Facilities and Hunter-Gatherer Long-Term Land Use Patterns: An Example from Southwest Wyoming

FACILITIES AND HUNTER-GATHERER LONG-TERM LAND USE PATTERNS: AN EXAMPLE FROM SOUTHWEST WYOMING

CRAIG S. SMITH AND LANCE M. MCNEES

Made in United States ofAmerica Reprinted from AMERICAN ANTIQUITY

Vol. 64, No. 1, January 1999 Copyright © 1999 by the Society for American Archaeology

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FACILITIES AND HLINTER-GATHERER LONG-TERM LAND USEPATTERNS: AN EXAMPLE FROM SOUTFIWEST WYOMING

Cnxc S. Srrarn.q,ND LANcB M. McNBBs

Made inUnited States ofAmericaReprinted frorfr Alrpnrcex ANrrqtrrv

Yol.64, No. l, January 1999Copyright O 1999 by the Society for American Archaeology

FACILITIES AND HUNTER-GATHERER LONG-TERM LAND USE PATTERNS: AN EXAMPLE FROM SOUTHWEST WYOMING

Craig S. Smith and Lance M. McNees

To fully understand prehistoric land use patterns, we must define how prehistoric peoples used particular places on the land-scape over longer periods of time. Factors influencing the multi-year use of particular places include human modifications to the landscape as a result of previous occupations. The construction of relatively elaborate and costly facilities for anticipated reuse is one type of modification associated with the repeated occupation of specific locations. Slab-lined cylindrical basins of southwest Wyoming are an example of that type of facility. The archaeological evidence indicates that prehistoric hunter-gatherers repeatedly reused some of these basins on a periodic basis over periods as long as 500 years and reoccupied some locales containing such facilities over a period of more than 2,000 years. The construction of such facilities and the repeated occupation of those locales were apparently related to the procurement and processing of a stable, predictable resource. Biscuitroot was the most likely target resource procured and processed at these locales.

Un entendimiento completo de las formal del use de terreno requiere que se coma la gente prehistorica aprovechaba lugares especificos del paisaje durante largos periodos de tiempo. Los factores que influyen el use de lugares especificos por multiples altos incluyen modificaciones humanas del paisaje como resultado de ocupaciones previas. La construccion de facilidades rela-tivamente elaboradas y costosas para el reuso anticipado es un tipo de modification asociada con la ocupacion repetida de lugares especificos. Pozos cilindricos revestidos de losa de piedra en el suroeste de Wyoming son ejemplos de dicho tipo de facil-idad. La evidencia arqueologica indica que los cazadores-recolectores prehist6ricos reusaban repetidas veces algunas de estos pozos en forma peri6dica durante periodos de hasta 500 cubs y reocupaban algunos locales con estas facilidades por un period° de mks de 2,000 altos. La construccion de estas facilidades y la ocupacion repetida de los locales parece estar relacionada a la obtencion y procesamiento de un recurs() estable y susceptible de pronosticar. La raiz "biscuitroot" era el recurso objetivo mks probable que . fue obtenido y procesado en los locales.

A major avenue of archaeological research is the study of the organization and struc-ture of hunter-gatherer settlement sys-

tems. Investigations of mobile hunter-gatherer settlement and subsistence systems typically focus on a synchronic ethnographic-based model of eco-nomic activity over the four seasons or the annual seasonal round. These studies often describe the nature and location of occupations during a typical year and fail to account for the complexity in the system resulting from the year-to-year variability in the use of the landscape (Dewar and McBride 1992). A significant aspect of longer-term, hunter-gatherer landscape use is the regular repeated occupation of locales (used in this paper as an area encompassing a number of locations as well as the exploited patches) and specific locations (used in this paper as a specific place on the landscape used for occupation) from year to year and over decades and centuries.

Studies of mobile hunter-gatherer, long-term landscape use have begun to show that decisions on the use of locations within the overall locale are the product of a dynamic interplay of positive and neg-ative factors that affect the desirability of particular locations through time (e.g., Binford 1983; Brooks and Yellen 1987; Dewar and McBride 1992; Nelson and Lippmeier 1993; Wandsnider 1992). These factors influencing location use include a bias toward the repetitive occupation of the most desirable places especially in relationship to the distribution of resources, the increasing cost of repeatedly occupying those locations, and the nat-ural regeneration of the locations after a period of nonoccupation. The interplay of these factors can result in distinct regular periodicity of use of spe-cific locations over periods of decades. Wandsnider (1992:258) discusses this concept as "locale use tempo"—or "the frequency and syncopation with which a specific area (i.e., locale) is used."

Craig S. Smith and Lance M. McNees ■ TRC Mariah Associates Inc., 605 Skyline Drive, Laramie, WY 82070

American Antiquity, 64(1), 1999, pp. 117-136 Copyright © 1999 by the Society for American Archaeology

117

FACILITIES AND HUNTER.GATHERER LONG-TERM LAND USEPATTERNS: AN BXAMPLE FROM SOUTHWEST WYOMING

Craig S. Smith and Lance M. McNees

Biscttitroot rtas tht nlosl likell'ttrget re.\our(e procnred untl pntce.s.sed ut lhe.;e lrtcule.s.

ptobable que lite obtertitlo r pntce.sado ert los l.ot:ule.s.

major avenue of archaeological research

is the study of the organization and struc-ture of hunter-gatherer settlement. sys-

tems. Investigations of mobile hunter-gatherersettlement and subsistence systems typically focuson a synchronic ethnographic-based model of eco-nomic activity over the four seasons or the annualseasonal round. These studies often describe thenature and location of occupations during a typicalyear and fail to account for the complexity in thesystem resulting from the year-to-year variabilityin the use of the landscape (Dewar and McBride1992). A significant aspect of longer-tem, hunter-gatherer landscape use is the regular repeatedoccupation oflocales (used in this paper as an area

encompassing a number of locations as well as theexploited patches) and specific locations (used inthis paper as a specific place on the landscape used

for occupation) from year to year and over decades

and centuries.

Studies of mobile hunter-gatherer, long-termlandscape use have begun to show that decisions onthe use of locations within the overall locale are theproduct of a dynamic interplay of positive and neg-

ative factors that affect the desirability of parlicularlocations through time (e.g., Binford 1983; Brooksand Yellen 1987; Dewar and McBride 1992;Nelson and Lippmeier 1993; Wandsnider 1992).

These factors influencing loeation use include abias toward the repetitive occupation of the mostdesirable places especially in relationship to thedistribution of resources, the increasing cost ofrepeatedly occupying those locations, and the nat-

ural regeneration of the locations after a period ofnonoccupation. The interplay of these factors can

result in distinct regular periodicity of use of spe-

cific locations over periods of decades. Wandsnider(1992:258) discusses this concept as "locale use

tempo"-or "the frequency and syncopation withwhich a specific area (i.e., locale) is used."

Craig S. Smith and Lance M. McNees r TRC Mariah Associates Inc., 605 Skyline Drive, Laramie, WY 82070

American Antiquity. 6.+(1). 1999. pp. ll7 136

Copyright O 1 999 by the Society lbr Arnerican Archacologl,

117

118 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 64, No. 1, 1999]

Human modifications to the landscape play a significant role in this reuse of specific campsites and other occupation locations. Modifications most commonly discussed are those which have a nega-tive impact on the desirability of a location for occupation. These negative modifications tend to limit the number of consecutive occupations of par-ticular locations, leading to their subsequent avoid-ance for some period of time despite their highly desirable natural features of the landscape, such as the distribution of prime resource patches (Dewar and McBride 1992). Such impacts include deple-tion of food and nonfood resources, build-up of debris and other forms of soil and water pollution, and increase of pests such as vermin and flies (e.g., Binford 1983; Gross 1983; Dewar and McBride 1992; Wandsnider 1992).

Human modifications also can increase the desirability of a location for repeated use. Enhancements may include the construction of facilities such as shelters (Simms 1989) and storage and processing facilities (Flannery 1972); the man-ufacture and on-site storage of robust and elaborate camp furniture such as large, formalized grinding stones (Binford 1979; Nelson and Lippmeier 1993); the caching and accumulation of tools and raw materials (McNees et al. 1992; Todd and Hofman 1980); and deliberate ground and vegeta-tion disturbance to promote the growth or enhanced productivity of certain resources such as seed-rich weedy plant species (Smith 1988) and root patches (Reeve 1986; Thoms 1989). Accumulated detailed knowledge of a locale resulting from repeated occupation also may contribute to the periodic use of locations (e.g., see Binford 1983).

Important to the understanding of mobile hunter-gatherer, long-term patterns of location and locale use is the presence of relatively costly, enduring facilities. The construction of relatively costly facilities for anticipated future use at loca-tions which are occupied only briefly during any given year implies a multi-year planning depth. The Bustos wickiup site is representative of this pattern of long-term planning. Simms (1989) argues that the cost of constructing the wickiup structures were justified by the expectation that the wickiup location would be repeatedly reoccupied to harvest pinyon nuts despite the fact that individ-ual occupations were apparently quite short term at the site. Once constructed, such facilities would

have themselves become a resource which would have motivated the repeated occupation of that spe-cific location (i.e., the wickiup locus) and possibly the repeated use of the particular locale (i.e., the particular pinyon pine grove). The presence of the facilities in turn would have influenced the spatial patterning of use of locations within the locale dur-ing repeated occupations (Wandsnider 1992).

To facilitate an understanding of the patterning of use associated with facilities, Wandsnider (1992) formulated a set of "rules" specifying the relation-ship of location use and previously constructed facilities. Her model implies that:

1. If the location is (or has again become) attrac-tive and the facilities remain functional, groups will reoccupy the same specific location and reuse the facilities (complete congruence);

2. If the location is attractive but the facilities are no longer worth using, groups will shift the loca-tion slightly within the locale (moderate congru-ence);

3. If the site is attractive but the facilities are no longer extant (e.g., no longer visible), then the pre-vious occupations of the site will have no influence on the specific position of the new occupation at the site; and

4. If the location is not attractive, groups will avoid reoccupying it.

That hunter-gatherers expended energy in antic-ipation of future visits and continuously reused facilities and locations suggests that the mobility patterns were stable and that exploitable resources within the overall locale were predictable and occurred in definable patches. In the case of the Bustos site, a primary factor influencing locale use was the naturally sporadic, but predictably recur-rent, availability of pinyon nuts from a mature pinyon pine grove, which would have resulted in a sporadic reoccupation and use of the location and the wickiups (Simms 1989). Periodic tempos of locale use also are expected in particularly attrac-tive locales occupied to exploit predictable, but depletable, resources such as roots and tubers. In such cases, the tempo of locale use would have been governed by the complex interplay of such variables as the length and number of times that the locale could be reused before the resource became depleted and the time required for the resource to recover to attractive levels. The interplay of such variables might be expected to produce predictable

AMEBICAN ANTIOUITY lvol.64, No.1,19991

Human modifications to the landscape play a

significant role in this reuse of specific campsites

and other occupation locations. Modifrcations mostcommonly discussed are those which have a nega-

tive impact on the desirability of a location foroccupation. These negative modifications tend tolimit the number of consecutive occupations of par-

ticular locations, leading to their subsequent avoid-ance for some period of time despite their highlydesirable natural features of the landscape, such as

the distribution of prime resource patches (Dewar

and McBride 1992). Such impacts include deple-tion of food and nonfood resources, build-up ofdebris and other forms of soil and water pollution,and increase of pests such as verrnin and flies (e.g.,

Binford 1983; Gross 1983; Dewar and McBride1992; Wandsnider 1992).

Human modifications also can increase thedesirability of a location for repeated use.

Enhancements may include the construction offacilities such as shelters (Simms 1989) and storage

and processing facilities (Flannery l9l2); the man-

ufacture and on-site storage of robust and elaboratecamp fumiture such as large, formalized grindingstones (Binford 1979; Nelson and Lippmeier1993); the caching and accumulation of tools and

raw materials (McNees et al. 1992; Todd and

Hofman 1980); and deliberate ground and vegeta-

tion disturbance to promote the growth or enhanced

productivity of certain resources such as seed-richweedy plant species (Smith 1988) and root patches

(Reeve 1986; Thoms 1989). Accumulated detailedknowledge of a locale resulting from repeated

occupation also may contribute to the periodic use

of locations (e.g., see Binford 1983).

Important to the understanding of mobilehunter-gathereq long-term pattems of location and

locale use is the presence of relatively costly,enduring facilities. The construction of relativelycostly facilities for anticipated future use at loca-tions which are occupied only briefly during any

given year implies a multi-year planning depth.

The Bustos wickiup site is representative of thispattern .of long-term planning. Simms (1989)argues thdl the cost of constructing the wickiupstructures were justified by the expectation that thewickiup location would be repeatedly reoccupiedto haryest pinyon nuts despite the fact that individ-ual occupations were apparently quite short term at

the site. Once constructed, such facilities would

have themselves become a resource which wouldhave motivated the repeated occupation of that spe-

cific location (i.e., the wickiup locus) and possiblythe repeated use of the particular locale (i.e., theparticular pinyon pine grove). The presence of thefacilities in tum would have influenced the spatialpatterning of use of locations within the locale dur-ing repeated occupations (Wandsnider 1992).

To facilitate an understanding of the patteming

of use associated with facilities, Wandsnider (1992)

formulated a set of "rules" specifying the relation-ship of location use and previously constructedfacilities. Her model implies that:

1. If the location is (or has again become) attrac-tive and the facilities remain functional, groups willreoccupy the same specific location and reuse the

facilities (complete congruence);2.lf the location is attractive but the faciiities are

no longer worth using, groups will shift the loca-

tion slightly within the locale (moderate congru-

ence);

3. Ifthe site is attractive but the facilities are no

longer extant (e.g., no longer visible), then the pre-

vious occupations of the site will have no influenceon the specific position of the new occupation at

the site; and

4. If the location_ is not attractive, groups willavoid reoccupying it.

That hunter-gatherers expended energy in antic-

ipation of future visits and continuously reused

facilities and locations suggests that the mobilitypatterns were stable and that exploitable resources

within the overall locale were predictable and

occurred in definable patches. In the case of the

Bustos site, a primary factor influencing locale use

was the naturally sporadic, but predictably recur-

rent, availability of pinyon nuts from a maturepinyon pine grove, which would have resulted in asporadic reoccupation and use of the location and

the wickiups (Simms 1989). Periodic tempos oflocale use also are expected in particularly atfiac-tive locales occupied to exploit predictable, butdepletable, resources such as roots and tubers. Insuch cases, the tempo of locale use would have

been governed by the complex interplay of such

variables as the length and number of times that thelocale could be reused before the resource became

depleted and the time required for the resource torecover to attractive levels. The interplay of such

variables might be expected to produce predictable

GREAT DIVIDE

/ BASIN

/ ROCK \ / SPRINGS \

48SW2360 / UPLIFT \

48CR2200 48SW2358 48C R3610 t

48SW6556 48SW4381 (Paradox Ridge) / I 48SW142

— ^ 48CR3962

48SW6304 —

48SW212 48CR3405 48SW3153

WASHAKIE BASIN

( SW

k (Maxon Ranch) 482590

r . _ . _ _ . _

UTAH _ __ _____ COLORADO /

IDAHO I Bear Lake

SKI WYOMING

MAP LOCATION

• 48LN1088

48LN1880 (Vegan)

• 48LN1296 •

• 48LN1291

• 48LN2163

48LN1185

00,

48 UT779

48SW9965 • Flaming Gorge

Reservoir

X 48SW5175 ' \ (Sweetwater Creek)

/

OV

ER

TH

RU

ST

/

\ 12- \ ""1.- \ '5%z„ \

\ 472, \ ♦

25 mi.

40 km

WYOMING

GREEN RIVER BASIN

REPORTS

119

Figure 1. Map of southwest Wyoming showing location of sites with excavated slab-lined cylindrical basins.

and stable tempos of locale use marked by periods of regular use punctuated by periods of nonuse.

Slab-lined cylindrical basins of southwest Wyoming are a distinctive facility type associated with the repeated occupation of specific locations. They provide an excellent database for examining the long-term repeated use of locations in relation to constructed facilities. Due to their high visibility and distinctive character, these features are readily identifiable in both the archaeological record and literature, and a large number have been excavated and radiocarbon dated. They were more elaborate and costly to construct than would have been justi-fied for use during a single, short-term occupation. The evidence indicates that the slab-lined basin locations were repeatedly used over long periods, and the encompassing locales were repeatedly reoccupied, in some cases over a period exceeding 2,000 years, apparently on a regular periodic basis. The slab-lined basins probably functioned as pit ovens for the baking of roots or tubers. Roots are a predicable resource that would have allowed for stable patterns of reuse over a long period (Francis 1995, 1996; Reeve 1986; Thorns 1989), while their susceptibility to depletion from intensive concen-

trated use may have motivated alternating periods of use and nonuse.

We describe the basins and their function and present evidence concerning the repeated use of the basins and basin locations over extended periods of time. We end by relating these patterns of facility and location reuse to broader economic, ecological, and organizational aspects of landscape use by hunter-gatherers. Delineating how mobile hunter-gatherers used the landscape at different scales over the long-term adds to the increasing understanding of past adaptive systems.

Slab-Lined Cylindrical Basins of Southwest Wyoming

The database considered here consists of 44 dis-tinctive and formalized slab-lined cylindrical basins that have been excavated at 22 archaeologi-cal sites in the Wyoming Basin of southwest Wyoming, including 31 basins which have been directly radiocarbon dated (Figure 1; Table 1). The slab-lined cylindrical basins identified to date have been distributed throughout the southwestern Wyoming Basin (McNees et al. 1992; Thompson and Pastor 1995). The Wyoming Basin consists of

REPORTS

Figure 1. Map of southwest Wyoming showing location of sites with excavated slab-lined cylindrical basins.

and stable tempos of locale use ma-rked by periods

ofregular use punctuated by periods ofnonuse.Slab-lined cylindrical basins of southwest

Wyoming are a distinctive facility type associated

with the repeated occupation of specifi.c locations.They provide an excellent database for examiningthe long-term repeated use of locations in relationto constructed facilities. Due to their high visibilityand distinctive character, these features are readilyidentiflable in both the archaeological record and

literature, and a large number have been excavated

and radiocarbon dated. They were more elaborateand costly to construct than would have been justi-fied for use during a single, short-term occupation.The evidence indicates that the slab-lined basinlocations were repeatedly used over long periods,and the encompassing locales were repeatedlyreoccupied, in some cases over a period exceeding2,000 years, apparently on a regular periodic basis.

The slab-lined basins probably functioned as pitovens for the baking ofroots or tubers. Roots aie apredicable resource that would have allowed forstable pattems of reuse over a long period (Francis

1995,1996; Reeve 1986; Thoms 1989), while theirsusceptibility to depletion from intensive concen-

trated use may have motivated altemating periods

of use and nonuse.

We describe the basins and their function and

present evidence conceming the repeated use of the

basins and basin locations over extended periods oftime. We end by relating these patterns of facilityand location reuse to broader economic, ecological,

and organizational aspects of landscape use byhunter-gatherers. Delineating how mobile hunter-gatherers used the landscape at different scales over

the long-term adds to the increasing understandingof past adaptive systems.

Slab-Lined Cylindrical Basins of SouthwestWyoming

The database considered here consists of 44 dis-tinctive and formalized slab-lined cylindricalbasins that have been excavated at22 archaeologi-cal si(es in the Wyoming Basin of southwestWyoming, including 31 basins which have been

directly radiocarbon dated (Figure 1; Table 1). The

slab-lined cylindrical basins identified to date have

been distributed throughout the southwesternWyoming Basin (McNees et al. 1992; Thompsonand Pastor 1995). The Wyoming Basin consists of

I\,4AP

LOCATION

/L,,+.\ 4,t-.

rci\ 4z^

\ '1-.\ \

0 25 mi.

0 40km

WYOMING/\

,-t \

GREAT DIVIDEBASIN

ilft

A

€=

. GREEN RIVERE a,ast/vo

. 481N1 088

I

\IDAHO I

Beat I,U.

I 481N1 880(Vegan)

'481N1296

,'rirt'/ SPBINGS'\ 4BSW236.

F.lSt$r$r-/

I' -t-'--\

' a8LNtzgt / 'r 4EUW235E 48CR3610 l'-

.481N2163 q 7'+aswosso ..: l:+?3y,i??1,*,adoxRidee) ,7'

. o.nrtts .^ \ ' or.*u,r, / i::W3?3' -'= -ou("...,I . '; +eswo:o)-'--("""-

'= \ ' 4sswsi75 ! +aswztz ' aotcno+os

\,sweelwaler C'eek, ' agSWgtsS I

/ upLrrr 'r*fu"J*i"ii' i:3H3:?S l.

4BSWee65. i ./ I

WASHAKIE I' ;.":,1"* ,' ./ "'ilitiiI(1'

[ 48SW2590

COLORADO //

'I 19

L!L!a


Table 1. Summary of Slab-lined Cylindrical Basins, Southwest Wyoming.

Dimensions (cm)a Volume Age Estimate Site No. Component Feature No. L W D (liters)' (Years B.P)

Reference

48CR2200 3 4 55 55 35 83.1 Creasman et al. (1983) 48CR3405 H 61 67 35 112.3 Stilphen (1981) 48CR3405 -- Q 71 73 22 89.5 3910 ± 150 Stilphen (1981) 48CR3405 -- R 79 88 37 201.9 Stilphen (1981) 48CR3405 U 80 80 26 130.6 5750 ± 190 Stilphen (1981) 48CR3405 -- V 85 81 22 118.9 5560± 100 Stilphen (1981) 48CR3610 -- 2 51 84 45 151.3 4320 ± 80 Trapp (1983) 48CR3962 II 1 60 55 25 64.8 4290 ± 70 O'Brien et al. (1983) 48LN1088 -- 1 50 50 35 68.7 5310 ± 120 Hoefer et al. (1985) 48LN1185 -- 10 55 55 35 83.1 6500 ± 360 McDonald (1993) 48LN1291 1 3 Wheeler et al. (1986) 48LN1296/A -- 1 5150 ± 230 Wheeler et al. (1986) 48LN1880 (Vegan) II 7 59 53 38 93.3 5580 ± 120 McKern &

Creasmen (1991)

48LN2163 1 70 72 47 186.0 4910 Pastor (1990); Thompson & Pastor (1995)

48SW142 1 -- -- 4330 ± 140 Metcalf (1974, 1987) 48SW212 1 81 81 45 231.8 4410 ± 70 McNees et al. (1992)

48SW212 3 60 80 52 195.9 4830±100 McNees et al. (1992)

48SW2358 11 62 62 54 162.9 4990 ± 130; McGuire et al. (1986) 5000 ± 400

48SW2358 II 2 73 73 56 234.3 4020± 80; McGuire et al. (1986) 4080 ± 380

48SW2358 II 12 41 61 38 74.6 3880 ± 70 McGuire et al. (1986)

48SW2358 II 15 47 48 36 63.8 4750 ± 60; McGuire et al. (1986) 4270±70

48SW2358 IV 5 60 70 29 95.6 3120 ± 70 McGuire et al. (1986)

48SW2358 -- 10 53 49 49 99.9 McGuire et al. (1986)




48SW2360 III 38 73 84 36 173.3 3840 ± 60 McGuire et al. (1986)




48SW2360 -- 9 60 70 23 75.8 McGuire et al. (1986) 48SW2360 27 43 38 -- McGuire et al. (1986) 48SW2360 -- 30 50 50 McGuire et al. (1986) 48SW2360 -- 57 50 55 -- -- McGuire et al. (1986)

48SW2590 II 17 57 62 65 180.3 4760 ± 130 Harrell 8r McKem (1986) (Maxon Ranch)

48SW2590 III 13 50 42 37 61.0 Harrell & McKem (1986) (Maxon Ranch)

48SW3153 -- z 60 70 55 181.3 Latady (1984) 48SW4381 1 BF2 40 46 43 62.1 3810 ± 70 Gardner et al. (1982) (Paradox Ridge)

48SW5175 3 1 140 130 30 428.6 3710 ± 60 Newberry & Hanison (1986) (Sweetwater Creek)

48SW6304 5 72 74 34 142.2 3940 ± 60 McNees et al. (1989) 48SW6556 A 70 58 40 127.5 Black et al. (1987) 48SW6556 -- C 92 102 52 384.3 Black et al. (1987) 48SW9965 -- 95 90 60 402.7 3420 ± 70 Kautzman et al. (1994) 48UT779 60 60 55 155.4 4670 ± 120 Schroedl (1985)

a L = length; W = width; D = depth. b Volume of a cylinder was computed using the formula V = (((L/2)(W/2))1t) x D.

120 AMERICAN ANTIOUITY

Table l. Sumr.nary of Slab-lined Cylindrical Basins. Southwest Wyorning

lvol.64, No.1,19991

Site No. Component Feature No.Dimensions (crn)"

LWDVolume Ace Estimate(literslb (Years B.P) Reference

48CR220048CR340548CR340548CR340548CR340548CR340548CR361048CR396248LN108848I-N1185

48LN129148LN1296/A48LN1880 (Vegan)

48LN2163

83. r

I 12.3

89.5 3910 t 150

201.9

130.6 5750 + l9t)I 18.9 55601 100

1 51 .3 .1320 + 80

6,1.11 1290 + 10

68.7 5310 t 120

83.1 65(X) t 360

Creasman et al. (1983)

Stilphen (19tt1)

Stilphcn (1981)

Stilphen (1981 t

Stilphen (l9ltl)Stilphen (19E1)

Trapp ( I 983)O'Brien et al. (19133)

Hoef'er et al. (i985)IvlcDonald ( 1 993)Wheeler et al. ( l9ll6)Wheeler et al. ( 1986)

McKern &Creasrnen (1991)

Pastor (1990):

Thompson & Pa-stor (1995)

Metcalf ( I 974, 1987 )

McNees et al. (1992)

McNees et al. (1992)

McGuire et al. (1986)


McGuire et al. (19E6)

McGuire et al. (19U6)





McGuire et a]. (1986)

McGuire et al. (19f16)


McCuire et al. ( 19E6)

NlcGuire et al. (19E6)

McGuire et al. (19E6)




Hanell & McKem (1986.)

Han-ell & McKem (1986)

Latady ( 1984)

Gardner et al. (1982)

Neubeny & Hanvm (1986)

McNees et al. ( 1989)

Black et al. (1 987)BIack et al. (l9tt7)Kautzman et al. (1994)

Schroedl (1985)

3 1

HoR

U

2

1

I

10

1

I

1

I

I

I

J

ll

2

t215

5

10

l

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569

27

30

57

17

13

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61

71

79

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85

5l6t)

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55

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li ti

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84

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55

35

35

2?

37

2.6

22.15

2-5

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59 53 38

47

-- 5150 t 23093.3 5580+ 120

I 86.0 .19 t0

48SW14248SW21248SW21248SW2358

81 81

60 80

62 62

,1330 t 1:10

1110 + 70,1830+ 1 00,1990 + 130:

5000 t .+00

,i020+ U0;

4080 t 380

-3880 t 70

4750 + 60:1210t103120 t 70

.1390 r tlO

.+750 + 9L)

.1830 t 100

38,10 r 603610 + 1O

3910 + 8L)

3700 r 70

1210

56t713

4-5

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54

231.E

195.9

t62.9

231.3

11.663.8

95.699.95 3.5l< l

156.7

173.3

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2.19.8

7-5.8

180.3 :t760t 130

6t.0

r81.3

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142.2 3940 + 60

r21 .5

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1 55..1 .1670 t I 20

48SW2358

48SW2358.18SW2358

,+usw2358

48SW2358.18SW2360

,+8SW2360

48SW2360.X8SW2360

,+8SW2360

48SW236048SW2360,+8SW2360

48SW236048SW236048SW236048SW2590(Maxon Ranch)

48SW2590(Maxon Ranch)

rtSsw3153

48SW4381(Paradox Ridge)

.+ltsw5175

(Sweetwater Creek)48SW630448SW6-s56

48SW655648SW996548UT779

5

AC

1

4t 6l11 48

60 1053 1944 50.+8 -50

56 6673 8,1

7U 8-5

10 8rt

16 19

60 70

+.1 -16

50 50

-s0 55

51 62.

-50 12

60 70

40 16

140 ll0

12. 71

10 58

92 r0295 9t)

60 60

38

i6

29

+t)

3l21

5.1

-16

32

27

53

23

65

37

55

43

3t)

3.+

.+0

52

6t)

-55

" L = length; W = width: D = depth.o Vol.,,r" of a cylinder was complrted using tire formula V = (((L/2)(W/2))7t) x D.

II

IIT

,II

RADIOCARBON DATES - 400-YEAR INTERVALS

NU

MB

ER

OF

RA

DIO

CA

RB

ON

DA

TE

S 8

N=31

5 -

4 -

3 -

2 -

400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 4400 4800 5200 5600 6000 6400 6800 7200 7600

YEARS B.P.

Note: Multiple dates from same slab-lined basins were averaged.

REPORTS 121

Figure 2. Distribution of radiocarbon dates of slab-lined cylindrical basins.

a series of structural basins and low uplifts within the Middle Rocky Mountain physiographic province (Fenneman 1931). It is geographically intermediate between the Great Basin, Northern Colorado Plateau, and Great Plains. Basal eleva-tions in the interior basin are generally between 1,980 and 2,285m. The area is semi-arid, with long cold windy winters and cool short summers (Martner 1986). Vegetation is primarily sagebrush steppe, with broad areas of mixed desert shrubland at lower elevations and riparian vegetation along perennial watercourses (Knight 1994). Juniper is present on higher ridges.

Nine of the 22 slab-lined cylindrical basin sites in the database are in the Rock Springs Uplift, the uplifted area that separates the Great Divide and Washakie basins from the Green River Basin (Figure 1). The remaining sites are within the inte-rior of Green River, Great Divide, and Washakie basins and uplifted areas along the western and eastern edges of the basins. The excavated portion of Sites 48SW2360 and 48SW2358 (McGuire et al. 1986), 48SW212 (McNees et al. 1992), and the Maxon Ranch site (Harrell and McKern 1986) con-tained multiple slab-lined cylindrical basins (Table 1). Because a small portion of most of the sites in the sample was excavated or tested, additional slab-lined basins may be present at many of the other

sampled sites as well. Although 100 percent exca-vation was not completed at the slab-lined basin locations, enough was excavated at several sites to provide clues concerning the long-term reuse of particular locations.

Although a few basins previously identified as possible slab-lined basins have a somewhat wider time span, the distinctive slab-lined cylindrical basins discussed in this paper date to a discrete time period. They have yielded (uncorrected) radiocar-bon age estimates ranging from 6500 ± 360 to 3120 ± 70 years B.P., and all but four of the estimates fall between 5310 ± 120 and 3670 ± 70 years B.P. (Table 1). The estimates within that time span com-prise a more or less continuous sequence (Figure 2).

The slab-lined basins discussed in this paper have vertical or nearly vertical walls lined with closely fitted slabs and flat to slightly rounded bases (Figure 3). The basin was usually excavated through compacted aeolian sand into a very con-solidated substratum or bedrock. The slab linings are continuous around the basin interior and often were placed in the pit so that they extended above the associated ground surface. Many of the investi-gated features were originally discovered because some of the slabs still protruded above the modern surface. The lining typically consists of long nar-row sandstone slabs that are common throughout

RADIOCARBON DATES . 4OO.YEAR INTERVALS

aauJ

zSeCE

Oso6<4tfIOstrI.IJ(Do

lZt

1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3500 4000 4400 4800 5200 5600 6000 6400 6800 7200

YEARS B.P

Note: Multide dates from same slab-lined basins were avengecl.

400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200

BEPORTS

Figure 2. Distribution of radiocarbon dates of slab-lined cylindrical basins.

a series of structural basins and low uplifts withinthe Middle Rocky Mountain physiographicprovince (Fenneman 1931). It is geographicallyintermediate between the Great Basin, NorthernColorado Plateau, and Great Plains. Basal eleva-tions in the interior basin are generally between1,980 and 2,285m. The area is semi-arid, with longcold windy winters and cool short summers(Marlner 1986). Vegetation is primarily sagebrushsteppe, with broad areas of mixed desert shrublandat lower elevations and riparian vegetation alongperennial watercourses (Knight 1994). Juniper ispresent on higher ridges.

Nine of the 22 slab-lined cylindrical basin sitesin the database are in the Rock Springs Uplift, theuplifted area that separates the Great Divide andWashakie basins from the Green River Basin(Figure 1). The remaining sites are within the inte-rior of Green River, Great Divide, and Washakiebasins and uplifted areas along the western andeastern edges of the basins. The excavated portionof Sites 48SW2360 and 48SW2358 (McGuire et al.1986), 48SW212 (McNees et al. 1992), and theMaxon Ranch site (Har:rell and McKern 1986) con-tained multiple slab-lined cylindrical basins (Table1). Because a small portion of most of the sites inthe sample was excavated or tested, additional slab-lined basins may be present at many of the other

sampled sites as well. Although 100 percent exca-

vation was not completed at the slab-lined basinlocations, enough was excavated at several sites toprovide clues concerning the long-term reuse ofparticular locations.

Although a few basins previously identified as

possible slab-lined basins have a somewhat widertime span, the distinctive slab-lined cylindricalbasins discussed in this paper date to a discrete timeperiod. They have yielded (uncorrected) radiocar-bon age estimates ranging from 6500 t 360 to 3120+ 70 years B.P., and all but four of the estimates fallbetween 5310 t 120 and 3610 t 70 years B.P.(Table 1). The estimates within that time span com-prise a more or less continuous sequence (Figure 2).

The slab-lined basins discussed in this paperhave vertical or nearly vertical walls lined withclosely fitted slabs and flat to slightly roundedbases (Figure 3). The basin was usually excavated

through compacted aeolian sand into a very con-solidated substratum or bedrock. The slab liningsare continuous around the basin interior and oftenwere placed in the pit so that they extended abovethe associated ground surface. Many of the investi-gated features were originally discovered because

some of the slabs still protruded above the modernsurface. The lining rypically consists of long nar-row sandstone slabs that are cofitmon throughout

121

122

AMERICAN ANTIQUITY

[Vol. 64, No. 1, 1999]

Figure 3. Examples of slab-lined cylindrical basins: (a) Features 10 and 11, Site 48SW2358; (b) Feature 56, Site 48SW2360.

the region. Many of the slabs were deliberately shaped to obtain a tight fit. A two-tiered approach was used in some areas where slabs of sufficient size were not available. In some cases, the lining is chinked with smaller rocks to more completely seal the sides. The slabs lining the walls of the basins generally exhibit evidence of heating in the form of oxidation and often are thoroughly blackened, frac-tured, and brittle. The bases of some of the basins also are lined with tabular or angular pieces of sandstone.

The dimensions of the features are variable (Figure 4; Table 1). Most of the features are between 50 and 85 cm in diameter and 20 and 55 cm in depth. Many are quite deep relative to their diameters, while some have depths significantly less than half of their diameter, resulting in a broader, more open basin form. The estimated vol-ume of the basins in the sample also varied dra-matically, ranging from 45 to 429 liters with an

average of 116 liters. The majority of the basins (30) have estimated volumes between 50 and 200 liters. There are no apparent differences in the tem-poral or geographic distributions of the shallow features and the deep features nor between features with large volumes and those with small volumes. All types occur at Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360, the sites with the largest sample of slab-lined cylindrical basins. It appears likely that all of the features were used for a similar purpose regardless of size and depth. These slab-lined basins are similar in size to pits with similar inter-preted functions reported for the Snake River area of northwestern Wyoming (Reeve 1986), for north-central Wyoming (Smith and Martin 1998), and for the plains of western Nebraska (Wandsnider and Sodha 1998).

Many of the basins have distinctly stratified fill. The lower portion of the fill usually consists of darkly charcoal-stained sediment with dense char-coal chunks, while the upper portion is often only lightly stained with dispersed charcoal chunks and flecks. The charcoal is mostly sagebrush, some-times with rabbitbrush intermixed. Most of the basins have only a very small amount of rock, if any, within their fill other than the rock near their bases. This rock is usually limited to small pieces of highly oxidized, heat-fragmented sandstone. However, clusters of heat-altered rock are some-times found near the basins.

The basins typically contain little, if any, arti-facts and other debris. The most common remains are burned and unburned small mammal bone, always in limited quantities. Except for three Cheno-am seeds from the feature at the Vegan site (McKern and Creasman 1991), the slab-lined fea-tures in the sample lacked charred seeds or other identified charred plant remains other than char-coal. It should be noted, however, that the recovery techniques used to date have not generally been geared toward the recovery of charred plant remains other than charred seeds and wood char-coal. Samples from slab-lined basins at a few sites had elevated percentages of either prickly pear, cat-tail, Liliceae, or Cheno-am pollen (Harrell and McKern 1986; Kautzman et al. 1994; McGuire et al. 1986; O'Brien et al. 1983). Most likely these pollen percentages reflect the natural post-use pollen rain at the sites. Flaked stone artifacts were recovered from the features only at Sites 48UT779

AMEBICAN ANTIQUITY lvol.64, No.1,19991

Figure 3. Examples of slab-lined cylindrical basins: (a)Features 10 and 11, Site 48SW2358; (b) Feature 56, Site48SW2360.

the region. Many of the slabs were deliberately

shaped to obtain a tight fit. A two-tiered approach

was used in some a.reas where slabs of suffrcientsize were not available. In some cases, the lining ischinked with smaller rocks to more completely seal

the sides. The slabs lining the walls of the basins

generally exhibit evidence ofheating in the form ofoxidation and often are thoroughly blackened, frac-tured, and brittle. The bases of some of the basins

also are lined with tabular or angular pieces ofsandslone.

The dimensions of the features are variable(Figure 4; Table 1). Most of the features are

between 50 and 85 cm in diameter and 2O and 55

cm in depth. Many are quite deep relative to theirdiameters, while some have depths significantlyless than half of their diameter, resulting in a

broader, more open basin form. The estimated vol-ume of the basins in the sample also varied dra-matically, ranging from 45 to 429 liters with an

average of 116 liters. The majority of the basins

(30) have estimated volumes between 50 and 200

liters. There are no apparent differences in the tem-poral or geographic distributions of the shallowfeatures and the deep features nor between featureswith large volumes and those with small volumes.All types occur at Sites 48SW2358 and48SW2360, the sites with the largest sample ofslablined cylindrical basins. It appears likely that

all of the features were used for a similar purpose

regardless of size and depth. These slab-lined

basins are similar in size to pits with similar inter-preted functions reported for the Snake River area

of northwestem Wyoming (Reeve 1986), for north-central Wyoming (Smith and Martin 1998), and forthe plains of western Nebraska (Wandsnider and

Sodha 1998).

Many of the basins have distinctly stratified fiI1.

The lower portion of the fiIl usually consists ofdarkly charcoal-stained sediment with dense char-

coal chunks, while the upper portion is often onlylightly stained with dispersed charcoal chunks and

flecks. The charcoal is mostly sagebrush, some-

times with rabbitbrush intennixed. Most of the

basins have only a very small amount of rock, ifany, within their fill other than the rock near theirbases. This rock'is usually limited to small pieces

of highly oxidized, heat-fragmented sandstone.

However, clusters of heat-altered rock are some-

times found near the basins.

The basins typically contain little, if any, afii-facts and other debris. The most common remains

are burned and unburned small mammal bone,

always in limited quantities. Except for three

Cheno-am seeds from the feature at the Vegan site

(McKern and Creasman 1991), the slab-lined fea-

tures in the sample lacked charred seeds or otheridentifled charred plant remains other than char-coal. It should be noted, however, that the recovery

techniques used to date have not generally been

geared toward the recovery of charred plantremains other than charred seeds and wood char-

coal. Samples from slab-lined basins at a few sites

had elevated percentages of either prickly pear, cat-

tail, Liliceae, or Cheno-am pollen (Harrell and

McKern 1986; Kautzman et al. 1994; McGuire et

al. 1986; O'Brien et al. 1983). Most likely these

pollen percentages reflect the natural post-usepollen rain at the sites. Flaked stone artifacts wererecovered from the features only at Sites 48UT779

122

70 -

65 - o /

/ 0

0 0

30 - /

0- Ill 40-

0

0

N=38

0 0 0

0 0o

25

20 -

DEPTH BY DIAMETER, SLAB-LINED CYLINDRICAL BASINS

-g 50 -

I 45 -

DIAMETER AND DEPTH EQUAL

DIAMETER DOUBLE DEPTH 0 0

0

0 0

0 0

35 -

30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135

AVERAGE DIAMETER (cm)

0 0

60 -

55 -

REPORTS 123

Figure 4. Depth plotted by average diameter of slab-lined cylindrical basins.

(Schroedl 1985) and 48SW6304 (McNees et al. 1989), the Vegan site (McKern and Creasman 1991), and the Maxon Ranch site (Harrell and McKern 1986).

Slab-lined cylindrical basins typically occur in association with other basin features. The spatial proximity, stratigraphic relationships, and statisti-cal contemporaneity of radiocarbon age estimates indicate that the other basin features were associ-ated with the slab-lined cylindrical basins and may have been used directly in conjunction with them. The associated basins are typically nondescript, hemispherical basins filled with charcoal-stained sediment. They generally contain at most only a few small pieces of heat-altered rock, usually sand-stone, and their walls seldom exhibit oxidation. However, Site 48SW2360 contained several rock-filled basins that were apparently directly associ-ated with slab-lined cylindrical basins (McGuire et al. 1986). These various miscellaneous basins were possibly used in ancillary tasks associated with the slab-lined cylindrical basins. Such tasks might have included heating rocks or producing coals for placement on top of the filled slab-lined basins, storing spent or discarded coals, or performing sec-ondary cooking or processing tasks (Thoms 1989).

Extensive thick lenses of densely charcoal-stained sediment also are characteristically associ-

ated with the slab-lined cylindrical basins. The extent and density of such charcoal-stained lenses undoubtedly required the dumping of large quanti-ties of charcoal, probably as a result of repeated emptying of the slab-lined cylindrical basins These lenses of stained sediment typically contain only limited quantities of heat-altered rock, usually only in the form of small brittle pieces of sandstone. Although denser clusters and scatters of slightly larger pieces of heat-altered rock are sometimes pre-sent, the overall quantity and density of heat-altered rock is generally much lower than in similar compo-nents from other time periods at sites in the region. The dense charcoal staining and relative lack of rock suggest that the cooking technology employed in conjunction with the slab-lined basins may have relied on the use of coals rather than heated rock as the primary source of heat, a technology which apparently contrasts with other periods in the prehis-tory of the region (cf. Firebaugh 1986).

The components associated with slab-lined cylindrical basins generally contain low overall quantities and densities of other cultural remains, especially given the numbers of basins often pre-sent and the fact that many of the sites and slab-lined basins were apparently repeatedly used. Groundstone is usually recovered from the exca-vated components, though seldom in large quanti-

REPORTS

Figure 4. Depth plotted by average diameter of slab-lined cylindrical basins.

(Schroedl 1985) and 48SW6304 (McNees et al.

1989), the Vegan site (McKem and Creasman

1991), and the Maxon Ranch site (Harrell and

McKern 1986).

Slab-lined cylindrical basins typically occur inassociation with other basin features. The spatialproximity, stratigraphic relationships, and statisti-cal contemporaneity of radiocarbon age estimates

indicate that the other basin features were associ-

ated with the slab-lined cylindrical basins and may

have been used direcfly in conjunction with them.The associated basins are typically nondescript,hemispherical basins frlled with charcoal-stainedsediment. They generally contain at most only afew small pieces of heat-altered rock, usually sand-

stone, and their walls seldom exhibit oxidation.However, Site 48SW2360 contained several rock-filled basins that were apparently directly associ-

ated with slab-lined cylindrical basins (McGuire etal. 1986). These various miscellaneous basins werepossibly used in ancillary tasks associated with theslab-lined cylindrical basins. Such tasks might have

included heating rocks or producing coals forplacement on top of the filled slablined basins,

storing spent or discarded coals, or performing sec-

ondary cooking or processing tasks (Thoms 1989).

Extensive thick lenses of densely charcoal-stained sediment also are characteristically associ-

ated with the slab-lined cyiindrical basins. The

extent and density of such charcoal-stained lenses

undoubtedly required the dumping of large quanti-

ties of charcoal, probably as a result of repeated

emptying of the slab-lined cylindrical basins. These

lenses of stained sediment typically contain onlylimited quantities of heat-altered rock, usually onlyin the form of small brittle pieces of sandstone.

Although denser clusters and scatters of slightlylarger pieces of heat-altered rock are sometimes pre-

sent, the overall quantity and density ofheat-altered

rock is generally much lower than in similar compo-nents from other time periods at sites in the region.The dense charcoal staining and relative lack of rocksuggest that the cooking technology employed inconjunction with the slab-lined basins may have

relied on the use of coals rather than heated rock as

the primary source of heat, a technology whichapparently contrasts with other periods in the prehis-

tory oftheregion (cf. Firebaugh 1986).

The components associated with slab-linedcylindrical basins generally contain low overallquantities and densities of other cultural remains,

especially given the numbers of basins often pre-

sent and the fact that many of the sites and slab-

lined basins were apparently repeatedly used.

Groundstone is usually recovered from the exca-

vated components, though seldom in large quanti-

oo$

o

70

65

60

55

e50o-45F(LH40

35

30

25

20

DEPTH BY DIAMETER, SLAB-LINED CYLINDRICAL BASINS

/ .\ DIAMETER AND DEPTH EQUAL

/oo/oo - -/:_/ - DIAMETER DOUBLE DEPTH-o o -a

-o$

o

/e-/o/o

/o

/-/6

0a -o' zlo

o

oo

3s 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 8s 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135

AVERAGE DIAMETER (cm)

123


ties and mostly in the form of small fragments. Small quantities of flaked stone tools and debitage also are generally associated with the slab-lined cylindrical basins, indicating some use and mainte-nance of stone tools. However, reduction activity was generally limited, and little formal tool manu-facture occurred in the vicinity of the basins. Expedient flake tools usually comprise a dispro-portionately large part of the tool assemblages.

The most striking characteristic of the assem-blages associated with slab-lined basins is the rela-tive paucity of bone specimens. Small and very small mammal bones dominate the bone assem-blages. Animals represented include jackrabbit, cottontail, prairie dog, ground squirrel, mice, and voles. Mule deer, pronghorn, and bison are only occasionally identified. The bone assemblages reflect the opportunistic procurement of only a few individual animals. Both the large and small animal bone are often burned and highly fragmented in a manner that suggests intensive processing.

Slab-Lined Cylindrical Basin Function

The relatively elaborate construction and form of the slab-lined cylindrical basins for the region sug-gest that they were for a specialized purpose. The evidence indicates that they were constructed and used as pit ovens. The oxidation of the slab lining and the charcoal at their base indicates that a bed of coals was prepared at their base. The slab lining of the basins served as the heating element that focused and distributed heat throughout the basin interior over an extended period of time (Wandsnider and Sodha 1998). Using the slab lin-ing to retain and distribute heat would have elimi-nated the need for the use of large quantities of heated rock in the basin interior.

Direct evidence of the kinds of resources baked in the slab-lined cylindrical basins is lacking. However, they were most likely used for baking some type of roots. The ethnographic literature indicates that earth ovens—particularly deep pit ovens with a rock heating element—were generally used for the baking of vegetable resources, espe-cially roots or tubers, although other vegetable resources, fatty meats, and small animals also were sometimes baked in pit ovens (Guernsey 1984; Wandsnider 1997). According to Wandsnider (1997), pit ovens were specifically designed for baking vegetable foods containing large propor-

tions of the complex carbohydrates inulin and fruc-tan or resistant starches. The baking of foods con-taining high levels of inulin and fructan (such as camas or yampa) requires extended cooking times at sustained moderate-to-high temperatures to effectively hydrolyze the component carbohy-drates, while the baking of vegetable foods with resistant starches requires either shorter cooking times at moderate heat for gelatinization or expo-sure to an intense dry heat for dextrinization.

The most likely candidate for the resource baked in the slab-lined features is biscuitroot (Cymopterus bulbosus). Biscuitroot is common and often abundant in settings similar to those where the slab-lined features are located. The roots of bis-cuitroot and related taxa (e.g., Lomatium spp.) were widely used by ethnographic groups throughout the western United States (Blankinship 1905; Harvard 1895; Palmer 1871). The root was dug in the spring when the plant was in flower, either roasted or baked, and then pounded into flour. The roots and flour would keep for several months. Smith (1974) states that the Northern Utes would bake biscuit-root overnight in an earth oven. Charred biscuitroot (Cymopterus sp.) root tissue was recovered from a charcoal-stained cultural layer dating between 6,600 and 5,130 years B.P. at Site 48CR1946 (Sender et al. 1982). No slab-lined cylindrical basins were encountered in the very small area excavated at that site, but the presence of the root fragments does suggest the use of biscuitroot as a food resource during the same time period as the slab-lined cylindrical basins.

The chemical composition of two species of bis-cuitroot (Lomatium cous and L. ambiguum, listed as Cogswellia cous and C. ambigua) were analyzed by Yanovsky and Kingsbury (1938). L. cous roots were high in starches and L. ambiguum roots con-tained starches, as well as some nonreducing sug-ars (fructan or inulin). The chemical composition of Cymopterus bulbosus is unknown and additional research needs to be completed to more fully understand the chemical composition of the various species of biscuitroot. If C. bulbosus was the taxon baked in the slab-lined ovens, the roots would be expected either to contain starch fractions that are difficult to digest or have some levels of fructan or inulin requiring long-term heat treatment.

The smaller sego lily bulbs (Calochortus nuttal-lii) could possibly have also been baked in the fea-

ties and mostly in the form of small fragments.Small quantities of flaked stone tools and debitagealso are generally associated with the slab-linedcylindrical basins, indicating some use and mainte-nance of stone tools. However, reduction activitywas generally limited, and little formal tool manu-facture occurred in the vicinity of the basins.

Expedient flake tools usually comprise a dispro-portionately large part of the tool assemblages.

The most striking characteristic of the assem-

blages associated with slab-lined basins is the rela-tive paucity of bone specimens. Small and verysmall mammal bones dominate the bone assem-

blages. Animals represented include jackrabbit,cottontail, prairie dog, ground squirrel, mice, and

voles. Mule deer, pronghom, and bison are onlyoccasionally identified. The bone assemblages

reflect the opportunistic procurement of only a fewindividual animals. Both the large and small animalbone are often burned and highly fragmented in amanner that suggests intensive processing.

Slab-Lined Cylindrical Basin Function

The relatively elaborate construction and form ofthe slab-lined cylindrical basins for the region sug-

gest that they were for a specialized purpose. Theevidence indicates that they were constfircted and

used as pit ovens. The oxidation of the slab liningand the charcoal at their base indicates that a bed ofcoals was prepared at their base. The slab lining ofthe basins served as the heating element thatfocused and distributed heat throughout the basininterior over an extended period of time(Wandsnider and Sodha 1998). Using the slab lin-ing to retain and distribute heat would have elimi-nated the need for the use of large quantities ofheated rock in the basin interior.

Direct evidence of the kinds of resources bakedin the slablined cylindrical basins is lacking.However, they were most likely used for bakingsome type of roots. The ethnographic literatureindicates that earth ovens-particularly deep pitovens with a rock heating element-were generallyused for the baking of vegetable resources, espe-

cially roots or tubers, although other vegetableresources, fatty meats, and small animals also weresometimes baked in pit ovens (Guemsey 1984;

Wandsnider 1991). According to Wandsnider(1997), pit ovens were specifically designed forbaking vegetable foods containing large propor-

lvol.64, No.1,19991

tions of the complex carbohydrates inulin and fruc-tan or resistant starches. The baking of foods con-taining high levels of inulin and fructan (such as

camas or yampa) requires extended cooking timesat sustained moderate-to-high temperatures toeffectively hydrolyze the component carbohy-drates, while the baking of vegetable foods withresistant starches requires either shorter cookingtimes at moderate heat for gelatinization or expo-sure to an intense dry heat for dextrinization.

The most likely candidate for the resourcebaked in the slab-lined features is biscuitroot(Cymopterus bulbosus). Biscuitroot is common and

often abundant in settings similar to those wherethe slab-lined features are located. The roots of bis-cuitroot and related taxa(e.g., Lomatiam spp.) werewidely used by ethnographic $oups throughout the

westem United States (Blankinship 1905; Harvard1895; Palmer 1871). The root was dug in the springwhen the plant was in flower, either roasted orbaked, and then pounded into flour. The roots and

flour would keep for several months. Smith (1974)

states that the Northem Utes would bake biscuit-root overnight in an earth oven. Charred biscuitroot(Cymopterus sp.) root tissue was recovered from acharcoal-stained cultural layer dating between6,600 and 5,130 years B.P. at Site 48CR1946(Sender et al. 1982). No slab-lined cylindricalbasins were encountered in the very small area

excavated at that site, but the presence of the rootfragments does suggest the use of biscuitroot as a

food resource during the same time period as the

slab-lined cylindrical basins.

The chemical composition of two species of bis-cuitroot (lnmatium cous and L. ambiguum, listedas Cogswellia cous and C. ambigua) were analyzedbyYanovsky and Kingsbury (1938). L. cous rootswere high in starches and L. ambiguum roots cor,-tained starches, as well as some nonreducing sug-

ars (fructan or inulin). The chemical compositionof Cymopterus bulbosus is unknown and additionalresearch needs to be completed to more fullyunderstand the chemical composition of the variousspecies of biscuitroot.If C. bulbosus was the taxonbaked in the slab-lined ovens, the roots would be

expected either to contain starch fractions that are

difficult to digest or have some levels of fructan orinulin requiring long-term heat treatment.

The smaller sego lily bilbs (Calochortus nuttal-lii) could possibly have also been baked in the fea-

AMEBICAN ANTIQUITY

REPORTS 125

tures. Sego lily is common throughout the area con-taining the slab-lined features and often grows in dense stands. The roots of sego lily were collected in the spring and early summer (Chamberlin 1911). The roots were often baked in earth ovens (Smith 1974). The chemical composition of the roots of Calochortus luteu includes both starch and fructan (Yanovsky and Kingsbury 1938).

Slab-lined basin fill samples from features at Sites 485W3962 (O'Brien et al. 1983) and 48SW2360 (McGuire et al. 1986) and the Maxon Ranch site (Harrell and McKern 1986) contained elevated percentages of prickly pear pollen, and an abundance of prickly pear currently grows on many of the sites, suggesting that prickly pear also may have been baked in the features. The ethnographic literature of the southwestern United States includes references to the baking of cactus (Opuntia spp. and Cholla spp.) in pits. However, it appears more likely that the prickly pear pollen in the features resulted either from natural prehistoric pollen rain or possibly from use of prickly pear pads to line the cooking pits. The species of prickly pear (0. polyacantha) occurring in southwest Wyoming does not have the large, red, pulpy fruits or "tunas" as does the extensively used species fur-ther south (Harrington 1967). Instead, it would have been exploited mostly for its pads, which are relatively thin, small, and spiny compared to larger more succulent species further south. Ethnographically, prickly pear pads were roasted in hot coals and would not have required baking (Chamberlin 1911; Palmer 1876), and the roasting of prickly pear pads is unlikely to have resulted in the inclusion of prickly pear pollen in the feature fill sediment.

The three charred Cheno-am seeds recovered from the slab-lined cylindrical basin at the Vegan site (McKern and Creasman 1991) and elevated percentages of Cheno-am pollen from slab-lined basins at several sites probably likewise were inci-dentally incorporated into the features as part of the natural pollen and seed rain at the sites. The actual resource processed would probably not leave ele-vated pollen percentages in the post-use fill of the slab-lined ovens.

Although these slab-lined basins are consider-ably smaller than those used in some regions such as those for camas processing in the Pacific Northwest (Thoms 1989), they are still large

enough to bake a significant amount of biscuitroot. As figured by Francis (1995), 30 kg of biscuitroot, the average amount that could be dug by a person in one day (Hunn 1981), equals about 25 liters. Given the average usable slab-lined basin volume of 93 liters (80% of the average volume of 116 liters), about 111 kg of biscuitroot could be baked on average. Following Francis's (1995) discussion, the 111 kg that could be processed in an average-sized oven would yield 140,970 kcal, given the fig-ure of 127 kcal per 0.1 kg of biscuitroot roots (Hunn 1981). To provide some idea of magnitude, the production from one oven could supply the daily caloric requirements for a person for 70 days, assuming a 2,000-kcal daily requirement.

Slab-lined basins also possess characteristics typical of storage cists. Their cylindrical form and depth increase overall volume and minimize the surface area to volume ratio, both factors typical of storage pits. The slab lining may have functioned to prevent the basin from collapsing and to discourage the intrusion of rodents or other pests into the resources stored within the basins, especially given the chinking employed in some instances. The slabs protruding above the ground surface also would have provided a means of easily relocating the features. Slabs suitable for use as storage pit lids also are sometimes present in the vicinity of slab-lined basins (Harrell and McKern 1986).

The remains found in the vicinity of the slab-lined cylindrical basins indicate that a number of associated or ancillary domestic activities generally occurred in the vicinity of the features. Evidence for a range of activities suggests that slab-lined basin sites were used as short-term residential camps. Ethnoarchaeological studies of modern hunters and gatherers indicate that residential camps usually contain evidence of generalized domestic activities and specialized activity areas (Binford 1987; Yellen 1977). The areas with the slab-lined basins could possibly have been specialized activity areas associ-ated with general purpose residential camps. For example, the excavation block at Site 48SW6304 contained, in addition to the slab-lined basin, five basins with charcoal-stained sediment and a light scatter of heat-altered rock (McNees et al. 1989). Most of the sparse remains recovered from the exca-vation block were associated with four of the basin features about 3 m north of the slab-lined basin (Figure 5). The feature group and associated area

tures. Sego lily is common throughout the area con-taining the slab-lined features and often grows indense stands. The roots of sego lily were collectedin the spring and early sufllmer (Chamberlin 1911).

The roots were often baked in earlh ovens (Smith1914). The chemical composition of the roots ofCalochortus luteu irrcltdes both starch and fructan(Yanovsky and Kingsbury 1938).

Slab-lined basin fiI1 samples from features at

Sites 48SW3962 (O'Brien et al. 1983) and48SW2360 (McGuire et al. 1986) and the MaxonRanch site (Hanell and McKerr 1986) containedelevated percentages ofprickly pear pollen, and an

abundance of prickly pear currently grows on manyof the sites, suggesting that prickly pear also mayhave been baked in the features. The ethnographicliterature of the southwestern United States

includes references to the baking of cactus(Opuntia spp. and Cholla spp.) in pits. Howeveq itappears more likely that the prickly pear pollen inthe features resulted either from natural prehistoricpollen rain or possibly from use of prickly pearpads to line the cooking pits. The species of pricklypear (O. polyacantha) occurring in southwestWyoming does not have the large, red, pulpy fruitsor "tunas" as does the extensively used species fur-ther south (Harrington 1967). Instead, it wouldhave been exploited mostly for its pads, which are

relatively thin, small, and spiny compared to largermore succulent species further south.Ethnographically, prickly pear pads were roasted inhot coals and would not have required baking(Chamberlin 1911; Palmer 1876), and the roastingofprickly pear pads is unlikely to have resulted inthe inclusion of prickly pear pollen in the featurefill sediment.

The three charred Cheno-am seeds recoveredfrom the slab-lined cylindrical basin at the Vegan

site (McKern and Creasman 1991) and elevated

percentages of Cheno-am pollen from slab-linedbasins at several sites probably likewise were inci-dentally incorporated into the features as parl of the

natural pollen and seed rain at the sites. The actualresource processed would probably not leave ele-

vated pollen percentages in the post-use fill of theslab-lined ovens.

Although these slab-lined basins are consider-ably smaller than those used in some regions such

as those for camas processing in the PacificNorthwest (Thoms 1989), they are still large

125

enough to bake a significant amount ofbiscuitroot.As figured by Francis (1995), 30 kg ofbiscuitroot,the average amount that could be dug by a person

in one day (Hunn 1981), equals about 25 liters.Given the average usable slablined basin volumeof 93 liters (807o of the average volume of 116

liters), about 1 1 1 kg of biscuitroot could be bakedon average. Following Francis's (1995) discussion,the 111 kg that could be processed in an average-

sized oven would yield 140,910 kcal, given the fig-ure of 127 kcal per 0.1 kg of biscuitroot roots(Hunn 1981). To provide some idea of magnitude,the production from one oven could supply thedaily caloric requirements for a person for 70 days,

assuming a 2,000-kcal daily requirement.Slablined basins also possess characteristics

typical of storage cists. Their cylindrical form and

depth increase overall volume and minimize thesurface area to volume ratio, both factors rypical ofstorage pits. The slab lining may have functioned toprevent the basin from collapsing and to discouragethe intrusion of rodents or other pests into theresources stored within the basins, especially given

the chinking employed in some instances. Theslabs protruding above the ground surface also

would have provided a means of easily relocatingthe features. Slabs suitable for use as storage pitlids also are sometimes present in the vicinity ofslab-lined basins (Harrell and McKern 1986).

The remains found in the vicinity of the slab-

lined cylindrical basins indicate that a number ofassociated or ancillary domestic activities generally

occurred in the vicinity ofthe features. Evidence fora range of activities suggests that slab-lined basinsites were used as shorl-term residential camps.

Ethnoarchaeological studies of modern hunters and

gatherers indicate that residential camps usuallycontain evidence of generalized domestic activitiesand specialized activity areas (Binford 1987; Yellen1977). T\e areas with the slab-lined basins couldpossibly have been speciaLized activity areas associ-

ated with general purpose residential camps. Forexample, the excavation block at Site 48SW6304contained, in addition to the slab-lined basin, fivebasins with charcoal-stained sediment and a lightscatter of heat-altered rock (McNees et al. 1989).

Most of the sparse remains recovered from the exca-

vation block were associated with four of the basinfeatures about 3 m north of the slab-lined basin(Figure 5). The feature group and associated area

REPORTS

SITE 48SW6304

DEBITAGE CONCENTRATION

• I-

L ic ...._ i • i . •

1 • . BONE

'FEATURE 14 • 1 • • ___.,- CONCENTRATION

6 \ a FEATURE 12 e \*.

( • .•

,--- . FEATURE 4 ` FEATURE 13

'''• ) • • • •,1

CHARCOAL---' \̀ - / • STAINING ••

• .• . •••• ••• ••

•

• • •

• SLAB-LINED FEATURE 5

•

• I

DEBITAGE CONCENTRATION Al A.

4.A., Z._

• •

A A /7/7 FEATURE 9

• A PROJECTILE POINT UTILIZED FLAKE BLANK/PREBLANK 2m GROUNDSTONE PREFORM HEAT-ALTERED ROCK

•

A

SITE 48SW212

SANDSTONE SLAB

HEAT-ALTERED SANDSTONE

- EDGE OF BENCH IN DIFFERENT SUBCOMPONENTS

N

FEATURE 8

FEATURE 7 ,..:.•

FEATURES ehi /

FEATURE 3 / 1 ,,, (4830+100) /

/ FEATURE 1 (4410.70)

, ,.. ,.... - I

'''' - -"..-- -- " ..... ,.. -- ■ _ /

BACKHOE TRENCH

SUBCOMPONENT lb (4320.1201

SUBCOMPONENT lc (4450-180)

SUBCOMPONENT Id (4430.100)

SUBCOMPONENT le

SUBCOMPONENT If (428070)

126

AMERICAN ANTIQUITY

[Vol. 64, No. 1, 1999]

Figure 6. Plan map of excavation block showing location of slab-lined cylindrical basins and bench edge during different subcomponents and radiocarbon dates, Site 48SW212.

Figure 5. Plan map of excavation block showing distribu-tion of slab-lined cylindrical basins and other remains, Site 48SW6304.

probably represent a general kitchen location of a residential camp where several activities were con-ducted including tool manufacture, meal prepara-tion, and bone grease/juice production. The relative paucity of the recovered remains suggests that the occupations associated with the slab-lined basins were short term.

Slab-Lined Basin Reuse and Location Reoccupation

The results of excavations at several sites indicate that the hunter-gatherers repeatedly used the actual slab-lined basins, that they returned to the same location over a long period and used space at the location in a similar manner during each occupa-tion, and that they revisited the encompassing locale for more than 2,000 years in some cases. This reuse appears to have been on a patterned peri-odic basis.

Dramatic evidence of repeated use and of space being used and organized in a similar manner dur-ing a series of occupations comes from Site 48SW212 (McNees et al. 1992). The two slab-lined

cylindrical basins excavated at the site were situ-ated on the edge of a low, sand-covered bench that sloped into a shallow drainage (Figure 6). Charcoal from the slab-lined basins and adjacent hemispher-ical basins was dumped down the face of the slope. During the time when the basins were used, aeolian sediment aggraded very slowly on the top of the bench but much more rapidly on the face of the slope. As a result, the slab-lined basins on the bench top remained exposed and usable for an extended period of time, while deep aeolian deposits accumulated on the face of the slope. Charcoal dumped down the slope at various times was thus buried at different levels, resulting in the formation of vertically distinct charcoal-stained lenses on the face of the slope. Altogether, five stratigraphically distinct lenses (from earliest to lat-est, Subcomponents Ib-If) were distinguishable on the face of the slope, suggesting at least five distinct periods of use separated by times of nonuse.

The two slab-lined cylindrical basins at Site 48SW212 yielded age estimates of 4830 ± 100 (Feature 3) and 4410 ± 70 (Feature 1) years B.P. and four of the stained layers (subcomponents) pro-duced estimates of 4320 ± 120, 4450 ± 80, 4430 ±

AMERICAN ANTIOUITY lvol.64, No. 1,19991

SITE 48SW6304

DEBITAGE

)KAoLaa

PROJECTILE POINTUTILIZED FLAKEBLANKPREBLANK

GROUNDSTONEPREFORM

HEAT.ALTERED BOCK

0 1 2n

SITE 48SW212

SUBCOMPONENT I

IQNo

Z SANDSTONE SUB

. HilT.ALTEREDSANDSToNE

- - - EDGE OF BENCH lN DIFFERENTSUBCOMPONENTS

reo-u*; w,6wllai //

Figure 5. Plan map of excavation block showing distribu-tion of slab-lined cylindrical basins and other remains,Site 48SW6304.

probably represent a general kitchen location of a

residential camp where several activities were con-ducted including tool manufacture, meal prepara-

tion, and bone grease/juice production. The relativepaucity of the recovered remains suggests that theoccupations associated with the slab-lined basins

were short term.

Slab-Lined Basin Reuse and LocationReoccupation

The results of excavations at several sites indicatethat the hunter-gatherers repeatedly used the actualslab-lined basins, that they returned to the same

location over a long period and used space at thelocation in a similar manner during each occupa-tion, and that they revisited the encompassinglocale for more than 2,000 years in some cases.

This reuse appears to have been on a pattemed peri-odic basis.

Dramatic evidence of repeated use and of space

being used and organized in a similar manner dur-ing a series of occupations comes from Site48SW2l2 (McNees etal.1992). The two slab-lined

Figure 6. Plan map of excavation block showing locationof slab-lined cylindrical basins and bench edge duringdifferent subcomponents and radiocarbon dates, Site48SW212.

cylindrical basins excavated at the site were situ-ated on the edge of a Iow, sand-covered bench thatsloped into a shallow drainage (Figure 6). Charcoalfrom the slablined basins and adjacent hemispher-ical basins was dumped down the face of the slope.

During the time when the basins were used, aeoliansediment aggraded very slowly on the top of the

bench but much more rapidly on the face of the

slope. As a result, the slab-lined basins on thebench top remained exposed and usable for an

extended period of time, while deep aeoliandeposits accumulated on the face of the slope.

Charcoal dumped down the slope at various timeswas thus buried at different levels, resulting in theformation of vertically distinct charcoal-stainedlenses on the face of the slope. Altogether, fivestratigraphically distinct lenses (from earliest to lat-est, Subcomponents Ib-If) were distinguishable onthe face ofthe slope, suggesting at least five distinctperiods ofuse separated by times ofnonuse.

The two slab-lined cylindrical basins at Site485W212 yielded age estimates of 4830 + 100(Feature 3) and 4410+ 70 (Feature 1) years B.P.

and four ofthe stained layers (subcomponents) pro-duced estimates of 4320 + 120, 4450 + 80, 4430 +

13

a

'?: .a

Iftt

il

4t,

aA' l' t

, /--f FEATUFE IA zrf '--_,/.

SUBCOMPONENT Ib

SUBCOMPONENT 1c

A

• SLAB-LINED CYLINDRICAL BASIN

• ROCK-FILLED BASIN

BASIN-SHAPED FEATURE

G OTHER FEATURE

BACKHOE TRENCH

EXCAVATION BLOCK

ab

I

dopotash

48SW2360

',...- ..//it■RIIIMI -•.„,„,,,,,_ ',INV lip

22

Ilii,

5707 a-- 0

__

21

500

/

AREA

'lb

\

AREA R'',

48SW2358

METERS .

SITES 48SW2358 AND 48SW2360

0 2 4 6 8 10

METERS

48SW2360 AREA A

F54 (3910±80)

F38 (3840±60)

F56(3700±70)

F40 (3670±70)

F57

WJA FE (3120±70)

48SW2358

F10

F12

15 (475

F0+60)

(4270±70)

F2 (4020±80) (4080±380)

F11 (4990±130) (5000±400)

REPORTS 127

Figure 7. Distribution of slab-lined cylindrical basins, Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360.

100, and 4280 ± 70 years B.P. (Figure 6). The radiocarbon date of 4830 ± 100 years B.P. came from the bottom of the slab-lined basin below a small layer of rock and probably dates an early use of the basin. Stratigraphic evidence suggests that one or the other of the slab-lined basins was used throughout the period of site occupation. Unfortunately, due to the lack of precision of radio-carbon dates, both the calibrated and uncalibrated age estimates for the four dated lenses and one of

the slab-lined basins (Feature 1) are statistically contemporaneous. However, the range between the earliest and latest radiocarbon dates (4830 ± 100 and 4280 ± 70) suggests that the particular location was used in a similar manner for possibly 500 years. During this period, the five stratigraphically distinct lenses were deposited, indicating that each cycle of use and nonuse occurred at a maximum of every hundred years. A similar extended period of use over possibly 500 years is also suggested by

REPORTS

Figure 7. Distribution of slab-lined cylindrical basins, Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360,

100, and 4280+ 70 years B.P. (Figure 6). Theradiocarbon date of 4830 + 100 years B.P. came

from the bottom of the slab-lined basin below asmall layer of rock and probably dates an early use

of the basin. Stratigraphic evidence suggests thatone or the other of the slab-lined basins was used

throughout the period of site occupation.Unfortunately, due to the lack ofprecision ofradio-carbon dates, both the calibrated and uncalibratedage estimates for the four dated lenses and one of

the slab-lined basins (Feature 1) are statisticallycontemporaneous. However, the range between the

earliest and latest radiocarbon dates (4830 t 100

and 4280 + 70) suggests that the parlicular locationwas used in a similar manner for possibly 500years. During this period, the hve stratigraphicallydistinct lenses were deposited, indicating that each

cycle of use and nonuse occurred at a maximum ofevery hundred years. A similar extended period ofuse over possibly 500 years is also suggested by

", '"--.48SW239\0 6I?

o"ro | \

48SW2360AREAA \\,ru

stTES 48SW2358 AND 48SW2360

. SLAB-LINED CYLINDBICAL BASIN

. ROCK-FILLED BASIN

- BASIN-SHAPED FEATURE

@ OTHER FEATURE

.^,. - BACKHOE THENCH

% EXCAVATToN BLocK I

lo4o +METERS

il

F60(48301100) F3(4390+80) \

r-7F)L2

127

0 500

METERS

A t •

4000

A 3000

3500 4500 5000

128 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY

[Vol. 64, No. 1, 1999]

NU

MB

ER

OF

RA

DIO

CA

RB

ON

DA

TE

S

RADIOCARBON AGE ESTIMATES SITES 48SW2358 AND 48SW2360

SITE 48SW2358

SITE 48SW2360

AREA B

3000

3500 4000

4500 5000

48SW2360 AREA A

SITE

r/ re/ 3000 3500

4000 4500

5000 5500 YEARS B.P.

DATES FROM SLAB-LINED BASINS

DATES FROM OTHER FEATURE TYPES

DATES FROM SAME STRATIFIED FEATURE

Note: Except for Feature 4, Site 48SW2358 indicated with*, multiple dates from same slab-lined basin were averaged.

5500 YEARS aR

5500 YEARS B.P.

Figure 8. Distribution of radiocarbon dates by site area, Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360.

radiocarbon dates of 4750 ± 60 and 4270 ± 70 years B.P. obtained on charcoal from different por-tions of a stratified slab-lined basin at Site 48SW2358 (McGuire et al. 1986).

Evidence from some slab-lined cylindrical basin sites also indicates repeated occupation of locations over extended periods of time even when the slab-lined basins within those locations were sequen-tially replaced by new basins. At many sites including Sites 48SW212 (McNees et al. 1992), 48SW9965 (Kautzman et al. 1994), 48SW2358 (McGuire et al. 1986), and the Maxon Ranch site (Harrell and McKern 1986), more recent slab-lined, cylindrical basins were placed within a meter or two of extant earlier slab-lined cylindrical basins, resulting in pairs and clusters of sequen-tially constructed facilities. A t test (p = 0.05) between the dates of the pairs of slab-lined basins at Sites 48SW212 and 48SW2358 indicates that the closely spaced features were not contemporaneous. These results suggest the repeated occupation of locations even when the extant slab-lined basins were not reused.

The most informative clustering of slab-lined basins at specific locations was evident at Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360 (McGuire et al. 1986). Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360 can be considered

portions of a single locale. They are only 600 m apart in the same topographic and ecological con-text on a broad terrace covered with aeolian shadow deposits (Figure 7). Site 48SW2360 con-tains two horizontally distinct clusters of slab-lined basins and features designated as Areas A and B that might be considered distinct "locations," while the area recorded as Site 48SW2358 can be con-ceived of as a third "location" within the same locale. Area A of Site 48SW2360 had five slab-lined basins within a 4-x-6 m excavation block, Area B of Site 48SW2360 contained six slab-lined basins in scattered excavation units in a 20-x-30 m area, and Site 48SW2358 yielded six slab-lined basins in scattered excavation units across a 40-x-25 m area. Many additional non-slab-lined basins were also present at the three locations.

Nineteen dated features at Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360—including 13 from slab-lined cylin-drical basins—indicate that the prehistoric inhabi-tants regularly reused the overall locale for more than 2,000 years (Figure 8). In fact, the gaps in the radiocarbon sequence would probably be filled in with further excavation and dating of additional slab-lined features in unexcavated portions of the locale. The three clusters of slab-lined cylindrical basins at Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360 appar-

RADIOCARBON AGE ESTIMATESSITES 48SW2358 AND 48SW2360

auJ

ozooE.

oaod.t!o

SITE48sW2358

55OO YEARS B,P

SITE485W2360

AREA B

5500 YEAnS B.P.

tH SITE /t///2/z////////2E +aswzsoo 7////////////////,5 AHEAA '/ '/' '///Vzt//////,/////////r/211

3500

//,,/_112

55@ YEARSB.P

DATES FROM SLAB.LINED BASINS

DATES FROM OTHER FEATURE TYPES

DATES FROM SAME STRATIFIED FEATURE

Note: Except tor Foature 4, Site 485W2358 indicated with*,muftiple dat$ ftom same slab-lined basin rere ayeraged.

radiocarbon dates of 4150x.60 and 4270t70years B.P. obtained on charcoal from different por-tions of a stratified slab-lined basin at Site48SW2358 (McGuire et al. 1986).

Evidence from some slabJined cylindrical basinsites also indicates repeated occupation of locationsover extended periods of time even when the slab-lined basins within those locations were sequen-tially replaced by new basins. At many sitesincluding Sites 48SW212 (McNees et al. 1992),48SW9965 (Kautzman et al. 1994), 48SW2358(McGuire et al. 1986), and the Maxon Ranch site(Hanell and McKem 1986), more recent slab-lined, cylindrical basins were placed within a meteror two of extant earlier slab-lined cylindricalbasins, resulting in pairs and clusters of sequen-tially constructed facilities. A r test (p = 0.05)between the dates of the pairs of slab-lined basinsat Sites 48SW212 and 48SW2358 indicates that theclosely spaced features were not contemporaneous.These results suggest the repeated occupation oflocations even when the extant slab-lined basinswere not reused.

The most informative clustering of slab-linedbasins at specific locations was evident at Sites48SW2358 and 48SW2360 (McGuire et al. 1986).Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360 canbe considered

lvol.64, No. 1,1999I

portions of a single locale. They are only 600 mapart in the same topographic and ecological con-text on a broad terrace covered with aeolianshadow deposits (Figure 7). Site 48SW2360 con-tains two horizontally distinct clusters of slab-linedbasins and features designated as Areas A and Bthat might be considered distinct "locations," whilethe area recorded as Site 48SW2358 can be con-ceived of as a third "location" within the same

locale. Area A of Site 48SW2360 had five slab-lined basins within a 4-x-6 m excavation block,Area B of Site 48SW2360 contained six slab-linedbasins in scattered excavation units in a 20-x-30 marea, and Site 48SW2358 yielded six slab-linedbasins in scattered excavation units across a 40-x-25 m area. Many additional non-slab-lined basins

were also present at the three locations.Nineteen dated features at Sites 48SW2358 and

48sw2360-including 13 from slabJined cylin-drical basins-indicate that the prehistoric inhabi-tants regularly reused the overall locale for morethan 2,000 years (Figure 8). ln fact, the gaps in theradiocarbon sequence would probably be filled inwith further excavation and dating of additionalslab-lined features in unexcavated portions of thelocale. The three clusters of slab-lined cylindricalbasins at Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360 appar-

AMERICAN ANTIQUITY

Figure 8. Distribution of radiocarbon dates by site area, Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360.

128

REPORTS 129

ently reflect the sequential construction, use, and replacement of individual slab-lined cylindrical basins during repeated occupations of each location rather than simultaneous use of individual basins.

The sequence of radiocarbon dates indicates that Area A at Site 48SW2360 was sequentially reused for an estimated 240 years between 3,670 and 3,910 years B.P., and Area B at Site 48SW2360, which is approximately 60 m east of Area A, was reused for an estimated 440 years between 4,390 and 4,830 years B.P. (Figure 8). A t test (p = 0.05) comparison of the radiocarbon age estimate of the most recent slab-lined basin at Area B with that of the oldest slab-lined basin at Area A indicates that the entire cluster of features in Area A postdates the cluster of features in Area B. The radiocarbon dates from Site 48SW2358, on the other hand, are scat-tered throughout most of the 2,000-year period with little overlap. However, they include dates of 4,270 and 4,020 years B.P. that fall within the gap between the sets of estimates for Areas A and B at Site 48SW2360, as well as a series of dates between 3,090 and 3,430 years B.P. that are more recent than the most recent dates from Site 48SW2360. A t test (p = 0.05) among the radiocar-bon dates of the slab-lined features at Site 48SW2358 indicates that only two are statistically contemporaneous, Feature 2 dated at 4020 ± 80 years B.P. and Feature 12 dated at 3880 ± 70 years B.P., which are about 20 m apart.

Slab-Lined Cylindrical Basins and Landscape Use

The data presented above indicate that the slab-lined cylindrical basins of southwest Wyoming were associated with a stable, structured, long-term land use pattern that involved the periodic use of locations and locales on the landscape over periods of centuries and millennia. This pattern of land-scape use corresponds to what Dewar and McBride (1992:234) designate as "concentrated" and "local-ized," as opposed to "dispersed," sequences of occupations. The difference between these patterns of landscape use is a function of the degree to which the same locations were reoccupied or avoided over the long term. They propose the con-cept of "spatial congruence" to characterize the dif-ferences. At one extreme, complete spatial congruence occurs when a group repeatedly reuses the same space at a location in a similar manner

during each occupation, including reusing the same facilities (what Brooks and Yellen [1987] designate as "reuse"). Complete spatial congruence results in a "concentrated" settlement pattern where remains from repeated occupations are restricted to a loca-tion on the landscape, which results in the accumu-lation of palimpsests of material from numerous occupations organized in a similar manner. Intermediate levels of spatial congruence range from overlapping occupations at the same location where the space is used differently during each visit, to the use of different locations within the same locale (what Brooks and Yellen [1987] desig-nate as "reoccupation" of a locale). This pattern produces a "localized" settlement pattern where remains from various occupations are restricted to a general locale, with a number of overlapping or adjacent loci of cultural remains. At the other extreme, a low degree of congruence occurs, at least on a local scale, when groups use different locales during each occupation, resulting in a "dis-persed" settlement pattern represented by numer-ous distinct loci of cultural remains scattered across the landscape.

The repeated use of locales on the landscape by hunter-gatherer groups is typically interpreted in terms of their relationship to natural features of the landscape such as water holes, particularly produc-tive resource patches, or ecotonal position with access to a range of resources, particularly in con-texts where prime resource patches (e.g., water holes) are relatively scarce (e.g., Binford 1982; Brooks and Yellen 1987). In these cases, such locales are typically viewed as optimal solutions for the positioning of the population in question rel-ative to its resource base at a particular point in the annual settlement and subsistence cycle. For exam-ple, Dewar and McBride's (1992) landscape use model is based on the assumption that certain locales on the landscape comprised the "most favorable" solutions to problems of hunter-gatherer positioning relative to natural resources, all else being equal. Their model accordingly assumes that locations within those locales would have repeat-edly been reoccupied unless or until costs resulting from previous occupations of such locations made them less attractive than alternative uncontami-nated unexploited locations.

Although the ecological and topographic attrib-utes of the locales containing slab-lined basins are

REPORTS

ently reflect the sequential construction, use, and

replacement of individual slab-lined cylindricalbasins during repeated occupations of each locationrather than simultaneous use of individual basins.

The sequence ofradiocarbon dates indicates thatArea A at Site 48SW2360 was sequentially reused

for an estimated 240 years between 3,610 and3,910 years B.P., and Area B at Site 48SW2360,which is approximately 60 m east of Area A, was

reused for an estimated 440 years between 4,390and 4,830 years B.P. (Figure 8). A r test (p = 0.OS)

comparison of the radiocarbon age estimate of the

most recent slab-lined basin at Area B with that ofthe oldest slab-lined basin at Area A indicates thatthe entire cluster of features in Area A postdates the

cluster of features in Area B. The radiocarbon dates

from Site 48SW2358, on the other hand, are scat-

tered throughout most of the 2,000-year periodwith little overlap. However, they include dates of4,270 and 4,020 years B.P. that fall within the gap

between the sets of estimates for Areas A and B at

Site 48SW2360, as well as a series of dates

between 3,090 and 3,430 years B.P. that are more

recent than the most recent dates from Site48SW2360. A / test (p = 0.05) among the radiocar-bon dates of the slab-lined features at Site48SW2358 indicates that only two are statisticallycontemporaneous, Feature 2 dated at 4020 + 80

years B.P. and Feature 12 dated at 3880 + 70 years

B.P., which are about 2O m apart.

Slab-Lined Cylindrical Basinsand Landscape Use

The data presented above indicate that the slab-

lined cylindrical basins of southwest Wyomingwere associated with a stable, structured, long-termland use pattern that involved the periodic use oflocations and locales on the landscape over periods

of centuries and millennia. This pattern of land-scape use corresponds to what Dewar and McBride(1992:234) designate as "concentrated" and "local-ized," as opposed to "dispersed," sequences ofoccupations. The difference between these patternsof landscape use is a function of the degree towhich the same locations were reoccupied oravoided over the long term. They propose the con-cept of "spatial congruence" to characterize the dif-ferences. At one extreme, complete spatialcongruence occurs when a group repeatedly reuses

the same space at a location in a similar manner

during each occupation, including reusing the same

facilities (what Brooks andYellen [1987] designate

as "reuse"). Complete spatial congruence results ina "concentrated" settlement pattem where remainsfrom repeated occupations are restricted to a loca-tion on the landscape, which results in the accumu-lation of palimpsests of material from numerous

occupations orgarrized in a similar manner.Intermediate levels of spatial congruence range

from overlapping occupations at the same locationwhere the space is used differently during each

visit, to the use of different locations within the

same locale (what Brooks andYellen [1987] desig-

nate as "reoccupation" of a locale). This pattem

produces a "localized" settlement pattern where

remains from various occupations are restricted to

a general locale, with a number of overlapping oradjacent loci of cultural remains. At the other

extreme, a low degree of congruence occurs, at

least on a local scale, when groups use differentlocales during each occupation, resulting in a "dis-

persed" settlement pattem represented by numer-

ous distinct loci of cultural remains scattered across

the landscape.

The repeated use of locales on the landscape byhunter-gatherer groups is typically interpreted interms of their relationship to natural features of the

landscape such as water holes, particularly produc-

tive resource patches, or ecotonal position withaccess to arange ofresources, particularly in con-

texts where prime resource patches (e.g., water

holes) are relatively scarce (e.g., Binford 1982;

Brooks and Yellen 1987). In these cases, such

locales are typically viewed as optimal solutionsfor the positioning of the population in question rel-ative to its resource base at a parlicular point in the

annual settlement and subsistence cycle. For exam-ple, Dewar and McBride's (1992) landscape use

model is based on the assumption that certainlocales on the landscape comprised the "most

favorable" solutions to problems of hunter-gathererpositioning relative to natural resources, all else

being equal. Their model accordingly assumes thatlocations within those locales would have repeat-

edly been reoccupied unless or until costs resultingfrom previous occupations of such locations made

them less attractive than alternative uncontami-nated unexploited locations.

Although the ecological and topographic attrib-utes of the locales containing slab-lined basins are


not completely known, some general observations are possible as to why certain locales were particu-larly desirable to the prehistoric inhabitants. At a regional level, the distribution of slab-lined cylin-drical basin sites coincides with the distribution of desert shrubland in the southwestern Wyoming Basin (Knight 1994). The desert shrubland vegeta-tion type consists of a complex mosaic of vegeta-tive associations influenced by such factors as topography, soil type and depth, water availability, and salinity or alkalinity. The slab-lined basins are mostly associated with stands of mixed desert shrubs adjacent to other vegetative communities typical of the general desert shrubland vegetation type. The slab-lined cylindrical basin locales also tend to be situated in uplands near or above major perennial drainage valleys; tend to occur in broken, but relatively open, terrain characterized by low sandstone escarpments and broad relatively shal-low drainages or playa basins; and are mostly asso-ciated with aeolian shadow deposits, sometimes intermixed with or forming a veneer on fluvial deposits.

The selection of the overall locale for the slab-lined basins may have been motivated by such fac-tors as the presence of sandstone slabs, fuel, or productive patches of the target resource, probably biscuitroot. The presence of sandstone slabs and fuel would not have played a major role in locale selection. Sandstone outcrops are quite common throughout the region and slabs would have been easily obtainable regardless of locale location. Sagebrush, the fuel used in most pit ovens, domi-nates the mixed desert shrub communities that cover wide expanses throughout southwest Wyoming. Most likely, the prehistoric inhabitants chose particular locales based on the presence of patches of the target resource. Areas in the vicinity of the slab-lined basins are within habitats that often support dense stands of biscuitroot, and patches of biscuitroot have been observed near some of the locales. Although the period of slab-lined basin use from approximately 5,500 to 3,500 years ago was drier than at present with an overall reduction of carrying capacity (Eckerle 1997), sim-ilar vegetation types and mosaics as today probably occurred during this time, especially when the more drought-tolerant species are considered.

Patches containing roots such as biscuitroot would have been an ideal target resource for land

use patterns focusing on specific locales and loca-tions on a multi-year basis. Roots are a predictable stationary resource that often occur in patches of sufficient abundance to allow for repeated exploita-tion over the long term. They are often less sensi-tive to droughts than other resources such as large game animals that depend on grasses (Eckerle 1988; Weaver and Albertson 1943). Sufficient quantities for a family (about 111 kg of biscuitroot for an average-sized slab-lined basin) could have been processed in an oven and then stored for later use. The processed roots could keep for months, thereby extending the usefulness of this resource over a longer period of time. The surplus roots could have been stored within the basins in antici-pation of revisits later in the year or the hunter-gatherers could have easily transported the roots in bags to the location of consumption. Roots could have served as a predictable resource similar to the role of pinyon nuts during certain periods in the Great Basin.

Archaeological studies also have shown that hunter-gatherers often place their campsites and pit ovens near the patches of concern. Research at the Pilgrim site in Montana has demonstrated a pattern of repeated occupation of a location with con-structed stone circles associated with the uncom-monly high density of two important root species, bitterroot and wild parsley (Aaberg 1983). Ovens for baking camas also have been recorded near camas fields in the Pacific Northwest and in the Snake River region of northwestern Wyoming (Reeve 1986; Thorns 1989).

The presence of root patches may explain the selection of locales, but other factors were probably important in determining the repeated use of spe-cific locations within the locales. Generally, any given point in the same relative proximity to the resource patch would be of equal value from a for-aging perspective, while negative impacts resulting from previous occupations of a location would tend to reduce its desirability relative to other locations. The presence of intact and usable facilities often influence the reuse of locations, as long as the tar-geted food or nonfood resource is not depleted and the location is still attractive in terms of pest and debris build-up (Wandsnider 1992). The slab-lined basins probably functioned in this manner and their presence was probably an important factor motivat-ing the reuse of locations.

not completely known, some general observationsare possible as to why cefiain locales were pafiicu-larly desirable to the prehistoric inhabitants. At a

regional level, the distribution of slabJined cylin-drical basin sites coincides with the distribution ofdesert shrubland in the southwestem WyomingBasin (Knight 1994). The desert shrubland vegeta-

tion type consists of a complex mosaic of vegeta-

tive associations influenced by such factors as

topography, soil type and depth, water availability,and salinity or alkalinity. The slab-lined basins are

mostly associated with stands of mixed deserlshrubs adjacent to other vegetative communitiestypical of the general desert shrubland vegetationtype. The slab-lined cylindrical basin locales also

tend to be situated in uplands near or above majorperennial drainage valleys; tend to occur in broken,but relatively open, terrain characleized by lowsandstone escarpments and broad relatively shal-low drainages or playa basins; and are mostly asso-

ciated with aeolian shadow deposits, sometimesinterrnixed with or foming a veneer on fluvialdeposits.

The selection of the overall locale for the slab-

lined basins may have been motivated by such fac-tors as the presence of sandstone slabs, fuel, orproductive patches ofthe target resource, probablybiscuitroot. The presence of sandstone slabs and

fuel would not have played a major role in localeselection. Sandstone outcrops are quite coflrmonthroughout the region and slabs would have been

easily obtainable regardless of locale location.Sagebrush, the fuel used in most pit ovens, domi-nates the mixed desert shrub communities thatcover wide expanses throughout southwestWyoming. Most likely, the prehistoric inhabitantschose particular locales based on the presence ofpatches of the target resource. Areas in the vicinityof the slab-lined basins are within habitats thatoften support dense stands of biscuitroot, andpatches of biscuitroot have been observed nearsome of the locales. Although the period of slab-lined basin use from approximately 5,500 to 3,500years ago was drier than at present with an overallreduction of carrying capacity (Eckerle 1997), sim-ilar vegetation types and mosaics as today probablyoccurred during this time, especially when themore drought-tolerant species are considered.

Patches containing roots such as biscuitrootwould have been an ideal target resource for land

lvol.64, No.1,19991

use pattems focusing on specific locales and loca-tions on a multi-year basis. Roots are a predictablestationary resource that often occur in patches ofsufficient abundance to allow for repeated exploita-tion over the long term. They are often less sensi-

tive to droughts than other resources such as largegame animals that depend on grasses (Eckerle1988; Weaver and Albertson 1943). Sufficientquantities for a family (about 111 kg of biscuitrootfor an average-sized slab-lined basin) could have

been processed in an oven and then stored for lateruse. The processed roots could keep for months,thereby extending the usefulness of this resourceover a longer period of time. The surplus rootscould have been stored within the basins in antici-pation of revisits later in the year or the hunter-gatherers could have easily transported the roots inbags to the location of consumption. Roots couldhave served as a predictable resource similar to therole of pinyon nuts during certain periods in theGreat Basin.

Archaeological studies also have shown thathunter-gatherers often place their campsites and pitovens near the patches of concem. Research at thePilgrim site in Montana has demonsffated a pattemof repeated occupation of a location with con-sffucted stone circles associated with the uncom-monly high density of two imporlant root species,

bitterroot and wild parsley (Aaberg 1983). Ovens

for baking camas also have been recorded nearcamas helds in the Pacific Northwest and in theSnake River region of nofthwestem Wyoming(Reeve 1986; Thoms 1989).

The presence of root patches may explain theselection of locales, but other factors were probablyimportant in determining the repeated use of spe-

cific locations within the locales. Generally, anygiven point in the same relative proximity to theresource patch would be of equal value from a for-aging perspective, while negative impacts resultingfrom previous occupations of a location would tendto reduce its desirability relative to other locations.The presence of intact and usable facilities ofteninfluence the reuse of locations, as long as the tar-geted food or nonfood resource is not depleted and

the location is still attractive in terms of pest and

debris build-up (Wandsnider 1992). T\e slab-linedbasins probably functioned in this manaer and theirpresence was probably an important factor motivat-ing the reuse of locations.

AMERICAN ANTIOUITY

REPORTS 131

The prehistoric inhabitants appear to have con-structed the slab-lined basins in anticipation of future reuse. The limited use of a basin required during any individual short-term occupation would not have justified the cost of construction, but their reuse over a series of years would have made their initial construction more cost-effective (Simms 1989). The relatively high construction costs would probably have made reuse of these features desir-able for as long as the basins remained structurally adequate to fulfill their intended function. These basins were well-suited for use on multiple occa-sions. The protruding slabs made relocating the features an easy task, and the slabs hindered their collapse. Most of the basins would have been reusable once they were emptied of sediment. The primary factor leading to the discontinuation of use of individual facilities was apparently the deterio-ration of the slab lining after an unknown period of time, although in some cases the basins were func-tional for several centuries. Other factors possibly involved in the abandonment of particular basins included the collapse of features due to erosion of the surrounding matrix and the inability to relocate them due to burial.

Brief time frames for the procurement and pro-cessing of the target resource within the seasonal cycle also may have encouraged the construction of facilities in anticipation of future reuse. Many plant food resources, including roots, have limited win-dows of opportunity during which they can be pro-cured. Aaberg (1983:302) notes that "fairly precise scheduling...would have been essential" to procure bitterroot and wild parsley roots at the Pilgrim site. The presence of existing facilities which could be readily reused would thus have been a valuable asset. Root resources also would have been suffi-ciently predictable and reliable at certain locales through time to justify the anticipation of repeated use. The Bustos wickiup site in eastern Nevada (Simms 1989) provides a similar example of the construction of facilities for use during a series of short-term occupations for the pinyon nut harvest. It also is worth noting that special purpose loca-tions—which presumably includes the slab-lined basin sites, the Pilgrim site, and the Bustos site—are the most likely to be reused, as opposed to more general residential sites (Binford 1979; Brooks and Yellen 1987).

The ease of relocation of the slab-lined basins

may have been another factor influencing the reuse of locations after a particular locale was selected based on the presence of an exploitable patch. Although the major function of the slab linings was probably as a heating element which allowed for a moderate heat to be sustained for relatively long periods of time, the slab-linings sticking above the ground also probably marked the location within the locale and facilitated their relocation. Archaeological evidence from many of the slab-lined basin locations suggests that little deposition occurred during the time the basins were in use and many probably were visible throughout the period. To this day, these features are often observable on the surface at many locations. Such landmarks may have been a particularly rational and cost-effective means for highly mobile hunter-gather groups to identify attractive locations within locales with reli-able resource patches, especially if the interval between periods of occupation was relatively great (Butzer 1982:225). The presence of visible slab-lined basins on the landscape may thus have con-stituted a form of institutionalized communal knowledge that facilitated the prehistoric group's long-term knowledge of the landscape. In that sense, these features may have served to mark the sorts of locations to which young Nunamiut men were introduced during their youthful "walka-bouts," as described by Binford (1983:40-41).

This informational value may account for the continuing use of the same slab-lined basin loca-tions even after earlier, but still extant, slab-lined basin(s) were no longer usable. As was described in the previous section, later basins were often placed within 1 or 2 m of earlier basins, which still pro-truded above the ground surface. Moreover, no evi-dence has been observed of the scavenging of slabs from unusable basins for use during subsequent occupations. In the case of Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360, only after five or six slab-lined basins had been built was a given location apparently suf-ficiently cluttered to motivate a move to a different location within the same locale. The resulting moves were only for short-distances—the two areas in Site 48SW2360 were approximately 65 m apart, while Site 48SW2358 was only approxi-mately 600 m away. The factors motivating the shift in location were apparently very localized and operated over periods of approximately 400 to 500 years.

REPORTS

The prehistoric inhabitants appear to have con-structed the slab-lined basins in anticipation offuture reuse. The limited use of a basin requiredduring any individual shorl-term occupation wouldnot havejustified the cost ofconstruction, but theirreuse over a series of years would have made theirinitial construction more cost-effective (Simms

1989). The relatively high conshuction costs wouldprobably have made reuse of these features desir-able for as long as the basins remained structurallyadequate to fu1fill their intended function. These

basins were well-suited for use on multiple occa-

sions. The protruding slabs made relocating the

features an easy task, and the slabs hindered theircollapse. Most of the basins would have been

reusable once they were emptied of sediment. Theprimary factor leading to the discontinuation of use

of individual facilities was apparently the deterio-ration of the slab lining after an unknown period oftime, although in some cases the basins were func-tional for several centuries. Other factors possiblyinvolved in the abandonment of particular basins

included the collapse of features due to erosion ofthe surrounding matrix and the inability to relocatethem due to burial.

Brief time frames for the procurement and pro-cessing of the target resource within the seasonal

cycle also may have encouraged the construction offacilities in anticipation of future reuse. Many plantfood resources, including roots, have limited win-dows of opportunity during which they can be pro-cured. Aaberg (1983:302) notes that "fairly precisescheduling...would have been essential" to procurebitterroot and wild parsley roots at the Pilgrim site.

The presence of existing facilities which could be

readily reused would thus have been a valuableasset. Root resources also would have been suffi-ciently predictable and reliable at certain localesthrough time to justify the anticipation of repeated

use. The Bustos wickiup site in eastern Nevada(Simms 1989) provides a similar example of the

construction of facilities for use during a series ofshort-term occupations for the pinyon nut harvest.

It also is worth noting that special purpose loca-tions-which presumably includes the slab-linedbasin sites, the Pilgrim site, and the Bustos site-are the most likely to be reused, as opposed to moregeneral residential sites (Binford 1979; Brooks andYellen 1987).

The ease of relocation of the slab-lined basins

may have been another factor influencing the reuse

of locations after a particular locale was selected

based on the presence of an exploitable patch.

Although the major function of the slab linings was

probably as a heating element which allowed for a

moderate heat to be sustained for relatively longperiods of time, the slab-linings sticking above theground also probably marked the location withinthe locale and facilitated their relocation.Archaeological evidence from many of the slab-lined basin locations suggests that little depositionoccurred during the time the basins were in use and

many probably were visible throughout the period.

To this day, these features are often observable onthe surface at many locations. Such landmarks mayhave been a palticularly rational and cost-effectivemeans for highly mobile hunter-gather groups toidentify attractive locations within locales with reli-able resource patches, especially if the intervalbetween periods of occupation was relatively great(Butzer 7982:225). The presence of visible slab-lined basins on the landscape may thus have con-

stituted a form of institutionalized communalknowledge that facilitated the prehistoric group's

long-term knowledge of the landscape. In that

sense, these features may have served to mark the

sorts of locations to which young Nunamiut men

were introduced during their youthful "walka-bouts," as described by Binford (1983:40-41).

This informational value may account for the

continuing use of the same slab-lined basin loca-tions even after earlier, but still extant, slab-linedbasin(s) were no longer usable. As was described inthe previous section, later basins were often placed

within 1 or 2 m of earlier basins, which still pro-truded above the ground surface. Moreover, no evi-dence has been observed of the scavenging of slabs

from unusable basins for use during subsequent

occupations. In the case of Sites 48SW2358 and

48SW2360, only after five or six slab-lined basins

had been built was a given location apparently suf-ficiently cluttered to motivate a move to a differentlocation within the same locale. The resultingmoves were only for short-distances-the twoareas in Site 48SW2360 were approximately 65 mapart, while Site 48SW2358 was only approxi-mately 600 m away. The factors motivating theshift in location were apparently very localized and

operated over periods of approximately 400 to 500yeals.

131


This redundant use of locations is in contrast to the rules of reuse as predicated in Wandsnider's (1992) model. Her model assumes that locations containing facilities will be reused so long as the facilities remain usable, but will be abandoned in favor of different nearby locations once the facili-ties are no longer usable. She also argues that mate-rials from earlier facilities will be scavenged for use in constructing new facilities. These rules are based on the assumption that the negative effects of fairly extensive use of a location will outweigh the bene-fits once the facilities are no longer usable. Such negative effects would include the obtrusiveness of the abandoned facilities, as well as the build-up of associated debris. This assumption appears to be borne out by the Dobe San. The Dobe San deliber-ately avoid previous camp locations, even within a particular circumscribed locale (i.e., around a spe-cific waterhole) due in part to the presence of decaying structures and other debris (Brooks and Yellen 1987).

At the slab-lined basin locales, contamination of locations was probably not a problem due to the very short-term nature of the individual occupa-tions, which resulted in limited accumulation of debris and other wastes. Because of this short-term use, the location probably had a chance to rejuve-nate between occupations, especially if the reoccu-pations were punctuated with extended periods of nonuse. Each time a particular locale was selected based on the presence of an exploitable resource patch, the preferred location with the slab-lined basins was probably in usable condition and lacked a build-up of unwanted debris that would have necessitated the use of a new location.

Data from Sites 48SW212, 48SW2358, and 48SW2360 indicate a definite tempo of slab-lined, cylindrical basin locale use that included the peri-odic occupation of the same locations and locales for the same general purposes over periods of cen-turies. This pattern of landscape use apparently included:

1. the planned periodic reuse of individual, slab-lined basin facilities over periods as long as 500 years during which sequences of short-term use alternated with more extended periods of nonuse in estimated 100-year cycles or less (e.g., as at Site 48SW212);

2. the repetitive use of some locations over peri-ods of 400-500 years or more (e.g., as at Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360); and

3. the use of some locales throughout the entire time span of approximately 2,000 years during which slab-lined basins were constructed (e.g., as at Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360).

The periodic use of overall locales containing the slab-lined basins is probably related to the depletion and regeneration of the resource patch within the particular locale. The plant species most likely procured in conjunction with the slab-lined cylindrical basins are perennials which require as long as three or four years to produce mature tap-roots of sufficient size to justify harvesting (Aaberg 1983). Individual plants might not produce seeds until they are as much as 5 to 10 years old (Thoms 1989:46). Individual patches would have been highly susceptible to depletion and even extermina-tion as a result of repeated annual use over a period of years (e.g., see Reid 1977; Thoms 1989). Thorns (1989:173-174) argues that specific camas bulb patches could be (and were) harvested only once every five years. The diminishing returns from repeatedly exploiting specific patches would thus have decreased their attractiveness relative to other locales which had not been recently exploited. After some period of nonuse, the local root resource base would then have rebounded to previ-ous levels, at which time the locale would have regained its previous attractiveness. At that point, the prehistoric hunter-gatherers probably returned to the locale with the regenerated resource. This pattern of periodic use lasted for some locales for up to 2,000 years as evidenced by the data from Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360.

Each time the prehistoric group returned to the locale, they had the choice of selecting the previ-ously occupied location that contained the existing slab-lined basins or constructing new facilities at a new location within the locale. As indicated by the evidence from Sites 48SW212, 48SW2358, and 48SW2360, they used existing slab-lined basins, which appear to have been built partly for antici-pated future visits, for up to 500 years or when the slabs became deteriorated. After the facilities were no longer functional, the inhabitants often con-structed new slab-lined basins adjacent to the old ones at the same location, thereby extending the life of the location.

In terms of Wandsnider's (1992) model of locale use tempo, the locale reoccupation interval would be determined by the time it took for the resource patch to rebound to an attractive level which cre-

AMERICAN ANTIOUITY lvol.64, No.1,1999I

This redundant use of locations is in contrast tothe rules of reuse as predicated in Wandsnider's(1992) model. Her model assumes that locations

containing facilities will be reused so long as thefacilities remain usable, but will be abandoned infavor of different nearby locations once the facili-ties are no longer usable. She also argues that mate-

rials from earlier facilities will be scavenged for use

in constructing new facilities. These rules are based

on the assumption that the negative effects of fairlyextensive use of a location will outweigh the bene-

fits once the facilities are no longer usable. Suchnegative effects would include the obtrusiveness ofthe abandoned facilities, as well as the build-up ofassociated debris. This assumption appears to be

borne out by the Dobe San. The Dobe San deliber-

ately avoid previous camp locations, even within a

particular circumscribed locale (i.e., around a spe-

cific waterhole) due in part to the presence ofdecaying structures and other debris (Brooks and

Yellen 1987).

At the slab-lined basin locales, contamination oflocations was probably not a problem due to the

very shorl-term nature of the individual occupa-

tions, which resulted in limited accumulation ofdebris and other wastes. Because of this short-term

use, the location probably had a chance to rejuve-

nate between occupations, especially if the reoccu-pations were punctuated with extended periods ofnonuse. Each time a parlicular locale was selected

based on the presence of an exploitable resourcepatch, the preferred location with the slab-lined

basins was probably in usable condition and lackeda build-up of unwanted debris that would have

necessitated the use of a new location.Data from Sites 48SW212, 485W2358, and

48SW2360 indicate a definite tempo of slab-lined,cylindrical basin locale use that included the peri-odic occupation of the same locations and localesfor the same general pulposes over periods ofcen-turies. This pattem of landscape use apparentlyincluded:

1. the planned periodic reuse of individual, slab-

lined basin facilities over periods as long as 500years during which sequences of short-term use

altemated with more extended periods of nonuse inestimated 100-year cycles or less (e.g., as at Site48SW212);

2. the repetitive use of some locations over peri-ods of 400-500 years or more (e.g., as at Sites

48SW2358 and 48SW2360); and

3. the use of some locales throughout the entire

time span of approximately 2,000 years duringwhich slablined basins were consffucted (e.g., as

at Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360).The periodic use of overall locales containing

the slab-lined basins is probably related to thedepletion and regeneration of the resource patch

within the particular locale. The plant species mostlikely procured in conjunction with the slab-lined

cylindrical basins are perennials which require as

long as three or four years to produce mature tap-roots of sufficient size to justify harvesting (Aaberg

1983). Individual plants might not produce seeds

until they are as much as 5 to 10 years old (Thoms

1989l.46). Individual patches would have been

highly susceptible to depletion and even extermina-

tion as a result of repeated annual use over a periodof years (e.g., see Reid 1977; Thoms 1989). Thoms(1989:113-174) argues that specific camas bulbpatches could be (ard were) harvested only once

every five years. The diminishing returns fromrepeatedly exploiting specihc patches would thus

have decreased their attractiveness relative to other

locales which had not been recently exploited.

After some period of nonuse, the local rootresource base would then have rebounded to previ-ous levels, at which time the locale would have

regained its previous attractiveness. At that point,the prehistoric hunter-gatherers probably returned

to the locale with the regenerated resource. Thispattern of periodic use lasted for some locales forup to 2,000 years as evidenced by the data fromSites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360.

Each time the prehistoric group retumed to the

locale, they had the choice of selecting the previ-ously occupied location that contained the existing

slab-lined basins or conshucting new facilities at a

new location within the locale. As indicated by the

evidence from Sites 48SW212, 48SW2358, and

48SW2360, they used existing slab-lined basins,

which appear to have been built pardy for antici-pated future visits, for up to 500 years or when the

slabs became deteriorated. After the facilities wereno longer functional, the inhabitants often con-

shucted new slab-lined basins adjacent to the oldones at the same location, thereby extending the

life of the location.In terms of Wandsnider's (1992) model of locale

use tempo, the locale reoccupation interval wouldbe determined by the time it took for the resource

patch to rebound to an attractive level which cre-

REPORTS 133

ated a periodic pattern of locale use and nonuse. The site (location) use-life or the length of time a certain location within a locale could be succes-sively reoccupied would be at times be at least 500 years and possibly the entire 2,000-year span of use of the locale. Because avoidance of previously used locations appears not to have been necessary, the site (location) regeneration interval was not a factor in the selection of locations for occupation. The facility use-life, the length of time an individual facility could be used, extended over long periods up to 500 years, but because new facilities were constructed adjacent to older ones, facility use-life was not a factor in determining reuse of a location. The period of time required for a facility to deteri-orate to the point that it was no longer observable at the location, referred to as the facility decay inter-val, also was not a factor in the reuse of locations, except possibly when they became buried.

The periodic patterns of use of locales is consis-tent with the model of Nunamiut landscape use where five or six different annual ranges were sequentially occupied for periods of 6 to 10 years each within a much broader geographic "lifetime range" (Binford 1983). Within the individual annual ranges, certain locales and locations were repeatedly (e.g., annually) occupied during each cycle of occupation within that core area. This pat-tern of using only a portion of the entire range over a series of years would have allowed the resource patches to regenerate before the particular annual range cycled back into use. The periodicity of use of the slab-lined basin locations and locales also could be related to alternating use of different locales within the same annual range, further exem-plifying the possible dynamic interplay of land-scape use at a variety of different medium- and long-term tempos ranging from seasons to years to decades to centuries and, ultimately, to millennia.

Conclusion

Slab-lined cylindrical basin locales in southwest Wyoming provide a prime example of repetitive, periodic, medium- and long-term use of locations by mobile hunter-gatherer groups. They suggest a type of long-term landscape use more subtle and more complex than is commonly recognized in dis-cussions of prehistoric hunter-gatherer settlement systems, but one which is as important in under-standing prehistoric hunter-gatherer adaptations as more commonly discussed attributes, such as sea-

sonal scheduling. As Nelson and Lippmeier (1993:291) note, "Regularity of use of locations] is as important a dimension of land-use patterns as is site function; [w]e cannot understand strategies of land use unless we incorporate information about the regularity with which people use particu-lar resource areas." It also is a pattern which may be more common than is generally recognized.

The construction of facilities for anticipated future visits and the redundant use of the landscape in southwest Wyoming over a period of more than 2,000 years indicate that the land use patterns were stable and were oriented toward certain locations for long periods of time. The repetitive reuse of locations apparently both motivated the construc-tion of long-term facilities in the form of the slab-lined basins and was influenced by the presence of these facilities once constructed. The construction and use of these facilities was most likely justified by the predictable nature of the target resource—probably biscuitroot, in the case of the slab-lined cylindrical basins—possibly together with the brief window of opportunity for the procurement and processing of that resource, despite the apparent short-term nature of each associated occupational episode (Simms 1989).

The repetitive use of specific locales and loca-tions is not unique to slab-lined cylindrical basin sites, even in southwest Wyoming Southwest Wyoming sites that contain unlined cylindrical basins contemporaneous with the slab-lined cylin-drical basins exhibit a similar pattern of repetitive reuse over periods of centuries (e.g., the Plant site [Reust et al. 1993]), as do sites containing much later unlined cylindrical basins (e.g., Site 48SW7991 [McNees et al. 1992]). Housepits are another feature type that probably was related to the repeated reuse and reoccupation of a location. Housepits are common in Wyoming between approximately 6,000 and 4,000 years ago (Larson 1997), coinciding with the period of slab-lined basin use. Interestingly, only two sites contained housepits and slab-lined basins. At the Maxon Ranch site, a housepit was excavated approxi-mately 50 m from a slab-lined feature. Although assigned to the same archaeological component, no evidence exists that they were used during the same occupation. The Sweetwater Creek site also con-tained both housepits and slab-lined features, but from different components. Though the relation-ships between the two kinds of sites are unclear,

a

REPORTS

ated a periodic pattern of locale use and nonuse.The site (location) useJife or the length of time acertain location within a locale cotrld be succes-sively reoccupied would be at times be at least 500years and possibly the entire 2,000-year span ofuseof the locale. Because avoidance of previously usedlocations appears not to have been necessary, thesite (location) regeneration interval was not a factorin the selection of locations for occupation. Thefacility use-life, the length of time an individualfacility could be used, extended over long periodsup to 500 years, but because new facilities wereconsffucted adjacent to older ones, facility use-lifewas not a factor in determining reuse of a location.The period of time required for a facility to deteri-orate to the point that it was no longer observable atthe location, referred to as the facility decay inter-vaI, also was not a factor in the reuse of locations,except possibly when they became buried.

The periodic pattems of use of locales is consis-tent with the model of Nunamiut landscape usewhere five or six different annual ranges weresequentially occupied for periods of 6 to 10 years

each within a much broader geographic "lifetimerange" (Binford 1983). Within the individualannual ranges, certain locales and locations wererepeatedly (e.g., annually) occupied during eachcycle of occupation within that core area. This pat-tem of using only a portion of the entire range overa series of years would have allowed the resourcepatches to regenerate before the particular annualrange cycled back into use. The periodicity of useof the slab-lined basin locations and locales alsocould be related to altemating use of differentlocales within the same annual range, furlher exem-plifying the possible dynamic interplay of land-scape use at a variety of different medium- andlong-term tempos ranging from seasons to years todecades to centuries and, ultimately, to millennia.

Conclusion

Slab-lined cylindrical basin locales in southwestWyoming provide a prime example of repetitive,periodic, medium- and long-term use of locationsby mobile hunter-gatherer groups. They suggest atype of long-term landscape use more subtle andmore complex than is commonly recognized in dis-cussions of prehistoric hunter-gatherer settlementsystems, but one which is as important in under-standing prehistoric hunter-gatherer adaptations as

more cofllmonly discussed attributes, such as sea-

sonal scheduling. As Nelson and Lippmeier(1993:291) note, "Regularity of use [of locations]is as important a dimension of land-use pattems as

is site function; [w]e cannot understand strategiesof land use unless we incorporate informationabout the regularity with which people use particu-lar resource areas." It also is a pattem which may bemore coflrmon than is generally recognized.

The construction of facilities for anticipatedfuture visits and the redundant use of the landscape

in southwest Wyoming over a period of more than2,000 years indicate that the land use patterns werestable and were oriented toward cerlain locationsfor long periods of time. The repetitive reuse oflocations apparently both motivated the construc-tion of long-term facilities in the form of the slab-lined basins and was influenced by the presence ofthese facilities once constructed. The constructionand use of these facilities was most likely justifiedby the predictable nature of the target resource-probably biscuitroot, in the case of the slab-linedcylindrical basins-possibly together with the briefwindow of opportunity for the procurement andprocessing of that resource, despite the apparentshofi-term nature of each associated occupationalepisode (Simms 1989).

The repetitive use of specific locales and loca-tions is not unique to slab-lined cylindrical basinsites, even in southwest Wyoming. SouthwestWyoming sites that contain unlined cylindricalbasins contemporaneous with the slab-lined cylin-drical basins exhibit a similar pattern of repetitivereuse over periods of centuries (e.g., the Plant site

fReust et al. 1993]), as do sites containing muchlater unlined cylindrical basins (e.g., Site48SW7991 [McNees et al. 1992]). Housepirs are

another feature type that probably was related tothe repeated reuse and reoccupation of a location.Housepits are common in Wyoming betweenapproximately 6,000 and 4,000 years ago (Larson1997), coinciding with the period of slabJinedbasin use. Interestingly, only two sites containedhousepits and slablined basins. At the MaxonRanch site, a housepit was excavated approxi-mately 50 m from a slab-lined feature. Althoughassigned to the same archaeological component, noevidence exists that they were used during the sameoccupation. The Sweetwater Creek site also con-tained both housepits and slab-lined features, butfrom different components. Though the relation-ships between the two kinds of sites are unclear,


both types of locations were probably repetitively reused or reoccupied. Other site attributes appar-ently indicative of anticipated repetitive land use include the caching of groundstone and other tools at sites (e.g., McNees et al. [1992:22-3 to 22-10]; see also Nelson and Lippmeier [1993]).

Information concerning the long-term use of the slab-lined cylindrical basin locales and locations provides important clues for understanding land use strategies of the prehistoric hunter-gatherers of southwest Wyoming. However, it is but one part of the puzzle in reconstructing the overall settlement and subsistence system. Other important issues which remain to be resolved include delineating the more complete settlement and subsistence system of which the slab-lined basin locales and locations were a part. More generally, the broader questions also concern what other medium- and long-term patterns of landscape use are identifiable in the archaeologi-cal record of prehistoric hunter-gatherer groups, both during different time periods and in different regions. It is ultimately essential that studies of hunter-gath-erer settlement systems not only rely on the syn-chronic approach of describing a single annual subsistence round, but also focus on how the system worked and changed from year to year. Studying the use of specific places on the landscape through time is one step in developing an understanding of medium- and long-term land use patterns.

Acknowledgments TRC Mariah Associates Inc. completed excavations at Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360 for Pacific Power and Light Company and at Sites 48SW6304 and 48SW212 for Black Butte Coal Mine. Some of the ideas in this paper were the result of research completed for Express Pipeline. We thank Genial DeCastro, Tamara Linse, and Suzanne Luhr, TRC Mariah support staff, for drafting, edit-ing, word processing, and document production. We also thank Steven Simms and two anonymous reviewers for American Antiquity for their useful comments.

References Cited Aaberg, S. A.

1983 Plant Gathering as a Settlement Determinant at the Pilgrim Site. In From Microcosm to Macrocosm: Advances in Tipi Ring Investigation and Interpretation, edited by L. B. Davis, pp. 279-304. Memoir 19. Plains Anthropologist 28, Pt. 2.

Binford, L. R. 1979 Organization and Formation Processes: Looking at

Curated Technologies. Journal of Anthropological Research 35:255-273.

1982 The Archaeology of Place. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1:5-31.

1983 Long—Term Land Use Patterns: Some Implications for Archaeology. In Lulu Linear Punctuated: Essays in Honor

of George Irving Quimby, edited by R. C. Dunnell and D. K. Grayson, pp. 27-54. Anthropological Papers No. 72. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

1987 Researching Ambiguity: Frames of Reference and Site Structure. In Method and Theory for Activity Area Research: An Ethnoarchaeological Approach, edited by S. Kent, pp. 449-512. Columbia University Press, New York.

Black, K. D., L. L. Travis, and M. D. Metcalf 1987 The Archaeological Investigations within the Prospect

Point Mine Area in the Leucite Hills, Sweetwater County, Wyoming. Metcalf Archaeological Consultants, Eagle, Colorado. On file at Records Office, State Historic Preservation Office, Laramie, Wyoming.

Blankinship, J. W. 1905 Native Economic Plants of Montana. Montana

Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin No. 56. Montana Agriculture Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana.

Brooks, A., and J. Yellen 1987 The Preservation of Activity Areas in the

Archaeological Record: Ethnoarchaeological and Archaeological Work in Northwest Ngamiland, Botswana. In Method and Theory for Activity Area Research: An Ethnoarchaeological Approach, edited by S. Kent, pp. 63-106. Columbia University Press, New York.

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for a Contextual Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Chamberlin, R. V. 1911 Ethnobotany of the Gosiute Indians of Utah. Memoirs

of the American Anthropological Association 2(5):329-405.

Creasman, S. D., T. Hoefer, J. C. Newberry, T. P. Reust, D. Kullen, and H. R. Davidson

1983 Archaeological Monitor and Salvage Excavations Along the Trailblazer Pipeline, Southern Wyoming. Archaeological Services of Western Wyoming College, Rock Springs, Wyoming. Cultural Resource Management Report No. 10. On file at Records Office, State Historic Preservation Office, Laramie, Wyoming.

Dewar, R. E., and K. A. McBride 1992 Remnant Settlement Patterns. In Space, Time, and

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AMERICAN ANTIQUITY lvol.64, No.1,19991

both types of locations were probably repetitivelyreused or reoccupied. Other site attributes appar-

ently indicative of anticipated repetitive land use

include the caching of groundstone and other tools

at sites (e.g., McNees et al. [1992:22-3 to 22-lO];see also Nelson and Lippmeier [1993]).

Information conceming the long-term use of the

slab-lined cylindrical basin locales and locations

provides important clues for understanding land use

strategies of the prehistoric hunter-gatherers ofsouthwest Wyoming. However, it is but one part ofthe puzzle in reconstructing the overall settlement

and subsistence system. Other important issues

which remain to be resolved include delineating the

more complete settlement and subsistence system ofwhich the slab-lined basin locales and locations were

a part. More generally, the broader questions also

concem what other medium- and long-term pattems

of landscape use are idenffiable in the archaeologi-

cal record ofprehistoric hunter-gatherer groups, bothduring different time periods and in ffierent regions.

It is ultimately essential that studies of hunter-gath-

erer settlement systems not only rely on the syn-

chronic approach of describing a single annual

subsistence round, but also focus on how the system

worked and changed from year to year. Studying the

use of specific places on the landscape through timeis one step in developing an understanding ofmedium- and long-term land use pattems.

Acknowledgments TRC Mariah Associates Inc. completed

excavations at Sites 48SW2358 and 48SW2360 for PacificPower and Light Company and at Sites 48SW6304 and

48SW212 for Black Butte Coal Mine. Some of the ideas inthis paper were the result of research completed for Express

Pipeline. We thank Genial DeCastro, Tamara Linse, and

Suzanne Luhr, TRC Mariah support staff, for drafting, edit-ing, word processing, and document production. We also

thank Steven Simms and two anonymous reviewers forAmerican Antiquity for their useful comments.

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