Forming SCUBA Diving Environmental Codes of Conduct: What Entry-Level Divers are Taught in Their...

61

Tourism in Marine Environments Vol 8 Nos 12 pp 61ndash76 1544-273X12 $6000 + 00Printed in the USA All rights reserved DOI httpdxdoiorg103727154427312X13262430524144Copyright copy 2012 Cognizant Comm Corp wwwcognizantcommunicationcom

Forming SCUBA Diving EnvironmEntAl CoDES oF ConDUCt

WhAt Entry-lEvEl DivErS ArE tAUght in thEir FirSt

CErtiFiCAtion CoUrSE

KelSey M JOhANSeN and RhONDA l KOSteR

School of Outdoor Recreation Parks and tourism lakehead University thunder Bay Canada

Research on dive tourism has focused on diver impacts predive briefings and dive master interfer-ence Recognizing diver impacts on marine environments entry-level certification courses discuss them and encourage low-impact diving several espouse a code of conduct Dive tourists a signifi-cant portion of the diving population are unlikely to move beyond basic certification It is essential to impart sufficient knowledge for them to form codes of conduct in these courses Using content analy-sis this article examines environmental content across three agencies entry-level manuals It high-lights their environmental messages (positive missed and conflicting) and concludes that not all courses impart the knowledge required for divers to form personal codes of conduct

Key words Scuba diving environmental codes of conduct Certification courses

Address correspondences to Kelsey M Johansen co School of Outdoor Recreation Parks and tourism lakehead University 955 Oliver Rd thunder Bay Canada P7B 5J2 tel 1-807-627-3734 Fax 1-807-346-7836 e-mail kmjohanslakeheaduca

Introduction

Considerable research has been conducted on scuba divers impacts on marine environments with an emphasis on their impact on coral reefs (Barker amp Roberts 2004 hawkins et al 1999 tratalosa amp Austin 2001 Zakaia amp Chadwick-Furman 2002) While divers impacts on coral reefs are less severe than those of natural processes (global climate change-related coral bleaching or natural disas-ters) diver damage can result in coral disease infes-tations and can hinder the recovery of coral reef ecosystems from environmental stressors like hur-ricanes storms disease and fish predation (Barker

amp Roberts 2004) Similarly diver damaged corals are more likely to become infected by pathogens and invading organisms they also have higher mortality rates (Barker amp Roberts 2004)

In recognition of the potential impact of divers scuba diver certifying bodies like the British Sub Aqua Club (BSAC) the Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) and Scuba Schools International (SSI) attempt to make divers aware of their impact on marine environments and encour-age the use of low-impact diving practices through their entry-level diver certification courses several agencies even espouse a diver code of conduct Despite attaining certification divers continue to

62 JOhANSeN AND KOSteR

have negative impacts on marine environments (Medio Ormand amp Pearson 1997 townsend 2008a 2008b)

While advanced training is available some of which focuses on proenvironmental behaviors and skills or marine-based knowledge acquisition hol-iday divers or dive tourists are unlikely to move beyond their first certification (lindgren Palmlund Wate amp Goumlssling 2008) this segment comprises a significant portion of the total diving population (lindgren et al 2008) estimated at 5ndash7 million divers worldwide (tourism Queensland 2003) and scuba diving is increasing in popularity as a recreation and tourism activity (Johansen 2008 tourism Queensland 2003) It is therefore essen-tial for novice courses to impart the knowledge required for scuba divers to form personal codes of conduct

the purpose of this study was to examine the content of the entry-level certification manuals published by BSAC PADI and SSI three of the largest diver certifying bodies in the world the examination sought to determine the depth and extent that each manual communicates environ-mental and low-impact diving messages used by novice divers to form personal environmental codes of conduct this article discusses the predic-tors of proenvironmental behavior diver damage and environmental management in the dive indus-try followed by low-impact diving diver codes of conduct and the certification processes across cer-tifying bodies the methods used in the content analysis are explained the results are presented and discussed the efficacies of the three manuals are ranked by the quality and quantity of their pro-environmental messages and conclusions are drawn about their potential impact on the diver codes of conduct adopted by each agencyrsquos novice scuba divers

literature Review

Predictors of Proenvironmental Behavior

Research into the effects of human values and knowledge on depreciative behavior engagement is increasingly important as ldquohuman activities levy a biological cost on ecosystems as resources are accessed and utilized at rates incompatible with inherent ecosystem processes and structuresrdquo

(Alessa Bennett amp Kliskey 2003 pp 207) Research on the behavior of scuba divers and other recreationists and tourists has identified the follow-ing predictors of proenvironmental behavior human values and attitudes (Alessa et al 2003 Orams 1997) environmental knowledge (Alessa et al 2003 hines hungerford amp tomera 1987) knowledge of proenvironmental behavior (Bradford amp McIntyre 2007 Fransson amp Garling 1999) and the presence of peers or authority figures (Barker amp Roberts 2004 lindgren et al 2008 Medio et al 1997 Widner Ward amp Roggenbuck 2003) hines et al (1987) concluded that a statistically signifi-cant correlation (030) exists between environmen-tal knowledge and proenvironmental behavior Fransson and Garling (1999) found that a lack of specific knowledge about proenvironmental behav-ior was a barrier to engaging in environmentally beneficial behaviors despite possession of a pro-conservation attitude

Further studies such as those by Widner Ward and Roggenbuck (2003) examined management strategies to mitigate depreciative behaviors they suggest that these behaviors result from a failure by perpetrators to comply with social norms resulting in five types of norm violations

bull unintentionalbull uninformedbull releasor cuebull responsibility denialbull status confirming

Unintentional norms violations occur because recreationists and tourists are unaware of the norms violation (Widner Ward amp Roggenbuck 2003) On the other hand uninformed norms violations occur because individuals do not know the consequences of their behavior (Widner Ward amp Roggenbuck 2003) According to Widner Ward and Roggenbuck releasor cue norms violations occur because envi-ronmental conditions ldquocuerdquo the depreciative behav-ior examples of releasor cue norms violations include degraded recreational space or observing depreciative behaviors Status confirming norms violations occur when individuals engage in depre-ciative behaviors because of peer pressure or to solidify their membership within a social group (Widner Ward amp Roggenbuck 2003) lastly ldquosome

SCUBA DIVING eNVIRONMeNtAl CODeS OF CONDUCt 63

visitors violate an existing norm because they feel that the violation is justifiedrdquo (Widner Ward amp Roggenbuck 2003 p 69) or because they disagree with authority or restrictions these types of norm violations are classified as responsi-bility-denial norms violations (Widner Ward amp Roggenbuck 2003)

Scuba diversrsquo impacts and engagement in depre-ciative behaviors have been linked to a lack of knowledge of appropriate behavior or uninten-tional andor uninformed norms violations An examination of the environmental messages con-veyed to divers in their novice certification courses is therefore needed Understanding the messages communicated to divers and the codes of conduct espoused by certification agencies may provide insight into the source of diversrsquo depreciative behaviors

Diver Damage and Environmental Management in the Dive Industry

Scuba diving is a skill intensive activity It requires swimming proficiency the knowledge and skills to use dive gear and knowledge of marine environments and low-impact diving Because individual characteristics play a significant role in the degree of diverrsquos impacts specific types of dives and certain diver characteristics have been linked to higher levels of damage (Barker amp Roberts 2004) Novice divers are associated with higher levels of diver damage than other subgroups (Barker amp Roberts 2004 Curtin amp Garrod 2008 Davenport amp Davenport 2006 Davis amp tisdell 1995 Medio et al 1997 Motavalli 1997 townsend 2008b Walters amp Samways 2001) For example Davenport and Davenport (2006) found that novice divers caused damage on one in six dives compared to one in 123 dives among advanced divers

In recognition of the potential damage caused by scuba divers certifying bodies adopt environmen-tal management strategies consisting of policies communication an educational component and actions that seek to avoid or minimize the negative impacts of an industry or activity (lindgren et al 2008) however ldquoenvironmental management in the dive industry is different from management in many other service sectorsrdquo (lindgren et al 2008

p 120) this is because production and consump-tion occur simultaneously resulting in individual diversrsquo bearing responsibility for the bulk of envi-ronmental damage (lindgren et al 2008) environ-mental management strategies in the dive industry need to focus on divers and to include them in man-agement processes (lindgren et al 2008) there-fore research on scuba diving environmental management has focused on predive briefings (Medio et al 1997) and dive master interference (Barker amp Roberts 2004 Davis amp tisdell 1995 Dearden Bennett amp Rollins 2007 Rouphael amp Inglis 1997)

these strategies are most effective in addressing depreciative behaviors resulting from releasor cue responsibility denial and status-confirming norms violations and do not address the root causes of unintentional and uninformed norms violations therefore despite the success of these strategies in mitigating depreciative behaviors (Barker amp Roberts 2008 Duncan amp Martin 2002) they may have a limited long-term effect on diversrsquo adoption of proenvironmental behavior limited research has focused on the content of diver certification courses (lindgren et al 2008) and their potential impact on the long term adoption of proenviron-mental behaviors Research examining the training received by novice divers should seek to determine if novice certification courses are effective in com-municating low-impact diving techniques and whether they result in the adoption of pro-low-impact diving attitudes

Forming Codes of Conduct

According to Fennell (2001) ldquocodes of ethics have been a focus of tourism researchers along with their use in attempting to curtail sociological and ecological impactsrdquo (p 643) however this research has focused on the impact itself instead of its root cause (Fennell 2001) One way the tourism industry has sought to address its impact on the environment is through the establishment of codes of ethical conduct and best practices According to Garrod and Fennell (2004) ldquovoluntary codes tend to be relatively easy to introduce helping to plug the regulatory gaprdquo (p 339) through the establishment of an ethical obligation or through peer pressure


As in the case of whale watching (Garrod amp Fennell 2004) governments and their associated enforcement and monitoring agencies around the world recognize the potential importance and desir-ability of intervention in diver impacts and are establishing firm and enforceable guidelines for diving in their administered waters (Johansen 2008 tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Society 2009) these types of ldquocommand and control regu-lationsrdquo (Garrod amp Fennell 2004) have a limited effect in the dive industry where unlike whale watchers certified recreational divers and dive tourists can dive independent of a tour operator or dive guide

Representatives from across recreational diving and dive tourism have fought to keep their indus-tries relatively regulation free (PADI 2008 SSI 2003) Because unsupervised production and con-sumption occur simultaneously (lindgren et al 2008) and advanced training is elective the best opportunity to influence recreationistsrsquo and tour-istsrsquo engagement in depreciative behavior is during novice certification courses therefore certifica-tion course materials (manuals videos and instruc-tional guides) in addition to the instructional continuing education and guiding processes all include messages aimed at influencing the establish-ment of codes of conduct (Johansen 2008 PADI 2008 SSI 2003) to better understand the environ-mental codes of conduct formed by recreational div-ers and dive tourists many of whom do not pursue advanced training (lindgren et al 2008) research must focus on the messages communicated to them through their novice certification courses

Low-Impact Diving and Diver Codes of Conduct

limited literature has been published on the principles of low-impact diving with most found in gray literature (nonacademic literature including but not limited to technical reports working papers white papers preprints and non-peer-reviewed publications like magazines) For example Brylskersquos (2008) article in SCUBA Diving Magazine provides insight into the principles of low-impact diving Other literature however focuses on either knowl-edge or skills For example the Byron Underwater Research Group (BURG 2009) focuses on diversrsquo body position and fining technique Similarly

Rainbow Warnken and Buckley (nd) list a series of low-impact diving techniques for divers and general rules for diving in their publication the Green Guide to Scuba Diving

According to Johansen (2008) the literature on low-impact diving can be compiled into the com-prehensive list of 14 Principles of low-Impact Diving outlined below

1 Using appropriate fining techniques 2 Attainingmaintaining neutral buoyancy 3 Securing loose dive gear to avoid damage 4 Avoiding the negative impacts of collecting

marine life specimens or artifacts 5 Avoiding harassing marine wildlife or inter-

rupting their normal behaviors (mating feed-ing or resting etc) by crowding them

6 Avoiding touching living underwater plants or animals including corals

7 Avoiding the negative impacts associated with interacting with marine wildlife

8 Acknowledging the negative impacts recre-ational divers and dive tourism can have on marine environments

9 Possessing knowledge of the nature of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

10 Possessing knowledge of the factors that govern diver in-water behavior (regulations bylaws etc)

11 Possessing knowledge of key ecological con-cepts related to coral and marine environment biodiversity (coral is alive and can be dam-aged etc)

12 Diving as a guest13 Following either a personal low-impact diving

ethic or the one espoused by a training agency or dive operator

14 Undertaking continuing educationspecialty training to build and maintain diving skills proficiency and knowledge

In her review of low-impact diving codes of con-duct Johansen (2008) also identified six low-impact diving skills central to the effective execution of the 14 Principles of low-Impact Diving they are low-impact ascents proper body position low-impact descents appropriate fining techniques maintaining neutral buoyancy and spatial awareness


The Certification Process

According to luumlck (2008) scuba divers are required to complete an Open Water Certification course to dive independently up to 18 m and to rent diving equipment including cylinders A novice diver will spend an average of 3ndash4 days obtaining their Open Water Diver certification or ldquoC-cardrdquo (luumlck 2008) entry-level courses provide theoreti-cal knowledge and confined and open water train-ing (luumlck 2008) Scuba diver certifications do not expire but training agencies encourage divers to refresh their skills and knowledge after 6 or more months of diving inactivity (luumlck 2008 SSI 2003) While there are some differences in the cer-tification processes across training agencies all certifying bodies require novices to demonstrate core skills and knowledge competencies through homework assignments in-class activities in-water skill demonstrations and a final written examination prior to certification

the educational experiences of divers vary with differences in certification course length maxi-mum student group size content and emphasis (lindgren et al 2008) As such the outcome of a driverrsquos training depends on both the quality of their instructional manual and ldquothe individual dive instructor his or her knowledge and his or her interpretation of and emphasis on different parts of the educational processrdquo (lindgren et al 2008 p 121) As a result a diverrsquos behavior is contingent on their theoretical and practical knowledge and the control or intervention of their dive guides (lindgren et al 2008) if present

It is critical that entry-level certification course manuals contain environmental messages related to the 14 Principles of low-Impact Diving and pro-vide instruction in the 6 low-Impact Diving Skills identified by Johansen (2008) Additionally whether or not a novice certification course clearly espouses an environmental code of conduct has the potential to strongly impact diversrsquo adoption of personal codes of conduct In addition to the principles and skills of low-impact diving manuals should con-tain material that supports espouses and teaches each of the aforementioned principles and skills while clearly articulating the certifying bodyrsquos support for low-impact diving through discussions of their environmental beliefs Including and

emphasizing this material in certification manuals provides novice scuba divers with the knowledge to form comprehensive personal scuba diver environ-mental codes of conduct

the Study Purpose

the purpose of this study was to examine the content of the entry-level certification manuals published by BSAC PADI and SSI to determine the depth and extent that each manual communi-cated environmental and low-impact diving mes-sages and their potential impact on the voluntary environmental codes of conduct adopted by novice scuba divers the 14 Principles of low-Impact Diving and 6 low-Impact Diving Skills identified by Johansen (2008) acted as a framework to guide this investigation this study therefore aimed to decide the nature and relative comprehensiveness of environmental communications with novice scuba divers by determining 1) what information divers are provided regarding their impact on marine environments including coverage of the principles of low-impact diving and 2) what if any low-impact diving skills are taught as a por-tion of their curriculum

the initial comprehensiveness of these manuals was determined based upon the depth and fre-quency of their coverage of environmental mes-sages their overall effectiveness determined in ranked order was either enhanced or diminished by the presence or absence of messages communicat-ing the agencyrsquos educational and environmental beliefs environmental and coral reef-based knowl-edge missed education opportunities conflicting messages and supporting andor contradictory vis-ual images and diagrams these themes were included in the analysis given their potential impact on the quality of the voluntary environmental codes of conduct adopted by novice scuba divers

Method

the content of BSACrsquos The Diving Manual An Introduction to Scuba Diving (ellerby 2009) PADIrsquos Open Water Diver Manual (Shreeves 2007) and SSIrsquos Open Water Diver Manual (SSI 2003) were examined Various methods of docu-mentary data analysis have been used in social sci-ence research (Manning amp Cullum-Swan 1994)


this study used content analysis because it is the most systemically evaluative technique (Manning amp Cullum-Swan 1994)

Individual course manuals formed the basic unit of analysis representing the body of knowledge conveyed to students by each of the certifying bod-ies under study the three manuals ranging in vol-ume from 158 pages for the BSAC manual to 260 pages for the PADI manual and 236 pages for the SSI manual were scanned and the resulting tif files were converted and merged into larger PDF files Optical Character Recognition (OCR) a form of translation that converts scanned images of printed text into machine-encoded text was run on the three PDF files using Adobe Acrobat to allow the qualitative content analysis software to recog-nize individual characters and words the PDF files were then uploaded to Atlasti a qualitative analysis software package which allowed the researchers to code for key latent and manifest themes that emerged from the text (Konopaacutesek 2008)

this research used a mixed qualitative and quan-titative content analysis approach to determine the nature and frequency of the latent and manifest content of the BSAC PADI and SSI novice certifi-cation manuals According to Mayring (2000) qualitative content analysis can be used to deter-mine the impact of communications or the effect of messages Qualitative content analysis therefore allowed for an exploration of the type and context (message meaning symbols) of the latent environ-mental messages communicated to novice scuba divers (Malloy amp Fennell 1998 Mayring 2000) this in turn allowed the researchers to draw con-clusions about the nature of the voluntary environ-mental codes of conduct adopted by novice scuba divers Subsequent quantitative content analysis sys-tematically quantified and compared the environmen-tal communications (Berelson 1952 Krippendorff 1980) contained in each manual facilitating a cross-manual comparison this comparison allowed the researchers to rank the relative efficacies of the three manuals

Both qualitative (Choi lehto amp Morrison 2006 Quinlan 2005) and quantitative (honggen amp Smith 2006 Pritchard 2001) content analysis have been used in recreation and tourism research For example qualitative content analysis has been used to study scuba diver certification manuals (lindgren

et al 2008) and the development of codes of eth-ics in tourism (Malloy amp Fennell 1998) the researchers believe that this is the first application of a mixed methods content analysis in recreation and tourism research

A mixture of inductive category development and deductive category application was used because of the limited literature on low-impact div-ing and diver environmental education from which to draw ldquoexplicit definitions examples and coding rules for each deductive [categorization and for] determining exactly under what circumstances a text passage can be coded with a categoryrdquo (Mayring 2000 p 5) this approach has been used success-fully in the analysis of magazines diaries books (Manning amp Cullum-Swan 1994) transcripts of interviews discourses protocols of observations video tapes and documents (Mayring 2000) themes were developed ldquoto link the underlying [latent] meanings togetherrdquo (Graneheim amp lundman 2004 p 107) enabling them to be explored

the following themes identified through the lit-erature formed the basis of the deductive categories which were applied through the content analysis

a) the 6 pivotal low-Impact Diving Skills (as determined by Johansen 2008)

b) the 14 Principles of low-Impact Diving (as determined by Johansen 2008)

c) both coral reef-based and general aquatic envi-ronment knowledge

Additionally the following inductive categories were developed from the themes that emerged from the content analysis

a) missed education opportunitiesb) visual images that supported the written mes-

sages in the textc) visual images that contradicted the written mes-

sages of the text written messages which con-tradicted the low-impact diving principles and skills and the environmental messages (coral based and general aquatic) in the manuals

d) messages about the espoused educational and environmental beliefs of each organization

Individual textbooksmdashBSACrsquos The Diving Manual An Introduction to Scuba diving (ellerby


2009) PADIrsquos Open Water Diver Manual (Shreeves 2007) and SSIrsquos Open Water Diver Manual (SSI 2003)mdashwere systematically coded for theme-based meaning units (eg principles of low-impact div-ing) When text referenced an accompanying image it was coded to indicate whether it sup-ported or contradicted associated environmental messages Meaning units also referred to as Open Codes were categorized into Axial Codes that were then categorized for thematic analysis exhaustive and mutually exclusive categories were created to ensure that all environmental communications were included but categorizations did not overlap this allowed for varying levels of abstraction in the description of the content of each manual as per Graneheim and lundman (2004)

Prior to further analysis two ldquoerror checksrdquo were performed using redundancy checks built into Atlasti this allowed identical quotations to be merged and eliminated redundant codes minimiz-ing human coding error Once each manual was systematically coded and error checks were com-pleted the content of each manual was explored and a comparison across certifying bodies was undertaken each manual was explored to deter-mine the type and context of the environmental messages communicated to novice scuba divers and to draw conclusions about the environmental codes of conduct they might adopt the cross-man-ual comparison involved quantifying the frequency that themes were expressed in each manual and ranking their relative efficacy

Results

By using a mixed-methods approach to the con-tent analysis of the manualsrsquo environmental mes-sages the researchers were able to a) qualitatively explore the type of the messages conveyed to entry-level divers (principles of low-impact diving and skill teaching) and to determine their potential impact on the voluntary environmental codes of conduct formed by novice divers and b) quantita-tively compare the three manuals and rank their theoretical efficacies

Qualitative Analysis

the data arising from the qualitative content analysis of the three manuals provided insight into

the types of messages conveyed to entry-level div-ers certified by BSAC PADI and SSI the qualita-tive results separate the data collected by certifying body to allow the researchers to draw conclusions regarding the potential impact of these messages on the codes of conduct adopted by their respective novice divers

BSAC Manual All 14 Principles of low-Impact Diving were expressed in the BSAC manual For example messages concerning Principle 1 appro-priate fining techniques remind divers to ldquobe care-ful that careless finning does not cause physical damage to what are often delicate seaweeds or ani-malsrdquo (ellerby 2009 p 59) All six low-impact diving skills were taught in the BSAC manual Novice BSAC divers were encouraged to work towards elite buoyancy standards and ellerby (2009) reminds divers that ldquoa good exercise for all divers is to fine tune your buoyancy so you can hover motionless in mid-water able to sense the slight upward and downward movement as you breathe gently in and outrdquo (p 49)

the educational and environmental beliefs of BSAC were discussed throughout the manual reinforcing the importance that BSAC places on the environment and conservation the BSAC manual highlights the importance and benefits of continuing education the need for refresher courses and the confidence acquired through repetitive practice and use of diving skills this was done through messages like ldquoimprove and pol-ish the skills you already have by increasing your diving experiencerdquo (ellerby 2009 p 141) the BSAC manual also contained an extensive diver code of conduct (Fig 1) which is referenced throughout the manual

Supporting (n = 31) and contradicting (n = 20) visual images and missed education opportunities (n = 20) were also found in the BSAC manual the supporting images and diagrams reinforced proen-vironmental messages these images and diagrams depicted divers using appropriate finning tech-niques and with their gauges secured to their buoy-ancy compensating devices (BCDs) Contradictory visual images and missed education opportunities detracted from the positive messages and images in the BSAC manual they showed divers in contact with living substrate and in vertical positions


While less drastic in terms of their impact on the formation of an environmental code of conduct missed education opportunities highlight where the BSAC manual can be improved the BSAC man-ual omits the impact of underwater lights on pho-tosensitive marine life that divers should gauge water depth before entering the negative impact of loose dive gear and the potential impact of fins and finning in a vertical position

PADI Manual the PADI manual discussed 13 Principles of low-Impact Diving omitting marine protected areas (Principle 9) Statements like ldquoRealize that even a light touch can harm or kill some organismsrdquo (Shreeves 2007 p 84) are directly related to Principle 6 and highlight the fragility of marine life as do quotes related to con-tact with branching coral or coral communities that state ldquoBreak a 25cm10in piece of coral and

Figure 1 BSAC Diversrsquo Code of Conduct (from ellerby 2009)


yoursquove destroyed a decade of growthrdquo (Shreeves 2007 p 84)

the PADI manual discussed five low-impact diving skills excluding body position Messages about how to execute proper fining techniques (Skill 4) were clear and concise For example ldquoSwim next to the reef rather than above it this avoids damage from your fin kick[s]rdquo (Shreeves 2007 p 68) or ldquoSwim with your fins up to avoid stirring the sedimentrdquo (Shreeves 2007 p 131) these messages provided basic verbal instruction on the execution of fin kicks

Reminders like ldquobe an active divermdashdivemdashthis helps maintain your dive skillsrdquo (Shreeves 2007 p 188) reinforce the value PADI places on keeping skills current and reinforce statements about PADIrsquos educational beliefs however the PADI manual did not contain a diverrsquos code of conduct this means novice PADI divers must assume what constitutes acceptable behavior based on how the manual emphasizes in-water behaviors and has the potential to strongly impact whether novice PADI diversrsquo adopt a personal code of conduct

Supporting (n = 18) and contradicting (n = 14) visual images contradictory written messages (n =13) and missed education opportunities (n = 68) were found in the PADI manual Supporting images were undermined by negative images (depicting divers in close proximity to marine life kneeling on the bottom with loose gear etc) and contradictory written messages For example state-ments like ldquoOn the bottom get your bearings and swim into the currentrdquo (Shreeves 2007 p 151) contradict statements like ldquoStaying neutrally buoy-ant keeps you off the bottom so you avoid injuring delicate aquatic liferdquo (Shreeves 2007 p 15) the PADI manual discusses PADIrsquos educational and environmental beliefs these messages were heav-ily weighted towards educational beliefs (124 vs 03)

SSI Manual the SSI manual communicated 11 Principles of low-Impact Diving It excluded Principles 5 8 and 11 Messages conveyed the impact of negatively buoyant divers Principle 2 and stressed that divers should ldquoalways maintain neutral buoyancy and practice good buoyancy con-trol over reefsrdquo (SSI 2003 Section 5 p 23) they

also related buoyancy control to proper BCD use and weighting

the SSI manual communicated all six low-Impact Diving Skills their skills discussion included multiple effective fining strategies (flut-ter and dolphin kick) and the appropriate times to use each kick Skill messages related neutral buoy-ancy to proper weighting

like the BSAC manual the SSI manual con-tained a diverrsquos code their code however was substantially shorter including ldquodiving within the limits of [a divers] ability and training evaluating the conditions before every dive and making sure they fit [their] personal capabilities being familiar with and checking [their] equipment before and during every dive respecting the buddy system and its advantages accepting the responsibility for [their] own safety on every dive and being envi-ronmentally conscious on every diverdquo (SSI 2003 Section 6 p 8) the SSI manual communicated the importance of low-impact diving practices and pro-environmental behavior by including fill-in-the-blank knowledge review questions related to these concepts throughout their manual Novice SSI Divers were required to retain this information for their final exam

Supporting (n = 28) and contradicting (n = 13) visual images contradicting written messages (n =3) and missed education opportunities (n = 35) were present in the SSI entry-level certification man-ual Supporting images (636) included diagrams depicting where and how divers can secure loose dive gear and how to adopt effective low-impact finning techniques these images and diagrams were contradicted by negative images (n = 13) depicting negatively buoyant divers crowding marine life and by written messages (n = 3)

SSIrsquos educational and environmental beliefs were communicated throughout the manual As with both the BSAC and PADI manuals SSIrsquos edu-cational beliefs were discussed in greater detail (n =25) than their environmental beliefs (n = 10) Statements like ldquoSSI has always supported and pro-moted environmental awareness and believes that care for the environment should be a standard part of diver education from start to finishrdquo (SSI 2003 p i) clearly explain the importance that SSI places on environmental stewardship like the PADI


manual SSIrsquos environmental communications reinforce their commitment to the environment by discussing their conservation work through the Platinum Pro Foundation

Quantitative Analysis

In total 302 relevant axial codes were identified in the BSAC manual (table 1) covering all 14 Principles of low-Impact Diving and 6 low-Impact Diving Skills identified by Johansen (2008) the relevant content of the BSAC manual was made up of environmental messages (109) low-impact diving principles (363) agency beliefs (127) other important messages (268) and low-impact diving skills (95) low-impact div-ing and environmental messages accounted for a part of the total volume of the manual and were found on 48 of 158 pages (304 of the manual) Other messages which accounted for 268 of the BSAC manual included messages about diving imagery diving tourism and motivations for par-ticipating in recreational diving or dive tourism

Similarly 436 relevant axial codes were identi-fied in the PADI manual covering 13 of the 14 Principles of low-Impact Diving and 5 of the 6 low-Impact Diving Skills (table 1) PADIrsquos entry-level certification manual was comprised of envi-ronmental messages (57) low impact diving principles (452) agency beliefs (163) other important messages (144) and low-impact div-ing skills (183) As in the BSAC manual the rel-evant content of the PADI manual accounted for a part of the total volume relevant information was discussed on 138 of 260 pages (531) this is a dramatic improvement over the 2005 PADI Open Water Diver Manual found to ldquocontain roughly one page of text with some general comments on the fragility of marine life and general principles of behaviorrdquo (lindgren et al 2008 p 127)

lastly 583 relevant axial codes were identified in the SSI manual covering 11 of the 14 Principles of low-Impact Diving and all 6 low-Impact Diving Skills (table 1) these axial codes con-sisted of environmental and coral reef messages (280 combined) low-impact diving principles (339) agency beliefs (161) other important messages (169) and low-impact diving skills (51) As with the other manuals low-impact

diving skills and principles and environmental messages accounted for part of the total volume of the SSI manual Relevant axial codes were found on 135 of 237 pages (5696 of the manual) With the highest number of both general (n = 118) and coral reef-specific (n = 30) environmental mes-sages of the three manuals this content was com-municated extensively throughout the SSI manual the quantity and quality of these messages have positive implications for novice SSI diversrsquo adop-tion of an environmental code of conduct

Discussion

the combination of both qualitative and quanti-tative data provides a robust analysis of the knowl-edge imparted through each agencyrsquos entry-level course manual the discussion is organized to include both data analysis outcomes instead of sep-arating the results for each of the qualitative and quantitative analyses the qualitative content anal-ysis of the entry-level BSAC manual revealed 14 themes associated with the Principles of low-Impact Diving (Johansen 2008) this differed from both the PADI and SSI manual which con-tained messages related to 13 and 11 themes respectively

the main themes that emerged most frequently from the quantitative content analysis of the BSAC manual and that are likely to inform novice BSAC divers environmental codes of conduct were the importance of adopting a diver code of conduct (n = 124) BSACrsquos educational beliefs (n =124) environmental knowledge (n = 96) the importance of continuing education (n = 51) and the factors that govern divers in-water behavior (n = 38) Novice BSAC diverrsquos voluntary codes are likely to be influenced by the BSAC diversrsquo code of conduct (table 1)

All six low-impact diving skills were covered in the BSAC manual and as such it is anticipated that novice BSAC divers will possess these skills ascents proper body positioning descents fining neutral buoyancy and spatial awareness these skills are likely to be heavily weighted towards neutral buoyancy a skill that novice BSAC div-ers are encouraged to attain at elite levels therefore novice scuba divers certified by BSAC have been provided with the necessary skill set


and educational content that may support the adoption of a comprehensive personal environ-mental code of conduct

thirteen themes were found in the PADI manual which coincided with Johansenrsquos (2008) Principles of low-Impact Diving however PADI novice divers were not communicated information about Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) low impact div-ing messages are also diminished by contradictory

messages (n = 13) and images (438) the quanti-tative content analysis of the PADI manual revealed that novice PADI divers environmental codes of conduct are likely to be weighted towards PADIrsquos educational beliefs (n = 142) the importance of continuing education (n = 106) the negative impact of touching (n = 76) environmental knowledge (n = 50) and the importance of secur-ing loose dive gear (n = 48)

table 1Comparison of the BSAC PADI and SSI Manualrsquos environmental Content

CategoriesAxial Codes

BSAC PADI SSI

Code Occurrence Percentage



environmental messages environmental knowledge-based messages 30 96 22 50 118 202 Coral reef knowledge-based messages 4 13 3 07 30 51low-impact diving messages 1 Appropriate fining techniques 4 13 3 07 15 26 2 Neutral buoyancy 1 03 15 34 10 17 3 Secure loose gear 3 10 21 48 4 07 4 Negative impacts of specimen collecting

and hunting 4 13 3 07 3 05 5 Negative impacts of crowding 1 03 13 30 0 00 6 Negative impacts of touchingcontact 7 22 33 76 4 07 7 Negative impacts of interacting with marine

wildlife 6 19 11 25 2 03 8 Divers have an impact on marine environ-

ments 7 22 15 34 0 00 9 Marine protected areas 1 03 0 00 6 10 10 Factors governing divers in water behavior 12 38 16 37 7 12 11 Key ecological concepts related to coral and

marine environment biodiversity 4 13 6 14 0 00 12 Dive as a guest 9 29 8 18 9 15 13 Adopt a personal or agency-based low

impact dive ethic 39 124 7 16 16 27 14 Continuing education as a means to build

and maintain skills proficiency and knowledge 16 51 46 106 103 177

Agency Agencyrsquos educational beliefs 39 124 62 142 75 129 Agencyrsquos environmental beliefs 1 03 9 21 10 17Other 84 268 63 144 89 153Skills low-impact diving skills Ascents 1 03 10 23 1 02 low-Impact diving skills Body position 7 22 0 00 0 00 low-impact diving skills Descent 1 03 15 34 1 02 low-impact diving skills Fining 3 10 15 34 8 14 low-impact diving skills Neutral buoyancy 13 41 38 87 11 19 low-impact diving skills Spatial awareness 5 16 2 05 6 10Images Supporting image 31 608 18 563 28 636 Contraditing written messages 0 00 13 NA 3 68 Contradicting images 20 392 14 438 13 295Other Missed education opportunities 20 NA 68 NA 35 NA


Five low-impact diving skills were covered in the PADI manual therefore novice PADI divers are likely to possess the following low impact skills ascents descents fining neutral buoyancy and spatial awareness these skills are heavily weighted towards neutral buoyancy however in their examination of the PADI certifying process lindgren et al (2008) noted that ldquoeven divers not achieving the required buoyancy skills seem regu-larly to passrdquo (p 127) Novice PADI divers are pro-vided limited knowledge needed to attain or maintain an appropriate body position in the water column and this may have further negative implica-tions for the degree of impact potentially caused by PADI divers Given the limited skill development opportunities and the conflicting nature of the infor-mation communicated there is potential that novice PADI divers will have difficulty developing an envi-ronmental code that will minimize their impacts

the qualitative content analysis of the entry-level SSI manual revealed 11 themes associated with the Principles of low-Impact Diving (Johansen 2008) Without knowledge of the negative impacts of crowding marine animals (Principle 5) the potential for SSI novice divers to engage this behavior increases in part due to the excitement experienced by viewing animals in the wild and partially because they will be unaware of the dam-age resulting from crowding (uninformed norms violations) Similarly without the knowledge that divers can have negative impacts on marine envi-ronments (Principle 8) divers are less likely to understand the importance of engaging in low impact diving practices excluding key ecological concepts related to coral and marine environment biodiversity (Principle 11) has implications for diversrsquo in-water behavior and the environmental codes of conduct they may adopt

the quantitative content analysis found the fol-lowing heavily weighted themes in the SSI manual environmental knowledge (n = 202) the impor-tance of continuing education (n = 177) SSIrsquos education beliefs (n = 129) coral reef based knowledge (n = 51) and the importance of adopting an environmental code of conduct (n =27) the presence and abundance of these mes-sages are likely to influence novice SSI diversrsquo environmental codes of conduct

All six low-impact diving skills were covered in the SSI manual As such novice SSI divers are expected to possess the knowledge of the following low impact skills ascents proper body positioning descents fining neutral buoyancy and spatial awareness As with the other manuals these skills were heavily weighted towards neutral buoyancy Due to missing information in the SSI manual and like PADI novice divers novice SSI divers may have some difficulty in developing fully informed personal environmental codes of conduct how-ever like BSAC novice divers they are likely to possess all the skills required to enact these codes

the results emerging from the qualitative and quantitative content analyses illustrate the nature of the low-impact messages communicated to novice scuba divers and the frequency they are delivered in each of the three certifying bodiesrsquo manuals All three manuals have areas that could be improved (eliminating contradictory written messages and visual media and capitalizing on missed education opportunities) the variation in the depth and breadth of coverage of low-impact diving skills across the three agenciesrsquo manuals may impact the novice diverrsquos retention of the psychomotor skills necessary to enact low impact diving principles therefore divers exposed to limited low-impact diving skill teaching messages may not possess the skills required to negotiate internal constraints (skills competencies self-perceived efficacy) and external constraints (swells currents low visibility) to their engagement in low impact diving Similarly if these divers become holiday divers dive infre-quently or fail to progress beyond their novice cer-tification their skills are likely to erode over time (lindgren et al 2008) It therefore becomes even more critical for these agenciesrsquo certification manu-als to contain sufficient reference information regarding the adoption of low impact diving princi-ples and the execution of low impact diving skills

As noted previously hines et al (1987) found a significant correlation (030) between environmen-tal knowledge and proenvironmental behavior While Fransson and Garling (1999) found that a lack of specific knowledge about proenvironmental behavior was a barrier to engaging in environmen-tally beneficial behaviors despite possession of a proconservation attitude examined in the context


of these findings the manuals that present each of the principles of low-impact diving and low-impact diving skills in a plentiful and consistent manner can be assumed to be more effective than those that present these concepts less frequently or with decreased consistency Similarly these manuals are more likely to address depreciative behaviors arising from uninformed and unintentional norms violations by addressing knowledge and skill acquisition respectively

the BSAC manual is therefore more compre-hensive than both the PADI and SSI manuals due to its discussion of all of the principles of low impact diving and all of their associated low-impact diving skills and in addressing the depreciative behaviors arising from uninformed and unintentional norms violations the SSIrsquos manual while containing fewer low-impact diving principles than the PADI manual contains more positive messages and con-tains more information about low-impact diving skills It is therefore more effective than the PADI manual in addressing depreciative behaviors aris-ing from unintentional norms violations but less effective in address those arising from uninformed norms violations Additionally due to the decreased volume of contradictory written and visual mes-sages in the SSI manual versus the PADI manual the SSI manual more effectively communicates the principles and skills of low-impact diving the manuals can therefore be ranked in decreasing levels of efficacy starting with BSAC (most effec-tive) followed by SSI and lastly PADI

Conclusion

Despite diver impacts on marine environments being less severe than those of natural processes diver damage can be biologically costly (Barker amp Roberts 2004) Considerable research has there-fore been undertaken on diversrsquo impacts on marine environments traditionally focusing on coral reefs (Barker amp Roberts 2004 hawkins et al 1999 tratalosa amp Austin 2001 Zakaia amp Chadwick-Furman 2002)

In recognition of diversrsquo potential impact orga-nizations like BSAC PADI and SSI often include low-impact diving education and a diver code of conduct in their certification courses however despite undergoing the certification process divers

continue to have negative impacts on marine envi-ronments (Medio et al 1997 townsend 2008a 2008b) Novice divers have been associated with higher levels of diver damage than other subgroups (Barker amp Roberts 2004 Curtin amp Garrod 2008 Davenport amp Davenport 2006 Davis amp tisdell 1995 Medio et al 1997 Motavalli 1997 townsend 2008b Walters amp Samways 2001) this is espe-cially true of holiday divers or dive tourists who rarely move beyond their novice certification (lindgren et al 2008) In light of this and scuba divingrsquos increase in popularity as a recreation and tourism activity it is essential for novice courses to impart the knowledge required for scuba divers to form personal codes of conduct and the skills to effectively adopt them

this study examined the content of the novice certification manuals published by BSAC PADI and SSI to determine the information provided to novice divers about the principles and skills of low-impact diving their comprehensiveness was deter-mined based on a combination of the depth and frequency of their coverage of the principles and skills of low impact diving identified by Johansen (2008) and by the presence or absence of messages communicating the agencyrsquos educational and envi-ronmental beliefs missed education opportunities conflicting messages and supporting andor con-tradictory visual images and diagrams

the researchers concluded that the BSAC man-ual was more comprehensive than both the PADI and SSI manuals because it addressed all the prin-ciples and skills of low-impact diving and articu-lated an extensive diverrsquos code of conduct the SSI manual was deemed more comprehensive than the PADI manual despite communicating fewer of the low-impact diving principles because it contained a higher number of messages related to the principles of low-impact diving that it did cover communi-cated more of the low-impact diving skills and contained a divers code of conduct as well as fewer contradictory written messages and images there is potential that divers certified by the agencies who failed to provide substantial low-impact div-ing education could be more likely to engage in depreciative behaviors because these manuals do not sufficiently address the causes of uninformed and unintentional norms violations


this research illustrates that to affect longer term behavioral change the dive industry and its associ-ated certifying bodies including BSAC PADI and SSI should adopt strategies that address the root cause of diver impacts and those depreciative behaviors arising from unintentional and unin-formed norms violations By including more of the relevant environmental coral reef-specific and low-impact diving-related information needed to inform the adoption of personal environmental codes of conduct in their certification manuals the potential for certifying bodies to influence the quality of the codes adopted by their novice divers increases Additionally encouraging divers to form personal environmental codes of conduct through the publication of an agency specific div-errsquos code illustrates the dive industryrsquos support for low-impact diving and models environmentally responsible behavior In order for novice scuba div-ers to effectively adopt personal environmental codes of conduct they must be taught the associ-ated psychomotor skills required to enact these codes this means including references to low-impact diving skills throughout training manuals and including minimum skill proficiency standards in novice certification process

Given time and budgetary constraints this study did not involve observations of the instructional process therefore the verbal and visual messages communicated to divers during the classroom or practical components of the instructional process were not analyzed As such the potential impact of these messages on diverrsquos formation of low impact diving code of conduct is unaccounted for Sim-ilarly the researchers examined three novice diver certifying body manuals therefore an understand-ing of the formation of low-impact diving code of conduct by divers certified by other agencies such as the World Underwater Federation (CMAS) or American amp Canadian Underwater Certifications Inc (ACUC) are still needed

Further research into the root causes of diver impacts on marine environments is needed this research should examine scuba divers retention of key environmental and coral reef-specific knowl-edge low-impact diving principles and skills and the educational and environmental beliefs of their training agencies postcertification Potential varia-tions across certifying bodies and by time certified

highest level of training achieved frequency of knowledge use level of recreational specialization and demographic characteristics should be exam-ined Additionally research into scuba diversrsquo retention of low-impact diving skills postcertifica-tion should be conducted this research should examine variations across certifying bodies and by demographic characteristics time since certifica-tion and frequency of skill use

environmental education is accepted as one of the best practices for mitigating the impacts of nature-based recreation and tourism activities how-ever when these activities are skill intensive as is the case with scuba diving environmental educa-tion must include practical skills training the increasing popularity of recreation diving and dive tourism and the potential impacts of these divers on marine environments means that dive tourism operators dive guides and other representatives of the diving industry including scuba diver certify bodies all have critical roles to play in teaching divers the knowledge and skills required to adopt personal environmental codes of conduct Research into diver impacts on marine environments have historically focused on predive briefings and dive master interference when depreciative behaviors are observed this article therefore explored the comprehensiveness of the low-impact diving mes-sages communicated to novice scuba divers through their entry-level certification manuals By understanding the nature and frequency that mes-sages related to the principles and skills of low-impact diving are communicated to novice divers those responsible for educating entry-level divers may be able to move progressively towards increased levels of inclusion of low-impact diving education in their entry-level certification courses

Acknowledgment

thanks go to Mr Phil Clifton Coaching Coordinator of the Diver Resources team with the British Sub Aqua Club (BSAC) and Mr Jim Watson Safety amp Development Manager also with BSAC for their in-kind support

Biographical Notes

Ms Kelsey Johansen recently graduated with a Masters of environmental Studies in Nature-Based Recreation and tourism from the School of Outdoor Recreation Parks and


tourism lakehead University where she currently enjoys an appointment as a sessional lecturer An SSI-certified Master Diver Kelsey is an avid diver and dive tourist her research interests include marine tourism and recreation and rural community tourism development

Dr Rhonda Koster Director Instructional Development Centre Associate Professor School of Outdoor Recreation Parks and tourism lakehead University Dr Kosterrsquos research focuses on an examination of the contribution of tourism towards rural sustainability with expertise in the areas of determinants of success in rural tourism planning experiential tourism development the role of Appreciative Inquiry in tourism development gateway communities and protected areas rural tourism in the Canadian urban fringe and frameworks for evaluating tourism as a community eco-nomic development endeavor

References

Alessa l Bennett S M Kliskey A D (2003) effects of knowledge personal attribution and perception of ecosystem health on depreciative behaviors in the inter-tidal zone of Pacific Rim National Park and Reserve Journal of Environmental Management 68(2) 207ndash218

Barker N h l amp Roberts C M (2004) Scuba diver behaviour and the management of diving impacts on coral reefs Biological Conservation 120(4) 481ndash489

Barker N amp Roberts C (2008) Attitudes to and prefer-ences of divers toward regulation In B Garrod amp S Goumlssling (eds) New frontiers in marine tourism Diving experiences sustainability management (pp 171ndash187) Amsterdam elsevier

Berelson B (1952) Content analysis in communication research Glencoe Il Free Press

Bradford l e A amp McIntyre N (2007) Off the beaten track Messages as a means of reducing social trail use at St lawrence Islands National Park Journal of Park and Recreation Administration 25(1) 1ndash21

Brylske A (2008 April) take only memories leave only bubbles A guide to responsible snorkeling Dive Training Magazine 18(42) 22ndash34

Byron Underwater Research Group (2009) Byron Underwater Research Group low impact diving Retrieved January 13 2010 from httpburgorgaudivinghtml

Choi S lehto X y amp Morrison A M (2006) Destination image representation on the web Content analysis of Macau travel related websites Tourism Management 28(1) 118ndash129

Curtin S amp Garrod B (2008) Vulnerability of marine mammals to diving tourism activities In B Garrod amp S Goumlssling (eds) New frontiers in marine tourism Diving experiences sustainability management (pp 93ndash113) Amsterdam elsevier

Davenport J amp Davenport J l (2006) the impact of tourism and personal leisure transport on coastal

environments The Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 67(12) 280ndash292

Davis D amp tisdell C (1995) Recreational SCUBA-diving and carrying capacity in marine protected areas Ocean amp Coastal Management 26(1) 19ndash40

Dearden P Bennett M amp Rollins R (2007) Perceptions of diving impacts and implications for reef conservation Coastal Management 35(23) 305ndash317

Duncan G S amp Martin S R (2002) Comparing the effectiveness of interpretive and sanction messages for influencing wilderness visitorsrsquo intended behaviour International Journal of Wilderness 8(2) 20ndash25

ellerby D (2009) The diving manual An introduction to scuba diving (4th ed) Surrey UK the British Sub Aqua Club and Circle Books

Fennell D A (2001) Areas and needs in ecotourism research In D B Weaver (ed) The encyclopedia of ecotourism (pp 639ndash656) Wallingford UK CABI Publishing

Fransson N amp Garling t (1999) environmental concern Conceptual definitions measurement methods and research findings Journal of Environmental Psychology 19(4) 369ndash382

Garrod B amp Fennell D A (2004) An analysis of whale-watching codes of conduct Annals of Tourism Research 31(2) 334ndash352

Graneheim U h amp lundman B (2004) Qualitative con-tent analysis in nursing research Concepts procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness Nurse Education Today 24(2)105ndash112

hawkins J P Roberts C M Vanrsquot hof t De Meyer K tratalosa J A amp White S (1999) Sustainability of scuba diving tourism on coral reeds of Saba Coastal Management 33(4) 373ndash387

hines J M hungerford h R amp tomera A N (1987) Analysis and synthesis of research on responsible environmental behaviour A meta-analysis Journal of Environmental Education 18(2) 1ndash8

honggen X amp Smith S l J (2006) Case studies in tour-ism research A state-of-the-art analysis Tourism Management 27(5) 738ndash749

Johansen K (2008) Low impact diving practices and their implementation and use in Palau Yap and Chuuk A case study towards the development of a sustainable diver education model Unpublished honours thesis lakehead University thunder Bay ON

Konopaacutesek Z (2008) Making thinking visible with Atlasti Computer assisted qualitative analysis as textual practices FORUM Qualitative Social Research 9(2) Article 12

Krippendorff K (1980) Content analysis An introduction to its methodology Beverly hills CA Sage

lindgren A Palmlund J Wate I amp Goumlssling S (2008) environmental management and education the case of PADI In B Garrod amp S Goumlssling (eds) New frontiers in marine tourism Diving experiences sustainability management (pp 115ndash136) Amsterdam elsevier

luumlck M (ed) (2008) The encyclopaedia of tourism and


recreation in marine environments Oxfordshire UK CABI

Malloy D C amp Fennell D A (1998) Codes of ethics and tourism An exploratory content analysis Tourism Management 19(5) 453ndash461

Manning P K amp Cullum-Swan B (1994) Narrative con-tent and semiotic analysis In N K Denzin amp y S lincoln (eds) Handbook of qualitative research (pp 463ndash477) thousand Oaks CA Sage Publishing Inc

Mayring P (2000) Qualitative content analysis Forum Qualitative Social Research 1(2) Article 20

Medio D Ormond R F G amp Pearson M (1997) effect of briefings on rates of damage to corals by scuba divers Biological Conservation 79(1) 91ndash95

Motavalli J (1997) Island adventure E the Environmental Magazine 8(6) 44ndash26

Orams M B (1997) the effectiveness of environmental education Can we turn tourists into ldquoGreeniesrdquo Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research 3(4) 295ndash306

Pritchard A (2001) tourism and representation A scale for measuring gendered portrayals Leisure Studies 20(2) 79ndash94

Professional Association of Diving Instructors (2008) PADI history Retrieved January 11 2010 from httpwwwpadicomSCUBAabout-padiPADI-historydefaultaspx

Quinlan S (2005) ldquoNever short of a smilerdquo A content analysis of travel guidebooks Unpublished masterrsquos the-sis University of Waterloo Waterloo ON

Rainbow J Warnken J amp Buckley R (nd) Green guide to scuba diving Best practices environmental manage-ment for scuba diving tours CRC for Sustainable tourismGriffiths University

Rouphael A B amp Inglis G J (1997) Impacts of recre-ational scuba diving at sites with different reef topogra-phies Biological Conservation 82(3) 329ndash336

Scuba Schools International (2003) SSI open water diver manual (4th ed) Fort Collins CO Concept Systems Inc

Shreeves K (2007) PADI open water diver manual (Version 209) Rancho Santa Margarita CA PADI

tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Society (2009) Low impact diving Retrieved January 14 2010 from httpwwwdiscovertasmaniacomactivities__and__attractionsadventure_activitiesdivinglow_impact_diving

tourism Queensland (2003) Dive tourism Retrieved February 17 2007 from httpwwwtqcomaufmstq_corporateresearchfact_sheetsdive_tourismpdf

townsend C (2008a) Interpretation and environmental education as conservation tools In B Garrod amp S Goumlssling (eds) New frontiers in marine tourism Diving experiences sustainability management (pp 189ndash200) Amsterdam elsevier

townsend C (2008b) Dive tourism sustainable tourism and social responsibility A growing agenda In B Garrod amp S Goumlssling (eds) New frontiers in marine tourism Diving experiences sustainability manage-ment (pp 139ndash152) Amsterdam elsevier

tratalosa J A amp Austin t J (2001) Impacts of recre-ational SCUBA diving on coral communities of the Caribbean island of Grand Cayman Biological Conservation 102(1) 67ndash75

Walters R D M amp Samways M J (2001) Sustainable dive ecotourism on a South African coral reef Biodiversity and Conservation 10(12) 2167ndash2179

Widner Ward C amp Roggenbuck J W (2003) Understanding park visitorsrsquo responses to interventions to reduce petrified wood theft Journal of Interpretive Research 8(1) 67ndash82

Zakai D amp Chadwick-Furman N e (2002) Impacts of intensive recreational diving on reef corals at eilat northern Red Sea Biological Conservation 105(2) 179ndash187


have negative impacts on marine environments (Medio Ormand amp Pearson 1997 townsend 2008a 2008b)

While advanced training is available some of which focuses on proenvironmental behaviors and skills or marine-based knowledge acquisition hol-iday divers or dive tourists are unlikely to move beyond their first certification (lindgren Palmlund Wate amp Goumlssling 2008) this segment comprises a significant portion of the total diving population (lindgren et al 2008) estimated at 5ndash7 million divers worldwide (tourism Queensland 2003) and scuba diving is increasing in popularity as a recreation and tourism activity (Johansen 2008 tourism Queensland 2003) It is therefore essen-tial for novice courses to impart the knowledge required for scuba divers to form personal codes of conduct

the purpose of this study was to examine the content of the entry-level certification manuals published by BSAC PADI and SSI three of the largest diver certifying bodies in the world the examination sought to determine the depth and extent that each manual communicates environ-mental and low-impact diving messages used by novice divers to form personal environmental codes of conduct this article discusses the predic-tors of proenvironmental behavior diver damage and environmental management in the dive indus-try followed by low-impact diving diver codes of conduct and the certification processes across cer-tifying bodies the methods used in the content analysis are explained the results are presented and discussed the efficacies of the three manuals are ranked by the quality and quantity of their pro-environmental messages and conclusions are drawn about their potential impact on the diver codes of conduct adopted by each agencyrsquos novice scuba divers

literature Review

Predictors of Proenvironmental Behavior

Research into the effects of human values and knowledge on depreciative behavior engagement is increasingly important as ldquohuman activities levy a biological cost on ecosystems as resources are accessed and utilized at rates incompatible with inherent ecosystem processes and structuresrdquo

(Alessa Bennett amp Kliskey 2003 pp 207) Research on the behavior of scuba divers and other recreationists and tourists has identified the follow-ing predictors of proenvironmental behavior human values and attitudes (Alessa et al 2003 Orams 1997) environmental knowledge (Alessa et al 2003 hines hungerford amp tomera 1987) knowledge of proenvironmental behavior (Bradford amp McIntyre 2007 Fransson amp Garling 1999) and the presence of peers or authority figures (Barker amp Roberts 2004 lindgren et al 2008 Medio et al 1997 Widner Ward amp Roggenbuck 2003) hines et al (1987) concluded that a statistically signifi-cant correlation (030) exists between environmen-tal knowledge and proenvironmental behavior Fransson and Garling (1999) found that a lack of specific knowledge about proenvironmental behav-ior was a barrier to engaging in environmentally beneficial behaviors despite possession of a pro-conservation attitude

Further studies such as those by Widner Ward and Roggenbuck (2003) examined management strategies to mitigate depreciative behaviors they suggest that these behaviors result from a failure by perpetrators to comply with social norms resulting in five types of norm violations

bull unintentionalbull uninformedbull releasor cuebull responsibility denialbull status confirming

Unintentional norms violations occur because recreationists and tourists are unaware of the norms violation (Widner Ward amp Roggenbuck 2003) On the other hand uninformed norms violations occur because individuals do not know the consequences of their behavior (Widner Ward amp Roggenbuck 2003) According to Widner Ward and Roggenbuck releasor cue norms violations occur because envi-ronmental conditions ldquocuerdquo the depreciative behav-ior examples of releasor cue norms violations include degraded recreational space or observing depreciative behaviors Status confirming norms violations occur when individuals engage in depre-ciative behaviors because of peer pressure or to solidify their membership within a social group (Widner Ward amp Roggenbuck 2003) lastly ldquosome





































the Study Purpose



Method






















Results






























Discussion










BSAC PADI SSI






















Conclusion












Acknowledgment


Biographical Notes





References























































































the Study Purpose



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Discussion










BSAC PADI SSI






















Conclusion












Acknowledgment


Biographical Notes





References







































































Results






























Discussion










BSAC PADI SSI






















Conclusion












Acknowledgment


Biographical Notes





References









































































Discussion










BSAC PADI SSI






















Conclusion












Acknowledgment


Biographical Notes





References

























































BSAC PADI SSI






















Conclusion












Acknowledgment


Biographical Notes





References





























































Conclusion












Acknowledgment


Biographical Notes





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Acknowledgment


Biographical Notes





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