Expressions of Love Between Parents and Children in Japan: A Factor Analytic Study of Perceptions...

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Human Communication Studies Vol.31, 2003 191-208 ©2003 8:;$:::::1 2. oz.-=.7~~ 3 /~1i'

Expressions of Love Between Parents and Children:

A Factor Analytic Study of Perceptions Relative

to Age and Gender

Steven L. RENSHAW Kanda University of International Studies

IKUNO Yukako

Kochi Prefectural Police Department

Abstract. That effective interaction between parents and children involves the verbal and nonverbal expression of love and affection is virtually axiomatic in family communication literature. However, research on the nature of such expression has been varied and somewhat unclear. The present study explored dimensions of verbal and non-verbal behavior perceived to be important in the expression of love and affection given by parents to children and by children to parents. Differences in these dimensions were also assessed relative to both age and gender.

Ninety-one males and 105 females were sampled from three age groups. Subjects responded to 28 items concerning the expression of love given by parents to children and 14 dealing with expressions given by children to parents. Alpha coefficients were above .80 for both sets of items. Four components for expression from parents to children were derived including (1) Attention, (2) Materialism, (3) Education, and (4) Indulgence. Significant main and interaction effects due to gender and age were found on the Attention component. Age and gender also showed significant difference relative to Materialism, and significant interaction effects were found for Indulgence. Three factors were derived from items related to children's expressions of love for parents and included: (1) Comfort, (2) Amiability, and (3) Consideration. Significant main effects due to gender and age were found on the Comfort component. A significant difference in gender was observed on Amiability, and both age and gender were significantly different relative to Consideration.

Women evaluate most forms of expression higher than do men, and most of the variation in age was due to the group of young adults who evaluated many dimensions higher than did adolescents or adults. Communication between parents and children involves a complexity of verbal and non-verbal behaviors. As a fundamental exploration, this study provides a base for the development of appropriate instrumentation as well as direction for future research in this area.

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INTRODUCTION

Viewing difficulties of adolescents in Japan some fifteen years ago, Fuse, Shim

izu, & Hashimoto (1986) emphasized a theme heard in both popular and academic

circles. Rapid industrialization and social change coupled with a low birth rate and

differing expectations for both children and parents were bringing about a distortion

in human relationships that would continue to break down traditional family struc

tures and perhaps leave the future of Japanese families in doubt. This theme con

tinues to be echoed in newspapers and television reports. Yet, many scholars see a

continued presence of traditional values for strong contact between parents and

children including a growing relation between fathers and children as a part of

preparing them to function in the modern world (see Schwalb & Schwalb, 1996).

Strong growth in family therapy in the past few decades highlights the fact that

there is an increasing difficulty among many families to cope with the stress of

modern society and the demands placed on both parents and children (Kameguchi &

Murphy-Shigematsu, 2001). However, studies such as those edited by Roopnarine &

Carter (1992) indicate that Japan is certainly not alone in having to face challenges

relative to the continued stability of families. Indeed, a number of researchers in

family communication have stressed the need for examining parent child relationships

and interaction, especially with adolescents, as a key to providing guidelines to

families throughout the world for coping with changes that globalization brings

(Austin, 1993; Dixson, 1994; Jambor, 1996; Coleman, 1997; Clark & Shields, 1997).

While much has been written about the importance of communication in families,

development of a cohesive set of structures based on the perceptions of children and

adults has been somewhat elusive. In this study, we sought to explore the dimensions

of family communication related to the expression of love between parents and

children. Specifically, we wanted to determine people's subjective feelings about the

importance of certain verbal and non-verbal behaviors as expressions of love and to

determine whether or not these responses tend to cluster around common themes as

noted in the literature. We selected items based on what seem to be universal themes

as well as those that might be especially important in Japanese family structures.

That effective interaction between parents and children involves the verbal and

nonverbal expression of love and affection is virtually axiomatic in family communi

cation literature and echoed by a number of scholars in Japan (Oka, Ogura, Kamiide,

& Fukuda, 1984; Ranta, 1986; Gjerde & Shimizu, 1995). Researchers have emphasized

such expressive communication themes as active parental involvement (Austin, 1993),

positive participation in family rituals and common activities (MacGregor, 1995;

Baxter & Clark, 1996), quality time (Ishii-Kintz, 1994), shared responsibility, mutual

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support and consideration (MacGregor, 1995; Jambor, 1996), and interest in education

and guidance (Stephenson, 1990). The overriding theme of close communication

between parents and children is stressed as the primary means of bridging potential

gaps between parents and children (Dixson, 1994).

Differences in child rearing between Japan and other cultures such as the United

States have been discussed extensively (Lebra, 1976; Takeuchi & Kajiwara, 1988;

Rothbaum, Putt, Azuma, Miyake, & Weisz, 2000). Factors such as sleeping arrange

ments, physical contact, encouragement in education, and differences in parent and

child expectations relative to such contact emerge as significant themes in effective

communication between parents and children. Takeuchi & Kajiwara (1988) have

suggested that as women's roles have continued to change in Japan, parental relations

have become more "Americanized" with stronger support given to more rationality,

activity, and expressivity. Overall, for the modern Japanese family, effective parent

child interaction would appear to involve a combination of traditional values and

activities coupled with themes discussed earlier.

Austin (1993) has emphasized how communication patterns between parents and

children vary according to gender and age. Further, Moser (1996) has argued that

emotional support and expression in families is more important for women than for

men. Thus, in exploring expression, we felt it important to assess the effects of age

and gender on subjective perceptions. Whether or not one may have children can

certainly impact what is seen as important in parent-child communication. However,

for this exploratory study we wanted to develop scale items for measurement that

would transcend demographics and serve for comparison across all age and gender

groups. While certainly a viable concern for future research, this variable was not

considered in this study.

Our research was guided by the following specific questions:

1. Can perceived importance as determined by responses to items describing expres

sion of love from parents to children and children to parents be measured

reliably?

2. If reliable, do items form meaningful structural dimensions of perceived impor

tance of expression? If so, what are they?

3. If there are dimensions of expression, how are they related to age and gender?

METHOD From the earlier review of research, a number of items were generated that we

felt would be indicators of the aspects of family relations indicative of expressions of

love and affection between parents and children. Our concentration was primarily on

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verbal and non-verbal modes of expression. Twenty-eight such items concerned the

expression of love given by parents to children, and 14 items involved expressions

given by children to parents. All items were written in Japanese (English translations

are included in the Appendix).

Ninety-one males and 105 females were sampled from three age groups as shown

in Table 1.

Table 1 . Sample and N-Size Count

less than 18 Gender male 29

female 31 Total 60

Age 18-25 greater than 25 Total

47 15 91 49 25 105 96 40 196

All members of the adult group (greater than 25) either had children or expressed

the desire to have children. Subjects were asked to respond to a Likert type scale

anchored by responses of Strongly Agree and Strongly Disagree relative to how they

perceived the importance of each item as an expression of love. For analysis, missing

values were handled with pair-wise deletion. Reliability statistics were calculated on

all items.

Factorability and sampling adequacy were determined by calculating Bartlett's

X2 and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) indices. Principle components analysis with

varimax rotation was conducted on each set of items. Components were selected

using those with eigenvalues greater than one and the criteria of keeping items

loading .5 or more on one factor with no loading greater than .45 on any other. Items

loading on only one factor were discarded. Using averaged raw scores on each

component, a 2 by 3 between-subjects MANOV A design with sequential adjustment

for possible non-orthogonality was used to assess the relation between gender and age

and each of the derived components.

RESULTS

Reviewing both univariate and Mahalanobis multivariate tests on the data, there

were no within-cell outliers at p < .001. Evaluations indicated that assumptions of

normality, homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices, and linearity were satisfac

tory. The a coefficient for reliability was 0.84 for items related to parents' expres

sions of love for children. Further assessment of reliability revealed a Guttman Split

Half measure of 0.829 and a single measure intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.159.

The a coefficient for items related to children's expressions of love for parents was

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0.860 with a Guttman Split-Half measure of 0.844. The single measure intraclass

correlation coefficient for these items was 0.304. These measures indicated that our

items were internally consistent and reliable indicators of the constructs in which we

were interested.

For items related to parents' expressions to children, a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin

(KMO) measure of sampling adequacy of .859 was obtained with Bartlett's test of

Sphericity revealing a x2 of 1884.55 (p< .001). Similar calculations for items related

to children's expressions of love for parents produced a KMO of 0.858 with a x 2 of

875.97 (p < .001). Hence, factorability and adequacy of sampling for both sets of items

was judged high.

Table 2. Rotated Components for Parent to Child Items

Communicating Hugging Pay Attention Stroking the Child Sharing Meals Interested in Child Cheering UP Child's Asking About Child's Activities Sleeping With a Child Advising Visiting Museums and Events

' . Gomg on Holiday Together Scolding Giving a Curfew Oral Punishment Gibing Money as Reward Rewarding a Child Giving Present to Child Giving Money Paying School Expenses Praising a Child Giving Strict Education Showing Eagerness for Education Being Honest to Child Doing What Child Wants Pretending Not to See Giving Child Everything Corporal Punishment

Component 1 2 3 4 .760 .759 .665 .645 .627 .612 .606 .605 .584 .532 .513 .477 .464 .345 .290

-.055 .178 .226 .056 .273 .469 .203 .193

-.048 .117

-.032 -.157

.001

.031

.036

.083

.257 -.030

.013

.232

.183

.016

.198

.226

.236

.086

.190

.044

.770

.705

.649

.619

.494

.469

.182

.116 -.085

.244 -.107

.334 -.005

.234 -.109 .394 .035 .131 .399 .076 .381 .038 .480 .420 .397 .341 .213

-.047 .132

-.137 .083 .185 .377

-084 .730 .676 .570

-.033 -.076

.070

.260

-.074 .040

-.022 .096 .176 .006

-.186 .050 .410 .017

-.056 -.061 -.172 .245

-.009 .103

-.026 .075 .180 .124

- 202 .151 .293

-.058 .679 .667 .597 .479

Six components that had eigenvalues greater than one and explained 56.35%f of

the variation were initially extracted for items related to parental expressions of love

for children. Using the criteria outlined in the Methods section, a four-factor solution

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was chosen which explained 46.38% variation (see Table 2). Further applying the

criteria for loadings, the following components (a reliability indicated in parenth

eses) emerged and were labeled as follows:

I. Attention (a=0.88) (communicating, hugging, stroking, paying attention,

sharing meals, showing interest, asking about activities, sleeping with a child,

cheering up, advising, visiting museums and events)

II. Materialism (a= 0.63) (giving money for nothing, giving a present, giving

money as reward, rewarding a child)

III. Education/ Discipline (a= 0.61) (showing eagerness about education, being

honest to a child, giving strict education)

IV. Indulgence (a= 0.56) (pretending not to see mistakes, doing what the child

wants, giving child everything that he/she wants).

Descriptive statistics may be found in the appendices. Using Wilk's criteria,

differences among the components were significant at p<.001 (F=266.714, 77 2 =.529,

df=3,186). Means are plotted in Figure 1. Combined components were found to be

significantly associated with gender (F=7.792, p<.001, 77 2 =.148, df=4,180) and less

with age (F=2.632, p<.01, 77 2 =.055, df=8,360) or the interaction of the two (F=2.072,

p< .05, 77 2 =.044, df=8,360). Gender and age explained most variation in the Attention

component (F=ll.487, p<.OOl, 77 2 =.239, df=5,183), followed by Indulgence (F=2.646,

p<.05, 77 2 =.067, df=5,183) and Materialism (F=2.550, p<.05, 77 2 =.065, df=5,183).

Age and gender did not significantly explain variation in the Education component

(F=1.512, NS).

5

4.5

CD 4 g ~ 3.5 &. .E 3

& e! 2.5 CD

~ 2

1.5

Figure 1 . Means of the Four Parent to Child Components

Component Averages

,-----~

' "-._ [--+--Component Averages [

~

1

Attention Materialism Education Indulgence

Component

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l

Significant but moderate univariate effects due to gender (F=26.113, p<.001,

1/=.125, df=l,l83), age (F=8.428, p<.OOI, 17 2 =.084, df=2,183) and their interaction

(F = 4.275, p < .01, 17 2 = .045, df = 2,183) were found on the Attention Component (see

Figure 2).

Figure 2. Gender and Age Differences on Attention Component

5

4.5

Ill 4 u c ~ 3.5 &. .5 3

& ~ 2.5

~ 2

1.5

..-

---

Less than 18

Attention Component

---------- --- -.

18 to 25

Age Group

Greater than 25

Figure 3. Gender and Age Differences on Materialism Component

5

4.5

B 4 c ~ 3.5

~ &. .5 3

i .. 2.5

~ 2

1.5

Less than 18

Materialism Component

...... ==------

18 to 25

Age Group

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--.

Greater than 25

Modest effects due to age (F=3.264, p< .05, 17 2 = .034, df=2,183) and gender (F=

4.594, p < .05, 17 2 = .024, df = 1,183) were found on the Materialism component (see

Figure 3), and a main effect due to age (F=3.532, p<.05, 17 2 =.037, df=2,183) was also

found on the Education component (see Figure 4). It should be noted again that the

amount of variation explained on the Education component in the multivariate model

was not significant.

Figure 4. Gender and Age Differences on Education Component

5

4.5

8 4 c -! 3.5 8. ..5 3 Gl 1:11 I!! 2.5

~ 2

1.5

-Less than 18

Education Component

.....

18 to 25

Age Group

-

~

Greater than 25

Figure 5. Gender and Age Differences on Indulgence Component

5

4.5

8 4 c -! 3.5 8. ..5 3

& I!! 2.5 Gl

~ 2

1.5

Less than 18

Indulgence Component

--

....... --...-

18 to 25

Age Group

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__. .....

Greater than 25

-~~~----- -------~---.

While there was a significant interaction (F = 3.945, p < .05, 77 2 = .041, df = 2), there

were no significant main effects due to age and gender relative to the component of

Indulgence (see Figure 5). Three factors with eigenvalues greater than one were

derived from principle components analysis on items related to a child's expressions

of love for parents (see Table 3). These components explained 55.55% variation.

Table 3. Rotated Components for Child to Parent Items

Hugging Parents Cheering UP Parents Sleeping with Parents Being Interested in Parents Giving Presents to Parents Getting Good Results for Parents Following Parent's Decisions Participating in Family Activity Telling Parents Honestly Meals With Parents Lying In Order not to Hurt Parents Advising Parents Warning About Smoking and Drinking Helping with Chores

1

.844

.710

.597

.482

.476

.470 -.083 .328 .268 .341 .034 .364 .381

-.095

Component 2

.143 -.090

.425

.454

.365

.396

.777

.665

.580

.534 -.023 .246 .092 .546

3 .121 .438

-.104 .298 .391 .241 .029 .109 0.23 .244 .673 .582 .581 .577

Again using the earlier mentioned criteria, four items were dropped from the

model. Resulting components (a reliability indicated in parentheses) were labeled as

follows:

I. Comfort (a= 0.71) (cheering up, hugging, sleeping with parents)

II. Amiability (a= 0.67) (following parent's decision, being honest to parents,

participating in family activity, sharing meals with parents)

III. Consideration (a= 0.55) (giving advice to parents, telling a lie in order not

to hurt parents, warning about smoking or drinking)

Descriptive statistics may be found in the appendices. Differences among the

components were significant at p<.01 (F=13.960, 77 2 =.127, df=2,192) Means are

plotted in Figure 6. The combined components were found to be associated with

gender (F=7.620, p<.001, 77 2 =.109, df=3,186) and age (F=4.392, p<.001, 77 2 =.066,

df=6,372), but not by their interaction (F=.880, NS). Age and gender explained most

variation in the Comfort component (F=9.514, p<.001, 77 2 =.202, df=5,188) followed

by Consideration (F=3.981, p<.01, 77 2 =.096, df=5,188) and Amiability (F=2.815, p<

.05, 77 2 = .070, df = 5,188).

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5

4.5

I!! 4 c: ~ 3.5 0 ~

.5 3 CD Cl I!! 2.5

! 2

1.5

Figure 6. Means of the Three Child to Parent Components

.....

Comfort

Component Averages

-- .......

Amiability

Component

-

Consideration

-

1-+-Component Averages I

__j

Significant main effects due to gender (F=22.101, p<.001, 17 2 =.105, df=1,188) and

age (F = 8. 719, p < .001, 17 2 = .085, df = 2,188) were found on the Comfort Component

(see Figure 7).

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Figure 7. Gender and Age Differences on Comfort Component

5

4.5

~ 4

c :! 3.5 &. .5 3

& I!! 2.5 CD

~ 2

1.5

Comfort Component

.....

-----..... -

Less than 18

...

18 to 25

Age Group

----------- ----

Greater than 25

With a small amount of explained variation, a significant difference due to gender

(F = 6.519, p < .05, 17 2 = .034, df = 1,188) was observed on the Amiability Component (see

Figure 8).

Figure 8. Gender and Age Differences on Amiability Component

5

4.5

~ 4 c ~ 3.5 &. .5 3 Gl Cl I!! 2.5 Gl

~ 2

1.5

Amiability Component

---Less than 18

-

18 to 25

Age Group

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.....

---.

Greater than 25

-

There were significant but moderate main effects due to both age (F=5.814, p<.

01, 71 2 =.0S8, df=2,188) and gender (F=8.292, p<.Ol, 71 2 =.042, df=1,188) on the

Consideration Component (see Figure 9). As indicated earlier, interactions for all

components were not statistically significant.

Figure 9. Gender and Age Differences on Consideration Component

5

4.5

Cll 4 u c:: ~ 3.5 8. .5 3

& I! 2.5 Cll

~ 2

1.5

Less than 18

Consideration Component

-- -----------

18 to 25

Age Group

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.....

Greater than 25

DISCUSSION Findings in this study give strong evidence that subjective perceptions of impor

tance relative to expressions of love between parents and children can be reliably

measured (Research Question 1). Further, these perceptions appear to fall into

meaningful sub-dimensions that add cogency to aspects of parent-child interaction

found in the literature (Research Question 2). In agreement with previous studies, we

indeed found age and gender to be factors in how dimensions of expression are

perceived in importance (Research Question 3), thus providing a degree of validity for

the constructs relative to previous research.

Analysis of our data indicates that expressions of love between parents and

children form a complex set of expectations. Interesting differences appear in several

of the comparisons of specific components. By far, the most significant dimension of

parent to child expression appears to be that of Attention. Our data supports the

contention that physical and verbal contact along with shared activities form a more

important cluster of concern for all age and gender groups than do expressions which

view love in relation to material, disciplinary, or indulging words and deeds.

The expectation of reciprocal verbal and non-verbal behaviors on the part of

children that emphasize care and concern for parents seems equally significant to all

age and gender groups. That said, our data further indicates that with few exceptions,

women tend to place more importance on expressions in all dimensions than do men,

a finding well in line with previous research and expectation. Similar differences for

men and women may be seen in most of the child to parent components. On the whole,

women rate components of expression significantly higher than men, and this gap

seems to grow or at least stabilize with age.

Of interest in the model of parent to child expressions is the low importance

placed on Indulgence. The rating of this dimension, perhaps somewhat associated

with the concept of amae, may reflect shifting perceptions as reflected in the observa

tions of Takeuchi & Kajiwara (1988) relative to changing roles for women and

modern Japanese society placing more importance on activity and expressivity. The

complex interaction seen in Figure 5 should be noted, but the small amount of

variation explained by the effect should warrant caution. Indications of our data are

that men appear to view this component as less important by the time they become

young adults, and women view it higher. By adulthood, importance appears to change

with men rating Indulgence higher than do women. Perhaps societal changes in

expectations for fathers or potential fathers make Indulgence appear more attractive

for adult men as a mode of expressing love, an interpretation somewhat in line with

the work of Ishii-Kuntz (1994) and Rothbaum, Pott, Azuma, Miyake, & Weisz (2000).

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Of additional interest is the lack of significant association between gender or age

and the Education component. A recently released survey by the National Institute

of Population and Social Security Research (2000) indicated that in over 96% of

Japanese households, decisions with regard to education of children are made by

mothers. While Education is certainly perceived as important by all age and gender

groups, and decisions may be made by mothers, our results lend little support to the

idea that as an expression of love, concern with education is favored by one parent

over the other. In addition, children apparently see this aspect of parental expression

of love in much the same way.

Significant differences in age appear to be most attributable to the young adult

group. While women seem to rate most components higher than do men, this group

as a whole also seems to consistently rate most components higher than do the

adolescent or adult groups. Such may be attributable to the fact that this group

resides between that time of being a child and a time in which adult responsibilities

and actually having children are more of a reality. Concerns about prospective

parenthood with cognizance of those experiences that formed their own childhood

may make this group especially sensitive to issues related to expression of love in

families (see also Baxter & Clark, 1996).

CONCLUSION

The stability of component structures in this study necessitates additional replica

tion with larger and more diverse samples from sub-populations throughout Japan.

The need for confirmatory factor analysis based on specific theoretical constructs

adapted from this study also seems evident. This study was designed to explore the

viability of multiple dimensions of expressions of love between parents and children.

As such, it was not intended to probe in depth the large number of variables that may

affect underlying constructs. The need for research relative to differentiation of

factors such as parental and marital status seems obvious. Comparisons of dysfun

ctional families with average and highly successful families would also seem to be a

logical direction for further work. Communication between parents and children

involves a complexity of perceptions, experience, and expectations. As a fundamental

exploration, this study should provide a base for the development of appropriate

instrumentation as well as direction for future research that looks at many and varied

independent variables relative to these important aspects of family communication.

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expectations about and experiences of parent-child Relationships: Children's models of relationships. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association, New Orleans, LA, November.

Fogel, A. (1992). A comparison of the parent child relationship in Japan and the United States. In ]. Roopnarine & D. B. Carter (Eels.) Parent-Child Socialization in Diverse Cultures. Annual Advances in Applied Developmental Psycholo!{y ( Vol.5). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.

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Gjerde, P.F., & Shimizu, H. (1995). Family relationships and adolescent development in Japan: A family-systems perspective on the Japanese family. journal of Research on Adolescence, 5, 281-

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Hanta. S, (1986). Aichaku no hatialsu; Haha to ko no kokoro no musubitsuki. (Development of

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Ishii-Kuntz, M. (1994). Paternal involvement and perception toward fathers' roles: A comparison between Japan and the United States. journal of Fami(v Issues, 15, 30-48.

Jambor, T. (1996). Societal and family situations in the U.S.A. that affect children's pro-social behavior. Paper presented at the International Forum on Youth, Gifu, Japan, October.

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Lebra, T. (1976). japanese patterns of behavior. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. MacGregor, C. (1995). Family customs and traditions. Minneapolis, MN: Fairview Press. Moser, M.R. (1996). Late adolescents' feelings toward parents and siblings. Merrill-Palmer Quarter

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Oka, II., Ogura, K., Kamiide, H., & Fukuda, T. (1984). Oyakokannkei no riron seritsu to hattatsu (A theory of the relationship between parents and children; Formation and development). Tokyo: Iwasaki Gakujyutsu Shuppansha.

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APPENDICES

Descriptive Statistics for Parent to Child Components

Gender Age Mean Std. Deviation N Attention male less than 18 3.7378 .46733 26

18-25 3.7459 .56538 44 greater than 25 3.4121 .94091 15 Total 3.6845 .62633 85

female less than 18 3.8446 .39917 31 18-25 4.3525 .47005 49 greater than 25 3.9470 .30673 24 Total 4.1075 .47513 104

Total less than 18 3.7959 .43097 57 18-25 4.0655 .59784 93 greater than 25 3.7413 .67276 39 Total 3.9173 .58607 189

Materialism male less than 18 3.0096 .77292 26 18-25 3.0909 .63358 44 greater than 25 2.8167 .79881 15 Total 3.0176 .70688 85



Education male less than 18 2.9744 .75967 26 18-25 3.1288 .75471 11 greater than 25 2.7778 .87891 15 Total 3.0196 .78064 85



Indulgence male less than 18 2.4231 .68351 26 18-25 2.3182 .56584 44 greater than 25 2.6444 .59717 15 Total 2.4078 .61372 85



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Descriptive Statistics for Child to Parent Components

Gender Age Mean Std. Deviation N Comfort male less than 18 3.0833 .74605 28

18-25 3.3696 .81112 46 greater than 25 3.0889 .90384 15 Total 3.2322 .81092 89


Total less than 18 3.2542 .72010 59 18-25 3.7298 .82413 95 greater than 25 3.4333 . 70489 40 Total 3.5241 .79488 194

Amiability male less than 18 3.1607 .66393 28 18-25 3.1630 .68154 46 greater than 25 2.8667 .82844 15 Total 3.1124 .70309 89



Consideration male less than 18 3.2738 .69716 28 18-25 3.3768 .74572 46 greater than 25 2.9333 .76842 15 Total 3.2697 .74345 89



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Parent to Child Items

praising rewarding a child giving money for nothing cheering up sleeping with a child pretending not to see mistakes sharing meals giving a present asking about activities taking time to communicate (Communicating) being honest to a child doing what a child wants to do giving money as a reward advising scolding to show care corporal punishment hugging paying attention oral punishment paying school expenses stroking giving a child everything that he/she wants going on a holiday giving strict education showing eagerness about education showing interest visiting museums and events giving a curfew

Child to Parent Items

hugging cheering up sharing meals with parents making an effort to get good results for parents giving a present participating in family activities following parent's decisions being honest to parents telling a lie in order not to hurt parents helping with chores giving advice to parents being interested sleeping with parents warning about smoking or drinking

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Expressions of Love Between Parents and Children in Japan: A Factor Analytic Study of Perceptions...

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Transcript of Expressions of Love Between Parents and Children in Japan: A Factor Analytic Study of Perceptions...