From an EFL Milieu to Write in an ESL Context

2nd International Conference on Foreign Language Learning and Teaching

Conference Proceedings

FLLT 2011

Organized by Language Institute, Thammasat University

March 11‐12, 2011The Ambassador Hotel, Bangkok, Thailand

“Strengthening Ties between Research and

Foreign Language Classroom Practices”

Foreword Welcome to you all to the second international conference organized by the Language Institute of Thammasat University (LITU). The main objective of this biennial conference is to enhance the collaboration between language research and pedagogical approaches as explicitly spelled out in its theme of “Strengthening Ties between Research and Foreign Language Classroom Practices”. Marking one of the celebrations for LITU’s 25th Anniversary, this international conference is among the Institute’s prominent academic projects that accommodate the dissemination of relevant research studies in the contexts of language learning and teaching. FLLT 2011 will build on the success of the previous conference, which was held in 2009 in Bangkok, and will maintain the quality of the inaugural conference while incorporating new features to provide all participants with richer and more valuable experience. All presentations will address issues in a wide range of topics including language acquisition, linguistic analysis, and teaching methodologies. They will also cater to specific needs of language teachers and researchers in integrating theoretical concepts and empirical research findings in language acquisition and learning for application to actual educational practices. This conference offers an excellent opportunity for all the presenters and participants to meet with other language researchers and teachers from all over the world, share their respective research interests, and create a forum for networking, collaboration, the sharing of practical information, and the building of trust relationships. It should provide knowledge and insights into language awareness, language skill development, learning strategies, and motivation for language learning. The publication of FLLT 2011 Conference Proceedings marks the culmination of an arduous year long process involving conference planning, screening of presentation abstracts, the FLLT Conference itself in March 2011, and the preparation of the Conference Proceedings. The conference has attracted a great number of highly academic papers from presenters worldwide, and the selected papers, one of which is contributed by our conference plenary speaker, have finally been published in the proceedings. The published papers are of various interesting topics, including language pedagogy, language testing and assessment, linguistics, applied linguistics, etc. We would like to express our gratitude to the fine work of our contributing presenters upon which the accomplishment of the FLLT 2011 Conference Proceedings depends. We applaud their considerable effort and thank each author for regarding our publication as a venue for sharing their insights. FLLT 2011 Committee March 1, 2011

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Articles Page The Interface between Language Testing and Assessment and English Classroom Practices: What Research Says By Professor Achara Wongsothorn, Ph.D

1

A Study of Thai Students’ Motivation to Study English By Chutigarn Raktham

10

Applying Consciousness-Raising Method to a Writing Class By Patrisius Istiarto Djiwandono

17

Applying Reflective Teaching Theory to ESL Teaching By Chen Meihua & Zhu Shanhua

25

Challenges That Thai Teachers and Learners Face When Moving from L1 to L2 and How to Handle Them By Sukina Ar-lae & Cecilia M. Valdez

32

Content-Task Based Teaching in an English Science Course By Hamid Marashi & Ghazal Hatam

39

Cultivating Learner-centered Autonomy By Zhu Shanhua & Chen Meihua

46

Dyadic Interaction in Writing: On-line or Off-line Feedback? By Mehran Davaribina & Biook Behnam

53

Effective Approach to Macro Skills at the English Department By Max Renyaan & Ifan Iskandar

61

Effects of Peer-Tutoring on Students’ Foreign Language Classroom By Fasawang Pattanapichet

72

Enhancing EFL Students’ Intercultural and Critical Awareness By Amporn Sa-ngiamwibool

81

Foreign Teachers’ Foreigner Talk By Burcu Simsek Benderli

98

From an EFL Milieu to Write in an ESL Context By Parviz Ahmadi & Roselan bin Baki

106

Indirect Speech Act Comprehension in English as a Foreign Language By Boonjeera Chiravate

111

Articles Page

Language Learning Autonomy and Action Research

By MV. Joyce Merawati

120

Learning L2s among Southeast Asian Immigrant Women in Taiwan: The Case of

Chinese L2 Classroom Practices Contested by First L2 Effect

By Yu-Hsiu (Hugo) Lee

128

On the Effect of Background Knowledge on Reading Comprehension and Recall

Process of a Group of Iranian Intermediate Students

By Mahboobeh Khosrojerdi

136

Oral Performance: Effect of Comprehensible Input and Output

By Seyed Omid Tabatabaei & Parvin Musavian Hejazi

144

Power Relations in Pedagogy: A Constraint on EFL Speakers’ Identity

Confidence and Identity Anxiety

By Noparat Tananuraksakul

164

Questions: Interpersonal Interactive Feature in Science Lecture Discourse in L2

Setting

By Akhyar Rido

171

Relationship between Vocabulary Size and Reading Comprehension

By Preawpan Pringprom & Buppha Obchuae

182

Self Assessment of Essay Writing

By Asghar Kargar & Mortaza Yamini

192

Short-Term Training Model of Academic Writing to High School Teachers

By Rita Inderawati and Rita Hayati

206

Simplified Literature in Language Teacher Education

By Liesel Hermes

215

Test Taker Feedback on the Appropriateness of a Reading Test

By Sutilak Meeampol

222

The Effect of Text Familiarity on Summary Writing Skill By Abbas Pourhosein Gilakjani & Seyedeh Masoumeh Ahmadi

231

The Efficacy of Immediate and Delayed Corrective Feedback in the Correct Use of

English Definite and Indefinite Articles

By Afshin Soori & Arshad Abd. Samad

240

1

FLLT 2011 Proceedings

The Interface between Language Testing and Assessment and

English Classroom Practices: What Research Says

Professor Achara Wongsothorn, Ph.D

Chulalongkorn University Language Institute

[email protected]

Abstract This paper addresses classroom-centered research (CCR) in terms of its purposes,

methodology, and research outcomes focusing on usefulness and applications of outcomes.

Being goal-oriented, CCR interfaces with English language learning and teaching to fulfill the

learners‘, the teachers‘, and institutional demand for English excellence. Testing and

assessment are evaluative mechanisms that drive classroom implementation of materials and

methods including evaluative loops for goal fulfillment. Various CCR testing and assessment

projects here and abroad will be discussed and crystallized.

Introduction

The two strands of testing and evaluation within the classroom have always intertwine to

make learner evaluation complete ,i.e., learner variables consisting of typical performance and

maximal ability are tapped. Brown (1970) categorized learning assessment as typical if it

assesses such variables as motivation, personality, attitude, opinion, self-concept, anxiety,

pride, self-confidence, etc. and as maximal ability if it assesses such variables as English

language proficiency, achievement, and language aptitude. The former uses self-

manifestation method of assessment while the latter employs externally developed

instruments to assess learner cognitive domain benchmarking it against set criteria such as

pass-fail, low-achiever and high-achiever, and grades A, C, F.

The typical performance strand consists of assessment of such variables as self-assessment of

one‘s own language abilities and skills, self-report inventories of one‘s motivation, attitude,

opinion, levels of readiness, anxiety, teacher reflection (Ellis, l1977), learner reflection,

(Lightbown and Spada, 2001), student academic self-concept or learners‘ perceptions of his or

her academic abilities (House, 1992, Hamacheck, 1995), self-esteem (Loeb and Magee,

1993), etc. have been found to be impacting language learning achievement.

The maximal ability strand consists of assessment of language components: vocabulary,

sound, and grammar and assessment of language skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing

in both unitary and integrative modes. The common practice is to use both psychometrically

sound objective test items like multiple choice, true-false, matching, and sequencing and

required reliability confirmation subjective test items like short answers, paragraph and essay

writings, and real cloze. (Wongsothorn, 2003a).

The diagram below conceptualizes the system of practice in language teaching and learning,

which in turn guides the interface between language research assessment and language

classroom practice.

mailto:[email protected]

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Diagram 1: The System of Practice in Language Teaching and Learning

From van Lier (1996:5)

The left-hand column of the 6 As principles consisting of awareness, autonomy, and

authenticity impinge upon the ―typical performance” variables with its psycholinguistic

underpinnings focusing on both the teacher and the learner variables intertwined to make

assessment and learning realistic, authentic, and exist within the realm of possible learner

linguistic development. Allwright (1984:9) commented that "it may be that interaction is

what somehow produces linguistic development", and that "success ……includes

….."customer satisfaction", when learners are confident, motivated, independent, and more

aware of the language-learning process and are satisfied with the tools they have to go on

with their learning.

The right-hand column of the 6 As principles consisting of assessment, achievement, and

accountability mean ―maximal ability‖ point to assessment of knowledge and skills in

language use for interaction, communication, inferencing, and evaluating through analyses

and syntheses. Language knowledge consists of forms and functions while language skills

consist of unitary and integrating skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

Periodical formative assessment and evaluation when combined with summative assessment

and evaluation yield reliable grading, reporting, exiting, and remedial systems in a continuous

loop.

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In terms of strategies, contingent interaction requires information or data from both sides to

enable teachers and administrators to plan adequate program for language learning success,

alongside with scaffolding, critical thinking, and learner training. Pinpointing on learner

readiness, self-concept, learning styles, learning strategies, modality preference, and

motivation a module can be built to alleviate learner lack, serve learner needs and wants, and

suit learner learning styles and strategies.

Regarding action, the activities are varied and planned to be well-rounded rendering reliability

and validity to the tasks, field work, portfolios, conversation, negotiation, stories, genre

variation, and team work, which are tools for assessment and evaluation of both aspects:

typical performance and maximal ability.

Thus this van Lier‘s model serves as framework for the discussion on the interface.

Trends in Language Assessment Research

To update needs for language testing research, the Millennium International Survey was

conducted using the Internet as the means of data collection by Wongsothorn in 2003,

(Wongsothorn, 2003b). To update these findings in 2009, another survey was conducted by

the same researcher on approximately 50 respondents belonging to various governmental and

private universities. Again the Internet was the research tool. The instrument for the survey

was a questionnaire consisting of 4 parts: Respondent Information, Directions in Language

Research, Thrusts of Language Testing and Evaluation Research, and Problems and

Concerns.

On the issue of the interface between language assessment and evaluation, the following areas

discovered to be of high relevance to language learning were:

Typical Performance Variables: teacher needs,; learning styles, strategies, learning

preferences, and readiness; test anxiety; self-concept; self-esteem; familiarity with ICT for

assessment purposes; self-assessment and self-evaluation; self-reflection by both the teacher

and the learner.

Maximal Ability Variables: Effectiveness of collaborative learning, usefulness of scaffolding

on language skills development, study skills, impact of backward design methodology on

language learning, interrelationships among grammar-syntax-lexis in the realm of pedagogy.

The Survey Research Findings Interfacing with Language Learning in the Classroom Context

Leo van Lier (2004) stresses the significance of meaningful context and activities in the

emergence of language abilities on the one hand; on the other hand the emergence of

grammaring through social interaction and quality dynamics of language interaction has been

found to be powerful in learner language emergence. In Leo van Lier‘s emergentist

perspective, grammar is not a prerequisite of communication, rather it is a byproduct of

communication (Hopper, 1998). Regularity and systematicity are ―produced by the partial

settling or sedimentation of frequently used forms into temporary subsystems‖ (Hopper, 1998:

158). Diane Larsen Freeman‘s Teaching Language from Grammar to Grammaring (2003)

views grammar as something which is organic and evolving. Then how are these emergents

from research related to classroom assessment and evaluation and learning?

4


Domain of Typical Performance and Maximal Ability

The role of self-assessment and self-evaluation emerge forcefully in CCR for action

outcomes. Diagram 2 taken from Roheiser & Ross presents the flow from self-evaluation to

self-confidence, a variable strongly and significantly related to motivation and learning

achievement (Ross & Rolheiser, 1998 b).

Diagram 2: The Flow from Self-Evaluation to Self-Confidence

From Rolheiser & Ross, Student self-evaluation: What research says and what practice shows

The model above has a loop starting from the combination of goals and effort to achievement,

self-evaluation, self-judgment, self-reaction, and self-confidence. It is clear that the model

demands learner training and self-training to acquire knowledge and skills of self-assessment

and evaluation, which form basis for achievement Ross & Rolheiser, 1998a, b).

Based on the model and the findings, learner perceptions and beliefs are crucial to designing

the content and method of learning. According to Williams & Burden, 1996: 205) beliefs

―or perceptions‖ (present author) are important factors in determining what students learn

and how they learn it (Williams & Burden 1996:205). Principles of authentic assessment

using self-assessment and peer –assessment gradually become integrated in the learning

process. Kohonen (1999) promotes learning through the process of on-going feedback on

learning in the form of ―learning conversation‖, in which students discuss their goals and

achievement (Harri-Augstein & Thomas, 1991). Self-assessment then intertwines with peer-

assessment and teacher feedback leading to final summative evaluation taking the form of oral

http://www.finchpark.com/afe/w.htm

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tests" and formal final paper and pencil examination with determined share towards the final

grade. Examination or assessment and evaluation results yield information for the students

rather than about them.

In the academic year 2009, the present author conducted a CCR on the relationships among

peer-assessment, self-assessment, and teacher assessment on a group of 10 participants who

were graduate students taking ―Consolidating Skills for Science Graduates‖ course at the

Chulalongkorn University Language Institute. The course members consisted of 5 males

and 5 females in the fields of civil engineering, electrical engineering, environmental

engineering, biology, and bio-chemistry. The objectives of the research were to find whether

students‘ academic self-perceptions of academic abilities would be related positively to

academic achievement as evaluated by peers and teacher in each student‘s individual oral

presentation of research project in each student‘s field of study. As the number was small,

Kendall‘s Tau and Spearman‘s Rho correlations for non-parametric statistics were used to

study the significance of relationships. The ratings by self- and peers were plotted and

compared in the initial stage, then with the teacher rating in the middle stage, then with the

summative final test scores in the final stage. The rating consisted of overall, system,

delivery, body language, and visual aids. The 3 scale rating scale: 0=not at all, 1=somewhat,

2=much, 3=very much was used. The student final test scores were also converted into a 3-

scale with 60-65 for 1, 66-75 for 2, and 76-85 for 3. The cutting point for pass-fail was at

60%. All students received the P rating.

Table 1: Plots of ratings by self-, peer, teacher, and final examination rating are presented in

the table below. The last column presents the degree of relationships among the category as

judged by the researcher: H for high relationship, M for medium relationship, and L for low

relationship

Student Teacher Self-

Rating

Peer-

rating

Final Relationship

K 3 3 3 3 H

N 2.5 2 2.5 2 M

C 3 2.5 3 3 H

Wach 2.7 2.5 2.5 2 H

Ch 2 2 2.5 2 H

D 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 H

P 3 3 3 3 H

S 2 2 2.5 2 H

T 2.5 2 2.5 2 H

Sa 2 2 2.5 2 H

Among the ten cases, the interrelationships were 90% high and only 10% medium.

The preliminary findings did not contradict the findings of Hamachek (1995) and House

(2000).

6


Table 2: Kendall’s Tau and Spearman’s Rho Correlations

Kendall‘s Tau and Spearman‘s Rho statistical analyses of relationships found significant

correlations among the four variables with two highest relationships between peer-rating and

final test score rating, and between self-rating and final score rating (Kendall‘s Tau=.882 and

Spearman‘s Rho=.913 for the first pair, and Kendall‘s Tau = .830 and Spearman‘s Rho=.866

for the second pair). The correlations between teacher rating and peer-rating were slightly

higher than those found between peer-rating and self-rating.

These findings showed that typical performance ratings and maximal ability tests were

significantly related. Assessment and evaluation using both methods are justified, reliable

and valid. In addition, the findings of this study did not contradict the those made by

Hamachek (1995) and House (2000).

Conclusion and Recommendation

From this simple preliminary investigation, it can be concluded that the interrelationships

were very high. This has paved the way for further investigation into the role and impact of

Correlations

1.000 .808** .764* .738* .056

. .006 .013 .013 .857

10 10 10 10 10

.808** 1.000 .745* .830** .299

.006 . .019 .007 .345

10 10 10 10 10

.764* .745* 1.000 .882** .218

.013 .019 . .006 .513

10 10 10 10 10

.738* .830** .882** 1.000 .257

.013 .007 .006 . .426

10 10 10 10 10

.056 .299 .218 .257 1.000

.857 .345 .513 .426 .

10 10 10 10 10

1.000 .868** .828** .807** .060

. .001 .003 .005 .869

10 10 10 10 10

.868** 1.000 .784** .866** .315

.001 . .007 .001 .375

10 10 10 10 10

.828** .784** 1.000 .913** .218

.003 .007 . .000 .545

10 10 10 10 10

.807** .866** .913** 1.000 .266

.005 .001 .000 . .458

10 10 10 10 10

.060 .315 .218 .266 1.000

.869 .375 .545 .458 .

10 10 10 10 10

Correlation Coefficient

Sig. (2-tailed)

N


Sig. (2-tailed)

N


Sig. (2-tailed)

N


Sig. (2-tailed)

N


Sig. (2-tailed)

N


Sig. (2-tailed)

N


Sig. (2-tailed)

N


Sig. (2-tailed)

N


Sig. (2-tailed)

N


Sig. (2-tailed)

N

TEACHER

SELFRATI

PEERRATE

FINAL

RELATION

TEACHER

SELFRATI

PEERRATE

FINAL

RELATION

Kendall's tau_b

Spearman's rho

TEACHER SELFRATI PEERRATE FINAL RELATION

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).**.

Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).*.

7


self-assessment, peer-assessment and teacher ratings which are typical performance

assessment with the final test scores which are maximal ability assessment. This

recommendation also reflects the recommendation given by the present researcher in her

paper presented at CULI‘s National Conference in 2007 that ―The teacher and peers‘ ratings

have very frequent significant relationships implying that peers are reliable raters. Peers

should be involved in assessing one another‘s language use‖.

To implement the products of CCR for language learning, whatever action and activities to

be taken by the teacher and the learner as deemed suitable should be varied and planned

rendering reliability and face as well as content and construct validity to the tasks assigned for

formative evaluation such as field work, portfolios, self-assessment, peer assessment, and

team work, using the typical performance and maximal ability tools, and last but not least to

the summative assessment which may be mainly evaluated by maximal ability assessment

tools such as psychometrically sound objective tests and production tests for writing and oral

assessment including conversation, negotiation, stories, and genre variation. Below is a

diagram presenting the goal-oriented applications of CCR outcomes.

Diagram 3: Goal-oriented Evaluative Mechanisms Interfacing with Language Learning and

Teaching

A further study is needed to research using triangulated qualitative-quantitative instruments

(Lynch 1996:10) to find out the interface between classroom assessment research and learning

achievement through the mixed-method research model.

References

Allwright, R. L. (1984). The importance of interaction in Classroom Language

Learning. Applied Linguistics, 5/2, 156-171

Self-Realization, Self-Confidence, and Achievement

Maximal Ability Evaluative Mechanisms

Typical Performance Evaluative Mechanisms

Materials, Methods, Demands of Learners and

Relevant Stakeholders including Institution Demand

http://www.finchpark.com/afe/l.htm

8


Brown, F.D. (1970). Principles of Educational and Psychological Testing. Hinsdale, IL:

Dryden Press.

Candlin, C. and N. Mercer. (Eds.) ( 2001). English Language Teaching in its Social

Context: A Reader. London and New York: Routeledge in Association with

Macquarie University and the Open University.

Dianne Larsen-Freeman (2003). Teaching Language: From Grammar to Grammaring.

Boston, MA.: Heinle/Cengage

Ellis, R. (1977) Second language acquisition research and language pedagogy‘ in S L A

Research and Language Teaching. London: Oxford University Press.

Hamachek, D. (1995). Self-concept and school achievement: Interaction dynamics and a tool

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73(4), 419-425.

Harri-Augstein, S. & Thomas, L. (1991). Learning Conversations: The Self-Organised

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Hopper, P. J. (1992). Grammaticalization. In Bright, W. (1992: 79–81). International

encyclopedia of linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University.

House, J.D. (2000). The Effect of Student Involvement on the Development of Academic

Self-Concept. Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 140, No. 2/April 2000.

Kendall, M. (1938). "A New Measure of Rank correlation". Biometrika 30 (1-2): 81–

89. doi:10.1093/biomet/30.1-2.81. JSTOR 2332226

Kohonen, V. (1999). Authentic assessment in affective foreign language education. In J.

Arnold (Ed.). Affect in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

279-294.

Lightbown, P. M. & Spada, N. (2006). How Languages Are Learned. Oxford Handbooks

for Language Teachers (3rd

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Lynch , B.K. (1996).. Language Program Evaluation: Theory and Practice. Cambridge:

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Loeb, R. C., & Magee, P. M. (1992). Changes in attitudes and self-perceptions during the

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Nicholas, H; Lightbown, P.M.; & Spada, N. (2001). Forecasts as feedback to language

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Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational

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Rolheiser, C. & Ross, J.A. Center for Development and Learning, from website: STUDENT

SELF-EVALUATION WHAT RESEARCH SAYS AND WHAT PRACTICE

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research inservice: Impact on student attitudes on self-evaluation‖. Teaching and

Teacher Education, 14(5), 463-477.

Ross, J.A., Rolheiser, C., & Hogaboam-Gray. (1998b, April). Effects of self-evaluation and

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Authenticity. London: Longman.

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Constructivist Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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EFL Classroom, on 26 November 2007, Sasa Patasala, Bangkok.

About the Author

Achara Wongsothorn is a professor of English language, specializing in testing, measurement,

and evaluation. Her research covers assessment of writing, levels of Thai students‘ English

proficiency, and learner variables affecting English learning. She served as Director of

Chulalongkorn University Language Institute and the English Language Development Centre

of the Ministry of Education. Now she is academic board member of Chulabhorn Graduate

Institute and Dhonburi Rachabhat University and is on the editorial board of journals

published by graduate schools of several governmental universities.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00332909

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_tockey=%23TOC%237177%231952%23999509997%23656724%23FLP%23&_cdi=7177&_pubType=J&view=c&_auth=y&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3cd1809a9264b9dc2e0898d895dadc41

http://pioneer.netserv.chula.ac.th/~wachara1/

10


A Study of Thai Students’ Motivation to Study English

Chutigarn Raktham

Lampang Rajabhat University

[email protected]

Abstract

With respect to students‘ motivation, it is clear that the social milieu of the classroom is

central to the issue of students‘ motivation. Motivation to learn is thus not only viewed as a

characteristic of the individual, but also of the individual-in-action within a specific context

which mediates individuals‘ full participation in class practices which they encounter. The

purpose of this research is thus to identify factors that affect student‘s motivation to study

English in terms of individual and social motivation. The research utilized observation to

describe and characterize the learning context that students were exposed to and then to

structure interviews with the informants, who were all English majors in a provincial Thai

university. The research results emphasize the dynamics of motivation in which students‘

personal and social motivation fluctuated in line with the social context and social interactions

they encountered.

1. Introduction

Corder‘s (1967) phrase ‗Given motivation, anyone can learn a language‘ shows the

importance of motivation and its potential to overcome unfavourable circumstances and

unexpected obstacles. In general terms, motivation refers to the effort which learners put into

learning a second language as a result of their need or desire to learn it. The purpose of this

study is thus - within Dörnyei‘s framework - to identify factors that affect student‘s individual

and social motivation to study English. The study aims to highlight a dynamic view of

motivation since students‘ motivation fluctuates during their course of study. This is caused

by different factors at different levels of L2 motivation. The educational implications of this

study are to encourage teachers‘ responsiveness and understanding of students‘ motivation

and to help teachers enhance students‘ motivation, to help students with motivational

difficulties and to prevent students from being demotivated in the classroom.

2. Literature review

Overview of L2 motivation research

L2 motivation was initiated in Canada where the coexistence of English and French led to the

emergence of the social psychological approach in motivation studies so it is not surprising

that a research on L2 motivation in the 1960s was influenced by social psychological

approaches, notably from Gardner‘s motivation theory and the concept of integrativeness.

This theory stated that there are two main determinants of motivation: integrative and

instrumental orientations. The former refers to learners‘ positive interpersonal and affective

disposition toward the target language community and the desire to interact with members of

that community. The latter refers to the advantages of learning a new language such as

passing exams or financial rewards. Learners can have both integrative and instrumental

orientations, but it was originally found that an integrative orientation was a more powerful

predictor of achievement in formal learning situations. (Gardner & Lambert, 1972) However,

many interpreted Gardner and Lambert‘s work as confined to the unique context of Canada.


11


It may be that while the integrative orientation is perhaps more important learning French in

Canada, the instrumental orientation is more important in a foreign context, such as Thailand.

Dörnyei (1990) claims that foreign language learners rarely have sufficient experience with

the target language community to have clearly articulated attitudes towards that community,

and they are therefore uncommitted to integrating with that group. He concludes that

instrumental goals thus contribute significantly to motivation.

Following the work in Canada, more motivation research was conducted under the influence

of cognitive psychological approaches, which focus on how the individual‘s conscious

attitudes, thoughts, beliefs, and interpretation of events influence behaviour. According to

Dörnyei (2001a), ―the individual is a purposeful, goal-directed actor, who is in constantly

balancing mental acts to co-ordinate a range of desires and goals in the light of possibilities,

that is perceived competence and environmental support‖ (p. 8). Thus, from a cognitive

perspective, motivation is concerned with such ideas as why people decide to act in certain

ways; what factors influence the choices they make, how much effort they are prepared to

expend in achieving their goals and so on.

The influence of this cognitive approach led to the development of several cognitive

motivation theories including self-determination theory, attribution theory and goal theories.

As a result of the impact of social psychological and cognitive approaches, there is a

considerable body of literature on motivation in language learning. However, most research

on language learning motivation tends to emphasise the individual psychological level using

integrative and instrumental aspects to explain learners‘ attitudes. Although a learner‘s

conception is individualistic, it is heavily influenced by social and contextual influences since

humans are social beings and human action is always embedded in sociocultural

environments. These will include the whole culture and context and the social situation, as

well as significant other people and the individual‘s interaction with these people. (Williams

& Burden, 1997) As a result, some researchers have proposed several extended new L2

motivation constructs.

Dörnyei’s framework of motivation

As a response to a shift in motivation research in the 1990s, Dörnyei (1994) developed a

framework for L2 motivation which incorporated three levels: language, learner and the

learning situation level.

The merit of Dörnyei‘s framework is that it encompassed the social dimensions, the personal

dimension and the educational subject matter dimension. (Dörnyei 1994). At the most general

level (language level), the researcher can gain insights into students‘ general motives, which

determine their basic learning goals. While the language level acts as an ice-breaking process

where the teacher/researcher can get to know the students, the learner level allows the

teachers to understand the personality traits that underline students‘ motivational processes.

The learning situation level offers a complete picture of how students interact with their

learning environment and whether the social interactions within the learning-specific

motivational components have altered their L2 motivation. Dörnyei‘s attempt to bridge the

gap between the traditional motivational research resulted in a framework that is more

pragmatic, educational-centred and process-oriented.

12


3. Research methodology

The researcher decided to use a qualitative approach to focus on students‘ opinions and

interpretations of their L2 studies through classroom observations and in-depth interviews.

The aim was to find the internal and external factors, linkages and causal relationship of

different factors within a particular context and whether these findings could be explained or

relevant to any preconceived research hypotheses. Hence, Dörnyei‘s motivation model was

used as a framework.

The classroom observation was conducted over one month in order to see what students did in

class and identify patterns of behaviors that emerged from classroom interactions. These data

were then used to form interview questions. The interviews were semi-structured; a list of

questions and topics was prepared but students were allowed to stray onto related areas.

The interview questions consisted of seven questions concerning (1) students‘ reasons for

choosing English as their major; (2) their expectations of their four-year education at the

University; (3) the differences between studying at high-school and at university; (4) their

views on the characteristics of good/bad students, (5) the characteristics of good/ bad teachers,

(6) their views on class size and physical management and (7) their explanations of classroom

behaviour.

Informants

The informants for this study were a class of 40 (34 female and 6 male) second year English

majors at Lampang Rajabhat University. All students were asked to volunteer for the

interview process; 14 did, (11 female and 3 male). The students chose with whom to be

interviewed.

Data analysis

To allow the data to generate its own theses, a textual database (transcripts of interviews or

field notes of observations) was created and interrogated constantly until the data were

extensively coded. To code all the interview scripts, two techniques were employed. The first

involved manually cutting, pasting and re-arranging the data to develop the categories, the

second involved the use of NVivo 7 software to refine the coding processes. By looking at the

data from the interview as a whole, the researcher was able to compare responses, referring

separate sections back to refine the categories. Once the categories were thoroughly checked,

NVivo was used to code the word-processed documents according to the manually formed

categories. Within NVivo, tree nodes and sub-nodes were created to reflect the coding

categories created earlier. (NVivo allows categories and coded texts to be held in a treelike

structure, reflecting the hierarchical structure of the categories; NVivo‘s tree nodes and sub-

nodes are a way of formalising this.) This procedure resulted in a complete set of categories

4. Research findings

Dörnyei (2001b) reason for separating the L2 framework into three levels is that each of the

three levels seems to exert its influence differently and any changes in the parameters at one

level might affect overall motivation. Within the scope of this paper, the research findings

will be presented at different levels following Dörnyei‘s framework.

13


Language level

More than half of the students reported choosing English because they liked it or were

interested in the subject. However, their preference for English was not only the result of an

intrinsic interest. In fact, students‘ past learning experience, the influence of their families and

friends and their potential future careers were significant factors. Most students had

favourable beliefs about their English ability as opposed to their ability in other subjects.

Seven students whose major was English in high schools said that they chose English as their

major because they got better grades in. Another important factor was the influence of

families and peers. While family influence manifested itself as comparisons with other

relatives and comparing the cost and the location of the university, friends‘ influences came in

the form of desire to be with people from the same group or familiar faces. Future job

prospects were another factor that was evident in almost all students‘ answers. All students

said that English was necessary for employment after graduation and that a sufficiently good

standard of English was their main expectation of their studies. Belief in the importance of

English came from the status of English as an international language, the number of foreign

tourists in Thailand and the invasion of their everyday life by English.

Students‘ responses revealed that their interest in English as a means to achieve their future

career goals was stronger than their desire to learn English to experience pleasure or

satisfaction; none of them mentioned any desire or wish to visit or to live in an English-

speaking country or to have friends from other countries. At the language level, aspects of L2

such as culture and the community did not exert an influence on students‘ decision to learn a

second language. In fact, significant others and instrumental benefits accounted entirely for

students‘ study decisions.

Learner level

Students‘ evaluations of their ability can indicate the level of motivation they will invest in

their learning and the research subjects had evaluated their own ability prior to their

commencement at university and had certain beliefs about their academic ability as well as

expectations about their study before they began at the tertiary level. The fact that most

students decided to choose English because they were not good at, for example, Mathematics

or because they got a good grade in English in high school, showed that students initially

judged their abilities by reference to their previous performance and predicted their tendency

to achieve success. Relevant to these perceptions is attribution theory and self-efficacy theory,

commonly referred to in the field of motivational psychology. (Bandura 1977, Dörnyei 1994,

Weiner 1994, and Wentzel & Wigfield, 1998). Bandura (1986) proposed that students‘

efficacy (expectations that they can accomplish a given task) is a major determinant of effort

and persistence. After eighteen months of study, all the students reported that their belief in

their ability had lowered as a result of encountering negative learning experiences, such as the

degree of difficulty of the subject, lack of achievement, and language problems to name just a

few.

Learning situation level

In terms of course-specific motivational components, students‘ perceptions of each subject

could either be an inhibiting or a contributing factor to their determination to learn. The

determination or motivation felt toward each subject depended very much on its relevance to

future career prospects, the perceived difficulty of the subject, the balance between theory and

practice, the teaching materials and the novelty of the subject. The value attainment that

students had toward each subject can be used as an indicator of their willingness and

14


determination to learn. Because students‘ main aim was to get a job that allows them to use

English after they graduate, students valued the subject extrinsically so students had a

tendency to invest their time and effort in subjects or topics that they found relevant to their

future career. As a result, the skill subjects, such as Listening and Speaking III and Writing I

were reported as useful, interesting and relevant. In contrast, students expressed doubts about

or boredom with content subjects (Introduction to Linguistics and English Literature), which

did not allow them to practice their desired skills. This career-orientation led to an

engagement with study in order to pass exams rather than to explore English. Following on

from this highly instrumental involvement, it is reasonable to assume that motivation is likely

to be short-lived and will be exhausted once extrinsic goals have been met.

How students interacted with teachers was a consequence of their evaluation of two factors:

the teacher‘s teaching ability and the teacher‘s personal relationship with students. With

reference to the former, students expected teachers to know what to teach and how to teach.

Teachers should be knowledgeable, well-prepared, give clear instructions and/or objectives of

the study so that students understand or can anticipate what they are going to learn. Good

teachers should know the students‘ abilities and give lessons that are suitable for the students‘

level.

In terms of the teacher‘s personal relationship with students, teachers were described

variously as ‗boring‘, ‗kind‘, ‗strict‘, or ‗cruel‘. Students expressed their fear of teachers who

were ‗serious‘, ‗strict‘, ‗unfriendly‘ and ‗authoritative‘ and would be reserved and well-

behaved in front of these teachers. Students reported that teachers‘ facial expressions affected

their motivation to learn. If teachers had a serious, solemn expression, students were likely to

feel anxious, which negatively affected their class participation. In contrast, if the teacher has

a pleasant personality, students felt relaxed and comfortable, which helped students to be

more involved in the classroom. Some students said that they act in class to please their

teachers and students‘ accounts showed that the intimacy between teachers and students can

have a considerable effect on student motivation.

The importance of friendship was also apparent in students‘ accounts. In this class, students

divided themselves into different groups, each with its own norms and values. Because of

students‘ concerns over the status of friendships, students‘ behaviour developed out of a fear

of peer rejection and the desire for peer acceptance. Students showed their allegiance to the

group through physical proximity, social contact, and the quantity and quality of interaction

with one another. Students were well aware what kind of behaviour would be accepted or

rejected within their own group and as a result, students would avoid any behaviour that did

not conform to the group norm. When the group norm was inclined towards studying, this

helped with students‘ motivation to study and the reverse was also true.

While students felt that the cohesiveness of their own group was high, the cohesiveness of the

class as a whole was relatively low. Students felt that because of the lack of intimacy between

the groups, students were very conscious of their self-image when dealing with members of

other groups and reported a reluctance to ask questions or assert ideas in class discussion as

they feared that they might be ridiculed or laughed at. Students, however, did not feel that

they had to work so hard to maintain their self-image within their group, although one cannot

be certain that having a positive relationship with friends would lead to academic success. In

fact, the level of peer acceptance and group norms are significant determinants in students‘

behaviour. While approval from the peer group is related to students‘ sense of self-esteem and

15


self-image, group norms for conduct are related to pro- or anti-social behaviours in class.

Furthermore, the lack of cohesiveness between the whole class and the lack of peer sanction

and intervention could lead to misbehaviour.

5. Conclusion

According to Oldfather (1994.), gaining some access to students‘ subjective perspectives is an

essential aspect of efforts to understand the cognitive mediation involved in students‘

motivational process. The research findings reflected the centrality of the individual‘s

perceptions in motivational constructs and so students‘ judgements of their own abilities and

their past learning experience could be related to self-efficacy beliefs and attribution theory;

students‘ ambitions to have careers in the tourism industry or to achieve good grades revealed

their extrinsic motivation; students‘ willingness to please the teachers or to follow the group

norm showed the importance of significant others and social context. Students‘ accounts also

showed the ongoing changes in motivation over time as students moved from the first year to

second year and experienced more learning obstacles, as well as other distracting influences,

such as peer pressure and conflict with teachers. These insights into different motivation

perspectives might allow teachers and researchers to understand different motivational

factors, both internal and external, which could be extremely useful for both teachers and

researchers in improving their teaching or studying L2 motivation. References

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.

Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Corder, S. P. (1967). The significance of learners' errors. International Review of Applied

Linguistics, 5, 160-170.

Dörnyei, Z. (1990). Conceptualizing motivation in foreign language learning. Language

Learning, 40, 46-78.

Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. Modern

Language Journal, 78, 273-284.

Dörnyei, Z. (2001a). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge:


Dörnyei, Z. (2001b). Teaching and researching motivation. Harlow: Longman.

Gardner, R.C., & Lambert,W.E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language

learning. Rowley: Newbury House.

Oldfather, P. (1994). When students do not feel motivated for literacy learning: How a

responsive classroom culture helps. Retrieved from

http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/clic/nrrc/rspon_r8.html

16


Weiner, B. (1994). Integrating social and personal theories of achievement motivation.

Review of Educational Research, 64, 557-573.

Wentzel, K.R., & Wigfield, A. (1998). Academic and social motivational influences on

students‘ academic performance. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 155-175.

William, M., & Burden, R. (1997). Psychology for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

About the Author

After graduating with a BA in English Language from Thammasat University, I completed

my Masters and EdD (both in ELT and Applied Linguistics) at Warwick University and have

taught English for twelve years at Lampang Rajabhat University. Being at a university where

students‘ use of language is limited to the classroom, my main interest is in the area of learner

motivation in order to find ways to stimulate students and to encourage them in their studies.

My research has mainly been conducted using students at the university as research subjects

because I believe that my time is best spent improving my classroom practice and our

institutional knowledge of the effectiveness of our teaching, rather than engaging in research

aimed principally at publication.

17


Applying Consciousness-Raising Method to a Writing Class

Patrisius Istiarto Djiwandono

Universitas Ma Chung, Malang, Indonesia

[email protected]

Abstract

Consciousness-Raising (C-R) has been around for some years, and while studies on the

effectiveness of C-R has mainly focused on the learning of grammatical features, more attention

needs to be paid to the mastery of other language areas. The present study is a small-scale

research that explores the impact of Consciousness-Raising (C-R) technique on the learning of

some elements of written business communication. Several intermediate EFL learners were

exposed to models of good business letters and instructed to notice three elements, namely the

rhetorical moves, the grammatical patterns, and the expressions. Afterwards, they were assigned

to write letters on their own. Their mistakes were counted and analyzed for the kinds of mistakes

in each of the elements above. The result shows that they did very well in arranging the ideas in

correct rhetorical moves but made much more mistakes on grammatical features and

appropriateness of expressions. The explanation offered to account for this finding concerns the

learners‘ allocation of cognitive capacity to different demands of task complexity. The more

complex the task, such as writing in correct grammar or writing appropriate expressions, the less

they devote their attention and effort to language formal features. A suggestion concerning

focus-on-form activities is then offered to teachers.

Background

Consciousness raising has been proposed as a method that aims to improve learners‘ language

proficiency by making them aware of the important features of an authentic discourse.

Rutherford (1987:19) maintains that consciousness-raising provides ―data that are crucial to the

learners‘ testing of hypothesis, and for forming generalizations‖. The method draws their

attention to the language features, make them notice the features, use them to restructure their

interlanguage system, and subsequently use these attended features to produce a stretch of

discourse on their own.

Rutherford (1987) also proposes the notion of grammaticization, a process by which a learner‘s

interlanguage is becoming a closer approximation of the grammatical system of the target

language. Grammaticization is manifest in the learner‘s increasing ability to (1) grammaticize

topic-comment into subject-predicate, (2) to utilize grammatical devices to express relations

between form and meaning, (3) produce more verbs with more arguments and produce verbal

noun, and (4) to produce more subordination than coordination. Implied here is that

consciousness-raising is mainly concerned with the syntactic aspects of the target language.

A question that the writer has been pondering upon is whether the same principle of

consciousness-raising is also applicable to other linguistic areas. A special area that is the focus

of this paper is the mastery of rhetorical moves and expressions that are typical of a particular

context, namely, business correspondence.


18


A substantive amount of literature has supported this notion, all converging on the idea that

consciousness-raising is an effective method for language teaching. However, whether the

method works effectively as it is often claimed has yet to be seen in a context of teaching

writing. The paper draws on a small-scale exploratory research on the effect of consciousness-

raising on the writing ability of some Indonesian EFL learners at Ma Chung University. A group

of 18 juniors were exposed to models of business letters, and were instructed to notice the

linguistic features that included the rhetorical moves, the tenses, and the formal expressions of

the letters. The tasks that followed mainly served to intensify their attention on those features.

Then, they were instructed to draft letters of the same topics. The drafts were analyzed for its

rhetorical organization, tenses and sentence patterns, and the appropriateness of the expressions

used. The mistakes were classified into local mistakes that did not severely affect comprehension

and global mistakes that impaired comprehension.

Language Teaching Methods

Language teaching methodology is rich with a variety of techniques for making the learners learn

linguistic elements. What is traditionally called PPP (Present – Practice – Produce) has been

refined, modified and even replaced with newer techniques along with the greater awareness of

the learning mechanism inside the learners‘ mind. Mc Carthy and Carter (1995) proposes III

(Illustration – Interaction – Induction). The technique starts with Illustration which provides the

learners with real actual instances of language use in certain contexts, followed by Interaction

which engages the learners in consciousness-raising activity where they notice how language is

used for interpersonal purposes and for meaning negotiation, and finally concludes with

Induction where the learners are prompted to notice how lexico-grammatical features fulfill

various functions.

Sa-ngiamwibool (2007) conducted a study on the impact of Consciousness-Raising (C-R)

activity on the accuracy of structure and written expression of TOEFL, and came to the

conclusion that C-R activity positively influenced the subjects‘ accuracy of the patterns and

expressions.

The Treatment

The small-scale exploratory research involved 11 students of English Department at Ma Chung

University who were taking Business Correspondence course from the writer and estimated to be

at the intermediate level of English proficiency. At the outset of the course, they were instructed

to read models of enquiry letters, and to notice the following elements in the models: the (1)

rhetorical moves, or parts of the letter; (2) the grammatical patterns used; (3) the expressions for

instructing the addressee; (4) the expressions used to close the letter. They were instructed to put

the results of their observation into a table. After 10 to 15 minutes of observation and noticing,

the students filled in the tables and matched their results with the lecturer‘s version, which is as

follows:

19


Table 1. Features of the Letters to be Noticed

Move/parts of the letter Tenses used Expressions

for

instructing

addressee

Expressions

for closing

the letter

Enquiry (1) Informing how they obtained

the addressee‘s

name/company

(2) Expressing interests in buying

or doing business

(3) Instructing the addressee to

send a sample/specimen/

brochures

(4) Closing the letter

Past simple

Present

simple

Modal

auxiliaries +

infinitive

Present

simple/present

progressive

Would you

please +

[infinitive];

We would

appreciate it if

you could +

[infinitive]

We are

looking

forward to

hearing from

you;

We look

forward to

hearing from

you

After a discussion on the table contents, the students were then assigned to close their textbooks

and start writing enquiries on their own based on a problem from the lecturer. They were

specifically told to recall the models of the letters they had just observed and noticed to

accomplish this task. They spent around 35 minutes to finish writing the letters.

The Finding

The results are displayed on the following table that contains the tabulation of mistakes and

accuracy they made.

20


Grammar Grammar Expression

Rhetorical Moves:

Enquiry Global Local

Students Omission Addition Wrong form Omission Wrong form Punctuation

Fitri 0

0

1 2

Mega 0

0

2 2

Dian 0

0

1

Grace 0

0

1 1 2

Nadia 0

0

1 1 1

Bio 0

0

4 1 1

Nadariansyah 0

0

1 1

Shavitri 0

0

1

Sano 0

0

1 1

Andre 0

0

2 1

Vania 0

0

3

TOTAL 0 0 1 1 0 12 8 3

0

0 9


20

21


The results indicate that all of the students were successful in composing letters of enquiry

with the right rhetorical moves. Their letters start with opening, informing the addressees

where they obtained their names, expressing interest in doing business, instructing the

addressees to send a sample, and the closing. Apparently, the rhetorical moves are the easiest

element that these students notice from the models in the textbooks. Quite possibly, this

might be due to the absence of complex details that are involved in remembering such order

of moves. All that is required from the learners are noticing the moves, storing them in their

short-term memory, and retrieving them when composing letters on their own. Remembering

the order of moves demands little from their cognitive capacity.

The results also shows that the learners‘ performance in producing correct expressions for the

moves is somewhat poorer than their abilities to produce the correct order of moves. Again,

this may have been attributable to the presence of linguistic details and the concomitant

language rules that are required in producing the expressions. Many of the business

expressions are less straightforward and less frequent than those of daily colloquial language

that speakers use in casual conversations. The word ―would like to‖ is more preferable than a

simple, more frequent ‖want‖; the phrase ―we appreciate it if you could . . .‖ is obviously

longer, more complex and less frequent than the common ―we are very happy if you . . .‖ or

even ―please . . .‖. The longer the expressions to use, the more elements they contain, which

in turn requires certain syntactic rules to be applied. The result is a complexity that tax the

learners‘ cognitive capacity. In other words, the task of producing correct expressions is a

cognitively demanding activity for the students.

Discussion

Van Patten (cited in Robinson, 2001:189) has shown that when learners pay more attention to

language forms, their attention to language content declines. But, when they are given

freedom to decide which one to focus on, they will likely attend to content rather than to

forms. From this perspective, it is obvious why the learners fare better in producing the

correct order of the moves than in producing appropriate individual expressions. The former

requires them to attend to simple content, while the latter requires them to attend not only

content but also the accurate language forms.

This explanation of the possible cause finds support in Robinson (2001:195), who maintains

that ―task which require more advanced structures, or which require the use of wider

repertoires of structures, or greater densities of advanced structures, such as complex tenses

or subordination or embeddings, are more likely to be more complex‖. Following this, he also

contends that besides the language (code) complexity above, the cognitive familiarity with

the genre of a discourse also determines how complex a learner perceives a task. This kind of

familiarity can be very well enhanced by careful reading and understanding of the genre,

which does not require careful attention to linguistic rules. If the learners perceive the code

complexity to be more demanding than cognitive familiarity, it is only logical that they will

allocate more effort and attention to the latter when producing a text themselves, resulting in

a text that is organized according to the genre they have noticed but which contains

significant linguistic mistakes. This is in line with Skehan‘s argument that (1998) poor

attention to forms are reflected in inaccurate or simple language, a phenomenon that is

evident in the letters written by the subjects of this current study.

22


It is interesting to note that when confronted with a demanding task, learners simply resort to

these strategies (Robinson, 2001:197): (1) slow down, (2) forget accuracy, (3) be simple. This

seems to the most plausible explanation for the results of the study described above.

The Follow-Up

The result described above hints at the necessity of repeating the same procedure with an

additional effort to focus the learners‘ attention to the forms and expressions that they still

often mistake. Thus, another C-R session was done with the focus on letters of complaints.

Again, the learners were instructed to read the model letters and notice the moves of

complaining, the grammatical patterns, and the expressions. The lecturer informed them that

their grammatical accuracy and formality of expressions were still poor in the previous

assignment, and stressed the need to notice these elements more. Then, they were told to

close the models and started writing a letter of complaints on their own. A brief reminder

was given concerning the need to focus more on their accuracy and appropriateness of

expressions. The following table shows the mistakes they made in their letters:

23


Grammar

Rhetorical Moves:

Complaint Global Local

Incorrect

exp.

Student Addition

Wrong

form Omission Wrong form Punctuation

Fitri 0 2 2

Mega 1 2

Dian 0 2 1

Grace 0 2 2

Nadia 0

Bio 0 1 1 1 1

Shavitri 0

Andre 0 1 2

Vania 0 1 3

TOTAL 1 0 2 4 10 1 0 0 7

It is apparent that there is a slight improvement from the previous results. The accuracy of the moves remains the same, while the number of

mistakes of global, local grammatical errors and expressions drops slightly. Admittedly, a fair comparison cannot be drawn here since the tasks

involved two different letter functions and the treatment was not rigorously arranged to allow for internal validity. However, from the

perspective of a small-scale classroom research, the results have probably suggested a few points worth considering. First, the effectiveness of

C-R technique may have been evident in a limited area. Those skill areas which are not internally complex may be much more amenable to C-R

than those areas which demand attention to detailed restrictions and rules. Second, given the notion of selective attention discussed above, it is

necessary that a C-R approach be complemented with a focus on form techniques that make the learner work more intensively on more complex

language elements like grammatical patterns and formality of expressions.


23

24


Conclusion

The paper is based on a small-scale study on the effect of consciousness-raising on the

abilities to produce business letters with the right rhetorical organization, accurate grammar,

and appropriate expressions. A group of learners were instructed to notice those three features

on good models of letters of enquiry and complaints, and to produce letters of the same

functions afterwards. The results showed that consciousness-raising may have assisted the

learners in learning some of the linguistic features of the models yet came short of making

them learn a few other grammatical points. The explanation that is offered for the result is

that the C-R technique has a positive effect on the mastery of global, less complex feature of

the discourse but is not effective enough to promote mastery of more complex language

features, such as grammar and accurate expressions. What seems reasonable for teachers is to

combine consciousness-raising method with a form-focused instruction that discretely teaches

learners the important grammatical elements and the appropriateness of expressions.

References

McCarthy and Carter. (1995). Spoken grammar: what is it and how can we teach it? ELT

Journal 49 (3), 207-218.

Robinson, P. (Ed.). (2001). Cognition and Second Language Instruction, pp. 33-68.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rutherford, W. E. (1987). Second Language Grammar: Learning and Teaching. London:

Longman.

Sa-ngiamwibool, A. (2007). Enhancing structure and written expression among EFL Thai

students through consciousness-raising instructions. NELTA Journal, 12, 1 & 2.

Skehan, P. (1998). Task-based language instruction. In Grabe, W (ed.). Annual Review of

Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

About the Author

Patrisius Istiarto Djiwandono was born in Malang, 16 March 1967. He earned his Bachelor‘s,

Master‘s and Doctorate degree in Language Education from Institute of Teacher Training and

Education in Malang, and obtained Diploma TESL qualification from Victoria University of

Wellington, New Zealand in 1992. He has published 5 books in language testing and language

learning strategies, and his dissertation on language learning strategies and degree of

extroversion was recently published internationally by Lambert Academic Publishers. He

specializes in language testing, language acquisition, discourse analysis, writing, teaching

methodology, and has recently been interested in the application of Critical Thinking to

language students. He is currently a Professor at the English Letters Study Program of Ma

Chung University, Malang, Indonesia, where he is also Director of Quality Assurance

Department and Head of Language Teacher Training.

25


Applying Reflective Teaching Theory to ESL Teaching

Chen Meihua & Zhu Shanhua

Southeast University

[email protected] & [email protected]

Abstract

The argument in this paper is that reflective teaching activities can contribute a great deal to

ESL teaching and teachers‘ self-development, that is to say, the cultivation of ―ESL teachers

as researchers‖. Firstly the paper deals with concepts and characteristics of reflective teaching

related with ESL teacher education program, the innovation of ESL teacher education in

China, and the significance of the cultivation of ―ESL teachers as researchers‖. Then the

author describes the design of the program, the instruction of reflective teaching theory and

methods, and the practicum during which various reflective teaching activities provide

opportunities for the student teachers‘ change of teaching behavior. The purpose of the

research is to depict how the reflective teaching activities provide opportunities for teachers to

change their teaching behaviors, thus the cultivation of teachers‘ creativity and research

potentials outweighs the training of pedagogical theories and skills.

1. Introduction

China has made it clear that quality-oriented education should be promoted in all types of

schools at all levels. Since teachers play a crucial role in enhancing the quality of education,

teachers in the contemporary age of China are expected to play new roles and functions. And

due to internationalization of English language, ESL teacher training programs are being

implemented all over the world. Considerable attention has been given to the training ESL

teachers. Topics such as the nature of teacher training courses and different approaches to

language teacher training have been discussed throughout the world. The quality of teacher

development practice has become a major concern in recent educational discourse, with a

growing emphasis on a reflective approach suggesting that the quality of teachers‘ lifelong

development should be assessed with reference to teacher empowerment through reflection.

Teachers‘ professional lives are riddled with many hazards: they are expected to accept

challenges, take on roles for which their initial training and experience might not have

equipped them. As Wallace (1991:25) suggests, ―If (as might seem desirable) the trainees are

to be encouraged to develop their professional expertise in an autonomous and self-directed

way, then somehow autonomy and self-direction should be woven into the fabric of their

course‖. To be able to respond to challenges teachers must engage in continual self-

development. This process of development can best be initiated through reflective teaching

activities. Reflection and the development of reflective practice may assist teachers in the

integration of their learning experiences and in the analysis of their actions in their endeavors

to become more effective teachers as researchers.

2. Concepts and Characteristics of Reflective Teaching

Reflective teaching, which rose in the early 1980s and developed quickly in the 1990s, is now

very popular in the Western countries. Reflective practice is an evolving concept. The concept

―reflective thought‖ was introduced by John Dewey in his ―How We Think‖ (Dewey 1933:



26


32). Dewey‘s definition of reflective thinking repeated over the years was, ―Active, persistent,

and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the

grounds that support it and the further conclusion to which it tends‖. (Dewey 1933:10)

Another definition comes from Richards & Lockhart (1996:1). They state that a reflective

approach to teaching is ―one in which teachers and student teachers collect data about

teaching, examine their attitudes, beliefs, assumptions and teaching practices, and use the

information obtained as a basis for critical reflection about teaching.‖ Because such reflection

involves a critical component, reflective teaching can serve as a means of contributing to

one‘s professional development.

Reflective teaching can be conceived as a dialogue between thinking and acting, dominated

by the idea of consciousness and reflection that enables teachers to analyze the theories that

guide their practices as well as these practices along with the contexts in which they originate.

Teaching would be then conceived as an exploratory and research activity that requires

competencies for diagnosing problems, thinking about them and investigating, constructing

adequate practical theories that guide the decision making process, before, during and after

action is taken.

Reflective practice can be a crucial element of pre-service programs because reflective

thinking helps teachers in practice teaching to act in deliberate and intentional ways, to devise

new ways of teaching rather than being a slave to tradition, and to interpret new experiences

from a fresh perspective. In addition, helping teachers to develop reflective thinking will help

them integrate the various types of knowledge they receive during the program to achieve a

coherent and cohesive philosophical approach to teaching.

3. Design of the Program

A program designed by the author aims at observing how reflective teaching activities

provide opportunities for teachers‘ change of teaching behavior during their practicum. This

program lays an emphasis on collaborative, self-directed, inquiry-based, and life-long

teaching so as to assist teachers to become future ―teachers as researchers‖.

3.1 The Program Participants

The program participants include seven student teachers in their second year of ESL

postgraduate study at School of Foreign Languages, Nanjing Normal University. They have

each completed an undergraduate degree of ESL Teacher Education in the same university

and got no teaching experience before. They are offered in the first semester a course called

Theory & Practice of Modern Foreign Language & Teaching in which three months of

instruction on reflective teaching theories and skills are included, and in the second semester a

practicum during which they are provided with an opportunity to apply reflective teaching

theories and skills to practice.

3.2 The Program Outline

The program can be divided into two parts: the one that raises reflective teaching awareness,

i.e., the instruction of reflective teaching; the one that is experiential, i.e., the practicum.

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3.2.1 The Instruction of Reflective Teaching:

1) Course Description. The student teachers receive 48 hours of instruction that consists of a

series of sessions with each one devoted to one topic that serves as the focus of reflection

on practice.

2) Course Content. The course content involves action research and the process of reflective

teaching; the different approaches to reflective teaching; and the dimensions of reflective

teaching.

3) Course Goals. Through the instruction, the student teachers will be able to

Critically understand major process, approaches, and dimensions used in ESL

reflective teaching

Get accustomed to reflective thinking about the attitudes, opinions, and beliefs

concerning both ESL teaching and learning

Learn how to effectively observe ESL language classrooms

Learn to design and conduct small action research projects in their own classroom

4) Course Activities and Tasks:

A) Ways of providing teaching materials: samples of teachers‘ teaching journals, reports,

lesson plans and students‘ written work; video and audio recordings of actual lessons;

case studies; textbook materials; and sample forms of questionnaire, interview and

classroom observation

B) Different learning activities and tasks: lectures; individual, pair or group work;

classroom observation and microteaching or peer teaching

3.2.2 The Practicum:

1) Course Description. The student teachers complete 48 hours of teaching practice during

which pairs of them collaborate to design and conduct an action research project under the

supervision of their tutors and submit a research report for discussion and evaluation on

their reflective teaching practice.

2) Course Content. The student teachers are assigned to teach the Intensive Reading for non-

English majors of grade one in Nanjing Normal University.

3) Course Goals. From the practicum, we intend to

Find out changes in the teaching behavior of student teachers while they are

participating in the practicum.

Explore the opportunities made available through reflective teaching that account for

these changes.

4) Course Activities and Tasks: weekly two-hour seminar or discussion; monthly contact

session; action research projects; reflective teaching plans, journals and reports;

interviews and questionnaires; and classroom observation

3.3 The Process of Reflective Teaching

Action research is quite useful in ELT in China in that it does not demand much time and its

process is easy to follow. The action research process is generally initiated by the

identification by the teachers of something that they find puzzling or problematic. This

puzzlement may, in fact, have emerged from a period of observation and reflection. The

second step is the collection of data through a preliminary investigation that is designed to

identify what is currently happening in the classroom. Based on a review of the data yielded

by the preliminary investigation, a hypothesis is formed. The next step is the development of

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some form of intervention or change to existing practice, along with a way of evaluating the

effects of this change. The final step is reporting on the outcomes of the interaction, and, if

necessary, planning further interventions.

3.4 The Approaches to Reflective Teaching

Many events occur every day in our classroom, and can serve as the valuable experiences for

critical reflection. It is necessary for teachers to find ways to collect full information about

and gain deeper insight into these events themselves. So some feasible approaches are

introduced:

3.4.1 Journal writing

Writing teaching journals is a useful way of developing a deeper understanding of problems

raised in the teaching practice and exploring information and thoughts. Collaborative journal

writing can be especially beneficial and help stimulate motivation when two or more teachers

share their journals and meet regularly to discuss them. Brock, Yu and Wong (1992:134)

claim that ― One of the most important of these (benefits) is that this approach can provide

access to the hidden affective variables that greatly influence the way teachers teach and

students learn.‖

3.4.2 Classroom observation

Being observed in the classroom may rattle any teacher‘s nerves. But the classroom

observation that serves as a means for professional growth rather than performance evaluation

has multiple benefits for teachers. It can yield its greatest benefits when used as a means of

sharing instructional techniques and ideologies among teachers and enables a culture that

nurtures an exchange of ideas and promotes a certain level of trust among faculty.

3.4.3 Questionnaires

Using questionnaires is classified as an ―introspective‖ device since it involves respondents

reflecting on themselves, their knowledge, opinions, beliefs, experiences, etc. They can be

used to elicit many kinds of data as sources of analysis on both teaching and learning

perceptions of teachers and learners. Questionnaires have to be carefully written to obtain

comparatively reliable and valid information.

3.4.4 Interviews

Interviews are by definition oral, more like conversations. It is a useful way of gathering

information about affective dimensions of teaching and learning when the talk is under a

relaxed and friendly atmosphere. During the interview, it is necessary for the interviewer to

take notes for the follow-up recall and data collection. The interview focus can be used as the

stimulus to elicit responses from the interviewee.

3.4.5 Audio or video recording of lessons

This alternative approach can give the full account of a lesson, i.e. the recording of a lesson

by audio recorders or video cameras. The recording or tape can be replayed and examined

29


many times and capture many details of a lesson that cannot easily be observed by other

approaches. Audio-visual recordings can confront teachers with a mirror-like objective view

of what goes on in class. Moreover, they can be kept for later use and give a valuable insight

into an individual teacher‘s growth in experience over years.

4. Findings and discussion

Findings

The strong evidence shows that seven student teachers changed aspects of their teaching

behavior while participating in the twelve-week practicum. Besides the action research

projects conducted during the practicum, the changes in six areas of teaching behavior in

Table 1 are common to some of them.

Table1. Changes in Teaching Behavior of the Student Teachers Teaching

area Behavior at the beginning

of practicum Behavior at the end of practicum

Classroom

interaction Usually teacher-fronted

lectures with less

students‘ involvement

Mostly student-centered and teacher-

directed interactive activities such as

group work, pair work, whole-class

discussion, individual presentation, etc.

Teaching

Materials Mainly a focus on

textbooks More extracurricular materials included

Teaching

realia Mainly blackboard and

chalk More use of audio, video, and

multimedia facilities

Error

Correction Either almost no

correction or limited

repertoire of correction

strategies

Various efficient error correction

strategies adopted

Teachers‘

confidence Talk in low voice, with

stiff facial expressions or

gestures

Speak more fluently with mild facial

expressions and rich body languages

Students‘

feedback Without much interest

and enthusiasm in

learning content, tasks,

and communication with

teachers and classmates

With more initiative to participate in

class activities, more motivation to

improve one‘s English level, and

rapport with teachers and classmates

When the student teachers teach a class they are confronted with putting their knowledge into

practice. If an activity is available that allows them to further consider their teaching

experience, they may have the chance to process their experience one step further, possibly

even to the point of making decisions about how they would teach the same lesson differently

next time. The more activities that are made available to the student teachers, the more steps

they can take toward an understanding of themselves as teachers and their teaching behavior.

Discussion

1) The purpose of our experiment is to describe how the reflective teaching activities provide

opportunities for the student teachers to change their teaching behavior so as to explore the

30


actual processes going on in a teaching practicum. Reflective teaching activities provide the

student teachers with opportunities to gain the investigative and decision-making skills they

need to function as responsible and autonomous teachers.

2) Reflection is a very complex cognitive and affective process. It usually takes a long time

and practice for teachers to develop a purposeful reflective teaching practice which integrates

their emotions and thinking, and takes into account the abstract concept of purposeful

reflection as well as the reality of their personal and professional lives. Some of reflective

approaches such as journal writing, and audio-video recording of lessons are time-consuming,

which requires that teachers be perseverant and persistent enough to keep on doing them.

3) Reflective teaching as part craft and part art, different from traditional operative teaching,

is extremely complex and difficult to assess accurately. The evaluation of reflective teaching

is based not only on teachers‘ external teaching behavior but also their internal reflective

thinking process.

It is more appropriate to adopt a qualitative rather than quantitative approach in the evaluation

of reflective teaching because the latter emphasizes the commonness and uniformity while it

neglects individuality and flexibility. The goal of reflective teaching is to diagnose teaching

problems so as to enhance teachers‘ self-development and its evaluation should accordingly

be carried out by qualitative approach to achieve its goal. We should carry out observations,

take notes, make analyses and then draw conclusions based on the actual classroom activities

and case studies. Portfolios of teachers‘ syllabuses, exams, assignments, and statements of

teaching philosophy can be evaluated holistically, should the purpose of the evaluation be to

improve teaching. Schools should devote their efforts to producing holistic information for

administrative purposes, and detailed analyses of their performance for the teachers‘ own use.

If that happened, we might actually see systematic improvement of teaching--which is

supposed to be the goal of the entire operation.

4) In reflective teaching the employment of action research and the spirit of collaboration are

two important facilitating factors and there are readily identifiable factors which promote or

inhibit reflective practice. Reflective teaching requires a commitment to continuous self-

development and time to achieve it. Reflective teaching may prove emotionally challenging.

5. Conclusion

The teacher education program as a whole looks like a learning system with an emphasis on

continual study and incremental improvement. It can guide student teachers engaged in

learning how to study their own teaching to value improvement. It can also enlighten teacher

educators in China engaged in learning how to study their teaching of the student teachers.

The author believes that the program is promising because research, teaching, and learning are

tightly intertwined and are actively engaged, also because it outlines a system designed to

achieve particular learning goals, for teachers and teacher educators, using a process of

continuing improvement through learning from planned instructional experiences. The

program is intended to guide a long-term growth of knowledge in a gradual, incremental yet

steady and lasting way. The goal can be achieved but achievement depends on building local

cultures that value gradual and continuing progress.

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In conclusion, it is appropriate for teachers to explore issues in the classroom and to decide

what should be investigated. Through reflective teaching teachers can acquire tried and tested

ideas, develop successful strategies and techniques, and experiment with them as well as

adjust them according to their learners. What teachers in China need most is training in

reflective teaching skills so that most of their planning, the decision-making as well as the

behavior in the classroom are based on sound pedagogic principles and any investigation that

they undertake is based on the principles of action research accompanied by exploration and

reflection. Although it takes a substantial amount of time and practice to learn how to

integrate all aspects of a reflective process, it is a form of personalized and professional

development that can last a lifetime. Learning how to think, feel and teach reflectively gives

teachers direct access to the integration of theory and practice in their everyday working lives.

References

Brock, M.N., Yu, B. and Wong, M. 1992. ‗Journaling‘ together: collaborative diary-keeping

and teacher development, In J. Flower-dew, M. Brock and S. Hsia (eds.) Perspectives on

Second Language Teacher Education. Hong Kong: Polytechnic of Hong Kong.

Dewey, J. 1933. How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the

educative process, Boston: Heath.

Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gage, N., & Berliner, D. 1991. Educational psychology，Boston: Houghton, Mifflin.

Nunan, D. 1991. Language Teaching Methodology. Hertfordshire: Phoenix ELT.

Posner, G. J. 1996. Field experience: A guide to reflective teaching (4th ed.), White Plains,

NY: Longman.

Richards, J. C. & Lockhart, C. 1996. Reflective teaching in second language classrooms, New

York: Cambridge University Press.

Wallace, M.J. 1991. Training foreign language teachers: A reflective approach, New York:


About the Authors

CHEN MEIHUA, female, professor of applied linguistics, MA supervisor, doctorate

candidate in education management, has been teaching English as a foreign language in

Southeast University since 1985. She obtained the Master of Education from the University of

Sydney in 2006. She has published over 10 research papers and compiled over 20 English

course-books.

ZHU SHANHUA, female, associate professor of applied linguistics, MA supervisor，doctorate candidate in arts, graduating from Nanjing Normal University with a Master‘s

degree in 1998, has been engaged in English teaching, researching and management in

Southeast University since then. Research Interests: applied linguistics, Second Language

Learning and Teaching, anthropological linguistics and Cross-cultural Communication.

32


Challenges That Thai Teachers and Learners Face

When Moving from L1 to L2 and How to Handle Them

Sukina Ar-lae & Cecilia M. Valdez

Yala Rajabhat University

[email protected]

Abstract

Based on their written and oral output, university students in South Thailand, particularly

at Yala Rajabhat university, were observed to commit some common mistakes which

persistently appear in their oral and written production of the English language. This

observation necessitated this study of why these mistakes happen and the consequent need to

know how to handle them. From the error analysis of hundreds of student papers as well as

hours of teacher-student conversations in English, the researchers selected the common

mistakes that the Thai learners commit. In general, the mistakes seem to happen due to the

interference of the learners‘ native language, either Thai or Malayu or both, as they learn

English. Malayu is the native tongue of most of the students. There is also the double impact

of both Thai and Malayu on the learners‘ ability to learn English well. As a result of the

observations and error analysis, the researchers are putting forward several suggestions on

how to handle the challenges both for the teachers and the learners. Suggestions include some

techniques and strategies in TESL, such as the use of realia, games, chants, and others for use

inside the ESL classroom. In addition to the suggested techniques, it appears necessary to

lengthen the time of exposure of the students to an English environment and or add more

hours of guided instruction in the target language. Furthermore, a graduated or step-wise

approach to English teaching in terms of time percentages in language use is recommended as

students move from their first to their last year of university education.

Background

Inside a Thai or Malay classroom, when a student answers the teacher with a ―Nakrian pay

rongrian‖ or ―Pelajar pergi sekolah‖, it would be perfectly acceptable. It is quite a different

story however, when that same student goes to a class in English and says, ―student go

school‖. What is correct in one classroom becomes a mistake in another, and this is more

than just a case of one class‘ treasure being another class‘ rubbish. If neither the teacher nor

the student understands where each is coming from, the challenge to learning arises and faces

both the teacher and the learner. If the teacher does not understand where the learner is

coming from, he might just assume that the student is not smart enough and will just continue

on with whatever lesson he has prepared. On the other hand, if the student does not realize

the basic differences between the languages he is supposed to learn, he will most probably get

confused and remain such unless his mind is opened to understand where he is coming from

and where he is going in terms of his learning a second or even a third language.

This is a fundamental issue that this paper hopes to clarify, and then suggest some activities,

techniques and approaches to help the teacher understand and handle the challenges that both

teachers and learners face when moving from L1 (Thai or Malayu) to L2 (English). It is also

hoped that the learners themselves will find the suggested activities helpful to their learning

English as their second/third or foreign language.


33


Challenge of the contrasting features of Thai/Malayu and English

Basic Differences

In comparison to the English language, Thai or Malay grammar offers very little. To begin

with, these two latter languages do not use definite or indefinite articles or noun declensions,

and pronouns and adjectives follow the nouns they describe. If words are not needed to make

sense in the sentence, they are omitted. This may make it seem quite simple, but the lack of

structure can end up making sentences more difficult than others with stricter grammar rules

like English (from www.into-asia.com/thai. 2008). Thai learners most often translate Thai

phrases word for word into English, compounding the problem of making correct sentences in

English. With the definite or indefinite articles missing in their first language, it is

understandable that learners have difficulty using such in another language which necessitates

their use, as in the example given above.

In both Thai and Malayu, plurals are indicated in an entirely different way from English.

While Thai uses specific words to indicate plurality, Malayu most often simply duplicates the

word. In moving to English therefore, it is common to hear or read learners say or write,

―many book‖ or ―ten student‖. Adjectives, demonstrative and possessive pronouns follow the

noun they describe while adverbs come after the adjectives being modified, in both Thai and

Malayu (Transparent Language, 2008).

According to Lekawatana‘s Contrastive Study of English and Thai (1969), grammar

differences between these languages occur in almost every aspect of what the English

language calls parts of speech. For simple sentences, in Thai, the subject is optional while in

English, it is obligatory with its accompanying verb to be. This leads to two major mistakes

that Thai learners tend to make in the formation of simple sentences in English. First is the

deletion of the subject of the sentence and secondly, the deletion of the linking verb to be.

There are then two probable mistakes that can occur in the production of the sentence, He is

very tall: a) deletion of the subject: Is very tall; b) deletion of the verb to be: He very tall.

In addition, English has several types of adjectival constructions but only one of these is

roughly equivalent to that found in Thai. Perhaps the greatest difficulty Thai students face in

learning adjectival constructions in English is differentiating between the –ing and –ed forms

of adjectives derived from verbs. Examples: He was interested in the movie; The movie was

interesting. Thai learners continually confuse these two forms since the difference in Thai

between the two derived forms is not in their suffixation but in their prefixation. He was

interested in…. khaw soncay… translated as, he interest…. He was interesting (khaw

naasoncay, or, he interest or literally, interestable). Thus, Thai learners have a tendency to

say, he was interesting in sports instead of saying, he was interested in sports.

With regards to verbs and their tenses, the fact that the English tense system has many more

distinctions than the Thai verb system leads to various errors which Thai learners make. The

most important error which probably accounts for a majority of all errors Thai students make

in using verbs is the use of the present tense when the past form is required. Also, although

there is a continuous tense in Thai, learners still have difficulty with the continuous verb

forms in English because the respective structures of the English and Thai verb forms are

different. When using English verbs then, Thai learners have to make a whole new set of

differentiations which they have never made in their own language (Lekawatana, et al. 1969).

http://www.into-asia.com/thai.%202008

34


They have to learn to distinguish between the tenses, regular and irregular verbs and person

and number. In Malayu, the tense of a verb can be indicated by adding affixes to the root

word either verb or noun, while in Thai, the past tense is similar to the other tenses in that it is

expressed in context using specific words to mark the time of the action or event. Malay

verbs do not change form to indicate tense or person – such nuances are expressed using

separate words such as adverbs or indicators of time.

Modals are another area of difference between the languages. While English has at least 27

modal forms, there are only 18 equivalent Thai expressions which express the same ideas.

Thai learners often make mistakes with English modals due to the lack of distinction in Thai

between modals which are distinct in English. For example, there is no distinction in Thai

between may, might, and be likely to. The most common errors made by Thai learners

however is either the overuse or the omission of the particle to after modals, the reason being

that there are many two-word pairs of English modals, one of which is followed by to and one

of which is not.

The use and position of adverbs in a sentence pose another challenge to Thai learners of

English. Thai/Malay and English differ in their use of adverbs depending upon the type. The

English adverb of manner is formed by 1) the addition of –ly to the adjective, 2) an

unchanged adjective (hard-hard), or 3) an irregular change from the adjective form. On the

other hand, the Thai adverb of manner is formed by 1) the use of the adjective form

unchanged, or 2) the addition of the adverbial prefix yaang placed before the adjectival form.

In English, adverbs can be used comparatively in several ways: as + adverb + as - as quickly

as; less/more than - less/more quickly. In Thai, such comparison is expressed by the

adjective (which is not differentiated from the adverb) followed by kwaa (than) or muean

(same). The less + adverb + than construction is never used in Thai. Instead, it is

paraphrased into a more + adverb + than equivalent resulting into a production like, he sings

good more than I.

There are many instances where the prepositions used in English do not coincide with Thai or

Malay prepositions. There are two prepositions in English which are used with the time of

day: in the morning/afternoon/evening, and, at noon/night, both of which are expressed in

Thai by the same preposition, ton.

Perhaps one of the biggest hurdles Thai and Malay learners of English stumble on when

producing sentences is the use, misuse or non-use of possessive adjectives, possessive,

indefinite, objective and reflexive pronouns. This is simply because these do not have the

exact equivalent in either Thai or Malay (Transparent Language, 2008). Khoong (roughly, of)

is used in place of the possessive adjectives and pronouns, khon (people) is used in place of

indefinite pronouns, there is no equivalent for objective pronouns, and eeng (self) is used in

place of reflexive pronouns. In addition, because Thai has many different pronominal forms

to indicate various relationships between speaker and listener (e.g. instead of I, young girls

use nuu, literally, mouse, when talking to superiors), it is sometimes difficult for a Thai

learner to know which pronominal form to use. At times however, names or titles are used

instead of pronouns. For example, father to child - Father will help you, instead of, I will

help you; teacher to students - teacher will assign a lesson, instead of, I will assign a lesson.

35


Method

Data Collection

The researchers collected papers in the form of reports, essays and classroom exercises from

students of Yala Rajabhat University, from all four year levels majoring in English. These

papers were gathered in the course of the researchers‘ teaching over a one-year period. Data

were collected as the researchers pored over 200 – 300 student papers as well as from hours

of conversations in English with the students. The information was then arranged and

analyzed accordingly.

Results

Error Correction

Type : Article use/non-use

1. Her father is businessman. 1. Her father is a businessman.

2. I go to university every day. 2. I go to the university everyday.

3. We stayed in small hotel. 3. We stayed in a small hotel.

4. Head of state is woman. 4. The head of state is a woman.

Pronouns

1. She name‘s Minah. 1. Her name‘s Minah.

2. He saw they in school. 2. He saw them in school.

3. Her is a pretty girl. 3. She is a pretty girl.

4. My parents love I. 4. My parents love me.

Prepositions

1. I visit my parents at Narathiwat. 1. I visit my parents in Narathiwat.

2. They go to school at morning. 2. They go to school in the morning.

3. The food is in the table. 3. The food is on the table.

4. My family went to Phuket in the last

summer.

4. My family went to Phuket last summer.

Adverbs/Adjectives

1. I cook very delicious. 1. I cook very delicious food/ I cook very

deliciously.

2. He sings beautiful more than her. 2. He sings more beautifully than her.

3. The food is delicious very much. 3. The food is very delicious.

4. My mother is woman beautiful. 4. My mother is a beautiful woman.

Verb tenses

1. Last summer, I‘m very happy. 1. Last summer, I was very happy.

2. We cook special food last Rayo day. 2. We cooked special food last Rayo day.

3. She study in Bangkok. 3. She studies in Bangkok.

4. He seen his friend in the house. 4. He saw his friend in the house.

Verb to be

1. Today I happy. 1. Today, I‘m happy.

2. I‘m listen to my friend. 2. I listen to my friend.

3. She going to buy fruits. 3. She is going to buy fruits.

4. Her mother angry. 4. Her mother is angry.

36


Discussion

The most common mistakes Thai learners make in both their written and oral production of

English involve the omission of the inflectional affixes in English, -s or –es for the singular to

plural nouns, or present tense, 3rd

person, singular; -d or –ed for the past tense and past

participle; -er and –est for the comparative and superlative degrees, ‗s and other pronouns for

possessives. A comparison of English and Thai morphology will show that with these affixes,

English has many morphological patterns while Thai has none at all. According to

Lekawatana in her Contrastive Study of Thai and English (1969), the initial problem with the

correct recognition and production of these affixes is a phonological not a morphological one.

Thai and Malayu do not have the /z/ sound and the /s/ sound never occurs in the final position

of words. Thus Thai learners miss it altogether when writing sentences in English, and they

have great difficulty in pronouncing the /z/ or /s/ sounds when speaking in English, resulting

in errors like, many book, two person, she study here last year, he is tall more than me, he buy

food, mother of friend.

Thai verbs are never inflected. In Thai and Malayu, the past is signalled by aspect markers

and not in the verb itself, thus Thai learners tend to leave off the inflection in English.

Basically, Thai and Malayu grammar do not distinguish between present and past tense. Thai

learners‘ using the present tense when the past tense is required, is another error of omission

which also has a phonological cause. Thai has only one final stop, the voiceless, unreleased

/t/ in contrast to the English opposition between the final voiced /d/ and the voiceless /t/

(Lekawatana, et al 1969; Imsri & Idsardi, 2002), while Malayu has other glottal stops in

addition to what Thai has. Thus we see and hear students making sentences like, she study

here last year, we cook rice last Rayo day.

While English uses the inflectional affixes –er and –est to mark the comparative and

superlative forms of adverbs and adjectives, Thai uses the words khwaa (more) and thiisut (to

the nth degree). Thus Thai learners make sentences like, she is beautiful more than me, he is

good more than you. Phonologically, both –er and –est are impermissible finals in Thai and

Malayu, adding to the Thai learners‘ difficulty with these markers. In addition, because there

are no articles in Thai, learners tend to delete the the from the superlative forms in English

committing errors as, she is most diligent in class.

Have vs. There is/are

1. In the village, have a mountain. 1. In the village, there is a mountain.

2. On the beach have many boats. 2. There are many boats on the beach.

3. In my home have orderly. 3. My home is orderly/ There is order in my

home.

4. At Big C have more new fashion clothes. 4. Big C has more new, fashionable clothes

Modals

1. She must to speak. 1. She must speak.

2. I can to swimming. 2. I can swim.

3. She should to forgive him. 3. She should forgive him.

4. You must be study hard. 4. You must study hard.

37


Suggestions

Thai learners of English in South Thailand have to hurdle through the double interference of

Thai and Malayu on their way to learning this foreign language. In terms of language,

specifically grammar instruction inside the classroom, a variety of activities can be done in

addition to simple lectures. Grammar instruction integrated in a communicative approach

seems to be best where the learners are encouraged to participate in group and class

discussions in the target language. To handle the particular difficulties, the use of chants and

rhymes which make use of the specific grammar subject can be really useful. Games can also

be developed focusing on the particular grammar to be learned. The use of realia or real

objects inside the classroom or pictures can also be helpful. Sentence construction exercises

in a game format always adds fun to learning. The ESL teacher however, can only do so

much, even with a variety of activities and approaches available and practiced. The English

learning environment in South Thailand requires more than just classroom activities, if the

learners are expected to be able to at least communicate in simple English after four years of

university education. This research definitely does not advocate English-only teaching inside

the classroom. Beginners, i.e. first year students, in particular would be helped more

effectively in a bilingual setting, where students are taught using a combination of first and

second languages (Grant, Meeler & Misak, 2010). Rather, this paper suggests a gradual

immersion model of instruction in English, a model which is half-way between total

immersion and bilingual approach, particularly in terms of time allotted in teaching using the

native and target languages. For beginners, a 70% to 30% native to target language ratio is

recommended whereby instruction in the native language could be no more than 70% of the

time, and at least 30% of the time in the target language. For the second year students or

perhaps low intermediate learners, a 50 – 50% ratio or at least 50% of the time using the

target language could be beneficial; high intermediate or third year students could be

challenged with no more than 30% instruction in the native language and at least 70% in the

target language. And those advanced learners, or the students who are in their fourth year of

English education should be taught English at least 90% of the time in the target language and

no more than 10% in the native language.

In addition to the activities and time allotment, an audio laboratory is a necessity for any

university which wants to produce graduates majoring in English who will be employable

because of their proficiency in English.

About the Authors

Asst. Prof. Dr. Sukina Ar-lae: I have been teaching English at Yala Rajabhat University for

13 years. My current position is an English lecturer and Malay language counsellor. I got my

Bachelor of Arts (English) from Prince of Songkhla University, Pattani campus in 1983 and

went on the Master of Western Literature at Srinakarintrwirote University, Prasarnmitr

campus in 1987. I got a Doctorate degree in TESL at the National University of Malaysia in

2006. My specialized fields are teaching of English as a foreign language, teaching English

literature and teaching Malay language (Bahasa Melayu). I am interested in conducting

research relevant to teaching especially in my southern region (5 southernmost provinces)

either in Thai, English or Malay language.

In terms of research, my colleagues and I recently conducted the research of English

teaching entitled ―Challenges Thai Teachers and Learners Face when Moving from Thai (L1)

38


to English (L‖) and how to Handle Them‖ which is one of the research papers to be presented

in this conference.

For the publications, my research study is usually published in the Journal of Yala

Rajabhat University. The latest one was published in Vol. 4, No. 1, January-June 2009 and I

also serve as an editor of this journal.

Cecilia M. Valdez: My training and background is in the field of biology. I got my B. S. in

Biology from the University of the Philippines in 1977, and received my certificate in TESL

from the University of California in Berkeley in 2003. Because I worked as a research

scientist in the area of cancer and other diseases at Bayer Corporation in California, my

previous research was focused on that subject.

As a result of that work, publications to which I have contributed include the

following:

Scuderi, P., Valdez, C., Duerr, M., & Thompson, T. (1991). Cathepsin-G and Leukocyte

Elastase Inactivate Human TNF and Lymphotoxin. Cellular Immunology, 135, 2, 299-313.

Lindsey, DC., Newgren, J., Thompson, T. & Valdez, CM. (1991). Characterization of an

Endotoxemic Baboon Model of Metabolic and Organ Dysfunction. Circulatory Shock, 34, 3,

298-321.

Mooradian, AD., Scuderi, P., Duerr, M., & Valdez, C. (1992). The Effect of Age and

Diabetes Mellitus on Serum Levels of Lymphotoxin. AGE, 15, 3 (July), 95-99.

With regards to research in language learning, I am interested in following up on this

gradual immersion model for Thai learners of English.

39


Content-Task Based Teaching in an English Science Course

Hamid Marashi

Islamic Azad University at Central Tehran

[email protected]

Ghazal Hatam

Islamic Azad University at Central Tehran

[email protected]

Abstract

This study was an attempt to explore the impact of content-task based instruction, i.e.

designing and using certain tasks to teach the content of a science book in English, on Iranian

junior high school students‘ vocabulary achievement. To this end, 60 female students of

SAMA School in Mashad, Iran, were selected and thus randomly put into two experimental

and control groups prior to the study. Both classes lasting 12 sessions received the same

content: a science book in English as part of their school curriculum comprising six lessons.

While a purely content based approach was adopted in the control group and the vocabulary

was taught through providing definitions, synonyms, and pictures, one or several tasks with

the four main phases of warm-up (pre-task), main task, follow-up (post-task), and homework

were used in the experimental group for teaching the vocabulary. On the posttest designed

within the content area, the results clearly showed that content-task based instruction was

significantly more effective on students‘ vocabulary achievement compared to the content

based approach.

1. Introduction

One of the most important features in defining language knowledge is the knowledge of

words. Vocabulary learning is a central issue in learning a new language which hand-in-hand

with other skills and subskills can help a person to use a language. To this end, numerous

studies have been conducted comparing the retention effects of different vocabulary

presentation strategies throughout the last half-century or so (e.g. Andrade & Makaafi, 2001;

Lado, Baldwin, & Lobo, 1967; Arnaud & Savignon, 1997; Atkinson, 1972; Channell, 1998;

Sansome, 2000).

Accordingly, different methods have been designed for teaching a language as well as its

vocabulary; one such way is content-based language teaching (CBLT) which has been

reported to be helpful in teaching the vocabulary of other subject matters to students (Brinton,

Snow, & Wesche, 1989; Crandall, 1987; Krashen, 1982; Mohan, 1986; Mohan, Leung, &

Davison, 2001; Snow, 2005; Stoller, 2004).

Another relatively modern approach that is recently being integrated with other approaches

and endeavors to maximize the language intake of learners (their vocabulary included of

course) is task-based language teaching (TBLT). Richards, Platt, and Webber (1985) define

TBLT as a teaching approach based on the use of communicative interactive tasks as the

central units of planning and delivery of instruction.



40


Nunan (2004) argues about the disparateness of the outcomes of pure CBLT and CBLT

integrated with TBLT and summarizes the benefits of CBLT as including an ―organic,

analytical approach to language development‖ and ―a framework within which learners can

have sustained engagement on both content mastery and second language acquisition‖ (p.

132).

Recently, some schools in Iran have begun exploring teaching methods using English to teach

subjects like math, science, and computer for students of the 11-14 age group (junior high

school). In this system, students learn English through other subjects. It should be added here

that in the books being taught in this system, the main focus is on vocabulary, and other

language subskills are not highlighted. Accordingly, the researchers in this study became

interested to find out whether the pure CBLT approach to teaching the vocabulary content of

science subject matters or an integrated CBLT and TBLT approach, namely, task/content-

based instruction, would generate more promising results in terms of the learners‘ vocabulary

achievement. Hence, the following research question was raised in line with the objective of

this study:

Does content-task based instruction have any significant effect on EFL learners’

vocabulary achievement?

2. Method

2.1. Participants

A total of 60 female students aged 11-12 studying at the first grade of junior high in a school

in Mashad, Iran, were chosen among 90 through a piloted language proficiency test.

2.2. Instrumentation

A Cambridge Flyers Test of English for homogenizing the students‘ general English at

the outset.

A posttest consisting of 30 multiple-choice items comparing the vocabulary

achievements of the two groups.

Both tests were piloted before actual administration.

2.3. Materials

A series of tasks including individual and group work type were used as a part of the

treatment in the experimental group (described in the next section).

The SAMA English Science Book for the first grade of junior high was used as the

course book which is designed and published by SAMA schools and includes science

subject matters in English. Its main focus is on language teaching through science

content.

The Oxford Picture Dictionary was used in the experimental group for doing certain

tasks. Only those contents in this dictionary consistent with the content of the course

book were used during the treatment. This dictionary – thanks to its colorful pictures –

was very appropriate to the students‘ language proficiency and age level.

41


2.4. Procedure

Following the process of selecting the control and experimental groups, the actual treatment

commenced. In the control group, the students were taught vocabulary through definitions,

synonyms, and pictures. The students were not required to do any kind of tasks with the

vocabulary they were learning; they only answered the questions presented in their course

book.

In the experimental group, however, a task/content-based framework was employed. The

content was taught through a content-based approach and the treatment was integrated with

tasks, hence a task/content-based approach.

The lessons taught in both groups were under these headings: Animals, Plants, Objects and

Matters, Five Senses, Teeth, and the Periodic Table. While in the control group, these lessons

were taught in a usual content-based fashion and only the exercises in the books were

employed, in the experimental group each of these lessons were taught through one or several

tasks and vocabulary was taught through them. Each task had four main phases: warm-up

(pre-task), main task, follow-up (post-task), and homework.

For teaching the chapter of Animals, the students were taken to the zoo where they were

taught the vocabulary content of their books regarding different animals. On their way to the

zoo, the teacher showed them pictures of some animals and asked them to make the sound of

those animals and this was regarded as the warm-up for this lesson. The whole trip to the zoo

was in English and students were aware that this was a field trip with educational purposes for

them. The next session, they worked on the reading passage of their books regarding animals

and for homework, they were asked to draw their favorite animals and write at least three

sentences for it. They read it for their classmates and showed their pictures.

For the Plants chapter, the teacher entered the class with a flower and the students were asked

to touch and smell it; this act was regarded as the warm-up for this activity. The students were

given planting tools and were taken to a garden. Different plant parts were introduced to them

and subsequently, they planted some bean seeds themselves. For 10 days, they took care of

their beans and as they started to grow, they were asked to introduce the different plant parts

to their classmates. The session after the planting activity, they worked on the reading passage

in class and for homework, they were asked to look at their picture dictionaries and find some

new plant parts, draw at least one of them, and bring it to the class the following week.

The lesson on Objects and Matters focused on magnets and thus the teacher took a box of

magnets to the class and introduced the vocabulary content to the students by using magnets

and showing their attraction power on different objects. Then the students were divided into

groups of three and were given a magnet. Next, each two groups merged and they experienced

the power of the magnet poles on each other with the teacher introducing the new vocabulary

to them. As homework, they were asked to find some magnets around and write their names

(the students had already learned about this naming in their textbooks) and draw a picture of

one of them. The session after this, they showed their homework to their classmates and

worked on the related reading passage in their book.

42


Next came the chapter of the Five Senses; a song was used for this lesson in the class. While

the song introduced each body part, the teacher showed that part to them. Then they were

asked to point to those body parts with the teacher and subsequently, the vocabulary was

presented using a doll. Then again they started to sing the song with the tape. For homework,

they were asked to draw one body part on a big sheet of paper and bring it to the class and

talk about it in at least two sentences. The reading was done during the next session with the

song activity and clapping and showing body parts.

The chapter on Teeth required the students to bring a toothbrush with them to the class. The

teacher entered the class with a toothbrush in hand and started showing how teeth are

brushed; this served as the warm-up for this activity. The vocabulary content was presented to

them by showing the toothbrush. Additionally, they practiced correct tooth brushing with their

toothbrushes while working in pairs using the vocabulary. For the next session, they were

asked to look at their picture dictionaries and find at least three other words related to oral

health and draw one of them to be presented in the class in the second session after working

on reading passage.

For the last chapter, that is the Periodic Table, a periodic table in English was taken to the

class. They were given different substances such as salt, sugar, and water. The teacher

explained to them that matters and substances are like a box and things inside them are

different from how they are seen on the outside (this explanation was mostly done in their L1

of course since at this stage of language proficiency, the learners would fail to understand

such explanations in English). For this purpose, they were divided into groups of five and

were given a box with some small balls which represented atoms. They repeated the word

atom and started to work in groups and showed each other the atoms. This was followed by

some questions and answers. Some common atom names were presented to them, and then

they looked in their boxes to find those atoms. For the next session as homework, they chose

one atom and drew a picture of it on a big sheet of paper and presented its characteristics; they

used the single first person pronoun as they were supposed to be the atom themselves.

The whole treatment lasted for 12 sessions with the administration of the posttest to both

groups ending the treatment.

3. Results

To make sure that the two groups bore no significant difference at the outset, an independent

samples t-test was run between the mean scores of both groups on the proficiency test (which

enjoyed a reliability of 0.88 in the piloting). The distribution scores of both groups were

checked for normality beforehand to legitimize the t-test.

Table 1. Independent Samples t-Test of the Two Groups’ Mean Scores on the

Proficiency Test

Levene's Test t-test for Equality of Means

F Sig. T df Sig. 2-

tailed

Mean

Diff

Std. Error

Diff

95% Confidence Interval of the

Difference

Lower Upper

2.724 .104 -.292 58 .771 -.300 1.0258 -2.3533 1.7533

-.292 55.51 .771 -.300 1.0258 -2.3553 1.7553

43


As Table 1 indicates, examining the mean difference of -0.30 with t(58) = -0.29, p = 0.77

(two-tailed) revealed that the difference between the two groups was not significant at the

outset. Hence, the researchers could rest assured that any probable difference between the two

groups at the end of the instruction period could be attributed to the difference in the

programs.

Once the treatment was completed, the posttest designed by the researchers was administered

to both groups once it was piloted. The reliability of this test in the piloting stood at 0.70

which is satisfactory. The posttest was given to the two groups. With the scores manifesting

normality of distribution, an independent samples t-test was run to compare the means of the

two groups.

Table 2. Independent Samples t-Test for the Means of the Two Groups at the Posttest

As is evident in the above table, t(58) = -5.83, p = 0.00 (two-tailed) lead to the conclusion that

there was a significant difference between the mean scores of the two groups at the posttest. It

can thus be concluded that task/content-based instruction does have a significant impact on

EFL learners’ vocabulary achievement.

Following the rejection of the null hypothesis, the researchers were interested to determine the

strength of the findings of the research, that is, to evaluate the stability of the research

findings across samples; hence, the effect size was estimated. While Cohen‘s d stood at 2.42,

the effect size was 0.78. According to Mackey and Gass (2005), this is considered a large

effect size. Therefore, the findings of the study could be considered strong enough for the

purpose of generalization.

4. Conclusion

The findings of this study indicate that English teachers can benefit more effectively from a

task/content-based approach in order to teach vocabulary. In addition, this modality of

learning was most probably a major factor at work in the significant achievement of the

learners undergoing the task/content-based program. Rather than the usual modality of

teaching/learning in which students are mainly engaged in mere abstraction in the class, these

young learners experienced, for the first time, a far more concrete presentation of new

materials and were thus involved much more actively in a dynamic learning.

Alongside providing teachers with plausible guidelines to employ in their classrooms, the

findings of this research can help syllabus designers and textbook writers to design more

effective textbooks for young learners; this is specifically true in the context of Iran where it

can be really helpful to revise the materials presented to adolescent students at school.

Levene's Test t-test for Equality of Means

F Sig. t df Sig. 2-

tailed

Mean

Diff

Std. Error

Diff

95% Confidence Interval of the

Difference

Lower Upper

6.946 .011 -5.839 58 .000 -8.233 1.410 -11.056 -5.411

-5.839 46 .000 -8.233 1.410 -11.072 -5.395

44


Furthermore, it is recommended to design a teacher‘s guide with the focus on task/content-

based instruction for content-based books being used in different systems clearly because not

having a guide can lead to controversial issues faced by different teachers.

Task/content-based language teaching may also be considered as an economical initiative in

enhancing EFL learners‘ vocabulary intake and use. Without having to undertake the

abominably high expenses of textbook production, both public and private sector schools can

incorporate and mainstream this procedure of language teaching in order to achieve more

promising results.

References

Andrade, M. S., & Makaafi, J. H. (2001). Guidelines for establishing adjunct courses at the

university level. TESOL, 10(2/3), 33-39.

Arnaud, P. J. L., & Savignon, S. J. (1997). Rare words, complex lexical units and the

advanced learner. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition

(pp. 157-173). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Atkinson, R. C. (1972). Optimizing the learning of a second-language vocabulary. Journal of

Experimental Psychology, 96, 124-129.

Brinton, D., Snow, M., & Wesche, M. (1989). Content-based second

language instruction. NY: Newbury House.

Channell, J. (1988). Psycholinguistic considerations in the study of L2 vocabulary acquisition.

In R. Carter & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary and language teaching (pp. 83-96).

London: Longman.

Crandall, J. A. (1987). ESL through content-area instruction: Mathematics, science, and

social studies. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, & Washington DC: Prentice Hall and Center for

Applied Linguistics.

Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and practices of second language acquisition. Oxford:

Pergamon Press.

Lado, R., Baldwin, B., & Lobo, F. (1967). Massive vocabulary expansion in a foreign

language beyond the basic course: The effects of stimuli, timing and order of presentation.

Washington DC: US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Project No. 5-1095.

Mackey, A., & Gass, S. (2005). Second language research: Methodology and design. NJ:

LEA.

Mohan, B. (1986). Language and content. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Mohan, B., Leung, C., & Davison, C. (2001). English as a second language in the

mainstream: Teaching learning and identity. NY: Longman.

45


Nunan. D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J., Platt, J., Weber, H. (1985). Longman dictionary of applied linguistics. London:

Longman.

Sansome, R. (2000). Applying lexical research to the teaching of phrasal verbs. IRAL, 38, 59-

69.

Snow, M. A. (2005). A model of academic literacy for integrated language and content

instruction. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language learning (pp. 693-

712). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Stoller, F. L. (2004). Content-based instruction: Perspectives on curriculum planning. Annual

Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 261-283.

About the Authors

Hamid Marashi is Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics and Executive Manager of the

Journal of English Language Studies (JELS). He teaches the graduate courses of seminar in

TEFL, discourse analysis, and teaching language skills and his areas of research interest

include cooperative learning, critical thinking, and TBLT. He has published in academic

journals and presented in international conferences.

Ghazal Hatam holds an MA degree in TEFL from Islamic Azad University at Central

Tehran. She has been teaching English since 2003 in several different language schools in

Iran and is currently teaching pre-advanced courses for adults. Her main areas of research

interest include TBLT and language testing.

46


Cultivating Learner-centered Autonomy

Zhu Shanhua & Chen Meihua

Southeast University


Abstract

With China‘s economic development and the adoption of open up policy, more emphasis is

put on students‘ integral language ability. Promoting learner autonomy is a trend in current

language teaching. In view of the defects brought about by the teacher-centered method and in

an effort to promote learner autonomy, this paper proposes the ‗learner-centered‘ teaching

method, which encourages students to independently think and develop their ability in

analyzing, reasoning and generalizing. Through various communicative classroom activities

like oral presentation, self-reports, diaries, and peer study, students gradually get used to

thinking, analyzing and learning on their own and to a large extent, their initiative and

creativity is encouraged. Judging from the experiment results and students‘ positive feedback,

it is clearly seen that the learner-centered method helps foster learner autonomy and proves to

be rewarding and contribute to more effective language teaching in China.

1. A Brief History of Language Teaching

Language teaching has changed over centuries, affected by many theories about the learning

and teaching of languages. The approach to foreign language teaching originated from the

teaching of Latin later became known as the Grammar-Translation Method, which dominated

European and foreign language teaching from the 1840s to the 1940s, and in modified form it

continues to be widely used in some parts of the world today. The period from the 1950s to

the 1980s has often been referred to as ‗The Age of Methods,‘ during which a number of

detailed prescriptions for language teaching were proposed.

The development of methodology has impacted greatly on foreign language teaching in

China. The Grammar-translation method has the longest history in China‘s foreign language

teaching. However, with China‘s economic development and the adoption of open up policy,

more emphasis is put on students‘ integral language ability rather than their reading ability.

Therefore, the communicative method gradually gained much attention in foreign language

teaching. In view of the advantages and disadvantages of the two methods and given the

special situation of Chinese language teaching, many teachers combine their strong points,

together with other methods, including the audio-lingual method, and use an integrative

method called the eclectic method, which is a result of seeking compromise solutions to meet

the needs of Chinese students, supposed to be flexible and capable of fitting for various

teaching situations, in the hope of bringing the advantages of many methods into full play.

Although the eclectic method does have some positive effects on Chinese language teaching

and learning, whether the actual application of this method has really demonstrated the

advantages still leaves room for discussion. As for one of the teaching objectives, i.e. to

encourage students‘ creativity and cultivate their learning autonomy, the present eclectic

teaching method is not fully satisfactory.



47


2. Current ‘Teacher-centered’ Mode in Chinese Language Classes

A survey was carried out among fifty college English teachers and a hundred and fifty college

students. Among the fifty teachers, twenty were from Southeast University, twenty from

Nanjing Normal University, ten from other universities in Nanjing. Among the students

investigated, fifty were from Southeast University, fifty from Nanjing Normal University,

fifty from other universities.

The same question was designed for both students and teachers:

What’s the percentage of the teacher’s prelection in class?

Table 1 shows the result with the university teachers.

Item Number of teachers Total number Percentage

21-40% 2 50 4%

41-60% 10 50 20%

61-80% 26 50 52%

Over80% 12 50 24%

In this table, ‗Item‘ lists the percentage of teacher‘s prelection during a comprehensive lesson period. ‗Number of teachers‘ refers to the

respective number of the teachers who chose the percentage in the same row. ‗Total number‘ is the total number of teachers investigated. ‗Percentage‘ lists the respective statistical percentage of the teachers who chose the corresponding prelection percentage.

Table 2 shows the result with the university students.

Item Number of the

students

Total

number Percentage

21-40% 8 150 5.3%

41-60% 30 150 20%

61-80% 68 150 45.3%

Over80% 44 150 29.4%

In this table, ‗Item‘ lists the percentage of teacher‘s prelection during a comprehensive lesson period. ‗Number of students‘ refers to the respective number of the students who chose the percentage in the same row. ‗Total number‘ is the total number of students

investigated. ‗Percentage‘ lists the respective statistical percentage of the students who chose the corresponding prelection percentage.

According to the survey conducted among local universities and the author‘s observation in

class, it can be easily seen that the current English teaching in Chinese universities is mostly

‗teacher-centered‘. The teachers explain the text for most of the time, supplemented with a

certain number of communicative language activities, while the students‘ main task is to listen

to the teacher and take notes. Both teachers and students admit that although there are some

language activities in class, the teacher‘s prelection takes up most of the time.

48


Understandably, this ‗teacher-centered‘ teaching method results from many reasons. As most

college language tests, like CET 4 and CET 6, take the form of reading comprehension and

writing, the teachers, therefore, have to lay more emphasis on grammar and word studying.

Additionally, the comparatively big size of Chinese university classes makes it difficult to

carry out many activities.

Whereas, the teacher-centered mode poses problems to students, especially to their learning

autonomy. The students may see knowledge as something to be transmitted by the teacher

rather than discovered by themselves. They tend to rely on their teacher solely, and therefore,

are less autonomous, more dependent on authority figures and more obedient and conforming

to rules. As for the teaching process, it is rather mechanical, and the classroom atmosphere

dull and tense. As a result, students‘ oral proficiency is rather weak and they lack the

motivation, or autonomy in learning.

In short, the teacher-centered method cannot serve as a satisfactory way to achieve our

teaching goal. Rather than facilitate student‘s learning, it reduces the student from an

autonomous leaner, and creative and critical thinker to a mechanical recipient of knowledge.

Not only is this result at odds with our country‘s educational goal, but it will hamper students‘

improvement in the long run.

3. Learner Autonomy and Learner-centered Teaching Method

Leni Dam (1990), drawing upon Holec(1981), defines autonomy in terms of the learner‘s

willingness and capacity to control or oversee his own learning. Learner autonomy has many

synonyms, such as ‗independence‘, ‗language awareness‘, ‗self-direction‘, etc. An

autonomous learner takes an active role in the learning process, generating ideas and availing

himself of learning opportunities, rather than simply reacting to various stimuli of the teacher.

He is a self-activated maker of meaning, an active agent in his own learning process. Learning

is seen as the result of his own self-initiated interaction with the world.

Promoting learner autonomy is a trend in current language teaching. Many scholars believe

that firstly, learning by its very nature is autonomous. Nobody can make a person learn and

indeed no one can memorize facts, understand ideas or practice skills for him. Secondly,

interest and commitment are self-generated and any attempts to impose or negate them

interfere with learning.

In view of the defects brought about by the teacher-centered method and in an effort to

promote learner autonomy, this paper proposes a teaching method that focuses on the learner:

the ‗learner-centered‘ teaching method.

The learner-centered method is based on certain theories of teaching methodology, especially

the theories of the eclectic method, but aiming at better bringing these theories into effect,

with an eye to Chinese students‘ actual situation. This method encourages students to

independently think, analyze and induce the rules of a language, in order to develop their

ability in analyzing, reasoning and generalizing. The method also aims at improving the

learners‘ listening and speaking competence. The most noticeable difference is that the

learning process is left to the learners themselves and the spoon-feeding teaching mode is

replaced by a format of students‘ autonomous study or collaboration between themselves.

Through various classroom activities, students gradually get used to thinking, analyzing and

49


learning on their own and to a large extent, their initiative and creativity is encouraged. The

learner-centered method is to involve the learners into as many kinds of learning activities as

possible and ultimately activate their autonomous learning.

In a student-centered classroom, the teacher‘s role has changed. He is supposed to be an

investigator and analyst, inquiring into and analyzing his students‘ needs. He is to organize

various kinds of classroom activities and facilitate these activities to be carried out. Therefore,

he is an organizer and facilitator. The studying process is left with the students and the teacher

just stands by and listens, observing students‘ behavior in class, giving help and instruction

when necessary. The teacher can also be an independent participant within the learning-

teaching group, encouraging the interaction of the students with the teacher. Moreover, other

roles assumed for teachers are researcher, monitor, counselor, inspirator, and group process

manager.

As for the role of students in a student-centered class, their role is changed from a passive one

into an active one. In order to cultivate their autonomous learning, they are assigned various

tasks to fulfill. In a sense, the students are more like the teacher than the teacher himself. In

communicative activities like pair or group discussion, the role of the learner is a negotiator.

Peer study is encouraged and the students are supposed to be responsible for not only their

own study, but each other‘s.

The following is the experiment the author carried out to foster learner autonomy. From

March to July in 2010, the author taught reading comprehension course to two similar classes

of second-year non-English majors in Southeast University. In the tentative program to

promote learner autonomy among the students, various activities were tried in the experiment

class, called Class A, with students as the focus of each activity. In the controlled class, Class

B, the traditional teacher-centered method was used to give the lesson. The purpose of the

experiments was, through comparison between the classes, to prove the learner-centered

method had an effect on fostering students‘ learner autonomy and to find out how effective

the method was. Some of the actual activities used to foster learner autonomy included:

Peer teaching and correction: The class was divided into groups of four to five

students and each student had a chance to teach the class. Each time before learning a

new lesson, the text was divided up by the teacher into several parts and each group of

students were told in advance to be responsible for one particular part. The task of a

group can be getting background information of the text, studying several paragraphs

of the text, including new words, grammatical rules, or explaining the organization of

the text or the author‘s writing style. Preparation work was done before class through

teamwork.

Students were also made to correct each other‘s work and through finding and

correcting others‘ mistakes, they would learn from their fellow students and be

expected to cultivate an awareness of the language rules, forms, style, etc., and in turn,

become autonomous and sensible in the language learning process.

50


Oral presentation: Oral presentation, an effective communicative activity, can be used

to promote oral proficiency in a student-centered class. Students were asked to be

responsible for their own behavior and learning., Students felt a drastic change when a

teacher atced as facilitator of learning: preparing detailed guidelines, organizing

groups, helping students to select topics, guiding their research and helping them learn

the use of various visual aids. Also the teacher was supposed to provide feedback on

the students‘ performance and sequent evaluation.

The oral presentation was met with warm enthusiasm from students and helped

improve students‘ oral ability. Although it takes some time in class and may have

certain constraints, with structured planning and organization, oral presentation can be

a beneficial and enjoyable activity with learners. If properly guided and organized, it

provides a learning experience and teaches life long skills that will be beneficial to

learners in all school subjects as well as later in their careers. The advantages of oral

presentations for the students are: bridging the gap between language study and

language use; using the four language skills in a naturally integrated way; helping

students to collect, inquire, organize and construct information; enhancing team work;

and helping students become active and autonomous learners.

Self-reports: According to Wenden (1998:79-95), a good way of collecting

information on how students go about a learning task and helping them become aware

of their own strategies is to have them report what they are thinking while performing

it. This self-report is called introspective, as learners are asked to introspect on their

learning. In this case, ‗the self-report is a verbalization of one‘s stream of

consciousness‘ (Wenden, 1998:81). Another type is called retrospective self-report,

since learners are asked to think back or retrospect on their learning. Retrospective

self-reports are quite open ended, in that there is no limit put on what students say in

response to a question or statement.

Directly after oral presentation, students were required to write self-reports, which

provided an ideal way for them to reflect on their task-fulfilling procedure. Many

students wrote about the hard work and much time devoted to the oral presentations,

as well as the techniques involved. This post-presentation activity, therefore, can be

used to raise awareness of learners‘ strategies and learner autonomy. As Wenden

(1998: 90) observes, ‗without awareness learners will remain trapped in their old

patterns of beliefs and behaviors and never be fully autonomous‘.\

Diaries: Diaries help learners in that they offer them the possibility to plan, monitor,

and evaluate their learning. Keeping a diary can help learners identify any problems

they run into and suggest solutions. If self-report is about certain strategies adopted

and reflection on specific activities, the topics of diaries are open-ended.

Diaries help raise the students‘ awareness of their learning and more happily, diaries

facilitate students‘ learning by extending the learning process to after-class period and

therefore benefit the students in the long run. Some students may develop the habit of

keeping a diary or something similar to record their learning, their thoughts, and their

life.

51


4. Evaluation and conclusion

The evaluation took the form of two tests, one pre-experimental test at the beginning of

experiment, and one post-experimental test at the end.

Table 3 Data of the pre-experimental test

Item

Number

of

students

Average

score

Number

of

passing

Rate of

passing

Number

of

excellence

Rate of

excellence

Controlled group

(Class B) 41 64.6 35 85.4% 1 2.4%

Experimental group

(Class A) 44 63.8 37 84.1% 0 0

Table 4 Data of the post-experimental test

Item

Number

of

students

Avera

ge

score

Number

of

passing

Rate of

passing

Number

of

excellence

Rate of

excellence

Controlled group

(Class B) 41 72.9 38 92.7% 9 21.9%

Experimental group

(Class A) 44 78.3 43 97.7% 19 43.2%

The two test papers were both chosen randomly from the papers of simulated College English

Test, Band Three. So accordingly, the levels of the two test papers were almost the same.

Since the levels of the two tests and of the students were very similar, it can be concluded that

the reason for the difference of the two groups‘ results in the post-experiment test most

probably lies in the adoption of the new teaching method: the learner-centered method.

The learner-centered teaching method can create a more comfortable classroom atmosphere

and a closer relationship between the teacher and students. In a learner-centered class, the

teacher‘s role is not that of an authority, but a facilitator, a counselor, or a friend of the

students, and more interaction between the teacher and students is encouraged. Gradually,

students are used to exchanging their ideas and thoughts with the teacher from time to time

and it is easy for the teacher and students to establish a kind of rapport.

Results of the experiment show that this teaching method does help foster learner autonomy

to a considerable extent. However, concerning the experiment, the whole process lasted only

five months (from March 2010 to July 2002), five months‘ of learner-centered teaching seems

not long enough to change their learning habits completely. Moreover, learner autonomy, in a

sense, is the language awareness, a psychological matter, of the language learner. It is more

difficult to measure and record in exact figures than other skills such as a learner‘s vocabulary

and his grammatical knowledge. However, learner autonomy is embodied in and can be

perceived through the students‘ learning process and the rise of the students‘ marks in the

exams serves the most tangible and direct evidence to indicate an improvement of learner

autonomy.

52


To promote learner autonomy is to be aware of, and identify, one‘s strategies, needs, and

goals as a learner, and to reconsider and refashion approaches and procedures for optimal

learning. By adopting the learner-centered teaching method, it is hoped that the effectiveness

of students‘ learning may be enhanced. To be actively involved in the process of learning, the

student may set his own objectives, and by working independently of the teacher, he may

realize a sense of autonomy and select the strategies best suited to the occasion. This will be

worthwhile and very valuable for the learner. As Holyoake (1892: 4) succinctly put it,

‗knowledge lies everywhere to hand for those who observe and think‘.

References

Benson, P. & Voller, P. 1997. Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning. London:

Longman.

Dam, L. 1990. Learner Autonomy in Practice. In Gathercole, I. (ed.). 1990, p. 16. CILT.

Great Britain: Bourne Press.

Holec, H. 1981. Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning. Oxford: OUP.

Holyoake, J. 1892. Sixty Years of An Agitator's Life. (2 vols.). London: Unwin.

Hunston, S. & Oakey, D. 2010. Introducing Applied Linguistics:Concepts and Skills. New

York: Routledge.

Pemberton, R., Toogood, S. & Barfield, A. 2009. Maintaining Control: Autonomy and

Language Learning. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.

Rodgers, T. S. 2001. Language Teaching Methodology. Hawaii:University of Hawaii.

Wenden, A. 1998. Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy. Great Britain: Prentice Hall.

About the Authors

ZHU SHANHUA, female, associate professor of applied linguistics, MA supervisor，doctorate candidate in arts, graduating from Nanjing Normal University with a Master‘s

degree in 1998, has been engaged in English teaching, researching and management in

Southeast University since then. Research Interests: applied linguistics, Second Language

Learning and Teaching, anthropological linguistics and Cross-cultural Communication.

CHEN MEIHUA, female, professor of applied linguistics, MA supervisor, doctorate

candidate in education management, has been teaching English as a foreign language in

Southeast University since 1985. She obtained the Master of Education from the University of

Sydney in 2006. She has published over 10 research papers and compiled over 20 English

course-books.

53


Dyadic Interaction in Writing: On-line or Off-line Feedback?

Mehran Davaribina & Biook Behnam

Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Branch, Iran


Abstract

Recent theoretical as well as pedagogical developments such as Interaction Hypothesis and

Social Constructivism have led to the introduction of pair work into language classes.

Nevertheless, few studies, with conflicting findings, have examined how fruitful the

introduction of peer feedback to the writing practice can be. This study was an attempt to

make a comparison between the qualities of student texts under two different types of

feedback: on-line feedback, in which peers swap feedback orally while jointly developing a

paragraph and off-line feedback, in which the peers provide feedback on each others‘ writing

once they have developed a paragraph individually. Forty-four sophomores in two intact

classes participated in this study, each class practicing one feedback type. A split-plot

ANOVA was conducted to assess impact of two different interventions (on-line vs. off-line

feedback) on participants‘ writing quality, across two time periods (pretest and posttest).

There was no significant interaction between feedback type and time. However, there was a

substantial main effect for time with both groups showing an improvement in writing test

scores across the two time periods. The main effect comparing the two types of intervention

was not significant suggesting no difference in the effectiveness of the feedback type.

Introduction

The importance of giving feedback to student writing is now an issue which is accepted

extensively throughout the writing literature. There are, however, a variety of factors that can

guarantee the success of this feedback or make it a failure. One factor is who is going to

provide the feedback. Traditionally the teacher has been regarded as the only figure justified

to provide feedback on student texts.

It is now commonly accepted that teacher response is an essential step in the writing process.

Numerous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of various kinds of teacher feedback in

improving the accuracy and fluency of L2 students‘ writings (Ashwell, 2000; Ferris, 1997;

Ferris & Roberts, 2001). On the other hand, for many years, the unique benefits that language

learners could provide each other were ignored in L2 writing classrooms. This idea has given

rise to peer response as part of the process approach to teaching L2 writing. It involves

students reading, critiquing and providing feedback on each others‘ writing (Hu, 2005). Peer

feedback, according to Bartels (2003), is ―a key component in the process approach to

composition. It is also known as peer review, peer response, peer editing, and peer evaluation,

in which students read each other‘s papers and provide feedback to the writer, usually

answering specific questions the teacher has provided‖ (p. 34).

The idea of incorporating peer response in writing instruction is manily motivated by two

theoretical movements, namely, Long‘s interaction Hypothesis and Vygotsky‘s Social

Constructivist perspective on learning.



54


The Interaction Hypothesis

It follows from the Interaction Hypothesis, whether in its early or late form, that what is

important for acquisition is the opportunity for learners to engage in meaning negotiation.

Researchers such as Doughty and Williams (1998), Lighbown and Spada (1990, as cited in

Lantolf, 2000), Lyster and Ranta (1997) and others have explored how interaction provides

opportunities for learners not only to negotiate the message of the input, but to focus on its

form as well. Other researchers, for example, Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994) and Nassaji and

Swain (2000) have explored the nature and type of feedback that will be most helpful to

learners during interaction at different stages of their acquisition of a language form.

Collaboration and the Building of Knowledge: Insights from Sociocultural Theory

According to sociocultural theory, human cognitive development is a social activity mediated

by language (Vygotsky, 1978, as cited in Garcia Mayo, 2007), that is, knowledge is socially

constructed by interaction and is then internalized. Individuals learn how to carry out a new

function with the help of an expert and then they can perform it individually. Through

interaction, learners regulate or restructure their knowledge; therefore, learning, cognition and

interaction are closely connected.

The beneficial effects of peer comments have been outlined by a number of researchers in L1

writing (e.g., Gere & Abbot, 1985; Kroll & Vann, 1981, as cited in Tsui & Ng, 2000) and L2

writing (e.g., Chaudron, 1984; Keh, 1990; Tsui & Ng, 2000).

Despite a number of benefits, however, it has received some criticism, which casts doubt on

the benefits of this instructional procedure in teaching writing. One drawback is that in peer

review the focus is mainly on the product of writing (hence termed off-line feedback in this

study) and the process of writing remains to be a private activity (Storch, 2005). In L2

contexts in particular, a number of studies (e.g., Lockhart & Ng, 1995; Wigglesworth &

Storch, 2009) have shown that when students are asked to peer review, they tend to focus on

errors at the sentence and word level. Collaborative writing was suggested to alleviate the

problem. In collaborative writing all group members co-author the written work together. In

fact, they collaborate throughout the writing process and have joint responsibility over

different aspects of the text produced. Research findings concerning the benefits of

collaborative writing have been positive (e.g., Kim & Mc Donough, 2008; Storch, 2002;

Swain & Lapkin, 1998).

Despite all the benefits elaborated on in the literature for peer feedback as well as the

feedback learners receive in collaborative writing (on-line feedback; henceforth), when it

comes to practice, teachers often notice that some students resent pair work in any form and

refrain from joint work on tasks which require written output. In cases like this the question

that arises is to what extent, if any, teachers should incorporate off-line or on-line feedback

into their instructional practice. Put more specifically, can providing a fair mixture of both

teacher- and on-line feedback on the one hand and teacher and off-line feedback on the other

improve writing ability? One major concern of the present study was to make a comparison

among these two types of feedback, namely off-line plus teacher feedback (FTF) and on-line

plus teacher feedback (NTF) and explore how these feedback types can affect the quality of

student texts. More specifically, the following research questions were posed:

55


1. Does peer feedback (irrespective of its type) improve writing quality significantly?

2. Does type of feedback (FTF or NTF) have a differential impact on the quality of

writing?

3. Does the interaction between time and feedback type affect the quality of writing

significantly?

Method

Participants

Forty four sophomores (two classes) majoring in English language and literature served as the

participants of the study. They were predominantly girls and ranged between 19 to 25 years of

age. The study was performed with intact groups because students are assigned to classes on a

self-selection basis. There were about 30 students in each class. However, matching limited

the number of subjects to 22. Put another way, only 22 students in each class had a chance to

be included in the study.

Moreover, a colleague experienced in teaching and assessing writing scored 50 percent of the

pretest papers. This was done to ensure that scores assigned enjoyed a reasonable amount of

reliability.

Procedure

Common Steps Taken in Both Classes

Michigan Test was administered to all participants in two classes to determine their

proficiency level. The learners in two classes were then matched based on their proficiency

scores. This was to make sure that the groups were comparable enough to begin with. As

mentioned above this confined the number of participants in each class to 22.

Second, the students received some instructions concerning the structure and organization of a

well developed descriptive paragraph and points to consider in writing such paragraphs. After

this stage, the learners wrote a paragraph of 150 words in 40 minutes on a descriptive topic to

serve as the pretest of the study.

Third, prior to participating in peer feedback activities, the students were trained on the

guidelines for preparing EFL students for such activities, which was suggested by Berg

(1999). This was conducted to make sure that learners would adopt the best possible patterns

of collaboration.

A researcher-made peer response sheet with nine questions was also provided for each

participant. Since the posttest paragraphs were going to be corrected analytically using

Jacob‘s (1981, as cited in Weigle, 2002) rating scale, care was taken to establish a reasonable

relationship between the band scores in the scale and the researcher-developed peer response

sheet. The learners were informed that these questions would serve as the basis of their

feedback to their peers‘ text.

56


Group-specific Steps

1. FTF group: Following the training session, two student papers from previous terms

were considered and the peer response sheet was completed by the teacher to show the

process in practice. Next, the learners in this group were asked to develop a paragraph

of 150 words in 40 minutes individually. All students handed in their essays to their

peers who were expected to provide written corrective feedback through completing

the peer response sheet. Next, peers swapped the completed sheets as well as the

commented on papers and discussed their comments, a process called oral peer-

response session. Here, they discussed their comments and the feedback they had

provided on each other‘s paragraphs. After this stage, the teacher collected the papers

to provide further comments at home. The next session the teacher returned the papers

and asked the learners to incorporate their peers‘ as well as the teacher‘s comments

and write the final draft of their paragraph. This multi-draft writing cycle was

practiced for 5 sessions with five different writing topics.

2. NTF groups: Once the training was offered, learners in this class were paired similar

to FTF group (self-selection basis), but here members in each pair co-authored a single

paragraph, i.e. they wrote collaboratively and any feedback was presented orally

during the writing process. It should be noted that the learners in this group also

received the peer response sheet but they were strongly advised not to answer the

questions, rather they were expected to use these questions as a basis to provide on-

line feedback. To make time-on-task equal across the groups, pairs in this group were

assigned more time – 70 minutes – compared to FTF group to write the paragraph, at

the end of which period the papers were collected to receive teacher feedback at home.

The next session the teacher returned the corrected papers and asked the learners to

revise their paragraphs incorporating the teacher‘s feedbacks. This cyclical process

went on for 5 sessions.

Once the treatment sessions were over, all the participants sat the posttest in which they

developed a descriptive paragraph of 150 words under time constraint (40 minutes) on the

same topic as the pretest. The results were analyzed for possible differences in the writing

quality among the groups.

Data Analysis and Results

Depending on the data type collected, a number of statistical analyses and measures were

employed. First, as it was mentioned earlier learners in two groups were matched based on

their proficiency level. Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics for the scores on Michigan test

after the subjects were matched.

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Scores on Michigan Test

Type of Feedback N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Michigan Test NTF group 22 41.7727 10.09447 2.15215

FTF group 22 42.7727 11.89210 2.53540

57


A t-test was run, as a double-check, to make sure there was no significant difference between

the groups to begin with. As Table 2 shows there was no statistically significant difference

between the groups (t=-.301, p=.77).

Table 2. T-Test on Michigan Performance Levene's Test

for Equality of

Variances

t-test for Equality of Means

F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Michigan

Test

Equal

variances

assumed

.938 .338 -.301 42 .765

As mentioned earlier to make sure the score assigned to the texts in pretest and posttest were

reliable enough 50 percent of the pretest papers were corrected by a second writing expert.

The inter-rater reliability was investigated using Pearson product-moment correlation. There

was a strong positive relationship between two set of scores (r=.78, p<.05).

Finally, in order to answer the research questions and assess the impact of two types of

feedback—on-line versus off-line—on the participants‘ writing quality across two time

periods (pretest and posttest), a split-plot ANOVA was run. Table 3 indicates the descriptive

statistics for the students‘ scores on pretest and posttest.

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for Scores on Pretest and Posttest Type of feedback Mean Std. Deviation N

Pretest

On-line feedback 14.8182 2.59370 22

Off-line feedback 15.0909 2.63509 22

Total 14.9545 2.58758 44

Posttest

On-line feedback 15.5909 2.19651 22

Off-line feedback 15.6364 1.94068 22

Total 15.6136 2.04844 44

And Table 4 below shows the influence of within-group (time) as well as between-group

(feedback type) variables of the study.

Table 4. Split-plot ANOVA for the Main Effects and Their Interaction

Source df Mean Square Wilks‘

Lambda F

Partial Eta

Squared

Time * Feedback type 1 .284 .995 .227 .005

Feedback type 1 .557 - .056 .001

Time 1 9.557 .846 7.622** .154 **p< 0.01

It is evident from Table 4 that there was no significant interaction effect between feedback

type and time (Wilks Lambda = 1, F (1, 42) = .23, partial eta squared = .005). Figure 1 is the

line graph depicting mean pretest and posttest scores. The lines do not cross suggesting lack

of interaction effect. So the answer to the third question of the study is negative. Examining

the between-subject variable, feedback type, indicates that the answer to the second research

question is also negative meaning that type of feedback, NTF or FTF, do not improve the

writing quality significantly differently (F (1, 42) = .557, partial eta squared = .001).

58


Figure 1. Line graph for scores on pretest and posttest

Also, Table 4 indicates that there was a substantial main effect for time, (Wilks Lambda = .85,

F (1, 42) = 7.62, p = .009). This means that receiving feedback, irrespective of its form,

influences the quality of student-written texts over time.

Discussion

This study was an attempt to investigate the efficacy of two types of feedback, on-line versus

off-line, on the improvement of students‘ writing quality. The findings indicated that both

types of feedback can contribute to the writing improvement in a significant way. Put another

way, they can improve the quality of writing over time. However, the amount of variation that

these feedbacks created was not statistically significant though on-line feedback was rather

more beneficial in this regard.

Very similar findings have been reported regarding the benefits of dyadic interaction and

peer-peer collaboration for L2 learning (e.g., de Guerrero & Villamil, 2000; Kim &

McDonough, 2008; Leeser, 2004; Storch, 1999, 2001, 2002; Watanabe & Swain, 2007).

One explanation for why there were increases in the writing ability of the participants who

performed dyadic interaction is that they had ―opportunities for learning‖ (Lantolf, 2000) or

―affordances‖ (van Lier, 2000). This is in line with what researchers have already found

regarding the benefits of pair work (e.g., Kowal & Swain 1994; Swain & Lapkin, 1998;

Villamil & de Guerrero, 1998).

It must be noted that the present study involved a small sample size and was conducted in a

controlled classroom setting. Before extrapolating from the results of the study to other

settings and situations, more research is required with other types of learners and in other

learning contexts. It is hoped that this study sheds some light on the complex nature of peer-

peer interaction and its importance to L2 learning.

References

Aljaafreh, A. & Lantolf, J.P. (1994). Negative feedback as regulation and second language

learning in the zone of proximal development. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 465-483.

59


Ashwell, T. (2000). Patterns of teacher response to student writing in a multipledraft

composition classroom: Is content feedback followed by form feedback the best method?

Journal of Second Language Writing, 9, 227-258.

Bartels, N. (2003). Written peer response in L2 writing. English Teaching Forum, 41(1), 34-

36.

Berg, E. C. (1999). The effects of trained peer response on ESL students' revision types and

writing quality. Journal of Second Language Writing, 8, 215-241.

Chaudron, C. (1984). The effects of feedback on students‘ composition revisions. RELC

Journal, 15(2), 1-14.

de Guerrero, M. C., & Villamil, O. S. (2000). Activating the ZPD: Mutual scaffolding in L2

peer revision. The Modern Language Journal, 84, 51-68.

Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (Eds.). (1998). Focus on form in classroom second language

acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Ferris, D. R. (1997). The influence of teacher commentary on student revision. TESOL

Quarterly, 31, 315-339

Ferris, D. R., & Roberts, B. (2001). Error feedback in L2 writing classes: How explicit does it

need to be? Journal of Second Language Writing, 10, 161-184.

Garcia Mayo, M.P. (2007). Investigating tasks in formal language learning. Cromwell Press

Ltd.

Hu, G. (2005). Using peer review with Chinese ESL student writers. Language Teaching

Research, 9(3), 321-342.

Keh, C. L. (1990). Feedback in the writing process: a model and methods for implementation.

ELT Journal 44(4), 294-304.

Kim, Y., & McDonough, K. (2008). The effect of interlocutor proficiency on the

collaborative dialog between Korean as a second language learners. Language Teaching

Research, 12(2), 211-234.

Kowal, M., & Swain, M. (1994). Using collaborative language production tasks to promote

students. Language Awareness, 3(2), 73-93.

Lantolf, J. (2000). Introducing sociocultural theory. In J. P. Lantolf (Ed.). Sociocultural

theory and second language learning (pp. 1-26). Oxford: OUP.

Leeser, M.J. (2004) Leamer proficiency and focus on form during collaborative dialog.

Language Teaching Research, 8, 55-82.

Lockhart, C., & Ng, P. (1995). Analyzing talk in ESL peer response groups: Stances,

functions and content. Language learning, 45(4), 605-655.

60


Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form

in communicative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 37-66.

Nassaji, H., & Swain, M. (2000). A Vygotskian perspective on corrective feedback in L2: The

effect of random versus negotiated help on the learning of English articles. Language

Awareness, 9(1), 34-51.

Storch, N. (1999). Are two heads better than one? Pair work and grammatical accuracy.

System, 2, 363-74.

Storch, N. (2001). How collaborative is pair work? ESL tertiary students composing in pairs.

Language Teaching Research, 5, 29-53.

Storch, N. (2002). Patterns of interaction in ESL pair work. Language Learning, 52, 119-158.

Storch, N. (2005). Collaborative writing: Product, process, and students‘ reflections. Journal

of Second Language Writing, 14, 153-73.

TOEFL writing (TWE) topics and model essays. (2002).

Tsui, A. B. M., & Ng, M. (2000). Do secondary L2 writers benefit from peer comments?

Journal of Second Language Writing, 9, 147-170.

Van Lier, L. (2000). From input to affordance: Socio-interactive learning from an ecological

perspective. In J. P. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning

(pp. 245-59). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Villamil, O.S., & de Guerrero, M.C.M. (1998). Assessing the impact of peer revision on L2

writing. Applied Linguistics, 19, 491-514.

Watanabe, Y., & Swain, M. (2007). Effects of proficiency differences and patterns of pair

interaction on second language learning: Collaborative dialog between adult ESL

learners. Language Teaching Research, 11, 1- 22.

Weigle, S. C. (2002). Assessing Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wigglesworth, G., & Storch, N. (2009). Pair versus individual writing: Effects on fluency,

complexity and accuracy. Language Testing, 26(3), 445-466.

About the Authors

Mehran Davaribina received his MA in TEFL from Iran University of Science and

Technology and is currently a PhD student in TEFL. He has been teaching undergraduate and

graduate levels in the areas of teaching methodology, testing, and research. He has published

several research projects and articles nationally and internationally. His major area of research

concerns Language Skills in general and Writing in particular.

Biook Behnam is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics in Islamic Azad University,

Tabriz Branch. His current research interests cover Discourse Analysis and Translation

Studies. He is currently on the Editorial Board of the Journal of Asia TEFL and the Journal of

Humanities, University of Tabriz, and has widely presented papers to international

conferences in North America, Australia, Europe, China, India and South East Asia.

61


Effective Approach to Macro Skills at the English Department

Max Renyaan & Ifan Iskandar

State University of Jakarta


Abstract

This paper reports on findings of two related classroom researches conducted at the

English Department of State University of Jakarta. The aims of the first study (2006)

were to find out (1) to what extent the integrated-skill approach in use enabled lecturers

to effectively build the four English skills of their students, (2) what communicative

task types were employed to develop the students‘ oral communicative competence.

The study findings then called for a revision of the program resulting in the

implementation of a more discrete-skill approach focusing on each skill and at the same

time integrating the other three skills in the teaching practices. As a follow up, the

second study was conducted (2008) to check (1) whether the mixed-focus approach

enabled lecturers and their students to focus on each discrete skill being taught while

integrating the other macro skills proportionally in their teaching-learning activities, (2)

to what extent communicative tasks were used to develop the student macro skills. To

address the issue, a multi-methodology case study approach (Denscombe, 1998;

Creswell, 1998 & 2008) involving the gathering of both qualitative and quantitative data

was used in both studies. Due to the weaknesses of both approaches, the findings of the

studies favor a blend of the two approaches into a mixed-focus (eclectic) approach

deemed more appropriate to build dependable English proficiency of students at the

English Department.

Nowadays communicative language teaching (CLT) has been widely used at

practically all levels of education. However, in teaching theories and practices the notion

communicative language teaching has been viewed, interpreted and implemented in various

ways according to teachers‘ belief systems of what works well in facilitating language

learning and acquisition in the classroom (Nunan, 2004; Harmer, 2007; Smith & Lovat, 1995;

Richards et al., 1996). In actual teaching practices, especially in building students‘

communicative competence comprising the four macro skills as a tapestry, instructions can be

categorized into two major approaches: integrated-skill approach also known as process-based

approach and discrete-skill or product-based approach (Oxford, 2001; Richards, 2005).

Integrated-skill approach, which includes content-based language instruction and task-

based language instruction, focuses on creating classroom processes believed to effectively

facilitate language learning and acquisition. Specifically, language learning is seen as

resulting from processes such as creating meaningful and purposeful interaction, negotiating

meaning between the learners, paying attention to input and incorporating the new forms into

the learner‘s developing communicative competence, and experimenting with different ways

of saying things In this approach the teacher is expected to integrate language skills

whenever possible, and to be the facilitator of learning as well as the responder to learner

needs (Oxford, 2001; Richards, 2005; Kumaravadivelu, 2006).

On the other hand, discrete-skill approach, which is also known as language-based

approach, considers second language learning as a process of mechanical habit formation

through repetition with an emphasis on language accuracy. Language skills are believed to be

effectively learned when items learned in the target language are presented in spoken form

before being displayed in their written form. Thus, aural-oral training constitutes the



62


foundation for the development of other language skills. Consequently, language skills are

presented and practiced in isolation and in rigid sequence: listening, speaking, reading, and

writing. Language learning is seen as a systematic accumulation of pieces of knowledge

obtained through repeated exposure, practice and production, and the focus is more on the

learning outcomes or products to be mastered as the starting point in a course design

(Kumaravadivelu, 2006; Richards & Rodgers, 2001; Richards, 2005). .

In reality, both approaches have weaknesses. Nunan (2004) points out that discrete-

skill approach fails to enable students to communicate effectively in the relatively

unpredictable world although they have a basic foundation of language knowledge and in the

classroom they are able to produce responses in predictable situations of use. Besides that,

language learning is viewed as a linear, incremental, and additive process, and not as a

random, convoluted process (Harmer, 2007; Long & Crookes, 1992). As for integrated-skill

approach, communicative language teaching (CLT) including both task-based instruction and

content-based instruction is quite ineffective in building the learners‘ grammatical accuracy

since their main concerns are language fluency and the content of the subject matter

(Richards, 2005; Harmer, 2007).

Due to the disadvantages, well-informed teachers normally tend to blend the insights

of the two approaches in their professional practices to build their students‘ communicative

competence including their language fluency as well as their grammatical accuracy. Oxford

(2001) maintains that in many ESL or EFL courses labeled by a single skill, the segregation

of language skills tends to be partial or even illusory since a course with a discrete-skill title

may actually involve multiple, integrated skills. Besides that, the discrete-skill approach is

contrary to the fact that in real life people normally use integrated skills in daily

communication. Further, Nunan (1999) also admits that in many contexts, the needs of the

learners determine a primary focus on a particular skill instead of the other three. This does

not mean that those three skills are not practiced by the learners. Consequently, a more

realistic approach to macro skill development would be a mixed-focus or eclectic approach

(i.e, blending both approaches in teaching practices) (Finney, 2002; Brown, 2000; Clark,

1987).

Approaches to Macro Skills at the English Department, SUJ

From 2002 to 2006 the English Department of State University of Jakarta

implemented the integrated-skill approach to the teaching of the four skills (Nunan, 1989,

1999) in accordance with the government policy. Consequently, the complex macro skills

were integrated into particular integrated-skill subjects, namely English for Social Interaction

1 & 2 (ESI) and English for Business Interaction 1 & 2 (EBI) each of which was allocated

three credits per semester. The names of the subjects and the contents were then slightly

changed into English for Social and Interpersonal Interaction (ESII) and English for Business

and Office (EBO) in 2006 (Sulistyawati & Iskandar, 20011); however, the teaching approach

was basically the same. This then resulted in an on-going debate among lecturers given their

dissatisfaction with the effectiveness of the integrated-skill approach.

The main problem here was how to develop the students‘ macro skills up to a high

level of proficiency in a particular integrated-skill subject in a short time. In the English

Department context where each skill should be highly developed, an integrated-skill approach

might not be the right option. The reason is that in actual practice as experienced before, it

was difficult to focus primarily on a specific skill without neglecting the other three skills

given the time constraint. When a certain skill was prioritized, the other three skills tended to

be neglected. What is more, students taking these subjects were generally first year students

63


with low English proficiency. Actually as high school leavers with inadequate competence,

the students needed more time and opportunity to develop their respective four skills. Thus,

learning English for one or two semesters (especially for ESII) with an integrated-skills

approach was simply not enough for the students to build a high level of proficiency in each

of the four macro skills.

Therefore, in 2006 the first research project was conducted (Renyaan & Hasra, 2007)

to find out to what extent the integrated approach in use enabled lecturers to effectively build

the four English skills of their students, and what effective communicative task types were

employed to develop the students‘ oral communicative competence. The study findings then

called for a revision of the program resulting in the implementation of a more discrete-skill

approach focusing on each language skill while integrating the other three skills whenever

possible in the teaching practice. In other words, the English skill curriculum was revised to

be a mixed-focus curriculum (Finney, 2002) also known as eclectic curriculum (Brown, 2000)

The following year the second project (Renyaan & Hasra, 2009) was done to check whether

the mixed-focus approach enabled lecturers and their students to focus on each discrete skill

being taught while integrating the other macro skills proportionally in their teaching-learning

activities, and to what extent communicative tasks were used to develop the student macro

skills.

RESEARCH METHOD

The research method used in these two studies was a multi-methodology case study

approach (mixed method) involving the gathering of both qualitative and quantitative data

(Creswell, 1998, 2008; Denscombe, 1998). The data collection methods used were:

observation, interview (teacher & student), document analysis, and survey. However, in the

second study only three methods of data collection were employed: interview (teacher &

student), document analysis, and survey. The data from these multiple approaches were

combined to provide multiple perspectives for each of the research questions. The mixed

method (Creswell (2008) allows findings to be corroborated or questioned by comparing the

data gleaned by different methods (Denscombe, 1998). The opportunity to corroborate the

findings can ultimately enhance the reliability and validity of the data. . Quantitative analyses

corroborated and validated the qualitative analyses through triangulation (Gall et al, 1996;

Huberman & Miles, 1998; Marshall & Rossman, 1999).

Participants of the first study were six lecturers consisting of three males and three

females and their students (N = 98 students) of six classes. Three lecturers taught ESII and

the other three taught EBO. The students were in their first year, and their level of English

proficiency was approximately pre-intermediate level. In the second study the same lecturers

and their first year students (N = 124) were involved. Two lecturers taught Speaking 1, two

taught Listening 1, and the other two taught Reading 1. Writing 1 was not included in this

study since it was not offered in the first semester when the project was conducted.

RESEARCH FINDINGS

Research question 1 (Study1): To what extent do lecturers effectively develop their students’

four skills in an integrated-skills subject such as ESII and EBO?

64


Table 1: Low Inference Observational Data – Focusing on Language Skills

(Mean scores shown)

Language skills

Lect. A Lect. B Lect. C Lect. D Lect. E Lect. F

Listening Low inference

High inference

6.33

2.33

6.5

3.75

6.5

3

8

3

8

3.66

6

3

Speaking Low inference

High inference

6

2.33

3.25

2.5

3.5

1.75

7

2.66

8

3

6

2.33

Reading Low inference

High inference

0

1

5

3

5

3

0.5

1.33

0.66

1.66

5

2.33

Writing Low inference

High inference

3.66

2

0

1

0

1

1.75

1.33

4

2

0

1

Scoring: Low inference: 0= extremely low, 1= low, 2-3= fairly often, 4-7= high, 8-12= extremely high -

High inference: 0= extremely low, 1= low, 2= fairly often, 3= high, 4= extremely high

The low inference data in Table 1 show that four lecturers (E, D, F and A) very

frequently helped their students to build their speaking and listening skills to develop their

oral communicative competences. However, they neglected reading skill and/or writing skill.

Lecturers B and C very frequently emphasized the student listening and reading skills and

quite often taught speaking skill, but they neglected the student writing skill. These were

supported by the lecturers‘ interview data and students‘ interview data as well as student

survey data. For example, Lecturer E who taught EBO subject claimed in her interview that

she had integrated all the four skills in her teaching practices. She most frequently focused on

speaking ( X = 8/3) and listening skills ( X = 8/3.66) compared to her other colleagues. The

claim was supported by her four interviewed students, but one of them (Student B) added that

he believed every skill should be given more or less the same portion of emphasis, and that

needed the segregation of the four skills into different discrete-skill subjects.

Similar to Lecturer E, Lecturer A also argued that ESII should be changed into

discrete-skills subject to ensure the student high proficiency. His students supported his view

in their oral interviews and classroom survey. .Lecturer D was of the opinion that teaching

ESII and EBO simultaneously in the first semester was an ineffective strategy. She

commented, ―.… Because this is the English Department, the students should have

dependable English proficiency. Therefore, I suggest that the fist and second years should be

for developing the students‘ grammatical competence and the four macro skills. - minimally

one year or three semesters.‖ Two of her students also supported the change from the

integrated-skill approach to a discrete-skill subject system in order to develop their English

proficiency. Besides, the student survey called for the change to a discrete-skill subject

system ( X = 2.14).

Lecturers B and C argued that they focused more on reading and listening skills.

Lecturer B who highly emphasized listening skill ( X = 6.5/3.75) in his interview said, ―My

students did not have enough opportunities to speak in the classroom since I focused more on

reading skill which I believe very important and essential… .‖ Likewise, Lecturer C argued

that he focused more on listening and reading skills because he did not have enough time. As

he pointed out, ―Three credits are just not enough. ….. Writing, reading, speaking, and

listening should be segregated. There must be a specification.‖

65


In conclusion, four out of the six lecturers highly emphasized their students‘ oral

communicative competence and neglected the development of their reading and writing skills,

while the other two stressed reading and listening skills, and they also neglected the other oral

skills. The reasons for neglecting those skills were the lack of time, different individual

belief systems, as well as the complexities of the four macro skills to be treated

comprehensively in a simple integrated-skill subject such ESII. Hence, in general they

suggested a change from ESII to more discrete-skill subjects: listening, speaking, reading, and

writing to ensure the focusing as well as in-depth coverage of each skill, including its skill-

linked learning strategies, with an integrated-skill teaching approach in the teaching practices.

In other words, they called for a mixed-focus curriculum in Finney‘s term (2002). The

lecturers also believed that EBO did not need to be changed since the integrated-skill

approach employed for the subject was appropriate in accordance with the nature of the

subject.

On the other hand, students who were also aware of the weakness in the integrated-

skill approach used in ESII expressed their concerns, criticisms, and suggestions for the

betterment of the teaching-learning activities to improve their English proficiency. Five of the

six classes participating in this study called for the change into discrete-skill subjects:

listening, speaking, reading, and writing. As for EBO students also argued that the subject

did not have to be changed due to the fact that it already covered the four skills presented

systematically in the learning materials. They just pointed out the need to strike a proper

balance among the four skills in the teaching practices.

As a logical consequence of this study, the curriculum reform at the English

Department was implemented. In the teaching of macro skills, ESII subject with its

integrated-skill approach was replaced by discrete-skill subjects combined with an integrated

approach in the teaching practice. In this case, it would be more appropriate to refer to this

blend as a mixed-focus approach or an eclectic approach. Consequently, the second study

was carried out to check the appropriate focusing on each discrete skill being taught while

balancing it with the other macro skills in an integrated teaching strategy in practice. In

addition, the use of communicative tasks in teaching practices was checked as well to see if

the mixed-focus approach could provide more communicative tasks and activities to ensure

the facilitation of the target language learning and acquisition.

Research question 1(Study 2): Does the mixed-focus approach enable lecturers and their

students to focus on each discrete skill while integrating the other macro skills

proportionally in their teaching-learning activities?

In her interview on her teaching of Listening 1, Lecturer One said that she integrated

all skills in her teaching by allocating 25 % for each skill. This was confirmed by a student

interviewee, while the other one gave 70% for listening and 30 % for other skills. However,

student survey data supported the lecturer‘s account ( X = 2). In contrast, Lecturer Two

mentioned that he also incorporated speaking in his teaching, but a student interviewee

maintained that he focused more on listening skill than others, and this was supported by the

survey data.

With regard to Speaking 1, Lecturer Tree claimed in her interview that she integrated

all skills in her teaching of speaking. She commented: ―Yes, certainly. I do incorporate

listening and writing in my teaching. Thus, I start with listening or reading ing material, then I

ask the students to write dialogs. After that, I go on with speaking.‖ As for the proportion

she stated that 70% was for speaking and for the other skills each was allotted 10 %. In

contrast, a student interviewee believed that the proportion should be 60% and 40%. Student

66


survey, however, supported the lecturer‘s statement ( X = 1.6). Similarly, Lecturer Four

claimed that he also integrated all skills in his teaching. One of his students confirmed the

lecturer‘s statement by giving the following: speaking 60%, listening 10%, reading 15%, and

writing 15%. The student survey data supported the lecturer‘s claim: ( X = 2).

Finally, concerning the teaching of Reading 1, both Lecturers Five and Six

acknowledged in their interviews that they combined all skills in their teachings. Lecturer

Five allocated 60% for reading, 15% for speaking, 15% for writing and 10% for listening.

The claim was confirmed by students in their interviews as well as survey data ( X = 1.5).

Lecturer Six allotted 70% to reading and 30 % to others. This was confirmed by the two

student interviewees and survey data ( X = 1.4).

In summary, in this mixed-focus approach all lecturers integrated all or at least two

macro skills in their teaching practices, but they could focus on their respective discrete skills

proportionally. Despite the fact, Lecturer Two was quite extreme in overemphasizing his

listening subject. He integrated some amount of speaking skill but quite neglected the other

skills.

It is assumed that in this kind of mixed-focus approach lecturers can cover all

necessary skill-related learning strategies and other micro skills such as pronunciation and

grammar, provide students with a lot of language input and output involving students in

interactions and negotiations of meaning as well as experimentations with different ways of

saying things. Thereby, they can internalize the language items noticed, develop their fluency

as well as a higher level of English proficiency as the ultimate goal.

Research question 2 (Study1): To what extent do lecturers make use of effective task types

to build their students’ oral communicative competence?

Table 2: Low Inference Observational Data - Tasks Provided by Lecturers in their Teaching (Mean

scores shown)

Category Communicative Tasks Lect.

A

Lect.

B

Lect.C Lect.

D

Lect.

E

Lect.F

Most effective

tasks

jigsaw 0 0 0 0 0 0

information gap 0 0 0 0 0 2

Less effective

tasks

problem solving 0 0.2* 0 0 0.66* 0

decision making 0 1.7* 0 0 0 0

opinion exchange 0 0.2* 0 0 3.66 0,88*

communic. game 0 0 0 0 0 0

oral presentation 2.66 2 0 3.5 0 0.33

free communication 0 1.2* 1.25* 1* 0.66* 0

question-answer 0 5.5* 1.5* 1.25* 0.66* 3.33*

sharing personal experience 0 0 0 0 0 0.33*

processing info. & using it 0 0 7 0 0 0

selective listening 0 0 2.75 0 83 0.66

taking note 0 0 0 0.31 0.33 0.42

67


picture story 0 0 0 0 0 0

listing 0 0 0 0.5* 0.66* 0.42

comparing 0 0 0 0 0 0

diagramming 0 0 0 0 0 0

matching activity 0 0 0 0 0 0.66*

summarizing 0 0 0 0 0 0

ordering & sorting 0 0 0 0 0 0

brainstorming 1* 0.25* 0.25* 0.5* 0.66* 1*

creative task 0.66* 0 0 0 0 0

song 0 0 0 0 0 0

poem 0 0 0 0 0 0

drama 0 0 0 0 0 0

film 0.66 0 0 0 0 0

self-evaluation 0 0 0 0.5* 0.66* 0.66*

Practice com-

munication task

role-play 0 0 0 0 2.33 0

Total 28 4 7 5 7 10 11

Scoring: 0= extremely low, 1= low, 2-3= fairly often, 4-7= high, 8-12= extremely high

* = teacher-fronted strategy

Data in Table 2 show that in terms of the most effective tasks (Pica, Kanagy & Falodun (1993) only Lecturer F quite often made use of information gap ( X = 2), while no

one used jigsaw. This is similar to the findings related to the use of tasks in teaching practices

in junior and senior high schools where teachers hardly used both tasks in their teaching

practices (Renyaan, at al., 2002). In their interviews most lecturers argued that they lacked

time to prepare and use such tasks, and/or they had not paid special attention to those tasks.

Instead, Lecturers A, B, D and F argued that in their views oral presentation was the most

effective tasks because it comprised many learning aspects and strategies such as individual

role, team work, cooperative learning, information gap and role play. Therefore, they tended

to use the task frequently in their teaching practices. They, however, seemed to be unaware

that in oral presentation task the frequency of two-way communication is low.

With regard to less effective tasks, Table 2 data indicate that the lecturers tended to

more frequently use less effective tasks such as brainstorming, oral presentation, question-

answer, opinion exchange and problem solving with open tasks and teacher-centered teaching

strategy where they controlled most of speaking turns and leaning activities of the students.

This certainly reduced the frequency of the negotiation of meaning among the students.

Besides, open tasks such as brain storming and opinion exchange made students discuss the

topics given briefly and drop them when serious problems arise (Long, 1989).

The data in Table 2 above also reveal that Lecturer F used most task (10 tasks) with

teacher-fronted question-answer task with high frequency ( X = 3.33). Lecturer E used 9

tasks where opinion exchange and group work were most frequently used ( X = 3.66),

whereas Lecturer C used only four tasks, the fewest of all, with the task of processing

information and using it extremely frequently ( X = 7); he was very teacher-centered as well

in his teaching strategy. These were all confirmed by lecturer interview data, student

interview data, document analysis data, and survey data.

In practice communication task, where dialog and role-play constitute specific

characteristics, learners are involved in using language actively and meaningfully, but activity

68


site, roles, participants, or purpose of activities are normally simulated. As shown in Table 2,

only Lecturer E used dialogs and role-plays quite frequently ( X = 2.33) In her interview the

lecturer acknowledged it, and this was supported by student interview data as well as

document analysis data. As for the other lecturers, they claimed in their interviews that they

also used role-plays in their teaching. This was confirmed by the student interviewees and

student survey data.

In brief, to answer the question above, lecturers were generally unaware of the

classification of task types: most effective tasks, less effective tasks and practice

communication tasks (Pica, Kanagy & Falodun 1993; Renyaan, 2002). As a result,

only one made use of information gap task quite frequently, but others tended to use less

effective tasks such as brainstorming, question-answer, opinion exchange, and problem

solving with open task type and teacher-fronted strategy to build their students‘ oral

communicative competence. Data analysis also revealed, four lecturers also used group work

quite frequently, but two others never use cooperative learning strategy through group work.

This certainly reflects a variation of teaching practices of lecturers because of variation in

their belief systems.

Research question 2 (study 2): To what extent do lecturers employ communicative tasks

through task-based learning materials to build the students’ macro skills in order to develop

their communicative competence?

First of all, data analysis of the second study revealed that practically all lecturers of

respective discrete-skill subjects made use of three types of learning materials as

communication data (Nunan, 1989): text-based, task-based, authentic (realia) learning

materials (Richards, & Rogers, 1986; 2001) to build their students‘ communicative

competence in their respective macro skills. However, in this report only communicative tasks

based on task-based learning materials are highlighted.

The results of data analysis show that all lecturers gave their students communicative

tasks through task-based learning materials with varied frequency. Lecturer One who taught

Listening1 claimed that besides intensive listening activities in the course book (Harmer,

2002), which were related to global or gist listening, listening for specific information, and

inference or listening between the lines (Nunan, 2003), she also gave extensive listening

tasks by assigning students to listen to the radio, watch television (film) and video, and then

report to the class and discuss it further. Unlike Lecturer One, Lecturer Two only provided his

students with listening activities within the classroom. These were confirmed by students in

their interviews. Referring to Lecturer One‘s claim, student survey data confirmed their tasks

of watching videos and films ( X = 2), but did not strongly support the task of listening to the

radio ( X = 3).

As for Speaking1 Lecturer Three claimed in her interview that she used role-play,

information gap, problem solving, opinion gap, and game, but she did not use jigsaw. She

commented, ―Oh, yes, I use all: game, role-play, pair-communication materials. Concerning

information gap, I certainly use it. I often use opinion gap and problem solving as

well, ….but I don‘t use jigsaw.‖ The claim was supported by student interview data and

survey data. Moreover, Lecturer Four said in his interview that he employed role-play, pair

communication materials, oral presentation, and observation and interview that must be

carried out by the students. Besides that, information gap, problem solving, and opinion

exchange were usually used by the lecturer in his teaching activities. As he claimed, ―I often

use presentation, observation and interview. Jigsaw … I don‘t use it because I‘m not very

good in that method.‖ This was supported by students in their interviews and survey data.

69


With regard to Reading1, Lecturer Five and Lecturer Six employed intensive reading

within the classroom dealing with comprehension tasks in the course books. They also

assigned students to do extensive reading outside the classroom. Lecturer Five claimed in

his interview that he told his students to read newspapers, magazines, and internet materials

and report them to the class. Similarly, Lecturer Six also had her students read newspapers,

magazines and novels and then report to their peers in groups. The extensive reading

activities above were normally done with low frequency. Both claims were confirmed by

the students in their interviews and survey data.

Clearly, except Lecturer Two, all other lecturers gave various kinds of communicative

activities according to the nature of their respective subjects to develop the students‘

communicative competence. Both lecturers of Speaking1 used information gap and interview

as the most effective task and neglected jigsaw. For less effective tasks they employed

opinion exchange, problem solving, oral presentation, and game, as well as role-play for

practice communication task. All these activities were employed at various levels of

frequency, from low to quite high frequency. Besides, in Listening1 and Reading1 the

lecturers used various kinds of tasks related to both intensive and extensive listening and

reading activities with various levels of frequency as well. In short, activities used here

seemed to be fairly richer and more varied because the discrete skill approach used enabled

lecturers to focus more on activities related to their respective discrete-skill subjects. Thus,

with numerous communicative tasks and activities provided for students by lecturers of

respective discrete skill subjects, students would have much richer language input and output

in the classroom as a learning community, and the impact on their language learning and

acquisition would be much more powerful.

CONCLUSION

The first study revealed that in using the integrated-skill approach to macro skill

lecturers lacked teaching focus, and they tended to fail in building their students‘ dependable

English proficiency in the four skills. In their teaching practices they only emphasized one or

two skills and neglected the other skills because of time constraint, the complexity of the

four macro skills, as well as individual belief systems. They also neglected the most effective

communicative tasks in their teaching practices. Due to the lack of language input and output

in the classroom that resulted in dissatisfactory teaching and learning outcome, both lecturers

and students called for a change from the integrated approach to a mixed-focus approach. In

contrast, the second study, after the change of the curriculum, showed that all lecturers deeply

focused on their respective discrete-skill subjects which they taught and concurrently

developed the other macro skills proportionally using a wider range of communicative tasks.

In brief, a mixed-focus (eclectic) approach, that lumps the discrete-skill approach and the

integrated-skill approach, seemed to be more effective in building the English Department

students‘ macro skills than either of the two approaches by providing students with richer

language input and output to facilitate their language learning and acquisition.

Specifically, results of the second study indicated that in Speaking1 the lecturers could

make use of more speaking tasks including more communicative tasks such as, information

gap, interview, problem solving, opinion exchange, oral presentation, game, and role-play,

except jigsaw, with higher frequency. In both Listening1and Reading1, intensive and

extensive listening and reading tasks and activities were employed by lecturers. This means

that the mixed-focus approach provided more time and opportunities for lecturers and their

students to focus on a certain skill in depth including its micro skills. Thus, this approach

enabled students to be more intensively involved in meaningful interaction, negotiation of

meaning, more attention to input, and experimentation with various ways of expressing ideas.

Thereby, they would be able to build a higher level of proficiency in their macro skills.

70


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Laporan Penelitian. UNJ

Richards, J.C., Ho, B., & Giblin, K. (1996). Learning how to teach in the RSA Cert. In D. Freeman

& J.C. Richards (Eds.), Teacher Learning in Language Teaching (pp. 242-259). Cambridge:


Richards, J.C. & Rodgers, T.S. (2001) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge:


Richards, J.C. (2005) Communicative Language Teaching Today. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional

Language Centre.

Sulistyawati, E. & Iskandar, I. (20011). ELT and Skill Courses in ELESP UNJ‘s

Curriculum in the Last Ten Years. Research Report. UNJ.

About the Authors

Maximus Renyaan is a lecturer of English and Linguistics at the Department of English

Language and Literature, State University of Jakarta, Indonesia. He received his Doctorate in

Education from Tasmania University, Australia.

Ifan Iskandar is Head of the Department of English Language and Literature, State

University of Jakarta, Indonesia. He is currently a doctoral student of Education at Jakarta

State University.

72


Effects of Peer-Tutoring on Students’ Foreign Language Classroom

Fasawang Pattanapichet, Ph.D.

Language Institute, Bangkok University

[email protected]

Abstract

This paper examines the effects of peer-tutoring on the students‘ foreign language classroom

anxiety. The experiment using pretest and posttest design was conducted with 152 students

who joined the Buddy Training Program at Bangkok University and completed 20 hours of

training in the first semester of academic year 2010. The instruments used for collecting the

data consisted of a set of the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS)

questionnaire, a set of a program evaluation questionnaire in the form of a five-rating scale

and a semi-structured interview with 25 participants. Quantitative data was analyzed using

frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation, t-test and the Hedges‘ effect size (g) to

examine the effects of the program while qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis.

The findings of the study reveal that peer-tutoring had positive effects on reducing the

students‘ anxiety. They also show a high rating evaluation of the students‘ satisfaction toward

the program. Finally, the study supports the use of the peer-tutoring with some

recommendations for further research.

1. Introduction

Many studies have consistently reported that anxiety could inhibit language learning (Atay &

Kurt, 2006; Cheng, 2001; Horwitz, 2001 ; Kurt& Atay, 2007). Oxford (1999) supported that

language anxiety ranks high among factors influencing language learning, whatever the

learning setting is. Therefore, it has become a focus of any investigation of variables

contributing to the learning process and language learning success (Horwitz, 1990; Dornyei,

2005; Hurd, 2007).

Foreign Language Anxiety is the feeling of uneasiness, worry, nervousness and apprehension

experienced by non-native speakers when learning or using a second or foreign language.

These feelings may stem from any second language context whether associated with the

productive skills of speaking and writing, or the receptive skills of reading and listening (Lin,

2009). Consequently much emphasis has been placed on how to reduce foreign language

anxiety. A variety of methods, approaches, techniques and strategies have been explored and

suggested to create a low anxiety learning environment (Young , 1991 & Nishimata , 2008).

Most of the suggested practices obviously share the same objective--- to promote non-

threatening learning experience to lower their students‘ anxiety. This is because the students

would be more willing to take risks with their learning and actively take part in their learning

process in a relaxing learning atmosphere.

Peer-teaching is one of many powerful tools aiming to create a stress-free learning

environment allowing students to get actively involved in the learning process. Extensive

evidence suggests that the strategy is effective for students with or without disabilities

(Houghton, S. & Bain A., 1992). It has also been used in education internationally in a

number of subject areas for many years (Mackinnon et al., 2009).


http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uneasiness&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worry

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervousness

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apprehension

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_language

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_language

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_(process)

73


Many definitions have been offered for the term ‗peer-teaching or peer-tutoring‘ depending

on each context in which the approach was applied and referred to. For example, according to

Thomas (1993), peer teaching or tutoring is the process by which a competent pupil, with

minimal training and with a teacher's guidance, helps one or more students at the same grade

level learn a skill or concept. Boud, Cohen & Sampson's (2001) provide another interesting

definition: ―Peer- teaching involves students learning from and with each other in ways which

are mutually beneficial and involve sharing knowledge, ideas and experience between

participants. The emphasis is on the learning process, including the emotional support that

learners offer each other, as much as the learning itself.‖

2. Background of the study

Inspired by the above concepts, Language Institute (LI), Bangkok University (BU) has

originated an idea to provide an extra-curricular activity called ‗Buddy Training Program‘ for

BU students. The key idea is to provide an opportunity for Thai students to practice their

English speaking skills with foreigners in a relaxing atmosphere. By attending the program,

BU Thai students (In this program, they are called ‗trainees‘) are able to practice speaking

English in small groups with native or non-native English speaking (with a good command of

English) trainers recruited from Bangkok University International College (BUIC). They meet

once a week for one hour to participate in various speaking activities. The Buddy Training

Program is a part of the students‘ degree requirement. The trainees are required to complete

20 hours of training within an academic year in order to meet the requirement. The trainees

get to practice communicating casually with their foreign trainers in English through general

talking and various learning activities such as conducting discussion, playing games,

organizing events. They also occasionally received some formal language lessons. Before the

program starts, all of the trainers are required to attend two orientation sessions. They are

provided with a guideline on how to conduct the training sessions. During their first four

weeks of the working sessions, they will be under observation and supervision of an

experienced full-time English teacher.

3. Research objectives:

The research objectives are as follows:

1. To compare foreign language classroom anxiety level of the trainees before and after they

attended the program

2. To examine the participants‘ evaluation of the overall program.

4. Significance of the study:

1. The study will provide insights on the use of peer-tutoring.

2. The study will provide an evaluation for the Buddy Training Program.

5. Methodology

5.1. Participants

The subjects in this study were 152 fourth-year students from School of Science and

Technology. These students participated as trainees in the Buddy Training Program as a

requirement of their degree in the first semester of the 2010 academic year.

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5.2. Research instruments

Three research instruments were employed as listed below:

a. The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) questionnaire

Part One: Personal data

Part Two: English Oral Communication Anxiety Scale measurement

The first part asked about personal data .The second part of the questionnaire was the Foreign

Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) questionnaire created by Horwitz, Horwitz &

Cope (1986). It was in a five-point Likert scale, ranging from the most, a lot, moderately,

little and the least. The questionnaire consisted of 33 items. A draft of the questionnaire was

examined by three experts specialized in TEFL. They were asked to check translation from

English to Thai. After that the questionnaire was piloted with 30 students and calculated for

proper reliability value by Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient. The reliability value of the overall

questionnaire was 0.88. The reliability value of the questionnaire from the main study was

also estimated by Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient at a set point of 0.90 implying that the

questionnaire was reliable.

b. The evaluation form to evaluate the Buddy Training Program

The evaluation form used five Likert‘s scales asking the students to indicate their opinions

toward the overall program and the degree to which the program helped them reduce their

anxiety level. The form was validated by experts and the reliability value of the form was

also estimated by Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient at a set point of 0.90 implying that the

questionnaire was reliable.

c. A semi-structured interview

The interview was used for clarification concerning each of the items on the evaluation form.

5.3. Data collection and data analysis

Each of the trainees was required to complete the FLCAS questionnaire before and right after

completing the program. They were also asked to complete the program evaluation at the end

of the program. All of the completed questionnaires were compiled and analyzed using SPSS

program.

The FLCAS score was first analyzed quantitatively for mean. In this study, foreign language

anxiety measured by FLCAS was divided into four components: communication

apprehension (items 1, 3, 4, 9, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, 27, 29, and 33), fear of negative

evaluation (items 2, 7, 8, 10, 19, 23, and 31), general feeling of anxiety (items 16, 22, 25, 26,

28, 30, and 32), and general reaction toward a foreign language classroom (items 5, 6, 11, 12,

17, and 21). However, as the items 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24,

25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31 and 33 show high anxiety; therefore, strongly agree rates 5 points, agree

is 4 points, neither agree nor disagree is 3 points, disagree is 2 points and strongly disagree is

1 point. On the contrary, items 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 18, 22, 28, and 32 indicate non-anxiety;

therefore, strongly agree is 1 point, agree is 2 points, neither agree nor disagree is 3 points,

disagree is 4 points and strongly agree measures 5 points. Next, paired-sample t-test was used

to analyze if there was any difference in terms of the mean scores of the students‘ anxiety

level. Then, Hedges‘g method of effect size was calculated for each of the items showing

significant difference.

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As for the evaluation of the program, data was analyzed quantitatively for mean. Later, a

semi-structured interview was conducted with twenty-five trainees to obtain additional

qualitative data which later were analyzed using content analysis.

6. Research findings

This section reports the findings of the following topics:

6.1. Personal Data

Demographic characteristics of the overall participants are reported as follows. 63.8% of the

participants were male while 36.2 were female. Regarding their latest English grades, the

majority of the sample (28.9%) received the grade letter ‗C-‘ while 23 % of the participants

got the grade letter ‗C‘ for their latest English course. The highest grade the participants

received for the latest English course was ‗B‘ (7.9%). In addition, the table illustrates that

48% of the participants assessed their English proficiency as ‗so so‘(C) while 44.1% of them

rated their English proficiency as ‗poor‘ (D). Only 3.3% and 0.7 % rated that their proficiency

as ‗good‘ (B) or ‗very good‘ (A) respectively.

6.2. The effects of the program on levels of Students’ Foreign Language Classroom

Anxiety

To examine whether there is any difference and how significant the difference between the

students‘ anxiety level before and after attending the program, paired-sample t-test and

Hedges‘g effect size were used to analyze the mean scores. Table 2 reports the results of the t-

test. The results are presented according to each category of foreign language classroom

anxiety ranked from the largest to the smallest effect size.

Table 1: The results of t-test

Item

no.

Items

Before the

program

After the

program

Mean

dif

t Sig

(2-

tailed)

g

SD

SD

Communication apprehension

4. It frightens me when

I don‘t understand

what the teacher is

saying in the foreign

class.

3.79 0.79 2.69 1.05 1.09 10.41 .000*** 1.27

large

18. I feel confident

when I speak in the

foreign language

class.

2.77 0.80 3.36 0.67 0.59 6.06 .000*** 1.08

large

9. I start to panic when

I have to speak

without preparation

in the language

class.

3.88 0.84 2.98 1.03 0.14 9.13 .000*** 1.01

large

20. I can feel my heart

pounding when I‘m

going to be called

3.53 0.94 2.84 0.88 0.69 7.15 .000*** 0.83

large

76


on in the language

class.

33. I get nervous when

the language teacher

asks questions

which I haven‘t

prepared in advance.

3.61 0.79 3.14 0.71 0.47 5.32 .000*** 0.83

large

13. It embarrasses me to

volunteer answers in

my language class.

3.53 0.84 2.98 0.96 0.55 5.55 .000*** 0.67

medium

14. I would not be

nervous speaking

the foreign language

with native

speakers.

3.09 1.23 3.70 0.96 0.66 5.54 .000*** 0.50

medium

27. I get nervous and

confused when I am

speaking in my

language class.

3.23 0.69 2.93 0.89 0.30 3.32 .001** 0.47

small

29. I get nervous when I

don‘t understand

every word the

language teacher

says.

3.38 .89 3.05 1.18 0.33 2.75 .007** 0.30

small

Fear of negative evaluation

8. I am usually at ease

during a test in my

language class.

2.88 0.75 3.44 0.95 .55 6.09 .000*** 0.76

medium

19. I‘m afraid that my

language teacher is

ready to correct

every mistake I

make.

3.49 0.85 2.92 0.99 0.56 4.87 .000*** 0.66

medium

31. I am afraid that the

other students will

laugh at me when I

speak the foreign

language.

3.25 0.97 2.78 1.04 0.46 4.12 .000*** 0.46

small

23. I always feel that

the other students

speak the foreign

language better than

I do.

3.30 0.94 3.03 1.12 0.26 2.19 0.03* 0.25

small

General feeling of anxiety

22. I don‘t feel pressure

to prepare very well

for the language

class.

2.50 1.03 3.50 0.76 0.94 9.00 .000*** 1.22

large

16. Even if I am well

prepared for the

3.29 0.82 2.74 0.94 0.55 5.23 .000*** 0.70

medium

77


language class, I

feel anxious about

it.

25. The language class

moves so quickly I

worry about getting

behind.

3.49 .85 2.92 0.99 0.565 4.87 .000*** 0.70

medium

28. When I‘m on my

way to the language

class, I feel very

sure and relaxed.

2.86 0.82 3.26 1.00 0.40 3.71 .000*** 0.47

small

26. I feel more tense

and nervous in my

language class than

in my other classes.

3.28 1.02 3.03 0.93 0.25 2.20 .029* 0.26

small

32. I would probably

feel comfortable

around native

speakers of the

foreign language.

2.82 0.93 3.32 0.82 0.82 5.01 0.000** 0.65

small

General reaction

17. I often feel like not

going to my

language class.

3.21 1.01 2.68 0.86 0.52 4.73 .000*** 0.60

medium

21. The more I study for

a language test, the

more confused I get.

2.78 0.86 2.46 0.82 0.32 3.28 .001** 0.45

small

5. It wouldn‘t bother

me at all to take

more foreign

language classes.

2.61 0.91 3.01 1.06 0.40 3.51 .001** 0.40

small

12. In the language

class I can get so

nervous I forget

things I know.

3.42 0.82 3.03 1.16 0.38 3.61 .000*** 0.38

small

11. I don‘t understand

why some people

get so upset over

foreign languages.

2.94 0.81 3.21 1.02 0.26 2.40 .018* 0.31

small

p< 0.05*

p< 0.01**

p< 0.001***

Table 1 presents the difference between the students‘ anxiety level, how significant the

difference is including the effect size. It can be seen that most of the items (24 items out of 33

items) show the significant difference of the students‘ anxiety level. This means that peer-

tutoring had positive effect on the students‘ anxiety level. Moreover, it is interesting to find

the items which show the greatest significant difference with the largest effect size all concern

communication apprehension. It can be assumed that peer-tutoring could allow the students to

feel more at ease to communicate in English.

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6.3. Program evaluation

The results of the program evaluation were presented in Table 3.

Table 2: Students’ evaluation of the Buddy Training Program

Items

SD Test value = 3.50

T Sig

2-tailed

Mean

dif

1. I liked the atmosphere

of learning.

3.82

High

0.83 4.80 0.00** 0.32

2. I think after joining the

program my English has

been improved.

3.60

High

1.02 1.26 0.206 0.10

3. I think the program was

useful.

3.58

High

0.95 1.03 0.304 0.03

4. Joining the program

helped reduce my foreign

language classroom

anxiety.

3.66

High

1.01 2.01 0.046* 0.16

5. Overall, I was satisfied

with the program.

3.70

High

0.85 2.85 0.005** 0.20

p< 0.05*

p< 0.01**

According to Table 3, one-sample t-test was used to analyze the data by comparing the mean

score with the test value = 3.5. It is apparent that all of the program evaluation criteria were at

the high level ( ≥ 3.5). This means that the students‘ evaluation of the program was highly

rated. Regarding anxiety reduction, the evaluation was at the high level ( = 3.66) with

significant difference (p< 0.05). As for qualitative data, the 25 trainees were interviewed for

clarification. All of the respondents agreed that joining the program lowered their foreign

language anxiety. All of the respondents had a similar opinion giving all of the credit to

‗relaxing informal learning atmosphere‘ and ‗friendly trainers‘. One of the respondents said

‗It‘s not like learning in a classroom. It was like doing activities with friends. We talked and

shared. The trainers are all our age. I don‘t think of them as teachers.‘ This implies that an age

gap plays a role in the students‘ feeling toward their tutors/teachers. Three students shared a

consistent opinion saying that they felt relaxed since they didn‘t have to worry about being

judged. One of the students also added ‗I was not afraid of making mistakes because I was

among my friends‘. It can be implied that the trainees viewed their trainers as less

authoritative and less judgmental. This encouraged them to take more risks in the classroom.

In terms of the overall satisfaction, all of the respondents also indicated that the program was

useful and they were satisfied with the program. They all agreed that this program allowed

them to get access to authentic situations where they were able to use English with foreigners.

7. Recommendation

The findings of the study support the use of peer-tutoring. It is obviously seen that peer-

tutoring had positive effects on reducing the students‘ anxiety and the overall satisfaction of

the program. Nevertheless, it would be illuminating to examine other effects of peer-tutoring

on the students‘ language performances. A comparative study is recommended to see if there

79


is any difference between peer-tutoring and a traditional classroom. Further in-depth

investigation on different characteristics and roles of teachers can also be a great contribution

to foreign language learning development.

Acknowledgement

This research received a financial support from Bangkok University.

References

Atay, D. & Kurt, G. (2006). Prospective Teachers and L2 Writing Anxiety. Asian EFL

Journal, 8 (4), 100-118.

Boud, D., Cohen, R., & Sampson, J. (2001) Peer learning in higher education: Learning from

and with each other, London, Kogan Press.

Cheng, Y.-S. (2001). Learners‘ beliefs and second language anxiety. Concentric: Linguistics,

27 (2), 209-223.

Dornyei, Z. (2005). The Psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second

language acquisition. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Horwitz, E., Horwitz, M., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The

Modern Language Journal, 70 (2), 125-132.

Horwitz, E.K. (1990).Attending to the affective domain in the foreign language classroom. In

S.S. Magnam (Ed.). Shifting the Instructional Focus to the Learner. Middlebury, VT:

Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, 15-33.

Horwitz, E.K. (2001). Language Anxiety and Achievement, Annual Review of Applied


Houghton, S. & Bain, A.(1992). Peer-tutoring with ESL and below-average readers. Journal

of Behavioral Education, 3:2 , 125-142.

Hurd, S. (2007). Anxiety and non-anxiety in a distance language learning environment: the

distance factor as a modifying influence. System 35 (4): 487-508.

Kurt, G. & Atay, D. (2007).The Effects of Peer Feedback on the Writing Anxiety of

Prospective Turkish Teachers of EFL. Journal of Theory and Practice in Education, 3

(1):12-23

Lin, G. H. C. (2009). An exploration into foreign language writing anxiety from Taiwanese

university students‘ perspectives. 2009 NCUE Fourth Annual Conference on

Language Teaching, Literature, Linguistics, Translation, and Interpretation (pp.307-

318). National Changhua University of Education, Department of English, Taiwan,

ROC.

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Oxford, R.(1999). Anxiety and the Language Learners: New Insights. In A. Jane (ed.), Affect

in Language Learning (pp.58-67). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mackinnon, R., Haque, A., & Stark, P.(2009). Peer-teaching: By students for students: a

student-led initiative. A Clinical Teacher, 6, 245-248.

Nishimata, T. (2008). Going green- Can it help foreign language learning too? (Doctoral

dissertation, Florida State university). Retrieved from

http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-04142008-

170238/unrestricted/NishimataTDissertation.pdf

Thomas, R. (1991). Cross-Age and Peer Tutoring. ERIC Digest. Bloomington, In ERIC

Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills. ED 350598- Microfiche, 4p.

Washington, D.C.

Young, D. (1991). Creating a Low Anxiety Classroom Environment: What does language

anxiety research suggest? The Modern Language Journal, 75, 4, 426-439.

About the Author

Fasawang Pattanapichet (PhD) teaches at Bangkok University. She received BA (Hons.) in

English Language and Literature from Thammasat University. She obtained MA in TESOL

from Eastern Michigan University. In 2009, she was awarded a Ph D in English as an

International Language (EIL) from Chulalongkorn University (Bangkok University

scholarship). Her research interests include course development, ELT methodology and ESP.

http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-04142008-170238/unrestricted/NishimataTDissertation.pdf

http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-04142008-170238/unrestricted/NishimataTDissertation.pdf

81


Enhancing EFL Students’ Intercultural and Critical Awareness

Amporn Sa-ngiamwibool

Krirk Univerisity

[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

Preparing EFL students for the global market needs to raise both intercultural and critical

awareness. Consciousness-raising (C-R) incorporating with computer-assisted language

learning (CALL) plays a vital role in enhancing the students‘ intercultural and critical

awareness. This study primarily examined the effects of C-R + CALL instructions on EFL

Thai students‘ intercultural and critical awareness. The study revealed these findings. First, on

intercultural awareness, the posttests scores of the group with the noticing clues were

significantly greater than those of the group without the noting clues. Similarly, on critical

awareness, the posttests scores of the group with the clues were slightly greater than those of

the group without the clues. In addition, the attitudes of the group with the clues were highly

positive. Lastly, the instructions with the clues could enhance intercultural and critical

awareness more effectively than those without the clues. Future inquiry should replicate the

study in similar contexts to this study and/or in naturally occurring situations.

Introduction

Intercultural awareness has become increasingly necessary for international communication.

Thus, raising intercultural awareness is necessary for preparing EFL students for the global

market. Theorists and researchers (Block, D. and Cameron, D. 2002; Pennycook, A. 1994,

2001; Hinkel, E. 1999; Byram, M. 1997; Byram, M., Morgan, C. et al. 1994; Kramsch, C.

1993) agree that raising intercultural awareness is needed for intercultural communication.

Intercultural awareness is a highly sensitive issue since it deals with inter/cultural differences

of communicators. Thus, in engaging in meaningful inter/cultural contexts successfully,

communicators need to be critical of inter/cultural differences. Critical awareness in this study

is the ability to analyze issues of intercultural business contexts in which communicators are

engaged with and the ability to construct the gist of the intercultural communication text in

order to achieve the goal of the communication. Thus, in preparing EFL students for

successful intercultural communication, instructors need to raise both intercultural and critical

awareness.

To raise EFL students‘ intercultural and critical awareness, consciousness-raising (C-R) is

needed for raising awareness. C-R in this study is an attempt to draw the students‘ attention

specifically to perceive the target intercultural issue consciously, notice it, and turn it into

learning. C-R is a cognitive learning process, consisting of four components: perceiving,

noticing, discovering, and understanding. Prior research on SLA reveals that C-R can raise

linguistic awareness effectively (Izumi, 2000; Izumi, Bigelow, Fujiwara, & Fearnow, 1999;

Jourdenais, 1998; White, 1998; Alanen, 1995; Jourdenais, Ota. Stauffer, Boyson, & Doughtly,

1995; Leow, 1993, 1995, 1997) especially in EFL contexts.

In Thai contexts, Sa-ngiamwibool studied the effects of C-R on linguistic awareness in

various skills and aspects: reading (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2009a), critical reading (Sa-

ngiamwibool, 2009c), analytical reading (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2007a), structure and written

expression (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2007b), listening skill (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2008b, 2008c),



82


business English (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2009d), writing (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2010c), media

translation (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2010d), and English in media (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2008a). She

also examined the effects of C-R on learning: communicative language leaning (Sa-

ngiamwibool, 2009f, 2010b), autonomous learning (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2009e, 2010e) and

independence learning (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2009f). Moreover, she investigated the effects of

computer on enhancing C-R (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2008b, 2008c, 2010a, 2010d,). Most

importantly, she studied the effects of C-R on inter/cultural issues: cultural schemata (Sa-

ngiamwibool, 2009b) and intercultural awareness (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2010b, 2010f, 2010g).

All these studies reveal that C-R has effects on EFL Thai students.

However, this present investigation had a few specific features. It included critical awareness

as a necessary factor for increasing intercultural awareness. Also, it focused on a comparison

of perceiving and noticing, either with C-R + CALL or with CALL-only. This study was

drawn upon on prior study and the specific features with the following purposes of study.

Purposes of the Study

This study primarily investigated the effects of C-R + CALL instructions either with or

without noticing clues to the gist of the text, with four specific purposes of study:

1. To empirically examine the effects of the instructions on EFL students‘

intercultural awareness

2. To empirically examine the effects of the instructions on their critical

awareness

3. To explore their attitudes towards the instructions

4. To determine the instructions to enhance their intercultural and critical

awareness

Methods

Population and subjects

The population was third-year students at Krirk University who studied business courses in

the first semester of the academic year 2009. The students who studied abroad or took GMAT

Test (Graduate Management Admission Test) were excluded. The subjects were 160 students

randomly assigned into five different groups, each of which consisted of 30-33 students.

Design of the study

This study used a pretests-posttests, experimental design with five experimental groups, each

of which were assigned these treatments:

Group 1: C-R + CALL at the level of perceiving

This group received both C-R + CALL instructions at the level of perceiving.

Group 2: C-R + CALL at the level of noticing

This group received both C-R + CALL instructions at the level of noticing.

Group 3: CALL-only instructions at the level of perceiving

This group received only CALL instructions at the level of perceiving. No C-R

instructions were given to this group.

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Group 4: CALL-only instructions at the level of noticing

This group received only CALL instructions at the level of noticing. No C-R

instructions were given to this group.

Group 5: Grammar instructions for control group

This was a control group, receiving neither C-R nor CALL instructions. Grammar

instructions were assigned to this group.

Instruments

This study used these instruments to elicit information: two C-R instructions, two CALL-only

instructions, grammar instructions, questionnaire, and journal log.

C-R instructions

The two C-R instructions were constructed to raise the students‘ intercultural and critical

awareness. These instructions at the level of perceiving gave no directions to search for and

focus on the given intercultural, critical clues in various linguistic contexts. These instructions

were constructed for two purposes: 1) to raise students‘ intercultural awareness with

comparison of appropriate and inappropriate expressions for intercultural communication in

45 business contexts, and 2) to raise students‘ critical awareness, asking the students to

analyze 45 issues which were drawn from the writing part of GMAT test, Analysis of Issue

which asked the students to write an essay on given issues, each of which required higher-

order thinking skills and critical awareness in order to respond to the issues. The contents of

the two C-R instructions required necessary higher order thinking skills. The two C-R

instructions, therefore, consisted of two parts as presented below:

C-R instructions at the level of perceiving

The C-R instructions at the level of perceiving gave no clues to raise intercultural and critical

awareness of the text. Below were samples.

A. Intercultural awareness instructions Directions: Using the following expressions to talk about problems with products will leave

a more professional impression. Situation 1: Talking about problems with products Inappropriate: I have too many problems with your products. Appropriate: We‘ve got a bit of a problem with the shelf life of your product. Inappropriate: The work of the last order was very bad. Appropriate: The stitching of the last order was of quite poor quality. Inappropriate: Your machines are too slow. Appropriate: The equipment is quite slow. B. Critical awareness instructions Directions: In group of 3-5, discuss whether you agree or disagree with the issue given

below and support your position with evidence. “All groups and organizations should function as teams in which everyone makes decisions

and shares responsibilities and duties. Giving one person central authority and

responsibility for a project or task is not an effective way to get work done”. To what extent do you agree or disagree with this definition of success? Support

your views with reasons and/or specific examples drawn from your own work or school

experiences, your observations, or your reading.

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C-R instructions at the level of noticing

C-R instructions at the level of noticing would specifically draw the students‘ attention to

search for and consciously focus on the clues in red. Below were samples.

A. Intercultural awareness instructions

Directions: Using the following expressions to talk about problems with products

will leave a more professional impression. Notice the clues in red and share with the

others why the former set is not appropriate for intercultural communication.

Situation 1: Talking about problems with products

Inappropriate: I have too many problems with your products.

Appropriate: We‘ve got a bit of a problem with the shelf life of your product.

Inappropriate: The work of the last order was very bad.

Appropriate: The stitching of the last order was of quite poor quality.

Inappropriate: Your machines are too slow.

Appropriate: The equipment is quite slow.

B. Critical awareness instructions

Directions: In group of 3-5, notice the clues in red and use them to identify the pros

or cons of the issue below and brainstorm evidence to support your position.

“All groups and organizations should function as teams in which everyone makes

decisions and shares responsibilities and duties. Giving one person central authority

and responsibility for a project or task is not an effective way to get work done”.

To what extent do you agree or disagree with this definition of success?

Support your views with reasons and/or specific examples drawn from your own work

or school experiences, your observations, or your reading.

CALL-only instructions

The two CALL instructions drawn from English Discoveries Program, a computer-assisted

program for self-access learning, were constructed to increase the students‘ ability to

construct the gist of the text.

CALL-only instructions at the level of perceiving

These CALL instructions at the level of perceiving gave no clues to the gist of the text at all.

Below was a sample.

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CALL-only instructions at the level of noticing

These CALL instructions at the level of noticing provided the clues in red, which specifically

draw the students‘ attention to the gist of the text in red. Below were samples.

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Grammar instructions

These grammar instructions were assigned to the control group, receiving neither C-R nor

CALL. The group was required to solve 100 sentence correction problems. Below was a

sample.

Directions: In group of 5, share with others to choose the best choice.

The Wallerstein study indicates that even after a decade young men and

women still experience some of the effects of a divorce occurring when a child.

(A) occurring when a child

(B) occurring when children

(C) that occurred when a child

(D) that occurred when they were children

(E) that has occurred as each was a child

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Pretests and posttests on intercultural awareness

These tests were constructed to assess the students‘ intercultural awareness. There were two

sets, each of which consisted of 30 questions: item-by-item and overall.

Item-by-item pretests and posttests

These tests were assigned to each group before and after each instruction. The posttests were

constructed in parallel with the pretests.

Directions: Which of the following is more suitable for talking about problems?

Pretests

A. I was wondering if we could make a few concessions on taste.

B. Thai people don‘t like your product.

Posttests A. The material of the last load was bad quality.

B. The fabric of the last consignment was of inferior quality.

Overall pretests and posttests

These overall pretests and posttests assigned to each group before and after the experiment

were drawn from the item-by-items pretests and posttests, each of which consisted of 30

questions.

Pretests and posttests on critical awareness

These tests were constructed to assess students‘ critical awareness. These tests were drawn

from the critical reading part of GMAT. Each of the two sets, item-by-item and overall,

consisted of 30 questions.

Item-by-item pretests and posttests

These tests were assigned to each group before and after the instructions each week. Below

were samples.

Pretests and posttests are based on the following.

The fewer restrictions there are on the advertising of legal services, the more

lawyers there are who advertise their services, and the lawyers who advertise a

specific service usually charge less for that service than lawyers who do not advertise.

Therefore, if the state removes any of its current restrictions, such as the one against

advertisements that do not specify fee arrangements, overall consumer legal costs will

be lower than if the state retains its current restrictions.

Pretests If the statements above are true, which of the following must be true?

a. Some lawyers who now advertise will charge more for specific services if

they do not have to specify fee arrangements in the advertisements.

b. More consumers will use legal services if there are fewer restrictions on

the advertising of legal services.

c. If the restriction against advertisements that do not specify fee

arrangements is removed, more lawyers will advertise their services.

d. If more lawyers advertise lower prices for specific services, some lawyers

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who do not advertise will also charge less than services.

e. If the only restrictions on the advertising of legal services were those that

apply to every type of advertising, most lawyers would advertise their

services.

Posttests Which of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the argument

concerning overall consumer legal costs?

a. The state has recently removed some other restrictions that had limited the

advertising of legal services.

b. The state is unlikely to remove all of the restrictions that apply solely to

the advertising of legal services.

c. Lawyers who do not advertise generally provide legal services of the same

quality as those provided by lawyers who do advertise.

d. Most lawyers who now specify fee arrangements in their advertisements

would continue to do so even if the specification were not required.

e. Most lawyers who advertise specific services do not lower their fees for

these services when they begin to advertise.

Overall pretests and posttests

These overall pretests and posttests assigned to each group before and after the experiment

were drawn from the item-by-items pretests and posttests, each of which consisted of 30

questions.

Questionnaire

This questionnaire elicited the students‘ attitudes toward the effects of the different types of

instructions on their intercultural awareness.

How much can the assigned instructions raise your intercultural awareness?

___ Very much ___ Much ___ A little ___Very little ___Not at all

Journal log

The students were required to report the critical awareness strategies they used

while analyzing each of the issues given.

Data collection and analysis

The data collection followed these procedures: pretests, instruction, and posttests. All groups

were assigned overall pretests and posttests before and after the experiment. During the

experiment, they were assigned item-by-item pretests and posttests before and after each

instruction. Each instruction was completed in thirty minutes. After the experiment, all groups

completed the overall posttests, a questionnaire, and a journal log. The data collection lasted

sixteen weeks.

For the intercultural awareness test, the reliability and validity check followed these steps.

First, the instruments constructed on the purposes of study were sent to five judges for content

validity check. The contents were then adjusted to their advice, tried out, and tested by Alpha

Cronbach Coefficient. The result of reliability check was 0.780, indicating moderate

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reliability. For the critical awareness test drawn from GMAT test, there was no validity check

of the test. The result of reliability check was 0.915.

For scoring procedure and statistical analysis, counts of pretests and posttests scores were

compared and then, an ANCOVA analysis was chosen for data analysis in order to control

extraneous factors (e.g. prior knowledge) and compare the differences among the groups.

Results of the study

An ANCOVA analysis was performed on the data and the results of the data analysis were

shown based on the research questions.

Research question 1: Are there increases in posttests scores on intercultural awareness

among the different types of instructions? The results were presented below.

Table 1 Adjusted means (and standard deviations) for intercultural awareness

_______________________________________________________________

Instructions Item-by-item Overall

___________________ __________________

Pretests Posttests Pretests Posttests

_______________________________________________________________

C-R + CALL 2.7576 19.1515 2.5758 21.9697

perceiving (1.60137) (2.36010) (1.11888) (2.01260)

C-R+ CALL 2.5152 22.1818 2.6061 23.5152

noticing (1.58353) (2.27011) (1.47774) (1.97043)

CALL-only 2.5161 14.9677 2.7742 17.3871

perceiving (1.56782) (3.85991) (1.30919) (2.26094)

CALL-only 2.8667 17.1333 2.7667 13.9333

noticing (1.73669) (1.97804) (1.54659) (2.01603)

Grammar 2.6061 3.9091 2.7576 3.9697

Instructions (1.41287) (1.25906) (1.58174) (1.21153)

_______________________________________________________________

Table 1 reveals that the C-R + CALL noticing performed on item-by-item tests significantly

better than the C-R + CALL perceiving, the CALL-only noticing, the CALL-only perceiving,

and the grammar instructions. The ANCOVA analysis on the total score on posttests yielded a

significant main effect for the C-R + CALL noticing, F (5, 33) = .472, p < .05, for the C-R +

CALL perceiving, F (5, 33) = 4.677, p < .05, for the CALL-only noticing, F (5, 30) = .317, p

< .05, for the CALL-only perceiving, F (5, 31) = .049, p < .05, and for the grammar

instructions, F (5, 33) = 1.941, p < .05. Interestingly, the results of overall tests were almost

completely consistent with those of item-by-item tests, the C-R + CALL noticing performed

on item-by-item tests significantly better than the C-R + CALL perceiving, the CALL-only

perceiving, the CALL-only noticing, and the grammar instructions. The ANCOVA analysis

on the total score on posttests yielded a significant main effect for the C-R + CALL noticing,

F (5, 33) = .272, p < .05, for the C-R + CALL perceiving, F (5, 33) = .890, p < .05, for the

CALL-only perceiving, F (5, 31) = .197, p < .05, for the CALL-only noticing, F (5, 30) =

.548, p < .05, and for the grammar instructions, F (5, 33) = 5.200, p < .05. This indicated that

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C-R+CALL at the level of noticing had the strongest effects on students‘ intercultural

awareness.

Research question 2: Are there increases in posttests scores on critical awareness? The

results were presented below.

Table 2 Adjusted means (and standard deviations) for critical awareness _______________________________________________________________

Instructions Item-by-item Overall

_____________________ ___________________

Pretests Posttests Pretests Posttests

_______________________________________________________________

C-R + CALL 1.7576 12.1818 1.7273 12.3636

perceiving (.96922) (3.53071) (.67420) (2.51021)

C-R + CALL 1.7879 21.5758 1.7879 16.5758

noticing (.96039) (2.87261) (.54530) (2.51021)

CALL-only 1.8710 6.8387 1.8065 6.7419

perceiving (.99136) (1.77194) (.65418) (1.87914)

CALL-only 2.0333 7.5000 1.8333 7.2667

noticing (.99943) (2.06364) (.59209) (2.66437)

Grammar 1.9394 3.5455 1.6970 3.5152

Instructions (1.11634) (1.30122) (.52944) (.79535)

______________________________________________________________

Table 2 reveals that the C-R + CALL noticing performed on item-by-item tests significantly

better than the C-R + CALL perceiving, the CALL-only noticing, the CALL-only perceiving,

and the grammar instructions. The ANCOVA analysis on the total score on posttests yielded a

significant main effect for the C-R + CALL noticing, F (5, 33) = 3.741, p < .05, for the C-R

+ CALL perceiving, F (5, 33) = .557, p < .05, for the CALL-only noticing, F (5, 30) = .890, p

< .05, for the CALL-only perceiving, F (5, 31) = 1.772, p < .05, and for the grammar

instructions, F (5, 33) = .242, p < .05. Interestingly, the results of overall tests were

completely consistent with those of item-by-item tests, the C-R + CALL noticing performed

on item-by-item tests significantly better than the C-R + CALL perceiving, the CALL-only

noticing, the CALL-only perceiving, and the grammar instructions. The ANCOVA analysis

on the total score on posttests yielded a significant main effect for the C-R + CALL noticing,

F (5, 33) = .010, p < .05, for the C-R + CALL perceiving, F (5, 33) = .055, p < .05, for the

CALL-only noticing, F (5, 30) = .253, p < .05, for the CALL-only perceiving, F (5, 31) =

.916, p < .05, and for the grammar instructions, F (5, 33) = 1.450, p < .05. This indicated that

C-R+CALL at the level of noticing had the strongest effects on students‘ intercultural

awareness.

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Research question 3: What are the students‘ attitudes toward their increase in intercultural

awareness? The results of their attitudes were grouped as shown in the following table.

Table 3 Percentages (and raw scores) of attitudes toward increase in intercultural

awareness

_______________________________________________________________

Very Much Little Very Not

much little at all

_______________________________________________________________

C-R + CALL perceiving 7.5 25 35 15 0

(3) (10) (14) (6) (0)

C-R + CALL noticing 22.5 50 10 0 0

(9) (20) (4) (0) (0)

CALL perceiving 2.5 5.0 42.5 25 2.5

(1) (2) (17) (10) (1)

CALL noticing 7.5 5 35 22.5 5

(3) (2) (14) (9) (2)

Grammar instructions 2.5 2.5 22.5 40 15

(1) (1) (9) (16) (6)

_______________________________________________________________

Table 3 shows the students‘ positive responses to the instructions as follows: the C-R + CALL

noticing (72.5%), the C-R + CALL perceiving (32.5%), the CALL-only noticing (12.5%), the

CALL-only perceiving (7.5%), and the grammar instructions (5%) respectively. This

indicated that the majority of the students had positive attitudes towards C-R and CALL.

Research question 4: How do the instructions enhance your critical awareness? The students

receiving the C-R + CALL at the level of perceiving and noticing were assigned to write a

journal log on how their instructions enhanced their critical awareness while they were

working on 45 analyses of issue? A qualitative analysis of the students‘ journal log revealed

that, while analyzing issues, the students of the two instructions practiced higher –order

thinking skills, concept-analysis, problem-solving, reasoning, inquiry skills and others. These

skills are the basis of critical awareness. This indicated that the two instructions enhanced the

students‘ critical awareness. This may result from the effects of the instructions as well as the

analysis itself. Here are some samples of the students‘ responses.

―I have learnt to identify issues, weighting them, compare and

contrast them, weighting them, making sense of the value of the issues,

make decision impartially, think about reasons to support evidence,

organize the reasons coherently, and draw a conclusion.‖

[Student A, C-R + CALL at the level of perceiving]

―We have learnt to understand the two sides of an issue, tell the

differences between one side and the other, see what is not superficially

apparent, choose a side, tell the views to support the decision-making,

evaluate the views, tell the differences between fact, opinion, and reason

judgments, and drawing a conclusion.‖

[Student B, C-R + CALL at the level of noticing]

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Research question 5: What instructions are effective for enhancing the EFL

students‘ intercultural and critical awareness?

Based on the research questions mentioned above, it is obvious that the two C-R + CALL,

either at the level of perceiving or noticing, can help increase the students‘ intercultural and

critical awareness more effectively than other instructions. In addition, the students of the

instructions show more positive attitudes than the others. Moreover, the C-R+CALL at the

level of noticing can promote the students‘ critical awareness more successfully than the other

instructions. Drawing upon the results of all research questions revealing that 1) the two C-R

+ CALL instructions are more effective for enhancing intercultural and critical awareness

than the CALL-only instructions, 2) the C-R + CALL instruction at the level of noticing is the

more effective of the two C-R + CALL instructions, and 3) the CALL-only at the level of

noticing is the more effective of the two CALL-only instructions, it can be concluded that the

two C-R + CALL instructions are effective tools and the C-R+CALL at the level of noticing

is the most effective instruction for enhancing the EFL students‘ intercultural and critical

awareness.

Conclusion

The results revealed several major findings based on the purposes of the study and the

research questions.

First, on the effects of the different instructions on intercultural awareness, the C-R + CALL

instructions, either with or without noticing clues to the gist of the text, yielded higher effects

on Thai students‘ awareness than the CALL-only, either with or without noticing clues to the

gist of the text, and the grammar instructions. As shown by the results of research question 1,

posttests scores on the item-by-item and overall test of the C-R+CALL and CALL-only

instructions either with perceiving or noticing yielded significantly greater effects than those

of the control group. Moreover, the C-R+CALL either with perceiving or noticing yielded

greater effects than the CALL-only either with perceiving or noticing. In details, the C-

R+CALL or CALL-only instructions with noticing yielded greater effects than the ones with

perceiving. It can be concluded that of all instructions, the C-R+CALL with noticing yielded

the greatest effects on Thai students‘ intercultural awareness. This indicated that noticing is

more effective for intercultural awareness-raising than perceiving.

Second, on critical awareness, as shown in the results of research question 2, the effects on

critical awareness shared almost all similarities as those on intercultural awareness, except

that there were differences between the effects of CALL-only either with perceiving or

noticing on intercultural awareness and those of the instructions on critical awareness on both

tests. This may result from the effects of cognitive load which may interfere the students‘

decision-making process on both tests.

Third, on attitudes towards the instructions on intercultural awareness, as shown in the results

of research question 3, the instructions have different effects on the students‘ attitudes. The C-

R + CALL instructions with noticing yielded the most positive attitudes of all. This indicated

that the C-R + CALL instructions with noticing were the instructions that Thai students

preferred most.

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Fourth, on critical awareness, as shown in the results of research question 4, the two C-R

instructions either with perceiving or noticing could enhance Thai students‘ important higher-

order thinking skills which are the basis of critical awareness.

Lastly, on effective instructions for enhancing the students‘ intercultural and critical

awareness, a collective pool of information drawn upon the results of research questions 1-4

showed that the C-R + CALL with noticing is the most effective instruction since it yielded

the highest performances in all tests.

Discussion

The results of this study supported those of the prior study (e.g. Alanen, 1995; Izumi,

Bigelow, Fujiwara, & Fearnow, 1999; White, 1998; Jourdenais, Ota. Stauffer, Boyson, &

Doughtly, 1995; Izumi, 2000; Jourdenais, 1998; Leow, 1993, 1995, 1997) that C-R either at

the level of perceiving or noticing can enhance EFL students‘ awareness effectively.

In EFL contexts, the results of this present study were consistent with the studies in Thai

contexts by Sa-ngiamwibool (2007a, 2007b, 2008a, 2008b, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c, 2009d,

2009e, 2009f, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c, 2010d, 2010e, 2010f, 2010g) that the groups with C-R

only or C-R either with CAI or learning strategies outperformed the groups without C-R.

Specifically, on the effects of intercultural awareness, the results of this study,

together with those of Sa-ngiamwibool (2010b, 2010f, 2010g), revealed that C-R instructions

either with perceiving or noticing are very useful for enhancing intercultural awareness. In the

study (2010g), for example, C-R at the level of perceiving and noticing, especially with the

aid of CALL, helps raise Thai students‘ intercultural awareness and international

communication effectively. In this present study, C-R + CALL with perceiving and noticing

can enhance Thai students‘ intercultural and critical awareness successfully.

Similarly, this study shared findings with that of Sa-ngiamwibool (2010f). In the study, the

intercultural awareness-raising instructions either as an integral part of the international

business instructions or as an addition to the instructions had significant effects on students‘

intercultural knowledge of international business communication. In this present study, the C-

R + CALL and CALL-only instructions, either with or without noticing clues to the gist of the

text, yielded higher effects on Thai students‘ intercultural and critical awareness than the

control group.

In addition, this study supported Sa-ngiamwibool‘s study (2010b). In the study, the two CLL

instructions, either with intercultural awareness-raising as integral part of input or with

intercultural awareness-raising as addition to input, had effects on EFL learners‘ intercultural

awareness and communicative competence at different degrees. The CLL instruction with

intercultural awareness as integral part to the input performed over the than CLL only. This

present study found similar findings. The C-R+CALL and CALL-only instructions either with

perceiving or noticing yielded significantly greater effects than those of the group without C-

R or control group.

Lastly, like the study by Sa-ngiamwibool (2009c) revealing that C-R is needed for enhancing

the students‘ critical reading by specifically drawing the students‘ attention to the most

influential factor on critical reading (i.e. argument identification), this present study

confirmed that the C-R+CALL and CALL-only instructions either with perceiving or noticing

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could enhance the students‘ intercultural and critical awareness successfully by specifically

drawing the students‘ attention to the gist of the text.

The findings of all these studies lend support to those of prior studies that C-R is a necessary

factor for enhancing intercultural and critical awareness in EFL contexts. This may result

from the effects of C-R with an aid of CALL. Of the two C-R+CALL instructions, the one

with noticing clues is more effective than the other with perceiving. This may result from the

fact that the noticing clues can help draw the students to the intercultural and critical

awareness target and, therefore, turns the noticed target into learning or understanding.

Theoretical and pedagogical implications

This study indicates these theoretical and pedagogical implications. For theoretical

implications, this present study lends support to prior study on C-R in EFL contexts. It reveals

that C-R both at the level of perceiving and at the level of noticing can enhance EFL students‘

awareness effectively. For pedagogical implications, C-R at the level of noticing helps

enhance EFL students‘ intercultural and critical awareness more effectively than C-R at the

level of perceiving. In addition, with the aid of CALL which helps accelerate C-R, awareness-

raising becomes more effectively for EFL students.

Suggestion for further inquiry

Future inquiry should replicate this study with EFL students of higher or lower age groups to

compare the effects on intercultural and critical awareness since age, maturity, level of

education might have effects on intercultural and critical awareness.

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the realm of social dynamics, University of Thai Chamber of Commerce, Thailand.

Sa-ngiamwibool, A. (2010c) The Education of Virtues in English Essay Writing through

Consciousness-Raising Model. Paper at the national conference on weaving morality

and ethics into higher education teaching, Bangkok University, Thailand.

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Sa-ngiamwibool, A. (2010d). Improving Thai Students‘ Errors in English News

Headline Translation Through Noticing and CALL. Leksika , Journal of

Language, Literature and Language Teaching. 4(1).

Sa-ngiamwibool, A. (2010e). Enhancing Autonomous Learning for International

Communication in a Thai Context. Scholar. 1(1): 61-65.

Sa-ngiamwibool , A. (2010f) Empowering EFL Students wi th Intercul tural

Awareness for International Business Communication . Paper at the

international conference on the dynamics in second/foreign language teaching in the

2 1s t

c e n t u r y , P i b u l s o n g k r a m R a j a b h a t U n i v e r s i t y , T h a i l a n d .

Sa-ngiamwibool, A. (2010g). Raising EFL Students’ Intercultural Awareness for

International Communication through C-R and CALL. Paper at CULI‘s 7th

international conference on pathways in EIL: explorations and innovations in teaching

and research, Chulalongkorn University Language Institute, Thailand.

About the Author

Asst. Prof. Amporn Sa-ngiamwibool, B.A. (English), M.A. (Comparative Liturature), M.A.

(Communication Research), Ph.D. (English Language Study), is currently the head of

Department of English for Communication, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Krirk Univerisity,

Thailand. Her research interests are C-R, CALL, CLL, EIL, and English in media. E-mail:

[email protected], [email protected]



98


Foreign Teachers’ Foreigner Talk

Burcu Simsek Benderli

Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge

[email protected]

Abstract

Foreigner talk (FT), helping students to achieve a better understanding in language

classrooms, is the focus of this paper and the questions addressed are: 1.Does FT provided by

native teachers (NTs) differ from FT by non-native teachers (NNTs)? 2. How does it differ in

phonological and syntactic features? 3. Are there any clear similarities in each group itself?

The data, collected from 2 NTs and 3 NNTs, is analysed with reference to the teachers' speech

rate; pronunciation of function words, fragmented sentences and how it reflects in their

speech rate; and tense choices. Results reveal that there is a considerable difference between

NTs and NNTs' rate of speech depending on their weak and strong pronunciation of function

words, use of connected speech and frequency of fragmented sentences. The speech rate stays

very close among group members in each group. The tense choices also show differences as

NNTs make use of more varied tenses whereas the use is consistent between NTs.

1. INTRODUCTION

Today, in every aspect of everyday life, foreigner talk (FT) is available to all non-native

speakers of English by native speakers in order to be able to achieve a better comprehension

and dialogue with non-proficient speakers. Taking this situation to educational setting, FT

employed by language teachers by simplifying the foreign language they use when

instructing/interacting with learners aims to help them achieve a better understanding.

The data presented in this paper addresses questions about the modifications made by native

(NT) and non-native teachers (NNT) and their comparison. Such a comparison is of vital

importance as foreign language classrooms in which both teachers and students are non-native

is a very common setting all around the world and explaining the differences could give

insights to the language classrooms not just in English-speaking countries but also in other

countries. This comparison of simplifications is narrowed down to two levels of language

which are phonology and syntax. The purpose of this paper is to compare the modifications in

phonology and syntax in the foreigner talk produced by two NTs and three NNTs and to look

for the answers of these three questions:

1. Does FT provided by NTs differ from the FT by NNTs?

2. How does it differ in terms of phonology and syntax?

Taking this comparison one step further, the input provided by NNTs will be observed

to find out:

3. Whether there are any similarities in the modifications made by NNTs.

2. PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE

Three NNTs (T1, T2, T3), two NTs (T4, T5) and three beginner classes each with 15 students

at an International Language School in Cambridge are selected as the participants. Native

participants (T4, T5) are males with five years' of experience in the field. Their qualifications


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for teaching are Cambridge CELTA, and Cambridge TKT. Non-native teachers' language

proficiency in this paper is assessed by their qualifications and length of their residence in the

country. It is partly due to the fact that it is an English-speaking environment; Cambridge

qualifications provide the standard around the world; and the school they are working for is a

British Council accredited school so the teachers are to meet the native-like level of language

to be able to work. (T1) is from Turkey; has been living in the UK and teaching English for

four years; her teaching qualifications are Cambridge CELTA, TKT and DELTA Module1.

(T2) is from Russia; has been living in the UK for 5 years and teaching English for 4 years,

qualified with Cambridge CELTA and TKT. T3, qualified with Cambridge CELTA and TKT,

is from Portugal; has been living in the UK for 5 years and teaching English for 4,5 years.

Even though the students' output and their process of the simplified input is not analysed in

this research, it is important to note that their level of English are the same: they all score 5 to

7 out of 100 in the school's placement test. It is important to know that the students are the

same level as it means that the teachers' – either NT or NNT – need to modify their language

is at the same level.

The main topic discussed in the classrooms is the seasons starting with a revision of

vocabulary from previous lesson followed by a listening and a writing activity with classroom

discussion before and after each activity. Five beginner classes with 15 students each are

observed and recorded for this research. All teachers are observed from the beginning of their

class times for 20 minutes. In all classes, teacher – class interaction time is paused by a

listening text lasting for 4 minutes and a writing task for 5 minutes, which leaves 11 minutes

of teacher interaction time.

3. DATA ANALYSIS

The recordings are transcribed and analysed with reference to the following categories:

3.1. Speech Rate

Speech rate is the number of words produced by a speaker per minute (wpm). Chaudron

(Chaudron, 1995) suggests that average teachers' speech to beginner learners is around 100

wpm. Similarly, Griffiths (Griffiths, 1990) defines slow rate of speech as 100 wpm. And this

average is measured excluding pauses longer than two seconds. The speech rates in this study

are as follows:

Table 1

SPEECH RATE Words per minute (wpm)

T1 (non-native) 90

T2 (non-native) 89

T3 (non-native) 90

T4 (native) 104

T5 (native) 105

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As it can also be seen from Table1, NNTs‘ rate of speech (wpm: 90, 89, 90) is lower than NTs

(wpm: 104, 105). This difference can be analysed and explained under these 2 titles: sentence

fragments and function words.

3.1.1. Sentence Fragments

The term fragmented sentence is used to describe the utterances that are pieces of sentences

and/or incomplete sentences but still have a meaning. Henzl, in her research about FT in the

class (Henzl, 1979), observes that teachers speak to learners in short and well-formed

sentences. By well-formed, he means simple structures with basic grammatical utterances;

that is, not sentence fragments. On the other hand, Chaudron (Chaudron, 1995) suggests that

teachers can make frequent use of sentence fragments together with well-formed (subject-

verb-object) sentences. These fragments can be grammatical as well as ungrammatical. Unlike

Henzl (1979), Chaudron (1995) emphasizes that these ungrammatical structures are also

frequently reported in teacher talk and one of the features they involve is the omission of

functions words. By sentence fragments, the utterances without subject-verb-object order are

meant: and the utterances used as ―repetitions and elicitation devices‖ (Chaudron, 1995, p.82)

are not included in this group. Repetitions and elicitations are not considered to be part of

teacher talk as they are not originally from the teacher but from students. Examples that are

not counted as sentence fragments are as follows (in italics) (Table2):

Table 2

T2 T4

―T2: What do people wear in winter?

S: coat

T2: coat yeah

Ss: hat ….. gloves

T2: hat... gloves”

― T3: What thing is quick?

S: Quick car

T3: OK. Quick, a quick car.”

What is accepted as fragmented sentences are the utterances that might have been put into

subject-verb-object structures by the teachers and made well-formed sentences but were not

completed as a sentence. They were left as phrases that carried a sentence meaning. In the

examples below, the fragmented sentences are in italics:

Table 3

T1 T2

S: I watch match team Saudi

T1: Saudi. Versus?

S: Saudi

T1: Two Saudi teams?

Ss: Two Saudi yes.‖

―T2: We talked about seasons. We have four

seasons in Europe. Saudi Arabia, Libya two

seasons?‖

S: No no four Libya four seasons

T2: Saudi Arabia two seasons. OK

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The sentence fragment values in the data are as follow:

Table 4

Teachers Fragmented sentences / words (per minute) (fs/w)

T1(non-native) 0.21

T2 (non-native) 0.17

T3 (non-native) 0.20

T4 (native) 0.05

T5 (native) 0.06

NNTs prefer to use fragmented utterances instead of short but well-formed sentences whereas

NTs use short and well-formed sentences. This difference in their choices of utterances can be

one of the reasons why the rate of speech for NNTs is slower than that is for NTs. Because the

sentences used are fragmented, the words used by NNTs are fewer than the words used by

NTs who structure their sentences with proper function words.

The sentences in both examples are grammatical but the sentences that belong to NTs make

more proper use of grammatical structures compared to the sentences produced by NNTs and

thus T4 and T5 use more words than NNTs do in the same amount of time.

So one might conclude from this comparison that:

a. NNTs use more fragmented sentences in the classroom compared to NTs' use of

fragmented sentences.

b. One of the reasons for the difference in speech rate might be due to the fact that

NTs use less sentence fragments and thus more words while NNTs use more sentence

fragments thus less words in their instruction in the class.

3.1.2. Function words

As stated earlier, one of the features of ungrammatical sentence fragments is omitting the

function words of the sentences. These words can be defined as the words which have

grammatical functions in the sentence or between sentences. (Richards&Platt&Platt, 1993). In

the teachers' speeches analysed here, it is emphasized earlier that all the utterances by the

teachers are grammatical. That is, while they simplify their language in the class, they do not

omit all functions words. Even though T4 and T5 do not frequently use sentence fragments,

they include function words when they do.

So how might it affect the speech of rate when the teachers do not omit the functions words in

their simplifications? It is the difference in pronunciation. All function words have two

different forms of pronunciation: weak and strong/full form. If not for particular reasons,

functions words are used in weak forms in sentences and the emphasis in on content words,

which are the words that have meanings when they are used alone (Richards & Platt & Platt,

1993) and carry all information load of the sentence (Thornbury, 2006) and give the most

important ideas in the sentence. Function words, on the other hand, are needed ―to hold the

language together‖ (Kelly 2003 p.72) and that is the reason why function words are not

stressed in the sentences whereas content words are emphasized in pronunciation. The only

time when the functions words are emphasized in the sentence is for particular reasons (Kelly

2003, p.73):

―no, I was coming FROM the station, not going TO it.‖

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However, the data from T1, T2 and T3 does not demonstrate a trend in this direction. What is

observed in their classroom language is that they put equal emphasis on both content words

and function words, which means they use the strong/full forms of function words in their

speech. This difference in using ―connected speech‖ (defined as the speech sounds that are

produced as continuous (Thornbury 2006, p.46) ) between NNTs and NTs might be the

second reason why the rate of speech is slower for NNTs. . Because they put equal emphasis

for every word in the sentence, it takes longer time to utter the sentences, thus longer rate of

speech.

Here is an example for their use of connected speech (Table5). In the first quotation below,

there are sentences T1 uses followed by the same sentences in phonemic symbols. The strong

forms of functions words have asterisks, which means that T1 could have used the weak form

as T3 does in connected speech.

Table 5

T1: ―so now I will give you 20 minutes.

Is it short?

And you write the answers to the questions.

I want you to write it.‖

T1: ―/səʊ naʊ aɪ wɪl gɪv *ju: twentɪ mɪnɪts/.

/*ɪz ɪt ʃɔ:t/?

/*ænd *ju: raɪt *ði: ɑ:ntsəz *tu: ðə kwestʃənz/.

/aɪ wɒnt *ju: *tu: raɪt ɪt/.

These are the pronunciations of the same words in the connected speech when the speaker

does not have a particular reason to put emphasis on them:

You: */ju:/ = /jə/

Is: */ɪz/ = /əz/

And: */ænd/ = ―and‖ has a particular reason here explaining students they have 20 minutes

TO write the answers to the questions. It is used to give extra information and explain he

following step so the use of strong form instead of the weak form /ən-ənd/ is acceptable.

The: */ði:/ = /ðə/ To :*/tu:/ = /tə/

Below is a similar example from T2:

Table 6

T2: ―If you are ready, can I have your

writing?

So what do you think we are going to do

now?

Do you remember what?‖

T2: ― /ɪf *ju: *ɑ: redɪ *kæn aɪ hæv *jɔ: raɪtɪŋ/?

/səʊ wɒt *du: *ju: θɪŋk wi: *ɑ: gəʊɪŋ *tu:

*du: naʊ/?

/*du: *ju: rɪmemb wɒt/?‖

Connected speech pronunciations:

You: */ju:/ = /jə/

Are: */ɑ:/ = /ə/

Can: */kæn/ = /kən/

Your: */jɔ:/ = /jə/

Do: */du:/ = /də/

To: */tu:/ = /tə/

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T4's speech sample where he uses connected speech is as follows. The words underlined are

function words in weak forms:

Table 7

T4: ―Do you have this?

That's the one, isn't it?

This is something Louisa gave you.

She gave it to you‖

T3: ―/də jə hæv θɪs/?

/ðæts ðə wʌn, ɪzənt ɪt/?

/ðɪsz sʌmθɪŋ/ Louisa /geɪv jʊ ɒn / Monday.

/ʃi: geɪvɪt tə jə/‖

As it can be seen from the speech samples, T4 uses the weak forms of function words such as

―you‖, ―to‖, ―is‖, ―the‖ whereas T1 and T2 use strong forms of these words by putting equal

emphasis for every word in the sentence. The similar examples are valid for T3 and T5 in the

data. This difference of using strong and weak forms of words might result in an increase in

the time the utterance is said and it might take longer to utter a sentence when the same

emphasis is put on each word. So this can be counted as the second reason why the rate of

speech is slower for T1, T2 and T3 than it is for T4 and T5.

3.2. Verbs and Tenses

The analysis of the verbs indicated that a high number of verbs are in present simple tense in

all five teachers' speech (Table8). What differentiates one from another is the diversity in the

other tenses they include in their speech. The tenses used in the teacher utterances are

reported in Table8:

Table 8

TENSES

TEACHERS

Future

Tense -

will

Future Tense

– going to

Present

Continuous

Tense

Simple Past

Tense

T1 (non-native) %63 %0 %6 %31

T2 (non-native) %14 %29 %7 %57

T3 (non-native) %23 %19 %11 %47

T4 (native) %0 %0 %20 %80

T5 (native) %0 %0 %10 %90

The table clearly shows that T4 and T5 use fewer non-present simple forms compared to

different forms in T1, T2 and T3‘s speech. NTs use the language in a more controlled way

with the predominance of simple present structures and thus basic grammar. Even though

their rate of speech is faster (wpm: 104, 105), the language they use is not as varied as NNTs‘

language. NTs prefer to use basic subject-verb-object sentences in structures that are very

common to beginner students whereas the language NNTs use is more varied in terms of

tense selection. NNTs‘ speech is simpler in sentence structures as they make more use of

sentence fragments but when they make full sentences; their preference of tense is not mostly

based on present simple.

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4. AN OVERVIEW OF ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

4.1 Speech Rate

a. The differences obtained between two groups is significant as NTs use considerably more

words per minute as it shows that native speakers speech rate is faster than non-native

speakers regardless of the fact that they are as qualified as native speakers and have native-

like competence in the language.

b. The similarities of wpm rates among NNTs are also significant. And the numbers being this

close to each other (90, 89, 90), it can be an indication of a different average speech rate for

non-natives.

4.2 Fragmented Sentences

a. The analysis of the sentences indicates that the utterances used by NSs are basic but well-

formed sentences that include function words whereas the speech produced by NNTs includes

more sentence fragments. It shows that their style of simplifying the register is different.

While NTs simplify the structures, they keep the basic components such as pronouns and

verbs whereas NNTs simplify the sentences by splitting them into fragments.

b. NNTs have similar features for their utterances among themselves. The way they simplify

their language in terms of sentence fragments and ratio (0.21, 0.17, 0.20 fs/w) they do it in the

classroom are close to each other.

4.3 Function Words – Pronunciation

a. NTs use weak forms of function words whereas NNTs put equal emphasis on each word.

This difference in pronunciation might be one of the reasons why NT speech rate (wpm: 104‘

105) is higher than NNT rate (wpm: 90, 89, 90) in classroom language.

b. NNTs in this study all use strong forms of function words. Whether it is related to their first

language phonological features is a question for further studies.

4.4 Verbs and Tenses

a. NNTs use more varied tenses compared to NTs.

b. NNTs show differences among each other in terms of tense choices. Although they have

close results in their uses of tenses different from simple present (T1:%69, T2:%43, T3:%53),

T1 avoids using future tense-going to while T2 and T3 use future tense-will significantly less

than T1 does. One reason behind this might be related to the interference of their first

languages, which can be studied further.

5. LIMITATIONS AND FURTHER STUDIES

As this paper only examines the teacher talk in low-level classes, the modifications in high-

level classes may not carry the same characteristics. It would make the assumptions in this

paper stronger if the researchers come across the same types of simplifications both in low-

level and high-level classes.

Another limitation is the classroom procedures. A pre-determined topic / material would

enable the researcher to compare the modifications of lexis, high and low frequency words

and word choices as well.

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The questions for further studies are:

Is there an average of speech rate for non-native teachers?

Is the varied choice of tenses by NNTs typical in the simplification process?

How does NNTs' L1 interfere with their L2 modifications in the classroom?

Is the simplification of utterances into sentence fragments typical for NNTs and is it

the same in low-level and high-level classes?

References

Chaudron, C. (1995). Second Language Classrooms, Cambridge University Press

Griffiths, R. (1990). ―Speech Rate and NNS Comprehension: A Preliminary Study in Time-

Benefit Analysis,‖ Language Learning, Vol. 40, No. 3, 1990, pp. 311-336

Henzl, V. M. (1979). `Foreign Talk in the Classroom`, International Review of Applied

Linguistics in Language Teaching, 17:159-167

Kelly, G. (2003). How to Teach Pronunciation, Longman: Malaysia

Richards, J.C. & Platt, J. & Platt, H. (1993). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching &

Applied Linguistics, Longman: Singapore

Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT, Macmillan Publishers Ltd

About the Author

Having worked as an English language instructor at Anadolu University Turkey for two years,

I moved to Cambridge UK and started teaching English at EF International Language

Schools. Apart from my work life in EF for over three years, I have recently completed my

Master's degree on Applied Linguistics and TESOL at Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge

and currently am preparing for my PhD studies.

106


From an EFL Milieu to Write in an ESL Context

Parviz Ahmadi & Roselan bin Baki

University Putra Malaysia [email protected] & [email protected]

Abstract

Based on context-oriented theories and socio-cultural perspectives of writing, academic

activities and educational settings are shaped by their surrounding social and cultural

environments. A newcomer, as stated by the concept of legitimate peripheral participation

proposed by Lave & Wenger (1991), is integrated into a community through active

participation based on underlying dynamics and sociopolitical structure of a social setting.

The graduate students who have been brought up in an EFL academic environment with its

own ecological attributes face difficulties trying to be responsive to new challenging demands

in an ESL educational context. A limited number of qualitative case studies have been done

focusing on the initial participation of novice graduate learners in academic settings. This

study investigates the perceptions of some graduate students raised in an EFL environment

towards their initial participation in their communities of practice while dealing with

difficulties of writing a research paper in an ESL educational context .In-person interviews

were carried out with a number of first year doctoral humanities students from various

disciplines at a university in Malaysia. The results showed novice students failed to perform

effectively when writing their research papers due to initial disorientation. The need for more

scaffolding for first-year post-graduate students through specifically-focused writing

workshops and self-access writing centers is keenly felt so as to minimize their period of

disorientation.

Introduction

There has been a growing tendency towards academic literacy and writing of graduate

students since early 1990s (e.g. Belcher & Braine, 1995; Casanave, 2002; Li, 2007; Prior,

1998; Riazi, 1997). Particularly, some studies have focused on the importance of engagement

with disciplinary community , participating actively and socialization of graduate learners

(e.g. Belcher, 1994; Dong, 1996; Flowerdew, 2000; Li, 2005, 2006, 2007).

The notion of socialization is embedded in the concept of situated learning proposed by

Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989) focusing on the importance of involvement in the process of

learning and acquisition of knowledge through social activities. Lave & Wenger (1991)

advanced the notion by assuming a process of ― legitimate peripheral participation‖

explaining how new comers to a community move from peripheral layers towards inner ones

through participating in its activities .This notion of participation and becoming a member of

a community can justify how a novice writer is transformed to a disciplinary writer . As a

significant study of graduate students‘ participation in his community of practice, Li (2007)

explores how a novice scholar is involved in writing processes of a research article. The study

explores how a novice scholar consults various resources: ―the laboratory data, his own

experience and practice of writing RAs, the local research community, and the more global

specialist research community (p.71)‖.

The importance of initial integration of graduate students into their communities have been

focused by some studies (Hasrati, 2005; Hasrati,2005; Li, 2007).However, there is a need for



107


more research on how humanities graduate learners embark on writing an academic paper

,especially when there are epistemological differences between the students of humanities and

engineering as indicated by Hasrati (2005) concerning how they employ initiation strategies

in the process of induction into peripheral participation. With a view to these differences, this

study tries to explore the perceptions of these students towards their initial participation in

their communities of practice when writing a research paper and strategies they formulate to

deal with difficulties of writing a research paper for the first time.

Methodology of research

Participants

A purposive sampling was conducted for the study. Ten international doctoral ESL learners

coming from EFL settings, majoring in various fields of humanities at a University in

Malaysia with a wide range of cultural, linguistic and academic backgrounds participated in

this study.

Research design

Emergence of socio-cognitive and socio-cultural perspectives has recently brought about a

shift in data collection procedures. Qualitative research studies in natural settings present a

more comprehensive picture suitable for a better understanding of academic literacy and its

nature (Braine, 2002). Therefore, a qualitative case study research was selected to obtain a

deeper understanding. Based on the research design selected for the study, a semi-structured

interview was the best option to collect data.

Data Analysis

The interviews were transcribed and then examined .The interview transcripts were analyzed

through analytic induction. The major recurring patterns indicating students‘ perceptions

towards initial participation in their communities and the strategies they used to deal with

difficulties when writing a research paper were selected.

Findings and discussion

Most of the students reported a state of disorientation. They said they had to review the

literature to find a research niche for their research papers .However, they said they didn‘t

know how to inlay various ideas to form the whole picture. They found it difficult to relate

their topic of interest to its related theories. As Niloofar (all of the names are pseudonyms)

said, ―It is as if you have lost your way and even worse, you don‘t know your destination.

You look for someone to suggest a destination and you will follow out of choice‖. This state

of disorientation before embarking on ―peripheral participation‖ may result in unfocused

organization of ideas which, according to Dovey (2010), causes patchwriting and

inappropriate writing -from-sources strategies. This state of disorientation and uncertainty

with respect to their unsupported circumstances can lead to inappropriate strategies students

may employ to meet the deadlines.

The disorientation mentioned by the majority of students in this study lasted through the first

and second semester of their programs with some slight variation of certainty. This feeling of

uncertainty had changed to an unhealthy obsession affecting their other academic activities

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and even their daily lives as one of the students majoring in counseling chuckled and said, ―I

can‘t even counsel myself. This confusion of finding a research niche has haunted me through

these two semesters .I think I must see a counselor‖. Mohammad said, ―I have been searching

and reading the recent articles for more than a semester focusing on their future

recommendation part. I have even read some of their references, but then new theories emerge

.I wish I could anchor and start writing‖. Although there are traces of procrastination in his

words, his delay in writing could have resulted from his feeling of confusion.

Being in search of further social assistance is one of the recurring themes when it comes to

making a contribution to their research community. Bahram said, ―I wish my thesis was part

of a big local project under the supervision of some experts. I don‘t know how I can make

some contribution .I don‘t want to repeat what other people have already done. I want to be

more creative‖. This statement is in line with the process of peripheral participation where

new-comers receive assistance from the experts of a community in such a way that their

induction process and initial participation is facilitated. Interestingly, none of the students

sought any help outside their local communities concerning dominant theoretical perspectives

in their disciplines. This lack of interest in seeking help from expert opinions beyond their

local disciplines might have also originated from the wrong beliefs towards experts as

―inaccessible authorities‖ persisted in their minds resulting from ecological attributes of their

own milieus.

Another important point mentioned by the students was that they couldn‘t develop an

argument or become critical throughout their review of literature. This can be caused by

background epistemology on disciplinary participation as stated by Bitchener & Basturkman

(2006) on how L2 students in their study approached writing the discussion part of a thesis or

it might have also resulted from incoherency in their line of thoughts, which doesn‘t let them

focus on specific areas in order to be critical. Development of such a critical stance scan shape

their whole research papers as fragmented pieces of arguments can be avoided and their

thoughts can harmoniously form a uniform line of thoughts. This can lead to a better

understanding of the epistemology of the target community to assimilate into its activities as it

is emphasized by Tardy (2005).

What student mentioned indicated signs of knowledge display instead of knowledge

construction as mentioned by Delaney (2008) as a sign of lack of independence. This might

have been caused by their previous educational background in which students were not

trained to develop any critical assessment of academic texts and students didn‘t dare to cast

any doubt upon ideas expressed by ―authorities‖ in their local or global disciplinary

communities. To overcome this weakness, they reported using strategies such as using critical

viewpoints of others in their own names just by paraphrasing the whole line of argument

.Karim said, ―I just look for critical points in articles .Then; I paraphrase them in my own

words. I think this is the only way to be critical at this level. How can I criticize someone‘s

work who is an expert disciplinary writer?‖ Such an epistemology was dominant in the words

of other participants. The logic behind this conclusion lies in the fact that they were not

actively participated in their communities of practice, otherwise they would have noticed the

areas where there was a lack of research or there was a need for more research. The

sociopolitical and socio-cultural attributes of an EFL context can shape the knowledge

construction and consequently the circumstances of participation in a community of

discipline. Change of one‘s educational ecology can leave its traces in the manner and extent

of engagement in disciplinary activities on the margin of a community.

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Conclusion

The state of disorientation in humanities students in this study suggested that the

epistemological difference may not justify the disorientation of humanities students on the

grounds that they embark on initial participation in their disciplinary communities after they

have found a research space or niche in the bewilderment of theories .This can call for a

disciplinary counseling support system to facilitate students‘ search for a research niche,

which can finally help students avoid patchwriting and becoming an active member of their

communities. Disorientation is likely to persist if it isn‘t minimized through the help of local

disciplinary academics or any other support source.

Moreover, students who have not been trained to develop critical thinking towards published

disciplinary materials can not deal with various arguments in their research proposals,

qualifying reports or their theses. Establishing on-line discussion forums or specialized

centers focusing on a nexus of research and writing can facilitate the initial participation of

novice graduate students in their communities of practice and minimize their period of

disorientation.

References

Belcher, D. (1994). The apprenticeship approach to advanced academic literacy: Research

students and their mentors. Journal of English for Specific Purposes, 13, 23–24.

Belcher, D., & Braine, G. (Eds.). (1995). Academic writing in a second language: Essays on

research and pedagogy. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Bitchener, J., & Basturkmen, H. (2006). Perceptions of the difficulties of postgraduate L2

thesis students writing the discussion section. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 4–

18.

Braine, G. (2002). Academic literacy and the non-native speaker graduate student. Journal of

English for Academic Purposes, 1 (1): 59-68.

Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning.

Educational Researcher, 18, 32–42.

Casanave, C. P. (2002). Writing games: Multicultural case studies of academic literacy

practices in higher education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Delaney, Y. A. (2008). Investigating the reading-to-write construct. Journal of English for

Academic Purposes, 7, 140-150.

Dong, Y. R. (1996). Learning how to use citations for knowledge transformation: Non-native

doctoral students‘ dissertation writing in science. Research in the Teaching of English, 30,

428–457.

Dong, Y. R. (1998). Non-native graduate students-thesis/dissertation writing in science: self

reports by students and their advisors from two US institutions. English for Specific Purposes,

17(4): 369–390.

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Dovey,T.(2010).Facilitating writing from sources: a focus on both process and product

.Journal of English for Academic Purposes,9,45-60.

Flowerdew, J. (2000). Discourse community, legitimate peripheral participation, and the

nonnative-English-speaking scholars. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 127–150.

Hasrati,M.(2005).Legitimate peripheral participation and supervising PhD students. Studies in

Higher Education, 30(5), 555-570.

Jenkins, S., Jordan, M., &Weiland, P. (1993). The role of writing in graduate engineering

education: A survey of faculty beliefs and practices. Journal of English for Specific Purposes,

12: 51–67.

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation.


Li, Y.-Y. (2005). Multidimensional enculturation: The case of an EFL Chinese doctoral

student. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 15, 153–170.

Li, Y.-Y. (2006).Negotiating knowledge contribution to multiple discourse communities: A

doctoral student of computer science writing for publication. Journal of Second Language

Writing, 15, 159–178.

Li, Y.-Y. (2007). Apprentice scholarly writing in a community of practice: An ―intraview‖ of

an ESL graduate student writing a research article. TESOL Quarterly, 41, 55–79.

Prior, P. (1998). Writing/disciplinarity: A sociohistoric account of literate activity in the

academy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Riazi, A. (1997). Acquiring disciplinary literacy: A social-cognitive analysis of text

production and learning among Iranian graduate students of education. Journal of Second

Language Writing, 6 (2): 105-137.

Tardy, C. M. (2005). ‗‗It‘s like a story‘‘: rhetorical knowledge development in advanced

academic literacy. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 4, 325-338.

About the Authors

Parviz Ahmadi is a PhD student in TESL at University Putra Malaysia (UPM). His research

interest is in the area of ESL graduate literacy.

Roselan Baki is Head, Department of Language and Humanities Education, Faculty of

Educational Studies at University Putra Malaysia (UPM). He holds B.Ed. (UPM), MA

(Michigan State), PhD (National University of Malaysia). He has also contributed to

conferences in the area of literacy, language instruction and qualitative research in Malaysia

and Asia. His research interest is in the area of alternative pedagogy, quality teaching, and

teacher education.

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Indirect Speech Act Comprehension in English as a Foreign Language

Boonjeera Chiravate Department of English, Faculty of Arts, Silpakorn University, Thailand

[email protected]

Abstract

One of the fundamental features of pragmatic competence is recognizing in an utterance the

specific speech act that a speaker is performing. Previous research in interlanguage

pragmatics has demonstrated that compared to native speakers, L2 learners have significant

difficulty in understanding indirect speech acts. This study examined Thai EFL learners‘

ability to comprehend indirect speech acts and investigated whether different types of

indirectness and L2 proficiency affected their comprehension. A multiple-choice test was

developed to measure the learners‘ ability to comprehend conventional indirectness and non-

conventional indirectness in requests, refusals and expressions of opinion. The multiple-

choice test was completed by 60 Thai university students at two proficiency levels. Results

showed that comprehension accuracy was affected significantly by different types of

indirectness and L2 proficiency. The analysis shed light on the nature of comprehension

difficulty experienced by EFL learners.

1. Introduction

Pragmatic competence involves ability to comprehend and produce meaning in

communicative contexts. Interlanguage pragmatic studies have tended to focus on pragmatic

production, while leaving pragmatic comprehension a relatively underrepresented area of

investigation (Kasper & Rose, 2002; Taguchi, 2005; Taguchi, 2008). The present study,

however, is intended to contribute to the body of research on pragmatic comprehension by

examining EFL learners‘ ability to comprehend indirect utterances in communicative

contexts.

The remaining portions of this article are organized into 5 sections. In section 2, I provide

some background regarding speech acts and speech act comprehension in L2. Then in section

3, I report on the present study. Results of the study are presented in section 4 and discussed

further in section 5. Finally in section 6, I conclude the article by noting the limitations of the

study, and discussing some of the implications of the results.

2. Background

Studies examining pragmatic comprehension in L2 have largely been conducted within the

framework of speech acts (Gass & Selinker, 2000, p. 243). In this section, I will first

introduce some basic concepts of speech act theory. Then, I will summarize previous studies

on speech act comprehension in L2.

2.1 Speech act theory

Speech act theory was developed by Austin (1962) based on the idea that ―By saying or in

saying something, we are doing something.‖ (Austin 1962, p. 62). Austin defined speech acts

as ―the actions performed in saying something‖ and proposed that the action performed by

producing an utterance consists of three related acts: locutionary, illocutionary, and


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perlocutionary. To illustrate, when for example Mary says to John ―It‘s hot in here‖ (Thomas,

1995, p.49), Mary forms the words to create a meaningful utterance in a language. In so

doing, Mary is said to perform a locutionary act. By forming the utterance, however, Mary

may have a specific purpose in mind, for instance a request for some fresh air. Producing the

utterance with some specific purpose in mind, Mary also performs an illocutionary act and

the utterance is said to have illocutionary force. An utterance such as this may also have an

effect on the hearer. In this case, Mary‘s utterance may result in someone opening the

window. If so, Mary is said to have performed a perlocutionary act. Producing an utterance,

therefore, may involve the simultaneous performance of three related acts.

Although producing an utterance involves the simultaneous performance of three related acts,

the illocutionary act is considered to be the essence of speech act theory, and therefore the

most discussed. According to Holtgraves (2007) ―an illocutionary act, illocutionary force and

speech act are typically used interchangeably and generally refer to the primary act the

speaker intends to perform with an utterance‖ (Holtgraves, 2007, p.597).

Producing an utterance, a speaker may express his/her intention directly or indirectly. To

illustrate this consider (a), (b) and (c).

(a) I compliment you on your nice hairdo.

(b) Your hair‘s nice.

(c) Your stylist must be the best in town.

(Intachakra, 2007, p. 26)

Utterances (a), (b) and (c) are meant as a compliment. However, when uttering (a) the

speaker directly expresses his/her intention, whereas in uttering (b) and (c), the speaker

indirectly expresses his/her intention. An utterance by which the speaker‘s intention is

expressed straightforwardly is considered to be a direct speech act; an utterance in which the

speaker‘s intention is implied is considered to be an indirect speech act.

With regard to indirect speech acts, Searle (1975) proposed that a distinction has to be made

between a routinized utterance, in which the speaker‘s intention is embedded within

predictable fixed pattern of discourse, as in (b), and as in (c) an idiosyncratic utterance whose

meaning is not simply attached to specific linguistic expressions. For the first type of indirect

utterance, indirectness is referred to as conventional indirectness, whereas the second type of

indirect utterance is referred to as non-conventional indirectness.

The notion of conventionality was also discussed earlier by Grice (1975). Grice drew a

distinction between conventional implicatures and conversational implicatures (as cited in

Taguchi, 2005, p.545). For a conventional implicature as in (a), the meaning is encoded in

the lexical items and context-dependent. For an exchange as in (b), however, decoding the

meaning relies on specific contextual assumptions and the implicature is considered to be a

conversational implicature.

(a) She has two daughters.

(b) A: Has John left for work?

B: It‘s after nine.

(Taguchi 2005, p.545)

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In conclusion, speech act theory recognizes a three-stage dimension when someone produces

an utterance. When producing an utterance, the speaker may express his/her intention directly

or indirectly. For indirect utterances, different degrees of conventionality exist in different

types of indirectness1.

2.2 Speech act comprehension in L2

Pragmatic comprehension involves ―the ability to understand implied speaker intention by

using linguistic knowledge, contextual clues, and the assumption of relevance‖ (Grice, 1975;

Levinson, 1983; Sperber & Wilson, 1995; Thomas, 1995 as cited in Taguchi, 2005, p.544).

Previous studies examining pragmatic comprehension in L2, however, employed a variety of

labels including speech acts, conversational implicatures, routines, indirect utterances, and

implied speaker‘s intentions (Taguchi, 2008, p.558). In this section, I will summarize some

of the previous studies related to the present study, in particular Carrell (1981), Cook &

Liddicoat, (2002), Koike (1996), and Taguchi (2005).

Carrell (1981) conducted a study examining whether certain English indirect requests were

more difficult than others for L2 learners of English. In Carrell‘s study, a request to paint a

circle blue was stated in different forms. L2 learners of English at four proficiency levels

were asked to interpret the different request forms. The results showed that the requests which

were syntactically simple were interpreted correctly regardless of proficiency level. The

interpretation of syntactically complex requests, however, varied across proficiency levels.

Compared to higher-proficiency learners, lower-proficiency learners had more difficulty

interpreting requests stated as questions or involving some form of negation.

Cook and Liddicoat (2002) also investigated L2 comprehension of requests. In their study,

L2 learners of English at two proficiency levels responded to a written questionnaire which

consisted of 15 brief scenarios containing request-making expressions. The request

expressions displayed three levels of directness: direct (e.g., ―Please pass me the salt‖),

conventional indirect (e.g., ―Can you pass me the salt?‖) and non-conventional indirect (e.g.,

―Are you putting salt on my meat?‖). Results showed that high-proficiency learners had

difficulty in understanding non-conventional indirect forms. Low-proficiency learners,

however, exhibited difficulty in comprehending both conventional and non-conventional

indirect forms. The results suggested that different levels of directness corresponded to

different degrees of comprehension difficulty, which also interacted with L2 proficiency.

Changing the target language from English to Spanish, Koike (1996) examined how

university students in their first, second, and third year of Spanish understood Spanish

suggestions. In Koike‘s study, the participants watched video-taped monologues produced by

Spanish native speakers. In each monologue, the last sentence represented the speech act

under study. The participants were then asked to identify the illocutionary act of the last

sentence, and to transcribe the last sentence. Results showed that third-year students

outperformed those in the first two years in identifying the speech act in question.

Taguchi (2005), on the other hand, analyzed L2 learners‘ ability to comprehend indirectness

by focusing on the effect of conventionality in comprehension. In her study, L2 learners of

English at different proficiency levels took a computerized listing task measuring their ability

to comprehend two types of implicatures: more conventional implicatures and less

conventional implicatures. More conventional implicatures included refusals and requests;

whereas less conventional implicatures consisted of indirect opinions that did not have

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specific linguistic expressions or language use patterns. Comprehension was analyzed for

both accuracy and speed. Results showed shorter response times for the more conventional

implicatures and a positive correlation between proficiency and comprehension accuracy.

To summarize, previous research has demonstrated that the levels of directness or degrees of

conventionality are related to learners‘ comprehension difficulty, which also interacts with

learners‘ proficiency.

3. The study

Based on Taguchi‘s (2005) study of comprehension of implied meaning in English as a

foreign language, this study investigates the effects of types of indirectness and proficiency

levels on Thai EFL learners‘ comprehension of implied speaker intention. Two questions

addressed in this study are: (i) Do different types of indirectness affect learners‘

comprehension of implied speaker intention? (ii) Does the learners‘ L2 proficiency affect

their comprehension of implied speaker intention?

3.1 Participants

Participants in this study were undergraduate students recruited from Silpakorn University,

Thailand. Based on their scores from an English proficiency assessment by Silpakorn

University, 60 students were selected and divided into 2 groups: high-proficiency learners

(30) and low-proficiency learners (30)2. High-proficiency learners may be classified as high-

intermediate and low-proficiency learners as low-intermediate. None of the learners had been

in an English-speaking environment for a significant period of time prior to taking part in the

present study. Their mean age was 19.6 years.

3.2 Instruments

To test the learners‘ comprehension of a speaker‘s intention behind utterances, a multiple-

choice test based on Taguchi‘s (2005) pragmatic listening task was developed. The test was

designed to test learners‘ comprehension of conventional and non-conventional indirectness.

Taguchi‘s (2005) study employed a listening task; however, in the present study for

administrative and technical reasons, the test was presented in a written format.

The test consisted of 40 conversations illustrating conventional indirectness (16 items) and

non-conventional indirectness (16 items), with 2 practice items and 6 filler items3.

Conventional indirectness was represented in indirect requests (8 items) and refusals (8

items). The indirect requests included specific language use patterns such as I was wondering

if you could + verb phrase, Do you mind if I + verb phrase, and Do you think you could +

verb phrase (Blum-Kulka et al 1989, as cited in Taguchi, 2005, p. 549), as illustrated in

example 1. The indirect refusals took the form of providing a reason for avoiding explicit

linguistic markers of refusals such as No, I can’t or No, I don’t want to (Beebe, et al, 1990, as

cited in Taguchi, 2005, p. 549), as illustrated in example 2. Non-conventional indirectness,

on the other hand, was represented by expressions of negative opinion (8 items) and

nonnegative opinion (8 items). These expressions have no fixed pattern of language use, as

illustrated in examples (3) and (4), respectively.

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The items were arranged in 2 groups of 19 (conventional indirectness items and non-

conventional indirectness items), with 16 test items and 3 filler items in each group. The

items within each group were arranged randomly.

Example 1:

Kate: I have read this book. It really helped me to understand Thai culture better.

Sara: Do you mind if I borrow this book for the weekend, if you don‘t need it?

Which of the following is correct?

(a) Sara doesn‘t understand Thai culture

(b) Sara is asking Kate for the book.

(c) Kate doesn‘t need the book during the weekend.

(d) Kate wants Sara to read the book.

Example 2:

Kate: Would you like to go to the cinema tonight?

Sara: I have a lot of homework to do tonight.

Which of the following is correct?

(a) Kate doesn‘t want Sara to do her homework.

(b) Kate wants Sara to do her homework.

(c) Sara can‘t go to the cinema tonight.

(d) Sara is going to the cinema tonight.

Example 3:

Bill: Did you enjoy this novel?

John: I almost felt asleep reading this novel.

What does John think about the novel?

(a) John wants Bill to read it.

(b) John doesn‘t want Bill to read it.

(c) The novel is interesting.

(d) The novel is not interesting.

Example 4:

Bill: Last summer break you took a trip to Phuket, didn‘t you? How was it?

John: I would love to go back again.

What does John think about the trip?

(a) He likes it very much.

(b) He doesn‘t like it very much.

(c) He wants Bill to take a trip to Phuket.

(d) He doesn‘t want Bill to take a trip to Phuket.

In preparing the multiple-choice test, the researcher consulted native speakers of English who

had experience with EFL learners. Then a pilot study was carried out with 60 undergraduate

students at Silpakorn University whose English language proficiency was approximately the

same as that of the learner group to be tested in the final stage. Based on the results of the

pilot study, several items were revised. Using Cronbach‘s alpha, the internal consistency

reliability of the test was .77, indicating that the test assessed the respondents‘ comprehension

in a reliable manner.

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3.3 Analysis

In examining the effects of different types of indirectness and L2 proficiency on learners‘

comprehension of implied speaker intention, the learners‘ L2 proficiency levels were treated

as a group variable. Comprehension accuracy was measured by the multiple-choice test and

had an interval scale ranging from 0 to 17 for each type of indirectness. Differences in

comprehension accuracy between the two types of indirectness were analyzed using Paired

Samples T Test. Differences in comprehension accuracy between the two learner groups were

analyzed using Independent Samples T Test. In each phase of analysis, the two practice items

and six filler items were excluded.

4. Results

4.1 Do different types of indirectness affect learners’ comprehension of implied speaker

intention?

A comparison within a proficiency group showed that high-proficiency learners scored an

average of 11.833 for the conventional indirectness items and 8.566 for the non-conventional

indirectness items. The observed difference was statistically significant with t=11.062, p <

.01. The same tendency held for low-proficiency learners, as they also scored significantly

higher on conventional indirectness items than non-conventional indirectness items (10.333

versus 7.866, t = 7.018, p < .01). The results, therefore, suggest that comprehension of non-

conventional indirectness is significantly more difficult than conventional indirectness.

Table 1. Effects of types of indirectness on learners’ comprehension scores

Con indirectness Non-con indirectness t-value

M SD M SD High-proficiency 11.833 1.085 8.566 2.112 11.062 p < .01 Low-proficiency 10.333 1.268 7.866 0.973 7.018 p < .01

4.2 Does the learners’ L2 proficiency affect their comprehension of implied speaker

intention?

In a comparison between proficiency groups, I found that high-proficiency learners and low-

proficiency learners did not differ significantly in their comprehension accuracy of non-

conventional indirectness items – 8.566 versus 7.866, t=1.649. However, for conventional

indirectness items, high-proficiency learners‘ scores were significantly higher than low-

proficiency learners‘ scores (11.833 versus 10.333, t=4.921, p < .01). The results, therefore,

suggest that compared to low-proficiency learners, high-proficiency learners were able to

handle more implied meaning types.

Table 2. Effects of L2 proficiency on learners’ comprehension scores

High-Proficiency Low-Proficiency t-value

M SD M SD Con indirectness 11.833 1.085 10.333 1.268 4.921 p < .01 Non-con indirectness 8.566 2.112 7.866 0.973 1.649 n.s.

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5. Discussion

5.1 The effect of types of indirectness on learners’ comprehension accuracy

Examining the effect of different types of indirectness on learners‘ comprehension of implied

meaning, we found that both high-proficiency and low-proficiency learners scored

significantly higher on conventional indirectness items than non-conventional indirectness

items, suggesting that conventional indirectness was easier to comprehend than non-

conventional indirectness. The facilitative effect of conventionality in comprehension was

documented earlier in several studies, including Cook and Liddicoat (2002) and Taguchi

(2005). As previously discussed, examining ESL learners‘ comprehension of request speech

acts at different levels of directness, Cook and Liddicoat found that conventional forms were

significantly easier to comprehend than non-conventional expressions. Similarly, in Taguchi‘s

study, which measured EFL learners‘ ability to comprehend more and less conventional

implicatures in terms of comprehension accuracy and comprehension speed, it was found that

more conventional implicatures were significantly easier and took a shorter time for the

learners to comprehend than less conventional implicatures. The findings of the present

study, therefore, corroborate earlier findings about the facilitative effect of conventionality on

L2 learners‘ pragmatic comprehension.

5.2 The effect of L2 proficiency on learners’ comprehension accuracy

An examination of the effect of L2 proficiency on learners‘ comprehension of implied

meaning revealed that although high-proficiency learners and low-proficiency learners did not

differ significantly in their comprehension of non-conventional indirectness, high-proficiency

learners out-performed low-proficiency learners in comprehending conventional indirectness,

suggesting that L2 proficiency played a role in pragmatic comprehension. The relationship

between general L2 proficiency and comprehension of pragmatic functions was addressed

earlier in several studies including Koike (1996), Cook and Liddicoat (2002) and Taguchi

(2005). As previously discussed, Koike examined how university students in their first,

second, and third year of Spanish understood Spanish indirect suggestions. Koike found that

third-year students displayed superior pragmatic performance compared to those in the first

two years. Similarly Cook and Liddicoat, examining ESL learners‘ comprehension of request

speech acts at different levels of directness, found that more proficient learners were able to

understand direct and conventional direct request better than less proficient learners.

Furthermore, Taguchi, investigating EFL learners‘ pragmatic comprehension in terms of

accuracy and speed, also reported that higher L2 proficiency leads to better pragmatic

performance. The findings of the present study, therefore, are congruent with earlier findings

about the effect of proficiency on pragmatic comprehension.

6. Conclusion

Revealing significant effects of different types of indirectness and L2 proficiency on learners‘

comprehension of implied speaker intention, this study not only contributes to the body of

research on pragmatic comprehension but also provides some ideas for developing EFL

learners‘ pragmatic skills. The present study shows that comprehension of non-conventional

indirectness, which requires drawing inference from contextual cues, was relatively

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problematic for the learners. When teaching non-conventional indirectness, classroom

activities that enhance learners‘ inferential skills should be introduced.

The focus of this study is on the effects of types of indirectness and L2 proficiency on

learners‘ comprehension of implied speaker intentions. However, further research

investigating other factors such as learning contexts (e.g., SL setting versus FL setting) and

individual learners‘ characteristics (e.g., motivation, social and psychological distance, social

identity) is recommended. Since this study is a cross-sectional investigation of a small group

of learners, future research focusing on larger groups of learners may yield a better

understanding of pragmatic comprehension in L2.

Notes 1 It is important, however, to note that there remain further complications with regard to indirect speech

acts. A full discussion of the issue is beyond the scope of the present study. 2 English proficiency was determined by the scores from the courses entitled ―English I‖ and ―English II‖

which the students had taken in their first year at the university. The scores from the two courses were

determined as follows: A = 4, B+ =3.5, B=3, C+=2.5, C=2, D+=1.5, D=1. The mean scores and their

interpretation were in a range from: high, 6.5-8; moderate, 4.5-6; low, 2-4. To increase the reliability of the

separation procedure, students ranked in the middle section of the proficiency scale were excluded. Only

students belonging to the bottom and top sections were selected. 3

The filler items testing literal comprehension were included as distracters to draw the participants‘

attention away from the actual purpose of the test.

References

Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press.

Carrell, P. L. (1981). Relative difficulty of request forms in L1/L2 comprehension. In M.

Hines & W. Rutherford (Eds.), On TESOL ’81 (pp.141-152). Washington, DC: TESOL.

Cook, M., & Liddicoat, A.J. (2002). The development of comprehension in interlanguage

pragmatic: The case of request strategies in English. Australian Review of Applied


Gass, M. S., & Selinker, L. (2000). Second language acquisition: An introductory course.

New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Holtgraves, T. (2007). Second Language Learners and Speech Act Comprehension. Language

Learning, 57:4, 595-610.

Intachakra, S. (2007). Fundamental Concepts of Pragmatics, Bangkok: Thammasat

University Press.

Kasper, G., & Rose, K.R. (2002). Pragmatic development in a second language. Language

Learning, 52, viii-x, 1-339.

Koike, D.A. (1996). Transfer of pragmatic competence and suggestions in Spanish foreign

language learning. In S.M. Gass and J. Neu (Eds.), Speech acts across cultures:

Challenges to communication in a second language (pp.257-281). Berlin: Mouton de

Gruyter.

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Searle, J. (1975). Indirect speech acts. In:Cole, P. and Morgan, J. (eds.) Syntax and Semantics

3: Speech Acts. New York, NY: Academic Press, pp.59-82.

Taguchi, N. (2005). Comprehending implied meaning in English as a second language.

Modern Language Journal, 89, 543-562.

Taguchi, N. (2008). Pragmatic Comprehension in Japanese as a second language. Modern

Language Journal, 89, 543-562.

Thomas, J. (1995). Meaning in interaction: An introduction to pragmatics. London:

Longman.

About the Author

Boonjeera Chiravate is an assistant professor at Department of English, Faculty of Arts,

Silpakorn University, Thailand. She completed her M.A. and Ph.D. in Linguistics at

Michigan State University, USA. Her current research interests are syntax, semantics,

pragmatics and second language acquisition. Recently, she has been actively involved in

interlanguage pragmatic research.

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Language Learning Autonomy and Action Research

MV. Joyce Merawati

Politeknik Negeri Bandung, Indonesia

[email protected]

Abstract

This study attempts to explore the development of learning autonomy of seventeen Civil

Engineering students at a state polytechnic in Indonesia when learning English as a foreign

language by conducting inductive action research together with the students and was

supported by the managing staff of Self-Access Language Learning (SALL). The

development was analyzed from learners‘ journals, observations, and class discussion or

small talks. The results showed that conducting action research with the students for two

semesters develops language learning autonomy in various degrees moving from physical to

cognitive behaviors.

Introduction

One of the goals of education is to build students‘ learning autonomy or individuals‘ ability to

decide what they think (Boud, 1988 in Benson and Voller, 1997). Autonomy cannot be learnt

within a short time and total autonomy is an ideal but it is rarely reached (Gardner and Miller,

1999). This study attempted to develop the students‘ autonomy in language learning by

applying inductive action research when they were studying English as a foreign language,

particularly in reading class, at Politeknik Negeri Bandung, Indonesia. This paper briefly

discusses autonomous learners‘ characteristics, promoting learning autonomy, and action

research; in addition, a program and the results are also presented.

The Characteristics of Autonomous Learners

Learning autonomy in this study is defined as the students‘ ability to make decision about

what to learn and how to manage their learning to achieve their objectives. Autonomous

learners are those who are able ‗to take charge of their own learning‘ (Holec, 1981 cited in

Gardner and Miller, 1999). Benson (2001) prefers to define it as those who have ‗the capacity

to take control of their own learning‘. In philosophy and psychology, autonomy has come to

be associated with the capacity of the individual to act as a responsible member of society

since learners cannot be independent from one another (Benson and Voller, 1997). In order to

have relatedness with their learning environment, learners have to regulate themselves in two

levels i.e. being reactive and proactive (Littlewood, 1999). They are able to orchestrate

various learning strategies.and act as the managers of their own learning (Holec, 1987) i.e.

they know what to learn, with what materials, how to learn, and reflect to assess the

outcomes.

Autonomous learners have clear learning purposes i.e. communicative competence (Holec,

1979). They have strong motivation, high level of confidence, adequate knowledge and skills

(Littlewood, 1996). They are capable of identifying their problems and learning to solve their

problems (Ridley, 1997). They establish personal agendas for learning, set up directions, set

clear standards of goals, and monitor, control, and motivate themselves to achieve their goals

(Pintrich, 2004; Little, 1999; Ridley, 1997). They are flexible and capable of managing,

regulating their learning, and using available resources (Breen and Mann, 1997). They make


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use of various high level cognitive and metacognitive strategies and select suitable materials

to achieve their goals and reflect to assess their achievement. They manage learning and

feelings by applying appropriate social and affective strategies to increase their motivation,

and to control their nervousness.

However, the less autonomous learners prefer to learn the language incidentally (Smith, 1988

in Ridley, 1997). They have unclear learning purposes and low extrinsic motivation. They do

not develop their learning strategies (Porte, 1990, in Griffiths, 2003), and apply low-level

cognitive strategies (Littlejohn, 1997). They are teacher dependent and expect teachers to

assign, correct homework, and explain grammar.

Promoting Learning Autonomy

Many experts find that learning autonomy can be enhanced by means of learner-centered

approach and providing learning strategy training (Nunan, 1996; Dam, 1998; Cohen, 2003).

Learner-centered approach is different from traditional approach for it requires teachers and

learners to collaborate in the decision-making process. This approach needs several

proceedings as suggested by Nunan (1996):

1. Collecting data about the learners to diagnose their objective needs (Richterich, 1972 in

Nunan, 1996).

2. Selecting content and material by making explicit the content objectives of a course and

by training learners to set objectives. This encourages them to have a more realistic goal,

see their needs, and develop their learning skills and strategies.

3. Negotiating the methodology

4. Conducting evaluation at various times.

5. Promoting learners‘ self-evaluation. Learners may evaluate the materials, learning

activities, and their own achievement.

This approach allows teachers to teach both specific language skills and learning strategies

i.e. to encourage them to adopt realistic goals, develop skills to negotiate, provide learners

with efficient learning strategies, help them identify preferred ways of learning, and reflect to

self-evaluate their achievement (Nunan, 1996). As the course goes on, the students develop

their awareness, and the good relationship between the students and the teacher is established,

the program can be modified because the most valuable learners‘ data are obtained in an

informal way after relationships between the students and the teacher have been established

(Nunan, 1996).

Dam (1998) provides some steps; at the beginning teacher direct students to reflect by

gathering learning experiences and evaluating, then planning carrying out plans and finally

reevaluating. In each stage, learners are advised to answer reflective questions such as ‗what

did I do?‘ ‗how did I do it?‘ ‗What are the problems?‘ ‗What are the achievements?‘ ‗What

are the next steps?‘ These questions help learners diagnose their strengths and weaknesses,

become aware of what helps them learn the target language efficiently, perceive their

problems, develop a broad range of problem-solving strategies, make decisions, monitor,

evaluate and transfer the successful strategies (Cohen, 2003).

Learners are also allowed to practice and experience the advantages of systematically

applying the strategies to the learning and use of the language they are studying (Cohen,

2003). At this stage generally learners‘ journals have been promoted as vehicles for reflection

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and self-evaluation (Kent, 1997 and Moon, 1999 as cited in Little, 2007). Writing journals

and self-reports are highly conscious and direct learners to think deeply, internalize and use

the language and strategy learned.

In addition, learners are advised to look for opportunities to share their preferred strategies

with others and to increase the use of their strategies (Cohen, 2003). By sharing their

strategies orally to their friends and class, learners are able to adopt other strategies learned

from their friends and use the language authentically (Little, 2007).

To promote learning autonomy, a teacher has roles to help students be active in learning.

Teacher‘s tasks are to set up dialogues, reorganize and refashion learners‘ prior knowledge

and strategies to help learners reach their potential cognitive levels (Gardner and Miller,

1999). A teacher warmly acts as a guide, facilitator of learning, a counselor, and as a resource

(Benson, 2001). She/he guides learners set objectives, plan, select materials and organize

interaction, evaluate, and acquire the skills and knowledge (Voller, 1997). However, when the

learners‘ activities are leading them into ‗blind alley‘ especially when they fail to set

themselves ‗optimal challenges‘, a teacher has the responsibility to intervene (Little, 2007).

These activities are strengthened and put into practice in the framework of inductive action

research, in which the teacher together with the learners may negotiate the various needs,

interests and goals; and then plan, carry out the plan and evaluate together.

Action Research

Action research models a process of reflective cycle on professional action (Wallace, 1998). It

focuses on problems and aims at solving problems (Carr and Kemmis, 1986; Cohen, 2007;

Stringer, 1996). The main characteristic of action research is the spiral activity consisting of

planning, acting, observing, and reflecting (Kemmis and McTaggart, 1988, as cited in

Stringer, 1996). Action research has two types of inquiries – inductive and deductive

(Wallace, 1998). Inductive action research is conducted when the inquiry is derived from data

collection; on the other hand, when the inquiry is to apply the principles of good teaching

methodology, deductive action research is carried out.

The inductive action research, to some extent, is matched well with learner-centered approach

for at least six reasons: first, the inductive action research starts with need analysis to discover

the problems conducted by the teacher together with the students and followed with actions to

solve the problems based on the students‘ needs, interests and wants. Second, it has two

approaches - individual and collaborative approach (Wallace, 1998). It allows the classroom

teacher to collaborate with the students because it can be undertaken by individual teachers as

well as a group of teachers working together within one school etc. (Cohen, et.al, 2007).

Third, it has cycles which each consists of plan, act, observe and reflect (Carr and Kemmis,

1986) and each cycle can be the modification or refinement of the previous ones (Stringer,

1996). These help the students manage and control their learning. Fourth, action research,

particularly the community-based action research, can be conducted based on everyday life

activities by a group of people in collaboration to assist others in extending their

understanding of their situation and thus resolves problems (Stringer, 1996). Fifth, it is

employed in anticipation of some changes (Stringer, 1996; Wallace, 1998) because the

changes of each cycle could be compared and the paths of development could be investigated.

This allows the students reflect and evaluate their development. Finally, it allows individual

teacher or researcher to control and select appropriate research tools for the teacher‘s

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environment and uses these tools to generate the necessary feedback in a systematic way

(Cohen, 2007). These allow the teacher to use various data collecting methods and evaluation

instruments usually used in the classroom activities. Therefore, inductive action research,

which to some extent has some similarities to learner-centered approach, may enhance

language learner autonomy because learner autonomy.

Since action research allows researchers or teachers to use ordinary instruments and data

collecting methods, for students‘ reflection and evaluation in this study, students‘ journals –

learning log, reflection journals and thinking process journal were used as the main

instruments. In addition, classroom discussion, some small talks, and observation noted in

researcher‘s diaries were also used. The small talks and observations were conducted when

the students reported their strategies applied to the class or when they had learning activities

both in the class and in SALL.

The Program

One program run based on inductive action research was a class of a reading program in

Politeknik Negeri Bandung. It was conducted in three cycles and lasted in two semesters. It

started with a diagnostic phase and followed with three cycles which each consisted of plan,

act, observe and reflect. Diagnostic Phase was to analyze the objective needs, the students‘

language proficiency, and interests. The results were discussed and considered in ‗Plan‘ stage

to select the content and gradation, methodology, materials selections, and evaluation. The

‗Plan‘ stage was followed by a set of treatments or ‗Act‘ in which an ongoing monitoring was

carried out. By the end of each cycle an ‗Observe and Reflect‘ stage or assessment was

conducted. The program was then evaluated and refined at the next cycles. This program is

illustrated in diagram 1.

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COLLABORATION

Students The lecturer Staff of SALL

‗Act‘ carrying out the plan

Plan‘ together with the students

and staff of SALL

‗Observe and Reflect‘

To evaluate the results

‗Act‘ carrying out the plan

Plan‘ together with the students

and staff of SALL

Observe and Reflect‘

To evaluate the results

‗Act‘ carrying out the plans

‗Plan‘ together with the students

and staff of SALL

DIAGNOSTIC PHASE

Diagram 1 The Program

Each cycle consisted of planning, exposures of some strategies, models, discussions

and practices (Cohen, 2003) and ended with evaluation as illustrated in Diagram 2.

individually

or

Practice with peers

Guided practice

Discussion

Exposures of strategies

through modelings

Introduction

Diagram 2 Treatments of Each Cycle

Before planning was carried out, feedback on strategies which were applied by the students in

the previous cycle was jointly discussed. At ‗Plan‘ stage, the lecturer and students

collaborated to develop instructional decision; the students were encouraged to provide

suggestions about the materials, the objectives of the cycles, and the learning activities. To

guide the students in deciding their learning objectives, the students were encouraged to

reflect on their problems in reading English texts or learning English. In preparation for the

‗Act‘, the lecturer collaborated with the managing staff of SALL. During ‗Act‘, exposures to

the strategies were provided by the lecturer and models were given either by the lecturer or

peers. In this occasion, the students explored various strategies and discovered suitable and

personalized strategies. Subsequently the students were instructed to practice the strategies

with peers and finally practice individually either in SALL or at home whilst doing their

Cycle 1

Cycle 2

Cycle 3

EVALUATION Observe and reflect

Act

Plan

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assignments. At the end of each cycle the program were reviewed, evaluated and refined in

the next cycles.

This study was conducted in a reading program of 24 first-year civil engineering students,

among them 17 students were intensively analyzed because they attended the class, wrote,

and submit their journals regularly. When the language learning autonomy were explored

from the students‘ learning purposes, motivation and reading skills particularly their skills for

constructing meaning, the results showed that the program enhanced the students‘ language

learning autonomy.

The learners‘ learning purposes which were analyzed from the students‘ answers of ‗What do

you want?‘ triangulated with those of ‗What did you learn?‘ showed that they developed from

physical activities to learning for problem solving. In detail the development moved from

enjoyable activities, reading to obtain content information, reading for language learning,

improving language starting from easy materials, to learning based on preferences/interests,

improving language (vocabulary/grammar) using challenging materials, and finally to solving

problems. The last three stages were experienced by the students who had fairly high

proficiency only; some of them learned the language by applying top-down approach and

others preferred bottom-up approach. It was also found that learners who applied top-down

approach had limited ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate their language. The learners‘

motivation – represented by their affective response - analyzed from the students‘ reflective

journals improved for various reasons. Their motivation developed from enjoying the learning

activities, obtaining language knowledge , being able to apply learning strategies, developing

thinking, finding and solving problems, applying imagination and creativity, expressing ideas,

retaining words for longer periods, to being capable of doing challenging exercises and

learning independently. The skills for constructing meanings analyzed from the students‘

thinking process journals developed in three clusters: typography of texts, analyzing,

classifying words, and synthesizing meanings from other words, and finally relating meaning

to the wider scope of contexts.

These results showed that the development of students‘ learning autonomy were in line with

the levels of language proficiency and learning purposes. When they focused on enjoyment

activities, they did not apply their high level of cognitive strategies to learning the language.

However, when they had language learning purposes, they then thought deeply and as a result

they learned and acquired the language.

Conclusion

Autonomous learners are those who are capable of managing and responsible for their

learning. They are able to orchestrate various learning strategies, set realistic goals, select

materials and learning methods, and evaluate the outcomes. Learning autonomy can be

developed by means of learner-centered approach which requires lecturers to collaborate with

the students throughout the program. It has several steps, diagnose the students‘ needs,

interests and lacks, selecting learning content and materials, negotiating the methodology, and

conducting evaluation. This approach matches well with the inductive action research

providing that the research is conducted by the teacher or a group of teachers together with

the students. After conducting this study in two semesters in an English reading class of Civil

Engineering students at Politeknik Negeri Bandung, Indonesia, the students‘ learning

autonomy developed from physical to cognitive behaviors.

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References:

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Pearson Education Limited.

Benson, P., and Voller, P. (1997) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning, New

York: Longman

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for autonomy, in Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning, Benson and

Voller, eds, 1997, London: Pearson Education Limited.

Carr, W and Kemmis, S. (1986) Becoming Critical: Knowing Through Action Research,

Burwood: Deakin University Press

Cohen, A. (2003) Strategy Training for Second Language Learner, Eric Digest, ED482492

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007) Research Methods in Education (6th Edition

ed.). London: Routledge Falmer.

Dam, L. (1998) Why Focus on Learning rather than Teaching? From Theory to Practice,

Focus on Learning rather than Teaching: Why and How? Papers from the IATEFL

conference on learner independence, Kraköw, 14 – 16 may 1998, CLCS, Trinity

College Dublin 2, Ireland.

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Europe

Holec, H. (1987) The Learner as Manager: Managing Learning or Managing to learn? in

Learner Strategies in Language Learning, Wenden and Rubin, eds, 1987, London:

Prentice Hall ELT

Little, D. (2007) Language Learner Autonomy: Some Fundamental Considerations Revisited,

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, Vol 1, No 1, 2007

Littlejohn, A. (1997) Self-Access Work and Curriculum Ideologies, in Benson, Phil and

Voller, Peter eds (1997) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning, United

Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited. pp. 181-191

Littlewood, W. (1996) Autonomy: an Anatomy and a Framework, System, Vol. 24, pp 427-

435; Elsevier Science Ltd.

Littlewood, W. (1999) Difining and Developing Autonomy in East Asian Contexts, Applied

Linguistics, 20 (1), pp. 71-94.

Nunan, D. (1996) The Learner-Centred Curriculum, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Oxford, R. (1990) Language Learning Strategies. Massachusetts: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.

Pintrich, P.R. (2004) A conceptual Framework for Assessing Motivation and Self-Regulated

Learning in College Students, Educational Psychology Review, Vol. 16, No. 4

December 2004.

Ridley, J. (1997) Reflection and Strategies In Foreign Language Learning, Frankfurt,

Germany: Peter Lang GmbH.

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Publications

Victori, M. and Lockhart, W. (1995) Enhancing Metacognitive in Self-directed Language

Learning, System, Vol. 23, No. 2: pp 223-234

Voller, P. (1997) Does the Teacher have a role in Autonomous Language Learning, in

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Learning, United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited

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University Press

About the Author

Dr. MV. Joyce Merawati, Dipl. TESL., M.Pd. is an English lecturer at Politeknik Negeri

Bandung, Indonesia. She got her bachelor degree in Teaching English in 1981 from IKIP

Sanata Dharma, Jogyakarta, Indonesia; her Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching English as a

Second Language from Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand in 1991. She got her

master degree in 2003 and doctoral degree in 2010, from Indonesia University of Education.

Her interests are in teaching English at non-English department and her research interest is in

learning autonomy.

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Learning L2s among Southeast Asian Immigrant Women in Taiwan: The Case of Chinese L2 Classroom Practices Contested by First L2 Effect

Yu-Hsiu (Hugo) Lee

Graduate School of Language and Communication,

National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA)

[email protected]

Abstract

This study reconceptualized Chinese L2 teaching, learning and research in a way that

illuminated ―first L2 effect‖ which enormously influenced L2 practices among immigrant

women in Taiwan. This paper has argued that language preferences immigrant women in

Taiwan made on L2 acquisition in a multilingual society can be understood by pursuing a

particular first L2 rather than all other L2s. It theorized that their developed tendency to

maximize this certain L2 system can be more cognitively satisfactory than mastering other

unfamiliar L2s. Challenging common beliefs of language and power, the findings proved that

a powerful L2, such as Mandarin Chinese, plays a minimal role on the most dominant L2

acquisition in immigrant communities in a multilingual society, because vernacular Southern-

Min L2 is actively practiced as the most dominant L2 among 40 % of these immigrants

(N=60) in a predominantly Mandarin Chinese L2 environment.

Introduction

Mandarin-Chinese medium of instruction is at crisis in official Mandarin Chinese L2

programs designed particularly for Southeast Asian immigrant women in Taiwan, because, on

the one hand, data from this study indicated that there are an increasingly number of

immigrants (40%, N=60) coming to Mandarin-Chinese L2 classrooms with more fluent or

native-like vernacular Southern-Min L2 speaking ability but with very limited or no

proficiency in Mandarin Chinese L2. On the other hand, data stated in marked contrast that a

number of immigrant women (50%, N=60) rely heavily on Mandarin Chinese L2 with very

limited or no proficiency in vernacular Southern-Min L2.

Searching for root causes of these two extreme cases, data revealed that official language

policies, literacy planning efforts and formal L2 education have little or no effect on what is

the most dominant L2 over other L2s among informants. However, data showed that initial

language socialization (2-3 years) right after immigration has a long lasting influence on not

only what are the most dominant L2s but also possibilities of acquisition of other L2s in

participants.


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Multilingual Developments in Contemporary Taiwan

Table 1: Societal uses of languages in modern Taiwan

Linguistic

Groups

% of

Population

in Taiwan

Reported Societal Uses of Languages

Austronesian-

Formosan

Speakers

<2%

-Can read and write Mandarin-Chinese;

-Can read and write foreign languages (i.e., English);

-Trilingual among Indigenous languages, Mandarin-

Chinese and Southern-Min;

-Bilingual between Aboriginal languages and

Mandarin-Chinese;

-Monolingual Mandarin-Chinese

Southern-Min

Speakers

73.3%



-Bilingual between Southern-Min and Mandarin

Chinese;

-Bilingual between Southern-Min and Japanese among

elder generation;

-Monolingual Southern-Min among elder generation

Hakka

Speakers

12%



-Trilingual among Mandarin Chinese, Southern-Min

and Hakka;

-Bilingual between Hakka and Mandarin Chinese

-Monolingual Mandarin Chinese

Mainlander:

Mandarin-

Chinese

Speakers

with

Dialectal

Variations

13% -Can read and write Mandarin-Chinese;


-Bilingual between Mandarin-Chinese and Southern-

Min (some can understand Southern-Min but cannot

speak it);

-Monolingual Mandarin Chinese

Southeast

Asian

Immigrants

(Usually

Women)

2%> -Can read and write Mandarin-Chinese with varying

proficiency levels;


-Trilingual between their L1s, Southern-Min and

Mandarin-Chinese;

-Trilingual among L1s, Hakka and Mandarin-Chinese;

-Bilingual between their L1s and Southern-Min;

-Bilingual between their L1s and Hakka;

-Bilingual between their L1s and Mandarin-Chinese

Sources: Huang (1993); Lee (2010, p.25); Price (2009, p. 239).

All native languages related to mother tongues spoken by immigrants in Taiwan are

recognized, but they are not yet developed into, or recognized as, official languages used in

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government (Fu-Ju, 2007, online). In reviewing the history and recent language policy

developments, and literacy planning, it could be argued that recent language policy and

planning in Taiwan has not moved away from a linguistic hierarchy with only Mandarin-

Chinese as the main language and minority languages being positioned in subordinated

positions. In other words, language policy in Taiwan for immigrants has not yet moved

toward paralleled development of mainstream languages and minority languages.

Any conception of prestige related to literacy planning (Liddicoat, 2007, p1) and promoting a

particular literacy usually comes at the expense of minority languages. 100 hours of

Mandarin-Chinese literacy instruction under current language policy and literacy planning is a

response to massive number of immigrant women from Southeast Asia. In school-based

Mandarin-Chinese programs designed to enact mass literacy for immigrant women in Taiwan,

literacy development is narrowly viewed as literacy acquisition for an official language—

Mandarin-Chinese. Local vernacular languages and mother tongues of immigrant women are

viewed as means for acquiring the official language and not an end in and of itself.

Relative to language policies, literacy planning and formal Chinese L2 education, Taiwan‘s

linguistic cultures explicitly and implicitly influenced daily practices of vernacular languages

as well as official Mandarin-Chinese language occurred for immigrant women communities

where this study was conducted.

Table 2: Language hierarchy in Taiwan

English

Mandarin Chinese

Southern-Min

Hakka

Indigenous languages &

Immigrant women‘s Southeast Asian languages

Sources: Wei-Ren, (n.d.) online

Regarding linguistic cultures, most research has shown that women are more aware of

linguistic cultures than men. Some scholars agree that women tend to be more innovative

linguistically than men and utilize more advanced, newer, and prestigious forms of languages

(Gal, 1978, pp. 1-16, Smith-Hefnir, 2009, pp. 57–77, and Cavanaugh, 2006, pp. 194–210).

For instance, Gal studied 18 women and 14 men in Oberwart, a German- Hungarian bilingual

town located in the province of Burgenland in eastern Austria, and found that young women

influenced the whole community into a language shift from German- Hungarian bilingualism

toward monolingual German. Linguistic code change symbolizes social change. The speech

choices of Hungarian-German bilingual women indicate their social positions. Those

speaking the Hungarian language are considered farmers and identified with local agricultural

and negative connotations. However, those speaking the German language have a more

affluent status, and, even though they are employed in factories, represent money and prestige

(Gal, 1978, pp. 1-16).

Contrasting to Gal‘s research, Mugambi studied four women and two men in a contemporary

Kenyan urban setting and found that monolingualism among Kenyan women is tied to the

patriarchic structure in Kenyan communities. Women have customarily been kept out of

interethnic social interactions in Kenya. Thus, they rarely need to acquire, or learn, a second

language unless they marry a husband of a different ethnicity than theirs. A woman in

interracial marriage is expected to learn the first language of her husband as part of the

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assimilation process. In some cases, married couples adopt English, Kiswahili (Swahili), or

both English and Kiswahili so they do not use their first languages at home. While the

language shift has occurred from indigenous languages to English and Kiswahili in the home

domain, women play the key role in maintaining indigenous languages. Mugambi‘s results

showed that Kenyan women in interracial marriages are constrained by the patriarchal family

structure and cultural expectations that requiring them to learn the first languages and cultures

of their husbands (Mugambi, 2002, pp. 12-23). Gal‘s and Mugambi‘s studies will be used to

compare with immigrant women in Taiwan.

Methods

The Immigrant Woman Communities

Kaohsiung, a harbor city in Southern Taiwan, is the second largest metropolitan area in this

beautiful tropical island. More than ninety percent of Kaohsiung City‘s population speaks

Southern-Min language. The city of Kaohsiung has long been a stronghold of traditional

Taiwanese languages, cultures and values. Kaohsiung City provides a rich site for language

research because residents here are known for their close-knit families. Local communities

where Southeast Asian immigrant women live remain relatively conservative as its core,

despite the fact that Kaoshiung is today a modern and second cosmopolitan center in Taiwan.

60 participants were selected on the basis of their accessibility to the researcher and their

willingness to collaborate in the research. All participants have fairly similar diasporic

backgrounds with other Southeast Asian immigrant women throughout Taiwan. 60

participants selected include Burmese, Cambodians, Filipinos, Indonesians, Malaysians, Thais

and Vietnamese. Participants chosen represent seven different Southeast Asian countries in

the range of potential Southeast Asian immigrant women in Kaohsiung City with ages ranging

from early twenties to late sixties. The researcher digitally recorded and observed them over

a period of three years (May 2007-December 2009). Participants were interviewed and

observed in multiple sites including two official adult literacy education programs, one private

adult literacy education classroom, one protestant church that provides shelter for immigrants,

two workplaces, two households, and one immigrant woman service center.

Data Collection and Analysis

The researcher aimed to answer this following research question in this contribution: what

affects the most dominant L2 teaching and learning over other L2 acquisitions among

Southeast Asian immigrant women in Taiwan. The research question provides an opportunity

to demonstrate the utility of language policies, literacy planning, formal L2 education,

linguistic cultures and relevance theory. Field-notes gathered from participant and non-

participant observations supply data set. Thus, data sources include digital-recorded

interview transcripts from individual interviews and transcripts of group interviews. Included

as data sources are field-notes from observing participants interacting with each other,

dialogues with L2 teachers, and spontaneous conversations in multiple sites. The impact

factors that affect the most dominant L2 over other L2s are examined by means of the

research instrument—an interview protocol—consisted of a series of close and open-ended

questions pertaining to the language background of participants as well as their current

reported impact factors of the most dominant L2s. Only one interview for each of the 60

subjects does not constitute interview data, so a number of fellow-up individual interviews

and follow-up group interviews are to ensure the methodological rigor. Each interview lasted

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approximately one hour, so the digital-recordings of the interviews yielded a significant

amount of data.

Findings and Conclusion

Table 3: Responses of Southeast Asian informants when asked what affects the

way they acquired their most dominant L2 oral and written discourse

in a multilingual setting

Impact factors # of responses from 60

informants

% of responses from 60

informants

Host parents/husbands/family

members: Exposure to a local

vernacular Southern-Min L2

in a household language

domain for 2-3 years upon

their arrival

25 40%

Receiving formal Mandarin-

Chinese L2 education in an

official program for 2-3 years

soon after migration

30 50%

Friends and neighbors from

Taiwan and home countries

Media:

Newspapers, TV, radio

No opinion/unclear/

neutrality

5 8%

Comparable to Mugambi‘s (2002) study, it is evident from data indicating that immigrant

women in Taiwan are constrained by the patriarchal family structure and expectations from

strong cultural tradition that requiring them (40%, N=60) to learn vernacular Southern-Min

L2 in their home language domain in order to communicate with their Taiwanese in-laws.

Nonetheless, the patriarchal family structure and expectations from strong cultural tradition,

as suggested by Mugambi (2002), fail to explain why 50% of informants (N=60) resisted to

acquire Southern-Min L2 despite the fact that their Taiwanese in-laws can only communicate

in Southern-Min language.

Parallel with Gal‘s (1978) study, data echoed that immigrant women in Taiwan, to some

extent, are aware of linguistic cultures and language hierarchy because 50% of them (N=60)

speak predominantly Mandarin-Chinese L2 with very limited or no proficiency in Southern-

Min L2. Nevertheless, the perspective drawn from Gal (1978) regarding different linguistic

codes that symbolized different social prestige may not adequately explain why 40% of

informants (N=60) are reluctant to learn more powerful Mandarin-Chinese L2.

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Combined with Mugambi (2002) and Gal‘s (1978) perspectives, this study proposed first L2

effect to explain initial language socialization in immigrant woman communities in Taiwan.

First L2 effect is a term coined by the researcher for lack of a better term. Reported from

data, first L2 usually becomes the most dominant L2 for immigrants in a multilingual host

society such as the immigrant communities in Kaohsiung. It occurs when the interview

responses speak to a tendency on the part of immigrant women to insist on utilizing a certain

L2 instead of other L2s in a multilingual setting. 90 % of participants desired a particular L2

over other L2s. The most intriguing finding from the data, however, concerns the pattern of

reported first L2 language use as correlated with initial language and literacy socialization in

Taiwan for immigrant women. Challenging current notions of language and power, the

differences in reported adopting different first L2s in Taiwan often reflect the fact concerning

what are first L2s immigrants were first exposed to in initial language socialization soon after

their transnational movement. It is interesting to note that some participants utilized

Mandarin-Chinese as their first L2, but others revealed a marked preference for the adoption

of Southern-Min as their first L2.

While similar percentages of participants reported utilizing their certain first L2 most

frequently than other L2s, a significant distinction emerged in the use of Mandarin-Chinese

L2 and Southern-Min L2 (50% and 40%, respectively). Crucially, immigrant women (50%)

who received formal Mandarin-Chinese L2 instruction first and then acquired a vernacular

Southern-Min L2 in home language domains developed their formal Mandarin-Chinese L2 in

a manner superior to that of the local vernacular Southern-Min L2. By contrast, if they (40%)

first acquired a local Southern-Min L2 language and knew it for several years (data reported

2-3 years) before receiving formal Mandarin-Chinese L2 instruction, their local Southern-Min

L2 was superior to their formal Mandarin-Chinese L2.

In a multilingual setting, the first L2 acquired by immigrants, either through formal L2

instruction that are influenced by language policies or through socialization that took place in

home language domains, becomes more influential and significant than other L2 oral and

written discourses available. Therefore, immigrants recognized with first L2 effect developed

strong tendencies to maximize this particular L2 verbal-written discourse over others,

regardless of the actual demands of other, or alternative, language competencies. Most

participants identified with first L2 effect heavily rely on their particular first L2s more

frequently than other L2s in the host society. They stated that they regularly engage in certain

L2 activities where languages, other than first L2s, become less desirable.

Relevance theory can be used in explaining first L2 effect. Relevance theory says one is

inclined to draw attentions to occurrences applicable to improving prior beliefs (Sperber &

Wilson, 1987, 1995, and 2004). The cognitive principle of relevance shows cognition has a

predisposition to be geared toward maximizing relevance, because everyone generates

expectations of relevance when observing stimuli responsive to established personal belief

systems that yield considerable cognitive rewards. When hearing or reading L2 words people

develop a tendency to construct interpretative presumptions that follow paths of least efforts,

enabling them to access desirable and satisfactory comprehensive tasks. When immigrant

women were exposed to a first L2 in a multilingual society through their initial language

socialization, they developed a tendency to maximize this particular first L2 rather than other

L2s because pursuing it was cognitively more satisfactory than acquiring other unfamiliar

L2s.

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Continuing discussions of first L2 effect, an accommodation norm, explicitly or implicitly,

typically involves decisions regarding language domains and whether speaking more formal

Mandarin-Chinese language is required or the less formal Southern-Min language in Taiwan.

This study might suggest otherwise. The most surprising finding in data relates to language

and power, and shows that powerful, dominant and prestigious L2s may have weak or no

effect on first L2 acquisition by immigrant women in a multilingual setting such as immigrant

communities in Kaohsiung. The findings suggest that first exposed L2 in an immigrant‘s

initial language socialization has a long lasting effect on her overall L2 acquisitions.

Reported from data, the main contributor of certain L2 fluency for an immigrant woman in

Taiwan is initial exposure to a particular L2 for at least 2-3 years in relatively isolated

language socialization. However, language policy and planning, and linguistic cultures might

have a weaker effect on informants‘ L2 acquisitions.

In Taiwan, the traditional families in Kaohsiung are usually consistent keeper of Southern-

Min language. Even so, data in this study showed that first L2 effect prevents the non-first L2

Southern-Min language from passing to their immigrant wives of these Kaohsiung men, when

the formal Chinese L2 has become the most dominant first L2 in these immigrant women

after receiving formal Chinese L2 education outside their host family discourses.

References

Cavanaugh, J. R. (2006). Little women and vital champions: Gendered language shift

in a Northern Italian town, Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 16(2), pp. 194–210.

Fu-Ju, Zhang. (2007). From national languages to official languages. The Liberty

Times. Retrieved on November 11 2010 from

http://www.libertytimes.com.tw/2007/new/mar/22/today-o1.htm

Gal, S. (1978). Peasant Men Can‘t GetWives: Language Change and Sex Roles in a Bilingual

Community. Language in Society (7)1, pp. 1–16.

Huang, S.F. (1993). Yuyan, shehui yu zuqun yishi: Taiwan yuyan shehuixue de yanjiu

(Language, Society and Ethnic Identity: A Sociolinguistic Study on Taiwan), Taipei:

Crane.

Lee, Hugo,Y.H. (2010). Exploring biliteracy developments among Asian women in

diasporas: The case of Taiwan. Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, United States --

Indiana. Dissertations & Theses @ CIC Institutions.

Liddicoat, A. J. (ed.) (2007). Language planning and policy: Issues in language planning and

literacy. Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Mugambi, H.M. (2002). Language Choice and Shift in Kenya: A Look at the

Changing Roles of English, Kiswahiliand Indigenous Languages. Language,

Literacy & Culture Review, umbc.edu.

Price. G.O. (2009). A political sociology of language in Taiwan: Local, national and global

context. Doctoral dissertation from the University of Essex, Britain.

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Smith-Hefner, N. J. (2009). Language Shift, Gender, and Ideologies of Modernity in

Central Java, Indonesia. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, (19)1, pp. 57–77.

Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1987). Precis of relevance: Communication and

cognition. Behavioral and brain sciences, 10 (4), pp. 697-754.

Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1995). Relevance: Communication and cognition (2nd

ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.

Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (2004). "Relevance theory" in G. Ward. and L. Horn

(eds.), Handbook of pragmatics (pp. 607-632). Oxford: Blackwell.

Wei-Ren, Hong. (n.d.). Where the language policy in Taiwan should go?

Retrieved on November 11 2010 from http://mail.tku.edu.tw/cfshih/ln/paper18.htm

About the Author

Dr. Hugo received his Ph.D. and M.S. from Language Education department at Indiana

University, USA. He obtained his concurrent M.A. from Southern Baptist Theological

Seminary, Kentucky, USA. His professional development will be at Columbia University,

NYC, USA. His research interests include exploring bi/multilingual and bi/multiliteracy

among immigrants, refugees, and orphans.

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On the Effect of Background Knowledge on Reading Comprehension and

Recall Process of a Group of Iranian Intermediate Students

Mahboobeh Khosrojerdi

Islamic Azad University, Sabzevar Branch, Iran

[email protected]

Abstract

The study reported here sought to find further evidence of the role of background knowledge

in EFL reading comprehension and recall. The study was conducted in two succeeding

phases. First, 90 subjects studying at the Iran Language Institute took the TOFEL test. The

results enabled the researcher to select 40 subjects in intermediate level. In the second phase,

a questionnaire and four reading comprehension texts were administered. Finally, the recall

protocols were analyzed. The result of the matched t-tests showed that background knowledge

had effects on reading comprehension and the recall of the texts. Overall, the results

supported the view that background knowledge can be considered as a factor affecting reading

comprehension and recall and therefore, as a source of differential success in EFL language

learning as well.

INTRODUCTION

By far, reading is perhaps the most important of the four skills, particularly in EFL/ESL

situation. In language classes, particularly in advanced level, reading occupies the most class

time for a variety of purposes. Thus, the ability to read well and comprehensibly has been

recognized as a prerequisite to advanced proficiency English. Quite simply, without having

reading proficiency, second language learners are not capable of performing well

communicatively. As a result, theoreticians have generally attempted to devise new plans and

approaches to meet such educational needs.

Early work in second language reading, assumed a passive, bottom-up view of second

language reading. This view holds that the reader reconstructs the intended meaning by

recognizing the printed letters and words and builds up meaning from smallest units in the

text or at ―bottom‖ to larger units at the ―top‖. In 1970, background knowledge was

recognized to have a great role in second language reading. Specially the lack of cultural

familiarity with reading texts influences negatively the total comprehension. According to

Fries (in Patricia L. Carrell, 1988), a failure to relate the linguistic meaning of reading

passages to cultural factors would result in deficiency in comprehension. This is cultural-

specific knowledge which is now known as ―schemata‖.

About a decade ago, the emergence of psycholinguistic models of reading had a strong

influence on second language learning. According to this model, the reader predicts meaning

and then confirms the predictions by relating them to his past experiences and knowledge of

the language. This is in line with what schema theory has suggested.

Different studies show the crucial role of background knowledge in comprehension and recall

of the text. In relation to comprehension and retrieval of a text, Orasana (1986) states that ―the

knowledge a reader brings to a text is a principle determiner of how that text will be

comprehended, and what may be learned and remembered‖ (P. 32). He also mentions that

―schema theory would predict that propositions which are rated as important in light of the


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schema are more likely to be learned and remembered‖ (P. 41). Anderson et al. (1983)

concluded ―a schema influences learning and memory when activated before reading and

retrieval when accessed after reading‖ (P. 43). Hammadou (1991) reported ―readers with

more knowledge about the topic showed more logical (correct) inferences based on the text

and fewer illogical (incorrect) inferences‖ (P: 178).

Background knowledge as a predictor of successful comprehension and recall of the texts has

been investigated through various procedures, one most prevalent technique is recall

protocols. Recall protocol is a technique by which the amount of comprehension is measured

by analyzing the idea units retrieved from the text. Bernhardt (1983, 1991) and Swaffar et al.

(1991), among others (Carrell, 1983, 1984a, 1984b; Wells, 1986), suggest the use of recall

protocols as a measure of holistic or overall reading comprehension.

The study reported here designed to find further evidence on the effect of background

knowledge on reading comprehension and recall of the texts. Quite a number of studies have

been carried out with reference to reading and in particular to reading in a foreign language.

Moreover, many studies have been carried out regarding the processes and factors which

affect the reading comprehension among which is the role of background knowledge in

retrieval of the text. In spite of these studies the role of background knowledge in retrieving

expected information is not yet known to the best of knowledge of present researcher. So, it

can become a significant research topic to be investigated through this study. So many

students specially at university levels have comprehension problems. More studies regarding

the comprehension problems are needed to provide both the teacher and learners with a good

understanding of the nature of the problem and factors involved with it. So to serve this

purpose and also due to few studies in relation to the effect of schema theory on recall of the

text in Iran, this study has been carried out.

The positive finding related to the effect of background knowledge on reading comprehension

and retrieval of the texts led the researcher to consider one main positive directive hypothesis.

H: There is a positive relationship between background knowledge and recall of the text in

intermediate Iranian learners.

Significance of the Study

It is needless to say that the result of the research can have logical effects in educational

settings such as, universities, ESP courses and institutes. The result of this study would be of

help to teachers to provide their students with the necessary background knowledge and

information before teaching text materials. It will also be of help to ESP courses whose aim is

providing the students with subject materials within their specialization domain. Those

involved in material preparation for these courses will also take advantage out of this result.

Furthermore, teachers may find it useful to assess student‘s comprehension with such tools

such as free recall method. Each student‘s recall protocol might indicate common linguistic

and conceptual difficulties experienced through the reading.

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METHOD

Participants

The subjects for this study were 90 EFL students at the Iran Language Institute (ILI). These

students have been studying English as a foreign language for at least three years. On the

basis of a sample TOFEL proficiency test 20 subjects with the score between 225 to 425 were

considered at the intermediate level. Both sexes – about 50 girls and 40 boys- took part in this

study. To have a check over probable intertwining variables, only subjects whose native

language was Persian and their age level was between 18 to 30 were selected.

Instrumentations:

In this study, the following tests have been used.

(1) TOFEL TEST:

The experimental TOFEL published by Browns was used to determine the proficiency level.

The statistical features of the test relating to reliability and validity have been reported by the

publisher and it is claimed to be highly valid and reliable. This test was administered to

decide the level of subjects for this study and on the base of this test the subjects were

considered intermediate learners. The score on this test has been calculated based on the

method available in the BROWN TOFEL book available in the market. It includes three

sections; listening comprehension (50 questions), vocabulary and structure (40 questions), and

reading comprehension and vocabulary (60 questions). The total time is 120 minutes. All

three sections of the test were administered simultaneously.

(2) FOUR READING COMPREHENSION TEXTS:

These texts were chosen from some reading comprehension books available in the market.

The length and the readability of these texts are almost the same (see table 1. below). Many

factors have been established to measure the readability but in fact their aim, construction and

validity are not very different (Alderson & Urquhart, 1987). One typical readability is the Fog

Index which is used in this study.

4.01

100

.

3.

.

.

wordsno

wordssylableno

sentencesNo

wordNo

And the result is interpreted as 12- = easy, 13-16 = undergraduate, 16+ = postgraduate.

This formula is based on the number of words in a sentence.

These texts were to be read and recalled by the students. Two of these texts –Robin Hood

(RH) and Family Size and Economic Development (FSED)- were hypothesized to be familiar

and the other two –Professional Sport (PS) and Earth Day (ED)- were hypothesized to be

unfamiliar.

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Table 1. The readability and length of the texts

Texts Text length Readability

ROBBIN HOOD 330 Words 22.7

FAMILY SIZE AND

ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT

319 21.5

PROFESSIONAL

SPORTS

321 20.3

EARTH DAY 322 20

(3) A Questionnaire:

To determine the amount of familiarity of subjects with the texts, the researcher gave a

questionnaire with 10 questions on the reading passages –three questions on Robin Hood,

three questions on Professional Sports, two questions on Earth Day, and two questions on

Family Size And Economic Development- was used. The results were used to once again

divide them into homogeneous groups in relation to familiarity and unfamiliarity with the

texts.

Procedure:

In the first phase of the study, a TOFEL exam was given to about ninety students at the ILI.

Before the exam, the students were provided with enough information about the test. Based

on the results 20 students with the score 225 to 425 were considered intermediate learners.

In the second phase of this study which was held on a separate day, first a questionnaire was

given to each subject and they were told to answer the questions on the paper. They were also

told that they can easily leave blank any questions they did not know. The purpose of this was

to determine how familiar the subjects had been with the text. After completing this

questionnaire, they were supplied with the first reading text. An empty sheet was also given to

them to write their recalls on it. They were already informed of what they were supposed to

do. The subjects were asked to consider the following points when writing the recalls.

(1) The students should not read the text longer than ten minutes and they should not go back

to the text while they are writing the recalls.

(2) The subjects should write their recalls on a separate sheet.

(3) They should write their recalls in full sentences.

(4) They should write their recalls in English.

(5) They should write whatever they remember about the text.

(6) They have enough time to write their recalls.

(7) Grammatical and spelling mistakes are not important.

The same procedure was followed for the rest of the texts. Then, the questionnaires and the

recall protocols were collected. The questionnaires were rated. The score above 50 was

considered familiar and below that unfamiliar. The two texts –Robin Hood and Family Size

and Economic Development were proved to be familiar as it was hypothesized and the other

two texts –Earth Day and Professional Sports- were also proved to be unfamiliar.

As put forward by Alderson (1984), the idea unit is the unit of text analysis and widely used

in reading comprehension oriented research. Thus, as a test of comprehension students can be

asked to write a recall protocol of a text they have read, which in turn is scored in terms of the

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number of idea unit it contains. So in order to correct the recall protocols, each text was

parsed into idea units. For the ease of scoring, an effort was made to establish a unit in which

there was only one bit of information expected to be significant for the analysis as

recommended by Alderson (1984). It was also set that every parallel or paraphrased sentences

are to be accepted. So all recall protocols were analyzed and graded based on these idea units.

In RH text which was 330 words in length, there were 36 idea units; in FSED text which was

319 words in length, there were 28 idea units; in PS text which was 321 words in length, there

were 30 idea units; in ED text which was 322 words in length, there were 28 idea units (see

Table 2). These idea units were verified by two independent judges.

Table 2. The number of Idea Units in Each Text

Texts Length Number of Idea Units

RH 330 36

FSED 319 28

PS 321 30

ED 322 28

Examples of idea units are given as follows.

Table 3. Examples of idea units

Robin Hood text (2 idea units)

Robin Hood is a legendary hero/ who lived in Sherwood Forest, in Nottingham, with his band

of followers. / (As illustrated above the sentence contains 2 idea units as separated off by

two virgules.)

Family Size and Economic Development (1 idea unit)

Poor people often have larger families than middle class and upper class people./

Based on this criterion, any sentence presented in this way was given a point. For example

one of the students recalled the first idea unit in Robin Hood this way; ―Robin Hood was a

hero and he lived in Nottingham with his friends.‖ Or for the second text one wrote; ―there are

more children in poor families than high- class families‖. Both of these students got a point

for their recall. Two scorers scored the recall protocols and using Pearson Product-Moment

Correlation, the inter-rater reliability was found to be .85.

Data Analysis

The data gathered were analyzed using the SPSS statistical software. At first, descriptive data

for recall protocols were computed. As stated already, the main aim of this study was to

confirm that the background knowledge of the subjects had a role on their reading

comprehension and recall protocols. The design of the study made the application one

matched t-test necessary. The aim was to compare the means of two familiar and unfamiliar

texts. The value of the t-observed for the comparisons of means and that of t-critical were

calculated and tested for the significance of the comparisons. The alpha for achieving

significance was set at 0.05.

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Result and Discussions

To investigate the probable effect of background knowledge on reading comprehension and

recall of the Iranian EFL students, four reading texts were selected- two familiar and two

unfamiliar.

Table 4. indicates the mean score for two familiar and unfamiliar texts which turned out to be

1.979 and is greater than the t-critical. Table 5. illustrates the result of the t-test for the two

familiar texts which is 5.670 and is greater than the t-critical and table 6. depicts the result of

the t-test for the two unfamiliar texts which is 4.019 and is greater than the t-critical too.

Table 4. The result of t-tests for Familiar and Unfamiliar texts in intermediate group

Group N X SD t d.f.

Intermediate 20 12.4 4.796 1.979 19

0.05

Table 5. The result of t-test for two familiar texts

Table 6. The result of t-test for two unfamiliar texts

Texts N X SD T d.f.

PS 20 11/5 2.606 4.019 19

ED 20 8/6 1.903

0.001

Conclusions:

As it can be seen in the fourth table, the observed t is 1.979 with the d.f. of 19 is significant at

0.05 level; therefore this hypothesis is confirmed. The intermediate students did remember the

familiar texts better than the unfamiliar ones. And this finding is in line with the previous

findings regarding the role of background knowledge in reading comprehension and their

recall of the texts.

But, more interesting results are related to tables 5 and 6. As it is shown in these two tables

the t observed is greater than the t critical which indicates that some factors other than back

ground knowledge and proficiency have had effects of reading and recall process since these

two factors have already been controlled in the study.

The researcher believes that these results can be due to reading strategies and reading skills

that students have used while performing. Another reason can be the intelligence level of the

students involved in the test. Or simply it is because one of the texts has been more familiar

and one has been more unfamiliar.

Texts N X SD T d.f.

RH 20 16/7 6/666 5/670 19

FSED 20 8/1 1/252

0.001

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Pedagogical Implications

The findings of this study may have some implication for teachers, syllabus designers and

evaluators.

Teachers may find it useful to assess student comprehension with free recall method. Since it

is argued that recall protocol is an attentive for testing reading and listening comprehension.

Each student‘s verbal report might tell the teacher how the individual approaches the reading

comprehension task and what aspects of the particular text seem to cause comprehension

difficulties. Similarly, each student‘s recall protocol might indicate common linguistic and

conceptual difficulties experienced through the reading or those which are specific to the

individual. Thus, teachers can gain insights in the nature of their student‘s comprehension and

therefore can meet their student‘s needs effectively.

Material designers can also take advantage of these findings too. The learner‘s background

knowledge (linguistic and non-linguistic) should be taken into consideration in material

selection. As indicated in this study, both linguistic and extra-linguistic knowledge can

influence the speed and success in EFL reading comprehension. Thus, syllabus designers and

material developers may make careful provision in moving in line with meeting the readers‘

extra-linguistic knowledge when designing some materials for them.

The results can also be useful in material designs especially for ESP courses whose aims are

to make students familiar with the texts in their specialization. The closer the material is to the

student‘s fields of specialty. The more familiar the students are with the texts and

consequently have a better understanding. Therefore, syllabus and material designers should

make the texts in compatible with the student‘s specialization as much as possible.

On the level of classroom practice, the results clearly provide support to the use of previewing

activities, indicating that if such activities are appropriately structured and sufficiently be

learner sensitive they can play a significant role in aiding learners to comprehend the

materials better.

References

Anderson, R. C. et al (1983). Effects of the Reader‘s Schema at Different Points in Time.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 271-9.

Alderson & A. H. Urquhart (Eds). Reading in a Foreign Language. New York, Longman.

Bernhardt, E. B. (1991). Reading Developing in a Second Language. Norwood, NJ: Ablex

Carrell, P. L. (1987). Content and formal schemata in ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly,

21,461-481.

Carrell P. L. & Wallace, B. (1983). Background Knowledge: Context and Familiarity in

Reading Comprehension. TESOL QUARTERLY, 82, 295-308.

Hammadou, J. (1991). Interrelationships Among Prior Knowledge, Inference, and Language

Proficiency in Foreign Language Reading. THE MODERN LANGUAGE JOURANL,

75, 27-38.

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Jacobson, J. L. ands. W. Jacobson (1996). Intellectual Impairment in Children Imposed to

Polychlorinated Biphenylsin Utero. NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE,

335(11), 783-789.

Orasana, J. (ED), (1986). Reading comprehension from research to practice. Hillidale:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Swaffar, J. K., Arens, K., & Byrnes, H. (1991). Reading For Meaning: An Integrated

Approach to Language Learning. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

About the Author

Mahboobeh Khosrojerdi is from Iran. She has gotten her MA degree from Ferdowsi

University of Mashad. She has been teaching English for about 15 years at different institutes

and universities and right now she is a faculty member of Islamic Azad University, Sabzevar

Branch. She has taught different courses in English specially reading courses. Her main

research interests are reading comprehension, ESP courses, and psychological issues in

reading comprehension. She has recently attended a conference in Malaysia. She has written

two books.

144


Oral Performance: Effect of Comprehensible Input and Output

Seyed Omid Tabatabaei

Islamic Azad University, Najafabad Branch, Iran

[email protected]

Parvin Musavian Hejazi

Islamic Azad University, Najafabad Branch, Iran

Abstract

This study aimed at investigating the impact of comprehensible input and comprehensible

output on the accuracy and complexity of Iranian EFL learners‘ oral production. The

participants were randomly divided into input, output, and control groups. The study involved

a pre-task, and a main-task phase. During the pre-task phase, the input group received

comprehensible input and the output group was pushed to be engaged in comprehensible

output production. In the main-task phase, all subjects performed monologues that were

separately recorded, and later transcribed and coded in terms of accuracy and complexity, and

finally scored. The results revealed that while both comprehensible input and output improved

speech accuracy and complexity, neither was more significant than the other one in this

regard.

1. Introduction

The assessment of L2 speaking is a relatively new field, even within the young discipline of

applied linguistics (Fulcher, 2003). Speaking is a complex construct that is mainly

operationalized through the three measures of ‗complexity‘, ‗accuracy‘, and ‗fluency‘. In

other words, the development of speaking ability is measured in terms of progresses made in

each of these aspects (Skehan, 1998). According to Finardi (2008) speaking an L2 is an

important and universal activity that one aspect of it is usually achieved at the expense of

others as learners conceptualize, formulate and articulate messages. Skehan (1998) points out

that there is a tension between ‗complexity‘, ‗accuracy‘, and ‗fluency‘; what he calls a ‗trade-

off‘ effect. Finardi (2008) investigated whether the repetition of a picture description task will

result in gains in complexity and whether these gains are paid especially by gains in accuracy.

The results of the study corroborate evidence of tradeoff effects in oral production, especially

in terms of complexity at the expense of accuracy.

Bygate (1999) defines accuracy as the extent to which a speaker‘s selection of the formal

features of the language (vocabulary, idiomatic phrases, grammatical morphemes,

pronunciation patterns) correspond to patterns that a representative section of the target

population of speakers would find normal, and avoiding what they would find abnormal, for

the meanings being conveyed. Complexity, however, reflects the quality of structures used in

the communication, in terms of the number of words clustered within structures, and the

extent to which structures are clustered together.

There exist different theories in the literature regarding what (factor/method) can help L2

learners to become more proficient speakers. Comprehensible Input Hypothesis and

Comprehensible Output Hypothesis are two theories each having their own claims regarding

the most influential variable ( comprehensible input or output) for improving oral speech and

its various dimensions and the role of speech in developing the second language.


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The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires an L2.

According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order'

when s/he receives L2 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic

competence (Schutz, 2007). In the programs supporting comprehensible input theory,

students‘ grammatical errors are ignored in favor of enhancing the students‘ fluency.

Feedback is considered necessary only when intelligibility is affected. Krashen‘s fear of

attention to accuracy comes from the idea that it may get in the way of fluency and could

make the learner self-conscious and as a result, impede second or foreign language

acquisition. Accuracy is thought in natural approach to evolve as the learner progresses,

without conscious attention to form or error correction (Harati, 2000).

Krashen (1982) claims that the function of the L2 learners‘ output (production) in SLA is only

to provide a further source of comprehensible input indirectly by inviting more input from

speech partners. Krashen (1981) suggested that real language acquisition develops slowly,

and speaking skills emerge significantly later than listening skills, even when conditions are

perfect. The best methods are, therefore, those that supply ‗comprehensible input‘ in low

anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do

not force early production in L2, but allow students to produce when they are ‗ready‘,

recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible

input, and not from forcing and correcting production. (PP.6-7)

However, research shows that predominantly meaning-focused instruction does not produce

native-like grammatical competency. Evaluation of the immersion programs have shown that

while students, who have been provided with comprehensible input, acquire considerable

fluency and possess discourse skills they do not show an equivalent control over a range of

grammatical items (Mangubhai, 2001). In fact, Contrary to Krashen‘s insistence that

acquisition is dependent entirely on comprehensible input, most researchers now

acknowledge that learner output also plays a part in SLA (Ellis, 2008). In response to the

shortcomings and criticisms leveled against comprehensible input hypothesis, Swain (1985)

put forward the Comprehensible Output Hypothesis that claims that production can aid a

more complete acquisition when the learner is pushed to produce appropriate language that is

grammatically accurate.

According to Swain (1995) comprehensible input may not be sufficient for certain aspects of

L2 acquisition and that comprehensible output may be needed. Based on this hypothesis,

learners must also be given the opportunity to produce comprehensible output. Thus, the role

of output is to provide opportunities for contextualized and meaningful use of language, to

test out hypotheses about the target language, and to move the learner from a purely semantic

analysis of the language to its syntactic analysis.

Swain (1985) believes that comprehensible output under certain conditions plays specific

functions that can draw the learners‘ attention to the form of language and help them to move

from semantic to syntactic processing. These functions involve:

Noticing: Swain & Lapkin (1995),considering the ―noticing/triggering function‖ of output

indicated that under some circumstances, the activity of producing the target language may

prompt L2 learners to recognize consciously some of their linguistic problems: it may bring

their attention to something they need to discover about their second language (possibly

directing their attention to relevant input). Hypothesis testing: Producing output is one way of

testing one's hypothesis about the target language. Learners can judge the comprehensibility

146


and linguistic well-formedness of their interlanguage utterances against feedback obtained

from their interlocutors. (Soleimani, Ketabi, & Talebinejad, 2008). Metalinguistic Awareness:

As Swain (2008) has stated, the claim here is that using language to reflect on language

producing by other and the self, mediates L2 learning.

However, comprehensible output has its own criticisms. As Shehade (2002) has stated, after

over a decade of research on Swain's (1985) comprehensible output (CO) hypothesis, there is

still a severe lack of data showing that learner output or output modifications have any effect

on (L2) learning.

2. Statement of the Problem

The major problem and the main concern of this study is that despite the great amount of

input Iranian EFL learners receive during six years of formal schooling in high school and

four years of academic education in university, still a great number of Iranian University EFL

learners are not able to speak English accurately and fluently. In fact, the problem arises from

the point that in Iran, as a foreign language context, both Iranian language teachers and

learners usually tend to be more interested and proficient in receptive skills (reading and

listening) than productive skills like writing and speaking. This tendency naturally seems to

result in a disconnection between comprehensible input (CI) and comprehensible output (CO)

and a comparatively low efficiency in language production.

3. Objectives of the Study

According to the stated problem, the present study mainly aims to investigate the impact of

comprehensible input and output on the accuracy and complexity of Iranian EFL learners‘

oral speech. The specific objectives of this study have been set to determine:

1- if CI and CO have any effect on the accuracy and complexity of Iranian EFL learners‘

oral speech;

2- Whether CI or CO is more rigorous and influential for developing the levels of

accuracy and complexity in L2 oral speech of Iranian EFL learners, and

3- If there exist trade-off effects between the accuracy and complexity measures of Iranian

EFL learners‘ oral speech.

4. Research Questions

The following research questions have been addressed in this study:

1- Do CI and CO affect the accuracy of EFL learners‘ speech?

2- Do CI and CO affect the complexity of EFL learners‘ speech?

3- Is CI or CO more rigorous and influential for developing the speech accuracy of

Iranian EFL learners?

4- Is CI or CO more rigorous and influential for developing the speech complexity of

Iranian EFL learners?

5- Does any trade-off effect exist between accuracy and complexity dimensions of EFL

learners‘ oral speech?

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5. Research Hypotheses

Based on the questions cited above, this study aims at testing the following null hypotheses:

H01: Neither CI, nor CO affect the accuracy of EFL learners‘ oral speech.

H02: Neither CI, nor CO affect the complexity of EFL learners‘ oral speech.

H03: Neither CI, nor CO play a more significant role than the other one in the production

of more accurate oral speech.

H04: Neither CI, nor CO play a more significant role than the other one in the production

of more complex oral speech.

H05: There exists no trade-off effect between accuracy and complexity dimensions of oral

speech.

6. Methodology

6.1. Participants

This study was conducted with 60 female EFL students all majoring in English language

teaching at the MA level in Najafabad Azad University, Iran. They were between 24 and26

years old and all Persian native speakers. They were selected from a whole population pool of

80 based on the listening and speaking modules of the standard test of IELTS. Later, these

homogenized participants were randomly assigned to three experimental groups labeled as

input, output, and control groups. The participants went through a pre- task phase before

being engaged in the main task phase.

6.2. Instruments

6.2.1. IELTS Test

IELTS (a standard test for speakers of other languages) was used as a reliable and valid test

for the selection (homogenization) of 60 intermediate participants regarding their speaking

ability. Since the main concern and focus of the research was oral speech assessment, the

listening and speaking modules of the test were used to assess the speakers, and reading and

writing modules were deleted.

6.2.2. Reading Comprehension Text

In the pre-task phase, those 20 participants who had been selected as the input group were

given a reading text selected from the book‖ Intermediate Select Reading” that has specially

been written for students at the intermediate level of proficiency. To help students

successfully tackle and understand the passage, the writer had provided the following support

tools: Vocabulary glosses for challenging words and expressions, explanations for language

and cultural references that appeared in blue type in the reading, and numbered lines for easy

reference. The main objective of this text was to provide the participants with comprehensible

input about the topic (culture shock) in the pre-task phase and later investigate its effect on the

subsequent oral speech of the participants in the main-task phase.

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6.2.3. Standard Coding Scheme

To score the recorded monologues of participants in the main –task phase, a standard coding

system was utilized. The coding process was done in terms of grammatical accuracy, and

syntactic complexity of structures based on Bygate‘s (2001) standard coding system in which

complexity is measured in terms of number of words per t-unit, where t-unit is defined as‖a

finite clause together with any subordinate clauses dependent on it‖ (Bygate, 2001, p. 35) and

accuracy was measured by calculating the incidence of errors per t-unit,the higher the number,

the less accurate the language (Bygate, 2001).

6.3. Procedures

To select 60 homogeneous intermediate EFL speakers for the study, 80 Persian, female EFL

learners all majoring in English language teaching at MA level participated in the listening

and speaking modules of the IELTS test and those whose scores were approximately 5 were

selected. As the next step these 60 participants were randomly divided into three groups of

20: The input experimental group, the output experimental group, and the placebo control

group. This study consisted of two phases: The pre-task phase and the main-task phase. The

members of these groups were expected to participate in activities within the pre and main-

task phase.

6.3.1. Pre-Task Phase

6.3.1.1. The Input Group in Pre-Task Phase

The participants of this group in pre-task phase were asked to read the comprehension text

carefully with the purpose of comprehending and getting information. The main objective of

this part was to provide the participants with CI and later investigate its‘ effect on the

subsequent oral speech of the participants. The topic of the reading text (culture shock) was

exactly the same as the topic of discussion selected for the output group in the same pre-task

phase in order to make sure that under identical conditions (the same age, gender, level of

speaking skill, L1, the time allowed, and topic) any difference in the future oral performance

of participants would be due to the mode and way through which the topic has been handled

(i.e., through CI or CO).

6.3.1.2. The Output Group in Pre-Task Phase

The participants produced comprehensible output through discussing and negotiating the topic

of culture shock, trying to produce the language that was both comprehensible to their

partners and at the same time well formed. In the case of output group, the participants were

divided into three groups of 5. Five minutes before starting the discussion, the participants

were given the topic and its‘ related sub-topics accompanied by the following instructions in

written form in order to emphasize how they were expected to participate in the discussion so

that the aim of this phase that was providing comprehensible output would be achieved:

1 – Look at the presented topic and sub-topics and think about them for five minutes.

2 – The participation of every individual in the discussion is important and necessary.

3 – Try to understand what others say, using any technique or strategy you have in your

disposal.

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4 - Try to speak in such a way that others understand you and if any misunderstanding occurs

try to compensate it for example by rephrasing, paraphrasing, simplifying your speech,

etc,

5- Mutual understanding and peer correction is also quite welcomed.

6.3.1.3. The Control Group

In this phase the members of the control group did not engage in any particular activity and

merely attended their regular classes.

6.3.2. The Main-Task Phase

In the main-task phase, the participants from all three groups were asked to perform a

monologue within the time limit of 10 minutes about the topic that was thematically related to

the topic of the pre-task phase. The main purpose of this part was to determine whether the

group that has received comprehensible input about the topic (the input group) could produce

more accurate and complex oral speech in this phase or the group that had practically put into

practice his inter-language knowledge through discussing and negotiating the topic ( the

output group).

The oral performance of participants of each group was recorded on three separate CDs.

Later, the researcher and two other raters listened to the recordings and transcribed them

carefully. Keeping in mind the main objective of this study that was investigating the effect of

CI and CO on the grammatical accuracy and syntactic complexity of oral speech, these

transcriptions had to be coded in terms of accuracy and complexity. This was done using

Bygate‘s (2001) standard coding system, where accuracy was accounted by the number of

errors per t-unit and complexity by the number of words per t-unit. To ensure inter-coder

reliability, the coding process was done by the researcher herself and two other competent

raters. Correlation of the obtained scores was found to be 0.89. Rating the coded

transcriptions was the last step. Those who had made less grammatical errors in each t-unit,

received higher scores in accuracy and those who had made longer sentences and structures

(i.e., used more words per t-unit) received higher scores in complexity. Then, these scores

were submitted to statistical analysis.

7. Data analysis

In the present study, one-way ANOVA and Post Hoc tests were performed to examine if there

exist any significant differences among three input, output, and control groups regarding the

accuracy and complexity of speech and if it is the case, is the observed critical difference

more meaningful in the case of input or output group. In addition, correlation coefficient was

run between the accuracy and complexity scores within each group in order to investigate the

relation between these two measures of oral speech and to find the existence or non-existence

of trade-off effects.

7.1 Accuracy of Speech and the Influential Role of CI and CO

Research question one focuses on whether comprehensible input and output had any effect on

the accuracy of EFL learners‘ oral speech. The purpose of this question is to find out whether

these two variables result in more accurate speech or not. To address this question, the

number of grammatical errors per t-unit was considered, and the generated errors of

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participants in three groups were compared using ANOVA. Table 1 presents the descriptive

statistics for the incidence and number of errors per t-unit by the participants of each group.

Table1. Descriptive Statistics: Speech Accuracy among Groups

As the descriptive data in table 1 show, the accuracy mean scores of participants both in the

input and output group (15.07 and 9.80) are lower than those of the control group (17.33). As

it has been mentioned earlier, in the case of accuracy measurement that is actually an

inaccuracy measurement in this study, the smaller the figure, the better the results. So, the

lower mean scores of the input and output group in comparison with the control group

indicates that the participants in these two groups have made fewer errors in their speech. To

put it differently, under the influence of comprehensible input and output, improvements have

been made in the accuracy of their speech.

According to the obtained means, the accuracy mean scores in the input and output groups are

different from and lower than the control group, indicating that CI and CO have influenced

the incidence of errors and consequently the accuracy of learners speech: the participants have

had the fewest number of errors in the output group, followed by the input group, and then the

control group. The results of ANOVA, shown in Table 2 largely reflect this trend:

Table 2.ANOVA: The Accuracy of Speech

The findings revealed a significant difference among participants‘ accuracy measures in three

groups. (F=6.578, df=2, P=.05), meaning that there were significantly different numbers of

errors in each group and that both CI and CO have affected the accuracy of EFL learners‘

speech. In other words, this significant difference implies that CI and CO have been two

influential factors affecting the number of errors as indicators of accuracy in this research.

Based on the results presented in Tables 1 and 2, the first research hypothesis denying the

effect of CI and CO on speech accuracy is rejected.

Descriptives

accuracy of speech

15 15.07 6.158 1.590 11.66 18.48 5 25

15 9.80 4.411 1.139 7.36 12.24 4 18

15 17.33 6.694 1.728 13.63 21.04 5 28

45 14.07 6.535 .974 12.10 16.03 4 28

input

output

control

Total

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean

Minimum Maximum

ANOVA

accuracy of speech

448.133 2 224.067 6.578 .003

1430.667 42 34.063

1878.800 44

Between Groups

Within Groups

Total

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

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7.2 The Complexity of Speech and the Influential Role of CI and CO

Similarly, the second research question investigated the effect of CI and CO on the

complexity of EFL learners‘ oral speech. To address this question, the participants speech

complexity measured through the number of content words per t-unit were compared among

three groups using ANOVA and post hoc tests. Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics for

the number of words per t-unit indicating speech complexity of the participants in each group:

Table 3.Descriptive Statistics: Speech Complexity among Groups

Looking at the descriptive data in Table 3, it can be noticed that complexity mean scores of

participants in the input and output groups (496.60 and 462.53) are different from and higher

than those of the control group (389.67), indicating that CI and CO have affected speech

complexity. In fact, the existence of difference among the complexity mean scores of the

participants in three groups implies that input reception and output production tasks have led

to changes in the number of words used per t-unit and consequently the complexity of speech.

As the results show, the participants in the input group have produced more number of words

than either the participants in the output or control group. The results of ANOVA presented in

Table 4 confirm these findings. This test was run to determine if the difference among the

three involved groups regarding the complexity of speech was significant or not.

Table 4.ANOVA: Complexity of Speech

As the results of Table 4 show, there existed a significant difference among the participants‘

complexity measures in three groups. (F= 9.854, df=2, p=.05). It means that CI and CO in

comparison with the control group, have affected the participants‘ complexity measure that

the degree and significance of each of these variables on developing speech complexity will

be later compared and determined through post hoc test.

Descriptives

complexity of speech

15 496.60 67.144 17.336 459.42 533.78 392 621

15 462.53 65.157 16.823 426.45 498.62 388 578

15 389.67 69.813 18.026 351.01 428.33 311 524

45 449.60 79.816 11.898 425.62 473.58 311 621

input

output

control

Total

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean

Minimum Maximum

ANOVA


89524.133 2 44762.067 9.854 .000

190784.667 42 4542.492

280308.800 44

Between Groups

Within Groups

Total

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

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7.3. Neither CI nor CO is More Significant in Developing Speech Accuracy

In order to investigate research question three focusing on the comparison between the effects

of CI and CO on speech accuracy, the ANOVA analysis of accuracy presented in Table 2 was

followed by post hoc Scheffe test. This post hoc test was run to determine whether CI or CO

plays a more significant role in developing speech accuracy. The results of the post hoc test

have been presented in Table 5:

Table 5.Post Hoc Test: Analysis of Accuracy

As shown in Table 5, the results revealed that the difference existing between the numbers of

errors (as indicator of accuracy) in the CI and CO groups was not significant. This means that

the influence of these two variables on developing speech accuracy was not significantly

different and neither was more rigorous than the other one in decreasing the number of errors

and consequently improving the accuracy of speech. Thus, the third research hypothesis

which stated that there is no difference between the effects of CI and CO on the accuracy of

Iranian EFL learners‘ oral speech is confirmed.

7.4. Neither CI nor CO is More Significant in Developing Speech Complexity

Research question four asks whether there exist differences between the effects of CI and CO

on the speech complexity of EFL learners. To address this question, the ANOVA test that was

run for complexity measure in Table 4 was followed by the post hoc Scheffe test to determine

if CI or CO plays a more influential role in improving speech complexity. Table.6 shows the

results of this post hoc test:

Mult iple Comparisons

Dependent Variable: accuracy of speech

Scheffe

5.267 2.131 .058 -.14 10.67

-2.267 2.131 .572 -7.67 3.14

-5.267 2.131 .058 -10.67 .14

-7.533* 2.131 .004 -12.94 -2.13

2.267 2.131 .572 -3.14 7.67

7.533* 2.131 .004 2.13 12.94

(J) group

output

control

input

control

input

output

(I) group

input

output

control

Mean

Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound

95% Confidence Interval

The mean difference is signif icant at the .05 level.*.

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Table.6. Post Hoc Test: Analysis of Complexity

As Table 6 shows, the post hoc Scheffe test was performed on the significant finding of Table

4. This current analysis directly compares speech complexity between groups two by two in

an effort to explore whether CI or CO is more influential in developing complexity. The

results revealed that the difference existing between number of words (as indicator of

complexity) in the CI and CO groups was not significant, that is neither of these variables

proved to be more rigorous and influential than the other one in developing the complexity of

Iranian EFL learners‘ oral speech. Therefore, the fourth research hypothesis that stated no

difference exists between the effects of CI and CO on the complexity of oral speech is

confirmed.

7.5 The Existence of Trade-off Effects between Accuracy and Complexity

Complexity and accuracy, as two measures of oral speech, were compared between and

among input, output, and control groups using ANOVA and post hoc Scheffe test. In order to

investigate the relation between these two measures within each group, the Pearson

correlation was run between the error scores (as indicator of accuracy) and complexity scores.

The following table shows the results of Pearson correlation run between accuracy and

complexity scores within the input group:

As the Table 7 shows, there exists a significant correlation between the set of error scores

(number of errors per t-unit) and complexity scores (number of words per t-unit) within the

input group.

Mult iple Comparisons

Dependent Variable: complexity of speech

Scheffe

34.067 24.610 .392 -28.39 96.52

106.933* 24.610 .000 44.48 169.39

-34.067 24.610 .392 -96.52 28.39

72.867* 24.610 .019 10.41 135.32

-106.933* 24.610 .000 -169.39 -44.48

-72.867* 24.610 .019 -135.32 -10.41

(J) group

output

control

input

control

input

output

(I) group

input

output

control

Mean

Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound

95% Confidence Interval

The mean difference is signif icant at the .05 level.*.

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Table7. Correlation between Accuracy and Complexity Scores within the Input Group

In order to determine if this correlation is positive or negative, Figure 1 was drawn:

Figure 1.Correlation between Accuracy and Complexity Scores within the Input Group

As shown in Figure 1, from the upward movement of the graph it is implied that the

correlation is positive and consequently increase in the number of errors is accompanied by

increase in number of words and vice versa. However, as it has been mentioned earlier, in the

case of accuracy measurement that is actually an inaccuracy measurement in this study, the

lower the error score, the higher the accuracy and the higher the error score, the lower the

accuracy. In fact, this positive correlation exists between the two sets of scores that one

represents number of errors and the other one the number of words. But considering the

diverse relation between the actual accuracy and the error score (as indicator of accuracy), we

come to the conclusion that the positive correlation shown in the graph is between complexity

and error scores, while the correlation between actual accuracy and complexity of oral speech

is negative.

To investigate the relation between accuracy and complexity scores within the output group,

again the Pearson correlation is used. Table 8 presents the obtained results:

Correlations

1 .959**

.000

15 15

.959** 1

.000

15 15

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

accuracy of speech


accuracy

of speech

complexity of

speech

Correlation is signif icant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).**.

155


Table 8. Correlation between Accuracy and Complexity Scores within the Output

Group

As it can be observed in Table 8, there exists a significant correlation between number of

errors and number of words made by individuals within the output group. However, whether

this correlation is positive or negative is not apparent from the table itself and for this purpose

the obtained results need to be transferred and drawn on a Figure. Figure 2 shows such a

correlation:

Figure 2.Correlation between Accuracy and Complexity Scores within the Output

Group

The upward direction of graph indicates that the correlation between the error and complexity

scores within the output group is positive and consequently increase in the number of errors is

accompanied by the increase in complexity and vice versa. However, since in this study

accuracy is an inaccuracy measurement and the relation between the actual accuracy and error

score (as indicator of accuracy) is diverse, it can be concluded that the correlation between

complexity and actual accuracy is a negative one. Pearson Correlation is again used to

determine if there exists any significant correlation between accuracy and complexity scores

within the control group:

Correlations

1 .974**

.000

15 15

.974** 1

.000

15 15

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

accuracy of speech


accuracy

of speech

complexity of

speech


156


Table 9 shows that like the input and output group, the correlation between these two sets of

scores in the control group is also significant.

Table 9. Correlation between Accuracy and Complexity Scores within the Control

Group

Drawing Figure 3 can help to determine if such significant correlation is positive or negative.

Figure 3.Correlation between Accuracy and Complexity Scores within the Control

Group

Upward direction always signifies a positive correlation and downward direction a negative

one. Based on this Figure, in the control group, the correlation between error and complexity

scores is positive. But, as mentioned before, due to the converse relation between error score

(as indicator of accuracy) and the actual accuracy, it is concluded that there exists a negative

correlation between the actual accuracy and complexity as two measures of oral speech.

8. Discussion

The first null hypothesis of this research aimed at determining if comprehensible input and

output have any effect on the accuracy of EFL learners‘ oral speech. The findings of the

present study showed that both input reception and output production tasks caused changes in

the syntactic accuracy of EFL learners‘ speech. This finding of the study supports previous

claims made concerning the influential role of CI and CO in developing the accuracy measure

of oral performance.

As stated by Krashen (1985), speaking skills and the knowledge of grammar rules occur as

long as sufficient amount and type of input is provided. In fact, in approaches supporting CI,

Correlations

1 .882**

.000

15 15

.882** 1

.000

15 15

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

accuracy of speech


accuracy

of speech

complexity of

speech



550500450400350300

accu

racy o

f sp

eech

30

25

20

15

10

5

157


speech accuracy is thought to evolve as the learner progresses and receives more and more CI,

without conscious attention to form or error correction. On the other hand, great numbers of

experiments have also proved the influential role of CO in developing speech accuracy and

review of the literature provides us with convincing theories as why comprehensible output

can improve the speech accuracy of EFL learners. Three specific functions have been

mentioned for comprehensible output that is believed to be different from and independent of

comprehensible input. ‗Noticing function‘, ‗hypothesis testing function‘ and ‗meta-cognitive

function‘ are regarded as three significant functions of CO that can help learners move from

semantic to syntactic processing and as the result develop their grammatical accuracy. Studies

done about comprehensible output and each of its specific functions positively support and

confirm the role it plays in improving speech accuracy of EFL learners. There exist great

number of studies in the literature that have provided support for the claim that pushing

learners to produce comprehensible output results in gains in speech accuracy (e.g., Swain,

1985, 1995; Nagata, 1998; Tarone & Liu, 1995; Izumi, 2002; Dekeyser & Sokalski, 1996;

Mackey, 1999; Noubishi & Ellis, 1993). Results of these studies support the link between

output production and in particular the development of grammatical accuracy. Therefore,

based on the created change and development in speech accuracy of input and output group

participants, regardless of the degree of significance of such change in each group, the first

null hypothesis stating that CI and CO have no effect on speech accuracy is rejected.

The second null hypothesis of the research similarly focuses on determining whether CI and

CO play any role in developing speech complexity. The review of the literature revealed that

the number of studies which directly investigated the effect of comprehensible input and

output on the complexity of oral speech is very limited and fewer than those investigating the

impact of these factors on speech accuracy. As the results of this study revealed

comprehensible input and output both created changes in speech complexity of participants

that determining whether CI or CO was more rigorous, influential, and significant in creating

such a change and development in speech complexity is the matter that is considered when

evaluating the fourth hypothesis of the study. However, the created change in speech

complexity of input and output group members regardless of the degree of significance of

such change in each group caused the second null hypothesis denying the effect of

comprehensible input and output on developing speech complexity to be rejected as well.

Considering the third null hypothesis of the research which states that comprehensible input

and output have the same impact on the accuracy of EFL learners‘ oral speech, the results

obtained from this study confirmed this null hypothesis. However, review of the existing

literature reveals that previous studies conducted in this regard are not in line with this result

of the study and previous experiments mainly confirm a more influential role for

comprehensible output in developing speech accuracy and formal linguistic features and a less

influential role for comprehensible input in this regard.

Beside others, Nobuyoshi and Ellis (1993), for example, claim to have provided data showing

that comprehensible output results in actual improvement in speech accuracy. They stated that

their study ― provides some support for the claim that pushing learners to improve the

accuracy of their production results in not only immediate improved performance but also in

gains in accuracy over time‖ (p. 208).

On the other hand, one of the most significant experiments that prove the lack of success of

CI in improving the accuracy of speech is the case of learners in the immersion context,

where the learners were exposed to abundant, extensive amount of comprehensible input in

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both written and spoken form, but still produced oral speech that was full of grammatical

errors. Ryan (n.d.) refers to the study conducted with Canadian immersion students, in which

Swain (1995) has shown that even though students had received abundant comprehensible

input in French and were somewhat fluent in the language, they had still not acquired

grammatical competence in the language. Immersions students‘ many syntactical errors in

French confirmed that the target language grammatical system had not been fully acquired.

One underlying reason why in this research neither of these variables succeeded to be more

influential in improving speech accuracy may be the way of conducting tasks and mainly the

way comprehensible output was put into practice. There is the probability that during the

output production task, the CO in its real sense that calls for negative feedback, modification,

restatement, and correction had not been truly practiced and consequently the main function

of output that is moving learners from semantic to syntactic processing had not been applied.

In fact as Krashen (1994) has stated, output in this sense is scarce, so it is possible that in this

study, too, the real output that was expected to be produced had not been practiced.

The fourth null hypothesis of the research that states comprehensible input and output have

the same effect on the complexity of EFL learners oral performance is also confirmed based

on the results obtained from this study. As the obtained results show, complexity level was

not significantly different in the speech of input and output group learners.

As it was mentioned before, the numbers of studies that have investigated the effect of CI and

CO on the development of speech complexity are very limited and consequently there does

not exist enough experiments in this regard to be compared with the results of this study.

However, in seeking for an underlying reason, we can again mention the way through which

CO was put into practice and the probability that CO in its real sense that pushes learners

from a semantic processing to syntactic processing of language has not been achieved.

The fifth null hypothesis of this study investigated the existence of trade- off effects between

accuracy and complexity within all three groups of the study. Analyzing the scores of

individual participants revealed that those participants who performed oral speech with higher

accuracy showed less gains in complexity, and those who had higher scores in speech

complexity, were weaker in performing accurate, grammatical speech. Such results are quite

in line with previous experiments which were concerned with accuracy, complexity, and

fluency as three measures of EFL learners‘ speech production. According to Skehan and

Foster (2001), attentional resources are limited and attending to one aspect of performance

may mean that other dimensions are neglected. They propose that for language development

to proceed optimally, a balance needs to be established between these three performance

dimensions. Mentioning some of these studies at this point can be a good evidence for

proving such claim.

Foster and Skehan (1996) examined the influence of task type and degree of planning on three

different aspects of L2 performance: fluency, accuracy, and complexity. The study employed

three types of tasks (personal information exchange, narrative, and decision-making) under

three planning conditions (unplanned, planned but without detail, and planned with detail). In

their discussion, Foster and Skehan noted that a trade-off existed between the goals of

performance complexity and performance accuracy. They explained that individuals have a

159


limited capacity for attention, as noted earlier, so when a task is more cognitively demanding,

attention is diverted from formal linguistic features-the basis of accuracy-to dealing with these

cognitive requirements.

In Brazil, D‘Ely (2006) investigated the impact of four types of pre-task planning on the L2

oral performance of 47 learners of English. Participant‘s speaking was assessed in terms of

fluency, accuracy, complexity, and lexical density. Results of the statistical analyses

conducted showed that different planning conditions affected learners‘ performance in

different ways. D‘Ely‘s results also provided evidence for the trade-off among fluency,

accuracy, complexity, and lexical density due to limitations in attentional resources during

speaking, giving support to Foster and Skehan (1996).

9. Conclusion

Based on the findings of this study, comprehensible input and output are both influential

variables for improving the accuracy and complexity measures of L2 learners‘ speech.

Significant changes occurred in the performance of input and output group participants in

terms of accuracy and complexity after being engaged in input reception and output

production tasks, indicating that comprehensible input and output are two variables that can

improve speech accuracy and complexity.

The results of this study also revealed that there existed no significant difference between the

number of errors (as indicator of accuracy) in the speech of input and output group members,

indicating that neither CI nor CO has been more influential in developing the accuracy

dimension of Iranian EFL learners‘ oral speech. To put it differently, the decrease in the

number of errors was not so much different in the speech of input and output group

participants. Similarly, the lack of noticeable difference between input and output group

members regarding the increase in the number of words (as indicator of complexity) in their

speech was evidence indicating that neither CI nor CO has been more effective in improving

the speech complexity of Iranian EFL learners. This result of the study, however, is not in

harmony with the previous experiments as the majority of studies conducted in this regard

mainly have reported a more effective role for comprehensible output in developing accuracy

dimension of oral speech in comparison with comprehensible input.

Another obtained result of this study that can be matched up with recent theories is the trade-

off effects between accuracy and complexity measures of oral speech. Such trade-off effect

means that one of these variables progresses at the expense of the other one. In the present

study, within all three groups, when attention was devoted to speech complexity, it was

diverted from formal linguistic features (accuracy), and, on the other hand, accuracy

progressed at the expense of speech complexity.

10. Implications of the Study

One possible pedagogical implication that can be derived from the findings of this study is

that in the course of L2 speech development, teachers should design and manipulate tasks in

such a way that enough practice is allowed in various dimensions of oral speech. In other

words, since different tasks provide different opportunities for practicing specific aspects of

L2 speech production, so various tasks need to be manipulated to enable learners practice

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various dimensions of speech production, focusing both on meaning and on form and in focus

on form, according to Finardi (2008, P.9), ―a balance should be made between hypothesis

testing and restructuring (complexity) and the control of stable elements in the interlanguage

system (accuracy)‖. Generally it is implied that the most effective way for improving oral

speech, based on the literature and the results obtained from this study is an eclectic approach

which confloats both CI and CO.

To use Bygate‘s (1999) words: ―Feed people with narrative tasks and they will crunch up

some aspects of speech in one way, sharpening certain linguistic teeth, i.e., cognitively

mapping certain types of language and certain types of communicative demand. Feed them

different tasks, and different linguistic teeth might be developed.‖(p. 39).

11. Limitations of the Study

The most notable limitation is related to the IELTS test used to select homogeneous

intermediate learners. This test was selected from an IELTS course book, i.e., Cambridge

IELTS 5, due to the problem of accessibility to the real IELTS test. So there is the possibility

that the obtained results have not truly reflected the proficiency level of the participants.

Moreover, based on this course book test, the score of participants was on average 5, but more

specifically 4.5 to 6. Thus, the oral performance of learners was likely to have been

influenced by this broad range of scores.

Due to the problem of accessibility, like most SLA studies, this study also involved a small

number of participants. The present research was conducted with 45 participants, 15 members

in each group. To be able to generalize these results more confidently, a larger number of

participants are required.

One aspect that must be taken into consideration when analyzing the results of this study is

the fact that since the participants who cooperated in this research came from an experimental

group, there is the probability that some of them may have perceived the speaking task as

tests and therefore behaved accordingly. As Iwashita, McNamara, and Elder (2002) suggest,

performance on tests differ from performance in class and so it has to be analyzed differently

and with caution. As stated by Finardi (2008), task implementation for research purpose must

be carried out with care and consideration of these issues.

12. Suggestions for Further Research

The current study population involved intermediate-level learners of English as a foreign

language with Persian as their L1. Conducting the study with another different population

regarding their L1, level of proficiency, educational background, learning environment, and

other variables may lead to quite different results about the influence of input and output on

accuracy and complexity of EFL learners‘ oral speech.

In the present study, the output hypothesis was put into practice through interactions between

L2 learners, rather than among L2 learners and native speakers. Thus, the results of the

current study should not be generalized to native speaker-learner interactions without

additional research.

The main focus of the present study is on the accuracy and complexity of oral speech.

However, the effect of CI and CO can also be investigated regarding the fluency of speech.

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The mode of presenting CI to learners (either through listening or reading) may influence

their comprehension and consequently their following performance. So research on the role

and effect of mode of input presentation seems necessary.

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System, 27, 33-48.

Bygate, M. (2001). Effects of task repetition on the structure and control of oral language. In

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language learning and testing (pp. 37-53). London: Longman.

Dekeyser, R, & Sokalski, K. (1996). The differential role of comprehension and production

practice. Language Learning, 46(4), 613-642.

D‘Ely, R. C. F. (2006). A focus on learners‘ meta-cognitive processes: The impact of strategic

planning, repetition, strategic planning plus repetition, and strategic planning for

repetition on L2 oral performance. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of

Santa Catarina.

Ellis, R. (2008). Principles of instructed second language acquisition. CALL(Center for

Applied Linguistics). Retrieved September 25, 2009 from

http:// www.cal.org/resources/digest/instructed2ndlang.html.

Faerch, C., & Kasper, G. (1986). The role of comprehension in second language learning.

. Applied Linguistics, 7(3), 257-274.

Finardi, R. K. (2008). Effects of task repetition on L2 oral performance. Scielo, 47(1).

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http:// www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci-arttext&pid=5do3-

18132008000100003&hg=es&nrm=iso&tlng=en

Foster, P., & Skehan, P. (1996). The influence of planning and task type on second language

performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 229-323.

Fulcher, G. (2003). Testing second language speaking. TESL, 8(1). Retrieved June, 2004

from http:// tesl-ej.org/ej 29/r5.html.

Harati, N. (2000). The impact of recast versus negotiation of form on the grammatical

accuracy of the Iranian EFL students‘ speech. A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Teaching English as a Foreign

Language. In the Foreign Languages Department of Iran, University of Science and

Technology.

Iwashita, N. & McNamara, T. & Elder, C. (2002). Can we predict task difficulty in an oral

proficiency test? Exploring the potential of an information processing approach to

task design. Language learning, 51(3), 401-436.

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About the Author

Seyed Omid Tabatabaei is an assistant professor of TEFL at Islamic Azad University,

Najafabad Branch, the head of English Department and the educational vice-dean of the

Humanities Faculty. He has published articles at various domestic and international Journals

and presented at different National and international conferences.

Parvin Musavian Hejazi is an MA candidate of TEFL at Islamic Azad university, Najafabad

Branch. She has taught English for a couple of years at Language Institutes.

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Power Relations in Pedagogy: A Constraint on EFL Speakers’ Identity

Confidence and Identity Anxiety

Noparat Tananuraksakul

South-East Asia University

[email protected]

Abstract

This present study into power relations in pedagogy and its influence on EFL speakers‘

identity confidence and identity anxiety have been overlooked in Thailand. The power is

mainly based on Jennifer Gore‘s implications that teachers legitimately have power produced

through teaching and that they must embrace and exercise it consciously in order to enhance

their students‘ learning outcome. This kind of teacher power reflects a set of deeply-

embedded cultural practices which exist in Thai culture. Quantitative findings of 69 students

reveal that to some degree conscious use of attractive and rewarding power by the researcher

(teacher) can positively influence her students‘ identity confidence and identity anxiety in

spoken English and attitudes towards teaching and learning of English. However, it can also

negatively influence their achievement in speaking due to some factors relating to

psychomotor domain. The study offers an insightful direction for EFL teachers.

1. Introduction

Culturally speaking, teachers hold some forms of power. Over forty years ago, French and

Raven (1959) constructed five types of teacher power: attractive, expert, reward, position and

coercive. These sorts of power remain in use today as teachers need them in order to influence

their students‘ behaviours (Shindler, n.d.). This notion mirrors a fundamental set of power

relations in pedagogy consisting of a set of deeply-embedded cultural practices (Gore, 1995).

Instead of dispensing the power, Gore (2002) suggests that teachers need to embrace and

exercise it more consciously. This means they need to know that power relations produced

through pedagogy have three effects in relations (between teachers and students), habitus

(engagement in pedagogy) and discourse (knowledge). Such power is inescapably

constructed in a classroom and may have a positive and/or negative effect on learning

outcomes.

In an EFL context like Thailand, acquiring English skills (discourse) does not appear to be

simple because of not only the context itself but also the position of ―the teacher‖. Teachers

legitimately have power influenced by certain cultural patterns or values (Ziegahn, 2001). An

obvious pattern is exemplified in respect for seniority generally determined by age and job.

In any given context, a wide range of relationships among Thais is normally determined by

who is more senior and who is more junior (Redmond, 1998). In an academic context,

students are culturally deemed to be luk-sid or disciples and behave as passive learners.

These circumstances may limit Thai learners of EFL to develop their speaking skills

competently due to a need of active interactions in a classroom. The limit may further

decrease their identity confidence and concurrently increase their identity anxiety.

Research into power relations in teaching and its effect on students‘ affect in learning in

Thailand have been overlooked. For example, Srinutham (2009) studies power relations

between parents and their children through characters in one of well-known classic children‘s

books called Pla Boo Thong. Prajuckpana (2008) examines how the construction and


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reproduction process of gender and the manifestation of patriarchy that occurs at the

restaurant affect gender division of labour, gender bias, and gender power relations. Peacham

(2007) investigates the power structure of the community and power relations of the

community as well as the local government in managing and utilising the resources.

2. Objectives

This paper aims to investigate the following: 1) undergraduate students‘ levels of identity

confidence and identity anxiety in spoken English; 2) their attitudes towards pedagogical

strategies; and 3) correlations between these three variables (confidence, anxiety and

attitudes) and speaking test results.

3. Procedure of the study

To illuminate the arguments previously mentioned, I firstly used a replicated 1-5 rating scale

questionnaire (Park & Lee, 2005) to examine the levels of confidence and anxiety in spoken

English in 69 students enrolled in my three different speaking classes during the first session.

The overall outcomes revealed that their confidence (x̄ = 3.28) and anxiety (x̄ = 3.02) were

moderate and that they felt shy speaking English to both Thai (x̄ = 3.12) and foreign

professors (x̄ = 3.17).

However, when considering each statement in the questionnaire, one particular statement

showed their lowest level of confidence in that they did not think they could speak English

well (2.51). This specific outcome was parallel with their high level of anxiety shown in

these four statements: ‗I worried about speaking with errors (x̄ = 3.49), taking oral tests (x̄ =

3.45), earning grades (x̄ = 3.71) and learning English (x̄ = 3.48)‘. This aspect is in accordance

with Krashen‘s (1987) Affective Filter Hypothesis.

Then from session two onwards, I particularly embraced both attractive and rewarding power

and exercised them in my class along with the lesson plans prepared according to the course

outline. By means of attractive power, I made an effort to build a rapport with my 69

students, calling them by their nickname instead of first name. For rewarding power, I

commended them every time they tried to make a range of effort (from a little to great) to

speak up. For example, ‗just need to work on it a little more‘, ‗that is good‘, ‗well-done‘ and

‗excellent‘. These were pedagogical strategies to break down the power relations.

After use of the above pedagogy for six and fifteen weeks, I gave the students mid-term and

final speaking tests and asked them to complete the same questionnaire. During these periods,

I additionally investigated their attitudes towards the teaching strategies using a questionnaire

that I constructed based on the pedagogical strategies. Five teaching experts examined it and I

revised it accordingly.

4. Hypotheses

Based on Gore‘s (2002) arguments that teachers need to use their power knowingly and that

trying to dispense classrooms of power is not futile, I hypothesise that after conscious use of

the pedagogical strategies for six weeks, the students‘ overall level of:

1. confidence in spoken English is higher than the first session;

2. anxiety in spoken English is lower than the first session;

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3. attitudes towards the pedagogical strategies is high;

4. confidence correlates with their mid-term speaking test result;

5. anxiety correlates with their mid-term speaking test result; and

6. attitudes correlates with their mid-term speaking test result.

A continuity of conscious use of the pedagogical strategies until final exam or after fifteen

weeks, the students‘ overall level of:

7. confidence in spoken English is higher than six weeks earlier;

8. anxiety in spoken English is lower than six weeks earlier;

9. attitudes towards the pedagogical strategies is higher than six weeks earlier;

10. confidence correlates with their final speaking test result;

11. anxiety correlates with their final speaking test result; and

12. attitudes correlates with their final speaking test result.

5. Reliability of research tools

SPSS is used to measure questionnaire reliability. The results show that the questionnaires on

confidence, anxiety and attitudes are reliable at .689, .943 and .902, respectively.

6. Statistical treatment of data

The quantitative data garnered during sessions one, eight (mid-term exam) and sixteen (final

exam) are analysed by use of SPSS. Descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation are

used to interpret the data answering hypotheses 1, 2, 3, 7, 8 and 9. Inferential statistics of t-

test dependence is employed to interpret correlations between two variables answering

hypotheses 4, 5, 6, 10, 11 and 12.

7. Findings and Discussion

After using the teaching strategies knowingly for six weeks, the overall findings reveal that

the levels of students‘:

1) confidence (x̄ = 3.36) and anxiety (x̄ = 2.92) in speaking are moderate. The

results remain the same as the first session, rejecting hypotheses 1 and 2.

However, when comparing all statements, there are three statements showing one

higher level of confidence in speaking. They think they can speak English well (x̄

= 2.91), speak perfect English in the future (x̄ = 4.20) and get an A in this class (x̄

= 3.51). Four statements show one lower level of anxiety. They worried about

speaking with their classmates (x̄ = 2.35), speaking better English than their

classmates (x̄ = 2.43), being corrected by their classmates (x̄ = 2.45) and learning

English (x̄ = 3.33).

The analysis suggests that conscious use of the pedagogical strategies have some positive

effects on the students‘ identity confidence and identity anxiety in speaking in English.

2) attitudes towards the teaching strategies is high (x̄ = 3.83), supporting with

hypothesis 3. They like it most when I call them by their nickname (x̄ = 4.30),

when I correct their spoken errors (x̄ = 4.25) and because they gain more

knowledge in this class (x̄ = 4.20).

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The analysis suggests that conscious use of the pedagogical strategies can positively break

through the power relations between my students and myself.

3) confidence does not correlate with their speaking test result (r = .490,

p = .084), rejecting hypothesis 4.

4) anxiety does not correlate with their speaking test result (r = .059, p = .229),

which conflicts with hypothesis 5.

5) attitudes correlate with their speaking test result (r =.682*, p = - .050), supporting

hypothesis 6.

There may be other factors affecting the rejection of hypotheses 4 and 5, for example, class

absence during the first seven weeks and a lack of lesson reviews. The survey shows that 41

students missed the class between two and three times and five missed it more than three

times. Two statements addressed in the attitude survey reveal moderate levels of lesson

reviews through E-Learning that I produced for this class and of reading before coming to the

class. These aspects may impinge on their speaking achievements since 40 students receive

marks lower than 50%.

After using the teaching strategies knowingly for fifteen weeks, the overall outcomes indicate

in the following that the levels of students‘:

1) confidence in speaking is high (x̄ = 3.40) and is higher than six weeks earlier,

supporting hypothesis 7.

2) anxiety in speaking is moderate (x̄ = 3.04) and is the same as six weeks before,

rejecting hypothesis 8.

However, when comparing all statements, one statement particularly shows a higher level of

confidence in speaking from moderate to high. They particularly thought they were capable to

learn English (x̄ = 3.47). In contrast, five statements show one higher level of anxiety. They

were afraid when they had to speak in English with Thai professors (x̄ = 3.02) and with their

classmates (x̄ = 2.76). They worried about being corrected by their professor (x̄ = 2.68) and

by their classmates (x̄ = 2.80) and about learning English (x̄ = 3.44).

Of the five statements of anxiety mentioned above, the level of the first four moved up from

low to moderate whereas the fifth increased from moderate to high. These two statements: ‗I

was afraid when I had to speak in English with Thai professors‘ and ‗I worried about being

corrected by my professor‘ reflect power relations in pedagogy. Other two statements: ‗I was

afraid when I had to speak in English with my classmates‘ and ‗I worried about being

corrected by my classmates‘ reflect loss of face (Mulder, 2000), a Thai cultural pattern deeply

embedded in social interactions. It may be that these four statements specifically led the

students to have more anxiety in learning English, parallel with Nunan‘s (1999) suggestion

that the least number of students in a language classroom (not over ten) and types of speaking

activities are important factors influencing learners‘ willingness to talk.

The above analysis suggests that conscious use of the pedagogical strategies may not be key

factors influencing the students‘ higher anxiety. Perhaps, it derives from frequency of error

correction and meaning-and-form-focused instructions for the purpose of correct and

appropriate spoken productions (Long, 1996) I adopted in my class. I corrected my students‘

errors every time they spoke with incorrect forms and words. Excessive correction may build

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up their anxiety when they had to interact with me in the classroom (Lightbown & Spada,

1999).

3) attitudes towards the teaching strategies is high (x̄ = 3.83) but it remains the same

as six weeks earlier, rejecting hypothesis 9. However, when comparing all

statements, one statement (I like it when the teacher corrects my errors)

specifically shows a lower level from the highest (x̄ = 4.25) to high (x̄ = 4.20).

The analysis is in agreement with the statement of anxiety that the students feel more worried

when I correct their errors. This aspect can imply that their anxiety is influenced by loss of

face, similar to Zhang‘s (2006) study in that EFL learners of Chinese prefer face keeping to

error-making because they feel anxious to make mistakes.

4) confidence does not correlate with their final speaking test result

(r = -.186, p = .134), rejecting hypothesis 10.

5) anxiety does not correlate with their final speaking test result (r = -.187, p = .134),

which conflicts with hypothesis 11.

6) attitudes do not correlate with their final speaking test result (r =.065, p = .606),

rejecting hypothesis 12.

The analysis suggests that there may be other factors affecting the rejection of hypotheses 10,

11 and 12, for example, class absence during weeks nine and fifteen as well as a lack of

lesson reviews. The survey shows that 43 students missed the class between two and three

times while 17 students missed it more than three times. From my class attendance records

during these periods, apart from their absence there were two groups of eight students each

arriving in the class at least half an hour late. Through an informal interview with them, I

found that they waited for their group members to come to the campus and have breakfast

together first and then attended the class later. This point reflects a collectivistic practice

(Hofstede, 1997). Students who missed the class more than three times had to work part-time

with dynamic shifts. Additionally, two statements addressed in the attitude survey reveal

moderate levels of lesson reviews through E-Learning produced for this class and of reading

before coming to the class. The analysis implies that frequent absence from the class,

unpunctuality and lack of lesson reviews may impinge on their final speaking achievements

as 34 students receive lower marks than their mid-term test result

8. Conclusion and Recommendation

This study examined power relations in pedagogy based on Gore‘s (2002) implications and its

effects on identity confidence and identity anxiety in Thai students of EFL. Although the

small number of participants limits the investigation, it offers an insightful direction that

teachers of EFL need to be consciously aware of power relations produced through pedagogy,

embrace and exercise it knowingly. The teachers also need to know which types of power

(attractive, expert, reward, position and coercive) they have and can use to suit their group of

students. Such conscious awareness can to some extent break through the power relations,

improve students‘ identity confidence in speaking, develop their positive attitudes towards

learning and teaching of English and at the same time decrease their identity anxiety. Yet, the

awareness cannot help students achieve in their speaking skills because of these factors,

frequent absence from the class, unpunctuality and lack of lesson reviews. To say the least,

this group of students needs not only affective but also cognitive and psychomotor domains in

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order to develop their speaking skills (Bauer, 1970). It is recommended to add a control

group for further research.

9. References

Bauer, E.W. (1970). Objectives, learning tasks, and testing in foreign languages.

Paper presented at the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional

English Language Center Seminar on English Language Testing, Bangkok, Thailand.

French, J., & Raven, B. H. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright (Ed.),

Studies in social power (pp. 150-167). Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social

Research.

Gore, J.M. (1995). On the continuity of power relations in pedagogy. International

Studies in Sociology of Education, 5(2), 165-188.

Gore, J.M. (2002). Some certainties in the uncertain world of classroom practice:

An outline of a theory of power relations in pedagogy. Conference Proceedings: the

Annual Meeting of the Australian Association for Research in Education, Brisbane,

December 2 – 5.

Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York:

McGraw-Hill

Krashen, S. D. (1987). Principles and Practice in Second Language

Acquisition. Prentice-Hall International.

Lightbown, P., & N. Spada. (1999). How Languages are Learned. (2nd ed.). Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language

acquisition. In W. R. & T. J. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413-468). San Diego : Academic Press.

Mulder, N. (2000). Inside Thai society: Religion, everyday life, change. Chiang Mai:

Silkworm Books.

Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching and learning. Boston: Heinle and

Heinle

Park, Hyesook & Lee, R.A. (2005). L2 Learners’ Anxiety, Self-Confidence and Oral

Performance. The 10th

Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics

(PAAL) Japan Proceedings. Retrieved 20 August 2010 from

http://www.paaljapan.org/resources/proceedings/PAAL10/pdfs/hyesook.pdf

Peacham, C. (2007). Power Relations of Community and Local Government in

Natural Resource Management in Ban Sop Win Village, Tambon Mae Win, Amphoe

Mae Wang, Changwat Chiang Mai. Master‘s Degree Thesis, Political Sciences,

Chiang Mai University.

http://www.paaljapan.org/resources/proceedings/PAAL10/pdfs/hyesook.pdf

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Prajuckpana, T. (2008). Gender and power relations through drinking and eating

culture. Master‘s Degree Thesis, Women‘s Studies, Chiang Mai University.

Redmond, M. (1998). Wondering into Thai Culture. Bangkok: Redmondian Insight

Enterprises.

Shindler, J.V. (n.d.). The five forms of teacher power. Retrieved 22 November, 2010,

from http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/cm/Teacherpower

Srinutham, P. (2009). A Study of the construction of parental-child power relations in

Pla Boo Thong. Master‘s Degree Thesis, English, Chiang Mai University.

Zhang, X. (2006). Speaking skills and anxiety. CELEA Journal, 29(1), 34-39.

Ziegahn, L. (2001). Considering Culture in the Selection of Teaching Approaches for

Adults. Retrieved 23 November, 2010, from

http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-3/culture.htm

About the Author

Noparat Tananuraksakul is a PhD candidate in Linguistics, Macquarie University. She is a

teaching staff member of the Department of Business English, South-East Asia University.

Her interest is in the areas of intercultural communication, human security and psychological

aspects of foreign language learning.

http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-3/culture.htm

171


Questions: Interpersonal Interactive Feature in

Science Lecture Discourse in L2 Setting

Akhyar Rido

English Literature Department

Higher School of Foreign Language (STBA) Teknokrat Lampung, Indonesia

[email protected] Abstract

This paper looks into the use and function of questions as one of interpersonal interactive

features in science lecture discourse particularly in Non-Native Speaker (NNS) of English

setting in a university in Malaysia where English (L2) is used as the medium of instruction

(MOI). There are two lectures compared, analyzed, and discussed qualitatively. Meanwhile

the data are collected through non-participant observation and video-recording. The findings

show that there are a number of display and referential questions employed by the lecturer.

The use of questions will help a lecture to be more interactive and can define interpersonal

relations between a lecturer and students.

Introduction

This paper looks into the use and function of questions as one of interpersonal interactive

features in science lecture discourse particularly in Non Native Speaker (NNS) of English

setting in a university in Malaysia where English (L2) is used as the medium of instruction

(MOI). Interactive discourse structuring is used to guide listeners through on-going speech

and has been shown to have a positive effect on lecture comprehension, particularly in L2

settings. As mobility increases in the academic world, there are more possibilities for lecture

events characterized not only by linguistic/cultural diversity but also by unfamiliarity between

lecturers and audiences (Camiciottoli, 2004: 41). In this situation, interactive discourse

structuring may have an especially important role in terms of improving students‘ linguistic

and communicative competence also establishing a comfortable context that will encourage

participation (Morell, 2000; Comicciottoli, 2004). Morell (2004: 326), then, adds that

personal pronouns, discourse markers, questions, and the negotiation of meaning are

considered as interpersonal discursive features because they are concerned with the lecturer‘s

attitude towards the content being worked upon and to the students. However, this study will

focus on questions, particularly display and referential.

A question is categorized as interpersonal because they indicate the desire to share discourse

(Morell, 2004). A teacher or lecturer formulates a question mostly because he is expecting a

response. Nevertheless, not all questions require or expect response.

There are several researches which focus on the use of questions in a lecture discourse

(Brock, 1986; Olsen and Huckin, 1990; Morell, 2004, 2007). Olsen and Huckin (1990) found

that students may face such difficulties to follow a lecture. Such instances and questions can

help and influence students to comprehend a large chunk of discourse.

In one study, Brock (1986) has found that referential questions which are mostly open

questions (the lecturer does not know the answer) rather than display questions which are

mostly closed questions (the lecturer knows the answer), will get more and longer responses.

Nevertheless, the lecturers who claim that the discourse should contain closed questions were

probably referring to the type of questions that they more often use or that they have received


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responses for (Morell, 2007: 229). Morell (2007: 229) adds that responding with one or two

words requires a smaller risk of losing face than responding with a longer utterance. In any

case, few lecturers are aware of the different type of questions that their either use or that can

be used, for these reason in the questionnaire responses, there is no mention of referential and

display questions or the different ways of negotiating meaning. However Brock (1986) and

Morell (2004) have different findings in such points.

So now, Morell‘s (2004) findings show that there is more display questions than referential

questions. In addition, it seems that there is a correlation between the amount of referential

questions and the amount of student interventions. She reveals that students‘ responses toward

referential questions are longer and more complex than display questions. Therefore, she

claims that referential questions can enhance the quality and quantity of students‘

contributions to the lecture. Moreover, it is also revealed that all the referential questions got

responses. In contrast there are many display questions which got no responses. Further,

Morell (2004: 335) also agrees that it is true that the content of the referential questions was

primarily of a more personal character (e.g., For what reason do you think…? How would you

say this compares with Spain?), whereas the display questions tended to be more of an

impersonal nature (e.g., Which religion is the most predominant in the US?). In her final

statement, Morell (2004: 236) says that the use of questions by the lecturer indicates that

students‘ participation is not only welcomed but requested.

In a more recent study, Morell (2007) shows that students would prefer to answer than to ask

questions. She further explains that some lecturers claim that students answer closed

questions (direct to individuals that require short responses), while other believe that open

questions (questions posed to whole class that require many possible answers) get more

responses.

QUESTION CLASSIFICATION

Athanasiadou (1991: 108-110) classifies four types of questions that vary in their degree of

textuality and that define distinct interpersonal relations. These four are display, referential,

rhetorical, and indirect questions.

a) Display—questions to check students‘ understanding toward material at hand e.g.,

What speaker’s face was threatened?

b) Referential—questions to look for unknown information e.g., Those of you who

were in the U.S., did you have any contact with religion?

c) Rhetorical—questions which do not require an answer and provide information.

Lecturers usually formulate then and respond to them e.g., What is the business of

parliament? Now the main…

d) Indirect—questions used to mark recipient act e.g., Is there anybody who doesn’t

have this handout? (Students who do not have handouts are expected to put up

their hands).

METHODOLOGY

This research uses purely qualitative method. In general, qualitative methods are subjective

and humanistic as they deal with meanings. It is different from quantitative method which is

regarded as more objective and scientific as they deal with numbers (Clarke and Dawson,

173


1999: 38). Further, the data are gathered through three ways namely non-participant

observation and video-recording.

The researcher conducted observations, as a non-participant observer, on 8 August and 12

September 2008 by directly observing the two lecture sessions at the Faculty of Science and

Technology in a university in Malaysia from the same lecturer. The first lecture is about

‗forces‘ while the second one is about ‗centre of mass‘. The first lecture lasts approximately

one and half hour while the second lecture lasts approximately one hour. During the

observation the researcher brings and uses recording field notes. The researcher stays in the

lecture hall and observes everything from the very beginning until the very end of the

lectures. Furthermore, in this research, the video recording process is also done in the same

days of observation to collect data. A technician helps recording the two lectures. Then, the

recordings are converted to DVD version and transcribed manually using a notebook and a

headset. In transforming the video-recording into a transcribed form, the details of gestures,

intonations, and postures during the lectures are also noted. After all, the transcriptions are

typed in a Ms. Word program.

A SERIES OF VIGGNETTS

Participants, events, and setting are called as a series of vignettes (Flowerdew, 2002). Even

though there are lecturer and students as participants, but this study only focuses on the

lecturer. The lecturer is a professor of physics in the Faculty of Science and Technology. She

has more than twenty years teaching experiences and teaches both undergraduate and

postgraduate courses. During her career, she participates in many teaching professional

development programs, seminars, and workshops. Moreover, the event of this discourse is the

two science lectures and part of physical mechanic course. The first lecture recorded discusses

‗forces‘ while the second lecture concerns on ‗centre of mass‘. Further, the setting of this

lecture event is in a large lecture theatre which can accommodate approximately 200 students.

The lecturer uses microphone during the lecture and speaks from the front of the room, about

2 or 3 meters away from the first row of students. Sometimes she walks around and

approached students. The lecture lasts approximately one to two hours.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This section will discuss the use of questions based on Athanasiadou (1991). The research

question is, what is the function of questions in a science lecture and how do they function as

an interactive feature? It is interesting that the data from the interview with specialist

informant reveal that she has a keenness towards posing questions in class as she believes she

can monitor the students‘ understanding of the lecture directly. Questions to her can also

make the lecture more interactive. Further, the students‘ responses can contribute to the

development of the lecture as well. Her insights are corroborated with the findings from the

data in the disocussion that follows.

The findings have revealed that there are various types of questions in both LE (1) and LE (2)

namely display, referential, rhetorical, and indirect questions. However, because of the

limitation of the study, this section will only discuss display and referential questions used in

LE (1) and LE (2). Athanasiadou (1991) states that display questions are posed in order to

check the students‘ understanding toward materials at hand while referential questions are

posed in order to ask for unknown information. Further, questions have been found to adhere

to not only the form, (who, what, where, how, and why) but also the function as indicated by

174


the raising intonation at the end of the structure. There are also polar questions, questions with

‗modals‘, and questions ended by a question tag. Now, let us turn to the Data.

Display Questions

The findings show that display questions have been used in both LE (1) and LE (2). In LE (1)

the researcher finds that the lecturer poses 155 display questions to the students while in LE

(2) she poses sixty 39 display questions. Athanasiadou (1991) in 2.3.2 states that a display

question is a test question if the students know the material at hand. In Data Sample 1 below,

there is a series of question-answer exchanges between the lecturer and the students which

contain display questions on the topic of relative speed namely a stationary. The lecturer

poses three display questions in lines 142, 147, and 152 and the students respond in lines 145,

149, and 151. The questions are formulated in two ways: ‗wh‘ (lines 142 and 152) and

‗yes/no‘ (lines 147 and 150).

Data Sample 1: LE (1)

138

139

140

141

142

143

If I were to move faster or slower (.), at the same time

(/) your personal experience, your own personal

experience. [moves back to front](..) You are driving

a car. (hh) Another car is coming to you. (…)

If that car is stationary, (..) what is the speed, of that

person coming to you?

145 S (.7) our speed.

146

147

148

L (.3) our speed. But in the (/) opposite direction.

Do you see the trees moving, when you’re in the car

? (hh)

149 S (.3) Yes::

150 L Are (/) the trees really moving?

151 S No:::

152 L who is really moving?

153 S We::

Further, interestingly in line 165 of LE (1) the lecturer poses a display question using

question a tag isn’t it. This question is actually posed in order to confirm a statement that she

just delivered (line 165). The students give their response by saying ‗Yes‘ (line 166). Please

refer to Data Sample 2 below.


160

161

162

163

L Hmmm.. Which is worse? (laughter) You are moving

(..) and there is this stationary car and you hit it.

Compared to:: (/) you‘re moving, this thing is moving

(..) and bam. Which is worse? (/)

164 S two thing moving will be worse

165 L When both are moving (/) (…), isn’t it? (/)

166 S Yes

174

175

L you make faster, so the impact will be (.) greater.

(/)Again, there is to be, what we mean by re:la:tive.

The lecturer‘s tendency to use questions to elicit information from the students is not only

through ‗wh‘ or ‗yes/no‘ questions but also from the raising intonation at the end of her

175


utterances. Here, in Data Sample 3 below the lecturer raises her intonation at the end of her

utterances to indicate or to signal the formulation of display questions to the students (lines

127 and 130). The raise of intonation at the end of her utterances with incomplete ending is

actually a signal for the students to complete the turn. The students also give their responses

in lines 129 and 132.


127

128

L Because (/) the escalator is going up (..) but I’m

going? (/)

129 S Down

130

131

L There:fore? (/) (.4) the speed that you see will be

now? (/) subtraction.

132 S (..) subtraction

133

134

135

L That means, [hand gestures showing speed] the speed

of the escalator (.3) and my speed.

(.3) Can you see that?

In LE (2) the lecturer also poses display questions to the students. Here, in Data Sample 4

below a question-answer process between the lecturer and the students, it is revealed that the

lecturer poses display questions in various forms. In lines 414 and 427 the lecturer poses two

display questions in ‗wh‘ form (what and where). Next, in line 425 the lecturer poses a

display question in ‗yes/no‘ form (do) while in line 429 she poses a display question with

‗modals‘ (would). In addition, it is obtained that in some parts of utterances in Data Sample 4

below the lecturer raises her intonation at the end of her utterances which indicate that those

utterances can be included as questions as well (lines 417, 419, and 436). The students give

their responses in lines 418, 420, 423, 426, 428, 434, and 438. And, the lecturer also gives her

positive feedback indicating that she agrees with the students‘ responses (lines 421, 424, and

435). Each feedback is followed by a question.


414

415

416

417

L principle, is still:: the same. What is it that you have

to do now (/)? (.4) Can you tell me (/)? What is it you

have to do now (/)? What is it you have to do now (/)?

You determine the (/)? 418 S (.5) position

419 L Position of (/)?

420 S (..) x:::

421

422

L x. The x position for the centre of the mass and then

you determine the (/)? 423 S Y position::

424

425

L Y position. So, how do you do that (/)? Can you all

imagine ? Do you all have your x position (/)?

426 S [nods head]

427 L Where?

428 S (..) [inaudible response]

429

430

431

432

433

L Would you consider that or here? [no response from

students]. Right, so look. Here will be the x-axis

[points and moves along the front row]. And here will

be the y-axis. [points to the stairs in the centre of the

dewan.]

176


434 S Y :::

435

436

437

L Y-axis:. So there you are. [points to students in front

row and assigns them with a number]. Yours is y1,

yours (/) ? 438 S 2

Interestingly in Data Sample 5 below, display questions are posed by the lecturer as she

switches from one code to another code. Bearing in mind that this is a Malaysian university

where the students had experienced a Malay medium of instruction, that is not surprising. She

code-switches English and Bahasa Melayu (lines 619, 626, and 630) while asking the students

about the meaning of conservation of momentum. First, she poses a question in English (line

618). After that she asks the same question which she code-switched.


618

619

620

621

622

623

624

L What is the meaning of conservation of momentum

(/)? (..) Ahh:: Apa makna conservation of

momen::tum(/) ? (..)Apa makna conservation of

momentum? (..) Are you having a problem with the

English term (/) or apa ini? (..) The idea? Apa makna

conservation of momentum? The momentum does

not? (.6)

625 S Change.::

626

627

628

L Does not change. (.5) Apa makna does not change?

Biasanya, when you talk about momentum what do

you talk about? 629 S Collision

630

631

L Collision (/). Conservation of momentum:: apa

maknanya? Before collision and ? (/)

632 S (.4) After:: collision::

Referential Questions

The findings reveal that referential question has been used in both LE (1) and LE (2). In LE

(1) the researcher finds that the lecturer poses 9 referential questions to the students while in

LE (2) she poses 6 referential questions. Athanasiadou (1991) in 2.3.2 states that referential

question is a question to look for unknown information. Data Sample 6 below (lines 223, 226,

228) shows that the lecturer poses three referential questions. First, the lecturer asks the

students when they learnt about forces for the first time. The lecturer poses ‗wh‘ question

form in her first question (line 223). The next two questions are indicated because the lecturer

raises her intonation at the end of her utterances (lines 226 and 228). It is also found that the

students give their responses toward those questions in lines 224, 226, and 229.


218

219

220

221

L (.5) Can I give you about a few minutes? I have to

tackle this. Few minutes to think about it. Just (/)

what:: is forces:? (..)You have learn about forces, (/)

haven‘t you?

222 S (..) yes

223

224

L when did you (/) learn about forces? [moves back to

questioning students].

177


225 S (.5) form four (mumble)

226 L Form (/) ?

227 S form 4

228 L look at that. Form 4. some more (/) ? (..) finish off

there?

229 S inaudible responses

230

231

232

L Form 5, Form 6. now,(.) you haven‘t to be going

deeper. Ok? Otherwise, you are going back to form 4.

right?

In Data Sample 7 below there are a question-answer process between the lecturer and some

students about Newton‘s law of inertia and the Newton‘s third law of motion. The lecturer

poses eight questions to three students (lines 323, 327-328, 335-336, 338, 341, 353, 357, and

360-361). Those students give their responses in lines 326, 330-334, 337, 339-340, 343-345,

350-352, 356, 358, 362. Interestingly, from those questions, only three of them are

categorized as referential questions (lines 324, 338, and 357). Question in line 324 ‗What do

you understand about that?‘ is identified as a referential question because the lecturer poses

the question in order to know a student‘s understanding toward inertia. Meanwhile, referential

question ‗What do you mean by not really?‘ posed in line 338 is actually a personal question

as a ‗feedback‘ of a student‘s response ‗Not really‘ (line 337) toward her question about

Newton‘s first law of motion she posed before (line 335). Finally, in line 357 the lecturer

poses one more referential question ‗What do you mean of different direction?‘ as her

‗feedback‘ toward another student‘s response (line 356) toward her question about Newton‘s

third law of motion she posed before (line 353).


323 S (.4) Newton‘s law? Ah, related to inertia.

324

325

L Ok, what do you understand about that? [hand

movements]

326 S (.14) No idea.

327

328

329

L Ok, can I ask you? (come out). What is Newton‘s law

of inertia? (.hh) The first law of motion. [hands

microphone to another student]

330

331

332

333

334

S (.5) ok, basically the first law of motion states that, an

object at rest will remain at rest, unless an external

force is being exerted (…) ehmm, towards that object.

(.3) So, (..) it is particularly (hh) about the inertia

also.

335

336

L Ok. (.4) First law of motion refers to just (hh) a body

at rest (/)?

337 S (.4) no, not really.

338 L what do you mean by not really?

339

340

S (laughter) the object can be (.3)moving also, can be

still in motion.

341 L But (/). Is there a but to it? (/)

342 S (.3) emm.. I‘m not sure.

343

344

345

L You are not sure. Ok. [hands microphone to another

student]Come. (.8) What is the second law of motion?

[laughs]

346 S (.7) ((laughters and mumble)).

178


347

348

349

L No, because you said that you have learned it, so I

better, sort of check on you, (.4) so that, when I teach

you I know what is going o:n?

350

351

352

S The next force of motion is (.) the next force of

motion is related to the mass of and the acceleration

of the object.

353

354

355

L (unclear) the third law of motion(/)? [looks for

student to answer the question, moves back to front

centre] [hands microphone to another student at front

row]

356 S (.16) ahh, different direction.

357 L what do you mean of different direction?

358 S different direction.

359

360

361

L different direction? (.5) What is the third law of

motion? Oh, sorry. What is Newton‘s third law of

motion? For every (gap)?

362 S (mumbles) single movement.

Next, in this Data Sample 8 of LE (1) below the lecturer poses referential question in ‗yes/no‘

form (line 372). The lecturer asks the students whether they have the picture of Newton in

their book or not. The students give their response in line 374.


372

373

L Ok. Now, do you, have his picture in your book?

[helds up a book] (Newton‘s picture)

374 S no::

375

376

377

378

379

380

right, (.3) now I get it from another book. This is just

to let you know some basic history. [refers to the slide

on screen] Now, it has always been the practise of

those in the West (/), to keep on promoting this idea

(..) that it is people (.) who discovered the laws.

Whereas, the laws:: have always been there. But,

Meanwhile, the use of referential question is also found in LE (2). In Data Sample 9 below,

the lecturer combines ‗yes/no‘ (do), ‗modals‘ (would and can), and ‗wh‘ (what) forms of

questions. First two referential questions are ‗yes/no‘ question and question with ‗modals‘. It

is when the lecturer asks all students whether they can hear their friend‘s answer (line 478)

because it seems to her that his voice sounds inaudible. This is actually a checking question.

After that the lecturer poses a question to one group of students in order to know their

perspective toward the activity they have just done (finding coordinates). She asks ‗Can you

tell me what do you do? Who wants to try? This group, can you tell me what do you do?

Would you like to try? What would you do (/)?‘ (lines 486-490, and 500). One student who

represents that group gives his response (lines 493, 495-496, 498, and 501).


475

476

L Now look, he is, what is the, I want both the x and y

coordinates. Give me your coordinate(/)?

477 S X9, Y3 [inaudible]

478 L X9, did you hear? Could you hear (/)?

479 S X9, Y3.

179


480

481

482

L X9, Y3. so, each and everyone of you has a

coordinate. Now let‘s see, what is your coordinate

now?

483 S X5, y1

484

485

486

487

489

490

L Oh, he is ready already. (.5) [laughter] X5, y: 1.

right? So each and everyone of you has your own

coordinate, so what do you do (/)? Can you tell me

what do you do (/)? Who wants to try? This group,

can you tell me what do you do (/)? Would you like

to try? What would you do(/)? 491 S (..) [inaudible response]

492 L Bangun, bangun, bangun.

493 S We consider each particle, (..) lets say x axis first

494 L Aahh

495

496

S (..) Times up the mass and the coordinate of x axis,

(..) neglecting the y axis first so we get bar x.

497 L Aahh

498 S And then we use, (..)the other way round.

499

500

L You see (/) that they are there (.hh). They are not here.

So, what do you do(/)? 501 S But the x, we already have the x coordinate.

Furthermore, in Data Sample 10 of LE (2) below it can be revealed that the lecturer poses a

referential question to the students in code-switch styles. She combines English and Bahasa

Melayu (line 643) while she asks the students about the place for the following meeting

because she has no idea about it. The students give their response by saying ‗Fssk‘ (line 644)

which stands for Fakulti Sains Sosial dan Kemanusiaan or Faculty of Social Sciences and

Humanities.


633

634

635

636

637

638

639

L After collision. Ok, this 2 objects are moving, collide

(.5) and what happen? Either they get stuck and stop

atau they move. Right? So,(.4) ini ada momentum,

this 1 also ada momentum. So what do you do, you

just add them up (.5). So, kalau conservation of

momentum, what does that mean? The momentums

before and after must (/)

640 S Must be the same.

641

642

643

L Be the same. So, that is the principle that you need to

use to find the speed after that (..) as well as the ( ) so,

you come back, on Monday morning, kat mana ini? 644 S Fssk [inaudible]

645

646

L fssk ye. (.10) Ok, I‘ll see you on Monday morning

and talk about it.

From the findings of the use of questions in both lectures, it can be concluded that the lecturer

uses more display than referential questions. This result is similar to Morell (2007) and

contrast with Brock (1986). It is also revealed that the lecturer poses more questions in LE (1)

than that of in (LE 2). The lecturer poses 164 questions in LE (1) and 45 questions in LE (2).

180


CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

In conclusion, from the findings, it is identified that there are a number of display and

referential questions (based on Athanasiadou, 1991) employed by the lecturer. As can be seen

from the data, the lecturer employs a highly interactive style of lecture and not the monologue

norm. She uses a lot of questions despite the students‘ relative reluctance to answer them.

This is a common scenario in Malaysian lecture as well as in Malaysian classroom where the

students prefer to be passive recipients of knowledge. Here, in this case, display and

referential questions are posed by the lecturer in order to check the students‘ knowledge and

to ask for unknown information.

In relations to types of questions, it is revealed that the lecturer uses more display than

referential questions in both LE (1) and LE (2). The finding is similar to Morell (2004) and

contrasts with Brock (1986).

There is indeed a potential in this area for further research. The same research can be repeated

with larger corpus so then there will be richer data to be analyzed further. In addition, more

interpersonal interactive features (e.g. aside and digression) can enrich the micro analysis of a

lecture. This research can also be compared to NNS of English lectures from different

disciplines (in engineering or medicine for examples) or can be contrasted to native of English

lecture (in the United States for example). Further, since this research only employs

qualitative method, collaborating quantitative and qualitative research can enrich the data and

give an added-value for the findings as well. There is always room for improvement in

expanding this research.

REFERENCES

Athanasiadou, A. 1991. The discourse function of questions. Pragmatics: Quarterly

Publication of the International Pragmatics Association 1 (Mar): 107-122.

Brock, C. 1986. The effects of referential questions on ESL classroom discourse. TESOL

Quarterly 23 (3): 421-445.

Camiciottoli, Crawford B. 2004. Interactive discourse structuring in L2 gust lectures: some

insights from a comparative corpus-based study. Journal of English for Academic

Purposes 3: 39-54.

Clarke, Alan and Dawson, Ruth. 1999. Evaluation research. London: Sage Publications.

Flowerdew, J. 2002. Ethnographically inspired approaches to the study of academic

discourse. In Flowerdew, J (Ed.). Academic discourse. London: Pearson Education

Limited. pp. 233-252

Morell, T. 2007. What enhances ELS students‘ participation in lecture discourse? Student,

lecturer and discourse perspective. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 6: 222-

237.

Morell, T. 2004. Interactive lecture discourse for university ELF students. English for

Specific Purposes 23 (3): 325-338.

181


Olson, L. A and Huckin, T. N. 1990. Point-driven understanding in engineering lecture

comprehension. English for Specific Purposes 9: 33-47.

About the Author

Akhyar Rido is a lecturer at STBA Teknokrat Lampung. He completes his first degree at

Padjadjaran University and his masters at the National University of Malaysia. He has

presented his research papers in local, national, and international conferences (Asia TEFL,

TEFLIN, English and Asia, etc) and published his writing in a local journal. Further, he has

ever involved in a research project lead by Prof. Saran Kaur Gill (Representative of UNESCO

Asia Pacific in Malaysia) for one and a half years. His interests include discourse analysis,

pragmatics, second language acquisition, and ELT.

182


Relationship between Vocabulary Size and Reading Comprehension

Preawpan Pringprom


[email protected]

Buppha Obchuae

School of Humanities, Bangkok University

Abstract

This research aimed to study the relationships between students‘ English vocabulary size and

their reading comprehension. Subjects were 30 undergraduate students at Bangkok

University who were studying EN111. The Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) bilingual version

(English-Thai) was employed to measure the subjects‘ receptive vocabulary size. A multiple-

choice-question-format reading test was utilized to assess the subjects‘ reading

comprehension. Pearson correlation was used to analyze the relationships between the scores

of the VLT and the score of the reading test (RCT). The finding showed that the subjects‘

English vocabulary size and their reading comprehension were positively correlated.

1. Introduction

It has been recognized that vocabulary knowledge plays an important role in reading

comprehension both in first and second language. Research on the role of decoding and

vocabulary skills, as predictors of reading comprehension in young first (L1) and second (L2)

language learners found that vocabulary is a critical predictor of the development of reading

comprehension skills in both L1 and L2 learners (Lervåg and Aukrust, 2010). There are

sufficient evidences that vocabulary is related to reading skills than all the other components

(Anderson & Freebody, 1981; Beck, Perfetti, & Mckeown, 1982; Koda, 1989; Laufer, 1991;

1997). Leading scholars in vocabulary research (Laufer 1989; 1998; Mear, 1996; Nation,

1990; Read, 1988) believe that the number of words known is one of the key factors in second

language learning.

From teaching experiences, the researchers (thereafter we) have found that vocabulary is the

big issue which concerns Thai students‘ English acquisition and development. Their

vocabularies are quite limited. Nevertheless, there aren‘t many Thai researchers carrying out

research on measuring Thai students‘ English vocabulary knowledge.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Vocabulary Knowledge

Vocabulary knowledge could be regarded as having two primary dimensions: receptive and

productive (Qian, 1999; Wesche et. al, 1996). Receptive knowledge is the language input that

learners receive from others through listening or reading and try to understand it. Productive

knowledge, on the other hand, is the language output that learners convey messages to others

through speaking or writing (Nation, 2006: 24).


183


2.2 Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT)

The Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT), which was originally designed by Nation (1983, 1990), is

used as a diagnostic test in New Zealand. It becomes an important tool that widely used in

the research area of second language acquisition (SLA) to test learners‘ English proficiency.

The test has five parts corresponding to five levels of word frequencies in English: 2000,

3000, 5000, academic, and 10,000. Later, there is a major improvement on the original test

made by Norbert Schmitt, Diane Schmitt and C. Clapham (Nation, 2001: 416-420).

The 2000 level represents the 1986 word families from the General Service List (GSL; West

1953). The GSL was constructed from a corpus of five million written running words, using

frequency as the predominant selector. Frequency counts were based on Thorndike and

Lorge‘s list of 30,000 words, which was compiled from 18 million running words of written

text.

The 3000, 5000, and 10,000 levels represent a sample of words from the third, fifth and 10th

1000-word frequency based on Thorndike and Lorge‘s word list.

The test-item types are used in discrete and context-independent. It tests the target words out

of context because the context might provide clues to the meanings. The VLT uses word–

definition matching format to require test-takers to match the words to the definitions. Each

level contains 30 items. There are three definitions on the right and six words on the left.

Test-takers need to choose three out of the six words to match the three on the right. In total

at each level, 30 definitions need to be matched to 30 out of 60 words. See example below.

For interpreting the test, Nation (2008) explains that:

Each word in the test represents 33 words (1000 divided by 30). A score of

20 out of 30 on a level means that a learner knows 667 words out of the 1000

at that level, and does not know 333 from that level. We would expect a

learner to know at least 90% of the words at that level (27 out of 30) before

we could feel that the level might be known. (p. 143)

2.3 Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading Comprehension

It has long been accepted that vocabulary knowledge is an instrument for reading

comprehension (Anderson & Freebody; Alderson, 2000; Mezynski, 1981; 1983; Qian, 2002;

Read, 2000). Vocabulary knowledge has played an important role not only reading in first

1 business

2 clock _ 6_

ก ำแพง

3 horse _ 3_ มำ้

4 pencil _ 4_

ดินสอ

5 shoe

6 wall

You answer it in this way.

1 business

2 clock __ _

ก ำแพง

3 horse _ __ มำ้

4 pencil __ _

ดินสอ

5 shoe

6 wall

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language (L1) but also has proved to be true of reading in second language (L2) settings.

Most theorists and researchers in education have assumed that vocabulary knowledge and

reading comprehension are closely related, and numerous studies have shown the strong

correlation between the two (Baker, 1995; Laufer 1992; Nagy, 1988; Nelson-Herber, 1986;

Qian, 1999; 2002; Qian and Schedl 2004; Read 1997). For L2 learners, vocabulary

assessment can reveal the extent of the lexical gap they face in coping with authentic reading

materials (Read, 2007: 107).

Laufer (1989b) studied the percentage of running words needed to be understood to ensure

‗reasonable‘ reading comprehension of a text. She found that those who scored 95% and

above on the vocabulary measure have a higher number of successful readers than those

scoring below 95%. Furthermore, Laufer (1992b) administered the VLT and the Eurocentres

Vocabulary Test to 92 university freshmen whose native language was either Arabic or

Hebrew. She found that the scores on these tests correlated with reading comprehension

scores at .50 and .75. Findings also indicate that the minimal vocabulary level where there

were more readers than non-readers was 3000 word families.

Hirsh and Nation (1992) studied the amount of vocabulary demands of three short

unsimplified novels which were written mainly for young native speakers of English. The

findings showed a vocabulary size of 2000 word-frequency was not enough for pleasurable

reading. They stated that a number of words between 3000 to 5000 word families were

needed to provide a basis for comprehension (cited in Nation and Waring, 1997: 10).

However, Nation and Waring (1997: 11) suggest that an ESL learner needs to know the 3000

frequency words of the language or beyond. Furthermore, Hu and Nation (cited in Nation,

2006: 147) compared the effect of four text coverages on reading comprehension of a fiction

text. They found that learners needed to know around 98% of the running words in the text to

gain adequate comprehension. Hu and Nation conclude that knowing 95% of text coverage is

likely to be the possible threshold for the reasonable comprehension as the findings show in

Laufer‘s study (1989b).

Beglar and Hunt (1999) conducted an identical study with 496 Japanese high school students

using four versions of the 2000 word level from the VLT and 464 students with four versions

of the UWL from the same test. He found that scores on the reading comprehension test

correlated with scores on versions A and B of the 2000 word level at .66 and .62 and with

scores on versions A and B of the UWL section at .67 and .71.

Qian (1999) found significant correlations in his study with the roles of depth and breadth of

vocabulary knowledge in reading comprehension with 44 Korean and 33 Chinese speakers

using version A of the VLT and the reading comprehension section from the TOEFL. The

correlation between the two tests was .78. Qian (2002) further investigated the relationship

between vocabulary knowledge and academic reading performance with 217 students

attending an intensive ESL program at the University of Toronto. Findings indicated that

students‘ vocabulary knowledge was positively related to the performance on reading tasks.

He, therefore, concluded that vocabulary is a critical component in reading assessment.

Zhang and Suaini (2008) studied the role of vocabulary in reading comprehension with thirty-

seven secondary students learning English in Singapore. The VLT was used to measure

students' vocabulary knowledge. Result showed that students' vocabulary knowledge at the

2000-word and the 3000-word levels were correlated to their reading comprehension.

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All studies reviewed above are the evidence of close relationship between vocabulary

knowledge and English reading comprehension.

3. Research Objectives

There are two main folds of this research objective: (1) to find out the students‘ vocabulary

sizes; (2) to study the relationship between students‘ vocabulary size and their English

reading comprehension. Thus, our research questions are:

1. What is the overall receptive vocabulary size of the students?

2. Is there a significant correlation between students‘ scores of the VLT and a

score of the Reading Comprehension Test?

4. Methodology

4.1 Subjects

One section among four of EN 111 (Fundamental English) classes was purposively selected

as the subjects of this study. The subjects were thirty first-year-students studying EN 111 in

academic year 2010 at Bangkok University.

4.2 Instruments

The 2000, 3000, and 5000 Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) bilingual version (English-Thai)

was used to measure the subjects‘ receptive vocabulary size in this study. The bilingual

version was based on the original version B of Norbert Schmitt, Diane Schmitt and Caroline

Clapham (2001). The vocabulary definitions of the bilingual version were translated into

Thai and validated using the back translation process by three ESL teachers. As for scoring,

each correct definition was awarded one point; a total score for each level was 30 points

A multiple-choice-question-format Reading Comprehension Test (RCT) was used to

assess the subjects‘ reading comprehension. The test consists of eight short-passages,

carefully selected from a pool of short-reading texts by language Institute teachers. There are

30 questions with only one correct answer and three distracters for each question; the subjects

were supposed to select the best choice among a set of four options. As for scoring, a correct

answer to each question was given one point. The total score for the RCT is 30 points. The

test was reviewed and validated for its content, appropriateness, and practicality by three ESL

teachers.

4.3 Procedure

Before using the research instruments with the subjects, we tried out both VLT and RCT with

forty-three students who had similar profiles. In order to find out the reliability of the

instruments, we had the same section retest two weeks later.

To avoid testing exhaustion, which may affect subjects‘ proficiency, the data collection was

carried out at different times. In the first week of the course, the 2000, 3000, and 5000 VLT

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were administered at the beginning of class time. Instructions and procedures were clearly

explained in Thai because the subjects seemed to be unfamiliar with the VLT format. How-

to-answer the VLT was also demonstrated on the white-board. While taking the test, the

subjects were allowed to ask questions relating to the test administration, not the test‘s

content. The subjects were told to leave the answer blank if they didn‘t know the meaning of

the word in order to prevent any chance of guessing correctly, which might affect the true

scores subject should really earn. An average time the subjects had spent on the VLT was

approximately 30 minutes.

In the second week of the course, the RCT was also administered at the beginning of class

time. Instructions were explained and the subjects were given one hour to complete the

reading test. The subjects were assured that scores from both tests would not affect their

grade, so as a result they didn‘t have to randomly guess the answer. However, they were told

to try their best to examine how well their English was. Both tests were taken in a quiet

classroom under examination conditions.

5. Results and Discussion

Table 1: Obtained scores on the VLT frequency levels (N = 30)

Levels 2000 3000 5000

Number of Items 30 30 30

Mean ( x ) 15.53 14.37 9.27

Standard deviation 6.235 5.738 5.439

Table 1 indicates the means and standard deviations for the VLT 2000, 3000, and 5000

frequency levels. As can be seen, the mean scores for the three frequency levels were rather

low. According to Nation‘s interpretation (2008: 143), these subjects knew 518 words out of

1000 at the 2000 level, 479 words out of 1000 at the 3000 level, 310 words out of 1000 at the

5000 level respectively.

Figure 1: Average percentage scores on the VLT frequency levels (N = 30)

Figure 1 shows subjects‘ average scores of the VLT in percentage. It was obvious that the

subjects‘ vocabulary knowledge were rather limited compared to their academic level,

especially, the scores of 2000-level and 3000-level which considered high frequency words.

Line graph shows the subjects‘ VLT scores, undoubtedly dropped as the word-frequency

levels decreased.

51.7847.89

30.89

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

%

VLT2000 VLT3000 VLT5000

51.57 51.7847.89

30.89

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

RC VLT2000 VLT3000 VLT5000

%

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With this result, we could answer the research question 1 that overall receptive vocabulary

size of the students was far from the threshold for comprehending the written text. As ESL

undergraduate-learners, 2000 word families should be a minimum they have to know. The

amount of vocabulary they have obtained will impede their comprehension on any kinds of

English written text. According to the research by Liu and Nation (1985) at least 95% of text

coverage is needed for successful guessing of the meaning of the unknown words.

Table 2: Individual’s Profile of Vocabulary Knowledge (N = 30)

Table 2 illustrates receptive vocabulary knowledge of each subject. We can see that overall

vocabulary profile of each individual was considerably insufficient. There was only one

subject (#30) who scored 100% from 2000 and 3000 frequency-level, and 93% (28 out of 30)

from 5000 word-level. We later learned that subject #30 had been in the bilingual education

program for fifteen years. Plus (+) sign was put to show that subjects had obtained at least the

criterion score (27/30) at the level.

Unexpectedly, we found that there were ten subjects whose test scores didn‘t follow the VLT

pattern. However, this unusual occurrence didn‘t affect the overall findings much since the

discrepancy between two levels was small. The possibility exists that subjects guessed

correctly. Nevertheless, some subjects reported that they knew more of the words in the

3000-level, for example, angel, draft, naked, normal, apartment, champion etc. The reason

was that these words are ―loan words‖ in Thai language.

Levels of the Test

Subjects

2000

3000

5000

1 6 9 3

2 9 6 8

3 12 12 3 4 11 12 10

5 19 18 12

6 13 11 6 7 14 14 15

8 28 (+) 25 16

9 19 18 13 10 10 11 6

11 12 17 6 12 7 8 3

13 17 14 14

14 22 17 8 15 13 15 5

16 26 25 16

17 8 8 7 18 25 22 16

19 21 20 11

20 19 14 11

21 14 12 4

22 17 16 11

23 20 7 5 24 11 11 6

25 15 14 9

26 11 7 3 27 11 12 6

28 13 14 9

29 13 14 8 *30 30 (+) 30 (+) 28 (+)

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Table 3: Correlation between RCT score and VLT 2000 (N = 30)

x S.D. RCT VLT2000 RCT 15.47 5.582 - 0.684** VLT2000 15.53 6.235 -

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Looking at Table 3, it can be seen that the RCT score was correlated with the VLT 2000 score

at .68, which indicated the moderate level of correlation. This could be interpreted that the

subjects‘ RCT score would probably be increased if they scored higher on the 2000-level.




Looking at Table 4, it can be seen that the RCT score was correlated to the VLT 3000 score at

.78, which indicated the high level of correlation. This could be interpreted that the subjects‘

RCT score could be increased if they scored higher on the 3000-level.




Looking at Table 5, it can be seen that the RCT score was correlated with the VLT 5000 score

at .57, which indicated the low level of correlation. This could be interpreted that the

subjects‘ RCT score might be increased if they scored higher on the 5000-level.

Findings in Table 3, 4, and 5 answered the research question 2 that there was correlation

between students‘ scores of the VLT and a score of the RCT especially at the 3000 word-

level. The results from this study support early research (Anderson & Freebody, 1981; Beck,

Perfetti, and Mckeown, 1982; Beglar and Hunt, 1999; Hirsh and Nation, 1992; Koda, 1989;

Laufer, 1989b; 1991; 1997; Qian, 1999; 2002; Zhang and Suaini, 2008).

6. Pedagogical Implications

Numerous studies indicate that vocabulary knowledge is an important factor for

understanding when reading text. Therefore, students‘ vocabulary assessment and instruction

should be a focus of every English course especially at the beginning level in order to prevent

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the Matthew Effect1 that poor readers read less and acquire fewer words, while better readers

read more and learn more words from their reading.

References

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1 Matthew effect has been adopted by Keith Stanovich from sociology field. The phenomenon in

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Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Bangkok University for funding this research. We express our debt to Mr.

Willard Van De Bogart for proofreading this paper as well as Language Institute teachers who

help validating the instruments. We appreciate the students for participating this research,

also every researcher and author whose article was used in this paper.

About the Author

Asst. Prof. Dr. Preawpan Pringprom teaches English at Language Institute, Bangkok

University. She received her Doctorate from Kasetsart University, Thailand and her Master

from Fairleigh Dickinson University, NJ., USA. Her current research interest is on

vocabulary acquisition and instruction.

Buppha Obchuae is now teaching at the English Department, School of Humanities, Bangkok

University.

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Self Assessment of Essay Writing

Asghar Kargar

Islamic Azad University of Iran, Abadeh Branch

[email protected]

Mortaza Yamini

Shiraz Universit, Iran

[email protected]

Abstract

This study investigated low intermediate EFL learners‘ ability to assess their essays in a

scaffolded environment. Thirty EFL students participated in the study. During their essay

writing course they had learned how to write four paragraph essays. In the study, they were

trained to assess their writings at two levels: macro and micro levels. After training, they

assessed the overall organization of their essays including introductory, developmental and

concluding paragraphs using an analytical scoring scale. The results of the study showed high

internal consistency and moderate validity for their assessment. At micro level, the students

were asked to edit their essays based on their training. They focused on capitalization,

punctuation, conjunctions and verb forms one by one. Making use of special marks, they

indicated correct and incorrect items. To find the effectiveness of their assessment, the

proportions of correct and incorrect editing were compared. The data suggested that the

learners were mostly confused about their errors and some correct forms. It was concluded

that they seemed to be unable to edit their errors; however, they could provide the teacher

valuable information about the area of their weaknesses and where they needed help to

improve.

I. Introduction

Learning how to write at a proper academic level is an integral part of every university

education, although its mastery is typically supposed to be a long term process (Xiao and

Lucking, 2008). Many teachers and researchers have been exploring and experimenting with

diverse methods to improve students‘ academic essay writing. As an example, Nunan (1998,

cited in Oscarson, 2009) believes that essay writing is very difficult for second language

learners, since they need to overcome the difficulty of writing second language forms, find

resources to use right words and incorporate ideas and skills to produce final results. Yet, a

thornier field is how to assess the learners‘ progress and give them appropriate feedback,

since scoring procedure is both subjective and time consuming. In fact, scoring is a

complicated and cost involved process in essay writing (Attali and Powers, 2008). According

to Alderson (2007), most writing assessments are concerned with how to get learners actually

produce relevant pieces of writing, and how to get trained humans to evaluate them reliably

and validly. Learner-directed assessment or self assessment can be considered as a way to

enhance learners‘ awareness of their own strengths and weaknesses and to lighten the

teacher‘s assessment burden (Ekbatani, 2000).

Self assessment was introduced to the field of language testing as a key to promote the

fairness of assessment and a way to ―balance the power relationship in the classroom‖

(Brown, 2004, P.251). In fact, it was believed that the authority of assessing and decision

making should be divided between learners and teachers. Brown (2004, P.252) states that self



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assessment has the potential to provide both learners and educators with more complete and

accurate information because:

1. It requires students to perform, create, produce or do something;

2. It allows students‘ assessment on what they normally do in the classroom every day.

3. It focuses on process as well as product.

4. It taps into higher level thinking and problem solving skills.

5. It provides information about both the students‘ weaknesses and strengths.

6. It ensures that people, not machine, do the scoring, using human judgment.

7. It calls upon teachers to take new instructional and assessment roles.

Other researchers (e.g. Allan, 1995; Blanche, 1988; Blanche and Merino, 1989; Ferguson,

1978; Fok, 1981; Heilenman, 1990; Jafarpour, 1991; Jafarpour and Yamini, 1995; LeBlanc

and Painchaud, 1985; Oscarson, 1989) have referred to the benefits of self assessment as:

1. Promotion of learning

2. Raised level of awareness

3. Improved goal orientation

4. Expansion of the range of assessment

5. Shared assessment burden

6. Beneficial post course effects

(Mousavi, 1999, P.344)

Many studies have been conducted to find out the usefulness of self assessment in different

aspects of language learning. Oscarson (2009) reviewed many studies in the field and

concluded that comprehension skills seem to be self assessed more accurately than productive

skills. She states that there are few studies on the impact of self assessment on EFL writing

skill. This study, hence, tries to cast some light on self assessment of essay writing.

II. Review of literature

Oscarson (2009) noted that empirical work up to this time has had two main aims: to explore

the reliability of the results and to investigate ways of involving the learners in the

assessment. Internal consistency of self assessment is on average high, and the evidence in

support of self assessment is positive in terms of consistency across tasks, across items, and

over short time period (Ross, 2006). However, based on principled evaluation of self

assessment, Brown (2004, P.278) found the following rates for the fulfillment of the major

assessment principles:

Principle Rate

Practicality Moderate

Reliability Low

Face Validity Moderate

Content Validity High

Wash back High

Authenticity High

He concludes that authenticity, wash back and content validity have very high potential

because students concentrate ―on their own linguistic needs and receive useful feedback‖.

White (2009, P.97) defines authenticity of self assessment as ―whether tasks included

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represent or approximate real world tasks‖ and adds that generating positive washback is a

primary motive in the creation and use of self assessment. Brown (2004) concludes that self

assessment can be justified from a number of well-established principles of SLA. The most

important ones are the principle of autonomy and the principle of intrinsic motivation. The

first principle states that the responsibility and monitoring learning should mainly be given to

the learners. According to the second principle, the desire to promote and observe the

promotion can develop intrinsic motivation. Oscarson (2009) states that the fundamental

reason for self assessment is to help the learner become aware of his or her achievement at

any given time and over a longer term, and in this way, enhance learning.

Validity in self assessment typically means agreement with the teacher‘s judgment or peer

ranking. Ross (2006) states that peer ranking, using the mean of multiple judges tends to be

more accurate than the results from a single judge. Boud and Falchikov (1989) reviewed 48

studies reporting self and teacher assessment agreement; however, students‘ self assessments

are generally higher than teacher‘s ratings. They concluded that over-estimation is more likely

to be found if self assessment contributes to the students‘ grades in a course, if they do not

have the needed cognitive skills to incorporate information about their abilities, or they are at

risk of wishful thinking. As a result, the ideal way to ensure validity of self assessment is to

find the agreement between results and objective criteria.

Writing skill as well as other language skills has experienced the research on self assessment,

and it has proved to be quite fruitful. Schendel and O‘Neil (1999, cited in Oscarson, 2009),

for instance, advocate self assessment as it encourages self awareness and control of one‘s

own writing. In other words, students need to recognize their strength and weaknesses to see

what more they need to learn. However, as Taras (2003, cited in Oscarson, 2009) states, self

assessment without the teacher‘s feedback cannot help, for the students should be aware of

their own errors. To put in his words, Taras (P. 562) believes that ―students‘ self assessment

with integrated tutor feedback is one efficient means of helping them overcome unrealistic

expectations and focus on their achievement rather than on the input required to produce their

work‖. The same conclusion was drawn by Brown (2005 cited in Oscarson, 2009) when, in a

study, she asked students to assess their own writing by comparing it with an annotated text

reflecting communicatively oriented criteria (e.g. content, sociolinguistic appropriateness, text

structure, organization and coherence). She concluded that self assessment becomes a learning

tool if it helps students identify and correct their mistakes in their own writing.

Some researchers believe that learning takes place as a result of the students‘ reflection on

their own writing when they are revising them. Hedge (2000, cited in Oscarson, 2009), for

example, asked students to contemplatively revise their own writing. Students spent time

rethinking and improving their writing through some additions or deletions. It was concluded

that reflection may promote metacognitive awareness in planning and self assessment

practices when deciding whether or not the objectives are met.

Self assessment of writing is also affected by scoring criteria and training students to use them

(Attali and Powers, 2008). Some studies (e.g. Ross, 2006) have focused on the effects of

training students how to assess their work. The results confirm that systematic training of how

to apply criteria can improve self assessment. Ross, Rolheiser and Hogaboam-Gray (1999,

cited in Oscarson, 2009) investigated the effects of training self assessment on narrative

writing skills. They found that teaching self assessment skills both increased accuracy,

especially for those who tended to overestimate, and had a positive effect on achievement

among low achievers, as it helped them better understand teacher expectations.

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Some researchers (e.g. Brown and Hudson, 1998 cited in Brown 2004) have maintained that

self assessment has some drawbacks. Subjectivity is assumed to be the primary disadvantage.

Students may underestimate or overestimate their performance. Another drawback is that

they may not have the essential tools to make a correct assessment. Oscarson (2009, P.66)

states that ―beginners and students with elementary skills generally seem to have a tendency

to overestimate their abilities, while students who are more proficient are liable to

underestimate themselves‖. Ross (2006) maintains that the students who conduct

retrospective assessment of their work, may not remember what they did or have no idea

about high performance. Consequently, they may not be able to assess their own production.

In addition, some students believe that self assessment is a boring job and argue that it is

unfair to ask the learners to do the teachers‘ job (Ross et al., 1998, cited in Ross, 2006). Ross

(2006) adds that self assessment will not work unless students make a commitment to the

process, although their assessment is prone to evaluative bias or their insufficient experience

of assessing (White, 2009).

III. Research questions

The purpose of the study was to investigate the possibility of essay writing self assessment in

an Iranian EFL context and with low intermediate EFL learners, so the following research

questions were formed:

1. Is self assessment a reliable assessment technique for low intermediate EFL learners?

2. Is self assessment a valid assessment technique for low intermediate EFL learners?

3. Are low intermediate learners able to edit their writing mistakes if they are trained to do

so?

IV. Method

1. Participants

Thirty low intermediate EFL learners took part in the study. Oxford Placement Test (OPT)

was used prior to the study to establish the participants‘ proficiency level. All of them were

juniors, had already learned paragraph writing and were going to learn essay writing when the

study started. Essay Writing is a two credit required course, including 16 weekly sessions, and

learners are expected to write a complete essay at the end of the course.

2. Instrumentation

Contrary to most of the self assessment studies of writing, holistic rating scale was not used in

this study for two reasons. First, according to Dlaska and Krekeler (2008, P.507), self

assessment is only useful if the learners are able to locate their specific weaknesses and ―give

an indication of learning needs‖. Consequently, as they asserted, holistic assessment ―will not

give sufficient feedback to the learner‖. Secondly, as Ross (2006) states low level learners

―may lack the deductive skills involved in applying the criteria to their work‖. Instead, an

analytic rating scale for assessing different aspect of the ability was adapted from a

questionnaire developed by Patri (2002). He used it to get students to assess their oral

presentations with respect to organization and content, use of grammar, manner, and

interaction with the audience. The rating scale of the study had 11 questions, and the average

rating on the questions was reported with 5 as the highest possible score and 1 the lowest

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(Appendix 1). The possible range of the scores was between 11 and 55. The reliability and

validity of the rating scale had been calculated before the study was conducted. The reliability

coefficient was .88, and the validity index was .63.

3. Data collection procedures

The study and data collection had three steps. First, students were taught how to write essays

in English. As was already mentioned, essay writing is a required course for the Iranian

students majoring in English. In this study, students were taught to write 4 paragraph essays

including an introductory paragraph, two supporting paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph.

Needless to say, they had already learned paragraph writing. In the second step, they were

trained how to assess themselves. The assessment itself had two levels, macro and micro

levels. At macro level, the analytic scale was used to assess the overall organization of the

essay. It has two questions for the introductory paragraph of the essay, four questions for the

supporting paragraphs and four questions for the concluding paragraph. Students were trained

to use the scale and assess their essays. The questions about introductory paragraph addressed

the effectiveness of the ―thesis statement‖ of the essay. In three questions of the body,

students assessed the organization of their paragraphs regarding the relationship between the

topic sentences and the supporting sentences. Final questions addressed the effectiveness of

the concluding paragraph, and whether or not it was supported by effective concluding

reasons. At micro level self assessment, students were assisted to edit their essays using an

annotated manual. It had instructions for checking grammar, for example, pronouns, verb

forms, subject and verb agreement, etc. It also had a complete guide for English conjunctions

including correlative and coordinating conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs. In addition,

compound and complex sentences as well as punctuation had been discussed in the manual. In

the third step which was conducted at the end of the semester, students actually assessed their

essays at both levels. First, they were asked to respond to the analytic scale, and then they

reviewed their writings and edited them. Only four points were selected for the editing stage

because if self assessment takes a long time, there will be the danger of ― lack of students‘

commitment ‖, and the task may be boring for them (Ross, 2006). They assessed their essays

in terms of capitalization, punctuation, verb forms and conjunctions. They were asked to

review their essays and to judge whether or not they were correct and to edit them if

necessary, since as Hedge (2000, P.306 cited in Oscarson, 2009) states ―during reflection that

revision entails, students have to rethink ideas and improve their writing through other

additions and deletions‖, and this can enhance metacognitive awareness needed for

acquisition. To improve their assessment, they were asked to focus only on one point at a

time.

V. Results

The results of the study belonged to two phases. The first part was taken from the students‘

answers to the analytic scale, assessing the overall organization of their essays. For reliability

estimate, the coefficient alpha was calculated. The internal consistency was rather high, .92.

Pearson correlation coefficient between the mean scores of the students‘ and teachers‘

assessments was used as the index of validity. Table 1 shows the results.

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Table 1: Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Coefficient for Self and teacher

Assessments

Assessment type N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Pearson Correlation

Sig.

Self assessment 30 20 54 40.50 8.22842 .623 0.01

Teacher assessment 30 25 53 37.53 6.47932

According to Ross (2006), validity in self assessment can be defined as the agreement with

the teacher‘s judgment, ―considered as the gold standard‖. As is shown in the table, validity

index is .623. Other data in the table indicate students‘ overestimation. Mean, range and

standard deviation of students‘ assessment have greater values.

In the second phase, students‘ editing was compared with the teachers‘ in order to assess the

students‘ micro level self assessment. The students‘ answers were classified as: 1) the cases

which were correctly taken as correct; 2) the incorrect cases which were correctly taken as

incorrect; 3) the correct cases wrongly considered as incorrect; 4) The incorrect cases wrongly

taken as correct; 5) the correct cases which were not recognized; 6) the incorrect cases that

were not recognized.

In the beginning, students were asked to focus on capitalization. They had already been

trained to check all capital letters used in their writings and decide whether they were correct

or not. They were allowed to use the manual if they needed instruction. The following graph

shows the results.

Figure 1: Self assessment of capitalization (CC = correct items assessed correctly; WW= wrong items

correctly assessed as wrong; CN: correct items ignored; CW: correct items considered as wrong; WC: wrong items

considered as correct; WN: wrong items not observed)

As the graph shows, students were able to verify, to a large extent, their correct capital letters

(81%), and only few of the correct items were taken as wrong (3%) or ignored (1%). Only 6%

of total wrong capitalization was recognized, and the rest was either taken as correct (4%) or

ignored (5%).

CC:81%

WW:6%CN:1%

CW:3%WC:4% WN:5%

Capitalization

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The participants were then asked to review their essays and check punctuation marks. They

were asked to ponder over the punctuation marks used in their writings and indicate whether

or not they were correct. They were trained to put specific marks to show this. Fig. 2 shows

the results.

Figure 2: Self assessment of punctuation (CC = correct items assessed correctly; WW= wrong items



The graph shows that the students were able to recognize 60% of the correct punctuation

marks out of a total of 75% correct items. The rest of the correct marks were either ignored

(10%) or considered as incorrect. From a total of 25% wrong punctuation marks, 6% was

recognized, 12% was wrongly taken as correct and 7% was neglected.

The third step was to check the verb forms including verb tenses and agreement between the

subjects and the verbs based on the training they had already received. The data are shown in

Fig.3:

Figure 3: Self assessment of verb forms (CC = correct items assessed correctly; WW= wrong items correctly

assessed as wrong; CN: correct items ignored; CW: correct items considered as wrong; WC: wrong items considered as

correct; WN: wrong items not observed)

The graph indicates that from the total 67% of correct verb forms, 48% was recognized

correctly, 11% was ignored, and 8% was considered as wrong. A total of 33% of verb forms

was wrong, 3% of which was recognized, 15% was considered as correct and the rest (15%)

was ignored.

CC:60%

WW:6%

CN:10%

CW:5%

WC:12%WN:7%

Punctuation

CC:48%

WW:3%CN:11%

CW:8%

WC:15%

WN:15%

Verb forms

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Finally, the students were asked to focus on conjunctions used in the texts. They had the

chance to use the instructions of their manuals. During their essay writing classes they had

been trained how to use conjunctions and how to write complex and compound sentences.

They were informed that conjunctions played a crucial role in maintaining cohesion and

coherence of the text. The results of this part are depicted in Fig. 4 below.

Figure 4: Self assessment of conjunctions (CC = correct items assessed correctly; WW= wrong items



The graph shows that 87% conjunctions was correct, 81% of which was correctly recognized,

2% was considered as wrong, and 4% was ignored.

VI. Discussion

Data summarized in Table 1 suggest that students overestimated their writing ability. This is

in line with the results of many studies on self assessment that indicate that low level students

particularly tend to be more lenient when rating their performance (e.g. Alfallay, 2004;

Dlaska and Krekeler, 2008; Oscarson, 2009). One reason is that low proficient learners are

less accurate due to lack of enough cognitive and deductive skills to incorporate information

about their abilities (Ross, 2006). Another reason is that students may have felt that their

assessments would be used in their grades in the course (Boud and Flachikov, 1989 cited in

Ross, 2006).

In terms of reliability, self assessment of essay writing enjoyed a very high level of internal

consistency; coefficient alpha was .92. The internal consistency of self assessment is usually

high especially when the learners have already been trained to evaluate their work (Ross,

2006). In the present study, training was meticulously done during the course. In addition,

using an analytic scale whose items were similar to the content of the course helped students

to assess themselves more consistently. Validity of self assessment of essay writing in this

study was moderate, .62. The ideal in estimating validity of self assessment is to find the

agreement between students‘ scores with objective criteria; hence, the teacher‘s judgment was

used in this study.

The last question of the study addresses students‘ ability to edit their own writing. One

distinction between mistake and error suggests that while students may be able to find their

mistakes, they may not be able to correct their errors which are not in their competence. In

other words, by focusing on a specific point like punctuation, students may find their

mistakes; however, learning takes place if they are able to find and edit their errors. As

CC:81%

WW:2%

CN:4%

CW2%WC:9% WN:2%

Conjunctions

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mentioned before, students were scaffolded to find the errors as well as mistakes by

permitting them to use the manual.

In the beginning, they started checking all capital letters of their essays, since capitalization

seems to be less complicated than other items. High proportion of correct capitalization (85%)

suggests that students at this level were able to use their own knowledge and can show this

consciously. 81% of the cases were correctly judged as correct, meaning the students and the

rater agreed on 500 cases to be correct. Only 1% (7cases) of correct ones was ignored, and 3%

(16 cases) was wrongly taken as incorrect. This may be due to their carelessness or confusion

over the starting point of a sentence especially when they used transitions. For instance, in the

sentence ―In the past people had close relationship, but today they are less friendly.‖ the word

―but‖ was wrongly edited to ―But‖. Some other cases were found where transitional words

such as ―and, so, however, although, as‖ were wrongly edited. 15% of capitalization (97

cases) was wrong that only 6% (39 cases) of it was recognized and edited. This can be

considered as an index for the effectiveness of scaffolded self assessment. The learners were

able to correct only 40% of their inaccurate capitalization and were confused over the rest

(60%) of the incorrect cases. Analysis of the wrong cases indicated that students knew that

English sentences start with capital letters, but they sometimes got confused when they

wanted to write complex or compound sentences. No wrong case was found with proper

nouns. The agreement coefficient (Brown, 2001) was computed by adding correct and

incorrect cases that were correctly assessed. It was .87 meaning the learners and the rater

agreed on 87% or 539 cases to be either right or wrong. Consequently, the main reason for

students‘ confusion over capitalization seems to be their confusion over longer structures for

which they need more help.

The second graph indicates the students‘ ability to edit punctuation marks when they are

helped. Punctuation tends to be more complicated than capitalization, and as expected, the

percentage of total correct cases is less than capitalization, 75%. Only 60% of correct

punctuation marks were considered as correct. 10% percent was ignored, and 5% was

assessed to be wrong. As with the capitalization, this may be because of their temporary

carelessness or their confusion over some punctuation marks. Analysis of the cases showed

that they had little problem with period at the end of the sentences. A few cases were

observed when students got confused over comma when used between two clauses or similar

structures with conjunctions. Some students put comma correctly and assessed it as wrong,

whereas others did not use it and ignored it. For instance, one student wrote ―They used to

have a lot of parties, so they were very happy‖. In the sentence comma was correctly used but

wrongly edited as an incorrect mark. Similar cases showed that students had some problems

with punctuation of complex and compound sentences and mixed them together. The

agreement coefficient was .66 meaning in 66% cases (586 cases) the learners and the rater had

the same idea about the correctness of punctuation. Total of wrong punctuation marks was

25% (220 cases), only 6% (52 cases) of which was recognized and edited. It means learners

were not able to find 76% (168 cases) of their incorrect punctuation marks. For example, in

the sentence ―We keep some animals at home, however they may cause disease to us‖, one

student has wrongly punctuated the sentence but considered it as correct. The percentage of

unnoticed inaccurate cases (76% of total incorrect cases) suggests that learners need help to

improve their punctuation. To conclude, self assessment of punctuation can both help learners

to be conscious about punctuation marks and provide teachers with useful information about

the learners‘ area of weaknesses. Feedback sessions can be planned to help students use the

assessment data to improve their writing.

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Next editing phase was to revise verb forms, both subject-verb agreement and verb tenses.

The data in the graph suggests that 67% (607 cases) of verbs was correct, and 33% (302

cases) was incorrect. The agreement coefficient was .51, meaning the participants and the

rater agreed on 51% of cases. Of correct cases 48% (434 cases) was recognized and 19% (173

cases) was confusing, but of wrong cases only 3% (26 cases) was edited and 30% (276 cases)

was either ignored or considered as correct. From total of wrong cases, only 10% was

recognized and edited in a scofolded environment when students focused on verb forms and

were allowed to use the manual. Their ability to find and edit small number of wrong cases

suggests that self assessment of writing may not be a reliable tool to edit verb forms. One

reason is the level of the learners. Low intermediate learners need more help to master verb

tenses and structures. The possible sources of errors were not in the scope of this study;

however, the proportions of wrong cases which were edited, ignored and taken as correct

suggest that learners were actively involved in the process of learning. Grammaticality

judgment has already been considered as a reflection of learners‘ competence. In this study,

only 51% of their judgment was valid, 49% was not.

The last part of the data represented the learners‘ ability to edit conjunctions. The learners

were trained and recommended to use such words in their study; moreover, they had access to

the lists and instructions about them in the manual. The total proportion of the recognized

correct and incorrect cases (83% or 296 cases) suggests high agreement coefficient

representing high agreement between the rater and the learners‘ assessment. However, they

were only able to recognize and edit 15% of their total incorrect cases. High agreement

between the rater‘s and the learners‘ judgment may suggest that learners know how to use

transitions; however, such hurried conclusions should be avoided as learners may use only the

transitions they are certain about. Avoidance strategy may have helped them get high level of

agreement coefficient. Analysis of the transitional words used in their essays proved the idea.

Majority of correct transitions (74%) were coordinating conjunctions (e.g. and, but, so, for),

but most of the wrong transitions (89%) were correlating conjunctions and conjunctive

adverbs (e.g. either-or, neither-nor, on the other hand, in other words, although). For example,

few of the learners observed the word order of the sentence after negative transitions like nor

or not only.

In conclusion, the data from the learners‘ assessment can be put into three categories. First,

correct cases that were recognized by the learners. Second, incorrect cases that were

recognized, and the rest of the cases that were confused. The proportion of second and third

parts can show us the effect of self assessment in enhancing the learners‘ awareness about

their lapses. The following graph shows this:

Figure5: The proportions of correct and incorrect editions (1. Capitalization, 2.Punctuation,

3.Conjunctions, 4.Verb forms)

66 2 3

1334 17 49

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

1 2 3 4

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The data suggest that low intermediate learners were able to find and edit low proportion of

incorrect cases (32% capitalization, 15% punctuation, 11% conjunctions, 6% verb forms).

Moreover, they show that learners were confused about higher proportion of cases. They

either ignored or failed to recognize the accuracy of the cases. The data from this part can be

considered as the area that learners can learn with the help of teachers or more proficient ones.

A simple comparison shows that low intermediate learners may not be able to edit most of

their errors; hence, their assessment could not replace the teachers‘, and such learners are not

able to alleviate the burden of scoring. However, valuable information can be obtained from

the results of their assessment about their area of weaknesses. Dlaska and Krekeler (2008,

P.515) maintain that ―errors in judgments are integral to self assessment‖, so the suitability of

self assessment may depend on other factors like, enhancing the learners‘ awareness of their

performance, increasing their motivation and informing the teacher of the learners‘ needs.

When learners confused correct and incorrect cases, it may mean they are actively

formulating and testing hypotheses about the language they are learning. Teachers‘ feedback

can help them to improve and acquire correct forms.

VII. Conclusion

The main goal of the study was to investigate low intermediate learners‘ ability to self asses

their essay writing in a scafolded environment. It was performed in two levels, macro and

micro assessment. They assessed the overall organization of their essays by using an

analytical scale. Reliability coefficient was quite high, while validity was moderate. Micro

level assessment consists of editing their essays‘ capitalization, punctuation, verbs and

transitions. Data suggest that the learners were able to detect small number of their errors and

were confused by most of others. Although causes of the errors were not investigated in this

study, it is concluded that the areas where students have difficulty can be improved if they are

helped. Teachers can use the information to find the students‘ weaknesses and provide them

with right feedback. In conclusion, based on the results of the study, teacher‘s assessment

cannot be completely replaced by low intermediate learners‘ assessment, but very useful

information about the learners‘ interlanguage can be deduced from their self assessment.

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About the Authors

Asghar Kargar is a PHD student in TEFL at Shiraz University, Iran. He has been a lecturer in

the in the Department of English at Islamic Azad University, Abadeh branch. He has been

teaching different courses in TEFL and English Translation for 10 years. His research interest

includes teaching and testing language skills especially reading and writing as well as

teaching methodology. He has also published a book in essay writing entitled ―easy essay‖.

Dr. Mortaza Yamini is an assistant professor who taught for 35 years at Shiraz University

before he retired a few years ago. He is still pursuing his teaching profession, offering some

graduate courses at Shiraz University and the Islamic Azad University, Shiraz Branch. He is

also an active member of the Center of Excellence in L2 Reading and Writing, Shiraz

University.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc

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Appendix 1

Self-assessment score sheet Name: ……………………………

Essay Question:

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………

Part one: Review your essay carefully and use the score sheet below to evaluate it.

Introductory Paragraph

Is there an effective introductory paragraph? 1O 2O 3O 4O 5O

Introductory Paragraph

Does the introductory paragraph have an effective thesis statement? 1O 2O 3O 4O 5O

Supporting Paragraphs

Does each paragraph have a clear topic sentence? 1O 2O 3O 4O 5O

Supporting Paragraphs

Do the topic sentences support the thesis statement effectively? 1O 2O 3O 4O 5O

Supporting Paragraphs Do the ideas in the supporting sentences support the ideas of the topic

sentences?

(Are all of the supporting sentences relevant ?) 1O 2O 3O 4O 5O Supporting Paragraphs

Are all the details (examples, facts, experiences, etc.) clear? 1O 2O 3O 4O 5O

Concluding Paragraph

Is there an effective concluding paragraph? 1O 2O 3O 4O 5O

Concluding Paragraph Does the concluding paragraph give (A) an opinion, preference, prediction,

or solution and 1O 2O 3O 4O 5O

(B) reasons? 1O 2O 3O 4O 5O

Concluding Paragraph

Does the essay have an effective concluding statement? 1O 2O 3O 4O 5O

Essay

Does the essay answer all parts of the question completely? 1O 2O 3O 4O 5O

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Short-Term Training Model of Academic Writing to High School Teachers

Rita Inderawati and Rita Hayati

Sriwijaya University Palembang, Indonesia

[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract

Since scientific writing becomes an important requirement of promoting teachers‘ position in

their school life, the English teachers entail such a training model of generating their

motivation to write academically. The teachers have been teaching English for years without

taking care of their writing ability. How can they arouse their students‘ motivation in writing

if they cannot write themselves. Based on a preliminary study conducted a few months ago, it

was found that most teachers could not write academically. They confirmed that they wrote

their major papers (thesis) for finishing their undergraduate program to be teachers;

nevertheless, they confessed it was difficult to write.

Those phenomena challenge the writer to conduct a research concerning an excellent strategy

to motivate the high school teachers in generating ideas for writing. By conducting a short-

term training to 33 high school teachers from distinct regencies of the province of South

Sumatra for six hours, this study was aimed at providing the teachers with a very short and

effective way of writing academically as well as scientifically and analyzing the effectiveness

of the short-term training model.

This research-based paper elaborates the short-term model of academic writing by giving

treatment to the teachers and the teachers‘ perspective towards the short-term model by

distributing a questionnaire. The findings are there is significant development of academic

writing and the teachers have positive perspective toward the training model.

Introduction

Language, the main means of communication among people has long been recognized. It is

believed that human beings and language are deeply embedded in the sense that people own a

language and use it to interact with others. It is also viewed as a vehicle of thought, a system

of expression that mediates the transfer of thought from one person to another (Finegan,

2004:8). People learn languages in order to be able to communicate in different linguistic

contexts such as getting knowledge and information. One of the most important means for

acquiring knowledge and information is English. It has largely contributed to human life in

many ways. Therefore, there has been a strong demand for English mastery due to the fact

that process of communication can be carried out in the form of spoken and written language.

Learning to communicate in foreign language entails the necessity to learn both language

skills and language aspects of the target language. Among the four skills, writing is a

determinant of one‘s success in language learning. Finegan (2004:418) argues that writing is

the single most important invention in human history. Writing is a skill which requires

organization of ideas to be communicated in a text. Indeed, writing entails many complex

components such as grammar, spelling, vocabulary, mechanics more importantly its unity,

coherence and cohesion.



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Many people find it difficult to write for many reasons. Even though there are many factors to

consider, the skill of writing is a skill which can be learned. It just takes study and practice to

develop writing skills. It is well accepted both in theory and practice that the best way to learn

to write is by doing the writing as argued by Calkins (1986) in Peregoy and Boyle (1993:182)

that writing is another powerful strategy that promotes discovery, comprehension, and

retention of information. It is true that one‘s success in learning a language can be measured

through his or her writing.

It is obvious that writing includes a complex process which allows writers to explore ideas

and thoughts and make them visible and concrete to readers. Raimes (1983:10) states, ―

recently the teaching of writing has begun to move away from a concentration on the written

product to an emphasis on the process writing.‖ During the writing process writers rewrite

and revise their sentences until they are satisfied that they have expressed their meaning

(Byrne, 1998:3). It implies that the teacher trainees pass through several developmental

writing stages to produce a good final piece of writing.

Furthermore, Oshima and Hogue (1999:3) mention that there are four main stages in the

writing process: prewriting, planning, writing and revising drafts, and writing the final copy.

There are various features that a writer needs to consider in producing a piece of writing. In

writing process, time is a crucial element in which the writers should have time to make

decision, play around with ideas, time to construct sentences, and time to change their minds

(Raimes, 1983:21). It is obviously clear that writing is just like working in a project which

considers everything in detail.

Essays consist of more than one paragraph. Complete essays contain three major parts namely

an introduction, a body, and a conclusion (Leki, 1995; Oshima, 1999; Leonhard, 2002).

1. The introductory paragraph attracts the reader‘s attention and informs the reader what

the main topic of discussion will be. An introductory paragraph has two parts;

a. Several general sentences that give background information on the subject and

gradually lead the reader into a specific topic.

b. A thesis statement that states the subdivisions (topics of each paragraph). It may

also indicate the method of development.

2. The body of an essay discusses the subdivided topics one by one. It contains as many

paragraphs as necessary to explain the controlling ideas in the thesis statement.

3. The concluding paragraph reminds the reader of what you have said. Remember to use

a ―conclusion‖ transition signal. The concluding paragraph has a summary of the main

ideas of a restatement of the thesis in different words and a final comment on the

topic.

An introduction has two parts: general statements and the thesis statements. An introductory

paragraph of an essay begins with an attention to get readers‘ interests. This is called kinds of

support for writing such as a fact, quotation, definition, question, or background information.

The introductory paragraph also includes a thesis statement usually at the end. The next part is

the body of an essay which is built up in the form of a series of paragraphs which all

contribute to establishing the writer‘s purpose. The last part is a concluding paragraph. It

restates the main ideas of the essay. A good conclusion gives the reader a feeling of

completion and leads the reader away from the essay.

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Writing an essay is more complex than a paragraph because writers are working with

paragraphs. Those who write an essay should pay attention to the elements of writing an

essay. Building up the overall structure through paragraphs which have clearly defined main

points is a requirement of successful essays. Furthermore, in writing an essay the writer

focuses on achieving a purpose, organizing and developing ideas logically, using details to

support or illustrate ideas, demonstrating syntactic and lexical variety, and engaging in the

process of multiple drafts to achieve a final product (Brown, 2004:220).

Since scientific writing becomes an important requirement of promoting teachers‘ position in

their school life, the English teachers entail such a training model of generating their

motivation to write academically. The teachers have been teaching English for years without

taking care of their writing ability. How can they arouse their students‘ motivation in writing

if they cannot write themselves. Based on the preliminary study conducted a few months ago,

it was found that most teachers could not write academically. They confirmed that they wrote

their major papers (thesis) for accomplishing their undergraduate program to be teachers;

nevertheless, they confessed it was difficult to write.

Indonesian government through the National Education Ministry has implemented a huge

program, Teacher Profession Training and Education (TPTE), to certificate teachers of all

education levels since 2007. Specifically, English teachers are provided with the following

subject matters: 1) teacher professionalism, 2) models of teaching, assessment, teaching

media, and lesson plan, 3) English enrichment, 4) peer teaching practice, and 5) classroom

action research and scientific writing.

TPTE is a nine day training that functions to train teachers to be professional ones. The very

short training with six hours allocated for writing session often made the trainers become

disappointed since the majority of the teacher trainees failed to write, even only a single

paragraph. This condition motivated the writer to discover a simple way to train them within

the six hours. The short-term training model is called A Funnel from Paragraph to Essay

Short-term Training Model. Consequently, this paper focuses on the scientific writing

conducted by the teacher trainees by writing academically and collaborating among them in

order to get improvement from the peer comments. Method

The sample of the study consisted of 33 teachers from 32 senior high schools from some

regencies of the province of South Sumatra Indonesia. The research instruments used were

written tests that consist of writing test, paragraph writing, and essay writing and

questionnaire. The writing tests were administered before and after treatment, while the

questionnaire was given after the whole tests. Since it was a pre-experimental research, it used

one group pretest- posttest design that was measured before and after being exposed to a

treatment of some sort. To score the teacher trainees‘ writing, a rating scale presented by Hill

(2008:292) was used.

Meanwhile, for the treatment, the steps of writing training were as follows: (1) ask the teacher

trainees to write a paragraph under different topics, (2) ask the teacher trainees to answer 10

questions dealing with their writing knowledge, (3) ask the teacher trainees to rewrite their

previous paragraph after they have understood the answers of the ten questions, (4) ask the

teacher trainees to write their paragraph based on the paragraph model given if they still found

that writing was difficult, (5) ask the teacher trainees to proofread their peers‘ paragraph

guided by the trainer, (6) ask the teacher trainees to revise their paragraphs, (7) ask the teacher

trainees to pay attention to the explanation about essay, (8) ask the teacher trainees to develop

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their paragraphs into essays, (9) ask the teacher trainees to do collaborative writing, and (10)

ask the teacher trainees to revise their essays.

Findings and Discussion

The data in this study refer to development of writing from a single paragraph to an essay and

the teachers‘ perception toward the short-term training model.

A Funnel from Paragraph to Essay

This training conducted for six hours brought a satisfactory result in which the senior high

school teachers ultimately were motivated to write. At the first thirty minutes, the teachers

showed uncomfortable face due to the first assignment to do, to write a free topic in five up to

10 sentences in good paragraph writing. The result of their first writing after taking long time

avoiding writing scientifically was not so bad. The average score of paragraph writing in

pretest was 58.1. After being given a test of writing knowledge and discussing the answer of

the ten items, the teacher trainees revised their first writing. Nevertheless, the revised drafts

were still poor although there were some improvements, especially in devising some essential

transition signals such as furthermore, for example, and in conclusion. Therefore, the trainer

showed them a model writing. They just imitated the paragraph entitled Gold taken from

Oshima and Hogue (1999). While imitating, the trainer elaborated the parts of a good

paragraph, that is topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentence and also

reminded them the other two important elements of a good paragraph, coherence and unity.

At the third hour, the teachers could identify and understand how to write a good paragraph.

The average score gained by the teachers was 79 with 85 as the highest score and 73 as the

lowest score in the posttest of paragraph writing.

The histogram below shows the development even the improvement of paragraph writing.

Paragraph writing

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

pretest

posttest

Column1

To identify the improvement of paragraph writing, the writer exemplifies a paragraph written

by Syafaruddin, one of the teacher trainees, before and after the short-term training model.

The influence of technology has important role on children’s mindset. Why?

The one way for children learning something is by using their eyes. They can

learn easily by watching television or other technology tools. Based on this

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fact many scientists do a scientific research to know how far the influence of

technology and its effect.

From the first draft, it can be seen that the topic sentence is not correct even though it consists

of the topic and controlling idea, the supporting sentences do not really support the topic

sentence, the conclusion sentence does not restate specifically the topic sentence, and the

other two important elements of a good paragraph, coherence and unity, have not been used in

it. As argued by Finegan (2004:418), many complex components such as grammar, spelling,

vocabulary are necessitated in writing, and so do its unity, coherence and cohesion.

After working on a test of writing knowledge, all the teacher trainees revised and rewrote

their previous paragraphs. The following is also Syafaruddin‘s.

Technology, a part of human life, has two kinds of influences on children’s

mindset. First, technology can be as a good media for children to develop and

increase their knowledge, because one of good ways to educate children is by

using technology. For example, internet can help and make children find out

information and knowledge in everywhere. Another influence, it is a dangerous

media for children character since it can make the children have negative

thinking and action. For example, watching violent films on television can

make the children be dangerous for other. So, to avoid the bed effects of

technology, the children must know about it. In conclusion, technology can be

good media to get knowledge and can be bad to children’s character.

This second draft paragraph seems better. It is influenced by the discussion on the test of

writing knowledge given after the teacher wrote their first draft. In the draft, it can be seen

that the topic sentence consists of the topic itself (technology) and controlling ideas (two

influences), the supporting sentences really support the topic sentence with some transition

signals, and the concluding sentence, indeed, summarizes the supporting sentences. Due to the

complete and correct format applied in it, it can be categorized as a good paragraph.

Furthermore, the trainer explained how to develop the paragraph to be an essay. The

following figure is the result of pretest and posttest of the teachers‘ essay. Similar to the

previous paragraph, there is a significant difference of essay writing between pretest (the

average score is 58.6) and posttest (the average score is 78.9). It is obvious that the

improvement of their writing from paragraph to essay is quite good by examining the score

for paragraph is 79 and essay is 78.9. It is relevant to the statement of Raimes (1983:10), ―…

to an emphasis on the process writing.‖ Similarly, Byrne (1998:3) insists that writers rewrite

and revise their sentences in the process of writing through several developmental writing

stages until they can express their ideas satisfactorily. Meanwhile, the improvement from

pretest (the blue color) to posttest (the red color) in essay writing can be obviously seen in the

following figure.

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Essay Writing

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Series 1

Series 2

Column1

In order to see the development from a paragraph to an essay, the following is taken from the

same teacher trainee‘s.

Technology, a part of human life, has two kinds of influences on children’s

mindset. Based on Raihan (2006:7), “Technology is a tool that can be the most

important thing for children.” This essay will elaborate two influences of

technology on children’s mindset, good and bad influences.

First of all, technology can be seen as a good media for children to develop

and increase their knowledge because of good ways to educate children is by

using technology. For example, internet can help and make children find out

information and knowledge in everywhere. Nowadays, many schools in

Indonesia use internet to increase the quality of teaching learning process

especially for student, teacher, and school quality because internet is the

easiest and fastest way to find out many information and knowledge.

Another influence is that it is a dangerous media for children’s character since

it can make the children have negative thinking and action. For example,

watching violence films too much can make the children dangerous for other.

So, to avoid the bad effect of technology, the children must know about it.

According to Arrasyid (2006:13) in his article, ”There are 29 problems faced

by children in a month because of their bad habits on watching video.” It is

the responsibility of all parents and teachers to guide the children in using

technology.

In conclusion, using the technology for its advantages only and avoid the bad

influence one by telling which one is important and which one is dangerous for

children and everyone.

This essay is not successful in closing the last paragraph. The teacher did not restate correctly

what he has discussed in it.

Teacher Trainees’ Perception toward the Short-term Training Model

In order to know the participants‘ point of view toward the short-term training model of

writing, the thirty-three teacher trainees were asked to respond to 14 questions. The following

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is the result of their responses to the questionnaire distributed. First of all, the teacher trainees

stated that they never wrote scientific paper beside their undergraduate papers. They have

known kinds of text such as narrative, recount, descriptive, and procedure text, but there was

only one teacher that had an experience of writing narrative and descriptive texts. Those who

answered never wrote such texts could identify the characteristics of the texts.

Furthermore, they were asked to comment on their own paragraph writing after three hours of

training. Only 2 (6%) out of 33 said that their paragraphs were bad. Others, 15% is good

enough and 79% is good. One of those whose writing was good cited that structurally her

paragraph was good as it followed the rule or the format of writing, but the quality of diction

was still poor. The following figure shows the participants‘ comment toward their writing at

the first three hours of training.

The Result of Writing

bad= 6%

good enough=15%

good=79%

After being explained, all the participants could identify the parts of a good paragraph.

Unfortunately, there were 28 (85%) teachers who cited that they found it difficult to develop

supporting sentences since getting idea is so difficult, developing sentences is not easy, and

connecting one sentence to other sentences is hard to do. Nevertheless, 100% expressed that

the short-term training model was worthy because it was important for teachers to know how

to write. It also motivated them to write academically. And since the writing material was

understandable, it could inspire the teachers to write an essay. Furthermore, it was valuable

because some teachers did not know the system of good writing, and it opened their minds

that writing was not difficult after they had known the procedure of writing. This is supported

by Brown (2004) that successful essays depend on building up the overall structure through

paragraphs which have clearly defined main points.

After knowing how to write a paragraph well, the trainer taught them how to write an essay

by developing their previous paragraph, the teachers said that they could understand it but

they still found it difficult to write the conclusion (35%). The teachers actually had to restate

the ideas that they have discussed in the supporting paragraphs (Oshima and Hogue, 1999).

It is interesting that 100% agreed that writing an essay by developing similar paragraph was

easily understood. Consequently, they found it easy to write a piece of essay by the help of

paragraph they composed before.

Since the participants were provided with a module of language skills, they had read before

the training began. It was a pity that they could not understand the material well. Therefore,

all the teachers insisted that the instructor‘s explanation was easier to understand than the

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material being read because she could explain well and their techniques of writing were

initially poor. However, there was 6% (2 teachers) who claimed that their ability in writing

was still poor after attending the short-term training. It is indicated in the following figure.

good= 80%

good enough= 10%

bad= 6%

very good= 4%

The Teachers’ Opinion to Their Essays

The last question posed in the questionnaire was to figure out their opinion to the

instructor‘s technique of training the teachers in writing scientifically. Ninety-six teachers

were interested in the way she presented the writing material since she explained in details the

parts of the essay that were difficult to understand, and guided them step by step. Besides, she

also checked and asked them to revise their essays.

Conclusion

Based on the findings above, it can be inferred that the teachers could ultimately write a good

paragraph as well as good essay even though some of them still found it difficult to develop

supporting sentences in an essay. Due to the limited time, the teachers‘ writing showed only a

little progress; however, it can be concluded that A Funnel from Paragraph to Essay Short-

term Training Model is effective to develop the teachers‘ ability in both writing paragraph and

essay. The effectiveness of the model is also strengthened by the teachers‘ perception toward

the model implemented that they have positive perception to the model of writing being

trained.

REFERENCES

Brown.H.Douglas. 2004. Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices. White

Plains, NY: Pearson Education, Inc.

Budiharso, Teguh. (2006). The Rhetoric Features of English and Indonesian Essays Made by

EFL Undergraduate Students. TEFLIN: Teaching English as Aa Foreign Language in

Indonesia Journal. 17, 54-86.

Byrne, Don. 1998. Teaching Writing Skills. Essex: Addison Wesley Longman Ltd.

Finegan, Edward. 2004. Language: Its Structure and Use (4th

ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth

Thomson Corporation

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Hill, Susan. 2008. Developing Early Literacy Assessment and Teaching. Praharan: Eleanor

Curtain Publishing.

Leki, Ilona. 1995. Academic Writing: Exploring Processes and Strategies ( 2nd

ed.) .New

York, NY: ST Martin‘s Press.

Leonhard, B.Harris. 2002. Discoveries in Academic Writing. Boston, MA: Heinle&Heinle

Thomson Learning, Inc.

Oshima, Alice & Ann Hogue. 1999. Writing Academic English (3rd

ed.). New York, NY:

Adison-Wesley Longman.

Peregoy,S.F. and O.F.Boyle. 1993. Reading, Writing & Learning in ESL. New York,

NY:Longman.

Raimes, Ann. 1983. Techniques in Teaching Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

215


Simplified Literature in Language Teacher Education

Liesel Hermes

Karlsruhe University of Education, Germany

[email protected]

Abstract

Language teacher education comprises the fields of literature, applied linguistics and area

studies which are all related to the methodology of teaching English as a foreign language.

Literary texts are particularly suitable for language learners because they give insights into

different cultures and offer themselves for meaningful communication. However, they are

often linguistically too demanding. Publishers therefore offer adapted literary texts, which

should be introduced to future language teachers with a view to making them aware of the

challenges of using simplified literary texts in class. Students should learn to analyse literary

originals and simplified versions both from the standpoints of literary criticism and linguistics

with the aim of developing objective criteria for adaptations, to assess their literary as well as

linguistic merits and their value in class. On the basis of a set of criteria students they can

learn to simplify literary texts on their own.

1. Introduction

David Hill, the director of the Edinburgh Project on Extensive Reading, once complained:

"There is virtually no training of teachers in the rationale and implementation of extensive

reading programmes." (Hill, 2001:312) Since I felt he had a point I devised a course for

language teacher students which aimed to bridge the objectives of literary criticism with those

of applied linguistics and teaching literature. The course included the following components:

information about graded readers series,

analysis of the linguistic and content criteria of different series,

theoretical foundation of text adaptation,

discussion of the concept of authenticity in language learning,

original short stories and comparison with simplified versions,

development of a model set of criteria for the adaptation of texts,

simplification of an original short story.

2. Graded Readers

Graded readers serve a world-wide market of English-language learners. Therefore they come

with a practically infinite variety of themes, and they include titles originally written for the

series and adaptations of original novels, short stories and film scripts. The range of linguistic

levels and wide variety of themes enable teachers to include them in heterogeneous classes

over a longer period of time. A critical overview should include the following criteria:

Number of levels/stages

Linguistic level: vocabulary, grammar and style

Fiction/non-fiction

Tasks and Activities

Media (CDs or DVDs)


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Simple originals and adaptations

The students familiarize themselves with different series on the market. Almost all of them

contain simple originals, i. e. novels that have been specially written for the series, and

simplified texts, i. e. adaptations of literary originals, often classical authors like Shakespeare,

Austen, Dickens, Brontës, London, Mark Twain and others. However, their quality varies

considerably, and students have to learn not to trust any adaptation, but to develop criteria to

assess the quality of the texts and the linguistic level, to analyse the tasks and activities.

Furthermore they have to listen to the CDs or look at the DVDs and judge their respective

merits. Last but not least they have to assess their suitability for use in class at different levels.

This includes the literary and linguistic quality as well as the methodological potential.

3. Text adaptation

Since there is no coherent theory of text adaptation the students should become familiar with

the most important studies published that deal with aspects of text adaptation and thus learn

about the wide variety of possibilities to simplify a text.

Adaptations come under the general heading of ―language learner literature‖ (Day &

Bamford, 1998:63ff.) that is meant to help adolescents find an approach to literary texts and

read with pleasure. Adapting a literary text means in general shortening and changing it in

order to simplify it. The process of alteration has been called ―adapt, abridge, reduce, retell,

rewrite, simplify‖ (Simensen, 1987:43) or ―modify‖ (Aebersold & Field, 1997:48), which

indicates that different operations are possible. Text adaptations can be analysed and

evaluated objectively (Hermes, 2008:277). One should differentiate control of discourse and

structure, of information and of language (Simensen, 1987:45 ff.).

Control of discourse and structure. The adaptation of novel-length texts requires major

modifications as to the linguistic level and the length, since a certain number of pages usually

goes together with a certain level in the series. Thus whole chapters may be deleted or

summarized, which means a change in structure. In most cases the chapters in the original are

summarized, and new chapters are created which overlap with the chapters of the original,

which means change in structure, sometimes significantly so (Hermes, 2009:248 ff.).

Control of information refers to descriptions or details, the number of characters or subplots,

which may be considered unessential. If on the one hand details are deleted, information may

on the other hand be added, which is called elaboration. This holds true e.g. for cultural

information. When adapters feel that some information which is essential to the text may not

be understood by foreign language learners, they may feel the need to add a detail in order to

bring an idea home to the readership. However, cultural information may also be suppressed

or changed into neutrality, e.g. when a brand of automobile is rendered as "car".

Shortening a long novel may result in very dense information, even if some minor characters

are entirely deleted, the effect being a plot with a lot of action in dense sequence which does

not necessarily make reading easier. This may hold true e.g. for Dickens' novels, which

always contain a vast number of characters. Therefore control of information may concern

plot, characters, details as well as cultural phenomena.

Control of language refers to linguistic changes of the original text (detailed list in Simensen,

1987:50-52). It affects lexis, grammar, idioms, register and style. Thus, difficult words are

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deleted or exchanged for easier ones. Choice of tenses can be restricted. Hypotactical sentence

structures can be avoided by splitting the sentences up. Idiomatic expressions make literary

language very lively, but may be difficult and are often deleted or exchanged for neutral

phrases. Authors sometimes use "ungrammatical" English or ―incorrect‖ spelling with the aim

of conveying the social background of a character. Both are difficult for the language learner,

and therefore the register is often neutralized to Standard English.

Adapters often have the choice between substitution and deletion. Deletion is invariably used

in lengthy descriptive paragraphs. Substitution is used when a rare word can be exchanged for

a more frequent one.

In sum, adapting a novel always means summarizing and retelling the story. However, good

adaptations will maintain the key scenes and sometimes even the flavour of the original style.

Adapting a short story results in the more or less subtle linguistic changes which I have just

described.

4. Authenticity

A course on the analysis of simplified literature has to deal with the concept of ―authenticity‖,

which is highly controversial when one looks into the literature (Hermes, 2007). In a lot of

studies the question is raised whether simplified texts are authentic and if not, if that detracts

from their suitability for use in EFL classes. Aebersold & Field define: "Authentic materials

are taken directly from L1 sources and are not changed in any way before they are used in the

classroom." (Aebersold & Field, 1997:48, bold type in the original) This definition makes

sense if one has only the text itself in mind, and consequently simplified texts would not be

authentic. Catherine Wallace argues: ―As soon as texts, whatever their original use, are

brought into classrooms for pedagogical purposes they have, arguably, lost authenticity.‖

(Wallace, 1992:79) Strangely enough that would mean that originals like newspaper articles

or novels would lose their authenticity as soon as they are used in EFL classrooms and

become vehicles for learning the foreign language. By the same token, coursebook texts,

which were written especially for EFL learners and are consequently carefully graded, would

be originals since they are put to their original use, i. e. language learning. This does not seem

to lead us anywhere.

One should rather look at what is being done with a text in class, i. e. at the interaction

between text and learners. This aspect, authenticity of situation, may be far more important. A

text may be read for language learning purposes or for pleasure. Narratives in L2 can be read

for pleasure if they are entertaining and easy to read. The situation in the L2 context is then

similar to the L1 situation, when young people read fiction for their pastime. This notion of

authenticity in language learning needs the language teachers' attention. It is especially

simplified literature that should provide opportunities to read for pleasure and relaxation, of

course with the idea at the back of the teacher‘s mind that incidental language learning occurs.

Insofar the texts may acquire authenticity, although the originals have been modified. The

interaction between readers and text and the purpose of reading are authentic.

Learners may not be too thrilled by the mere notion of authenticity, or be highly motivated by

the prospect of being exposed to an ―authentic‖ text. Some learners‘ motivation may even

fade if an authentic text proves to be too difficult at the linguistic level, but may be kindled by

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an "unauthentic" text which contains interesting topics and which they find worthwhile

reading because of the language level.

This line of argumentation is in keeping with Day and Bamford who doubt "the widely held

assumption that authentic (real-life) materials should be used in language teaching" (1998:53)

and question its validity, especially the view that difficult authentic texts are "worthwhile as

learning tools" (ibid.:54). They argue that on the contrary difficult texts can impede foreign

language learning and reading. Anyone who has experienced the extent to which the frequent

use of a dictionary slows down reading speed and impedes understanding, will look for texts

that are manageable and are read for the message without undue concern for the language (cf.

Day & Bamford, 1998:55). In other words, original literature that comes in a heavily

annotated edition, will not arouse in the students the feeling that they are reading authentic

literature, but rather the anxiety that they will have to cope with a difficult text, because the

reading process is constantly interrupted by the eyes moving to and fro between text and

annotations.

Future language teachers should learn to deal critically with the controversial concept of

authenticity, to find and to defend their own position. My students‘ outcome of the discussion

was that language teachers should worry less about real or alleged authenticity but rather

about the appropriate linguistic level, fascination of topics and the motivational potential of

texts they choose for a class.

5. Analysis of original short stories and simplified versions

There is a huge supply of adaptations of classical novels on the market, with some classics

existing in up to five different versions. However, for detailed text analysis within the time

constraints of a semester course, they are not ideal, because any analysis requires a detailed

knowledge of the original text, which would be hard to demand of students with novels by

Dickens or Austen. In the framework of a university course, short stories are better suited for

the purpose mentioned, because they are short enough to allow intensive reading of the

original and the adaptation and allow an equally intensive comparison. Thus the students,

after discussing the theoretical underpinnings of text adaptation, learn to analyse original

short stories and their simple counterparts (literary criticism), to analyse and evaluate the

changes made (linguistic, content, and cultural changes) and to assess the overall quality of

the simple version as well as its suitability for the EFL classroom. The process is one of

awareness raising as far as the literary merit as well as the ―teachability‖ of a literary text

goes, with cultural information and its treatment in the simplified version posing particularly

delicate problems. The process of analysing and comparing various short stories can lead in

an inductive process to a set of criteria for assessing the quality of the adaptation:

Control of information:

Length in comparison with original

Deletions

Substitutions

Cultural aspects

Consistency or inconsistency of alterations

Control of structure:

Differences in structure

Plot

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Characters

Elaborations

Control of language:

Deletions

Substitutions

Summary of paragraph (= shortening)

Change of wording of sentence

Lexis

Idioms

Grammar

Syntax

Overall style

Neutralisation of cultural information

Neutralisation of register in direct speech

Comparison and Evaluation:

How much and what of the original text has been maintained?

Is the adapted text abridged, simplified or retold?

Effect of the adapted version on the reader

Overall quality of the adaptation (Hermes, 2008:277)

6. Experiential learning: simplifying a short story

In order to make the students aware of the difficulty of creating a good text adaptation, they

were asked to simplify a short story themselves. I chose a fairly easy story from an American

anthology for young adult readers: No easy answers: short stories about teenagers making

tough choices. ―I‘ve Got Gloria‖ is about a teenage boy who failed his math exam at school

and tries to take revenge on his math teacher by pretending to have kidnapped her dog and

phoning the teacher to demand a ransom. In the end she is willing to help the boy in a

remedial math summer course. The story deals with a common teenager topic: dislike of a

school subject and projection of the aversion on the teacher. At the same time the boy feels

that he is not understood by either teacher or parents. The plot structure is very simple. It

covers no more than one afternoon and is mainly in dialogues. This structure makes it very

vivid and – superficially - fairly easy to read.

However there are a few caveats: the dialogues are full of colloquialisms. Moreover, the

setting is American. The students agreed unanimously that the story would be appropriate for

pupils in their 4th

year of learning English in secondary school. They then worked together in

pairs and adapted the text. Pair work gives students a chance to discuss their own reading of

the story, agree on each modification they are about to make and justify it. It is thus a highly

interactive process and lends itself to reflexion on the activity they are engaging in. The

results were then discussed in a plenary and the decision making process of the respective

pairs was analysed. The following decisions were agreed on:

A text cannot be simplified without agreement on a specific language level and a

certain group of pupils in mind.

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Partners have to agree on the teaching objectives they wish to achieve, whether it is

the fluent reading of an easy story or rather reading a literary text that still reflects the

original.

It seems hard to be consistent with the American setting, since pupils in Germany start

learning British English and may not have the relevant background knowledge for this

story, which means that cultural information may have to be neutralized (cf. Hermes

2010).

To maintain consistency throughout the process of simplification is a daunting task, which

concerns maintaining a word or phrase, substituting it or deleting it throughout. When

working on the text the students felt they had to go back and forth and check on previous

pages. The colloquial language level in the original sounds convincing and authentic, but may

be too difficult in places and has to be changed to more standard language, which detracts

from the authenticity of the dialogues. The students agreed on annotating ―flunk, remedial

math, Yellowstone‖, since these were essential to the story and should not be paraphrased.

The discussion of the pairs‘ respective text adaptations yielded the following results:

Simplifying a text is a time-consuming process, in which each decision has to be justified to

lead to a high-quality adaptation. The comparable brevity of the text meant that not much

shortening was necessary.

Adjectives like ―anxious, valuable, petty‖ were found to be important, but not easy to

paraphrase, and all students wished to avoid annotations to ensure a certain reading speed.

To sum up: The overall experience was a very positive one. The students had become aware

of the chances and pitfalls of simplifying a text and learnt that it is not only hard work that

presupposes a high language level and cultural knowledge, but that it also requires an

instinctive feel for language use. Consistency is an important objective that is hard to attain

even if the text is comparatively short.

7. Conclusion

A course like the one described combines elements of literary criticism, applied linguistics,

cultural studies and methods of teaching literary texts. The students become aware of the

richness of literary texts in language learning and of the didactic potential of good text

adaptations for teaching reading in a foreign language. And they learn in an experiential

process what is required to simplify a literary text without detracting too much from its

quality to make it manageable for language students.

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8. References

Aebersold, Jo Ann, & Mary Lee Field (1997). From Reader to Reading Teacher. Cambridge:


Day, Richard R., & Julian Bamford (1998). Extensive Reading in the Second Language

Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hermes, Liesel (2008). Original und Bearbeitung: Literarische Texte in der

Fremdsprachenlehrerausbildung. Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen, 37, 268-282.

Hermes, Liesel (2009a). Literature and the teaching of literature in teacher education. IATEFL

Young Learners and Teenagers, I, 26-28.

Hermes, Liesel (2009b). An Analysis of a Graded Readers Adaptation of Katherine

Mansfield's 'The Doll's House'. IATEFL Literature, Media and Cultural Studies, 35,

12-14.

Hermes, Liesel (2010). Simplifying a Literary Text: A Challenging Task for Student

Teachers. IATEFL Literature, Media and Cultural Studies, 37, 9-11.

Hill, David R. (2008). Graded Readers in English. English Language Teaching Journal, 62/2,

184-204.

Kerr, E.M. (1997). I've Got Gloria. In Donald R. Gallo (Ed.), No Easy Answers: Short Stories

about Teenagers Making Tough Choices (pp.67-76). New York: Delacorte Press.

Wallace, Catherine (1992). Reading. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

About the Author

Liesel Hermes Professor of English and President of the University of Education, Karlsruhe, Germany; 40

years experience in teacher education; fields of research and publications in contemporary

English and Australian literature (mostly women writers), intercultural education, theory and

practice of teaching English as a foreign language, Action Research, learner autonomy in

tertiary education, theory and practice of group work; development of materials for learning

English and editor of literature anthologies for advanced learners of English; member of

various international associations.

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Test Taker Feedback on the Appropriateness of a Reading Test*

Sutilak Meeampol


[email protected]

Abstract

This small scale pilot study aimed at obtaining feedback from test takers during a pre-testing

of a reading test before the main study that investigates the effects of text structure

instruction. A retrospective questionnaire survey was given to sixty-one Bangkok University

EFL students in order to elicit how they perceived the appropriateness of the test features:

content, methods or tasks, scoring, and test administration. Overall positive feedback was

found with written comments that yielded lessons valuable for improvement of the test and its

administration. Despite its limitations, this study entailed reviewing theoretical concepts

necessary for a construction of test specifications and presenting a practical way to evaluate

the test‘s face validity by the test takers. *This study is part of the main study entitled "Feedback on a Reading Test: A Pilot Study"

Introduction

Language tests play an important role in second language research. They function as tools for

collecting language data in order to answer research questions or test hypotheses (Shohamy,

1994, p. 133). As such, tests involve people who take part in research, mainly the test takers

and the researcher, whose role is assumed here to also be the tester. It is the part of the test

takers that this paper focuses on, as their feedback or responses are important to the

researcher-tester in a successful use of a test meant to be used in the main study that aims to

investigate the effects of a reading instruction given to a target group of EFL students at

Bangkok University. In the main study, the text structure approach to reading is what

underlies aspects of instruction and assessment. A reading test is one of the tools used for the

investigation. This paper particularly presents a pilot of the reading test, which was field

tested before the actual test use in order to obtain an immediate, retrospective feedback from a

group of potential students taking the test. The overall feedback was hoped to reflect how

they perceived the appropriateness of the test and its features: content, methods or tasks,

scoring, and administration.

Overview of the Reading Test

1. Test Content

Test content is ―what the test is about‖ and its quality ―depends on whether the content is a

good sample of the relevant subject matter‖ (Genesee and Upshur, 1996, p. 142). What

makes up the test content are text passages and questions of the test. The characteristics of

the input or texts include texts‘ topics, patterns, and difficulty level and length. Topics are the

content of texts that should be controlled on the grounds that they are unbiased and suitable

for a test of reading. In the present study, expository text passages used as the test content are

categorized as collection or lists, causation or cause and effect, problem-solution, compare

and contrast, and description or attribution (Meyer and Poon, 2001, p. 143). Selecting

appropriate reading materials for a test basically involves examining if texts are of an


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appropriate level of difficulty and length. Estimating the appropriateness of texts in terms of

difficulty level could be accomplished by employing both readability formulas and experts‘

judgments. In writing the test, attention should also be paid to minimizing factors that could

cause inappropriateness of questions/answers used to elicit answers from the test takers.

―Common problems‖ should be avoided (Henning, 1987, p. 43). Questions/answers should be

the means to assess what meant to be tested in the test.

2. Test Methods

Test method is ―the kinds of tasks that test takers are asked to perform,‖ and test methods

―give form to test content‖ (Genesee and Upshur, 1996, pp. 142-143). Test tasks can be either

―discrete-point tasks‖ that focus on ―isolated bits of information,‖ such as multiple-choice

questions, or ―integrative tasks‖ that focus on ―several features combined to convey the

meaning,‖ such as summaries (Riley and Lee, 1996, p. 173). Alderson (2005) suggested that

it is up to the tester to determine the tasks or methods of test content and that which forms or

tasks to be used depends upon ―levels of understanding of the content to be investigated‖ (p.

118).

3. Test Scoring

Test scoring is another important feature of a test. It directly relates to the test reliability, and

thus it can increase or decrease the appropriateness of tests. It is well understood that ―test

items that can be objectively scored yield more reliable scores than do items that require more

subjective judgment in their scoring‖ (Genesee and Upshur, 1996, p. 199). For summary

writing in particular, scoring is a major concern as it is an attribute for appropriateness of the

test that employs such method or task. Henning (1987) suggested ways to minimize the

subjectivity of scoring written answers, such as ―insisting on rater competence or expertise,‖

and ―employing multiple independent raters‖ (p. 34).

4. Test administration

Test administration could be considered what completes language testing. Its importance is

confirmed by Hughes (1994) who remarked that even ―the best test may yield the results that

are unreliable and invalid results if it is not well administered‖ (p. 152). Factors such as test

materials and equipment, examiners, proctors, and rooms for the tests should be carefully

prepared in advance, and the administration of the test should be well operated (pp. 152-154).

These problems must be prevented because they can affect the reliability of the test and thus

minimize its appropriateness.

Importance of the Pilot Study and Test Taker Feedback

Test taker feedback can be important information from a pilot study. It is ―reactions to and

opinions about tests,‖ and feedback obtained during the test trial is valuable in terms of ―its

use in the test revision stage‖ and ―the light it may shed on the acceptability and fairness of

the test from the test-takers‘ point of view‖ (Brown and McNamara, 1992, p. 67). Also, it is

important for a test to ―achieve widespread acceptance by potential users‖ and it ―should

therefore be investigated as part of the test development process‖ (p. 69). Despite the fact that

the feedback per se may be insufficient, ―lessons‖ learned from it can be an important source

of information for researcher-testers in improving their tests prior to the actual use.

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Objectives and Research Questions

The purpose of this pilot study is, therefore, to receive the test taker feedback on the test in

terms of the appropriateness of its content, method, and scoring, as well as its administration.

In this regard, the feature of reading constructs was considered what embedded in the test

content, method, and scoring. As such, this study addresses the questions as follows:

Research Question 1: What is the test takers’ feedback on the test content?

Research Question 2: What is the test takers’ feedback on the test scoring?

Research Question 3: What is the test takers’ feedback on the test methods?

Research Question 4: What is the test takers’ feedback on the test administration?

Method

1. The Pilot Study

To find out the answers to the research questions mentioned above, survey research seemed

suitable, as surveys are ―methods of collecting information from individuals and the preferred

means to address a research question when it is most efficient to simply ask those who can

inform the question‖ (Baumann and Bason, 2004, p. 288).

2. Participants

The pilot study of the reading test took place during the 2009 summer semester with 61

second-year students randomly selected as participants (n = 61) from students taking the

Advanced English course at the time. They are of 18-19 years old, and their English

proficiency as determined by their reported grades of English are of average.

3. Instruments

There were two instruments: the Reading Test and the Student Survey. The reading test used

for pre-testing in this pilot study consists of two parts, Part A (multiple-choice) and Part B

(summary writing), and it aims to assess students‘ reading comprehension ability both before

and after the treatment of text structure instruction in the main study. A Thai-translated

version of retrospective questionnaire survey was developed to obtain test takers‘ responses or

feedback on the reading test.

4. Procedures

The test procedure started with the tester informing the test takers in advance about the

coming testing of reading which included what they had to bring to the test room such as a

dictionary. After completing the reading test, the test takers were given the student survey to

answer, and they were allowed to retain the reading test in order to ―assist their memory‖ of

the test features. The data collected from the reading test and the student survey were

undertaken and analyzed, and their results were reported. Please note, however, that the

student survey was the main source of data used to answer the four research questions as

mentioned above.

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Results and Discussion of the Student Survey

Research Question 1: What is the test takers’ feedback on the test content?

Table 1: Test taker feedback on test content Disagree Agree

1 = completely disagree

6 = completely agree

1 2 3 4 5 6 Total

Percentages

(n = 61)

1. The reading content is

not too difficult or too

easy.

3

(4.9%)

11

(18.0%)

10

(16.4%)

27

(44.3%)

9

(14.8%)

1

(1.6%)

Disagreement = 39.3% Agreement = 60.7%


familiar.

4

(6.6%)

5

(8.2%)

13

(21.3%)

21

(34.4%)

16

(26.2%)

2

(3.3%)

Disagreement = 36.1%

Agreement = 63.9%

3. The length of the

reading passages is

appropriate.

3

(4.9%)

8

(13.1%)

8

(13.1%)

24

(39.4%)

16

(26.2%)

2

(3.3%)


Agreement = 68.9%


relevant to my life.

3

(4.9%)

6

(9.8%)

7

(11.5%)

20

(32.8%)

20

(32.8%)

5

(8.2%)


5. Each question tests my

reading comprehension.

0

(.0%)

3

(4.9%)

7

(11.5%)

14

(23.0%)

32

(52.4%)

5

(8.2%)


Agreement = 83.7%

6. Each question tests the

reading skills I‘ve learned.

0

(.0%)

0

(.0%)

10

(16.4%)

16

(26.2%)

28

(45.9%)

7

(11.5%)


Agreement = 83.6%

7. Each question is

appropriate to test my

reading skills.

0

(.0%)

3

(4.9%)

9

(14.8%)

19

(31.1%)

27

(44.3%)

3

(4.9%)


Agreement = 80.3%

8. Each question is clear. 0 (.0%)

5 (8.2%)

13 (21.3%)

16 (26.2%)

23 (37.7%)

4 (6.6%)


Agreement = 70.5%

9. Each question is challenging. 1

(1.7%)

3

(5.0%)

10

(16.7%)

12

(20.0%)

19

(31.6%)

15

(25.0%)


Agreement = 76.6%

10. The multiple choices are clear.

3 (4.9%)

4 (6.6%)

11 (18.0%)

23 (37.7%)

16 (26.2%)

4 (6.6%)


11. The test provides good

multiple choices.

2

(3.3%)

3

(4.9%)

12

(19.7%)

24

(39.3%)

18

(29.5%)

2

(3.3%)


Agreement = 72.1%

The results in Table 1 revealed that, overall, the test content, which consists of the

components of text passages (items 1-4) and questions/answers (items 5-11), received positive

feedback from the test takers. However, when looking closer at the items that related to each

component, it is interesting to know that characteristics (difficulty, familiarity, length, and

content relevance to life) of text passages could still be problematic for the test takers, as

indicated by the results of items 1-4. In spite of overall positive feedback, the results showed

that quite a number of test takers were not at ease with the passages used in the test, and they

disagreed that the passages were not too difficult (item 1, n=24 or 39.3%) and that the reading

content was of familiarity (item 2, n=22 or 36.1%). Also, the length of the passages (item 3)

and their relevance to life (item 4) seemed to be an issue from the point of view of a few test

takers who stated their disagreement on the length appropriateness (item 3, n=19 or 31.1%)

and the relevance of texts to their life (items 4, n=16 or 26.2%). This might be due to factors

that relate to the nature (variables) of both the text passages and the test takers. Text passages

selected as the test content were complicated and unique in nature.

The results also revealed that questions/answers seemed appropriate from the test takers‘

point of view. However, the results based on items 8-11were found to be slightly different

from those of items 5-7 mentioned above. Few test takers seemed to have some doubt about

questions/answers in terms of their quality. It could be said that the negative feedback on

questions/answers would probably be influenced by the problem about their vocabulary

knowledge (e.g. I didn’t understand the questions/answers because I didn’t know the meaning

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of the words.). This assumption was very likely when considering most test takers‘ reported

vocabulary skills as being either poor or moderate and English proficiency as being either

average or below average, though no statistical correlations were attempted.

Research Question 2: What is the test takers’ feedback on the test scoring?

To answer research question 2, results from Table 2 about test taker feedback on the test

scoring were used. The discussion of the results focused on the quality of the scoring and

marking as perceived by the test takers.

Table 2: Test Taker Feedback on the test scoring Disagree Agree



1 2 3 4 5 6 Total

Percentages

(n = 61)

12. The marking and

scoring are clear.

0

(.0%)

3

(4.9%)

10

(16.4%)

24

(39.4%)

18

(29.5%)

6

(9.8%)


Agreement = 78.7%

13. The marking and

scoring are fair and the

score results can be trusted.

2

(3.3%)

0

(.0%)

10

(16.3%)

20

(32.8%)

20

(32.8%)

9

(14.8%)


Agreement = 80.4%

Results in Table 2 revealed the positive feedback of the test takers on the marking and scoring

of the test which included both of the multiple-choice questions and written summaries.

Particular interest went to the quality of being clear, fair, and trustworthy. In detail, most test

takers agreed that the marking and scoring were clear (item 12, n=48 or 78.7%), and fair and

trustworthy (item 13, n=49 or 80.4%). For those who felt that they disagreed with the quality

of scoring also gave some interesting comments: I was worried about my scores for

summaries. I wasn’t good at writing, so I didn’t do well on summarizing. / I don’t think it is

fair for me! I always make a lot of grammar mistakes.

In discussing the results that related to the negative feedback, the writer would like to assume

that those who disagreed with the quality of test scoring, which included marking, would

probably missed the information provided by the tester-proctor in the test room about the

scoring.

Research Question 3: What is the test takers’ feedback on the test methods?

Table 3: Test Taker Feedback on the test methods Disagree Agree



1 2 3 4 5 6 Total

Percentages

(n = 61)

14. Testing reading

comprehension needs

various forms of tests.

1

(1.6%)

1

(1.6%)

7

(11.5%)

17

(27.9%)

22

(36.1%)

13

(21.3%)


Agreement = 85.3%

15. Summarizing the

reading is appropriate to test

reading comprehension.

0

(.0%)

1

(1.6%)

7

(11.5%)

22

(36.1%)

21

(34.4%)

10

(16.4%)


Agreement = 86.9%

16. Questions with multiple

choices to choose from are

appropriate to test reading

comprehension.

0

(.0%)

4

(6.5%)

7

(11.5%)

19

(31.1%)

27

(44.3%)

4

(6.6%)

Disagreement = 18% Agreement = 82%

17. The multiple choice

format is fair to test takers.

0

(.0%)

3

(4.9%)

13

(21.3%)

14

(23.0%)

23

(37.7%)

8

(13.1%)


Agreement = 73.8%

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18. The summary writing

format is fair to test takers.

1

(1.6%)

3

(4.9%)

11

(18.0%)

16

(26.3%)

25

(41.0%)

5

(8.2%)


Agreement = 75.5%

19. In Part A, the multiple

choice format is familiar to

me.

1

(1.6%)

5

(8.2%)

9

(14.8%)

14

(23.0%)

24

(39.3%)

8

(13.1%)


20. In Part B, the summary

writing format is familiar to

me.

1

(1.6%)

1

(1.6%)

10

(16.4%)

15

(24.6%)

26

(42.6%)

8

(13.2%)


Agreement = 80.4%

The overall results in Table 3 revealed positive feedback on the test methods or tasks:

multiple-choice questions and summarizing. Two surprises emerged from the results. One

was to know that the notion of using various methods or tasks to test reading comprehension

(item 14) was perceived as appropriate by most test takers (n=52 or 85.3%). The other was

that most agreed that summarizing the reading (item 15) and multiple-choice questions (item

16) were appropriate methods or tasks to test reading comprehension (n=53 or 86.9% and

n=50 or 82% respectively).

In terms of fairness, however, the results of items 17-18 revealed a slightly different feedback.

Albeit positive feedback from a lot of test takers, there were still a few test takers who

disagreed that the multiple-choice questions format (item 17, n=16 or 26.2%) and the

summary writing (item 18, no=15 or 24.5%) were fair to test takers in general, which

inevitably included the respondents themselves. In addition, the results of items 19 and 20

revealed that not all of the test takers were familiar with both methods, though the majority

claimed that they were.

One thing interesting about the results was that it seemed that the test takers could realize the

appropriateness of the two methods and they understood how important these two test

methods were to testing reading. However, from their first-hand experience of taking the test,

somehow they could sense some unfairness of the two methods. As the stakeholders of the

test themselves, they made some comments: Summarizing was a good method to check if

students understood the reading./ I think summarizing is a better method than multiple-choice

questions. Students may cheat on the multiple-choice question method.

Research Question 4: What is the test takers’ feedback on the test administration?

1: Did you have enough time to finish the test? Please check (√) and explain.

The answers seemed to suggest that the test takers had enough time to do both parts of the

test. In detail, from the total 61 test takers, almost all (n = 55) stated that they had enough

time to finish Part A (multiple-choice questions), while the majority (n = 49) stated that they

had enough time to finish Part B (summary writing). For those who stated the insufficiency

of time mentioned the reasons, which basically were: The test had too many passages./ The

vocabulary was too difficult./The passages were too long./I am not very good at reading./I

didn’t know the meanings of the words, even I used the dictionary. Regarding all the

responses or feedback on the time allowed for both parts of the test, it could be seen that as a

whole the allotted time (Part A was allowed 40 minutes, while Part B, 50 minutes) was

appropriate.

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2. Do you think the instructions of the test are clear and satisfying? Please

check (√) and explain.

The answers seemed to suggest that the test takers had no objection against the test

instructions of both parts in terms of being clear and satisfying. In detail, almost all (n = 58)

felt that the instructions of Part A (multiple-choice questions) are clear and satisfying, and

almost all (n = 59) felt the same with Part B, the summary writing. However, some stated that:

I was late to the test, so I missed what the teacher had explained about the test./ The

instructions were very clear. The fact that I couldn’t do the test had nothing to do with the

instructions. It could be said from the comments that some test takers might have problems

with reading or coming to the test late rather than with the test instructions.

3: Do you think the test administration and environment were appropriate and satisfying?

Please explain so that your answers can be used to improve them next time.

The answers seemed to suggest that most test takers were satisfied with the test environment,

and that the test administration was perceived as appropriate. In detail, the majority of

students (n = 45) felt satisfied with the administration and thought it was appropriate.

However, for those who expressed the disapproval stated that: The chairs were making noises

/The room was too small; the bigger room would be better./The air conditioning was so cold

that I could not concentrate on the test.

The results suggested that the test room could be problematic to the test takers, and it seemed

to be the cause of negative feedback.

4: Please respond to the use of a dictionary in the test room.

The results revealed the approval of allowing a dictionary in the test room since almost all test

takers (n=59) stated that it was very appropriate. However, most comments seemed to

suggest that the test takers could feel the drawback of using the dictionary while doing the

test. Interesting statements were as follows: It helped me to alleviate the suffering of test

taking./ It was fair to me because the test did not ask anything about the meaning of words in

the passages.

Regarding the feedback on the use of a dictionary in the test room, it was quite clear that the

test takers appreciated the permission to bring a dictionary to the test. However, it seemed

that they also realized that they did not have to depend on it all the time, and that it might

unnecessarily cost them time as well.

5: Do you think you were ready for this test? Please check (√) and explain.

The answers showed that only half of the test takers felt they were ready for the test: Part A

(n=35) and Part B (n=35). Those who felt not ready gave reasons such as: I was not good at

summarizing./ I forgot to bring a dictionary./The vocabulary was too difficult for me./I was

not well prepared for the test./I did not expect to take the reading test that was this much, and

I was so shocked! /I was not informed about the test. Nobody had told me! I did not read my

emails.

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It could be assumed from the results that what affected the test takers‘ readiness were factors

that ranged from their personal attitudes about English, being unprepared about the test, to

being late to the test room.

Conclusion and Lessons Learned

The feedback reflected ―face validity,‖ on a one hand, and how they perceived the

appropriateness of the test and its features: content (passages and questions/answers), scoring,

methods or tasks, and test administration, on the other. As suggested by Bachman and Palmer

(2009), the results obtained from the pre-testing of a test should be used only to improve the

test itself and the procedures for administering it and not to make any inferences about the

individual test takers. What learned from the results and discussion, then, were ―lessons‖ that

related to improvement of both the features of the test as summarized in the following.

REFERENCES

Alderson, C. (2005). Assessing Reading. Singapore: Cambridge University Press.

Bachman, L. & Palmer, A. (2009). Language Testing in Practice. China: Oxford University

Press.

Baumann, J. & Bason, J. (2004). Survey Research. In N. K. Duke & M. H. Mallette (Eds).

Literacy Research Methodologies. New York: The Guilford Press.

Brown, A. & McNamara, T. (1992). The Role of the Test-Taker Feedback in the Test

Development Process:

Test Takers‘ Reactions to a Tape-Mediated Test of Proficiency in Spoken Japanese.

Melbourne Papers in Language Testing. Retrieved from

http://www.ltrc.unimelb.edu.au/mplt/papers/01_1_4_Brown_McNamara.pdf

Genesee, F. & Upshur, J. (1996). Classroom-Based Evaluation in Second Language

Education. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Henning, G. (1987). A Guide to Language Testing. Singapore: Newbury House Publishers.

Hughes, A. (1994). Testing for Language Teachers. Great Britain: Cambridge University

Press.

Meyer, B. & Poon, L. (2001). Effects of Structure Strategy Training and Signaling on Recall

of Text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1): 141-159.

Riley, G. and Lee, J. (1996). A Comparison of Recall and Summary Protocols as Measures

of Second Language Reading Comprehension. Language Testing 13, 173-189.

Retrieved from http://Ltj.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/13/2/173.

Shohamy, E. (1994). The role of language tests in the construction and validation of second-

language acquisition theories. In E. Tarone, S. Gass, & A. Cohen (Eds.). Research

Methodology in Second-Language Acquisition. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates, Inc.

http://www.ltrc.unimelb.edu.au/mplt/papers/01_1_4_Brown_McNamara.pdf

http://ltj.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/13/2/173

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About the Author

Asst. Prof. Dr. Sutilak Meeampol received her Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction from

Kasetsart University, Thailand, and her M.A. in English from the University of Louisiana at

Lafayette, USA. She is currently an English instructor at the Language Institute, Bangkok

University. Her research interest is on EFL reading and instruction.

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The Effect of Text Familiarity on Summary Writing Skill

Abbas Pourhosein Gilakjani

Islamic Azad University, Lahijan, Iran

[email protected]

Seyedeh Masoumeh Ahmadi

[email protected]

Abstract

Research has been done on the effects of text familiarity on reading comprehension. It has

been shown that there is no relationship between familiarity with the content of a passage and

better comprehension of that passage through reading it. More specifically, it has been

indicated that students perform better on a passage with an unfamiliar content (Carrel, 1983).

The study reported here focuses on the effect of text familiarity on summary writing skill of

foreign language students. In order to achieve this goal, 60 male and female senior students,

aged between 22 and 26, majoring in English language translation who were studying at the

Islamic Azad University of Tonekabon participated in the present study. Four passages were

selected from among reading comprehension TOEFL texts: Two passages were familiar and

the other two were unfamiliar. They were given to students for summary writing. Through the

processes of test administration, each subject was tested on 4 passages. The subjects

performed better on the passage with unfamiliar content.

1. Introduction

Writing is a basic communication skill and a unique asset in the process of learning a second

language. Both aspects of writing are important in the typical language class, and both can

serve to reinforce the other. Writing both in the practice sense and in the communicative sense

entails unique features that result in distinct contribution to overall language learning

(Chastain, 1988, p. 244). Scholes (1985) has argued, reading and writing are ''complementary

acts'' (p.20); in the same way that writing a text necessarily involves reading it, reading a text

requires writing a response to it. Just as reading provides comprehensible input for writing,

writing can contribute input for reading. Just as students ''need to become better readers'' in

order to ''become better writers,'' as Spack (1988, p. 42) argues, they can become better

readers by becoming better writers. A commonly identified problem area in summary

writing is superordination (Anderson, & Heidi, 1988; 1989; Brown, & Day, 1983).

Superordination, or what Ausubel (1968) terms ''subsumption'' (p. 100) occurs at very

specific levels of text comprehension when the student constructs general categories to

include specific details, but it also occurs when achieving the macro-level conceptual

framework of a text. Thus, it plays a key role in achieving the purposes of writing a study

summary by providing the conceptual framework that facilitates text comprehension. In this

study, the researchers attempted to provide answer to the following question: Is there any

relationship between text familiarity and summary writing skill?

2. Literature Review

Writing will no doubt play a significant role in our academic career. It is so central to most

students because of two main reasons: a. Writing is a powerful way to learn anything. b.



232


Writing is crucial to becoming a significant participant in any specific discipline or career

area-to become part of a particular field or profession. It is the way to learn what information

is important in a field and how to think and use language like other scholars and/or

practitioners in a field. Researchers call this two-dimensional view of writing ''writing-to-

learn'' and ''learning- to-write.'' Writing-to-learn has emerged from the work of educators,

scholars, and researchers of all kinds who have found that writing is a powerful way to learn,

but not only to learn specific material or content in your courses. Writing helps us learn how

to think in depth, and to think critically and analytically about our own ideas and the ideas of

other people. Learning to write might refer to specific of organization, content, style, voice,

grammar, and mechanics. It also encompasses learning conventions of specific fields, such as

formats and styles unique to certain disciplines, and learning features of specific writing

communities, such as ways of prioritizing information or methods of creating knowledge

(Mulvaney & Jolliffe, 2005, p. 13).

The tendency to view writing as the least of the four language skills may lead to the

conclusion that writing is less important and that it can be sacrificed to spend more time on

the other three skills. According to Chastain (1988), such is not the case, and teachers should

carefully consider the role of writing before deciding how much emphasis to place on it in

elementary language courses. Rivers (1981) points out'' writing is an essential classroom

activity. It is of considerable importance for consolidating learning in the other skill areas; it

provides a welcome change of activity; and it will always remain useful as part of a program

of testing. Writing should be considered the handmaid of the other skills, not the major skill to

be developed.''

Chastain (1988) mentioned, ''Real language involves authentic tasks with authentic materials

for authentic purposes. An educated person should be able to write in a clear, coherent,

comprehensible manner. The point is that language students often have very poorly developed

composing skills even in their native language. Thus, the task of helping them to develop their

communication skills in writing is more difficult. Ideally, the teacher should attempt to

correlate types of writing with students' skill levels'' (pp. 249-250).

Writing and reading are very closely connected, and good writers often make extensive use of

readings before and while they write. They need to get ideas, to consider the ways other

writers have written, and to enjoy someone else's insights and language. Responding to

readings offers a number of comprehensive reading strategies and suggests ways in which you

may use reading as an important element of your writing process (Lunsford & Bridges 2008,

p. 5).

''A summary is a condensation of the main ideas in an article. The length of a summary

depends on the assignment, the length and complexity of the article and the audience'' (Reid,

1988, p. 110). To Reid (1988), summarizing is an interactive, recursive process. In

summarizing a text, we work back and forth between the text, the papers we are writing, and

the requirement of the assignment—rereading, rewriting, and continually reflecting on and

comparing aspects of these elements. Summarizing skills are essential to academic success;

they are required to produce study summaries, to complete various types of summary

assignments, and to complete tasks that call for the incorporation of source material in

academic papers and presentations (ibid).

The goal of a summary is to record the gist of the piece-its primary line of argument-without

tangential arguments, examples, and other departures from the main ideas. The acceptable

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summary recasts the main idea in the student's own words and provides proper attribution to

the source itself (Hult & Huckin, 2008, p. 276).

In their studies of planning skills for summary writing, Brown, Day and Jones (1983) indicate

that'' the ability to work recursively on information to render it as succinctly as possible

requires judgment and effort, knowledge, and strategies, and is, therefore, late developing'' (p.

968). According to Reid (1988), the qualities of a summary are:

1. Objectivity: No idea that is not the author's should be included in the summary, and no

opinion of the summary writer should be in the summary. No judgments are permitted in a

summary.

2. Completeness: Depending on the assignment, the summary should contain every main idea

in the article. Stating only the first main idea, or only one main idea and details to support it,

will not give the reader a complete idea of what the article was about.

3. Balance: Giving equal attention to each main idea, and stressing ideas that the author

stressed, will result in an accurate summary (p. 110).

According to Mulvaney and Jolliffe (2005), the characteristics of a good summary are as

follows:

1. It shrinks the length of the original text.

2. It retains the main content points, clearly reflecting the stance of the original author and

includes a limited amount of detail or examples.

3. It strives for objectivity.

4. It does not offer opinion, evaluation, or any additional information not contained in the

original piece; rather, it simply ''re-presents'' the original in reduced format (p. 328).

To Widdowson (1984), the term text refers to the recorded or transcribed linguistic rules used

to mediate that meaning. In other words, a text is the cover trace of an interaction which can

be used as a set of clues for reproducing the discourse. Halliday and Hasan (1976) defined the

word text as ''referring to any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length that forms an

integrated whole. It may be anything from a single proverb to a whole play, from a

momentary cry for help to an all-day discussion in a committee'' (p. i). Therefore, a text is

best defined as a unit of language in use. It is not a grammatical unit like a clause or a

sentence and does not consist of sentences, but it is realized by, or encoded in, sentences.

To Anderson (1988), the term familiarity refers to the degree to which the information or

genre is related to individual schemata. According to Scholes (1985), familiarity is a measure

of how frequently a linguistic item is thought to be used, or the degree to which it is known.

This may be measured by asking people to show on a rating scale whether they think they use

a given word or structure never, sometimes, or often.

3. Methodology

3.1 Subjects

The participants in this study were 60 students of English majoring in translation. The 60

students were randomly selected among 150 senior students studying at the Islamic Azad

234


University of Tonekabon. In order to select the 60 students for the main experiment, the

researchers administered a pretest, consisting of two passages to test students' summary

writing. Those who scored between16 to 20 on the TOEFL texts were included in this study.

The participants of the main study were distinguished in only one group, and each participant

in the group had to perform on 4 passages.

3.2 Design and Instrumentation

The certain design applied to handle this study was ''one group pre – test + post - test: 01 x

02.'' The researchers administered the summary writing of the TOEFL texts which consisted

of 4 passages. The subjects were given 80 minutes to summarize the passages. Four

passages were presented in the form of four texts: a) two familiar texts and b) two

unfamiliar ones. The presentation of the texts was in the form of written material.

3.3 Procedure

3.3.1 Pilot Study: To test the EFL students' writing skill, two passages were selected for a

small number of students. The passages were distributed among the students. The students

summarized the two passages. After performing the pilot study, it was indicated that students

performed on the unfamiliar passage better than the familiar one.

3.3.2 Experiment: After administering the pre-test and selecting one group of 60 students,

the passages were distributed among the subjects. Two passages were unfamiliar and the

other two were familiar. Time allotted for each text was the same. The instrument used to

gather information and data for this study was: Four passages (familiar and unfamiliar) for

summary writing. Two students were assigned to two experimental conditions. In the first

condition, the students were asked to write the summary of the passages (familiar and

unfamiliar) in the written form. Passages consisted of some idea units. These ideas were

expected to be written by the students. In the second condition, the experimenters repeated

the same procedure with another passages and gathered the protocols. The instructions for

writing on protocols were explained by the experimenters; he emphasized that the subjects

should pay attention to the passages carefully and to focus on understanding them; moreover,

he encouraged the students to write the ideas by using the key words.

4. Data Analysis

In order to answer the research question, several statistical analyses were carried out. They

were as follows:

Analysis 1- In order to test the research hypothesis, the X and SD of the texts were compared.

Then, two separate t-tests between pairs of the means were computed for passages to examine

whether there were significant differences between pairs of familiar and unfamiliar passages

(tables 1 and 2).

Analysis 2- The reliabilities of the raters for each text were reported (tables 3, 4).

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Table1. Students' Scores on Their Protocols

Condition 1

(U) Condition 1 (F)

X = 4.11 X = 3.55

∑X = 247 ∑X = 213

SU = 1.94 SF = 1.47

Tobs =1.86 U = Unfamiliar F = Familiar

Table 2: Students' Scores on Their Protocols

Condition 2 (U) Condition 2 (F)

X = 4.15 X = 3.85

∑X = 268 ∑X = 261

SU = 1.15 SF = 1.05

Tobs = 1.76 U = Unfamiliar F = Familiar

Table 3: The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

(Raters' Reliability)

Unfamiliar Familiar

∑X = 341 ∑X = 168

∑Y = 267 ∑Y = 210

∑ = 1578 ∑ = 564

∑ = 1001 ∑ = 845

∑X.Y = 1288 ∑X.Y = 671

R = 0.88 R = 0.81

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Table 4: The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

(Raters' Reliability)

5. Results

The statistical computations of the study showed the outcomes regarding the null hypothesis.

With the degree of freedom of 118 (60-1) + (60-1), and the level of 0.05, the t-critical is 1.98.

The t-observed of the study is 1.86 for the participants' protocols in the first condition, and

1.76 for the participants' protocols in the second condition. Both figures were lower than the t-

critical. This means that the null hypothesis of the study has been supported, which means

that the familiarity or unfamiliarity of a passage does not necessarily enhance better writing of

passages. Although the t-critical was higher than the t-observed, the difference was not

statistically significant. The obtained figures from the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

(0.88, 0.92 for the unfamiliar passages, and 0.81, 0.82 for familiar passages) indicated that the

scorers' scores are correlated. So they are reliable enough to be able to show the results of the

study.

6. Conclusion

The results of this study showed no relationship between ''text familiarity'' and ''writing skill''.

The statistical analysis of the data supported this. Both in the pilot study and in the main study

the participants performed on the unfamiliar passage better than the familiar one. This meant

that participants had used linguistic clues for understanding and summarizing of the

unfamiliar passages through paying attention to them. The new topic (unfamiliar passage) has

been the reason for better performance. It has made the students pay more attention or be

more careful about the unfamiliar one and when there is more attention to the unfamiliar

passage, there is better performance.

7. Implication for Teaching

The results of this study indicate a number of steps which teachers may take to improve the

summarizing skills of EFL students of various proficiencies. First of all there is a need to

provide continued paraphrasing practice the sentence level. It may be wise to encourage this

Unfamiliar Familiar

∑X = 341 ∑X = 168

∑Y = 267 ∑Y = 210

∑ = 1578 ∑ = 564

∑ = 1001 ∑ = 845

∑X.Y = 1288 ∑X.Y = 671

R = 0.92 R = 0.82

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practice in a discourse domain well known to the students, since decisions must be about what

terms can be paraphrased and which are central to the disciplines and therefore must be

retained in a summary. Secondly, most EFL students appear to need further practice in

combining sentences within as well as across paragraphs, while retaining the rhetorical

relationships established in the original. Finally, students at all levels can benefit from further

practice in applying Van Dijik's rules of generalization. They should be asked to create these

generalizations for paragraphs and longer expository texts, in order to understand the

commonly accepted deductive structure of written English discourse.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Ahmadi, Alizadeh, Babaei, and Khazaei, for their extensive and

insightful discussions and comments on the paper.

References

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Ausubel, D. (1968). Educational Psychology: A cognitive review. New York: Holt, Rinehart,

& Winston.

Brown, A. L., Day, J. D., & Jones, R. S. (1983). The development of plans for summarizing

texts. Child development, 54, 968-970.

Carrel, P. L. (1983). Three components of background knowledge in reading comprehension.

Language Learning. 33, 183-205.

Chastain, K. (1988). Developing second- language skill. 3rd

. U. S. A: Harcourt Brace,

Jovanovich, Inc.

Halliday, M. A. K., & Hassan, R. (1992). Cohesion in English. London: Longman.

Hult, C. A., & Huckin, T. N. ( 2008). The New Century Handbook. Pearson Longman.

Lunsford, R. F., & Bridges, B. (2008). The Longwood Guide to Writing.4th

ed. 5, Pearson

Longman.

Mulvaney, M. K., & Jolliffe, D. A. (2005). Academic Writing. Genres, Samples, and

Resources. 13, 328, Pearson Longman.

Reid, J. M. (1988). The Process of Composition. Colorado State University: Prentice-Hall

Regents.

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Scholes, R. (1985). Textual Power. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Spack, R. (1988). Initiating ESL students into the academic discourse community: How far

should we go? TESOL Quarterly, 22 (1), 29-51.

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Van Dijik, T. A. (1982). Text and Context: Explorations in the Semantics and Pragmatics of

Discourse, London: Longman.

Widdowson, H. B. (1984). Explorations in Applied Linguistics: Oxford University Press.

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Familiar passage used in the main study

Until recently, the growth hormone could only be obtained from the pituitary glands of dead

people. The substance was used to treat children who did not produce enough of their own

growth hormone and who would grow up as dwarfs. The natural product was taken off the

market after it was linked to a brain disease which attacked some of the children undergoing

treatment with it. But now, a new synthetic growth hormone has been developed which has no

dangerous side effects. The new drug is called "Somatrem" and can be produced in unlimited

quantities. For children who are deficient in their own growth hormone, Somatrem is an

important medical advance. The problem is that the drug may be abused by people who are

not medically in the need of its benefits. For example, athletes may take the drug in the belief

that it will improve their physique and physical performance. Parents may want to obtain the

drug for their children who are marginally under average height. For such reasons, experts are

recommending that registers be kept of Somatrem recipients. The implications of the use of

Somatrem must be understood before the distribution of drug is undertaken.

Appendix 2: Unfamiliar passage used in the main study

One of the main hazards for deep-sea divers is the bends. This condition is caused by gas

bubbles forming in the bloodstream if the diver ascends too rapidly. The reason for this

condition has to do with the saturation and de-saturation of body tissues with various gases.

At greater depths, the diver breathes air at higher pressures. This results in an increased

quantity of air being dissolved in the bloodstream. Different body tissues are saturated with

different gases from the air at different rates. When the diver ascends, oxygen is used by the

body tissues, carbon dioxide is released quickly, and nitrogen needs to be released gradually

from the bloodstream and body tissues. If nitrogen is subjected to a too rapid condition, it

forms gas bubbles in the blood vessels. The bubbles become trapped in the capillaries. This

prevents blood and oxygen from supplying necessary nutrients to body tissues, which

consequently begin to die. Saturation and de-saturation are affected by various factors such as

the depth, length of time, and amount of exertion under water. There are other factors that a

diver must take into account when determining a safe ascent rate. These include the the diver's

sex and body build, the number of dives undertaken within the previous12 hours, the time

spent at the dive location before the dive, and the composition of the respiration gas.

Appendix 3: Familiar passage used in the main study

Many folk cures which have been around for centuries may be more therapeutic than

previously suspected. A case in point is that of penicillin. Alexander Fleming did not just

randomly choose cheese molds to study when he discovered this very important bacteria-

killing substance. Moldy cheese was given to patients as a remedy for illness at one time.

Fleming just isolated what it was about the cheese which cured the patients. In parts of South

America, a powder obtained from grinding sugar cane is used for healing infections in

239


wounds and ulcers. This usage may take back to pre-Colombian times. Experiments carried

out on several hundred patients indicate that ordinary sugar in high concentrations is lethal to

bacteria. Its suction effect eliminates dead cells, and it generates a glasslike layer which

protects the wound and ensures healing. Another example of folk medicine which scientists

are investigating is that of Arab fishermen who rub their wounds with a venomous catfish to

quicken healing. This catfish excretes a gel-like slime which scientists have found to obtain

antibiotics, a coagulant that helps close injured blood vessels, anti-inflammatory agents, and a

chemical that directs production of a glue-like material that aids healing. It is hoped that by

documenting these folk remedies and experimenting to see if results are beneficial, an

analysis of the substances can be made, and synthetic substances can be developed for human

consumption.

Appendix 4: Unfamiliar passage used in the main study

In some rural agricultural societies, the collection of available fuel such as firewood, dung

cake, and agricultural waste can take 200 to 300 person-days per year. As well ws being time

consuming, the typical patterns of collection lead to deforestation, soil erosion, and ecological

imbalances. In the future, experts predict that even if food supplies are adequate for rural

populations, fuel supplies for domestic use may not be sufficient. In the light of such

considerations, a team in India has developed a solar oven for home use. The oven is cheaply

constructed, easily operated and extremely energy efficient. The device consists of an inner

and outer metal box, a top cover, and two panes of plain glass. The inner box is painted black

to absorb maximum solar radiation. The space between the two boxes is filled with an

insulating material, such as rice husks, which are easily available and which neither attract

insects nor rot easily. Other easily available materials for insulation are ground nutshells or

coconut shells. An adjustable mirror mounted on one side of the oven box reflects the sunlight

into the interior, boosting the temperatures by 15-30 degrees Celsius. This is most useful

during the winter when the sun is lower. Inside the oven, a temperature between 80 and 120

degrees Celsius above ambient temperature can be maintained. This is sufficient to cook food

gradually but surely. Trials have shown that all typical food dishes can be prepared in this

solar device without loss of taste or nutrition.

240


The Efficacy of Immediate and Delayed Corrective Feedback in the Correct

Use of English Definite and Indefinite Articles

Afshin Soori

Islamic Azad University, Larestan Branch, Iran

[email protected]

Arshad Abd. Samad

University Putra Malaysia

[email protected]

Abstract

The process of giving effective feedback is a central concern for teachers and researchers in

both first language and second language writing. Many teachers correct students‘ written

errors in the hope that this will help them improve the students‘ mastery over the correct use

of targeted linguistic forms, while Truscott (1996) considered this approach as a misguided

endeavour due to his claim that feedback on grammar errors had no place in writing

classrooms and it should be abandoned. Regarding this issue, the current study investigated

the results of nine weeks treatment on the efficacy of immediate and delayed corrective

feedback in the correct use of definite and indefinite articles. Data were collected from a

sample of 51 (34 males and 17 females) first year Iranian EFL medical students. The students

were administered three rational cloze tests (pre-test, immediate post-test, and delayed post-

test). The finding of the study revealed that immediate corrective feedback had a significant

effect on the correct use of English articles and the students received corrective feedback

significantly improved their ability in using English article system correctly and that they

retained this ability when they were given a new test four weeks after the treatment session.

This study also indicated that there was a change in article scores across the three different

time periods. Thus, the main effect for time was significant.

1. Introduction

The term corrective feedback (CF) is an umbrella term that covers both explicit and implicit

types of feedback in natural and instructional settings. CF is an important task and both teachers

and students may benefit it in the writing instruction. CF bridges the concerns of EFL teachers,

researchers, and instructional designers.

From the last decade onwards, the interest in CF in SLA on both theoretical and pedagogical

aspects has been established. There has been a debate on the theoretical side of CF that whether

CF is effective and beneficial for language acquisition. Pedagogically, CF has been

concentrated in many second and foreign language studies. One of the common findings of

these studies is that CF is occurred frequently in the classroom, regardless of pedagogical focus

and classroom setting (Fanselow, 1997; Hendrickson 1978), and it is generally agreed that L2

learners expect their teacher to provide them with feedback on their written errors (Enginarlar,

1993; Hedgcock & Lefkowitz, 1994; Lee, 1997;Schulz, 1996). Therefore, the main concern of

teachers ‗‗is not so much to correct or not to correct‖ (Lee, 1997, p. 466), but rather when and

how to provide feedback on the students‘ errors (Lee, 2003; Yates & Kenkel, 2002).

Regarding conflicting and different views on effectiveness of error correction practice

researchers confront the challenge of whether or not they should abandon all forms of



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corrective feedback because some very well known studies and experts have provided

evidence that corrections do not work (e.g. Truscott, 1996,1999, 2007, 2008; Sheppard, 1992)

while other studies and experts (e.g. Ferris, 1999, 2001, 2004; Lee, 1997, 2004; Hedgcock

and Lefkowitz, 1996) have demonstrated that under certain conditions, with certain student

populations, and in some contexts, error correction is effective. Investigating this issue has

been the main focus of many recent studies.

2. Literature review

Corrective feedback has been regarded as a controversial topic among researchers and

composition theorists for the last three decades (Carrol and Swain, 1993; Dekeyser, 1993;

Lyster, 2001; Lyster and Ranta, 1997). It is also assumed as an essential key for the learners

in successful language learning. The shift from grammar translation and audiolingualism to

communicative language teaching led to conducting research that both support and

undervalue the effectiveness of corrective feedback.

One trend in discussion on error correction is on whether or not corrective feedback is

effective and whether teacher correction can help reduce linguistic errors. Regarding the

literature review on corrective feedback, there are studies that indicate the usefulness and

efficacy of error feedback (Ashwell, 2000; Fathman and Whalley, 1990; Ferris1999,

2003,2006; Ferris and Roberts 2001). Dana Ferris, was the most proponent of corrective

feedback that has argued corrective feedback more extensively. Her main objective seems to

provide good evidence for short term learning that results from error correction. To this end,

Ferris (1999) referred to Fathman and Whalley‘s (1990) findings in grammar correction.

Ferris (2003) claimed that Fathman and Whalley‘s (1990) finding was the best evidence

available source for the effectiveness of corrective feedback. Ferris (2006) revealed the type

of error corrected apparently influence language learning. Other researchers that found

immediate CF was effective in improving the accuracy were Bitchener, 2008; Bitchener and

Knoch 2008; Ellis et al. 2008; Ferris and Roberts, 2001; and Sheen, 2006. Russell and Spada

(2006) investigated the impacts of corrective feedback on second language grammar learning.

The outcome of this study revealed that corrective feedback was helpful for L2 learning.

However, there is also research that casts doubt on the benefits of CF (Truscott, 1996, 1999,

2004, 2007). Truscott (2007) claims that research evidence strongly indicates the

ineffectiveness of correction. Truscott (2007) believes that error correction has a small effect

on learners‘ ability to write accurately, and he is 95% confident that error correction has very

little positive effect, and its effects are very small and uninteresting. Truscott‘s view on error

correction is shared by other researchers in the literature review. Xu (2009) was in agreement

with Truscott who was the most potent critic of error correction. Xu (2009) claimed that

correction does not contribute the development of accuracy, may even harm the learning

process. Repeatedly, Truscott (2008) argueed that all the previous works on error correction

revealed the short-term effects of treatment. Moreover, some studies do not find error

feedback by the teacher to be significantly more effective for developing accuracy in L2

student writing (e.g., Polio, Fleck, and Leder, 1998; Sheppard, 1992).

Since EFL students have great diversities of error correction and feedback strategies, a fit for all

approach cannot be prescribed for any student. Hence, as Hyland and Hyland address a more

constructive approach and a more interactive environment are required for the students.

Moreover, ―to be effective, feedback should be conveyed in a number of modes and should

allow for response and interaction ( Hyland and Hyland, 2006, p. 5) .

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3. Research questions

This study was designed to investigate the following research questions:

Q1. Is immediate corrective feedback effective in increasing the correct use of definite and

indefinite articles?

Q2. Is the effect of the corrective feedback on increasing the correct use of definite and

indefinite articles observable after a period of time?

4. Design

4.1 Method

The study used a quasi-experimental design involving two intact classes serving as

experimental group (N = 28), and a control group ( N = 23). Prior to the experiment, a pre-test

was administered to two groups to catch the initial difference between experimental and

control groups. The results of the pretest revealed that the experimental and control groups

were not significantly different in pre-test. Then, two groups completed, an immediate post-

test and a delayed post-test, where all the tests involved a rational cloze test with forty

deletions. In addition, two groups wrote three picture stories and completed three error

correction tasks during the treatment. The experimental group received corrective feedback on

article errors and the control group did not receive direct corrective feedback. Instead, the

location of errors made by participants were indicated and underlined and they were asked to

do self-correction.

5. Population of the Study

In this study, there was a sample of 51 (34 males and 17 females) medical students in two

General English I classes. All students were studying medicine in Shiraz University of

Medical Sciences and were enrolled in general English classes. The students were all in the

first year of study and were taking their second English class at university at the time of this

study.

6. Treatment

There were six treatment sessions in the current study. The students in experimental and

control groups took the same three rational cloze tests (Pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-

test). Each of these three cloze tests required students to fill in the blanks with ―a‖, ―an‖, ―the‖

and zero article. The students also did six tasks (three picture stories and three error correction

tasks) all in medical contexts, and received feedback on each piece of writing from the

researcher as the teacher of the course. Each of the picture stories required the students to

describe what was happening in the set of pictures given to the students. Each picture

included a setting where different people were doing various activities.

Picture one was ―Get blood taken‖, picture two was ―Visiting a doctor‖ and picture three was

―Mr. Thin at a dentist‘s‖. Moreover, the students in both experimental and control groups

completed three error correction tasks that contained sentences with twenty underlined

articles. The students were asked to read the whole passages and correct the article errors or

tick the correct articles in the parentheses were provided for each article. The researcher made

clear for the students that the tasks would not be assessed and they would not be considered in

determining their grades for the course.

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The students in experimental group received immediate, explicit corrections above the article

errors committed by the students, and the students in control group did not receive corrective

feedback. The post-test was administered four weeks after pre test. Four weeks after

administering post-test, the delayed post-test was given to the students to assess the retention

of corrective feedback over time.

7. Schedule

The schedule for the study is shown briefly in Table.1. The entire study was continued for a

period of 9 weeks. There was a gap of 4 weeks between post-test and delayed post-test when

the students in both groups followed their regular classes and the researcher continued

teaching the text book for both groups. During these 4 weeks the students did not receive any

corrective feedback.

Table1. Schedule for the study

Week Activity

1 Pre-test: 1st Rational Cloze Test

2 Task 1 (A & B)

3 Feedback on Task 1: Task 2 (A & B)

4 Feedback on Task 2: Task 3 (A & B)

5 Feedback on Task 3: Post-test (2nd

Rational Cloze Test)

9 Delayed post-test: 3rd

Rational Cloze Test

8. Scoring and analysis

To calculate the performance of the students on three rational cloze tests, the students asked to

fill in the blanks with appropriate articles. Each blank that was answered correctly was given

a credit. Therefore the maximum score was 40 for forty items.

The scores for the three rational cloze tests were analyzed by means of repeated measures

ANOVA to measure the same subjects under different conditions (or measured at different

points in time) (pallant, 2007). To this end, the interaction effect between two variables (time

and group), the main effect for each of the independent variable (e.g. time), and the main

effect of between-subjects variable were assessed.

9. Results

9.1 Descriptive Statistics Results

To answer the Research Questions the mean scores and standard deviations of both

experimental and control groups in three rational cloze tests were calculated.

The descriptive statistics for both experimental and control groups in pre-test, post-test, and

delayed post-test are shown in Table 2, 3, and 4. Table 2 displays the means, standard

deviations, minimum and maximum scores.

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Table 2. Descriptive statistics for experimental and control groups in pre-test

Groups N Mean SD Min. Max.

Experimental 28 16.60 2.55 12 21

Control 23 16.26 3.79 9 23

As depicted in Table 2, the means and standard deviations of different groups were very close

together. The comparison between the mean scores among different groups showed that there

were no considerable differences among mean scores. The minimum and maximum scores

obtained in the pre-test were9 and 23 that were belong to control.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics for experimental and control groups in post-test


Experimental 28 18.03 2.92 12 23

Control 23 17.26 4.94 8 26

As shown in Table 3 the means and standard deviations represented difference between

experimental and control groups. The comparison between the mean scores between these

two groups revealed that there was considerable difference between the mean scores. This

table also indicated the experimental group had the higher mean score (mean = 18.03) than

the control group (mean = 17.26). The minimum and the maximum scores obtained in the

post-test were 8 and 26 in control group.

Table 4. Descriptive statistics for experimental and control groups in delayed post-test


Experimental 28 18 3.43 10 24

Control 23 17.95 3.30 10 25

As illustrated in Table 4 the comparison between the mean scores between the experimental

and control group revealed that there were no considerable differences between mean scores.

This table indicated the mean score for experimental group was (mean = 18) and (mean =

17.95) for control group. The minimum score obtained in the delayed post-test revealed that

the minimum score was 10 in two groups while the maximum score was 25 in control group

9.2 Repeated Measures ANOVA Results

To assess the efficacy of corrective feedback, on the correct use of definite and indefinite

articles across three time periods (pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test) repeated measures

ANOVA was run. The results are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Test of within-subjects contrasts

Effect Value F Hypothesis

df

Error df Sig. Partial Eta

squared

Time Wilk‘s

Lambda

.833 4.81 2 48 .012 .167

Time*Group

Wilk‘s

Lambda

.989 .260 2 48 .772 .011

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As depicted in Table 5 the time-group interaction was not statistically significant, Wilk‘s

Lambda = .99, F (2,48) = .26, p = .77 partial eta squared = .011. There was a considerable

main effect for time, Wilk‘s Lambda = .83, F (2,48) = 4.81, P = .012, partial eta squared=

.167 with both groups showing increase in their scores from pre-test to post-test.

Table 6. Tests of between-subjects effects

Source Type III Sum of

Squares

Df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta

Squared

Intercept 456.32 1 45632.271 1.94 .000 .975

Group 5.709 1 5.709 .244 .624 .005

Error 1148.723 49 23.443

As shown in Table 6 the main effect comparing the two types of intervention was not

significant, F (1, 49) = .24, P = .62, partial eta squared = .005, suggesting no significant

difference in the effectiveness of corrective feedback.

10. Discussion

Despite Truscott‘s (1996, 1999, 2004) claims on the ineffectiveness of corrective feedback, it is

suggested that researchers and teachers consider corrective feedback as a facilitative factor for

improving the students‘ mastery over linguistic errors and worthwhile spending time and

energy. Having said this, it is timely to remind that the finding of this study is not the result of

unfocused and random treatment of diverse linguistic errors because different linguistic

categories represent separate domains of knowledge and that they are acquired through

different stages and processes (Ferris, 1999, 2002; Truscott, 1996). However, it is the result of

targeted focus on functional uses of one problematic linguistic error for EFL students. The

finding of the study showed that corrective feedback provided had significant effects on the

correct use of articles. Hence, it can be concluded that Truscott (1996) was not right when he

claimed that giving corrective feedback on linguistic errors is ineffective. However, the findings

in this study were the results of focusing on different functions of definite and indefinite articles

that were problematic issues for Iranian EFL students. It should also be admitted that the

participants of the study are Iranian medical students that learn English in a place where English

is a foreign language and with a few exceptions, the common characteristics of Iranian students

is their ability to learn grammar well in formal instructional settings where the focus is usually

on form and structure. However, Iranian students also have some problems when they want to

use articles correctly. Therefore, further research should be conducted to determine how

corrective feedback will be effective in developing the students‘ mastery over some linguistic

structures and how they help them to use them correctly in sentences.

The findings of the present study reinforced those of earlier studies (Ashwell, 2000;

Bitchener, 2008; Bitchener et al., 2005; Ellis et al, 2008; Fathman & Whalley, 1990; Ferris &

Roberts, 2001; Sheen, 2006) of the effectiveness of corrective feedback. Like this study, the

findings of earlier studies revealed that corrective feedback provided had a significant effect

on the correct use of articles and the students who received corrective feedback outperformed

those who did not receive CF and the students significantly improved their ability in using the

targeted functions of the English article system accurately.

The second Research Question investigated the effects of corrective feedback on increasing the

correct use of articles after a period of time. To this end, ANOVA revealed that the time was an

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effective factor and the participants had different performance in different time from pre-test to

post-test and delayed post-test. In fact, this study revealed that the students‘ ability varied

significantly across the three times (pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test). However, it was a

linear and upward pattern of improvement from one time to another. While the experimental

group faded away on the delayed post-test, it was not significant and the students maintained the

same level of ability in the correct use of articles. However, the control group‘s ability

continued to improve from pre-test to post-test, and from post-test to delayed post-test. Even

though the performance of the control group improved in the delayed post-test, it was

significantly different from that of experimental group. One explanation for this improvement

might be that some members of the group received additional input on the targeted feature

during the weeks between the post-test and delayed post-test. It is always possible that students

in experimental group may have passed on information about what they were receiving

feedback on or those students in the control group sought instruction from out of class sources.

In this case, the findings of this study not only indicated the immediate effect of different types

of corrective feedback but also the extent to which the ability for the correct use of articles was

retained after a four-week period without additional corrective feedback and classroom

instruction.

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About the Authors

Afshin Soori holds a BA in English literature and MA in English teaching from Shiraz

University, Iran. He is currently pursuing his ph.D in TESL in University Putra Malaysia. He

was appointed as a faculty member with Islamic Azad University, Larestan branch, Iran in

2003. He has been teaching English for the past ten years. His research interest is feedback in

writing, textbook evaluation, CALL, grammar instruction, and translation. Among his

publications is Special English for Computer Students. He has been a presenter in several

international conferences in Teaching and Learning English.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Arshad Abd. Samad holds a doctoral degree from Northern Arizona

University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA which he received in 1999 and Master and Bachelor

degrees from Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA. He was appointed as a lecturer

with University Putra Malaysia in 1990. Currently he is a senior lecturer in Faculty of

Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia. He is involved in research and publication in

the field of Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL), especially in grammar

instruction, language acquisition and testing. Among his publications are Essentials of

Language Testing for Malaysian Teachers (2002) and Perspectives of Grammar in Education

(2003).

Language Institute Thammasat University Rangsit Campus

99 M. 18 Phaholyothin Road Klongnung, Kongluang

Pathum Thani 12120 THAILAND http://litu.tu.ac.th or http://www.tu.ac.th/org/litu

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From an EFL Milieu to Write in an ESL Context

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