of Oristan has yet to be exactly defined. The 2011 archaeology report of Ackendown states that Taino and Spanish history and culture in Jamaica are still to be explored, pointing out that there are large numbers of Taino sites along the south central and south west coast that testify to their presence; further that the work on the Castle site at Ackendown gives the opportunity to examine this

issue, as this building may have belonged to a Spanish regional commander and head of the Spanish Jamaican province of Oristan [8]. It is highly possible that the south coast property of Ackendown may hold some clues to identify Oristan [9].

Research on Ackendown included a chain-of-title conducted in the Jamaica Government Archives (JGA), the National Library of Jamaica (NLJ), family memoirs of earlier proprietors; and archaeological investigations in 2011 with surface and underground work that built on previous investigations during the 1980s. This has shown that the historic name on the property titles, estate maps, and legal representation in the JGA, the NLJ, and Colonial Papers lodged in the United Kingdom is Ackendown. Yet contemporary maps call the area “Auchindown.” Therefore, this paper uses the historic property name of Ackendown.

Ackendown is situated on the south coast Parish of Westmoreland, Jamaica. The property containing approximately 116 hectares (287 acres) is bounded southerly by the Bluefields Harbour and extends northwards into the adjacent hills. Sandals Resort International (SRI) owns the property. The area containing the historic ruins is concentrated on the hillock overlooking the Harbour, with the south-coast main road separating it from the coastal stretch that has been developed into an all-inclusive beach-front hotel. SRI desires to restore the historic ruins as the ‘Ackendown Heritage Park,’ and for this, the firm Patricia E. Green Architects was engaged and conducted a Historic Structures Report. The JNHT declared one of the historic structures, the Ackendown Castle ruin as a national monument on December 21, 2006 [10].

Fig. 1: Ackendown Heritage Park Layout (©Patricia E. Green Architects, August 2011)

An area of approximately 15 hectares (6 acres) has been fenced off to offer security protection for the Heritage Park, which contains the shells of four historic masonry ruins situated contiguously on a gentle slope. These all form a quadrangle along cardinal points, termed commonly as (1) Castle, situated northerly; (2) Pimento Works, southerly; (3) Field Buildings, westerly; and (4) Cottage, easterly (Fig. 1). Colloquially, the Cottage is sometimes called ‘Overseer House.’

Set apart northerly from the Cottage is a ruin termed Block Building. This has been modified extensively during the latter part of the 20th century. Historically this would have been the original location for the kitchen, servant quarters and ‘other offices’ (latrines) for the Cottage. Adjacent to this

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building on the north are the foundations of yet another structure that was used over the years as a stable and later as a garage. Archaeology during July 2011 has unearthed certain shards that suggest that a blacksmith workshop may also have been a part of this building. Analysis shows that a covered link-way would have connected these buildings to the Cottage.

The Cottage retains a cedar shingle steep-pitched hip roof, but all the other structures have no roof covering. Grey slate roofing material is strewn around the Castle ruin. A dry-bed stream meanders alongside the Cottage and separates it from the other ruins. The Cottage has landscape evidence of a sunken garden with low retaining walls contoured along the slope of the land.

In 2011, geologists at the University of the West Indies joined this work to assist in the analyses of mortar and material samples to guide conservation strategies. However, these heritage buildings have proved to be a resource for additional investigations on seismic strengthening of walls. Significantly, the geoscientific analysis has the potential to help provenance and cultural appropriation of the various parts of the historic structures. Therefore, to assist efforts to locate the buildings of Oristan, this work has now been extended to include comparative geoscientific analyses at the archaeological sites of the historic Spanish Jamaica towns of Sevilla, and La Villa.

Investigations at Ackendown and at comparative sites are on going, and have begun to assume various levels of scientific engagement. This paper briefly shares the early findings of the analyses, with an introduction to its comparative work with Sevilla. It is presented as an overview of the (1) Ackendown geology; (2) Natural Hazards and Disasters (3) Ackendown history; (4) historic structures; (5) geoscientific analyses; (6) geology of the heritage; (7) conservation findings; and (8) geoarchitecture conclusions.

This paper introduces the emergence of a thematic definition ‘Geoarchitecture®’ that combines heritage architecture with the discipline of geology. It outlines the multi-disciplinary approach being employed in the analyses of the architectural heritage using geological science, to help address provenance issues, to emphasize construction interventions for disaster risk mitigation, and to link geoconservation techniques as a support in historic preservation principles. 1. Ackendown Geology

Geologically, Ackendown sits on sections of the Montpelier Formation, Coastal Group of Jamaica. The Montpelier Formation is a white- to tan-coloured limestone with chert bands and is of Miocene age [11] (Fig. 2). The land slopes gently towards the coast with large limestone boulders strewn at the base of the property. There are two small perennial stream that take excess run-off from the slopes and drain the property. The area surrounding the Ackendown property shows karst topography, and the site itself rests on the seaward face of a rounded limestone hill.

The Heritage Park contains a diversity of geologically derived material, both local in-situ, or imported from other Jamaican areas as well as from overseas. For example there is clastic material imported from different areas in Jamaica. Imported material is found in some ‘Gabian baskets,’ rectangular mesh screens filled with cobbles that are strategically installed around one of the streams on the property to redress erosion. Historic slate roofing tiles found on the property are imported from overseas. 2. Natural Hazards and Disasters

Jamaica falls within the Tropical belt that historically has felt the effects of these annual seasons. From 1780 to 1786 there were five hurricanes that passed within 100 kilometres (100 miles) of the South Coast of Jamaica [12]. Additionally, the island itself is dissected by a number of faults that feature Quaternary left-lateral offsets associated with the Gonave micro-plate, which is demarcated by the Oriente Fracture Zone to the north, the Walton and Enriquillo Fault Zones to the south and the Cayman Spreading Centre to the west. Further, in western Jamaica the topography is influenced by the South Coast, Spur Tree and Montpelier-Newmarket faults that exhibit large downthrows to the south and west, respectively [13]. Historically, there was the 1692 earthquake where two-thirds of the infamous Buccaneer city of Port Royal sank into the sea, and the 1907 that resulted in the enactment of the first building laws in Jamaica [14].

“…About 200 earthquakes are located in and around Jamaica per year most of which are minor, having magnitudes less than 4.0. The most seismically active areas are the Blue Mountain block in eastern Jamaica and the Montpelier-Newmarket belt in western Jamaica. Other areas of notable seismicity include the near offshore south-west of Black River on the south coast, and offshore Buff Bay on the north–east coast…” [15]. The Ackendown heritage site on the south coast may bear testimony to these impacts, based on their ruinous condition and signs of structural movement.

There is evidence of environmental deterioration on the historic ruins, however this may be considered ‘moderate’.

3. Ackendown History The property was described as woodlands on the Early English Plat and Patent Books on

deposit at the GAJ having 324 hectares (800 acres) patented to Dr. Richard Herne on August 18, 1674 [16]. By May 30, 1733 the earliest mention found to date with Ackendown is recorded in a dispute resolution document of a conveyance for ‘Strathbogie’ with estates or plantations called respectively ‘Ackendown’ and ‘Retrieve’ along with some uncultivated lands belonging to John Hayes and his wife Jenet who conveyed them to Peter Beckford that gives the following account [17].

Fig. 2: Geology Map of Jamaica with insert of Ackendown, Sevlla (north coast), Oristan (south coast), and La Villa now Spanish Town (south central).

In 1734 John Haynes died intestate and these properties passed to the widow Jenet Hynes and her children. In 1742 Francis Sadler becomes the proprietor with his new wife, the widow Jenet Hynes. On his death in 1735, Peter Beckford passed these properties to his sons Nathaniel, William, Richard, Julines, and Francis to be equally divided between them. By January 1743 on account of mortgage entanglement, these parcels were transferred to William Beckford son of Peter. William died in 1770 leaving them to his infant son William and executors until September 28, 1781 when William turned 21 years. The Scotsman John Campbell is listed as proprietor in December 19, 1788 and attempted to convert the property from an ‘estate’ into a ‘pen’ resulting in disputes about whether this change was beneficial or prejudicial to the mortgages.

William Beckford became Lord Mayor of London, and the richest man of his time with his wealth stemming from holdings in Jamaica that passed to his son, William Thomas Beckford who was an illustrious traveller and author. Peter, William, and William Thomas were all absentee proprietors and never visited Jamaica [18]. William Thomas Beckford erected the ca.1800 mansion called Fonthill Abbey in Wiltshire, England that was designed by Architect James Wyatt and styled by the Royal Institute of British Architects as ‘Georgian eclecticism’ [19]. Two keystones on the Pimento Works ruins at Ackendown carry the inscription, “WB1776” and “WB1777,” suggesting that these buildings were erected under the proprietorship of William (Thomas) Beckford.

Ackendown appears in the Jamaica Gazette of 1816 as belonging to John Graham Campbell with 132 ‘slaves’ and 326 livestock [20]. After the 1834 Emancipation of slavery, in the 1837 Campbell was listed as having 331 apprentices [21]. By 1912 Ackendown was mainly rented to tenants as a cattle pen that also supplied wood, and consisted of 581 hectares (1,436 acres) in the proprietorship of I. O. Crooks and A. S. Aguilar and Brother [22]. In 1930, Crooks was removed off the title [23]. Various subdivisions took place, so that by December 2, 1971 the Urban Development Corporation owned approximately 267 hectares (659 acres) [24], from which Gorstew Limited became proprietors

in October 1992 of approximately 116 hectares (287 acres) containing the Heritage Park and the resort hotel was developed on the beach [25].

Fig. 3: Cottage Floor Plan showing random rubble foundation walls below with eleven types of upper wall construction (©Patricia E. Green Architects 2011 August). 4. Historic Structures

The Castle ruin comprises the outer walls of two double-storied Ashlar masonry 7.5 metres (25 feet) square towers with varying heights of 7.5 metres (25 feet). There are sub-floor levels on each tower. A low wall about 43 metres (141 feet) spans between both towers, with an interconnecting tunnel associated with this wall. There is evidence of upper timber flooring supports, also fireplaces and chimneystacks.

The Pimento Works are two structures each with a partition wall evenly placed. Each footprint measures 6 metres (20 feet) x 12 metres (40 feet). A five-bay barbecue with associated stone store-sheds separates each building. The barbecue overall measures 26 metres (86 feet) x 58 metres (190

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feet.) The principal facade is of Georgian design with a 4-bay elevation and gable roof pitch measuring about 6 metres (20 feet) at the apex. The east structure carries two keystones over the doorways, on which is written WB1776 on each keystone. The west structure carries WB1777 on one of the keystones over the doorways, however it appears that the other doorway may have had the same but weathered. The west structure has a fireplace in the partition wall.

One Field Building has a one-roomed structure, and the foundations of the other outline two room. Both structures average approximately 6 metres (20 feet) x 6 metres (20 feet).

The Cottage contains a covered rectangular building with a veranda having an area of approximately 246 square metres (2,700 square feet). This building was occupied until about 2004, and was immediately vandalized after it became vacant, thereby revealing a wealth of geoarchitectural information. Twelve wall types are identified. One wall type is the random rubble perimeter wall foundation that provided a suspended floor. The above-floor walls are eleven different types of timber-framed construction with masonry infill. These are termed ‘nogg’ construction [26]. Four of the wall types are varieties of post-1907 nogg walls.

It is supposed that this building spans five centuries, 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. On the basis of the analyses of these walls, a hypothesis was developed to ascertain the construction evolution of the Cottage (Fig. 3):

i. The sub-floor foundations that may have been a 16th century two-roomed stone house would be sections 05 & 06. The area of this equates with one of the Field Buildings.

ii. The sub-floor foundations that may have been 17th century are sections 02 (with a fireplace) & 03 also 09 added to 05 & 06. The area of this equates with the footprint of a Castle tower.

iii. The 18th century alterations would have coincided with the 1776-1777 Pimento Works improvements where section 04 would be added as a foundation and the house then spanned over sections 02 & 03 & 04 & 05 & 06. An outdoor section 01, the steps would match 09 as another outdoor space.

iv. The 19th century had the addition of sections 07 & 08 & 13 as one room, likewise section 10 & 11 & 12 as one room to the 18th century sections of 01 & 02 & 03 & 04 & 05 & 06. The outdoor space 09 would remain.

v. The 20th century had the extension of section 14 on the east, and section 15 on the west. Also the outdoor section 09 was enclosed, and the east and west rooms were subdivided into 07 & 08 & 13 also 10 & 11 & 12 respectively to create indoor bathroom and kitchen facilities. Section 01 was integrated into a veranda.

5. Geoscientific Analyses

The techniques employed in the analyses of the building material used at Ackendown are geological methods that have found wide usage in Archaeology particularly for pottery, mortar, plaster and paint [27]. The techniques used throughout this project include hand specimen descriptions, petrography, insoluble residue analysis, neutron activation (NA) and X-Ray diffractometry (XRD). Each technique provides more information than the previous and as such a systematic approach has been taken in the study of the material. The techniques also increase in cost from hand specimen descriptions to X-Ray diffractometry.

Petrography deals with the description and classification of the rocks by microscopic examination, where thin sections are made from small slabs of a rock sample mounted onto a glass slide (~1 inch by 2 inches), and then ground to a specified thickness of 0.03mm (30 microns). In the case of mortar, the samples are first impregnated with resin, then mounted and ground. Neutron Activation is a method of identifying isotopes of an element by bombarding them with neutrons and observing the characteristic radioactive decay products emitted. Different elements produce different 'signatures' of the sample in the induced radiation, which makes determination of their concentration in the sample. X-Ray Diffractometry is one of the primary techniques used by mineralogists and solid-state chemists to examine the physico-chemical make-up of a sample.

These analyses largely form part of the provenance studies to determine the source area for the lime used in the mortar and the clay used in the brick as well as assist in distinguishing possible construction phases of the buildings.

At Ackendown, various samples of rock, mortar, stucco, plaster, brick and slate have been recorded and sampled for analysis. Thin section analysis has revealed very interesting textures; insoluble residue has indicated that the mortar is made primarily of carbonate with a small percentage being twigs and charcoal. The NA and XRD analyses are being conducted and compared with Sevilla, and La Villa. 6. Geology of the Heritage

The limestone on the historic ruins is used as cobbles or fieldstones, and block forms, as well as utilized in mortar, stucco, and plaster. It appears to have been derived from in-situ boulders on the

property or strewn fieldstones from loose blocks such as in the streams with a limestone basement, as well as from the material in-situ along the rocky coastline now housing the resort hotel development.

Constructed from hewn limestone blocks, the Castle material is also micritic, (fine-grained limestone) in texture. The tool marks can be seen on individual blocks. The tunnel is made from rounded to sub-rounded limestone cobbles. They appear to be about the same size as those used as blocks except they were not shaped into blocks.

The two primary buildings at the Pimento Works and its storehouses have a mixture of limestone cobbles and crudely-shaped limestone blocks. Red bricks are used inside the eastern building for an oven and a fireplace. Some repairs especially on the partition walls have been done using Portland / Carib cement.

The Field Buildings are composed of bits of chert cobbles in limestone cobbles with limestone blocks for the foundation and quoins.

On the Cottage, limestone is predominantly used, and from preliminary analyses is locally derived having micritic (fine-grained) limestone cobbles in the foundation and lower walls. Red brick is found also for a fireplace at the foundation level. The rocks at this location appear to be cobbles collected and used in the construction rather than hewn rocks. The mortar on the later-staged construction is coarse-grained, and has lime as binder with limestone fragments up to 1 mm in size as aggregate. Other walls above the floor level are of various geological combinations, some only made with stone cobbles, or with timber framing filled with stone cobbles generally called ‘Spanish walling’, or timber framing filled with red brick. 7. Conservation Findings

Other historic material examinations for conservation included timber samples from the frames, windows, doors, and roofing as well as metal samples of nails, hinges, and straps. However the analyses for these involve other types of equipment and technology outside of geology, such as carbon dating that is envisioned. The nail analysis is assisted through the dated collection at the Archaeological Division of the JNHT.

Early stages of the geoscientific analyses have revealed the following: • At the Castle, the mortar is medium-grained, similar to the designated 17th century hypothesis

of the Cottage. It consists of limestone, wood fragments and charcoal fragments mixed in with the relatively fine-grained binder. Showing shrinkage cracks, these are indicative of insufficient burning, thereby when rehydrated and combined it would dry out quickly forming the cracks [28]. The tunnel mortar was less generously placed in this area than on the blocks of the towers. The material is firm, however may be easily scraped away from the rocks.

• At the Pimento Works, the mortar was predominantly of lime. The lime mortar was grey- to light-brown in colour, very soft, and disaggregated easily between thumb and forefinger. It shows burnt wood and charcoal fragments up to 5 mm in size. This mortar appears to have a high aggregate to binder ratio with the binder being very fine-grained with limestone fragments up to 2 mm in size as aggregate.

• At the Field Buildings, the mortar has chert and limestone fragments ranging in size from 10-15 cm used to infill the mortar between blocks. This decorative mortar is found only on the east wall, and on no other structure.

• At the Cottage, inside the sub-floor foundation level hypothesized as being 16th and 17th century, the limestone is chalky and sub-rounded in shape. These foundations and lower walls

showed a tight packing of cobbles with soft, white-grey, powdery lime mortar smeared over the rock-to-rock connections. This mortar is very fine-grained. The lime mortar appears to be created only from very fine-grained lime binder and aggregate less than 1 mm in size and used to hold small rocks in place as well as spread on the surface as stucco. There are charcoal fragments in the mortar. This application appears very crude compared to applications at other structures on the site. The arched openings within this sub-floor foundation area have been closed off with limestone cobbles, and the mortar is of similar texture and consistency. The mortar in this area is similar to that on the Castle.

Fig. 4 & 5: 1573 Illustration of Panama Port of Santa Maria showing Fort-house [Puerto y Fortaleza] and settlement [un pueblo] of small houses (source: Archivo de Indias, Sevilla, Spain, MP Panama 4); and Ackendown Castle.

Figs. 6 & 7: View of Port from Ackendown Castle with Pimento Works ruin in foreground, and hotel resort development on the beach; and one of the Ackendown Field Buildings. 8. Geoarchitecture Conclusions

The early findings of the geoarchitecture have already begun to confirm aspects of the construction dates of the heritage structures. It is recognized that the Cottage has been continuously inhabited into the 20th century, and show evolving construction techniques with developments in earthquake resistivity. The earthquake resistant construction is part of the Jamaica Vernacular Architecture [29]. It is common practice of the local community within the vicinity of Ackendown; therefore traditional restoration skills reside locally.

Parts of the Cottage compare with that of the 18th century Pimento Works carrying keystone dates of 1776 and 1777. Yet the geoarchitecture of the Pimento Works with its Georgian architectural detailing suggest that the Field Buildings with its decorated inset mortars are of an earlier date to the

Pimento Works. This type of decorative mortar is found on the 17th century Old Gaol building in Port Royal, one of the few architectural survivors of the 1692 earthquake.

Significantly, the geoarchitecture is characteristic for the Castle and the Cottage sub-floor foundations, and it may be concluded that these have the same construction timeframe. The Castle may have been a 16th century Spanish fort house and the Cottage sub-floor foundations a Spanish stone house as a part of the Spanish Jamaica town of Oristan. Making contemporaneous associations of the Ackendown heritage with early Spanish settlements in the Americas, the 1572 illustration of Santa Maria in Panama bears similarity (Figs. 4, 5, 6, & 7). Spanish Jamaicans helped founded Central American Spanish colonies [30]. Settlements in Panama came after those in Spanish Jamaica [31]. The 1692 earthquake may have destroyed the Castle likewise the stone house, over which the Cottage was subsequently constructed.

Geoarchitecture has far-reaching effects for multidisciplinary research. Even with these early geoscience results at Ackendown, the geoarchitecture seeks to help enhance cultural heritage tourism linkages between Jamaica and Hispanic heritage. Commonality of the geoarchitecture of the Ackendown Heritage Park with that of the wider local community would thereby engage them for sustainable conservation.

Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank all who helped to make this investigation possible with special

mention of Sandals Resort International as the proprietors and developers of the Heritage Park, the Jamaica National Heritage Trust for providing access to archaeological heritage sites under their purview for comparative analyses, the consulting firm Patricia E. Green Architects, Jamaican Archaeologist Roderick Ebanks, and the Office of the Principal University of the West Indies at Mona for the provision of a ‘New Initiative Grant’ that has helped to facilitate these investigations.

Bibliographical References [1] MORALES PADRÓN, Francisco. Spanish Jamaica. (Translated by BRYAN, Patrick E. in collaboration with GRONOW, Michael J. & MORAL, Felix Oviedo). Kingston & Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2003.

[2] WRIGHT, Irene A. The Early History of Jamaica 1511-1536. In English Historical Review, 36, 1921, p. 70-95.

[3] SEED, Patricia. Ceremonies of Possession: Europe’s Conquest of the New World, 1492-1640. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

[4] GREEN, Patricia Elaine. Sustainable development in the conservation of the English Caribbean Cultural Landscape: The Caribbean vernacular and the role of the Spanish architectonic heritage of the islands of Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago. PhD diss. Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain, 2012.

[5] WYNTER-CAREW, Sylvia. Report on Research Mission to Spain (Madrid, Seville, Granada) for the Government of Jamaica, August 28–October 4. California: Stanford University, unpublished, 1981 November 30.

[6] GREEN 2012 (Ibid. 4).

[7] JAMAICA NATIONAL HERITAGE TRUST. New Seville 1509-1536: Major Facts and Major Questions. Kingston, Jamaica: Jamaica National Heritage Trust, 1988, May 5.

ANON. New Seville: Major Dates: 1509-1536 with an aftermath 1537-1655. Kingston: JIS Press, n. d.

[8] EBANKS, Roderick. Archaeology Activity Status Report, Ackendown Archaeology sub Project. Unpublished, 2011/08/17.

[9] GREEN 2012 (Ibid. 4).

[10] JAMAICA NATIONAL HERITAGE TRUST. Ackendown Castle Ruin. http://jnht.com/site_ackendown_castle_ruin.php.

[11] JAMES-WILLIAMSON, S. and MITCHELL, S. F. Revised lithostratigraphy of the Coastal Group of south-eastern St. Thomas, Jamaica. In Caribbean Journal of Earth Science, 44, 2012, p. 9-17.

MITCHELL, S. F.. Lithostratigraphy and palaeogeography of the White Limestone Group. In: Donovan, S. K. (Ed.), The mid-Cainozoic White Limestone Group of Jamaica, Cainozoic Research, 3, 2004, p. 5-29.

ROBINSON, E. and MITCHELL, S. F. Upper Cretaceous to Oligocene stratigraphy in Jamaica. In Mitchell, S. F. (ed.), Contributions to Geology, UWI, Mona, #4, 1999, p. 1-47.

[12] CHENOWETH, Michael; THISTLEWOOD, Thomas. The 18th century climate of Jamaica, derived from the journals of Thomas Thistlewood, 1750-1786. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2003.

[13] MANN. P. Caribbean Basins. In MANN, P. ed. Sedimentary Basins of the World, Vol. 4, New York: Elsevier Science, 1999, p. 247-286.

MANN, P., and TAYLOR F. W., and EDWARDS, R. L., and KU, T. L. Actively evolving microplate formation by oblique collision and sideways motion along strike-slip faults: An example from the northeastern Caribbean plate margin. In Tectonophysics Vol. 246, 1995, p. 1-69.

MANN, P., and BURKE, K. Cenozoic rift formation in the northern Caribbean. In Geology, Vol. 12, 1984, p. 732-736.

[14] GREEN, Patricia. The Development of a Jamaican Architectural Style, 1907-1951. In Jamaica Journal 18, no. 3, 1985, August-October, p. 2-12.

[15] EARTHQUAKE UNIT. University of the West Indies, Mona Campus. http://www.mona.uwi.edu/earthquake/jaequake.php.

[16] Government of Jamaica Archives, Patent Books 1B/11/2, Vol.6 Folio 116.

[17] HIGH COURT OF CHANCERY IN THE ISLAND OF JAMAICA. Between John Campbell Esquire, Appellant and William Beckford Esquire, Respondent and between John Swete and Henry Beke Esq, Appellants, William Beckford, Respondent. “Upon two separate Appeals to his Majesty in Council from an Order made by the High Court of Chancery in the island of Jamaica, dated the month of Sept. 1799 (source: National Library of Jamaica, Ref. No.: F346.5 ja. C188 Campbell).

[18] CURTIN, M. R. The story of Westmoreland, a Jamaican parish. Jamaica: Marguerite R. Curtin, 2010.

[19] ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS. Georgian Eclecticism. http://www.architecture.com/HowWeBuiltBritain/HistoricalPeriods/GeorgianWestAndIreland/GeorgianEclecticism/FonthillAbbeyWiltshire.aspx

[20] See http://www.bromfield.us/gen_property/JA_Prop_Westm01.htm.

[21] See http://www.bromfield.us/gen_docs/List_Westm_JA_1837.htm#A.

[22] List of Properties 50 acres and up in 1912 (source National Library of Jamaica. Ref. F333.33 Ja. Jamaica, p. 32.

[23] List of Properties 50 acres and up in 1930 (source National Library of Jamaica. Ref. F333.33 Ja. Jamaica, p. 37.

[24] Title Part of Ackendown Vol. 1325 Folio 14 (source: National Land Agency, Titles Office).

[25] Title Part of Ackendown Vol. 1373 Folio 429 (source: National Land Agency, Titles Office).

[26] GREEN 1985 (Ibid. 14).

[27] SHACKLEY, M. S. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF). In Geoarchaeology. Springer Science + Business Media, LLC, 2011, p. 245.

TYKOT, R. H. Scientific methods and applications to archaeological provenance studies. In MARTINI, M., and MILAZZO, M., and PIACENTINI, M. (Eds.). Proceedings of the International school of Physics "Enrico Fermi" Course CLIV, Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2004.

HERZ, N and GARRISON, E. G. Geological Methods for Archaeology. Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 352.

[28] TOPRAK, G. Characteristics of limes produced from marbles and limestones. Unpublished MSc. Thesis, İzmir Institute of Technology, Turkey. 2007.

[29] GREEN, Patricia. Vernacular Architecture: The Development of a Jamaican Traditional Style. In GREEN, Patricia, and BEUGNON, G., ed., Monuments and Sites Jamaica, Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Council on Monuments and Sites, 1996, p. 63-76.

[30] WRIGHT 1921 (Ibid. 2).

[31] GREEN 2012 (Ibid. 4).