EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION

EJED

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION

September-December 2018

Volume 1, Issue 3

ISSN 2601-8616 (print)

ISSN 2601-8624 (online)

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EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION

September-December 2018

Volume 1, Issue 3

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European Journal of Education

September-December 2018 Volume 1, Issue 3

5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

THE IMPACT OF MEDIA ON JUVENILE DELINQUENCY IN THE CARE OF ABU DHABI AND FUJAIRAH - UNITED ARAB EMIRATES.................................................................................................................................................................. 7

MUFARAJ ALI AL-KARBI

MOHAMMED YOUSEF MAI

EDUCATION, PEDAGOGY AND LITERACIES: CHALLENGES AND HORIZONS OF FILM LITERACY ....................... 18

LUÍS MIGUEL CARDOSO, PHD

TERESA MENDES, PHD

SUPPORTING DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY LESSONS WITH THE USE OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING ........... 25

ABDUL AZIM MOHAMED SAMBAS

MASITAH SHAHRILL

MASRIATOL ZURAIFAH SAJALI

THE PERSONAL TRAITS AND THE ACADEMIC ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE STUDENTS AT THE FACULTIES OF PEDAGOGY ......................................................................................................................................................................... 37

LULZIM MURTEZANI

TECHNOLOGY AS A MOTIVATIONAL FACTOR IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING .............................................. 43

PANAGIOTIS PANAGIOTIDIS

PINELOPI KRYSTALLI

PANAGIOTIS ARVANITIS

WHAT ROLE DO I PLAY IN MY LEARNING? A STUDY ON THE ACADEMIC ENGAGEMENT OF HIGHER-EDUCATION STUDENTS .................................................................................................................................................... 53

FLORENCIA TERESITA DAURA

JULIO CESAR DURAND

TRACING THE GLOBAL CHILD: GLOBAL POLITICS SHAPING LOCAL CHILDHOODS ............................................. 68

ANGELA BUSHATI

EPISTEMOLOGICAL BELIEFS OF NNEST’S BASED ON THE NEST-NNEST DICHOTOMY ........................................ 73

KÜBRA ÖRSDEMIR

TEACHER TRAINING AS AN INFLUENTIAL FACTOR IN THE USE OF VISUAL MATERIALS IN EDUCATION .......... 84

ARCHONTIA FOUTSITZI

THE UTILISATION OF IMAGES IN THE TEACHING OF LESSONS ................................................................................ 89

ARCHONTIA FOUTSITZI

MEANINGFUL LEARNING AND EFFECTIVENESS IN VIRTUAL LEARNING SPACES ................................................. 96

ANA L. S. LOPES

MARILI M. S. VIEIRA

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANIZATIONAL CONTROL AND JOB PERFORMANCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHER IN PAKISTAN .................................................................................................................................................. 104

IBTASAM THAKUR




6

UZMA QURAISHI

FAZAL ABBAS RANA

PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP STYLE AND JOB SATISFACTION OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS ................................. 109

ERIDA ELMAZI

THE ROLE OF THE FAMILY IN THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN IN CONFLICT WITH THE LAW: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM ALBANIAN CONTEXT ....................................................................................................................... 116

DR. BRUNILDA ZENELAGA

DR. BLERINA HAMZALLARI

LEFTIZATION OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH KOREAN SOCIETY CENTERING AROUND THE AUTHORIZED TEXTBOOKS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 125

BOK-RAE KIM

ISSUES OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN ROMANIAN SCHOOLS ..................................................................................... 135

ANA-MARIA BOLBORICI

DIANA-CRISTINA BÓDI

TEACHING THROUGH ALTERNATIVE METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................. 142

SONILA TATILI

PRIMARY SCHOOL SCIENCE TEACHERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS USING VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT (VLE) IN TEACHING SCIENCE ......................................................................................................................................... 155

MOHAMMED YOUSEF MAI

GHANESHWARY R. MURUGES

SOCIAL PARTNERSHIP IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN ALBANIA .............................................. 163

EJVIS (SHEHI) GISHTI

MANAGEMENT OF PERFORMANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS: THE APPLICATION OF THE BALANCED SCORECARD (BSC) .................................................................................................................................... 168

PETER N. KIRIRI




7

The Impact of Media on Juvenile Delinquency in the Care of Abu Dhabi and Fujairah - United Arab Emirates

Mufaraj Ali Al-Karbi

Master student, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris

Mohammed Yousef Mai

Faculty of Human Development, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris

Abstract

This study was aimed to investigate the impact of the media on juvenile delinquency in the care of Abu Dhabi and Fujairah - United Arab Emirates, as well as studying the behaviours of adolescents in watching the media and its influence on them, and also measuring the readiness of the delinquents to accept the awareness of media as a means of adjustment and a proactive means to prevent delinquency. A quantitative approach was used for this study, A questionnaire was distributed to 46 delinquent juveniles (39 males and 7 females) who were taken care of by Abu Dhabi and Fujairah care homes, and it was also distributed to 120 intermediate and secondary school students (65 males and 55 females) in Abu Dhabi and Fujairah. The findings showed that there is a positive relationship between the number of school failures in adolescents more than twice and the possibility of a teenager at risk of becoming a delinquent, the probability of juvenile delinquency and high rates for adolescents who watch different media materials. The results also showed that there is no relationship between adolescents imitating violent content in media and the phenomenon of juvenile delinquency. As a conclusion, Juvenile delinquency is more likely to be in the 15 to 17 age group.

Keywords: Juvenile Delinquency, Media, Adolescents.

Introduction

There is no doubt that children are the basis of society and the cornerstone of nations. They are the hope of the nation to build glory and establish civilizations. One of the most important threats that surround these adolescents, the community and social peace is the phenomenon of juvenile delinquency, which is a malignant phenomenon that threatens the nation and violates its rules and principles. It is very important to be investigated, to identify and determine its causes in order to be able to confront it and to prevent it from society.

No one denies that the media has a great impact on the lives of young and old people, men and women, where this impact on human behavior, clothing, appearance and personality traits. For example, the theory of cultural implantation suggests that television has become a family member; children start associating with it at an early age and play a cultural role; it provides viewers with religious, historical, geographic and other information, and this is one of the benefits and advantages of this device (Abdel Hamid, 2000).

Media is everywhere from the devices of television, radio, computer and to Internet mobile phones, video games, newspapers and magazines, primarily smartphones that they carry with them everywhere; at home, school, street, transportation and markets, which they are deeply and directly affected by. One of the most important features of this age is the rapid development of the media and communication.

However, television has undeniable negatives. Some studies have shown that many children's programs, especially cartoons, are horribly violent (Huesmann, 2007). For example, violence accounts for 42% of ‘Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles’, 40% of ‘Tom & Jerry’ and 24% of ‘Grindizer’. The forms of violence used by cartoon characters varied: 35% quarrels, 33% pranks, 14% battles, 5% torture, and 5% threat. Children tend to imitate what they watch (81% of males and 35% of females). The fact that most research on the impact of media violence on aggressive behavior has focused on violence in




8

fictional television and film and video games is not surprising given the prominence of violent content in these media and the prominence of these media in children’s lives (Anderson & Bushman, 2001).

Psychology defines delinquency as "behavior that does not conform to the norms of the group" while Sociology considers delinquency to be: "a phenomenon arising from the pressures and conflicts of each society". The delinquency of young people is one of the most pressing contemporary social problems, not only in developed countries but also in developing countries such as the UAE. It has a negative impact on victims, society, adolescents, and their families (Al Ali , 2013). In view of the keenness of the United Arab Emirates to provide social, health and psychological care for displaced and delinquent juveniles, to assist them and rehabilitate them, from the sense of social responsibility, the researcher has taken care to play a role in this effort and to put a brick in the wall in addressing this phenomenon.

In regard to Juvenile, the Psycho-sociologists refuse to define a specific age at which each stage of modernity ends. However, the scientists agreed that the individual since birth is going through different stages that are difficult to separate from their intertwining and overlapping. They have tried to bring the social psychology division of the body closer to the legal division by dividing the age of modernity into three stages: the stage of self-focus, the stage of focusing on others, the stage of social and psychological maturity, But the stages overlap between each other as the seasons of the year in the gradation and transition from one stage to another is gradual, not sudden (Zahrani, H. A., 1981). In the United Arab Emirates, according to the law of juveniles and delinquents, a juvenile is the person who did not exceed the age of 18 at the time of the act being committed or in a situation of displacement.

The social learning theory assumes that the viewer of visual media has the ability and the possibility to learn aggressive behavior through the contents and programs, and that viewing increases the likelihood of learning deviant behavior. Bandura and Walters confirm that the individual can learn and imitate the behavior of aggressive characters presented as models to follow and provide opportunities to learn aggressive behavior. This theory assumes that the viewer is likely to learn violence and act violently after watching and adopting violent content on television.

Problem Statement

Psychologists point out that the child is not born of one nature, but he acquires the characteristics of his behavior and trends from the social and physical environment that he becomes part of it by birth. In addition, Psychologists emphasize that children and adolescents are the most affected than adults by TV programs (Allawi, 2010). Since the early 1960s the results of research exposure to violence in television, movies, video games, cell phones, and on the internet certainly increases the risk of violent behavior on the viewer’s part just as growing up in an environment filled with real violence increases the risk of them behaving violently (Huesmann, 2007).

A meta analytic review of the video-game research literature reveals that violent video games increase aggressive behavior in children and young adults (Anderson & Bushman, 2001). It has become clear to the researcher that the focus of this research on certain reasons is mainly on this phenomenon, as the media is the main reason that affects directly and indirectly in all segments of society especially the children.

According to Al Ali (2013), a review of existing Arabic studies aiming to examine juvenile delinquency indicates that: (a) in the majority of Arabic countries, there has been an increase in juvenile delinquency; (b) most studies have paid attention to treatment rather than prevention; (c) most previous studies have been based on methods of document analysis; and (d) many researchers have suggested the importance of conducting further research in the field of juvenile delinquency prevention. Unfortunately, in the UAE and in many other developing countries, this issue has not been given significant attention until recently (Al Ali, 2013).

The study problem concentrates on the negative impact of media on juvenile delinquency, by exposing adolescents to scenes of violence, hatred and extremism. This is due to the fact that the various media are full of these scenes, which lead to the growing phenomenon of juvenile delinquency and the bad and ugly examples of people we see in the street and in the work who are obviously influenced by media too much; it cultivates their tendency to aggression, hatred and violence and takes the feelings of mercy and compassion from their hearts. Therefore, it is important to examine the relationship between the media and juvenile delinquency in UAE, Abu Dhabi, where adolescents are greatly affected by the scenes of violence and hatred they watch in television films, computer, internet, video games.




9

Research Questions

According to the problem statement and aims, researcher fixed some research questions as followed:

What are adolescents’ habits in using the media?

What kind of media material would be preferred by adolescents (normal and delinquent)?

Does watching the various media affect the behavior and attitude of juvenile delinquents?

Research Methods

A descriptive analytical method has been implemented to illustrate and diagnose the actual reality of juvenile delinquency and the impact of this phenomenon with the exposure of delinquent juveniles to media materials in Abu Dhabi.

Population and research sampling

The study population is the Schools and Juvenile Care Centres in Abu Dhabi and Fujairah. The delinquents detained in Rehabilitation Care Centres in Abu Dhabi and Fujairah were interviewed. In addition, secondary school students in Abu Dhabi and Fujairah were also interviewed, this is in terms of the study population. As for the sample of the study, the researcher chose to have the study sample in two groups:

A - A sample of delinquents detained in Care Centres in Abu Dhabi and Fujairah. They are 46, ranging from 14 to 17 years. The percentage of males in the juvenile sample was 84.78% compared to 15.22% of females.

B – A sample of a group of normal/typical adolescents from secondary school students in Abu Dhabi and Fujairah. They are 130 students aged 13-17 years, of whom 65 were males (50% of the total sample) and same percentage for females.

Research Instrument

The survey instrument used in this study, it is not a test instrument but it is a descriptive one. It has been developed based on literature review, observation and interviews. The questionnaire was done in two parts, the first part is the personal information data that represent the variables between the members of the two research samples, and there is a difference between the two forms for each of the research samples under this part. The second part are 13 questions of the questionnaire. These questions are identical in the forms of the two research samples. However, due to the difference in the first part of the questionnaire, two questionnaire forms were used, one for juvenile delinquents and the other for the sample of typical students of middle and secondary schools.

Results

Research question 1: What are adolescents’ habits in using the media

The first question is concerning of the influence of media in adolescents and their tendency towards imitation. It is about imitating actors in actions films, violence and detective films, as well as imitating artists and celebrities in their clothes and hair styles, and also imitating of some movements or attacks seen in professional wrestling programs with friends at home, street, school or anywhere. The results are presented in figures (1,2, and 3).

Figure (1) represents the proportions of adolescents' imitation of different media materials

34.78%47.82%

30%33.33%

60.83%

20%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Imitating the moves ofactors in films

containing violence

Imitating the actors'clothes and hair styles

Imitating some movesof professional

wrestling with friends

Delinquents' samle

Typical students' sample




10

Based on figure (1), it is clear that the ratios of the imitation of adolescents to the actors’ moves in violent and detective films between the two samples are close to each other, where it has reached 34.87% in the delinquents’ sample and 33.33% in the typical students’ sample. They are almost equal proportions and there is no indication that watching films of violence leads to violence, but these proportions confirm one of the study hypotheses that says there is a strong and significant impact of media on adolescents. The graph also shows the high proportions of adolescents’ imitation of the clothing and their hair styles of artists in both samples, where it has reached 47.82% in delinquents’ sample and 60.83% in typical students’ sample. It seems that the sample of typical students has a higher rate of adolescents’ imitation of artists and celebrities because of the large proportion of females, including up to 50% of the sample, whereas the proportion of females in the sample of delinquents is only 15.2%, these proportions also confirms the study hypotheses that says there is a strong and significant impact of media on adolescents, which is represented in the Imitation of clothing and hair styles of artists and celebrities, and the ratio reaches more than 60% as in the sample of typical adolescents.

Figure (2) represents the percentage of media materials most likely being imitated by adolescents

Figure (2) illustrates the findings that is related to the first question, it shows the relationship between the proportions of the media materials that are most likely being imitated by adolescents. The highest percentage of delinquents’ sample showed that they do not see that adolescents imitate any media material, which amounted to 30.43% compared to 20.83% of the typical students’ sample, while the highest percentage regarding the imitation of professional wrestling episodes was in the sample of delinquents where the percentage was 28.26%, compared to 20% in the sample of typical adolescents, which are unequal but there is no significant differences on which no result can be based. Also, the media material that has the largest percentage of imitation is the fashion and haircut programs, with 26.67% of the typical students’ sample, compared to 21.74% for the sample of delinquents, which are close ratios. In addition, to ensure that there is no significant difference between the results of the two samples, we have added up the proportions of the imitation of media materials with violent content (wrestling, violence and crime films) for each of the two study samples separately, where the percentage was 37% in the sample of delinquents compared to 33.33% of the sample of typical students, which is also almost an equal proportion on which no result can be based. However, this percentage shows the behavior of adolescents in general and their tendency to imitate the violent content in media by more than a third, and thus, it is a percentage to be aware of and highlighted as the imitation of violence leads to similar violence and that leads to a doubling of the ratio. If a teenager used violence with his schoolmate, he would react violently to him.

9%

28.26%21.74%

30.43%

13.30%20%

26.67%20.83%

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%

100%

Violence and crimefilms

Professionalwrestling programs

Fashion and hairstyles

None of thementioned points

Delinquents' sample





11

Figure (3) represents the percentage of media materials that adolescents advise others not to watch

Figure (3) shows the percentage of media materials that adolescents advise others not to watch. The highest percentages were of the news bulletins containing news of wars, terrorism and revolutions, as well as fighting and gangs video games, in both samples, where the addition of the two percentages has reached 54% in the delinquents’ sample, compared to about 49% in the sample of typical adolescents. These ratios are found close to each other on which no result can be based. However, it should be noted that most of the members of both samples tend to renounce violence and hostility, which are innate traits. As figure (3) shows, 82% of the study sample of delinquents advises others not to watch violent material regardless of the image presented, compared to 75% of the study sample of typical adolescents who also advise others not to watch violent material, regardless of the image presented.

It should be pointed out here that the first hypothesis concerning the existence of a relationship between the imitation of scenes of violence and the rates of juvenile delinquency phenomenon is not proven.

RQ2: What media are adolescents interested in, and what kind of media material would be preferred by delinquent adolescents?

This question asks about the most activities carried out by the adolescent during his free time. The responses included of different media means and some other activities to measure the extent of adolescents' attachment to the various media without any other activities in their free time. And to bring the scene closer to the mind, we have made a graphic illustration of the spending of leisure-time question between the samples of delinquents and the typical adolescents, as shown in the following Figure (4-7):

Figure (4) represents the percentages of adolescents spending their leisure time depending on different activities

21% 19%10%

31.30%

18%30%

9%16% 19% 24%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

News bulletinscontaining newsof war, terrorismand revolutions

Crime andviolence films

Professionalwrestlingprograms

Fighting andgangs video

games

None of thementioned items

Delinquents' sample


19.60%14%

23%

43.47%

13%

3%

18%

66.67%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Sports activities Readingscientific books

Video and TVgames

Browse theinternet on

computer andsmart phones

Listen to theradio

Delinquents' sample

Typical adolescents' sample




12

Figure (4) represents the percentage of adolescents of both samples who spend their leisure time in media materials or other activities, we can observe the high percentage of adolescents spending their free time in modern media, namely computer, internet, smart phones and other social networking sites and apps, such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Whats App, …etc.. This percentage constitutes the majority in both samples, where it has reached 43.47% in the sample of delinquents, and 66.67% in the sample of typical adolescents.

These percentages show the dominance of the modern media over the traditional media, such as television, newspapers, magazines, radio and video games. For example, the total of the traditional media ratios in the sample of delinquents equals to 37%, which is less than the percentage of modern media viewing in the same sample (43.47%). The result is more evident in the sample of typical adolescents, where the total of the traditional media ratios equals to about 21%, which is less than twice of the percentage of modern media viewing in the same sample (66.67%). The results also show low percentages of adolescents who spend their free time playing sports, reaching about 19.56% in the delinquents’ sample, compared to 12.5% in the sample of typical adolescents. It has also been shown that the media have a plentiful luck on which adolescents like to spend their free time.

The researcher attributed the reasons for the control of media in general and modern media in particular to the teenagers' leisure time, is because it is easy to watch media materials due to the availability of gadgets all the time, as there is at least one or more televisions in a house, one or more computers, every teenager, and every individual in the community owns a personal smartphone, and also Internet access has become possible at home, school, street and everywhere, and social networking sites compete to win more followers, as well as technical programs, contests, news, music and video games.

The following are the results regarding the adolescents’ behavior in watching media materials and using their preferred gadgets, and the place of these gadgets during their free time instead of other various activities. This question was asked about the number of hours that teenagers spent in watching different media materials per day, these results of the answer to this question are presented in figure (5) below:

Figure (5) shows the percentages of number of hours adolescents spend in watching different media materials (per day)

Figure (5) shows the percentage of watching hours that are more than 4 hours per day in the sample of delinquents, and it is higher than that of the sample of typical adolescents, where it has reached 58.69% In the delinquent sample, compared to 26.67% in the typical adolescents’ sample, which indicates that the percentage of delinquents is twice as high as the percentage of typical adolescents. This confirms the serious danger of the control of media gadgets and materials on the free time of adolescents as the results indicate the increased probability of a teenager falling in delinquency with the increase in the number of hours spent in watching media materials, especially over four hours a day. The researcher attributed this to the fact that the increase in the rates of watching media materials over four hours a day has more than an effect on adolescents, including:

12%

29%

59.30%

16%

58%

27%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1 - 2 hours 2 - 4 hours More than 4 hours

Delinquents' sample





13

the more the number of watching hours, the more of violence content of media material might be watched, such as detective films, crime & violence films and even pornographic films, as well as the news of killings, wars, bombings, revolutions and assassinations. So, the quantitative content received by teenagers in this case is much greater than those who have fewer rates of watching hours.

The increase in the number of watching hours indicates the absence of the role of family control which will be explained further in the family control question (Question 4), which increases the chances of deviation and crime.

More number of watching hours leads to fewer hours of study with a lack of concentration in the study hours and this leads to a low sense of responsibility and increase the probability of academic failure rate, which in turn is related to the phenomenon of delinquency by a certain amount as we have shown in the overall results of this chapter, academic failure may lead to crime and crime may Lead to academic failure and possibly dropout from school and education.

On the one hand, the differences above are between the two samples. However, on the other hand, if the percentages of watching from 2 to 4 hours and watching of more than four hours are added together for each sample separately, we will find that the final percentages are almost equal, where it equals to about 87% in the delinquents’ sample, and 83.5% in the sample of typical adolescents, and they are very high rates and considered dangerous indicators of the increase and intensity of the hours teenagers spend in watching media materials every day,

The following are the results regarding the adolescents’ behavior in watching media materials and their preferred means, and the place of gadgets during their free time versus other various activities.

Figure (6) represents adolescents' habits in their favourite media

By checking the results related to the adolescents’ behaviour in watching different media and their favourite means. A high percentage was found in both samples of adolescents who prefer computers, smart phones and the Internet as a means of watching media materials, where the percentage has reached 60.87% in the sample of delinquents, and 58.33% In the sample of typical adolescents, and they are high percentages as we have shown and explained before, so no need to repeat the reasons here again. It can be observed from figure (6) above that there are no differences between the ratios of the two study samples at any point, and this indicates that there is no evidence in this graph on which the research can be based.

The following is the results about the adolescents’ behavior in watching media and their preferred materials, and the place of the gadgets during their spare time in exchange for other activities.

4%

28%

19%

61%

2%

18% 18.90%

58%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Newspapers andmagazines

Television Cinema Internet,computer andsmart phones

Delinquents' sample





14

Figure (7) represents adolescents’ favorite type of TV movies

Figure (7) show that the adolescents' behavior in watching media and their preferred means, and the place of these means during their spare time versus various other activities, which asks about the favorite movie type of adolescents, and it is represented in figure (7), the percentages of preference for watching detective and crime films are the highest in both samples, where it has reached 47.82% in the sample of delinquents, and 40.83% in the sample of typical adolescents, although the ratios are close, but the difference between them is small on which no result can be built or based. Thus, there is no correlation between the phenomenon of delinquency and watching movies with violent and hostile content has not been proven. Therefore, the fourth hypothesis, which states that there is a relationship between juvenile delinquency and the media containing scenes of violence, fighting and hatred, is not proven.

It was found that there is no correlation between delinquency and the habits of spending leisure time on watching various media materials, but the results of the analysis prove the hypothesis that states adolescents spend most of their free time on the various media without any other activities.

The results did not prove the second hypothesis, which states that there is a correlation between juvenile delinquency and the media containing scenes of violence, fighting and hatred.

RQ3: Does watching the various media affect people's behavior, especially teenagers?

The following is analysis of the results of question (3) regarding the question of parents' follow-up to their children and asking them about the type and number of hours they spend in watching various media materials. The question is about whether one or both parents asked you about the number of hours you spent in watching television or practiced video games and browsing the internet. As presented in Figure (8 and 9) below:

21%

49%

18.70%

11%

3%

14.30%

41%

12%

29.80%

2%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Comedy films Action and detectivefilms

Cartoons andchildren's films

Emotional/RomanticFilms

I do not watch movies

Delinquents' sample

Typical adolescents'sample




15

Figure (8) shows the parents' follow-up rates for the number of hours spent by their children in watching media materials

Figure (8) shows the analysis of the results of question taht asks whether one or both parents ask you how many hours you spend in watching TV or practice video games and browse the internet. It is found that the percentage of parents who follow up their children is estimated to be at least two thirds of the study samples of both juveniles and typical adolescents, where the percentage of delinquents was 69.56%, compared to 65.83% in the sample of typical adolescents, and they are close ratios with no significant difference on which a result can be based. Based on the convergence of ratios between the two samples as shown in the graph above, we conclude that the sixth hypothesis, which states that there is a relationship between watching various media with the absence of family control of adolescents, and the phenomenon of delinquency, is not proven.

The following is an analysis of the results regarding if parents' follow-up to their children and asking them about the type and number of hours they spend in watching different media materials, which asks about whether one or both parents ask them about the type of the films they watch on television or the internet and about the video games they play. As presented in Figure (9) below:

Figure (9) shows the rates of parents' follow-up to the media materials watched by their children (members of the samples)

Figure (9) shows the percentage of parents who follow up their children is high by about two thirds of both study samples, where it has reached 76.09% in the sample of delinquents, compared to 60% in the sample of typical adolescents. These

70%

30%

68%

32%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Yes No, never

Delinquents' sample

Typical adolescents'sample

76%

23%

60%

40%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Yes No, never

Delinquents' sample





16

ratios are close, and thus, there is no significant difference between them on which a result can be based. As a result of this convergence of ratios, we conclude that the sixth hypothesis, which states that there is a relationship between watching various media materials with the absence of parents’ control and the phenomenon of delinquency, is not proven.

What we would like to point out here is the presence of about one-third of both samples (the delinquents and typical adolescents) are from parents who do not ask them about the number of hours they spend in watching various media materials. Similarly, about one-third of both samples (the delinquents and typical adolescents) are from parents who do not ask them about the type of media materials that they watch.

This is the case of almost one-third of all juvenile and delinquent parents who do not ask any of their children about the number of hours they spend in front of the various media, as well as about a third of each of the juvenile and delinquent parents None of them asks their children about the quality of the media they are watching.

The third hypothesis, which states that there is a relationship between watching different media materials with the absence of family supervision/control of adolescents, and the phenomenon of delinquency, is not proven.

Conclusion

1. The results showed that there is no relationship between adolescents' viewing of media materials with violent content and the phenomenon of juvenile delinquency. This is due to the convergence of viewing rates between both study samples.

2. There is a positive relationship between the probability of juvenile delinquency and the high rates of adolescents’ watching different media materials (more than 4 hours).

3. The correlation between imitating violence scenes presented in media and juvenile delinquency phenomenon is not proven.

4. The results showed high rates of adolescents’ response to awareness materials in the media at the centres of preservation and rehabilitation.

5. Television and Friday sermons are found the most media that adolescents accept awareness through them.

6. Teenagers spend most of their time in different media, and we noted the dominance of the modern media on adolescents, not the old media.

7. The hypothesis which states that ‘there is a relationship between watching various media with the absence of family control and supervision on adolescents, and the phenomenon of delinquency’, is not proven.

8. The importance of focusing on religious speech to raise adolescents’ awareness, where many members of the study sample - up to two-thirds – of each of the delinquents and typical adolescents samples were found keen to attend Friday sermon every week.

9. There is a positive relationship between the number of adolescents’ academic failures in school for more than twice and the probability of a teenager to fall at the risk of delinquency.

10. The risk of juvenile delinquency increases in the age group of 15 to 17 years, where delinquents at this age group account for more than two-thirds of the total number of delinquents in the sample. Therefore, the age group between the ages of 15 and 17 is the most dangerous age group of adolescence.

11. The percentage of male delinquents is greater than that of females, where 85% of delinquents were males compared to 15% of females.

References

[1] Abdul Hamid, Anani Hanan (2000), Child, Family and Society, Dar Safa, Amman, p.26 [2] Al Ali, Mohamed (2013). Towards Effective Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Strategies and Policies in Abu

Dhabi Police: An Investigation of Critical Factors. A thesis submitted to the University of Stirling for the degree of PhD in the School of Law.

[3] Al-Ali, Al-S. S. (1988). The Net Dictionary in the Arabic language, Riyadh. [4] Allawi, Rafik Ahmed (2010), TV between the pros and cons, security and life Issue (349) Jumada II, 1432




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[5] Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science,12, 353-359

[6] Hosseini, H. (1995). Our Sons in Danger. First Edition. [7] Huesmann, L. Rowell (2007). The Impact of Electronic Media Violence: Scientific Theory and Research. Journal

of Adolescent Health 41 (2007) S6–S13. [8] Zahrani, H. A. (1981). Psychology of Growth. Dar Al-Awda, Beirut.




18

Education, Pedagogy and Literacies: Challenges and Horizons of Film Literacy

Luís Miguel Cardoso, PhD

Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre and CEC – University of Lisbon

Teresa Mendes, PhD

Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre and CEC – University of Lisbon

Abstract

The contemporary society has given rise to the profound need to introduce in the fields of pedagogy and didactics the work with literacies and the transmutation capacity of the teacher as a new actor in these themes, facing them as challenges that allow a more adequate formation in contemporaneity. Our aim is to reflect on the potential of teaching emerging literacies, based on studies on education and literacy, in order to update teachers for the 21st century, that is, with new skills that are now needed to deal with a new public, an information society increasingly full of data, platforms and languages. Between the most relevant literacies we find the film literacy that has a transversal, interdisciplinary and multicultural nature, as well as a double requirement: the knowledge of its identity as an autonomous matter of study and its teaching, allowing the transmission of semiotic instruments and tools, adaptable to different audiences and characteristics. Film literacy requires an axial place in Higher Education, along with other Literacies, in order to allow the acquisition of an adequate semiotic response to the ever more complex and omnipresent universe of information.

Keywords: education, pedagogy and literacies, challenges, horizons, film, literacy

Introduction

Literacies, Higher Education Innovation, Pedagogy

Contemporary society has given rise to a profound and inescapable need to (re) think the universes of Education and Pedagogy, namely the incorporation of Literacies in the teaching-learning process, increasingly marked by the generation of digital natives and the web 4.0. In fact, the stages of web 1.0, with the 1990s as background and the creation of corporate websites, static pages, access to information, but without user interaction or creation of contents as distinctive facets, web 2.0, with the organization of communities and the beginning of the content creation process, web 3.0, the semantic web, with the deepening of the processes of the previous stage are gone, we are now at the forefront of the web 4.0 stage, characterized by its organization, complexity, mobility, ubiquity and with young people in symbiotic relationship with progress and technologies. The great challenges of Education on the horizon for 2030 are clearly focused on acquiring the skills to understand and interpret the world, launching a prepared look and activating critical thinking for a more fruitful exercise in reading the times and the complex spaces of contemporary and citizenship, as referred to in the OECD report The Future of Education and Skills:

Education has a vital role to play in developing the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that enable people to contribute to and benefit from an inclusive and sustainable future. Learning to form clear and purposeful goals, work with others with different perspectives, find untapped opportunities and identify multiple solutions to big problems will be essential in the coming years. Education needs to aim to do more than prepare young people for the world of work; it needs to equip students with the skills they need to become active, responsible and engaged citizens (2018, p. 5)

As a result of the technological progress and the emergence of children and youngsters, Prensky (2001) calls them Digital Natives, reflecting on these changes, and even classifies the 21st Century as the century of the Digital Society. These young people reveal new skills such as multi-tasking at the same time, a permanent exposure to ICT, and an ability to coexist with a variety of digital platforms and gadgets. These students, also known as Generation Y (1980-2000),




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Generation Z (2000 - 2010) and the current Alpha Generation (born after 2010) naturally lead (re) thinking to educational institutions, motivating a wave of pedagogical innovation that covers the teacher, the teaching-learning space-time and the profile of these new students, in clear combination with technological innovation.

This new student profile implies a new teacher profile, both being framed in a new educational paradigm, with technological challenges increasingly advanced and multiform. Digital natives, with their natural harmonization with technologies, which function as real extensions to read and interpret the world, with an ever-greater fusion of written, verbal, sound and image are a huge challenge for the teacher. In the same way that this new student shows an appetite for these platforms and technologies, a corresponding need emerges to provide the literacies to correctly encode and decode the information he receives and creates. At the same time, the teacher must follow these challenges, seeking , in the first place, the mastery of new literacies and their subsequent teaching as a tool to understand this new world. As stated in the report of the European Commission The Changing Pedagogical Landscape: New ways of teaching and learning and their implications for higher education policy, this is a joint work of Higher Education Institutions and teachers, which are essential in this process of change and should be supported in this appropriation of pedagogical innovation:

One clear message has come through the discussion about innovation pedagogies and technologies: carried out requires committed and informed teachers, and a prerequisite of that is that high quality teaching is valued by universities and by funders alongside research (Boyer, 1997) must either result in, or be accompanied by, appropriate reward and recognition systems for university teachers (2015, p. 17).

We are faced with a choice, an apparent dilemma: to accept the challenges of literacy or to be quartered in educational paradigms that no longer suit current society. Prensky (2001) argues that teachers who are in educational institutions and who are more than twenty years old are immigrants in cyberspace because they were born in a different context, having learned to acquire knowledge in a way different from that used by digital natives.

UNESCO (2013) advocates the essential contribution of teachers to ensuring that all citizens are able to access, evaluate and share information, as citizens with literacy skills contribute to the goals of sustainable development, better living conditions, employment, income per capita, gross domestic product, industrialization and development of a country's infrastructure. In short, literacies increase people's ability to work because they develop their skills, as Patidar says, quoted in the report. For UNESCO, teachers are at the heart of this issue:

UNESCO recognizes that teachers in service and in training are key players in building knowledge societies. In order to teach and prepare young people for tomorrow’s world, teachers themselves need to be empowered, their needs addressed and supported. As UNESCO considers MIL na essential part of 21st century competencies, the MIL Assessment Framework intends to provide not only policy makers and decision makers and relevant educational planning and teacher training institutions with accurate and reliable data on MIL, but also to supply individual teachers with tools for self-assessment and self-improvement (2013, p. 38).

Moreover, UNESCO argues that the main benefits of literacies, namely informational and media, are as follows:

• Policy and decision makers, planners and professional institutions in the fields of education, information and communication supplied with valid and reliable data on existing gaps (in terms of environment and competencies), can initiate special interventions targeting teachers in service and in training.

• After assessment, teachers in service and in training will be better informed about their own level of competencies, and will seek and participate in special training programmes on MIL, in order to improve their teaching and learning and other áreas related to their profession.

• Become more aware of the importance and usefulness of MIL for quality teaching and learning and will apply MIL in their classrooms and the training they provide (2013, p. 38).

As Santos, Scarabotto and Matos (2011, pp. 15843 - 15845) refer, the professional practice of the digital immigrant teacher is different from the way students look at knowledge and their production, which often leads to pedagogical inadequacy, such as example when criticizing their reading habits, but their communicational skills are unquestionable in social networks or multimodal platforms, where they move, read and write with perfect naturalness and competence. Thus, this society and these students take the teacher to the discovery and innovation that Guerreiro (2006) defines as the ability to see in another




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way the object that has already been observed by many, generating the need to be creative and innovative, changing paradigms in the teacher training and work processes, making them compatible with the profile of digital natives.

Faced with the vertigo of technological development and the consequences in society and in the course of growth of students, there is an urgent need to harmonize Education and Training in order to train teachers at all levels of education, including Higher Education, to respond appropriately to these technological challenges and to an audience deeply immersed in this ocean of technology, information and permanent mutation. As Caeiro points out, we can point to three levels of sociocultural change:

1. Today, knowledge and intellectual production are generally not exclusive to educational systems (school / universities):

• In this way, citizens are able to access more and more easily and with greater organization;

• The information put into circulation loses the control exercised over it by academic authority;

• The education system finds an active competitor in the new networks of knowledge dissemination - communication companies and Research Laboratories based in private business systems.

2. It increases the volume of information circulating in society, as well as its complexity and pace of innovation. Thus:

• The demand for knowledge is multiplied because the stability of knowledge has a short cycle of duration;

• The singular and personal "navigations" by the world of knowledge become possible and admissible - to each person their information;

• New and varied sources of knowledge are incorporated into the production structure of knowledge.

3. The logic of the organizational structures of knowledge is altered:

• The linearity that dominated the period of hegemony of the written medium disappears before the simultaneity and "mosaicity" that the electronic and the digital impose;

• The logic of time and accumulation is transformed. Knowledge is no longer grouped according to continuous temporal patterns, qualitative changes arise continuously and do not depend on the quantitative accumulation of information (Porto and Moreira, 2017, pp. 8-9).

In fact, to look at these challenges, we need new skills to know, understand, analyze, interpret, and produce. It is not enough to incorporate the technologies of the classroom, it is now more important to train for pedagogical innovation. In this context, it is absolutely essential that Literacies are a priority in this field. So let's identify our main challenges:

1. Understand contemporary society and the torrential exposure of information;

2. Know the profile of the native digital student;

3. To enable the teacher to respond to societal, technological and teaching-learning challenges;

4. Incorporate Literacies into the classroom, from the perspective of the student, but also from the teacher.

It is important to know the Literacies as sources and strategies of appropriation of the world and to understand it, with a plural approach, to the multiliteracies, to each of the Literacies, keeping in mind the context, the level of education, and the scientific area of teaching and research. In the present case, we intend to carry out a reflexive course on multiliteracies to the specificity of Film Literacy, since it has a transverse, multidisciplinary and multicultural dimension, constituting itself as an area of knowledge with its autonomous identity in its study and in the its teaching, allowing the acquisition of interpretive, technical, narrative, aesthetic, among other skills, appropriate to various levels of education. We believe that Film Literacy deserves an axial place in Higher Education, not only in the training of future educators and teachers, but also in the training of Higher Education teachers. In fact, as noted by Moreira and Ferreira:

With the development of the mass media, especially the cinema, TV and video, the image has become a central element in the lives of men and an important vehicle for the diffusion of knowledge in the digital society. At a time when we live in a deep dependence on the image and in which it becomes increasingly necessary to develop a literacy around the reading




21

of what is "seen", due to the civilizational inflection that constituted the substitution of the primacy of the reading of the text by the image it is important to understand the look, it is important to study the images and their meanings and signifiers, and above all, it is important to teach them to look and read the images (static and moving) (Moreira, J. and Ferreira, V., 2016, p. 7).

With the development of the mass media, especially the cinema, TV and video, the image has become a central element in the lives of men and an important vehicle for the diffusion of knowledge in the digital society. At a time when we live in a deep dependence on the image and in which it becomes increasingly necessary to develop a literacy around the reading of what is "seen", due to the civilizational inflection that constituted the substitution of the primacy of the reading of the text by the image, it is important to understand the look, it is important to study the images and their meanings and signifiers, and above all, it is important to teach them to look and read the images (static and moving) (Moreira, J. and Ferreira, V., 2016, p. 7).

In the context of Literacies, a first paradigm instituted the approximation between teacher and digital literacy as an initial bridge to associate them with pedagogical innovation. However, today, this paradigm proves to be insufficient to deal with the multiplicity of challenges of contemporary society, with a complex networking and an ever-increasing capacity to generate information on more varied platforms. J. António Moreira (Moreira, J. and Ferreira, V., 2016, p. 72) advocates a new paradigm that is characterized by the fusion of pedagogy and technology, promoting the development of multiliteracies, according to the multiplicity of channels of communication and respective forms of communication differentiated, citing Amasha, who advocates a pedagogical methodology through the development of multiliteracies, allowing the individual capacities of analysis in multimodal texts and even find new textual approaches.

Assuming this second paradigm as our preferred horizon, it is equally pertinent to look at the teacher in this 21st century. In this perspective, cinema will not only be considered as an ancillary tool associated with certain programmatic content, for illustration and rarely producing reflexive and critical repercussions, as it has often been in the past. In certain curricular units or disciplines, the film was used as a visual support of the literary work or of the subjects of the classes. Classic examples would be the use of The Name of the Rose to approach the Middle Ages, The Maias, Frei Luís de Sousa and Amor de Perdição to illustrate the novels in Portuguese Literature, A Brilliant Mind for the mathematical awakening, Word and Utopia to know life of Father António Vieira, among many others.

Cinema must be harmonized with pedagogy and didactics, being a resource, but also a scientific object of study. As such, it requires specific knowledge that only Film Literacy can provide. The teacher should thus know this literacy to transport it critically to his classes, motivating the student to the programmatic content, but also developing skills of film analysis, which would make this space-time a symbiosis of differentiated sources of information, enriching and by growing exponentially multiple potentialities of cognitive enrichment.

In view of this, we have identified the following premises: a) the teacher should seek the acquisition of Film Literacy skills, which awakens us to the training in this area of teachers of all levels of education; b) the student, in order to acquire competences in this area, at present, can only do so, by the end of secondary education, in very specific disciplines, in others in which teachers mobilize this literacy or in extra-classroom contexts; c) in Higher Education, the full conjugation between Film Literacy and pedagogical innovation, excluding courses and curricular units associated with this area (Cinema, Audiovisual, Communication Sciences...), requires, once again, teacher training and pedagogical renewal. Already in 1995, Vitor Reia-Baptista asked:

Who transforms the teacher into a person interested in cinema, a shrewd analyst of cinematographic genres, a competent contextualizer, a connoisseur of history, techniques, theories and aesthetic currents, a decoder of intercultural, political, ethnic, aesthetic and poetic messages; in short, a skilled reader of the languages of the cinema and knowledgeable of the cinematographic art in all the amplitude of its dialects? (cited by Carlos Capucho in Moreira, J. and Ferreira, V., 2016, p.88)

This question refers us to another one to which it is associated: is there adequate training in Film Literacy available to teachers at various levels of education? When we think about the levels up to the end of high school, we can find examples close to Film Literacy in continuing education, formal and non-formal courses and the recent National Film Plan, a remarkable work for the Seventh Art, the creation of audiences and training specialized.

In university and polytechnic education, the acquisition of competences in the field of literary and film literacy, in particular, can be done, more broadly, through degree courses, short courses, workshops, using E and B –Learning models, MOOCs




22

(Massive Open Online Courses), etc. But, in fact, we can conclude that it is urgent to invest in a thoughtful, systematic and broad way in the teaching of Film Literacy in Portugal.

The European Commission's Screening Literacy: Country Profiles report, aimed at assessing film literacy in Europe and the profile of each country, is a valuable contribution to this reflection, as it was based on the following assumption:

These country profiles are based on information provided by respondents to the European Film Literacy Survey conducted from January to June 2012. They focus on film education provision for school children and young people, and informal adult learners. Vocational and higher education provision is not, on the whole, reflected here. Unless otherwise indicated, film education is understood as developing critical and wider viewing; enjoyment; understanding of film language and of film as an art form and as a text; of popular, national and international cinema and film heritage; of different film forms or genres; and the development of filmmaking skills (2012).

In this 2012 report, Portugal presented the following facets regarding Film Literacy:

1. The absence of a national strategy for the teaching of Film Literacy;

2. The cinema is used in the various levels of teaching, as a playful instrument or associated with disciplines, as well as the production of films;

3. The contribution of the CineClubes is very relevant, mainly for the projects directed to the schools;

4. Several cultural associations actively collaborate with schools;

5.The Cinemateca has a very important mission and has developed courses and workshops for children and young people;

6. In formal terms, there are several courses on film, namely degrees, but on film literacy, in particular, only the work of the University of Algarve is known.

This diagnosis, although not very encouraging, is able to identify foci of training on Film Literacy, which came to be potentiated and that today they have gained a new élan.

In fact, in addition to the initiatives already mentioned, in particular the contribution of the CineClubes and the Cinemateca Portuguesa, the National Cinema Plan deserves particular attention, which is not yet covered by the European reports on this subject, created in collaboration by the Council Presidency of Ministers, through the Office of the Secretary of State for Culture, and the Ministry of Education and Science, by the Office of the Secretary of State for Basic and Secondary Education, in accordance with Order No. 15377/2013, published in the Diário da República , 2nd series, no. 229, of November 26, 2013, and operated by the Cinema and Audiovisual Institute (ICA), the Cinemateca Portuguesa - Cinema Museum and the Directorate General of Education (DGE). The National Film Plan is a program of film literacy and dissemination of Portuguese cinematography to the school public and offers instruments and contents, allowing the effective film analysis to be carried out, in conjunction with the support of various initiatives such as workshops, formations, cycles of cinema, among others, idealized by the schools that integrate the PNC.

Bearing in mind these valuable motivations, we would like to reinforce the need to think of film literacy as a factor of pedagogical innovation in Higher Education, quoting some of the key recommendations made in the European Commission's Screening Literacy: Executive Summary:

Recommendation 1:

Develop a series of models of film education for Europe, that include appreciation of film as an art form, critical understanding, access to national heritage, world cinema and popular film, and creative filmmaking

skills. We also recommend the adoption by EC of the revised definition of film education we use in this report:

‘The level of understanding of a film, the ability to be conscious and ncurious in the choice of films; the competence to critically watch a film and to analyse its content, cinematography and technical aspects; and the ability to manipulate its language and technical resources in creative moving image production’

Recommendation 7:




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Member states should promote partnerships between the film industry, education agencies, and government departments. Such partnerships should seek to ensure a return in educational benefit from any investment of public money in film production. Support should include the provision of materials to enhance learning, and in particular: access to production materials (including production rushes); involvement of industry talent at events; and waiving of screening fees in a non-theatrical exhibition context.

Recommendation 11:

Member states should be encouraged to incorporate a film education component within initial teacher education programmes.

Recommendation 12:

The EC should provide online guidance on best practice in in-service training provision across the EU.

Recommendation 13:

The EC should investigate models for the collaborative provision of accredited training at M-level, for the widest range of film educators, using existing collaborative HE structures (2012).

If the European Union fully implemented these recommendations and Portugal as a member state applied them, we would have solid conditions to create a thoughtful, articulate, collaborative, innovative path with scientific and pedagogical support, technologically adequate and flexible, contributing to the consistent integration of film literacy in educational innovation environments, and in particular in Higher Education, developing critical thinking about cinema, training teachers and providing students with interpretation tools.

We consider that Portugal has already taken a very positive path in film literacy, but much more can be chalked up if we look at this opportunity with a strategic and systemic look. In view of the above, we would like to leave a set of working proposals, namely:

1. Address the challenges of contemporary society as an opportunity for pedagogical innovation in Higher Education;

2. Integrate literacy in a more incisive, systematic and profound way in Higher Education as transversal competences for teachers and students;

3. To broaden the possibilities of training and acquisition of skills in the area of literacy by the teachers of Higher Education;

4. To create synergies between Higher Education Institutions and the principal actors in the field of film literacy in Portugal, namely the Cinemateca Portuguesa, Cineclubes and the National Cinema Plan itself;

5. To favor the integration of literacies in environments of pedagogical innovation in Higher Education;

6. Contribute to the rapprochement between Higher Education teachers and literacy;

7. Contribute to the consolidation of the critical thinking of Higher Education students regarding the challenges of contemporary society by increasing literacy skills;

8. To foster film literacy in the environments of pedagogical innovation in Higher Education;

9. Enable the acquisition of skills on film literacy, in particular, to the teachers of Higher Education;

10. To provide students with the possibility of using film literacy for an exercise in critical analysis and interpretation of the current information, image and digital society.

We believe that this manifesto is connected in perfect union with the apology of pedagogical innovation in Higher Education and the contribution of the literacies that we have projectively finished. Moreover, looking at Higher Education as the club of living poets, we establish as our motto the title of this communication (Education, Pedagogy and Literacy: the challenges and horizons of film literacy), so that we can see the future as a clear and irrefutable symbiosis between the society of the 21st Century and the spaces of teaching-learning (formal and non-formal). On the other hand, we also choose the deeper meaning of the Greek word "poet" ("the creator"), in order to create new perspectives on pedagogical innovation, in this




24

open, inspired and inspiring, daring and lively club, allowing each one of we can continue to tell your students, as did Professor Keating at the Dead Poets Society:

Now in my class you will learn to think for yourselves again.

You will learn to savor words and language.

No matter what anybody tells you, words and ideas can change the world.

References

[1] Comissão Europeia, (2012). Screening Literacy: Country Profiles. Luxemburgo: Comissão Europeia [2] Comissão Europeia, (2012). Screening Literacy: Executive Summary. Luxemburgo: Comissão Europeia [3] Comissão Europeia, (2015). The Changing Pedagogical Landscape: New ways of teaching and learning and

their implications for higher education policy. Luxemburgo: Comissão Europeia [4] Guerreiro, Evandro Prestes. (2006). Cidade digital: infoinclusão social e tecnologia em rede, Editora Senac:

São Paulo [5] Lipovetsky, G e Serroy, J. (2009). La pantalla global: cultura mediática y cine en la era hipermoderna,

Barcelona: Editorial Anagrama [6] Moreira, J. e Ferreira, Vítor (2016). Cinema e Educação. Convergência para a formação cultural, social e

artística, Whitebooks: Santo Tirso [7] OCDE, (2018). The Future of Education and Skills. Paris: OCDE [8] Porto, C. e Moreira, J. (orgs) (2017). Educação no Ciberespaço, Whitebooks: Santo Tirso [9] Prensky, M. (2001) Digital Native, digital immmigrants. Digital Native immigrants. On the horizon, MCB

University Press, Vol. 9, N.5, October [10] Santaella, L. (2010). A ecologia pluralista da comunicação: conectividade, mobilidade, ubiquidade, São Paulo:

Paulus [11] Santos, Marisilvia, Scarabotto, Suelen e Matos, Elizete (2011). Imigrantes e nativos digitais: um dilema ou

desafio na Educação?, X Congresso Nacional de Educação, Pont. Univ. Católica do Paraná: Paraná [12] UNESCO, (2013). Global Media and Information Literacy Assessment Framework: Country Readiness and

Competencies, Paris: UNESCO




25

Supporting Design and Technology Lessons with the Use of Problem-Based Learning

Abdul Azim Mohamed Sambas

School of Energy and Engineering,

IBTE Mechanical Campus, Brunei Darussalam

Masitah Shahrill

Masriatol Zuraifah Sajali

Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute of Education,

Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam

Abstract

This study implemented the use of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) in Design and Technology lessons. The investigation involved students’ attitudes towards PBL. PBL is said to enhance students’ understanding and provide them with meaningful learning experience. The participants for this study were seven Year 11 students consisting of two males and five females from a secondary school in Brunei Darussalam. Data were collected using instruments such as pre- and post-tests, observation list, participant observation, reflection and interviews. The study found there were improvements in the collaboration between the students. They had the opportunities to think creatively to generate ideas for their project. Students’ attitudes became more positive with the implementation using PBL. It is suggested that future teachers to use this method. However, teachers’ confidence in using the PBL method will need to be further enhanced.

Keywords: Problem-Based Learning; Design and Technology; Secondary Schools

Introduction

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) was officially adopted as a pedagogical approach in 1968 at McMaster University, Canadian medical school because students were unable to apply their substantial amount of basic scientific knowledge to clinical situations (Barrows, 1996). During PBL, students will do an independent study to find a solution through journal articles, the library, the Internet, brochures and resources from people. According to Richards and Cameron (2001), the use of PBL is ideal with group work which involves brainstorming, sharing of ideas, and teamwork. Newman (2003) stated that PBL has been used as part of a teaching strategy in many professional fields including medicine, nursing, dentistry, social work, management, engineering and architecture. Moreover, this teaching strategy has also been implemented in the teaching of school subjects such as mathematics (Adnan & Shahrill, 2015; Ahamad et al., 2018; Botty & Shahrill, 2014, 2015a, 2015b; Botty et al., 2016; Han et al., 2016) and geography (Caesar et al., 2016) to support the learning development of the secondary school students in Brunei Darussalam.

Even though there are many different models of PBL, all seemed to provide similar definition and provided some evidence of the positive effects of using PBL. PBL is a student-centered pedagogy which involves student learning about a subject through experience of problem solving including solving a real life problem (Correnti, 2014). Based on a study by Utecht (2003), he stated that PBL maximizes students’ involvement in the learning process and students may apply the knowledge they learn in helping them to solve real-world problems. Therefore, students are keener to learn hence turning them into lifelong learners.

Mustapha and Rahim (2011) stated that PBL is one of the learning methods that use relevant and meaningful real-life problems as its foundation. In fact, PBL according to Saleh et al. (2017) may be an effective method to expose the students on gaining work experiences while still studying. Meanwhile Gomez-Ruiz et al. (2009) stated that PBL is an approach to




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structuring the curriculum, which has been derived in an educational technique that confronts the students with problems from practice, providing a stimulus for learning. Furthermore, PBL is not merely a teaching and learning technique but a total approach to education (Barret, 2005). Therefore, it reveals that PBL is an approach on how to make us think critically and be independent on solving real-life problems. PBL also develops higher order cognitive skills where learning is initiated through a real problem that has engaged the learner to find its solution. PBL also works better within a group work setting (Richards & Cameron, 2001) because it helps and motivates students to identify, apply, collaborate and communicate their knowledge efficiently. This is also supported by Sedaghat et al. (2018) research on using PBL method, the students work collaboratively as a team and they manage to build their product according to the specifications needed. Both team from that study produced different style of product yet satisfying the requirements.

PBL will help students think critically, be more responsible and more independent rather than the teacher giving the answer or solution to the students. The students will have to realize that they have to be active thinkers on how to solve problem, finding solution through the Internet, books, journal, article and etc. According to Selçuk and Çalışkan (2010), PBL is an effective teaching method in comparison to a traditional method of teaching. He added that PBL lets teachers facilitate students, teachers and students evaluate learning together, and learning is assessed directly through papers, projects, performances, portfolios.

Utecht (2003) stated that student-centered learning consisted of a classroom where the students are actively involved in the learning process. Furthermore, Utecht mentioned that the students must get involved, interact and socialize to make sure the job can be done, let the students have the opportunities to confront new information and experience without the dominance of a teacher giving the information and students’ knowledge are highly individualized for them to be adapted based on their style and pace for learning. Therefore, student-centered learning is a method of learning or teaching that puts focus on the students whereas problem-based learning involves students solving real-life problems. The relation between these two is that the students would be given a problem to be solved and teachers only need to facilitate their learning. Hence, a student-centered learning is produced.

There are requirements before using the PBL approach. According to Gomez-Ruiz et al. (2009), teachers need to conduct the following: The problem should relate to the subject matter and using a real-life problem; the problem should be designed with multiple stages to work step by step; to make the students realize that individual work is not a good strategy to figure out the solution, thus group work is required; the first problem should relate with the prior knowledge of the student; and the objectives of PBL should be included. This is considered part of the planning process before using PBL to be applied in a Design & Technology (D&T) lesson. When using PBL, Richards and Cameron (2001) stated that it is best to work in groups.

Effectiveness of Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

Mustapha and Rahim (2011) stated that most teachers preferred traditional teaching method because it is a more suitable method than student-centred method when the focus is on the examination and the class size is mostly large. However, there were many weaknesses of the traditional teaching method. One of the weaknesses is the lack of interaction between the students and teacher. Thus, PBL is one of the teaching methods that allow more interaction among the students compared to traditional method. PBL focuses on active learning which involves the minds and hands. Throughout the teaching of using PBL, Mustapha and Rahim (2011) found out that the students' collaborative skills had improved; results and grades became better and positive attitudes towards PBL observed. In their study, Selçuk and Çalışkan (2010) found that using PBL showed an improvement in students’ active engagement in the learning activities. Subsequently, using PBL also improved the students’ attitudes towards learning.

Model of Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

To use PBL in the classroom, there is a need to understand the model of PBL. According to Gomez-Ruiz et al. (2009), the basic model normally involves few steps as: (1) Presenting the problem to the students. Then the students form a group and share their thoughts about the problem that is given, (2) Discussion session takes place where the students discuss among their group, ask questions, share their knowledge on what they know regarding the problem, (3) Discussion with and guidance from the teacher about the problem that they do not understand, and (4) Exploration where students do their own research (books, article, journal, Internet and etc.) in order to solve and find the solution of the problem.




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Gomez-Ruiz et al. (2009) also stated that the basic model might only be applicable to some lesson. This is why there are various types of PBL model to ensure that the model is applicable to that D&T. Meanwhile, Barrett (2005) introduced his PBL model, which includes the following steps:

Students are presented with real-life problem.

Students are to discuss the problem with a small group in the PBL tutorial. They clarify the facts of the case. They define what the problem is. They brainstorm ideas based on their prior knowledge. They identify what they need to learn to work on the problem, what they do not know (learning issues). They reason through the problem. They specify an action plan for working on the problem.

Students engage in independent study on their learning issue outside the tutorial. This includes library, Internet, resource from people and observation.

They come back to the PBL tutorial sharing information, peer teaching and working together on the problem.

They present their solution to the problem.

They review what they have learned from working on the problem. All who participated in the process engage in themselves, peer and the tutor review the PBL process and reflect on each person’s contribution to that process.

As such, the PBL model revolves within the action research (Hussey et. al., 2011). PBL use models as a guide to help in the planning process. Once the planning process is done, a chosen PBL model is implemented in the teaching strategy. The pre- and post-tests are used to monitor the students’ improvement in the assessment paper before and after the PBL intervention in order to observe their critical thinking skills. Furthermore, during the acting process, the teacher observed the students’ behaviors and responses. This is done through using both participant observation and observation list that looks at whether PBL supports collaboration skills, communication skills and creativity skills. At the end of the process to action research, both students and the teacher need to reflect and evaluate what has been learnt. By using interviews, students’ opinions on using PBL in the process can be gathered. There are many ways to collect the data hence for this particular study; this is how action research can contribute to PBL.

The Study

The Design and Technology (D&T) is a subject offered in secondary schools in Brunei Darussalam as an optional subject. In Brunei, D&T follows the International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) syllabus. According to the IGCSE syllabus, D&T focuses on design actions and the application of knowledge and process skills. Students are to engage in design and create activities and experience a basic process of design adapted to their abilities, interest and design context. Most questions in the D&T exam papers require students to think and solve real-world problems. For that reason, the PBL could be used to develop those skills (Mustapha & Rahim, 2011).

The aim of this study is to investigate the use of PBL in the teaching and learning of D&T. These are the research objectives: To improve the teaching and learning of lessons in D&T, assess how well the students work in groups when they solve problems – this is to improve their teamwork with peers, and to suggest ways to improve in identifying and solving the problem in their design by being independent and less guided by the teacher. This study is guided by the research question; to what extent can PBL support Year 11 student learning of Design and Technology?

Limitation of the Study

This is an action research study on a D&T class of seven students. The small sample size might be seen as a limitation to research of the quantitative nature. However, the purpose of the study was not to generalize the findings. Rather, this action research study aims to improve the students’ learning and more importantly, the study will provide a better understanding of the use of PBL in teaching D&T. Due to the limited available contact time with the students, the study was only conducted within a short period of time.




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Methodology

In order to determine the extent of the use of PBL in the lesson, it is important to select an approach that facilitates the study. In this section, the research design and action research approach will be elaborated. Following this, the data collection method is explained.

Research Design (Planning Stage)

Figure 1 below shows the flow chart on how the procedure will take place during the teaching using the PBL.

Figure 1: Flowchart of the Research Design

FIRST STAGE QUESTIONS: The question/problem is mostly based on the IGCSE Design and Technology exam paper.

SECOND STAGE PLANNING: Planning involves decision-making on which model to use, students’ prior knowledge in order to know what to teach and how to approach students and planning the lesson. This study used Barrett’s (2005) PBL model. A PBL lesson plan was prepared a week before the actual lesson plan with guidance by the Head of Department in D&T. The observation list and question paper were printed early.

THIRD STAGE DURING TEACHING: An hour before the lessons, the observer (mentor/teachers) was briefed on what will happen during the lesson and what the observer will be doing. The observer will be given an observation list and lesson plan. The lesson on PBL will be done according to the Barrett (2005) PBL model.

FOURTH STAGE AFTER TEACHING: For the student part, a post-test will be administered in the next lesson in the morning and the interview in the afternoon. For the teacher part, the observer will comment on his/her thoughts about the lesson and the students’ responses during the lessons. Self-evaluation and reflection on the lesson is essential for this study.

FINAL STAGE: The pre-test, post-test, observation and interview will be analyzed. The results need to meet the objectives of the research, which are to enhance Year 11 students’ learning and teaching of D&T. Depending on whether the results coincide with the objectives or not, the whole process can be circulated again hence it can be seen to be similar to action research.




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Action Research

Action research can be known by many names such as ‘practitioner enquiry’, ‘reflective analysis’ or ‘evidence-based practice’ but all gives the same definition and can be defined as learning by doing. O'Brien (2001) defined action research which a group of people identify a problem, do something to resolve it, see how successful their efforts were, and if not satisfied, try again. Gilmore et al. (1986) stated that,

Action research is to aim to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to further the goals of social science simultaneously. Thus, there is a dual commitment in action research to study a system and concurrently to collaborate with members of the system in changing it in what is together regarded as a desirable direction. Accomplishing this twin goal requires the active collaboration of the researcher and the client, and thus it stresses the importance of co-learning as a primary aspect of the research process. (pp. 160-176).

This study used the basic principle of action research based on Leslie (2005) called the ‘four-phase cycle’ adapted from The Open University as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Four-Phase Cycle based from Leslie (2005) adapted from The Open University

According to Leslie (2005), the action research process is often described as:

Cyclical with four inter-related stages: Plan, act, observe and reflect, as depicted on Figure 2 above.

Collaborative as it involves not just the researcher himself, but a group of teachers working together

Usually qualitative compared to quantitative with the emphasis of getting an in-depth understanding of the situation in question.

Reflective, involving critical reflection on both the process and outcomes of the study.

Action research always begins with an issue, and based on our observations, the students lack the ability to solve problems when using the traditional teaching method. The first step in each cycle of action research process involves planning. Planning involves the preparation and planning process that include the making of the lesson plan, what teaching aids will be used during the lesson, what other resources will be used, stating the objectives of the lesson type of model that’s going to be used in PBL. For this study in particular, the first author conducted the lesson, and two teachers assisted with the planning process and data collection for the PBL. Subsequently they gave comments and provided feedbacks on how the lesson can be improved based on the planned lesson and teaching. During the second and third step of the cycle the use of PBL was then incorporated in one of the lessons. While conducting this approach, the teachers observed the students based on the observation list shown in Figure 3, which included student responses and behavior during class. In addition, observations were made by focusing on how the PBL was enacted in class and the students’ performance on the given work. Meanwhile, the final step in this cycle reflected critically on the whole process. In order to gain an understanding of the students’ perceptions of the use of PBL, each of the students were interviewed based on a semi-structured format.

The action research process is rarely a simple cycle but it is often spiral. Reflection on the last lesson contributed to the findings of this study, which may lead to further action, and usually a change in the classroom practice, which consequently leads to further exploration of the issue in question. Thus, it may involve several cycles addressing the same issue. However, in this study there was a limited time to conduct several cycles.




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Teacher: _______________________________________________________ Mentor/Observer: _________________________________ Date: _______________ Time Start: __________ Time Finish: __________ Location/Room:____________________ Year: __________ No of Student: __________ Teaching Method: Problem Based Learning 1. What activity/task was given to the students? Comment on the activity? ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. Do the students stayed on their activity/task? Explain? ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. Do the students share the ideas, teamwork and support each other? Explain? ___________________________________________________________________________ 4. How are the students undertaking the activity? ___________________________________________________________________________ 5. How are the students behaving? ___________________________________________________________________________ 6. What resource the student use and how does that resource help them? ___________________________________________________________________________ 7. Do the students appear more motivated, engaged or better prepared? ___________________________________________________________________________ 8. Do all the students contribute their idea? Explain? ___________________________________________________________________________ 9. Do the students show motivation when doing the activity? Explain? ___________________________________________________________________________ 10. Does and Why the activity will help the student to prepare them for the design paper question? ___________________________________________________________________________ 11. Is there any limitation, difficulties and improvement for the activity and teacher? Comment? ___________________________________________________________________________ 12. Does the teacher give clear explanation/instruction what should the student will be doing? ___________________________________________________________________________ 13. Does the teacher manage the time well to do the activity (PBL) or more time is needed? ___________________________________________________________________________ 14. Does the teacher evaluate the outcome of the student work? Comment? ___________________________________________________________________________ 15. Is there any comment would you like to add regarding the student learning and behavior, teacher teaching and the PBL activity weather its help them or not? (Observer Overall Comment) ___________________________________________________________________________ Observer Signature: ____________________ Date: __________

Figure 3: The observation list

Data Collection

Participants

The study was conducted in a Year 11 D&T lesson at one of the secondary schools in the Brunei-Muara District. The participants consisted of two males and five females, as it is only the sample that was accessible. Importantly, this Year 11 class was the only D&T class available in the school. This class was scheduled for five lesson periods per week, and each period lasted for half an hour.

Pre-test and Post-test

The pre-test evaluated the students’ knowledge of a subject before they cover the material whilst the post-test was given after the material had been covered. The questions used on both tests were from the past year examination papers. The reason why the past examination papers were used was to prepare the students for the actual upcoming examinations.




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Classroom Observation

Flick (2009) mentioned that there are various types of qualitative research such as participant observation, in-depth interviews and focus groups that are the most commonly used methods in applied qualitative inquiry. Therefore, the participant observation was conducted in order to observe their behavior during the PBL lesson. Using a semi-structured observation guide, the observation list was used to observe the students’ behaviors during the PBL lesson, to see how the students respond and what their attitude are towards PBL.

Reflection

In the final cycle of action research, which is reflect, it is essential for the teacher to reflect on his/her lesson for using PBL to see whether the teacher’s teaching has improved. From here, information was gathered if PBL helped to achieve the lesson objective and most importantly can the students learn better when teaching them using the PBL technique.

Interview

There are many types of interview that can be used, however for this study the ‘General Interview Guide Approach’ were utilized. Turner (2010) stated that a general interview guide approach is more structured than the informal conversational interview although there is still quite a bit of flexibility in its composition. Turner (2010) also mentioned that using this general interview guide approach it allows the opportunity to develop a rapport with the participants because the questions can be changed based on their responses which could explore more into a personal approach related to the topic. Therefore, the reasons in using this interview were to investigate whether PBL is applicable to be used in during the D&T lesson, to observe students’ responses and behavior towards PBL. Since there is only a small sample of students taking D&T, all the seven students were interviewed after the post-test had been distributed and collected.

Data Analysis

Referring back to the research question, to what extent problem-based learning could support Year 11 students learning of design & technology, the data gathered and analyzed were from the pre- and post-tests, the PBL lessons, classroom observation, teacher reflection of teaching using PBL and from the interviews.

Ethical Consideration

Permission to conduct the study had been sought well in advance, and subsequently conveyed to the school. This was to ensure that access that had been granted did not violate any ground rules of the school when collecting the data for the study. Consent forms were given to the students in order to obtain their permission to be interviewed. Moreover, students were allowed to withdraw if they decided not to participate in the interview.

Results

Table 1 below shows the results for the pre- and post-tests. However, these were based on six students only because one student was absent for the post-test.

Table 1: Mean Results of Test

PRE-TEST (%) POST-TEST (%) DIFFERENCE (%)

MEAN 53.6% 55.3% +1.7%

According to the Table 1 above, there is only a small percentage of improvement between the two tests. Based on the post-test responses, the students gained or lose marks from the orthographic drawing but achieved almost full marks on the theory section. The drawing and sketching part were the ones that hold the most marks in the assessment paper. When the students were assessed individually, 4 out of 6 students showed an improvement on their post-test. During the PBL lesson, some students were extrovert and some were introvert, which indicated that some students contributed their ideas during the discussions and some kept quiet since they did not contribute any ideas.




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Classroom Observation

Participant Observation

As the first author was explaining the objectives for that day’s particular lesson, all the students were excited because the lesson was something new for them. Discussions began after the problem was presented. At first, there were not a lot of responses when the questions were asked, so a simpler question was posed, such as “what can you see in the picture?” and slowly there were responses from each of them. The quieter students were asked more questions so that they can be given more opportunities to participate in the discussions. All the students knew that they needed to design a workstation but they left out one important key point or fact, which the teacher mentioned that the workstation itself must easily be transported and/or stored. The problem was to:

“Design a workstation that would be suitable for this hobby (model making) and could be easily transported and/or stored”

A 5 to 10 minutes discussion was not enough. More time was needed at this stage; therefore another extra 5 minutes were spent discussing the problem with the students. Even so a total of 15 minutes was not enough and during the discussion, it was rushed because of the concern of not having enough time. The students engaged in independent study so that they share their information with everyone. The students then presented their solution to the problem. Since there was only one computer available to use (the D&T computer room was locked), the students did group work instead. There were a lot of difficulties at this stage, especially when some students started talking about other matter when they were supposed to find a solution to their problem task. In order to keep students focused on their task, the following questions were posed: Why have they chosen that design? Why do you choose that material? And how are you going to move that workstation to one place to another? Surprisingly, the students were able to provide responses to these questions, even though the time given for them to engage with their tasks was limited. The lesson followed with the following simple question answer session with the students, such as: Give me one additional point that you think it is important about the function of the work station; What method will you use to make the workstation; Draw a 5 minute sketch of your own design of a workstation; and What material will you use and why?

Observation List

One of the teachers from the school observed the lesson based on what he saw during the lessons. Furthermore, from his personal observation and from the observation list, he provided the following statements, which proved that utilizing the PBL could make the student think critically and brainstorm ideas, ideas were generated by students, ideas were able to be shared and therefore all students were working as a team and there were significant interactions between each other, and ultimately, the student were able to think outside of the box.

Reflection

From the first author’s point of view, the lesson went well but there were time constraints. Given below is his account of the lesson:

I only have 40 to 45 minutes to conduct my lesson (including the 5 to 7 minutes waiting for the students to enter the classroom and give a brief introduction of what am I going to do today). As I went through the PBL model, each procedure was explained in a rush but I tried to calm myself down because I would like to listen to the students’ responses on today's lessons carefully. I received good feedbacks from the students as we were discussing the problem based on the picture they have seen. But as I asked the students to engage on their own research to find the solution to the problem (where they have to find a workstation that can be easily transported and stored), they began to lose focus. They were talking about a different topic instead of focusing on the problem. As a teacher, I tried to make sure that they are focused. By asking questions individually like “have you found a design and why have you chosen this design”, the students were able to concentrate on their task again. Since I asked them to do it in a group, I asked all of them to present their designs together. I asked a different question individually and each of them was able to give a good answer. I even asked them to draw a 5 minute sketch of their own design of workstations. Some students were good at sketching and were very detailed as well. During the lesson, I used bilingual language, that is code-switching between the Malay land English languages. This is because I noticed from their reactions that they may not understand what I was talking or maybe the questions were too difficult for them to understand. I could see that some students were extrovert and some were introvert. On a reflection,




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I would want to improve on my questioning, so that I can encourage my students to think critically. Overall the lesson went well as I was following the PBL model accordingly.

Interview

During the interviews, most students said that the discussion helped them to discover new ideas and solutions to solve the problem. Problems were discussed thoroughly; critical questions were pointed out by asking themselves what material to use, how the design looked like and many more. As we proceeded, the next stage was to ask the students to do research individually using the Internet. It was very useful for the students because it helped them to find different designs where they were able to think critically and able to help them with their drawings. The students must practice repeatedly to draw because it may take 1 to 2 days to be able to draw or sketch. At the end of the interviews, the students were asked if they want the teacher to use PBL as a teaching strategy and why. Given below are the students’ responses:

“Yes I do because it trains us to think out of the box and also by the help of the internet help us to explore and open our mind on the given problem.” (Student 1)

“Yes I think I want because Easy to understand, sharing of thoughts (brainstorm), doing research in the Internet.” (Student 2)

“Yes because… I don’t know [nda tau]” (Student 3)

“Yes because I think it is effective. Effective because there is step by step strategies” (Student 4)

“Yes because it helps me” (Student 5)

“Yes, because I want to know what my member want to comment on my design to improve my design” (Student 6)

From the above responses, utilizing PBL in the lesson shows a positive impact on the students’ learning even though there were only slight improvements from the students’ post-test results. It can be concluded that PBL helps the students to think beyond the norm, it helps them to solve problems, improve on their creativity in creating new designs, and also helped them to work and brainstorm ideas with their peers.

Discussion

The results from all the data that had been collected, it proves that PBL was able support the Year 11 students in their learning of design and technology. Utecht (2003) mentioned that students learn best when they are engaged in the learning process and discover in them the meaning of knowledge. PBL, a student-centered method provided the opportunities to discover knowledge in a meaningful and applicable way. Although the average difference shown in the pre- and post-tests was minimal, the data obtained from the observations and interviews illustrated the increase in students’ engagement.

In their study, Gomez-Ruiz and colleagues (2009) found that the main outcome of using PBL was the meaningful experience, where students worked in collaborative groups making decisions and responsibilities together. The findings from this present study concur with that of Seaghat et al. (2018), where the students experienced working together collaboratively with their friends, share ideas and making decisions on designing the product. Among the results of this study as well, the observer mentioned that students shared their ideas with their friends. PBL allows students to develop their collaboration skills, through sharing ideas, thoughts and design during discussions. Similar results were shown in Mustapha and Rahim (2011) study where collaborative skills improved and showed positive attitudes towards problem-based learning.

Referring to the observation list earlier, the observer mentioned that the students were able to think outside the box as well as training the students in a problem solving type of questions that allowed them to generate their ideas and options to a higher capacity. This proves that the students were able to think critically and brainstorm some ideas to help them solve the problem. But not all the students were able to contribute ideas productively because of their personality characteristic traits.

Referring back to the Barrett (2005) model, he mentioned that the reason in using PBL is to motivate and help the students to learn, develop students’ thinking skill, foster professional competence and confidence together with professional identity and so on. Other researchers such as Mahendru and Mahindru (2011) used a similar model by Barrett (2005) in an




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electronic and communication engineering course student, they mentioned that implementing PBL helps in developing a team spirit, makes student flexible in processing information and handling different problems and freedom so as to express the problem and the solution in one’s own approach. They also stated that the PBL increases the students’ abilities to direct their own learning. Therefore, the use of the PBL model does improve the teaching and learning of this particular D&T subject, improve the students’ capabilities in teamwork and were able to think critically.

Conclusion

To answer the research question “to what extent Problem-Based Learning can support year 11 student learning of Design and Technology” and based on the findings of this present study, the PBL can develop students to work as a team, think critically and improve the teaching and learning in the design and technology lesson. It was assumed that the Year 11 D&T students would score higher in the post-test. Some students showed great improvements on the post-test but as a whole, it shows only a slight +1.7% of improvement. Even though it is just a slight improvement, the students were able to achieve teamwork, thinking critically, generate idea creatively by themselves. In addition, results from interviews shows that the students enjoyed the PBL lesson because they were able to communicate with their friends, sharing and brainstorming ideas and respond on the design problem that they were given. Most students enjoyed the presentations stating that it could improve their communication skills. Furthermore, utilizing the PBL in the lesson helps them to be more creative on their design thus improving their drawing skills, although the skills to draw well still needs more practice and repetition in order to achieve more improvement.

Recommendations for Future Research

Based on the findings and limitations of this present study, although there were only slight improvements from the assessment intervention tests, we can still see a positive impact on the learning process. The use of PBL can be part of other teachers’ teaching strategy but it will be advisable to go for further training or seek guidance from those who regularly uses PBL as their teaching strategy. For the experienced teachers who use PBL as their teaching strategy, they could give workshops for those who are inexperience in using PBL. Furthermore, lectures at the higher education settings should be exposed to PBL and other innovative teaching strategies in different subject areas. Additionally, one should be active in constructing problems according to the lesson objectives because the goal in using PBL is so that students could see the problem in real-life situations where they can see the problem for themselves. If the student is not active, the lesson itself won’t be effective in learning.

In order to gain further understanding on the use of PBL in classrooms, it would be beneficial if a team of D&T teachers could work collaboratively in conducting their lessons using PBL that involves more real-life projects. Investigations can also be done to further study the effects in PBL in other lessons or other subjects. Considering the time constraints, only one cycle of the action research was conducted in this present study. If more time were given, a few more cycles would assist in gaining an in depth understanding on the use of PBL.

Reference

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[20] Richards, D., & Cameron, L. (2008). Applying Learning Design concepts to problem-based learning. In L. Cameron & J. Dalziel (Eds.), Learning Activity Management System, International Conference (p. 87-96). Sydney: LAMS Foundation.

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[22] Sedaghat, A., Al Shalabi, A., Eilaghi, A., & Assad, M. E. H. (2018). Laptop riser, a useful PBL project for diploma students in engineering design. Journal of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education, 6(1), early view. doi: https://doi.org/10.5278/ojs.jpblhe.v0i0.2148

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https://doi.org/10.5278/ojs.jpblhe.v0i0.2148




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The Personal Traits and the Academic Accomplishments of the Students at the Faculties of Pedagogy

Lulzim Murtezani

Faculty of Philosophy, State University of Tetovo , (FYROM)

Abstract

This is an academic-research paper consisting of two parts: a theoretical and an empirical one. The theoretical part defines the conceptual basis, i.e. the frames of the research project. This means that it primarily deals with some relevant assumptions, such as the personal traits in the context of the academic accomplishments of the students that attend courses for teachers and educators. We conducted an empirical research to determine the role of these components. We opted for the technique of a non-probabilistic research of the sample. It consists of 115 students attending the first cycle of studies at the faculties of pedagogy. We used Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) as an instrument to measure the following traits: neuroticism – stability, extroversion – introversion, and psychoticism. A simple one-way ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to process the data. The result analysis led to the following conclusions: 1. The students differ in the academic accomplishments based on the variable of neuroticism; and 2. The students differ in the accomplishments based on the variable extraversion. We also suggest that other researches in this scientific area are conducted for a detailed analysis of the relation between the personality traits and the academic accomplishments.

Keywords: personal traits, neuroticism , extroversion , psychoticism ,academic accomplishments

Introduction

This paper is an academic research consisting of a theoretical and an empirical part. The theoretical part defines the conceptual basis, i.e. the frame of the academic research project. It highlights some relevant (internal) personal assumptions dealing with: a) the personal traits and b) the academic achievements of the students enrolled at teaching faculties. We are going to try and determine the role of these components by carrying out an empirical research.

Personal Characteristics – Personality Traits

Modern literature advocates that in order to better describe and anticipate the behavior of people, we need to take into account the personal traits, such as the fundamental dimensions of the personality (Myers, 1999). These personality traits influence not only the specific behavior of people, in our case – the students, but also their preparedness to face the challenges of the process of study. Nonetheless, the concept of personality cannot be defined that easily. This is one modern definition of personality (Caver and Scheier, 2000): “Personality is a dynamic organization of psychophysical systems that produce characteristic models of behavior of the person, together with thinking and feelings inside the person” (p.5). Today, many theoreticians agree that the traits are the basic structural units of the personality. The theory of traits is mostly used in empirical researches because it offers a basis for developing valid and reliable measurements of the individual differences. They are mostly determined as a broad system of similar tendencies in the behavior of specific individuals (McCrae and Costa, 1985). According to Allport (1962), the traits are related to the character, the temperament, and the abilities. Their influence is mostly reflected on the health, thinking and working performances (Hogan, 1986; McKenzie,1989). Cattell (1963) discussed that the behavior of the individuals, i.e. their reactions are the result of the personality and the situation they find themselves in. Regarding this theory, not much is done until the eighth decade of the previous century when many psychologists confirmed that these factors are very important for a successful description of the personality (Costa, 1992). Currently, there is a great interest in the five-factor-model of the personality. Norman (1963) stresses that these five factors can accurately describe the personality.




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This paper is also going to discuss the theoretical analysis of the nature of the personality by Eysenck (1947, 1952, 1967) based on three previous categorizations of the people: a. Hippocrates’ theory; b. Kretschmer’s theory and c) Jung’s personality theory. By combining these three theories he discovered two dimensions that can describe the change in the personality of people: introversion-extraversion and neuroticism-stability (Eysenck, 1977). We need to mention that he was not satisfied only with these two dimensions of the personality which led him to study this matter further. By analyzing results from a personality test of psychiatric patients, Eyesenck came to the conclusion that there is another factor of the personality that he called psychoticism – R factor. This dimension is characterized by symptoms of maniac-depressive psychoses and schizophrenia. The people with such symptoms tend to be socially withdrawn or isolated. They are also prone to depression, etc. They are people “whose results in addition are just as bad as the results in drawing in a mirror, they have minor oscillations in the test of reverse perspective, they are also slow in following a given line, indecisive in the social opinions, have weak concentration and memory, and also tend to make big movements and badly assess distance and results. These people read more slowly, tap more slowly on the tapping test, and their level of aspiration is badly synchronized with reality” (p.217). He claimed that all three dimensions are independent from one another. By presenting the personality through these three dimensions, the author tried to identify and find the reasons for the behavior. According to him the extrovert people have higher tolerance of irritability than the introvert. For example, extraversion is associated with a decreasing performance with time, whereas neuroticism is associated with a great decrease after stress. Understandably, in order to explain these effects on the achievements (performances), we need to do more explaining at different levels. We start from such premises with the goal to identify different positions of ranking a motivation test depending on the achievements of the respondents in terms of the dimensions of extraversion and neuroticism. Also, he stressed that men are more extraverted than women, and that women are more neurotic than men, whereas as far as psychoticism is concerned, men (even male children) have higher scores than women (and female children). This realization confirms some of our assumptions dealing with the interpretation of the differences in the traits in female and male subjects related to their achievements.

Academic Achievements

It is assumed that the academic achievements of the students are related to their cultural background. Explicitly or implicitly, they bear the symbolism of the democratization of a society, the culture, current trends and the engagement of the teachers and other people that are responsible for the education. At the same time, they also reflect the attitudes of the parents, and the culture in general towards education (Elliot et al, 2000). These achievements are an essential indicator of the intellectual education and competence as the most important condition for the individual and educational prosperity of a person. This characteristic comprises the academic achievements of the students in one vital question that needs to be addressed by political structures and by the academic workers. The assessment of the achievements of the students in the study program usually targets the academic achievements, however, many institutions also assess the behavior and attitude of the students (Banks, 1993).

The academic achievements, as an essential indicator of the intellectual education and competence, are the most important condition for the individual and educational prosperity of the person. This characteristic combines them into one vital matter that needs to be addressed by the political structures and by the academic workers (Slavin, 2006). They bear symbolism of the democratization of a society, the culture, current trends and the engagement of the teachers and other people responsible for the education (Ames, C., Archer, J., 1988). For these reasons they are going to be studied in relation with the personality traits.

The authors Dempster, Stigins and Vajgins state that there is a broad vision for assessment that includes adequate activities that allow the students to have a compete overview of the subject they study, to reflect, to get trained to critically and creatively solve problems and implement this in real life (according to Brophi, 2003). Starting from the established weak points of the classic way of forming test questions and also in function of a more comprehensive testing and assessment of the knowledge of the students, different models whose goal is to further improve the activities for assessment of the progress of the students in their courses were prepared (Bloom, 1980). It is a solid concept for a comprehensive assessment of the academic achievements of the students which promotes the sense of assessment of knowledge and the learning progress in general. Also in the educational practice, a need occurred for further improvement of the new paradigm of assessment (Feldman, R.S. 1989). In this aspect, another author, Anderson (2000) claims that the taxonomy is in fact a different way of thinking. As a result, he transformed the names of the six main categories (from nouns) into verbal forms in the very beginning.




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Subject of Research

The subject of this research are the personal traits as assumed important predictors of the academic achievements of the students at the faculties of pedagogy.

Research Matter

According to the subject, the matter of research is defined in the following way: Do the personality traits influence the academic achievements of the students at the faculties of pedagogy?

3.2 . Research Variables

According to the matter, the main variables of the research are the following:

The personality traits such as the dimensions: extraversion, introversion, neuroticism, stability and psychoticism, and the academic achievements of the students in the final years at the faculties of pedagogy.

Hypotheses of the Research

The students differ in their academic achievements in terms of the dominant dimensions of the personality.

Sub-hypotheses:

A.1. The students differ in the academic achievements depending on the dimension neuroticism.

A.2. The students have different academic achievements depending on the dimension extraversion.

A.3. The students differ in the academic achievements depending on the dimension psychoticism.

3.4. Method of Research

The research is going to determine the degree of connection between the academic achievements of the students with the personality traits but not in the sense of their causal connection. Accordingly, a non-experimental method is going to be used.

Sample of the Research

The sample covers students from the groups for preschool education and elementary education at the faculties of pedagogy in Skopje and Tetovo (Table No.1). The preliminary number of respondents is 130. The final number of subjects was reduced to 115.

Table No.1. Structure of the preliminary and the final sample

Faculties Faculty of Pedagogy “St. Klliment Ohridski“ - Skopje

Faculty of Pedagogy of DUT

Year of study IV(final) IV (final) Number of subjects 60 70 Definite number of subjects 50 65 Total respondents 115

Research Data Processing

In the processing and the analysis of the empirical data we used one-way ANOVA, i.e. the F-test of significance of differences between arithmetic means for big samples and the Kruskal-Wallis test. All statistical analyses are processed by a computer with the software pack: SPSS. The indicators of the academic achievements are extracted from the students’ indexes in the form of the grades given by the professors for the regular exams.

Research Results

Psychologists claim that it is normal to notice the characteristics of the people in whom specific personality traits prevail. The reflections of these differences in the personalities can also be noticed during the studies, i.e. the academic performances of the students (Morin, 2016). Accordingly to the set hypotheses, we expect to confirm the connection between the academic achievements, i.e. the achievements of the students in the courses with specific character traits.




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What do the ANOVAs imply in terms of these relations? The answer to this question can be found in Table No.2, Table No.3, Table No.4 and Table No. 5.

Table No.2 ANOVA for the personality trait neuroticism – academic achievement

Dimension: neuroticism

Sum of squares Df Ms F Sig.

Between the groups 30.215 15 2.014 2.007 .022 In the groups 99.351 99 1.004 Total 129.565 114

The most probable explanation for this relation is that the students who are characterized by neuroticism make greater efforts in the study, i.e. in the processing of the instructional content, which on the other hand leads them to a better position compared to other students in terms of the study results. Bearing in mind that the trait anxiety is associated to the dimension neuroticism, we are going to mention that in several important researches, a negative relationship between the anxiety test and the self-efficacy of the students has been established (Pintrich & deGrot, 1990, Zohar, 1998). Knowing the positive role of self-efficacy, we can directly make assumptions about the influence of anxiety on the educational achievements. Usually, the people with emphasized neuroticism are characterized by a great energy of anxiety. According to this, they should not be confident in themselves (self-efficacy), and hence, their performance during the tests is questionable. However, this research proved the contrary. A possible explanation for this tendency is that the students with neuroticism are more careful and more disciplined when studying which leads to greater preparedness for the tests mostly in order to avoid failures when taking exams.

Table No.3 ANOVA for the personality trait psychoticism – academic achievement

Dimension: psychoticism

Sum of squares df ms F Sig.

Between the groups 20.067 18 1.115 .977 .492 In the groups 109.498 96 1.141 Total 129.565 114

Regarding the dimension psychoticism, we did not find any statistical relations in terms of the achievement of the students (Table No.3). This implies the insignificant role of psychoticism in the acquisition of the instructional content in the courses. This does not confirm the sub-hypothesis for the connection between this dimension and the academic achievements.

Table No.4 ANOVA for the personality trait extraversion – academic achievement

Dimension: extraversion

Sum of squares df Ms F Sig.

Between the groups 18.691 8 2.336 2.234 .030 In the groups 110.874 106 1.046 Total 129.565 114

Extraversion, on the other hand, is supposed to help the students be more active in the instruction, in the social interaction, the communication with professors and colleagues, and make them bolder in the efforts to solve the instructional problems. It increases the tendency for better academic achievements. By analyzing the indexes from the previous table, we can clearly notice the connection between the disposition of extraversion and the academic achievements. To some extent, it is logical to expect a positive connection of the variable extraversion with the achievements of the students. Those who are extrovert demonstrate better communication with the peers and their superiors. In the instructional activities, they are characterized by courage to engage in team work, and they are also open to different academic challenges. Their open lifestyle creates a positive image in the teachers who, on the other hand, dedicate more time to them, and are sometimes biased in the assessment.




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According to the general conclusion from the previously presented tables, and also on the basis of the calculations of the data from the ANOVAs, we can notice statistically significant connections among the variables. More specifically, the dimensions neuroticism and extraversion are greatly reflected in the academic achievements of the students in this sample.

Another research that was carried out in an American college yielded results which confirmed the influence of the personality traits on the academic achievements. This research provided conclusions that stated that the personality factors, such as consciousness and extraversion are closely related to the academic performances of the students (Furnham et al., 2009). Similarly, in a research that was carried out at an Iranian University, it was established that the traits such as neuroticism and extraversion are also important predictors of the academic achievements, but in a negative sense (Hakimi et al., 2011). Contrary to this, the findings in this paper confirm that both dimensions have a property of a positive indicator of success in the studies. Nonetheless, we cannot give an accurate answer why these differences exist. Maybe it is because of the design of the researches, or maybe the cultural differences have their own say!

Final Conclusions

Generally, the conclusions from the research confirm a partial existence of statistically significant differences between the research variables.

Regarding the expectations that specific personality dimensions (neuroticism, psychoticism and extraversion) lead to unequal achievements by the students, it was confirmed that was the case in terms of neuroticism and extraversion. Other researchers have acquired similar results, although there are opposite cases.

According to the results of the statistical analysis, we can confirm that the students with predominant dimension of neuroticism tend to have greater academic achievements. It is unclear whether this is due to the fact that this group of subjects is careful during lectures, respects the teachers and the students’ code because of the oversensitivity to a possible failure (failing an exam). In order to avoid this failure, they make great efforts in the learning process and during the regular attendance of the lectures. On the other hand, maybe there are other hidden variables which we cannot discover with this design of the research.

A tendency for higher scores was noticed in the extraverted students, which was somewhat expected. More elaborately, they are open to the outside world and have social skills for establishing successful contacts with the colleagues and professors. For them it is usual to be active during the lectures and other instructional engagements. These traits make it easier for them to adjust to the academic roles of the students, and therefore they stand out by having greater achievements.

Limiting Factors and Suggestions for Future Researches

This research covered some of assumingly the most important variables which undoubtedly influence the achievements of the students. However, it is a fact that there are some limiting factors which relativize the conclusions of the research, and this imposes the need for designing a new one with developed analytical procedures for this particular areas. In this regard, we make the following notes:

Regarding the research sample (it covers a small number of subjects – students at the faculties of pedagogy), we can say that it is not sufficiently representative for a valid generalization of the conclusions;

Regarding the research instruments, we came to the conclusion that it is necessary for other ones from the psychological-pedagogical inventory for research of personality traits and motivation to be used as well;

In terms of the academic achievements, there are different ways and indicators for assessing them. According to this, we believe that in future researches it would be beneficial to use data analysis from other evaluating procedures such as the knowledge tests and other indicators of the academic performances of the students.

References

[1] Allport, G. (1962). The general and the unique in psychological science. J. Pers., 30, 405-21.

[2] Ames, C., Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students’ learning strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 260-267.




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[3] Anderson,L.W.(2000). Taxomomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Pearson Allyn and Bacon.

[4] Banks, J. A. (1993). An introduction to multicultural education(2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

[5] Bloom B. S. (1980). All Our Children Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill

[6] Brophy, J.(2003) Teaching. Manual for Teachers. IAE Unesco

[7] Cattell, R. B. (1963). Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 54, 1–22.

[8] Costa T.P.Jr. (1992) Discriminant Validity of NEO-PIR Facet Scales, Educational and Psychological Measurement, 229-237.

[9] Costa, T and McCrae, R.R.(1992). Normal personality assessment in clinical practice: The NEO Personality Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 4, 5-13

[10] David G. Myers( 1999) Social Psychology. New York: McGraw- Hill Companies

[11] Elliot, N.S, Kratochvill, R.TH., Cooh, J.L., Travers, F.J.,(2000). Educational psychology: Effective teaching, efective learning. New York: McGRAW – HILL

[12] Eysenck H.J. (1977) The place of impulsiveness in a dimensional system of personality description. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 16, 57-68.

[13] Eysenck, H.J.(1947) Dimensions of Personality. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul.

[14] Eysenck, H.J.(1952) The scientific study of human personality. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul.

[15] Eysenck, HJ. (1967). The biological basis of personality. Springfield: Thomas

[16] Feldman, R.S. (1989) Essentials of understanding psychology. McGraw – Hill

[17] Hakimi S., Hejazi E., Lavasani M. G. The Relationships Between Personality Traits and Students’ Academic Achievement. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, Volume 29, 2011, Pages 836-845.

[18] Hogan,R. (1986) Hogan Personality inventory . Minneapolis, MN:National Computer Systems

[19] McKenzie (1989). Neuroticism and academic achievement: The Fureaux factor. Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 509-515

[20] Morin, A. (2016)What Mentally Strong People Don't . Psychology today.Retrieved May 31.2016 from:. https://plus.google.com/103274375452085829412/posts

[21] Norman, W. T. (1963). Toward an adequate taxonomy of personality attributes: Replicated factor structure in peer nomination personality ratings. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 574-583.

[22] Pintrich, P. R., DeGroot, E.V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82/1, 33-40.

[23] Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1992). Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16(2), 201-228.

[24] Slavin.E.Robert(2006) Educational Psychology, theory and practice: Johns Hopkins University

https://www.psychologytoday.com/experts/amy-morin

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Technology as a Motivational Factor in Foreign Language Learning

Panagiotis Panagiotidis

Pinelopi Krystalli

Panagiotis Arvanitis

Abstract

It is a common belief that engagement and motivation are crucial factors in learning and especially in language learning. In particular, increasing motivation can lead to the mobilization of students’ personal, cognitive, emotional and behavioral resources and, consequently to better learning results. As digital technology has become more sophisticated, its tools and applications can be used in and outside the classroom, in both formal and informal settings, in order to increase students’ motivation. Amongst the various factors -tools, methods or strategies- that can lead to increased motivation, this paper examines the role of technology as a motivational factor in foreign language learning. The relationship between the use of technological means such as web tools and services, digital games, mobile apps or communication tools and motivation in language learning context, has been studied extensively, with a wide variety of approaches, and within the framework of several language learning applications. In order to determine the real impact of technology on learners' motivation, an extensive literature review focusing on studies that have examined the impact of technology use in language learning and teaching on motivation to learn, has been carried out. Furthermore, this paper discusses the concept of motivation in learning context and the relationship between technology and language learning, summarizes some of the numerous studies and researches on this subject, presents a synthesis of the studies examined, and formulates conclusions and perspectives for effective integration of technology as a motivational tool / factor in language learning context.

Keywords: language learning technology, motivation.

Introduction

Nowadays technology is not any more a privilege for the minority of students but it is accessible to all the students, as it has become considerably cheaper. Technology is ubiquitous and, hence, the wealth of the world’s information can be easily accessed through a variety of devices. According to recent statistics, 5 billion people worldwide use mobile devices (eWeek, 2017). The growing use of mobile devices (personal digital assistants-PDAs, mobile phones, iPods, laptops, Tablet PCs) and wireless technologies (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, GPS, 3G, 4G, satellite systems), enable the user to access any type of training and instructional material from anywhere and at any time.

Today’s students, who are considered digital natives, are familiar with any type of technology and they are highly skilled at multitasking in the modern information era where ubiquitous connections are now possible. Millennials interact continuously and seamlessly with technology and this is affecting both how they want to learn and to be taught in any level of education, and, the teaching and learning practices used. They use technology as an integral part of everyday life, both in formal and informal learning contexts, not for the sake of technology but as a fundamental tool to access information and communication, as a basic element of everyday life and as an essential tool for their existence (Prensky, 2007, Housand and Housand, 2012, Thomas, O’Bannon, and Bolton, 2013).

Research has shown that technology-enhanced environments can increase students’ motivation and engagement and improve students’ productivity ( Prensky, 2007; Roblyer & Doering, 2010). But is this the case in the foreign language learning context? What is the real impact of technology on learners' motivation? In this paper, we tried to answer this




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question by examining the results of previous research carried out in the field of foreign language focusing on the impact of technology use in language learning and teaching on motivation to learn.

Technology and Motivation in Foreign Language Learning

The integration of digital technology into foreign language teaching and learning is not an innovation. However, the advent of Web 2.0 and the great variety of tools that are more numerous and easier to access and handle seem to have given it an accelerating effect. This integration has changed teachers' pedagogical practices and renewed learning strategies among learners.

Actually, as Lamb states, “… developments in digital technology are probably the most prolific source of innovation in L2 teaching methodology in contemporary times, at least in western or developed world contexts, and the motivational properties of each innovation are usually considered an important aspect of its instructional qualities …”. (Lamb, 2017: 30).

In the context of an action-oriented approach, as proposed by the Council of Europe, the solid ground of the use of technology is that one can learn by action, by experience, “by doing”. The use of technology has two main purposes: to facilitate the transfer of what is learned outside the school, in other social contexts, and motivate learners by engaging them in the proposed learning tasks and activities.

According to Brophy (2004: 3) “… motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain the initiation, direction, intensity, persistence, and quality of behavior, especially goal-directed behavior…”. Motivation is important because it helps to determine whether a learner persists in a course, the level of engagement shown, the quality of work produced, and the level of achievement attained (Maggie Hartnett, 2016: 13). Motivation is the "tensor" of the original forces, internal and external (situational, contextual and global), directed or not by an aim that influences an individual cognitively, emotionally or behaviorally (Karsenty, 1999).

Lamb (2017, 30) listed the main motivational benefits of using technology in foreign language learning:

Greater autonomy and individualization;

Enhanced opportunities for communication;

Identity development;

Recognizing and utilizing learners’ existing IT skills;

Content-based instruction;

Intercultural content;

Designing motivating tasks;

Increasing the relevance of the L2;

Alternative forms of assessment.

Τhe growing amount of research evidence has shown that teachers and researchers have used a variety of software and applications in order to face motivational challenges. We have grouped the results of our literature review into four parts according to the type of technology used: Web tools, services and applications, games and MUVEs, communication tools and mobile technologies.

Literature Review

In the following section, we will briefly present and summarize some of the numerous studies and researches on how the use of various technological means can reinforce and maintain learners’ motivation and increase their engagement in the educational process.

Web tools, Services and Applications

The relationship between Web 2.0 tools and motivation has been studied extensively. According to Terrell (2011) access to online tools (wikis, avatars, games, interactive stories), increases English Language learners motivation to practice




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English outside the classroom. Furthermore, as McLoughlin & Lee (2008a) argue, Web 2.0 tools appear to motivate the individual to link personal interests to broader social networks, participating, thus, in a dynamic community that provides feedback and reciprocity. The following studies relate to specific web 2.0 services and tools:

Mazer, Murphy and Simonds (2007) carried out a study in order to explore the impact of teacher self-disclosure on Facebook on student motivation, affective learning and classroom climate. The results of the study confirmed that this practice may lead students to higher levels of anticipated motivation and affective learning and to create a more pleasant classroom climate.

Shih (2011) also studied the effect of integrating social networks (in that case facebook) in a College English writing class, using a blended learning approach and peer assessment. The findings demonstrated that using cooperative learning, this facebook integrated instruction could also significantly enhance students’ interest and motivation.

Lee, McLoughlin and Chan (2008b) experimentally used the production of podcasts to better prepare their students for the content of the course. The conclusion was that the students-producers found the task both challenging and motivating, as evidenced by the quality and intensity of their interaction and by the successful production of the podcasts.

Mahoney (2014:36, cited by Richards, 2015) investigated the use of blogging in a writing course. The results showed that this has a highly motivating effect on students.

Wilkinson (2016) used media sharing services to increase the motivation of students. The study confirmed that the public exposure of student work (eg publishing to YouTube) drives them to do their best.

Sun (2009), in an experiment on the effectiveness of voice blogs, concluded that voice-blogging can increase learning motivation, authorship, and development of learning strategies, as it encourages students to present themselves, exchange information and connect to peers.

Yang & Wu (2012) developed a Digital Storytelling (DST) program to investigate whether it has an impact on academic achievement, critical thinking, and learning motivation of senior high school students learning English as a foreign language. The results after a period of 6 months showed that the participants achieved a better level in English language, but also showed improvement in critical thinking and learning motivation, especially for task value and self-efficacy. Yang & Wu also refer to other studies (eg. Pintrich et al, 1993; Pintrich, 1999; Robin, 2005, 2008; Sadik, 2008; Van Gils, 2005), that lead to the general conclusion that DST can trigger users' interest, increase their cooperative skills, and help them improve in foreign language.

Games, Video Games and MUVEs

Many researchers argue about the benefits of using video games in education. Games can be used in a variety of learning approaches, and they are able to motivate and engage the students in the learning process:

O’Neil, Wainess and Baker (2005) argue that when learning content is combined with game elements, motivation of the learner is positively affected as games offer high level of interaction.

Randel, Morris, Wetzel and Whitehill (1992) state that competitive games motivate via challenge, fantasy and curiosity (Randel et al. 1992).

Bisson and Luckner (1996), argue that games create a complete, interactive, virtual playing environment, which offers an immersive experience and motivate users via fun, challenge and instant, visual feedback.

Mitchell and Saville-Smith (2004) claim that well-designed computer games are engaging and seductive, and motivate the player to continue using rewards and feedback.

Prensky (2007), Kirriemuir & McFarlane (2003) and Susi, Johannesson and Backlund (2007), agree that the desire to win, challenge and set goals that characterize games, implies an increase in user motivation.

Rosas, Nussbaum, Cumsille, Marianov, Correa, Flores and Rodriguez (2003) investigated the effects of introducing educational video games into the classroom and noticed positive effects on learning, motivation and classroom dynamics.




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Mitchell & Saville-Smith (2004) believe that video games can stimulate the enjoyment, motivation and engagement of users and promote the development of various social and cognitive skills.

Woo (2014), carried out a survey among 63 university students for 8 weeks in order to find out whether Digital Game-Based Learning supports student motivation and cognitive success. The results showed that, using the online game, motivation and cognitive load exhibited a significant canonical correlation with performance.

Liu & Chu (2010) studied the ways in which ubiquitous games influence English learning achievement and learners' motivation. The research concluded that integrating ubiquitous games into the English class can result in better learning outcomes and motivation than the use of a traditional method.

Several other studies (Papastergiou, 2008; Tüzün, Yilmaz-Soylu, Karakus, Inal and Kizilkaya (2009) have concluded that GBL can improve learning motivation, attention and interest.

MUVEs provide students with an opportunity to visualise and engage with complex learning systems in a setting that is motivating and engaging (Kennedy-Clark, 2009).

Wehner, Gump and Downey (2011) investigated the effect of learning a foreign language (in that case Spanish language) in a virtual world (in that case Second Life) on the motivation of users. Results demonstrated that virtual worlds can increase student motivation, lower their anxiety and help them learn a foreign language.

Connoly, Stansfield and Hainey (2011) developed an Augmented Reality Game to investigate if AR Games can increase student motivation in foreign language learning. ARG project was part of a European Commission Comenius project and involved 6 European partners, 328 14–16 year old students and 95 language teachers in 17 European countries. The students who participated in the research believe that they developed not only motivation but also cooperation, collaboration and teamwork skills.

Other software applications, tools, and learning activities have also been used to motivate students. Mullamaa (2010) investigated the ways of using a web-based environment (in that case the Blackboard LMS) in creating study materials for teaching English and Swedish (ESP and terminology) courses. Research has shown that the use of this environment improved cooperation among students and increase their motivation. Finally, Norbrook & Scott (2003) believe that quizzes are also capable to increase students’ motivation.

Communication Tools

The potential of technology to increase motivation through synchronous or asynchronous communication has also been thoroughly explored:

Sun (2009) refers to several researches concerning the possibilities of CMC (Computer Mediated Communication). Results have shown that carefully prepared textual or audiovisual communication activities, both synchronous and asynchronous, can foster learner autonomy and enhance student motivation (Beauvois, 1992, 1998; Godwin-Jones, 2003; González-Bueno, 1998; Kern, 1995; Pellettieri, 2000; Shield & Weininger, 1999, all cited by Sun, 2009).

Alamer (2015), investigated the possibility of using the instant messaging application WhatsApp in L2 learning. Feedback showed that informal use of such application can foster their motivation to learn an L2.

Freiermuth & Huang (2012) examined in detail the motivation of Japanese students of English as a foreign language (EFL) who chatted electronically with Taiwanese EFL students using online synchronous chat software. The results reveal that students can be highly motivated when they participate in well-designed synchronous online chat tasks.

Freiermuth & Huang (2012) referring to a number of related studies, argue that CMC is naturally attractive as a tool, as students seemed highly motivated by the activities. (Beauvois, 1995, 1999; Chun, 1994; Darhower, 2002; Freiermuth, 1998, 2001; Freiermuth & Jarrell, 2006; Kelm, 1992; Kern, 1995; Meunier, 1998; Warschauer, 1996, 1997; Warschauer et al., 1998 all cited by Freiermuth & Huang, 2012).

In another published research, Mayer pointed out that text messaging improves motivation (Mayer, 2002)




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Mobile Technologies

Nowadays, the main trend seems to be the exploitation of mobile technologies. M-learning uses mobile computing technologies to enhance learning and therefore has an excellent potential to motivate learners as it is available anytime, anywhere and provides learners with rich, real-time, convenient, collaborative, contextual and continuous learning experiences, both inside and outside the classroom (Kukulska-Hulme, 2005). Indeed, the latest generation of smartphones offers great possibilities to deliver multimedia content, location-based learning materials, and serious games to enhance the learners’ enjoyment and motivation (Claudill, 2007). Foreign language courses developed for smart-phones, encompassing video clips, exercises, and other useful tools, are, according to the users, highly motivating Chinnery, 2006). This is a common belief among many researchers who argue about the benefits of using mobile technologies in education:

Burston (2013) analysed some 575 works that was conducted relating to MALL (Mobile Assisted Language Learning) and conducted from 1994 to 2012. Among those publications, were 360 descriptions of projects concerning the use of mobile technologies in language learning and covering a variety of topics concerning MALL. Some of these applications studied the motivational effects of MALL applications in students (all cited by Burston, 2013): Chan et al (2011) explored the use of podcasting to support the learning of L2; Chiang (2012) investigated the effect on subsequent motivation to do extensive L2 English reading comparing Kindle ebook reader and printed materials; Gjedde & Bo-Kristensen (2012) conducted a lifelong learning project in which adult L2 learners complement classroom instruction using mobile phones to take textual notes, capture photos and videos, and make audio recordings; Hung & Young (2007), reported on the rationale of designing a PDA-based L2 English vocabulary acquisition game aiming to help elementary school students learn English words through collaborative and competitive group learning activities; Hung et al (2009) explored the effectiveness of a tablet PC-based Wireless Crossword Fan-Tan Game (WiCFG) on L2 English vocabulary acquisition; Kim & Lim (2010), explored how Twitter can be utilized to increase the motivation of L2 English students to write in English. Lan et al (2007), developed a tablet-PC based peer-assisted learning system (MPAL) to support the collaborative acquisition of L2 English reading skills; Lin et al (2008), studied the effect of hand-drawn sketches using the Group Scribbles application on web-linked tablet PCs to support the in-class collaborative learning of L2 English vocabulary by primary school children; Lin et al (2007), designed and tested a mobile-based system intended as a textbook complement; Liu & Chu (2010) reported on the use of location-aware HELLO language learning system; Song (2008), developed an hybrid website + mobile phone SMS vocabulary learning program; Yamada et al (2011), reported on the effectiveness of a smartphone + web server program on the improvement of L2 English listening comprehension. In all of the above MALL projects, there has been less or more positive effect on the motivation of users thanks to the use of mobile technologies.

Huang, Yang, Chiang and Su (2016) developed a 5-step vocabulary learning (FSVL) strategy and a mobile learning tool in order to investigate their effects on the learning motivation and performance of their (80) students in English as a foreign language (EFL). The results showed that the learning motivation and performance of the students that used the mobile learning tool were superior to those of students taught via the traditional learning tools. This study also found that the learning approach did not significantly affect students’ motivation to learn the teaching materials, which leads to the conclusion that the increased motivation is due to the mobile tool.

Sandberg, Maris and De Geus (2011) conducted a survey on the added value of mobile technology for learning English as a second language for primary school students. The results showed that the use of the mobile application motivated users and increased the total learning time with obvious benefits to their learning. The conclusion is that that formal school learning can be augmented by learning in an informal context, outside school, due to motivation created by the mobile app.

In a study conducted at Middlesex University in the UK, mobile learning activities (3D simulations) which encompass quiz and game functions were incorporated into certain sections of anatomy courses. The results were positive, as students found the iPAD educational app fun and motivating (Adams Becker, Cummins, Davis, Freeman, Hall, Giesinger and Ananthanarayanan, 2017)

Thornton and Houser (2005) used mobile phones to teach English at a Japanese university, comparing web-based with SMS-based learning. The results of this study showed that the SMS-based lessons had been more effective because the use of mobile phones motivated the students to rehearse more frequently, which resulted in better retention of the material.

The JISC Case Studies in Wireless and Mobile Learning, which reviewed innovative practice in the United Kingdom, identified a number of benefits to 125 learners, including increased engagement and motivation. In that case, the use of




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mobile technology served as a motivator, since the variety of media and self-pacing attributes encouraged students to engage with learning material (Kukulska-Hulme, 2005).

Technology Based Learning Activities

As can be deduced from the numerous studies presented in the previous paragraphs, the use of technologies can, beyond any doubt, increase the motivation of users, make them follow the courses with more interest, and engage more actively in the learning process.

As far as language learning is concerned, the use of technologies involves a variety of tools and strategies. In foreign language classroom, properly designed activities for presentation, practice, assessment, testing, reference, communication or simulations, but also for creation, production and publishing are used by students.

It is a common belief among the researchers who investigate the effectiveness of technology use in FL learning / teaching that learning activities supported by technology can promote motivation by engaging students in activities which are enjoyable and fulfilling (Huang et al, 2016; Golonka et al, 2014). However, although the use of all these technologies can guarantee an increase in motivation, it does not necessarily guarantee better learning outcomes. Golonka et al, claim that it is unclear whether technology by itself actually improves students' learning.

As this is the crucial issue and the ultimate goal of teaching, the challenge is to use technology in such a way as to make the best possible use of the very positive attitude and motivation it brings to users. In this context, designing activities to achieve the best pedagogical use of technology is crucial.

According to Yang & Wu (2012), technology-based activities must have clear objectives that incite students’ interest and, thus, increase their willingness to participate. Respectively, Ushioda (2011) claims that defining and monitoring targets can help learners develop self-determined behavior, conform to the wider requirements, and consequently, achieve better results. In the same spirit, Adams-Becker et al (2017) believe that the connection between coursework and the real world must be easily identifiable by the students, as it helps them to understand how the new knowledge and skills will impact them.

Concluding from the views outlined above, the integration of technology in well-designed and prepared activities increases motivation of both teachers and learners, and leads to improved performance and better learning results (Atkinson, 2000). However, it is obvious that pedagogical relevance is an important driving force (Sun, 2009). Choosing a method that supports active learning experiences (such as project-based learning), seems to be important as well. Derntl & Motschnig-Pitrik (2005) reach the same conclusion, by arguing that the blended learning approach in particular, can enhance students’ motivation to participate actively in class and, thus, improve learning.

Conclusion

As is evident from the data presented above, the use of technology in the foreign language classroom can undoubtedly have a positive effect on increasing students’ motivation and eventually lead them to better learning outcomes (Woodrow, 2017). Actually, this does not only apply in the context of institutionalized education, but it seems to be true for learning outside the classroom. Several researches concerning Self-Regulated Learning, concluded that ICT can increase students’ motivation in self-directed learning aspects of informal learning when using online learning resources (Lucas & Moreira, 2009; Song & Bonk, 2016). Lai & Gu (2011) also observed students’ use of technology for language learning in Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) scenarios. The results reflect a clear increase in participants’ motivation when they used technology to achieve their learning goals.

As digital technology is progressing and becoming more sophisticated and, at the same time, simple to use, its tools and applications are increasingly becoming part of everyday life and, of course, education in both formal and informal settings.

Having proven that the use of technology in language learning is an important factor in order to increase student motivation, future research should concern the integration of technologies into learning activities that have the appropriate pedagogical approach to exploit their potential and lead learners to higher learning outcomes.




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What Role Do I Play in My Learning? A Study on the Academic Engagement of Higher-Education Students

Florencia Teresita Daura

Universidad Austral, Escuela de Educación; Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigaciones en Psicología Matemática y Experimental–CIPPME. CONICET

Julio Cesar Durand

Universidad Austral, Escuela de Educación)

Abstract

The study of academic engagement has gained international visibility due to various factors operating in the social environment, such as fragmentation, 'liquidity' in interpersonal relations, etc., which end up affecting the persistence rates in studies, or its manifestation in an increasing rate of desertion in higher studies on the part of Argentine students. This research has been carried out within this framework, where 350 students of University and College education, who are enrolled in technical, humanistic-pedagogical and economic studies, completed the Academic Engagement Scale (Daura & Durand, 2018) with the purpose of analyzing, on the one hand, their level of involvement with their studies; and on the other hand, inquiring on the existing connection with demographic variables.

Keywords: academic engagement, measuring devices, higher education.

1. Introduction

We live in a social context featured by fastness, superficiality, successfulness, seduction, instability, consumerism, the lack of a sense for which to live, and the questioning of ideas (Bauman, 2013)

Faced with this, in the educational field some thinkers, academics, researchers and pedagogues come up, as beacons lightning the road and acting as a gust of air that oxygenates, and they try to give light and provide solutions for improvement to what at first glance seems negative and even destructive.

Among the topics widening the horizon is the academic engagement, a meta-construct which investigation is introduced even with a certain paradox, if we take into account the above-mentioned environment and the meaning of the first term that makes it up. Admittedly, undertaking a commitment entails complying with the word given, being loyal and honest to oneself and to others, taking responsibility for the decisions made. At the same time, the engagement may be personal and collective and, in the school or academic path, it entails assuming a specific role; to this extent, it is colloquially said that a student or an institution are committed when they carry out the tasks concerning them.

To this extent, its study and analysis is valid if it is considered in connection with the serious problem of desertion. It is widely- known that the graduation rate of the Argentine university system is one of the lowest in the region and in the world; out of 100 students being admitted at the public education sector 74 do not graduate; while in the private sector, for the same number of students, 58 do not finish their studies. As regards the further education level, 55% of students who enroll at teacher training centers drop out in the first year of studies, and the graduation rate does not exceed 30% (Centro de Estudios de la Educación Argentina, 2018; Fernández, June 5th, 2018; Marcó del Pont, November 7th, 2017). Even those who are most critical of the educational and economic policies adopted last year say that more than 19,500 students dropped out of school in the 2017 academic year (Fdel, Jan, 31, 2018).

Within this framework, the present study is made, with the participation of 350 University and Further-Education-Level students who are taking technical, humanistic-pedagogical and economic studies in the province of Buenos Aires and in the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires (CABA), who completed the Academic Engagement Scale (Daura & Durand, 2018)




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with the purpose of analyzing, on the one hand, their level of involvement with their studies; and on the other hand, investigating the existing connection with demographic variables.

To this end, firstly, after introducing a brief theoretical framework on the main study construct, in which such construct is defined and some of the research devices that were designed to evaluate it are described, the results achieved with the selected sample are discussed in detail.

2. Theoretical Framework of Reference

What is the academic engagement?

Involvement, responsibility, mission, agreement, treaty, are synonyms used to refer to the commitment. If we delve into its etymological root, it comes from the Latin term compromissum, which has two prefixes. The first, ‘com’, comes from the Greek koinos, which means common, joint; while the second, promissus, means promise. Thus, the term, in its affirmative and positive meaning, is "an undertaken obligation; [a] given word" (Real Academia Española, 2018, w.p.) it can also be considered as a joint promise made between two parties.

The commitment is also connected to the academic field, from the translation of the construct that in English is called academic engagement, which began to be studied in the Anglo-Saxon environment as a turn or change of focus on research regarding desertion and student retention.

Its meaning already states the interaction unfolding between two parties which are supposed to undertake a responsibility facing the decision making process and the resulting actions. In connection with the school or academic environment, the main characters in this interrelation are the learner and the educational institution, represented by the heads, teachers, tutors and other members of the institution.

It is precisely in this inter-play that one of the theoretical models used as a reference to explain the construct is anticipated. Specifically, the socio-cognitive theory, in which both the student and the educational organization are considered to have a leading role in the learning process and in the connection established between them.

Although there are many definitions of academic engagement, in this model it is understood as the process where the students and the teaching institution are involved, in which the former invest time and energy to carry out academic activities, and the latter strives to implement effective educational practices (Kuh, Cruce, Shoup & Kinziey Gonyea, 2008). From this approach, the cognitive, affective-motivational and behavioral factors that intervene in the academic commitment are taken into account, which constitutes one of the most in-depth models for understanding the construct.

Fredericks, Blumenfeld and Paris (2004) specify the peculiarities of these three variables from the description of how they are seen in students (Table 1).

Table 1.

This model offers a very comprehensive vision of the construct, which allows us to approach it in an overall manner and to offer a better support to the student, as well as to the teachers or to each educational institution in order to promote it.

However, since it is a concept crossed by multiple variables that give a higher level of complexity to its approach, it is necessary to consider how to measure it in order to obtain the information necessary to assess it objectively.

How to assess the academic engagement? Some instruments designed…

Fredricks and McColskey (2012) and Veiga, Reeve, Wentzel & Robu (2014) thoroughly describe the tools used to deepen the study of academic engagement. These include self-report scales, grading scales, interviews, and class observations. Although all of them offer advantages and disadvantages, generally speaking, Likert scales are the most frequently used because they allow us to obtain information that is not directly noticeable, and that refer to the students' perception of the object of study.

Many of the existing surveys explore the three variables recognized in the socio-cognitive model, while others focus on two or only one aspect. In addition, some surveys designed for the secondary education level are highlighted, such as the School Engagement Measure (SEM) (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, Friedel & Paris, 2005). Others apply only at university and postgraduate levels: the Motivation and Engagement Scale (MES) (Lifelong Achievement Group, 2013), the Academic




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Involvement Questionnaire (QEA) (Abello Riquelme, Díaz Mujica, Pérez Villalobos, Almeida, Lagos Herrera, González Puentes & Strickland, 2012), the Questionnaire of Academic Experiences (QVA) (Almeida, Ferreira & Soares, 1999), the Survey of Well-being in an Academic Context (UWES-S) (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004).

At the same time, the importance given to the study of the construct had an impact on the implementation of programs aimed at obtaining unbiased information on the involvement of students in different countries, the results of which are used to make improvements in the education system. Within the context of these programs, the following research instruments were designed and are still being implemented: the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) (Indiana University School of Education, 2016), which is applied in university institutions in the United States and Canada; the Australian Scale on Student Engagement (Australian Council for Educational Research, 2016, which is used in the southwestern region of Oceania; and the scales for undergraduate and graduate students in Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Higher Education Academy, 2015a; Higher Education Academy, 2015b).

3.Methodology and Procedures

3.1.Sample

A sample of 350 first-year college and university students was made.

An exploratory and descriptive investigation was carried out because the variables to be analyzed were observed as they happened in their natural context at a given moment.

3.2.Purposes

•Analyze the level of academic engagement of students in university and college education.

•Examine the existing connection between academic engagement and various socio-demographic variables, especially, gender, type of institution and type of studies.

3.3. Instruments

Socio-demographic Questionnaire

A questionnaire was designed to collect information regarding the gender, age, institution and studies of the subjects who took part in the study.

Academic Engagement Scale

It is an instrument designed and validated in previous studies (Daura & Durand, 2018; Daura, in press) in accordance with the approaches of the socio-cognitive theory (Fredricks & McColskey, 2012; Trowler, 2010); it has a Likert scale format and is made of 56 items, with five answer options ("0", which means "completely wrong", "1" "wrong", "2" "neither true nor wrong", "3" "true" and "4" "completely true").

The instrument is divided into three sections, which, in turn, are made of 13 variables that are defined and distributed as described in the following table (table 2).

Table 2

3.4.Procedure

The appropriate permission was requested from the authorities of the institutions taking part in the study; likewise, the students who completed the questionnaires were provided with information about the purposes of the work, the confidential and voluntary nature of their participation, and were given a document which they signed giving their consent.

The time taken to complete the instruments ranged from 40 to 60 minutes.

The scores of the Academic Engagement Scale were obtained by adding the subjects' choices and converting the figure to scale 10.

The data was processed using the program SPSS -Statistical Package for the Social Sciences - version 23.0.




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4.Analysis of Results

4.1.Descriptive Statistics of the Academic Engagement Scale

A descriptive analysis was made (minimum score, maximum score, population average and standard deviation) of the scores obtained by the students in the Academic Engagement Scale.

Table 3 shows the scores achieved in the Motivational Engagement section, among which the average of the variables Task Assessment and Intrinsic Motivation stand out, which would make them capable of assessing the contents and learning activities proposed by the institution, and of showing an interest in acquiring new knowledge.

At the same time, the students show a high level of anxiety, an effect that could be connected with the initial moment of the studies in which they currently are, a situation that usually generates uncertainty, and the need to adapt to a new, demanding and unknown environment.

Table 3

As for the descriptive statistics in the Cognitive Engagement section (table 4), the students stand out in the Organization variable, which would make them capable of selecting and organizing the important ideas of the contents learnt; and in the Extrinsic Regulation section, which would lead them to follow the guidelines and suggestions offered by the teachers, an issue connected both with the moment of their studies in which they currently are, where they would need to rely more on the experience of other people more skilled to guide their learning, as well as their autonomy and the achievement of good academic results. In fact, previous studies show how the students who are more adjusted and committed to their learning tend to rely more on their environment, to seek help from other people and to make all the necessary enquiries with sharpness and sagacity (Donolo; Chiecher, Paolini & Rinaduo, 2008; Fernández Jacquez, 2015; Fredricks; Blumenfeld; Friedel & Paris, 2005; Pintrich, Smith, García & Mc Keachie, 1991; Zimmerman & Schunk, 1989).

Table 4

As regards the descriptive statistics in the Contextual Engagement section (table 5), the average scores obtained in the variables, Positive Assessment of the Institution and Feelings of Belonging stand out, which show that students appreciate the actions carried out by the institution of which they are part of, in order to include them, which leads them to express greater interest in participating in the proposed activities and to feel part of it. These effects are linked to the "contextual model of academic engagement" of Lam, Wong, Yang and Liu (2012), in which it is argued that, as students increase their commitment to the institution, they develop more positive feelings towards it, towards the people with whom they interact (classmates, teachers, family members) and towards their own studying ability.

Table 5

In order to analyze to which extent the academic engagement can be explained by various socio-demographic aspects, subsequent analyses of variances (ANOVA one way) were made, in which, as dependent variables, the average scores reached by the sample in the variables of the Academic Engagement Scale were taken into account and, as an independent factor, gender, institutional level and type of studies were considered.

4.2.Comparison of the sections of the Academic Engagement Scale according to gender

Regarding the gender of the subjects who took part in the study, as a result of the variables analysis made, we notice that in the motivational section (Figure 1) significant differences were found for the women in the Task assessment (F = 25,927, p < 0,001) and Intrinsic motivation variables (F = 14,979, p < 0,001); on the other hand, they scored less favorably on the anxiety variable (F = 3.168, p < 0.076), which is close to statistically significant figures. These effects, in addition to agreeing with those reached in previous studies (Parada Contreras & Pérez Villalobos, 2014; Parra & Pérez, 2010; among others), respond to the unique profile of women, which is evidenced by greater responsibility, interest in the studies, dedication and effort to achieve academic goals and the involvement in the institutional context to which they belong.




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Figure 1.

In connection with the cognitive engagement section, women also outperform men in the Organization (F = 19,084, p < 0,001) and Time and Effort Management variables (F = 7,0469, p < 0,008). In the Extrinsic Regulation variable, although differences close to statistical values were found, women also benefited (Figure 2).

These effects reinforce the results reported in the motivational engagement section, and evidence the ability of students to organize new knowledge, manage the time and effort needed to study, and the need to rely on instructions and suggestions from other experts (such as teachers) in order to implement learning activities. The latter may also be supported by the increased anxiety shown by women.

Figure 2.

Finally, in the Contextual Engagement section, women, compared to men, also achieved better scores in the Appreciation of the Institution (F = 4.0189, p < 0.046), Tutoring and Teaching (F = 15.062, p < 0.001), and Feelings of Belonging variables (F = 3.6118, p < 0.058), which could be an indication of how involved they are with the institution where they are studying (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

4.3. Comparison of the sections of the Academic Engagement Scale in terms of the institution of belonging.

The same analysis was made in order to confirm whether there are statistically significant differences in the scale of engagement based on the institution of belonging. To this extent, the sample was divided into two subgroups: University Level, made up of 225 students enrolled in university studies; and College Level, made up of 125 students enrolled in studies conducted by Teacher Training Institutes.

In the motivational engagement section (Figure 4) we noticed some interesting results that benefit college level students in the Task Assessment (F = 10,120, p < 0,002) and Intrinsic Motivation variables (F = 11,833, p < 0,001); and university level students in Extrinsic Motivation (F = 18,443, p < 0,001) and Anxiety variables (F = 4,523, p < 0,001). These effects could indicate the presence of two types of motivational engagement profiles which, in the case of students undergoing college studies, could be deeper and could be evidenced by the appreciation of the contents and activities offered by teachers and tutors, as well as by the interest in acquiring new knowledge. On the other hand, in university students, the motivational engagement could be superficial, insofar as it would be directed towards acquiring new knowledge to satisfy external motivations, without worrying too much about the repercussions that this might have.

These results are consistent with other factors that are not analyzed here, such as, for example, the socio-economic level of the sample that took part in the study or the place of residence and proximity to the institution in which the studies are taken.

Figure 4.

In the cognitive engagement section (Figure 5), college students were favored in the use of Deep Strategies (F = 4.523, p < 0.034); while university students had a greater command of Basic Strategies (F = 3,823, p < 0,051), Extrinsic Regulation (F = 2,902, p < 0,089) and Time and Effort Management (F = 4,676, p < 0,031). These effects show that, while college students could have a greater ability to think reflexively and critically, make decisions, and accept the opinions of others, the performance of the commitment in this regard could be undermined by the failure to take advantage of the guidance provided by teachers or other experts, as well as by a reduced willingness to make the effort and organize the time needed to study; one might even think of these effects as a result of the influence of the institutional context, which in the case of these students offered less personal support.

Figure 5.

The last idea pointed out is based on the results obtained in the Institutional Engagement section (Figure 6) in which, although statistically significant differences were only reached in the Feelings of Belonging variable, in favor of university level students (F = 94,312, p < 0,001), the scores obtained in Positive Assessment of the Institution and in Tutoring and teaching also benefitted this group of students.




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Figure 6.

4.4.Comparison of the sections of the Academic Engagement Scale according to the type of studies.

A new analysis of variances was made to confirm whether there are differences in the variables that make up the Academic Engagement Scale depending on the studies. For this purpose, the students sample was organized into three types of studies, in which case the supporting epistemic area was considered:

•Technical studies: 100 students enrolled in Industrial Engineering and Computer Engineering were recruited here.

•Humanistic-pedagogical studies: a group made up of 78 students who were enrolled in Psychology, bachelor studies in Psychopedagogy, History, Higher Education and Primary Education.

•Degrees in Economics: in which 111 students studied Bachelor of Business Administration, Bachelor of Agribusiness, Public Accountancy and Professorship in Economics.

In connection with motivational engagement, in the Task Assessment variable, the scores achieved benefit students who take Humanistic and Economic studies e (F = 5.538, p < 0.004) (X = 7.44 and X = 7.45, respectively). Likewise, Humanistic students also obtained the highest score in Intrinsic Motivation (F = 8,001 p < 0,001) and in Anxiety (F = 3,326, p < 0,037); the latter effect does not benefit them and may be strongly influenced owing to the fact that the group is made up of a greater proportion of women.

Figure 7.

In the cognitive engagement section (graphic 8), students of humanistic programs outperformed others in the deep Strategies variables (F = 8,132, p < 0,001); these same students, along with those of Economic Studies, also reached the highest score in the Organization variables (F = 7,924, p < 0,001), proving to be more efficient in carrying out critical and reflexive reasoning, as well as incorporating new knowledge with the previously learned one.

Figure 8.

Finally, in the contextual engagement section (Figure 9), those who stated to have a greater connection with teachers and tutors are the students of Humanistic Studies, an effect which may be influenced by the fact of an affinity as regards the inherent duties of the future professional' role. (F = 4,912 p < 0,008), or with the interest in learning from other people who are more expert. On the other hand, students of Technical Education were ahead of others in the Feelings of Belonging variable (F = 9,807, p < 0,001).

Figure 9.

Conclusion

We believe that academic engagement implies the fulfillment of a promise made by two parties involved in the educational process: the student and the institution to which he or she belongs. The promise at issue concerns an academic goal that binds and connects these parties even closer, and that is related to starting and completing studies as successfully as possible. The scope of this goal implies challenges for both parties, which may be properly faced as long as dialogue and interaction are fluid and encourage mutual knowledge. On this basis, the study of academic engagement surpasses the approach of desertion and student retention, which concepts preceded it, and with which it shares some common questions, on the one hand, what are the reasons that influence students to drop their studies?, and on the other hand, what are the variables that encourage students to remain in the institution where they are studying?

We reassert that academic engagement has a unique focus in as much as it is based on interaction, on the participation that takes place between the student and the institutional parties, and is therefore process-based. It is not focused on identifying the consequences of the resulting failure - dropout of studies - or on the factors that help retaining the student, but on strengthening that relationship. This view makes the construct have an approach that, besides being preventive, is more customized; this idea supports, on one hand, the assertions made by Fredricks, Blumenfeld, Friedel and Paris (2005) regarding the existing relationship between academic engagement and self-regulated learning, and on the other hand, the assertion made in previous works on the "co-regulated customized spiral of learning" (Daura, 2013a, 2013b, 2017), a




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theoretical model which explains that at higher levels of support and advice provided by teachers, students improve the motivational and cognitive strategies they use in order to learn.

In accordance with these assumptions, this paper examines the results of a research conducted on 350 students of university and college education in Buenos Aires City and Buenos Aires Province, in order to measure their levels of academic engagement and connect these results with various socio-demographic variables. To this end, a questionnaire was administered in order to obtain information on gender, studies, and educational institution; as well as the Academic Engagement Scale (Daura and Durand, 2018).

As a result of the subsequent analysis, it was observed that the students who took part in the study, at the motivational engagement level, stand out for having a greater appreciation of the learning contents and the interest in grasping these contents. At the cognitive level, they stand out for organizing new knowledge and tending to follow the guidance offered by teachers; finally, at the contextual engagement level, for appreciating the institutions they are part of, and for having a feeling of belonging to them.

In this regard, the results obtained, although very positive, indicate the need to guide students so that they may develop a higher level of regulation of anxiety; and that they may make a greater use of deep thinking strategies as well as time management strategies to study. In addition, at the institutional level, tutorial strategies or academic counseling oriented to guide students' learning and favor their participation in the institution should be improved.

Connecting these results to demographic data shows that women have higher levels of motivational engagement; a greater cognitive engagement in the Organization, Extrinsic Regulation and Time and Effort Management variables; and a greater contextual engagement. These effects could be associated with previous studies on self-regulation and academic success, which evidence that women tend to show higher levels of performance (Meza Cano, de la Rosa Gómez, Rivera Baños & González Santiago, 2018; Ndirangu, Muola, Kithuka & Nassiuma, 2009; Suarez Riveiro, Ayana Nieto & Gómez Veiga, 2016; Vrugt & Oort, 2008; just to mention a few).

On the other hand, College students stand out for achieving better scores in all motivational variables; an effect that was reversed in cognitive variables, where they only reached the highest score in Deep Strategies and in contextual variables. Although it would be convenient to go deeper into the influence of age on these results, it is possible to assume that the higher levels of motivational engagement of students in college institutions will be associated with vocational variables. Indeed, the studies pursued by these students have a pedagogical orientation that is strongly related to both service and the desire to guide others to develop their full potential.

A similar result was observed when comparing the sections of the scale of academic engagement by type of studies, in which analysis the students of Humanistic Sciences were benefited both in motivational engagement and in two important variables of cognitive engagement, as well as in the Tutoring and Teaching variable in the contextual engagement section.

According to these results, it would be convenient, in future researches, to delve into the incidence of age in the development of academic engagement, on the existing differences between studies with pedagogical and humanistic orientation in connection with students’ involvement. Likewise, it would be beneficial to compare these results with qualitative information obtained through interviews, focus groups, and life experiences, through which the subjectivity of the parties involved could be examined in greater depth.

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[34] Veiga, F. H.; Reeve, J. M.; Wentzel, K. & Robu, V. (2014). Assessing student’s engagement: A review of instruments with psychometric qualities. Lisboa, Portugal: Instituto de Educação da Universidade de Lisboa. Consultado en http://repositorio.ul.pt/handle/10451/18036

[35] Vrugt, A. y Oort, F.J. (2008). Metacognition, achievement goals, study strategies and academic achievement: pathways to achievement. Metacognition and Learning, 3(2), 123-146.

[36] Zimmerman, B. y Schunk, D. (1989). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theory, research and practice. New York: Springer-Verlag.




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Tables

Table 1. Characteristics of the variables that make up the academic engagement

Academic engagement

Variable Manner in which it shows in students

Behavioral Engagement Compliance with rules of co-existence established in the classroom and in the institution in general: Paying attention, participation, respectful acceptance of other people’s ideas and effort regulation

Emotional engagement Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation Task appreciation Anxiety regulation Regulation of other negative emotions

Cognitive Engagement Thought elaboration Meta-cognition Critical or reflexive thinking Organization

Source: own elaboration from Fredericks, Blumenfeld and Paris (2004)

Table 2. Description of the 13 extracted variables

Section 1. Motivational Engagement: made of 17 items, it studies four motivational affective components

Task Assessment It shows the usefulness, the importance and value given to the contents, and to the learning activities given in the institution.

Intrinsic Motivation It shows the interest in learning the contents and/or bibliographic material suggested by the institution.

Extrinsic Motivation It shows an interest in studying in order to satisfy external motivations (such as getting good grades, obtaining recognition from others), and to learn on the basis of the guide provided by the context

Anxiety It shows the anxiety felt in stressful situations of academic life, such as an examination.

Section 2. Cognitve Engagement: made of 27 items that study the cognitive strategies used to learn, by means of the following variables:

Deep Strategies It shows the extent to which elaboration strategies are used and the extent to which prior knowledge is used in order to solve problems, make decisions, conduct critical assessments, and accept the opinions from others.

Basic Strategies It shows the extent to which review strategies are used to learn to re-read class notes, memorize Keywords or concepts).

Organization It shows the ability to select and organize the important concepts of the studying material. Extrinsic Regulation It shows the strategies applied by the subject when adjusting to the indications made by the

teacher. Management of Time and Effort

It indicates both the personal willingness to strive for academic work, even when difficult, and the ability to organize the time needed to study

Team Work It shows the willingness to work and learn as a team in the institutional environment.

Section 3. Contextual Engagement: made of 12 items that assess the actions the institution carries out in order to support the student and promote his/ her academic involvement, as well as the participation of the latter in the activities proposed by the institution and his/ her identification with the moral standards fostered by the educational institution. Such items are distributed in the following variables:

Positive Assessment of the Institution

It indicates the extent to which the student appreciates various actions that are carried out on the part of the institution to promote different skills and encourage integration among students.

Teaching and Tutorship It shows the extent to which the actions carried out by tutors and teachers are appreciated in order to facilitate students' learning and encourage their participation in the institution.

Feelings of belonging It assesses the feelings of belonging that the student has and that are promoted by the institution by means of various academic activities.

Source: Daura and Durand (2018)




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Table 3 Description of the Motivational Engagement section

Variables of the Motivational Engagement section Students Minimum Score Maximum Score Average DS

Assessment of the task 150 2,81 10,00 7,40 1,42 Intrinsic Motivation 150 1,88 10,00 6,92 1,81 Extrinsic Motivation 150 0,00 10,00 6,05 2,00 Anxiety 150 0,00 10,00 5,03 2,18

Source: own compilation

Table 4 Description of the Cognitive Engagement section

Variables of the Cognitive Engagement section Students Minimum Score

Maximum Score Average DS

Deep Strategies 150 1,25 10,00 6,25 1,54 Basic Strategies 150 0,00 10,00 4,41 2,31 Organization 150 0,63 10,00 7,20 1,80 Extrinsic Regulation 150 0,00 10,00 6,59 1,69 Management of time and effort 150 0,50 10,00 5,73 1,86 Team work 150 0,83 10,00 6,10 1,74

Source: own compilation Table 5 Description of the Contextual Engagement section

Variables of the Contextual Engagement section Students Minimum Score Maximum Score Average DS

Positive Assessment of the Institution 150 1,25 10,00 6,98 1,74

Teaching and Tutorship 150 0,00 10,00 4,57 2,18

Feelings of belonging 150 0,63 10,00 5,42 1,70

Source: own compilation.

Figures

Figure 1. Differences between men and women in the motivational section of the Academic Engagement Scale


Task appreciation Intrinsic motivation

Women Men

Anxiety




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Figure 2. Differences between men and women in the cognitive engagement section of the Academic Engagement Scale

Source: own compilation Figure 3. Differences between men and women in the contextual engagement section of the Academic Engagement Scale.


Positive Assessment of the Institution Teaching and Tutorship

Women Men

Feelings of belonging

Organization Extrinsic Regulation

Women Men

Management of time and effort




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Figure 4. Differences between university and college students in the motivational engagement section of the Academic Engagement Scale.

Source: own compilation Figure 5. Differences between university and college students in the cognitive engagement section of the Academic Engagement Scale.


Deep Strategies Basic Strategies Extrinsic Regulation

University Studies College Studies

Management of time

and effort

Task appreciation Intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation


Anxiety




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Figure 6. Differences between university and college students in the contextual engagement section of the Academic Engagement Scale.

Source: own compilation Figure 7. Differences according to the type of studies in the motivational engagement section of the Academic Engagement Scale


Positive Assessment of the Institution Teaching and Tutorship Feelings of belonging


Task Appreciation Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation

Technical Studies Humanistic Studies

Anxiety

Economic Studies




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Figure 8. Differences according to the type of studies in the cognitive engagement section of the Academic Engagement Scale

Source: own compilation Figure 9. Differences according to the type of studies in the contextual engagement section of the Academic Engagement Scale


Deep Strategies


Organization

Economic Studies

Teaching and Tutorship


Feelings of belonging

Economic Studies




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Tracing the Global Child: Global Politics Shaping Local Childhoods

Angela Bushati

Freie Universität Berlin

Abstract

The concept of childhood, and particularly considering the social and cultural construction of childhood, has not received enough focus in the ongoing debates on globalization and its consequences. Yet, essential elements of globalization are omnipresent in the guise of new discourses around childhood, which have become particularly resonant transnationally. A lot of international treaties or conventions, such as the United Nations Children’s Rights Convention (1989) shape national and local realities of children worldwide based on global conceptualisations of childhood, which are based mainly on western ideals of what it means to be a child. Applying such global notions of childhood in different contexts around the world often does not consider local realities and cultural ideologies of childhood, and indirectly does more harm than good. Childhood constitutes an essential and very delicate nexus in the continuously changing realities. Since childhood occupies a symbolic space where the consequences of globalization can be reflected, it cannot be left unconsidered. Not only childhood comprehends the basis of cultural connection, but it is the main mechanism of social recreation. Building on postcolonial and critical whiteness studies, the paper tries to analyse a few aspects relating the westernization and construction of the global child ideal and presenting an overview of the impacts of children global policies towards shaping local childhoods.

Keywords: Tracing the Global Child, Global Politics, Shaping Local Childhoods.

Introduction

The emerging ideas about children’s rights and recent theories regarding childhood continue to contour and frame our ideas about childhood and also the everyday reality of many children in different parts of the globe. Globalisation is changing the very notion of childhood and is introducing new constructions of childhood that dictate what childhood or a child should be like. The interplays between global vs. local dynamics nowadays affect the development and the everyday life of children in different parts of the globe. These dynamics often agitate existing practices, cultures, identities and socio-economic realities which translate in significant changes. With the emergence of global conventions and international treaties regarding children’s rights and protection such as The Child’s Rights Convention (1989) national and local realities of children worldwide are shaped regarding global conceptualisations of childhood, which are based mainly on western ideals and mostly Anglo-American social constructions of what it means to be a child. “The Convention on the Rights of the Child is premised upon the notion that concepts such as human rights or children’s rights are not negotiable at the local level and that differences between cultures and between individuals within cultures can be ignored” (Montgomery, 2001 :82). Besides focusing on the growing influence of globalism, on the other hand, there needs to be a better consideration of how such global changes impact different childhood local realities in different parts of the globe.

The Global Child Construct

Childhood in the 20th century is seen as a separate category from adulthood, and being regarded as such, childhood is constructed based on the opposite characteristics of adulthood. A child is represented as not belonging to the adult world, and childhood is regarded as a ‘safe space’ which needs to be fostered and nurtured from adults.

The notion of ‘childhood’ is both historically and culturally conditioned and “how the conception of childhood has changed historically and how conceptions differ across cultures is a matter of scholarly controversy and philosophical interest” (see Kennedy 2006, in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Belonging to the category of “childhood” it often means being portrayed as innocent, vulnerable, and in need to be protected from adults. Nevertheless, this remains a westernized and




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generalized notion of what childhood means, since there are many definitions. According to one definition, a child is “a person below the age of eighteen years of age” (The Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989: Article 1).

Arguing on another general definition : “A child is a human being in the early stages of its life-course, biologically, psychologically and socially; it is a member of a generation referred to collectively by adults as children, who together temporarily occupy the social space that is created for them by adults and referred to as childhood” (James & James, 2008: 14). Even though there are many definitions, it should not be forgotten that childhood as a definition differs across time and space and it should not be regarded as an invariable entity. Ariès (1962) argues how the idea of childhood is relatively new and that modern western societies. Ariès’s theory also stresses that the way how children are perceived, being treated or socially institutionalized by adults, how childhood is socially constructed has significant impacts on children’s experiences and their engagement in the social spheres. With the rise of the Children’s Rights movement, the social construction of childhood is very central to discourses related to children’s development and children’s rights fulfilment and these discourses have spread globally, nurturing ideals, practices and changing realities worldwide. The fundamentals of many children’s rights initiatives are based on a universal – global child ideal.

Understanding and deconstructing the Global Child ideal means at first considering the term “global”. This term has been conceptualised as meaning “universal” – development occurs in the same way for every child in every context but it has been understood also as global in the sense of spreading dominant ideologies, mainly coming from the West, to other parts of the globe (Fleer et al., 2012:1-2). These definitions are reflected in laws and policies and also implemented in the social practices that affect children.

Educational institutions such as schools for example, play an important role when speaking about the construction of an ongoing culture of childhood. Nsamenang (2008:23-24) talks about educational colonization, where the norms of the Anglo-American cultures are taught in schools all over the world. Progress is measured according to global standards of achievement such as PISA assessments, which make development and school achievements standardized all over the world. In addition, the author explains how education all over the world needs to take under consideration the importance of the cultural component regarding child development and cultural notions of childhood in general when considering discourses or policy regarding child development. Nsamenang (2008:24) cites Smale that stresses that “the needs to recognize the importance of cultural conceptualisations of childhood, and of the child development theories and practices that follow on from these in a given culture”. Prout (2005) notes that the human nature is moulded in a certain way that it possesses hybrid characteristics of biology and culture, and it cannot simply be reduced to one or the other.

Considering rights and children’s well-being in the big picture means considering the social identities and development as an inseparable process from the context where children grow. By valuing different components that do not belong to a certain culture and imposing them as the “good way”, the identities of that given culture will not be valorised but instead will be depreciated and diminished, which does not contribute positively to children’s development.

On the other hand, conceptualising development as a universal and linear process which depends on universal characteristics can be quite detrimental. If we consider the normative of “good development” only coming from countries in the West and the North hemisphere of the globe, it means that other perceptions of “good development” coming from other realities have been left out and do not belong to the norm.

For many children childhood is a very troubled time, unlike how it is presumed it should be. A lot of children face abuse, violence, war, maltreatment, hunger, and other life threatening situations which for many signifies a sort of “lost childhood”. Following this sense, the contemporary rights movement focuses on the priority and regulations of a child’s life in order to make childhood as Sommerville describes it a “carefree, safe, secure and happy phase of human existence” (Boyden, 1997: 191). Such regulations have expanded in different parts of the globe, making childhood a sort of “universal category” which needs to be protected from international and state mechanisms. It is now a general acknowledgement that goes beyond the borders of Western societies that issues such as children who live in the streets, child prostitutes, children suffering from hunger etc. are considered as threatening to the “childhood experience”, leading these children with “no childhood”.

On the other hand, it should be important to underline that different cultures have different perceptions towards childhood and especially when speaking about children in the Global South, life realities differ significantly with children growing in the Global North and more specifically in Western countries. By signing standardized and universal declarations of




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children’s rights, all the signing member states take on the responsibility to monitor and regulate childhood and child welfare. “Whilst international law has traditionally embodied the image of the dependent child, the potential victim, many national welfare programmes, in addition to protective measures, contain a large element of control or constraint.” (Boyden, 1997:198). Global standards towards childhood often do not take under consideration cultural components or adapt to local sensibilities, which produces disaccord and non-desired results.

Global changes, local realities

Contemporary approaches and discourses towards the implementation of children’s rights are based on the universal principle of childhood and as a result, policies and practices that are embodied in everyday life circumstances are also reflected in the relationships between adults and children (Fleer et al.,2012:xvii). The childhood ideology and normative principles derive from the experienced realities of a specific and privileged part of the world and such principles are applied to countries and places where such norms are difficult to be achieved and as Fleer et al. (2012) argue, a one-sided minority world endorsement of the so called “good practice” and good norms of childhood means that local realities, practices, cultures and meanings towards childhood are marginalized (p. xvii). A lot of communities do not fit the expectations of “good practice” of childhood and as a result they are failing to meet the global norms. This can be quite a tricky interplay between global forces and local practices which can lead in detrimental aspects towards the development of children. Global discourses and practices towards children’s rights have evolved greatly since their genesis but nonetheless the ideology towards children’s rights still remains somehow constructed according to narrow perspectives of childhood.

“Whilst contemporary approaches in social work in many industrialized countries may have moved a long way from these beginnings – setting social problems more firmly in the context of social structure and organisation – their influence can still be seen in welfare practice in a large number of countries, in the South especially, and is gradually having the effect of creating a universal standard of childhood.” (Boyden, 1997:198)

Global discourses and policy practices regarding childhood contribute to a new construction of childhood since existing realities and practices are being transformed and go through a process of metamorphosis. Such transformations and changes towards child rearing or protection politics are different in different contexts, and the outcomes of applying a universal model of childhood differ significantly from one context to another. The dominant force which determines the rights movement, as post-colonial and critical whiteness studies demonstrate is the white western child ideal, which represents the norm imposed to the rest of the children in the world. One of the main intentions of whiteness studies, as mentioned in Clarke & Watson (2014) by citing Shome , is to show how “the everyday, invisible, subtle, cultural and social practices, ideas and codes that discursively secure the power and privilege of white people” (p.70). Therefore, understanding and challenging “whiteness” is necessary, in order to consider not just one model of childhood but many childhoods. According to post-colonialist and critical whiteness perspectives (see Ploesser & Mecheril 2010), the figure of the child and related discourses that construct the child, are understood under the perspective of ‘colonising the child’ where the other-child is produced as a subject. Bühler Niederberger & van Kriken (2008) note that the concept of childhood can be seen as a social structural character similar to class, race or gender. ‘Childhood’, therefore is also a product of power relations and as Foucault (1971, 1980) articulates, power discourses affect our way of perception towards categories and what we accept as being “normal”. At the same time Foucault also argues that power relations are involved in dynamic processes and therefore that are subjected to change.

Globalism is changing the very idea of childhood, making children also more active in the sense of being seen as future consumers. While spreading ideals of global education standards as well as ideals of how a child should be raised and what constitutes a good development. On another level, globalised media plays an important role in terms of children’s culture. Images of children are omnipresent in commercials, TV-programs, movies, etc. and nowadays marketers are interested in getting into the child’s world at the very beginning and into shaping the child’s views and preferences and most importantly make this child a future consumer. Children have become more and more important, not only as consumers themselves but also for their purchasing influence. On the other hand, as Buckingham & De Block (2007) articulate, such global media influences have contributed in creating a sort of discontinuance in terms of cultural and moral values. “Commercial forces are seen to have disrupted the process of socialisation, upsetting the smooth transmission of cultural values from one generation to the next. According to the critics, globalisation will inevitably result in the construction of a homogenised global children’s culture” (Buckingham & De Block, 2007:78). The issue here at stake is the kind of culture which is currently being promoted and popularized, which does not reflect aspects of different cultures but rather offers a westernized version of the ideal culture.




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Distributing a global culture on the other hand rises important questions in terms of the distribution of cultural values and the continuity of existing cultures. Many communities do not agree with a lot of ideas in the models that are offered as the standard which needs to be followed, claiming that a lot of things coming from the ‘West’ are disrupting their way of teaching children and bringing them up under a certain way, according to their cultures. Technology is also changing fast and contributing to faster and easily reachable information, which makes patterns of globalization even stronger.

Montgomery (2001: 80) argues that globalization tendencies and transnational obligations often tend to problematize issues regarding childhood such as child prostitution for example under a narrow perspective, since such issues are rarely as simple as they are portrayed. Following a western model of childhood it mean that children have the rights to live a childhood that does not include work, early child marriage, sex, money etc. which does not reflect the reality in which most of the children of the world live. Montgomery articulates that children in developing countries are not able to fulfil this western ideal of childhood and “while setting up an ideal may be benevolent (if naïve) wish, it is dangerous to codify an unchanging standard” (2001:83). The author also explains that during her field work with children as sex-workers in Thailand, she experienced that the reality is very different from what is demanded from the CRC (1989), and that this convention often fails to protect children in the real sense since it does not take under consideration issues such as family support or linking it with global issues of poverty, cultural background and discrimination (p. 87)

“Indeed, Article 9 of the Convention specifically states that if it is in the best interests of a child, he or she can be removed from their parents. Parents who allow the sexual exploitation of their children are, by definition, bad parents and must be punished in order to protect the children. However, this may be harder to justify at the grassroots level, where the situation looks very different” (Montgomery, 2001: 87)

Understanding the local implications under an anthropological perspective is definitely necessary for the process of ascribing rights and implementing policies. A better consideration of rights and making use of all articles in the CRC, without leaving out important components of the cultural backgrounds is crucial. There is no doubt that issues regarding children such as abuse or prostitution are detrimental and that there needs to be an awareness and action towards eliminating what violates children’s rights. But, what stands out as absolutely fundamental is to understand that eliminating such phenomena needs a deeper understanding of the complexities involved.

Conclusion

Understanding globalisation and local realities is crucial for acknowledging and practising children’s rights. However, the processes involving the implementation of rights can be quite complex and very challenging. Critical engagement with the notion of ‘whiteness’ can be very beneficial when considering new ways of exploring identities and an empowering children and their communities. Critical whiteness studies, as well as postcolonial perspectives help in the process of understanding the interplays between the dominant groups and the marginalized, by introducing new ways of conceptualisation towards children’s rights. Acknowledging local realities and approaching rights from an anthropological perspectives is crucial in resolving dilemmas and mediating between both universal and cultural relativist positions. Such perspectives need to be considered in policy analysis as well as during the process of implementation, since not every context will have the same outcomes. Given this understanding, ascribing rights needs to be a mediated process and not imposed, where also the right holders – children – get a chance to be heard.

References

[1] Ariès, Ph. (1962). Centuries of Childhood. (R. Baldick, Trans). London: Cape.

[2] Boyden, J. (1997). Childhood and the policy makers: A comparative perspective on the globalization of childhood. Constructing and reconstructing childhood: Contemporary issues in the sociological study of childhood, 2, 190-229.

[3] Buckingham, D., & De Block, L. (2007). Global children, global media: Migration, media and childhood. Springer.

[4] Bühler-Niederberger, D. & van Krieken, R. (2008). “Persisting Inequalities: Childhood between Global Influence and Local Practices”, Childhood 15(2): 147–55.

[5] Clarke, V., & Watson, D. (2014). Examining Whiteness in a Children's Centre. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 15(1), 69-80.




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[6] Fleer, M., Hedegaard, M., & Tudge, J. (Eds.). (2012). World yearbook of education 2009: Childhood studies and the impact of globalization: Policies and practices at global and local levels. Routledge.

[7] Foucault, M. (1971). Madness and Civilization. London: Tavistock.

[8] Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977. Ed. by Colin Gordon. Trans. by Colin Gordon et al. New York: Pantheon Books.

[9] James, A. & James, A.L. (2008). Key Concepts in Childhood Studies. London: Sage.

[10] Montgomery, H. (2001). Imposing rights? A case study of child prostitution in Thailand. Culture and rights: Anthropological perspectives, 80-101.

[11] Nsamenang, A. B. (2008). Cultures in early childhood care and education. World Yearbook of Education 2009: Childhood Studies and the Impact of Globalization: Policies and Practices at Global and Local Levels, 23-24.

[12] Ploesser, M., & Mecheril, P. (2012). Neglect—Recognition—Deconstruction. Approaches to otherness in social work. International Journal of Social Work, 55(6), 794–808.

[13] Prout, A (2005). The Future of Childhood: Towards the interdisciplinary study of children. London and New York: Routledge Falmer.

[14] Other Ressources:

[15] Convention on the Rights of the Child, (1989).

[16] http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx

[17] Consulted on: 12.10.2018.

[18] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

[19] http://seop.illc.uva.nl/entries/childhood/

[20] Consulted on: 05.10.2018.




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Epistemological Beliefs of Nnest’s based on the Nest-Nnest Dichotomy

Kübra Örsdemir

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to understand graduate and post-graduate EFL teachers’ epistemological beliefs based on the standardized English language and their beliefs on the NEST/NNEST dichotomy. In order to gain a deeper understanding two different group of teachers were formed consisting of graduate and post-graduate level of education. The aim was to understand whether or not the level of education affect EFL teachers’ beliefs based on the knowledge concept of standardized English and native speakerism. As a data collection methodology for this mixed methods research design, metaphors and the epistemological belief questionnaire (adapted from Hofer, 2000) were used. The results show that there was a significant difference between the two groups’ epistemological beliefs. While the post-graduate group was more critical about the issue, the graduate group of teachers seemed to highly accept the standardized language concept. The analysis of the metaphorical conceptions also supported the findings of the questionnaires.

Keywords: Epistemological beliefs, Epistemological belief questionnaire, metaphors, NEST/NNEST dichotomy, mixed-method design.

Introduction

The study of individuals' epistemology, in other words, their beliefs about the nature of intelligence, knowledge, and learning, has received much attention by researchers (Mori, 1999). Epistemological beliefs are generally regarded as beliefs about the nature of knowledge and knowing (Hofer, 2016). Questions such as “what is the source of knowledge? How do we justify it? Is there only one fixed type of knowledge” are examples of the beliefs we construct about knowledge. As Schommer (1994) states, the implicit beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning, or epistemological beliefs, can affect reasoning, learning, and decision making which results in carrying great importance in educational sciences. Epistemological beliefs in teacher education is also regarded to be important since teachers implicit beliefs about knowledge can actually shape the way they view their subject area of teaching and the way they teach. When focusing on English language teachers, we come to the fact that the content knowledge, which is also their medium of instruction, is the English language itself. This has brought some controversial issues in the field such as the distinction between native and non-native English speaking teachers (NEST-NNEST dichotomy). Research has shown that these power-related issues in the field have dramatic effects on English language teachers’ beliefs about their professional-selves. The fact that their necessary content knowledge represents native English speakers’ ethnicity, culture and history, can create controversial issues such as language ownership and the feeling of inferiority in the profession. However, due to global spread of English, the standardization of the language is open to discussion together with the ownership of it.

1. Epistemological Belief

As Hofer and Pintrich (1997) suggest, epistemology is an area of philosophy which deals with the nature and justification of human knowledge. In other words, it is concerned about how people come to know, the theories and beliefs about knowing, and the fact that these epistemological issues are an influence on thinking and reasoning which are cognitive processing. According to Hofer (2001), the study of personal epistemologies can be divided in to two sub-sections which the first is related to the stages of psychological development of personal epistemologies and the second focuses on the study of beliefs based on the nature of knowledge and knowing. As Schommer (1994) states, epistemic literature can have varying focuses, however, in terms of cognitive research, studies generally focus on individuals beliefs about the degree of which information is true, the organization of information, the acquisition of knowledge, and the justification of knowledge. Hence, it can be claimed that epistemological beliefs are basically the beliefs about the nature of knowledge and knowing (Conley et. al., 2004).




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As Hofer. (2016) states, the investigation carried out by Schommer (1990) which focused on independently developing epistemic dimensions, opened a new era in epistemic cognition research. Schommer (1990) proposed 5 continuous dimensions of epistemological beliefs. These were; stability (fixed- tentative/evolving), structure (isolated-integrated), source (authority-observation and reason), speed of acquisition (fast-gradual), and control of acquisition (fixed at birth-lifelong improvement). In response to Schommer’s (1990) study, Hofer and Pintrich (1997) divided personal epistemological theories into two dimensions; the nature of knowledge (how one defines knowledge) and the nature of knowing (how one comes to know). They define the nature of knowledge in two sub-dimensions which are the certainty of knowledge (the continuum goes from viewing knowledge as absolute, fixed, and unchanging to viewing knowledge as tentative and evolving) and simplicity of knowledge (the continuum goes from viewing knowledge as isolated facts to viewing knowledge as interrelated concepts). As for the beliefs about the nature of knowing, they also propose two sub-dimensions, which are; the source of knowledge (from perceiving knowledge which resides in an external authority to active construction of knowledge through social interaction) and justification of knowledge (from justifying knowledge through by observation and authority to the evaluation of different sources of evidence). Hofer and Pintrich (1997) state that the continuum in each of these reflections illustrate the beliefs which range from being naïve to more sophisticated beliefs. However, as cited in Brownlee et. al. (2017), Bromme and colleagues suggested that such relations might be context sensitive. Perry (1970), who was regarded to be one of the pioneers to attract attention to epistemological cognition (cited in Schommen, 1994), developed adult epistemological development framework in which he found that some of the most naive students who entered Harvard University with a dualistic view of the world in which they believed in black or white knowledge that is handed down by authority (cited in Schommer 1994). As students came across different viewpoints in their classes they began to gradually be aware of multiple views and by the senior year many students became more open to change in their beliefs.

As Lunn Brownlee et. al. (2017) state, recently, researchers have focused on how teachers’ epistemic cognition can give insight into their professional development and their teaching practice (e.g., Lunn Brownlee, Schraw, & Berthelsen, 2011; Lunn Brownlee, Schraw, Walker, & Ryan, 2016). Buehl and Fives (2009) have found in their study that student teachers epistemic cognition can significantly affect their teaching approaches and techniques, and their expectations from their students. For instance, they found that student teachers who have a teaching knowledge as open to amendment can pay greater attention to new teaching methods and techniques. Beliefs about their source of knowledge is also stated to affect how individuals seek out information, which can be from professional journals, colleagues, one’s own creativity etc. Yadav et. al. (2011) have also focused on how student teachers’ epistemic beliefs was important for teacher preparation. They state that the student teachers epistemic beliefs shape the knowledge they gain from their observations of other teachers and their own teaching goals. They further indicate in their study that the teachers’ epistemological beliefs reflect their own approaches to learning. Kang (2008) focused on how pre-service science teachers viewed science knowledge. While some regarded it as consisting of facts, hence, aimed in teaching the students these scientific knowledge, others viewed science knowledge as evolving in nature in which these type of teachers were more enthusiastic in having students to develop creative thinking skills. Similarly, in Braten and Fergusan (2015)’s study, which focused on the relationship between different knowledge sources of epistemic cognition and motivation of pre-service teachers, found that student teachers who trusted course books and teacher educators as resources were motivated while gaining knowledge from these sources, whereas, student teachers with sources of teaching knowledge, were more motivated when they gained new knowledge from teaching practice and other student and teachers.

2. NEST-NNEST Dichotomy

Kachru (1976) divided the English speaking world into 3 concentric cycles, which are the inner-circle English speaking countries (represents the historical and sociolinguistic bases of English in the regions where it originated such as England), the outer-circle English speaking countries (former colonies of the UK and USA such as India, Kenya, Nigeria, Singapore etc.) and expanding-circle countries (countries that gradually came under western influence and where English is spoken as a foreign language rather than a second). This distinction between the English speaking countries ignited the distinction between native and non-native teachers’ of English. Being a native speaker is generally seen as a rigid category in which transition is implicitly implied to be impossible. As Llurda (2015) states, since the communicative language teaching became as the dominant theoretical framework in language teaching, it was implicitly implied that the native speakers were the one and only source of natural, spontaneous and authentic source of knowledge. It became clear that the native speakers in the field were regarded to be more prestigious. Cook (2007) mentions about how students are judged about how close they resemble native speakers in terms of their competency, proficiency and their knowledge about the language. This is




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a clear indication of the belief that the native teacher was the ideal type of teacher in the field regardless of their pedagogical competences. Medges (1994) also focused in her study how this power-related status issues created the existence of generic inferiority complex among NNEST’s. This was rather tragic since this type of belief had a negative impact on non-native teachers’ professional self-esteems (Llurda, 2015). Medges (1992, 1994) was also the first academic to bring up the issue of native speakerism and invoked people to question who was worth more as a language teacher; the native or the non-native speaker. This was regarded to be the first spark in the field to create awareness to the issue. Cook (2005) also mentions in his study that concepts such as English as an International Language (EIL) and English as a Lingua Franca has created certain awareness in individuals regarding that a truly international language cannot be owned by any group of speakers. Similarly, Widdowson (1994) has rejections in which he states that the authority to claim right over a standard version of a global language is not a right of the native speaker since they are also diverse in themselves. He further claims that language is a dynamic system which evolves and adapts in time and in accordance with the context, hence such an existence cannot be viewed as a standard system which is legitimized to only a group of culture, especially if this is a world language. From a different point of view, Graddol (2006) mentioned in his study about the status of English in the world. He further emphasizes that English speakers of other countries far exceed the number of native speakers in the world, hence native speakers are starting to end up as a minority group of speakers. This dramatic change of the language use naturally brings different varieties of the language which has also given the generation of the “world Englishes” term (Kachru, 1992). Hence the standard English and its necessity and the view of the native English speaking teacher as the ultimate source of knowledge in the field of English language teaching has come to critical questioning and criticism. However, on the other side of the coin, research done by certain scholars such as Jenkins (2007), Sifakis and Sougari (2005), Varghese et. al. (2005), Rajagopalan (2005), Llurda and Huguet (2003) show relevant finding similar to what Llurda (2015) likens to the Stockholm Syndrome- even though non-native speakers suffer from discrimination by native speakers who are preferred in many professional situations they justified this situation as being in favor of the native speaker as the ultimate goal for their students.

3. Purpose of the Study

As Hofer (2001) states, there is a growing interest in understanding teachers’ epistemological beliefs. However, Hofer and Pintrich (1997) state that further research should be carried out to understand the relationship between epistemological beliefs and its relation to other domains in specific fields. In terms of the nature and the source of knowledge, a gap in the literature has been noticed to understand the epistemological beliefs of English language teachers based on their content knowledge. A major reason for why their content knowledge was emphasized in the study is due to the reason that their nature of knowledge in their profession is a sensitive issue regarding the correct/standard form of their content knowledge; “the English language”. The reason for this is based on the fact of globalization which has led to different varieties of English in the world. These new varieties has also created “native speakerism” which favors the NEST’s and causes a sense of inferiority among the non-NEST’s. Hence, this study aims to investigate non-native English speaking teachers’ epistemological beliefs and its relationship to how they view native and non-native English language teachers. It further aims to elaborate how graduate and postgraduate level of EFL teachers’ beliefs may differ on the relevant issue. For further elaboration the following research questions are aimed to be investigated.

What do the metaphors of the graduate level EFL teachers reveal about their beliefs based on NEST’s-NNEST’s?

What do the metaphors of the postgraduate level EFL teachers reveal about their beliefs based on NEST’s-NNEST’s?

What is the relationship of the epistemological beliefs of the two groups and their beliefs reflected in their metaphors?

Methodology

1. Research Design

A mixed-method design has been adopted in this research. As Cresswell (2013) states, mixed-method research aims to combine both qualitative and quantitative research techniques to broaden the understanding of the subject being investigated. While designing a mixed-method research, Cresswell (2013) states that there are four aspects to consider before deciding on a mixed method type of study. These are timing (considering the time of the qualitative and quantitative data- whether it will be sequential or concurrent), the weighting (the priority is given to qualitative and quantitative data), mixing (defining how the mixing of qualitative and quantitative data occurs- which phase of the research does it occur?) and theorizing (does a theoretical perspective guide the design?). When taking into consideration these aspects of mixed-




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method design, this research adopts a concurrent triangulation strategy in which both qualitative and quantitative data are collected concurrently and later analyzed to see if there are any convergence, differences or some combinations (Cresswell, 2013).

2. Context and Participants

This study took place in Turkey which is an EFL (English as a foreign language) setting. To understand whether or not the educational level (graduate/postgraduate) of university level English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers effect their epistemological beliefs and their beliefs about NEST-NNEST dichotomy, two different group of teachers were formed. Each group comprised of 10 teachers. While the first group of teachers were chosen among EFL teachers working in private colleges with no postgraduate degrees, the other group of EFL teachers had an MA or Ph.D. degree in foreign language teaching.

3. Procedure and Analysis

As a data collection methodology, metaphors were used in the study to understand the beliefs of the teachers regarding NEST’s and NNEST’s. As Thomas and Beauchamp (2011) state, it is not always easy to explain personal beliefs with many words. They further state that metaphors enable difficult concepts like beliefs and identity to be examined in a vivid and insightful way which can allow the participants to be descriptive in their thoughts. However, it is also stated that not all participants can come up with a metaphor for the desired inquiry. Hence Goldstein (2005) suggests that samples can be provided for the participants to choose from. Mahlios, Massengill-Shaw and Barry (2010) have also stated in their study that apart from giving samples, the participants can also have an option of self-reporting or choosing from the given list of metaphors. In this study an example and an explanation were provided for the participants which followed the questions given below to extract the participants beliefs about NEST-NNEST dichotomy.

Question 1: “What metaphor would you use to describe yourself as a non-native EFL instructor?” and why?

Question 2: “What metaphor would you use to describe the native language teacher?” and why?

In order to make the process more comprehensible and in order for the participants to also express and to ease the intelligibility process for the researcher and explanation will be given which is adapted from Thomas and Beauchamp (2011): “A metaphor is another way of saying who you are using an object or a role to represent the way you see yourself as a teacher. For example, you could say that I am a gardener because I help children grow.”

In the final stage of the study, the epistemological beliefs of the participants were further elaborated in order to understand their beliefs about the knowledge of language of their profession. In order to get an insight into this issue, rather than focusing on all the dimensions of epistemological beliefs mentioned by Schommer (1990) and Hofer (2001) such as source of knowledge, certainty of knowledge, development of knowledge and justification of knowledge; only the source and the certainty of knowledge were elaborated since the main beliefs being under study is the teachers beliefs about how they view their source of content knowledge and its representation of certainty for them. The questionnaire was adapted from Conley et. al. (2004) questionnaire items which they had adapted from Hofer (2000) and Elder (2002) in which they focused on four dimensions of epistemological beliefs that have to do with the nature of knowledge and knowing in science. The items were rated on a 5-point likert scale (1 strongly disagree; 5 strongly agree), and all questions were worded to have the teachers focus on the domain of native speakers as the source of content knowledge for non-native EFL instructors. As for the analysis of the data, a thematic analysis was conducted when analyzing the open-ended questionnaires. The process was similar to the one conducted in De Guerrero and Villamil’s (2002) study in which they initially made a list of the metaphors and later created themes for relevant ones. Informed consent forms were also distributed prior to the study of ethical considerations. The adapted questionnaire items are given below.

Source

- All English Language teachers should believe what native speakers say.

- In language teaching, you have to believe what the native speaker course books teach.

- Whatever the native speaker teacher says in language classes is correct.

- If you read something in a native speaker course book, you can be sure it’s true and authentic.




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- Only native speakers know for sure what the correct version of the language is.

Certainty

- Language is fixed.

- The most important part of learning/teaching a language is to learn/teach the correct standard form.

- Native speakers know everything about the language. There is not much more to know.

- Native speakers always agree on a certain form of a language.

Results

1. Epistemological Beliefs

After collecting the qualitative data, which was based on the participants metaphorical representations of their views based on native and non-native language teachers, the epistemological beliefs questionnaire was given to further evaluate whether or not there was a significant difference of epistemological beliefs depending on the participants level of education.

Table 1. The results of “epistemological beliefs” questionnaire

Level of Education Mean SD Std. Error

Graduate

3.02 .41 .13

Post-Graduate 2.09 .71 .22

As can be seen in Table 1, while the graduate students had a mean score of ‘3.02” (SD=.41) in their epistemological beliefs questionnaire, the post-graduate group had a mean score of “2.09” (SD=.71). These initial results indicate that the graduate group of students was more prone to accept the native speaker norms and the standardization of language.

Table 2. The comparison between the level of education

t-value df p-value

Level of Edu.

Graduate (N=10)

3.6 18 .00 Post-graduate (N=10)

In order to see whether or not there was a significant difference between the mean scores of the two groups a t-test was carried out (see Table 2). The results of the t-test suggest that there was a significant difference between the two groups epistemological beliefs based on the standardization of the English language and the certainty of the native speaker norms (t(18)=3.6, p<.05).

2. Metaphors

In order to gain a deeper understanding of the participant epistemological beliefs based on native speakerism, the teachers were asked to conceptualize their views of NEST’s and non-NEST’S through metaphors.

2.1. The Post-Graduates’ Metaphorical Conceptions

The participants with a post-graduate degree generally conceptualized themselves as an “educator” which carried certain qualifications of teaching. As it is also represented in Table 3, a participant has conceptualized the non-NEST as a “guide”: “I see myself as a guide to students assisting them learning the language”. Here, the EFL teacher’s metaphor carries the actual role of what any educator should do, which is to teach them the subject. Another participant has stated him/herself as a “customer representative”: “I would use customer representative to describe myself as a NNEFL instructor because I feel myself responsible for giving information about the language, sharing my knowledge, helping them to solve their learning problems, answering their questions as much as I can”. It can also be understood from this explanation that this teacher does not feel any sense of inferiority in terms of being a non-NEST, on the contrary, s/he perceives the profession




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of teaching as the way it should be. The authentic representations for the other metaphors conceptualizing the role of “educator” are given below.

Door: “I would describe myself as a door because I encourage my students to knock and open it and enter a room where they learn new things. I assist them throughout the way.”

Gardener: “As a non-NEST, I would describe myself as a gardener since each student needs to be observed and be cared for”.

Orchestra Conductor: “I would describe myself as an orchestra conductor because in an orchestra there are so many different types of instruments and players trying to play in harmony. The conductors job is to direct the simultaneous performance of all these players”.

Table 3. Metaphorical conceptualizations of post-graduate EFL teachers based on non-NEST

Conceptual categories for the non-NEST Exemplar metaphors

1. Educator A guide, a customer representative, a door, gardener, orchestra conductor

2. Cultural ambassador Travel guide 3. Life-long learner A growing pond 4. Struggler for appreciation Surprise egg, inadequate

Another major theme apart from seeing the non-NEST as an “educator” is referring it to a “cultural ambassador”. The metaphor conceptualizing this theme is referring to the non-NEST as a “travel guide”: “I would use travel guide as a metaphor describing myself because that’s how I feel in class. Giving them information about a different culture, people and language”. In this explanation it was noticed that the focus was not on the teaching pedagogy itself but rather on the content which was conveying a different culture. As for the metaphor “growing pond” which is thematized as “life-long learner”, the participant has stated: “As a non-NEST, I can describe myself as a pond which gradually grows and expands because language is alive and infinite. Language is evolving and there is no end to learning it”. In this statement it can also be seen that the participant epistemologically views language as a dynamic structure rather than something being fixed, hence, s/he suggests a concept of life-long learning. The final major theme is “the struggler for appreciation”. The metaphors relevant to this theme generally focus on the misconceptions that people have towards non-NEST and for this reason they state that they have to struggle extra to improve themselves and to gain awareness that being a non-NEST is not a deficiency.

Surprise egg: “I would say that I am like a surprise egg. Because when you look from the outside all the surprise eggs are the same. Everybody would say okay she is just another non-native EFL teacher. However, they don’t actually know me. Then when I start to teach and touch upon my students’ life, they would see that I am not the same with other teachers. I think every non-native teacher is different. It is not fair to be judged because of this title. Unfortunately we have to struggle to show that we areunique, an extra effort is put on us to compensate for not being a native speaker of thetarget language we are teaching”

Inadequate: “Unfortunately the first thing that comes to my mind is ‘inadequate’because this is how you are made to feel- at least at a time that you develop an awareness of how ‘advantageous’ being a NNEST actually is. Yet, a lot of teachers retire without this awareness. This has started to change, yet I believe we have a lot to go, though”

Table 4. Metaphorical conceptualizations of post-graduate EFL teachers based on NEST’s

Conceptual categories for the NEST Exemplar metaphors

1. First choice of students Treasure, magician 2. Life-long learner A growing pond 3. Advantageous without deserving Royals, backpackers (x2) 4. Provider of authentic resource Parent 5. Provider of correct language Tourist guides, mirrors, dictionary




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As the post-graduate groups’ metaphors based on the NEST’s, the first theme to be realized in table 4 is “first choice of students”. The first metaphor to represent this theme is “treasure”: “When I think about our students and their behavior to native speakers, I would use the metaphor ‘treasure’ because they always feel more interested and more eager when a native language teacher comes to the class”. Through this explanation it can be easily understood that the teacher has constructed a belief through own experiences that students favor NEST’s and that they are more motivated in this aspect. As for the theme “magician”: “I would use magician as a metaphor because they have the advantage to draw students’ attention in any classroom setting and students love them and have a tendency to admire and listen to them like audiences”. Another interesting theme was seeing the native language teachers as life-long learners, too, through stating the metaphor “growing pond”: “I would describe the native language teacher as a pond that grows day by day, too, because whether native or not, as language teachers we have to keep up with the changes regarding language use and language teaching methods”. It can be seen from this statement that the teacher does not upload any privileged qualifications on the native language teacher, rather s/he states that they, too, should always self-develop themselves. Some of the participants indicated through their metaphors that the NEST’s were advantageous without really deserving it. One of the participants conceptualized this thought through stating them as the “royals”: I would use ‘royals’ maybe because everybody treats them as if they were the royals and they are seen as the privileged ones. However, as we know all of the royal people are not actually qualified to rule, but they just have the right to rule because of their birthright. It is the same for the native language teacher”. Another metaphor referring to the same theme was “backpackers”: “NEST’s are backpackers in my opinion- at least the ones who do not hold a pedagogical degree. So many things are taken for granted when it comes to native speakers even though they do not have the pedagogical qualifications they hold important positions in educational institutions and are paid more than non-native language teachers”. It can be understood from these statements that the teachers approach the native/non-native issue critically and express how they find it irrelevant to prioritize the NEST’s in the industry. The metaphor “parent” was conceptualized as provider of authentic resource: “I would use ‘parent’ to describe the native language teacher. They give importance to communication and they use the language in a larger extent both in and out of the classroom. Therefore, they give plenty of input to the students and they do not focus on accuracy as much as we do, they enable the learners to use the language as much as possible in real context”. In the last theme, which is “provider of correct language”, even though the teachers state that native language teachers can provide the correct form of language, they still have certain critics based on the issue based on pedagogical considerations rather than epistemological ones.

Tourist guides: “I would describe the native language teachers as ‘tourist guides’ who show the correct paths to the people involved in the journey. However, this should not be taken for granted. They should have teaching experience”

Mirrors: “I would use ‘mirrors of the target language’ as a metaphor because they reflect and show how the language is used properly and correctly. But we need toremember that there is always more to see beyond the mirror about the teaching of language and the use of language”

Dictionary: “I think the native language teacher is like a dictionary. She knows mostof the language content and can be considered as an authority. However, despite knowing structures and foundations of language, she might have problems with the teaching of the language”

2.2. The Graduates’ Metaphorical Conceptions

The first theme of graduates metaphorical conceptualizations based on non-NEST’s, seen in table 5, is “cultural ambassador”. This theme was created in relation to the core meaning the metaphors carried. One of the teachers stated that s/he viewed the non-NEST’s as “informers”: “I can describe the non-NEST’s as ‘informers’ because we teach the target culture and language and this has many educational benefits for the students”. Another relevant metaphor was “service-point”: “We are like ‘service point’. We serve another culture and language by teaching it correctly to students”. It can be seen from this explanation that the teacher also focuses on teaching the correct form of the language which epistemologically implies teaching the standardized language form. Similarly, a final metaphor for the first theme is “bridge”: “I think I am a bridge of the English language to the Turkish students. We serve as bridges, we connect the two societies. I try my best to teach the language and correct the students if they make mistakes”.

Table 5. Metaphorical conceptualizations of graduate EFL teachers based on non-NEST’s

Conceptual categories for the non-NEST Exemplar metaphors




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1. Cultural ambassador Informer, service point, bridge 2. Provider to success Key maker 3. Life-long learner Tree (x2) 4. Educator Leader, host 5. Transferor to the mother tongue Tennis racket

The metaphor “key maker” which conceptualizes the theme “provider to success” was explained as: “I describe myself as a key maker, if we accept English language as a door which is opened to the whole world, we the English teachers make the keys of it. We show them the correct door, open it and teach how to step in”. It can be seen in this remark that the teacher sees the language as a means to interact with the world and to lead to success. Similar to the post-graduate group, two of the teachers regarded themselves as educators without making any distinction about being a non-native language teacher. One of the teachers used the metaphor “leader” referring to being the leader in the classroom: “As a NNEST, I can describe myself as a leader because I can try to teach every kind of thing to my students. I try to direct their lifestyles, their thoughts and their feelings as a teacher”. The final theme, which is “transferor to the mother tongue” was expressed through the metaphor “tennis racket”. While explaining the metaphor, the teacher emphasized on the disadvantages of using the students’ mother tongue in the classroom due to responding to students’ usage of language: “I would use a ‘tennis racket’ to describe myself as a NNEST. That’s because I speak English or Turkish depending on the language my students speak. I know that this shouldn’t be done in language classrooms but it is difficult to not speak Turkish in certain times”.

Table 6. Metaphorical conceptualizations of graduate EFL teachers based on NEST’s

Conceptual categories for the NEST Exemplar metaphors

1. Provider of correct language Mother, skeleton of the body, magician, artist, dominance 2. Equal to non-NEST’s Identity card, ordinariness 3. Lacking of pedagogical skills Guest 4. Independent Tennis court

The first theme with the majority of references, in terms of graduate-level EFL teachers’ metaphorical conceptualizations based on NEST’s, is “provider of correct language” (see table 6). This also gives a sense that the majority of the teachers assume that native speakers’ language norms or standardized English is the correct form to teach.

Mother: “The native language teacher is like a mother. They guide the students and make them acquire the correct form of language”

Skeleton of the body: “They are like the skeleton of a body because natives are symbols, they are the past and the generation of a language, culture, country, society, civilization etc. they have the power”

Magician: “A native language teacher is like a magician. You see only a cap but there will be everything necessary inside for the students to learn the language”

Artist: “A native teacher is like an artist. They see the right color, all the shades and tones. Because they can explain some facts that non-EFL instructors are not able to understand”

Two of the teachers with a graduate degree expresses that they viewed both native and non-native language teachers as equal. The first metaphor used to conceptualize this theme is “identity card”: “I see no difference between us, but I can say they are different identity cards. Being a native doesn’t mean you lead a good teaching. Natives and non-natives, we are different numbers on the same clock”. The second metaphor is “ordinariness”: “I see them as ordinariness. They are normal teachers. They don’t have any differences to other teachers, they just speak their language very fluently but this doesn’t mean they are always perfect”. The metaphors for this theme indicate that, epistemologically the two teachers do not see any difference between the native and non-native language teachers. One of the teachers have also stated that native language teachers lack pedagogical skills. S/he has conceptualized this theme with the metaphor “guests”: “I would use ‘guest’ to describe the native language teachers because despite many advantages they have such as their language knowledge, using NEST’s as teachers may result in some problems. Most of them have excellent language skills but little teaching skills. They may have some problems understanding students’ problems. Most of them do not adopt the job and




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have difficulty in classroom management”. In the final theme, through using the metaphor “tennis court” the teacher implied how free the native language teachers are in speaking their language: “I would use a ‘tennis court’ to describe a native teacher because he feels quite free to speak English during the class. They don’t have any drawbacks because they are very fluent and correct”. Through this final metaphor it can be seen that the teacher epistemologically regards the native language teacher as the correct source of language knowledge and also a feeling of inferiority can also be noticed in his/her statement.

Discussion

Similar to De Guerrero and Villamil’s (2002) study, it should initially be stated that the present study does not focus whether or not the teachers reflect their conceptualizations which they have presented through their metaphors, in their actual teaching practice. Rather, it aims to understand the conceptualizations they have constructed based on the NEST/non-NEST dichotomy and its relation to their underlying epistemological beliefs.

According to the epistemological beliefs questionnaire, which was adapted in accordance to the “native speakerism” and the standard language ideology as the core content of language teaching, a significant difference was found between the post-graduate and the graduate group of teachers. While the post-graduates were more critical in their responses, stating that they disagreed with a high frequency of the items, the graduate group of teachers was less critical in this respect. As Hofer and Pintrich (1997) suggest, epistemology is an area of philosophy which deals with the nature and justification of human knowledge. The results indicated that, in terms of epistemological beliefs, the graduates were more prone to accept the standard form of English as the correct form while the post-graduates were more critical about the issue. The results are actually quite important since as Schommer (1994) states, the implicit beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning, or epistemological beliefs, can affect reasoning, learning, and decision making which results in carrying great importance in educational sciences and in teacher education since teachers’ implicit beliefs about knowledge can actually shape the way they view their subject area of teaching and the way they teach. Similarly, as Lunn Brownlee et. al. (2017) state, recently, researchers have focused on how teachers’ epistemic cognition can give insight into their professional development and their teaching practice (e.g., Lunn Brownlee, Schraw, & Berthelsen, 2011; Lunn Brownlee, Schraw, Walker, & Ryan, 2016). Buehl and Fives (2009) have found in their study that student teachers epistemic cognition can significantly affect their teaching approaches and techniques, and their expectations from their students. The fact that in the present study, certain group of EFL teachers view the English language as fixed in terms of native speaker norms (generally standard American or British English) can actually affect the way they approach the language, the way they teach, the way they approach themselves as a non-NEST and the way they see themselves as efficient EFL teachers. These aspects of beliefs are rather crucial since being a native speaker is generally seen as a rigid category in which transition is implicitly implied to be impossible. As Llurda (2015) states, since the communicative language teaching became as the dominant theoretical framework in language teaching, it was implicitly implied that the native speakers were the one and only source of natural, spontaneous and authentic source of knowledge. It became clear that the native speakers in the field were regarded to be more prestigious. Cook (2007) mentions about how students are judged about how close they resemble native speakers in terms of their competency, proficiency and their knowledge about the language. However, these issues need critical discussion since they lead to discrimination in the profession of English language teaching and a sense of inferiority among non-native English language teachers.

In order to get a deeper understanding of the two different groups of teachers’ epistemological beliefs, they were asked to conceptualize their beliefs of native and non -native language teachers through metaphors. The reason for why metaphors were chosen is actually relevant to De Guerrero and Villamil’s (2002) ideas in which they state that metaphors have an ability to capture the complex constructs in the field of teacher education and they also have a utility as vehicles for raising reflection and consciousness. The majority of the post-graduate level of EFL teachers generally regarded themselves as non-natives as educators. They did not reveal any sense of inferiority or they did not conceptualize any prioritizing of native speakers. As for their metaphors based on NEST’s, the results seemed to be in correlation with the epistemological beliefs questionnaire results. The teachers either referred to seeing no difference between natives and non-natives and that both groups should improve themselves gradually since language is a dynamic system. This also implies that epistemologically, language was not seen as fixed, hence, standard norms of language were opposed. It was also noticed that the post-graduate group of teachers were aware of the social factors which affect native-speakerism in the field. Some of them viewed the NEST’s as treasures or magicians since they can easily capture the students’ motivation due to the fact that students favor native speakers as English language teachers. Differently, two of the participants from the post-graduate




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group stated that NEST’s were like mirrors and dictionaries. They expressed they were somehow the representative of the correct form of language, however, they criticized the issue in terms of pedagogical knowledge, stating that they do not have the necessary pedagogical knowledge. It was seen that while some teachers questioned the fact of the standardized form of the English language in a globalized world were English speakers of other countries far exceed the number of native speakers in the world (Graddol, 2006) which inescapably results in variations of the English language, others were more critical about pedagogical considerations rather than the language content itself. As mentioned earlier some of the participants also saw them as mirrors which reflect the correct form of language.

The metaphors of the graduate level of EFL teachers generally regarded themselves as non-NEST’s as cultural ambassadors whose job is to teacher their students the language and the culture of another nation. They also stated through their metaphors that they aimed to teach the correct form of the language which epistemologically implies the belief based on the acceptance of the standard forms of language. These can also raise some critical issues such as the ownership of the language. Do these teachers feel like they own the language as the teachers and the users of the language itself? If not, how do they perceive their profession and how do they perceive themselves as teaching a language which they do not feel the right to claim rights? Medges (1994) focused in her study how this power-related status and ownership issues created the existence of generic inferiority complex among NNEST’s. This was rather tragic since this type of belief had a negative impact on non-native teachers’ professional self-esteems (Llurda, 2015). As for the graduate EFL teachers metaphors based on the native language teachers the majority saw them as the provider of the correct form of language. They expressed this belied through metaphoric conceptualizations such as mother, skeleton of the body, magician, artist and dominance. The teacher who conceptualized the NEST’s as an artist explained this view through stating that native language teachers see the right color, the right shades and tones because they can explain some facts that non-EFL instructors are not able to understand. Through this statement, it can be understood that the teacher might have the feeling of inferiority in his/her teaching profession. This view is inevitably co-constructed through the social environment and the experiences this teacher must have gone through. The teacher education programs also have a role in these belief constructions which is also stated in Lortie’s (1975) terminology of appreciation of observation.

Conclusion

Apart from the power-related issues regarding symbolic possession of a particular community of language, one of the fundamental points which confuses people in terms of issues regarding World Englishes, ELF, EIL, NEST & NNEST are generally the concept of “standardization”, especially in terms of the teaching of English and in terms of the use of English regarding institutional and communal needs. Epistemologically, What do we mean by standard? What is standard? These kinds of questions in the field give rise to concerns regarding its necessity. But when we think about it, standardization, which in its core meaning refers to rigid norms and stability, is an extremely controversial term when we think about the dynamic nature of the language itself (especially in terms of lexis). Since English has become to be a global language used by billions of people around the world to meet their communicative and communal needs, nothing is more normal than it to be diversified. Adapting the language, making meaning of it and locally developing the language is an inevitable consequence of an international language. Hence, it seems illogical for native speakers to claim right over these localized versions of the language since they should definitely not be compared to standardized American or British English because they are unique and rich in themselves, representing their own culture and communal needs of the adopted group. Also, when you think about certain terminologies such as the multi-competence approach (Cook, 1999) and translingualism (Garcia, 2011), you can get an idea that becoming an L2 user is going beyond being a native speaker since L2 users develop a complex mental and socio-communicative system. This richness can definitely be an advantage for the non-native language teachers since they have a great sense of language awareness and they also are a product of metissage which can be a valuable source for language learners in various contexts. Constructing this epistemological belief and awareness to non-native language teachers in their teacher education programs can definitely develop their professional self-esteem in the field since the student teachers epistemological beliefs shape the knowledge they gain from their observations of other teachers and their own teaching goals which shape the approaches to teaching and learning.

References

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[2] Buehl, M. M., & Fives, H. (2009). Exploring teachers' beliefs about teaching knowledge: Where does it come from? Does it change?. The Journal of Experimental Education, 77(4), 367-408.




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[3] Conley, A. M., Pintrich, P. R., Vekiri, I., & Harrison, D. (2004). Changes in epistemological beliefs in elementary science students. Contemporary educational psychology, 29(2), 186-204.

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metaphor. Teaching and teacher Education, 27(4), 762-769. [25] Widdowson, H. G. (1994). The ownership of English. TESOL quarterly, 28(2), 377-389. [26] Yadav, A., Herron, M., & Samarapungavan, A. (2011). Personal epistemology in preservice teacher

education. Personal epistemology and teacher education, 61, 25.




84

Teacher Training as an Influential Factor in the Use of Visual Materials in Education

Archontia Foutsitzi

Laboratory Teaching Staff, Department of Primary Level Education

Democritus University of Thrace

Abstract

The use of visual materials in education is a traditional way of teaching. Images are one of the many kinds of teaching methods used by teachers in order to enrich the teaching of their lessons and to revitalise the way they teach. The utilisation of illustrative material when teaching depends on many factors. One of these is the instruction and training of the teachers. This study aims to investigate the influence of the teachers’ profile on the use of images in the teaching of lessons.

Keywords: image, illustration, image and education

Introduction

The current requirements to develop and improve education have established further education and training as now being a necessity (Kostika, 2004). For this reason, the Greek state has designed a series of further education programmes (Taratori-Tsalkatidou, 2000), so that Greek schools can provide pupils with an up-to-date education. Teachers have been asked to implement these programmes and to spread the belief that, in addition to a targeted education policy, a correct use and utilisation of teaching aids in education also depends on the teachers’ knowledge and training.

Given this viewpoint, all the activities of the teachers should be aimed at adopting a new educational role where the teachers are not the sole and exclusive provider of knowledge (Pange, 2009), but a means of interconnecting knowledge with their pupils. Within this kind of learning environment, the teacher encourages the pupils to acquire abilities and skills, so that learning becomes a process of personal discovery for them (Flouris, 2003). The further education programmes inform teachers about new ways of teaching and the results that these bring (Taratori-Tsalkatidou, 2000).

The use and the utilisation of teaching tools in education (Salvaras & Salvara, 2011) is an important topic which is tackled by the further education programmes. There are many kinds of educational tools. One of these tools is that of images (Tisseron, 2008). Images are a factor of crucial importance in teaching and learning. Through them teachers enrich their lessons and bring their way of teaching up to date. The illustrative material, in both its traditional and modern form, occupies an important position in the learning process.

Starting point, goal and methodology of the research

The starting point for carrying out this survey was the importance of illustrative material in conducting the teaching process. The goal of the research was to show how much the teacher’s profile affects the frequency with which images are used in the teaching of the lesson. For the above goal to be achieved and for the research to be carried out, a questionnaire was used as a research tool for collecting data (Keeves, 1990; Daoutopoulos, 2002; Zafeiropoulos, 2005; Cohen, Manion & Morisson, 2008). The processing of the research data statistics was carried out with the help of the SPSS programme (Κelpanidis, 1999; Roussos & Τsaousis, 2011).

Analysis of the research data

Two hundred and eighty eight teachers took part in the survey. Of these, 63 were men (a percentage of 20.5%) and 225 were women (a percentage of 79.5%) (Table 1).




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Table 1.

Distribution of teachers according to their gender

Gender Frequency Percentage (%)

Men 63 20.5 Women 225 79.5

Total 288 100%

Regarding the years of service, the participants in the survey could be split up as follows: 41 individuals (a percentage of 14.2%) had been working for from 1-5 years, 89 individuals (a percentage of 30.9%) had been working for from 6-12 years, 72 individuals (a percentage of 25%) had been working for from 13-20 years, 49 individuals (a percentage of 17%) had been working for from 21-26 years, whilst 37 individuals (a percentage of 12.8%) had more than 27 years of service (Table 2).

Table 2.

Distribution of teachers according to their years of service

Years of service Frequency Percentage (%)

1-5 41 14.2 6-12 89 30.9 13-20 72 25 21-26 49 17 > 27 37 12.8

Total 288 100%

The teachers who took part in the survey were asked to answer the following questions:

how much do you think that the basic studies affect the frequency with which images are used in the teaching of a lesson?

how much do you think that further education programmes influence teachers in including illustrative material in the teaching of their lessons?

how much do you think that having a Master’s Degree contributes to teachers deciding to use images in the classroom?

how much do think that having a PhD affects teachers’ wishes to enrich the teaching of their lessons with images?

how much help is given by other factors which have a decisive effect on whether teachers choose to use illustrative material in their lessons or not?

All the questions included in this module, apart from the last one, were “closed-end” questions and the answers which they could give to these were as follows: “not at all”, “a bit”, “quite a lot” and “a lot”. For the last question the teachers were able to mention one or more factors which they considered as being decisive in their decision to include illustrative material in the teaching of their lessons.

The answers from the teachers in the survey indicate the following things: 95 individuals (a percentage of 35.1%) stated that the basic studies contribute “quite a lot” in motivating teachers to use images when teaching their lessons. Eighty-six of them (a percentage of 31.7%) stated that the basic studies help “a bit” in this direction. Fifty-six of their colleagues (a percentage of 20.7%) gave this assistance a positive rating of “a lot”, whilst 34 teachers (a percentage of 12.5%) did not credit it “at all” (Table 3).




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Table 3.

Contribution of basic studies to the use of images

Answers Frequency Percentage (%)

Not at all 34 12.5 A bit 86 31.7 Quite a lot 95 35.1 A lot 56 20.7 No answer (missing) 17 -

Total 288 100%

The answers from teachers who think that further education programmes contribute “quite a lot” or “a lot” to the use of images were at about the same level (88 individuals, a percentage of 42.7% put “quite a lot” and 83 individuals, a percentage of 40.3%, put “a lot”). Another twenty-five (a percentage of 12.1%) stated that further education programmes had helped them “a bit” in this direction, whilst 10 of their colleagues (a percentage of 4.9%) maintained that they were “not at all” helped in this field (Table 4).

Table 4.

Contribution of further education programmes in the use of images



Total 288 100%

Thirty-eight of the teachers taking part in the survey expressed an opinion on whether a Master’s Degree contributed towards teachers deciding to use images when teaching their lessons. To be precise, 21 of them (a percentage of 47.7%) thought that their subsequent studies had helped them “a lot” in making this choice, whilst another 17 (a percentage of 38.6%) thought it helped “quite a lot”. It is worth noting that a large number of teachers did not answer this question, something which indicates that these individuals probably did not have this qualification (Table 5).

Table 5.

Contribution of Master’s Degree to the use of images



Total 288 100%

To the question “whether and to what extent a PhD contributes to the decision by teachers to include illustrative material when teaching their lessons”, the answers given are of no relevance for the purposes of this research (Table 6).




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Table6.

Contribution of a PhD to the use of images


Not at all 2 28.6 A bit 2 28.6 Quite a lot 1 14.3 A lot 2 28.6 No answer(missing) 281 -

Total 288 100%

Six of the teachers asked mentioned the contribution of other factors in introducing illustrative material when teaching lessons, without, however, specifying what these factors are (Table 7).

Table 7.

Contribution of other factors in the use of the images


Quite a lot 2 33.3 A lot 4 66.7 No answer(missing) 282 -

Total 288 100%

Conclusions

An analysis of the above data shows that the participants in this survey sample do not think that the basic studies help

teachers to recognise the contribution made by images and to include them when teaching their lessons. On the other

hand, they consider that further education programmes, with the structure and content which they provide, contribute more

in this direction. This could be due to the fact that the majority of the teachers in the survey sample had not done any post-

graduate studies, whilst a minimal number of respondents had a PhD.

The training and further education of teachers in relation to the use of visual material in education is of crucial importance.

Since the processes of representation and communication in contemporary societies have shifted the centre of gravity from

the word to the image, the utilisation of illustrative material in the teaching of lessons (Kantartzi, 2002) has become an issue

of paramount importance.

As has been evidenced, studying further education programmes can help teachers to reassess their ideas and recognise

the contribution of images to the learning process (Bonidis, 2004). But the state, too, through training sessions, should train

both current and future teachers so that they realise the value of visual education and intersperse their lessons with images.

However, in addition to the further education programmes (Hatzidimou, 2011), the teachers themselves will, on the one

hand, have to aim at changing the current mindset and, on the other hand, to experiment with something new (Fykaris,

2012), modern and innovative: the inclusion of images in the educational process (Zangotas, 2016). A factor which will

boost this activity is the individual will and the personal inclination shown by each person. Only in this way will the traditional

method of teaching be brought up to date (Hatzidimou, 2003) and educational practices improved.




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Bibliography

[1] Bonidis, K. (2004). School book contents as the object of research. Athens: Μetaichmio. [in Greek]

[2] Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2008). The methodology of educational research. Athens: Μetaichmio. [in

Greek]

[3] Daoutopoulos, G. (2002). Social Research Methodology. Thessaloniki: Ζygos. [in Greek]

[4] Flouris, G. (2003). The Architecture of Teaching and the Process of Learning. Athens: Grigori. [in Greek]

[5] Fykaris, Ι. (2012). The utilisation of video and of animation in teaching: A didactic possibility. Τa Εkpedeftika,

103/104, 233-248. [in Greek]

[6] Hatzidimou, D. (2003). Thoughts and Suggestions for Improving Education. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Brothers

Publishing House S.A. [in Greek]

[7] Hatzidimou, D. (2011). Introduction to Pedagogy. Contribution to the dissemination of pedagogical thinking.

Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Brothers Publishing House S.A. [in Greek]

[8] Kantartzi, Ε. (2002). Historical Overview of the Illustration of Children’s Books and School textbooks.


[9] Keeves, J. (Ed.) (1990). Educational Research, Methodology and Measurement: An International Handbook.

Oxford: Pergamon.

[10] Κelpanidis, Μ. (1999). Methodology of Pedagogical Research with Statistical Data. Thessaloniki: Κodikas. [in

Greek]

[11] Kostika, Ι. (2004). The Further Education of Teachers – A Survey of the Opinions and Attitudes of Managers in

Education. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Brothers Publishing House S.A. [in Greek]

[12] Pange, Τ. (2009). Educational Technology. Ioannina: Theodoridis. [in Greek]

[13] Roussos, P. & Τsaoussis, Γ. (2011). Statistics in the behavioural sciences with the use of SPSS. Athens: Τopos.

[in Greek]

[14] Salvaras, G. & Salvara, M. (2011). Teaching models and strategies. Construction and use of teaching “tools”.

Athens: Diadrasi. [in Greek]

[15] Taratori-Tsalkatidou, Ε. (2000). Further education from the perspective of teachers in Primary Education –

Theoretical and empirical approach. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Brothers Publishing House S.A. [in Greek]

[16] Τaratori-Τsalkatidou, Ε. (2000). Further education from the perspective of teachers in Secondary Education–

Empirical approach. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Brothers Publishing House S.A. [in Greek]

[17] Tisseron, S. (2008). The advantages of images. Athens: Katarti. [in Greek]

[18] Zafeiropoulos, Κ. (2005). How to write a scientific paper; Athens: Κritiki. [in Greek]

[19] Zangotas, Β. (2016). The multisensory dynamic of images in the teaching process. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidi. [in

Greek]




89

The Utilisation of Images in the Teaching of Lessons

Archontia Foutsitzi

Laboratory Teaching Staff, Department of Primary Level Education

Democritus University of Thrace

Abstract

The use of educational tools in teaching is a crucial issue, bearing in mind that their contribution has been pointed out on various occasions by many researchers. Images are one of the tools which contribute to the learning process. This is the reason why most teachers use visual materials when teaching lessons. The aim of this study is to highlight the contribution and the usefulness of images in teaching through the teachers’ actions.

Keywords: image, illustration, image and education.

Introduction

Apart from the terms, the content, the direction and the technical organisation in teaching (Matsangouras, 2006), an important topic dealt with by the science of Didactics is that of educational tools (Salvaras & Salvara, 2011), which teachers use to provide either physical or intellectual support for the learning process to be carried out. By means of this process concrete knowledge is acquired, skills and abilities are developed (Konstantinou, 2015) and values are formed (Hatzidimou, 2011). Teachers, in recognition of the pedagogical value which these tools provide, have included them when teaching almost all of their lessons (Taratori-Tsalkatidou, 2005; Hatzidimou, 2015). Among these, images occupy a prime position.

Images are a medium for expressing all “two-dimensional visual representations of persons, objects or phenomena” (Kanakis, 1999). According to a more general definition, an ‘image’ is “the material representation of a real or imaginary object” (Zangotas, 2016), which was created with the aim of showing a person, thing or phenomenon, which is not present. However, it was soon realised that what it depicts is, ultimately, more valuable than a mere representation, because every image, apart from being representational, also signifies many other things in itself. This fact has given it greater potency and longevity and its roles has ceast to be temporary and transitory. For this reason it has been considered particularly important and useful to have the presence of images. Thus images have gradually invaded and become established in many areas, also including that of education.

Images have pride of place in education today. School textbooks are full of images (Palikidis, 2009), because illustrations play a role which is multifaceted and has multiple meanings. Their contribution to the teaching is not one-dimensional, but depends each time on the function they are required to perform. Thus images sometimes supplement the texts which they accompany, sometimes provide additional information besides that presented in the narrative of the texts and sometimes decorate and embellish the pages of a book.

The development of technology, in conjunction with the introduction of IT in education (Kron & Sophos, 2007), has provided many teachers with the possibility of using images in the teaching of their lessons not only in a printed form by also in a digital one (Newby, Stepich, Lehmann & Russel, 2009; Kontakos & Stamatis, 2017). In this way, a traditional means of teaching has been developed into a modern educational tool, which, due to its diversity and the abundance of the possibilities which it offers, has become established as an important teaching aid.

Starting point, goal and methodology of the research

The importance of illustrative material in implementing the educational process formed the starting point for the carrying out of research. The goal of the research was to assess the contribution of images in the teaching of lessons, based on the teachers’ activities. In order for this goal to be achieved and for the research to be implemented, a questionnaire was used as a research tool for collecting data (Keeves, 1990; Daoutopoulos, 2002; Zafeiropoulos, 2005; Cohen, Manion & Morisson,




90

2008). The processing of the statistics for the research data was carried out with the aid of the SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) programme (Kelpanidis, 1999; Roussos & Tsaousis, 2011).

Analysis of the research data

Two hundred and eighty eight teachers participated in the research. Of these 63 were men (a percentage of 20.5%) and 225 were women (a percentage of 79.5%) (Table 1).

Table 1.

Distribution of teachers according to their gender

Gender Frequency Percentage (%)

Men 63 20.5

Women 225 79.5

Total 288 100%

The majority of the respondents (180 individuals, a percentage of 62.5%) were teachers who taught general education subjects, whilst 108 of them (a percentage of 37.5%) taught specialist subjects (Table 2).

Table 2.

Distribution of teachers according to their specialism

Specialism Frequency Percentage (%)

Teachers

Specialist teachers

180

108

62.5

37.5

Total 288 100%

The teachers who took part in the survey were asked to answer the following questions:

how much do you carry out an observation of the images each time that you use them when teaching a lesson? how much do you ask for an explanation of their content when you refer to these images? how much do you comment on them? how much do you try to analyse their individual elements each time you include them when teaching a lesson? how much do you examine their content more closely when you show them in the lesson? how much do you think that the use of images during a lesson contributes to the understanding of the concepts contained within it? how much do you think that the use of an image helps to increase the pupils’ interest and attention? how much do you think that images contribute to the creation of clear representations of the content of a lesson? how much do you think that showing images in class boosts the pupils’ self-motivation? how much do you think that the use of images gives the teaching an individual character? how much do you think that the presence of images contributes to an increase in the pupils’ range of visual representations?

All the questions included in this section of the questionnaire were “close-ended” and the possible answers to these were: “not at all”, “a bit”, “quite a lot” and “a lot”.

From the answers collected it can be seen that 143 teachers (a percentage of 50.9%) stated that they encourage their pupils “very much” to observe a picture before expressing any opinion about its contents. One hundred and twenty-two of these (a percentage of 43.4%) encourage them “quite a lot”, whilst only 15 teachers (a percentage of 5.3%) ask the pupils in class “a bit” to carry out this activity (Table 3).




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Table 3.

Observation of images


Not at all 1 .4 A bit 15 5.3 Quite a lot 122 43.4 A lot 143 50.9 No answer (missing) 7 -

Total 288 100%

One half of the teachers in the survey (141 individuals, a percentage of 50.4%) stated that the images contained in one of their teaching modules encouraged them “quite a lot” to explain the individual components to be found in these. One hundred and eleven teachers (a percentage of 39.6%) do this “a lot”, whilst 27 of their colleagues (a percentage of 9.6%) chose the answer “a bit” (Table 4)

Table 4.

Explanation of the contents of a picture



Total 288 100%

One hundred and twenty-six teachers in this survey (percentage of 45.5%) get involved “quite a lot” in making an extensive commentary on the contents of the images. There was a similar number of teachers (124 individuals, a percentage of 44.8%), who carry out this activity “a lot”. Twenty-five of their colleagues (a percentage of 9%) however, encourage their pupils “a lot” to comment on the images which they encounter during the teaching of their lessons, whilst there were 2 teachers (a percentage of .7%) who do not do this “at all” (Table 5).

Table 5.

Commentary on the images


Not at all 2 .7 A bit 25 9 Quite a lot 126 45.5 A lot 124 44.8 No answer (missing) 11 -

Total 288 100%

One hundred and thirty-two teachers in the survey (a percentage of 47%) analyse “quite a lot” the details of an image which they come across in a teaching module. One hundred and two of them (a percentage of 36.3%) analyse the content of an illustration “a lot”, whilst 43 of their colleagues (a percentage of 15.3%) attempt this “a bit”. However, there were also 4 teachers (a percentage of 1.4%) who do not analyse the content of the images within a subject module “at all” (Table 6).




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Table 6.

Analysis of the individual details of images


Not at all 4 1.4 A bit 43 15.3 Quite a lot 132 47 A lot 102 36.3 No answer (missing) 7 -

Total 288 100%

To the question “whether and to what extend do teachers go deeply into the content of an image included in the teaching of their lessons”, 117 of them (a percentage of 41.9%) stated that they do this “quite a lot”. Ninety-two of their colleagues (a percentage of 33%) carry out this activity “a lot”, whilst 65 teachers (a percentage of 23.3%) do it “a bit”. Five of those asked in the survey stated that they do “not at all” go deeply into the content of the images which they come across in a teaching module which they are dealing with (Table 7).

Table 7.

Going deeply into the content of the images


Not at all 5 1.8 A bit 65 23.3 Quite a lot 117 41.9 A lot 92 33 No answer (missing) 9 -

Total 288 100%

One hundred and thirty-six of the teachers who took part in the survey (a percentage of 47.7%) testified that images help their pupils “a lot” in understanding the concepts of the lesson. One hundred and thirty-two of them (a percentage of 46.3%) selected the statement “quite a lot”, whilst 16 of their colleagues (a percentage of 5.6%) think that images contribute in this field “a bit” (Table 8).

Table 8.

Contribution of images to the understanding of concepts


Not at all 1 .4 A bit 16 5.6 Quite a lot 132 46.3 A lot No answer (missing)

136 3

47.7 -

Total 288 100%

Two hundred and nine teachers from the survey sample (a percentage of 73.6%) acknowledged that images contributed “a lot” to increasing the pupils’ the interest and attention. Sixty-seven of their colleagues (a percentage of 23.6%) consider this contribution as being “quite a lot”, whilst 8 teachers (a percentage of 2.8%) stated that images contributed “a bit” to an increase in the pupils’ interest and attention during a lesson (Table 9).




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Table 9.

Contribution of images to an increase in the pupils’ interest and attention


A bit 8 2,8 Quite a lot 67 23,6 A lot No answer (missing)

209 4

73,6 -

Total 288 100%

The images used by the teachers in the survey sample in the teaching of their lessons helped them “a lot” to create clear representations. This view was shared by 131 teachers (a percentage of 46.5%), whilst another 126 of their colleagues (a percentage of 44.7%) agreed that this occurred “quite a lot”. A small percentage of the teachers (7.8%) thought that images contribute “a bit” in this direction, whilst yet another 3 of their colleagues (a percentage of 1.1%)claimed that images do not help “at all” in this field (Table 10).

Table 10.

Contribution of images in creating clear representations


Not at all 3 1 A bit 22 7.8 Quite a lot 126 44.7 A lot 131 46.5 No answer (missing) 6 -

Total 288 100%

Images contribute “quite a lot” to pupils’ self-motivation according to statements by 146 teachers (a percentage of 51.8%) of the survey sample. For 68 of their colleagues (a percentage of 24.1%) this contribution is “a lot”, whereas, on the contrary, for another 60 teachers (a percentage of 21.3%) the amount by which images contribute to the boosting of pupils’ self-motivation is “small”. Finally, there were 8 teachers (a percentage of .3%) who did not share this view “at all” (Table 11).

Table 11.

Contribution by images in boosting pupils’ self-motivation



Total 288 100%

To the question “how much do images contribute to the individual character of the teaching of the lesson?”, 129 teachers taking part in the survey (a percentage of 45.6%) thought that this was achieved “quite a lot”. Sixty-three of their colleagues (a percentage of 22.3%) described this contribution as being “a lot”. There were, however, also quite a few teachers (82) who held the opposite view, since 29% percent stated that this contribution was at a “small” rate. Lastly, 9 teachers (a percentage of 3.2%) thought that images did not contribute “at all” to giving the teaching of a lesson an individual character (Table 12).




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Table 12.

Contribution of images to giving teaching an individual character


Not at all 9 3.2 A bit 82 29 Quite a lot 129 45.6 A lot 63 22.3 No answer (missing) 5 -

Total 288 100%

It appears that 158 teachers (a percentage of 56.6%) of the survey sample identified the contribution of images in increasing the pupils’ range of visual representations as being “a lot”. One hundred of their colleagues (a percentage of 35.9%) described this contribution as being “quite a lot”, whilst 19 of these (a percentage of 6.8%) thought that this was occurring “a bit”. Lastly, 2 teachers (a percentage of .7%) claimed that, based on their experience, this kind of contribution did not occur “at all” (Table 13).

Table 13.

Contribution of images in increasing pupils’ range of visual representations



Total 288 100%

Conclusions

According to the findings of the survey, the teachers taking part rated the contribution of images to the activity of teaching as being positive. For this reason they have been taking a series of actions aimed at achieving a more substantial and deeper involvement with these images. In particular, they try, to a great extent, to involve pupils in procedures which consist of observing in detail all the information contained and included in an image (Dimitriadou, 2007). They then ask them fairly regularly to explain the content of the image and to comment on its individual details. Going one step further, they encourage them to analyse their features in detail and to go into these more deeply (Vryzas, 1990). These actions are necessary for each teacher so that the images are not used as decorative and attractive items in the classroom, but as dynamic tools which promote and support learning

By implementing the above activities, images have been shown to be valuable didactic tools which contribute to the understanding of the lesson being taught (Simatos, 2003). Their incorporation into the activity of teaching is a necessity, because many concepts in the lesson are thereby explained and clarified. However, the teachers’ specific aim is to increase the pupils’ attention (Hatzidimou & Hatzidimou, 2014) and their interest. By using bright colours and details they aim to arouse their pupils’ interest and “nail down” their attention to the lesson.

In addition to the above, an illustration helps a lot in increasing the pupils’ range of visual representations. Using images reinforces the children’s imagination (Kitsaras, 1993) and the mechanism for creating mental representations. Images help quite a lot in developing the pupils’ self-motivation. This means that an image is a “good” medium, which gives the pupil the chance to express himself and to communicate with the other pupils in his class. Through these communication procedures (Stamatis, 2012) his self-confidence is increased and his self-motivation is reinforced. Thus the teacher, taking into account how the dynamics of a class are made up and his pupils’ specific characteristics and requirements, can try to create an individually-tailored teaching curriculum (Hatzidimou, 2015). According to what the participants in the survey have stated, images help quite a lot in this direction.




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[13] Kontakos, Α. & Stamatis, P. (Ed.) (2017). Communication Theories and Models in Education. Athens: Diadrasi. [in Greek]

[14] Kron, F. & Sophos, A. (2007). Teaching Media. Athens: Gutenberg. [in Greek]

[15] Matsangouras, I. (2006). Theory of Teaching. Personal Theories as a Framework for Reflective Critical Analysis.Athens:

Gutenberg. [in Greek]

[16] Newby, T., Stepich, D., Lehman, J. & Russel, J. (2009). Educational technology for teaching and learning. Thessaloniki:

EPIKENTRO S.A. [in Greek]

[17] Palikidis, Α. (2009). The role of images in History Textbooks in Secondary Education. (1950-2002). Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis

Brothers Publishing House S.A. [in Greek]

[18] Roussos, P. & Tsaousis, G. (2011). Statistics in the behavioural sciences with the use of SPSS. Athens: Topos. [in Greek]

[19] Salvaras, G. & Salvara, Μ. (2011). Teaching models and strategies. Athens: Diadrasi. [in Greek]

[20] Simatos, A. (2003). Technology and education. Choice and use of visual aids. Athens: Patakis. [in Greek]

[21] Stamatis, P. (2012). Communication in the educational and administrative process. Basic concepts and strategies. Athens:

Diadrasi. [in Greek]

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[in Greek]

[23] Vryzas, Κ. (1990). Communication and education media. Contemporary Education, 51, 77-89. [in Greek]

[24] Zafeiropoulos, Κ. (2005). How to write a scientific paper; Athens: Κritiki. [in Greek]

[25] Zangotas, Β. (2016). The multisensory dynamic of images in the teaching process. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidi. [in Greek]




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Meaningful Learning and Effectiveness in Virtual Learning Spaces

Ana L. S. Lopes

Marili M. S. Vieira

Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

Abstract

Contemporary educational practices impose challenges and necessary changes in teaching and learning processes in which cyberspace and virtual contexts become places of learning. Affection, emotion, perception, and imagination compose the construction of meaningful adult knowledge. Such theoretical assumptions become fundamental for teaching and learning processes in virtual contexts in the online or distance modality. We adopted a qualitative analysis of the data of the postings in the forums and individual records of the students of the Course Methods of Studies for Distance Learning. The affectivity in virtual environments is a resource of great relevance to enhance the processes of teaching and learning. The study revealed that affectivity occurs to the extent that the student’s needs are met, and he can construct knowledge in a meaningful and conscious way.

Keywords: Affectivity. Significant learning. Distance education.

Introduction

Contemporary educational practices impose changes that are necessary for 21st-century education, especially as regards teaching and learning processes in increasingly virtual contexts, where cyberspace also becomes a “place” for learning. The cyberspace, in a fluid perspective, pointed out by Bauman (2007) is a powerful resource for the expansion of learning to other means, in virtual contexts and online education emerges as a modality with the capacity to promote important transformations in the field of knowledge and teaching and learning processes that occur increasingly in a collaborative way and through digital resources.

Technology-mediated communication gains strength in interactive relationships in educational processes insofar as resources and tools are used with pedagogical intent and allow new configurations for the construction of knowledge and the development of collaborative works.

[. . .] ICTs extend the design and methodology of processes and teaching and learning by creating new work environments, communication, and learning based on a platform, educational resources, and interactive tools, all located on the web, is very flexible and accessible easy. These conditions make distance education more an educational modality than a methodology. (Gonzales, Rosa & Rodriguez, 2015, p. 123, translated by the authors).1

In this type of teaching, the set of resources available in the virtual environment, such as didactic materials, videotapes, and mediation activities carried out by the teacher bring the dynamism and interaction necessary for success in the processes of appropriation and cognition of these students. According to Bannell et al. (2016, p. 57), “people take ownership of the world through experiences they have had, not through abstract calculations and generalizations”. For him, values are acquired and attributed socially, and the “appropriation of these meanings is the result of the interaction between human beings.” (Bannell et al., 2016, p. 58).

1 Original: [. . .] las TIC amplían la concepción y la metodología del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje al crear nuevos entornos de

trabajo, comunicación y aprendizaje basDistance Learningos en una plataforma, recursos educativos e herramientas interactivas, todos ellos ubicados en la Web siendo muy flexibles y de relativo acceso. Estas condiciones hacen ver a la educación a distancia más una modalidade educativa que una metodolgía..




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It is worth emphasizing that the act of teaching is configured as a process of help for the construction of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The author presents cognition as the result of the coordination of information made between subject and object, through cultural, material and symbolic artifacts. Like this,

Every new human being who enters the world is inserted into an environment in which other generations of human beings have created ways of thinking and acting socially. By having their behavior mediated by cultural artifacts (language being the master artifact), human beings, in addition to benefiting from their own sensory experience about the world, also benefit from the experiences of those who preceded it. The social world, which is based on communication, is of crucial importance in this process (Bannell et al., 2016, p. 63).

Learning requires more than accommodation of content and information. It is important that there is a meaning for that knowledge to be potentially constructed. In this sense, affectivity in online communications, with emphasis on written language, is of fundamental relevance for teaching and learning processes in distance or online mode. Hence we can ask some questions: is it possible to be effective in virtual learning environments? Is it necessary to be affective to teach in virtual environments? What is this affectivity and what is its relationship to learning?

Our discussion will be based on some theoretical references that will help us to establish the relationships between the affectivity theme and the adult learning processes. We will present a study about how the effective relationships between teachers and students in a virtual environment of teaching and learning propitiate the movement of awareness and meaning of knowledge built by the adult in an online course.

We will next address some theoretical assumptions about learning and affectivity that will assist us in our investigation and analysis.

Adult Learning: Emotion, Experience, and Perception

The cognitive view of David Ausebel’s Theory of Meaningful Learning, which relies on didactic potential, is considered by us to be important aspects of adult learning perception. This framework seems to us to be very consistent with the problem presented in this study. This is because our investigation is based on the hypothesis that learning happens to the adult when he becomes aware and assigns meaning to what is learned. To do so, he can describe the process he experienced (Dirkx, 2001) when this learning becomes experience (Larrosa, 2014).

Our understanding of affectivity is based on Vygotsky’s (1998; 2008) propositions in emphasizing language and mediation in the processes of signification and establishment of meaning. From this, we can identify that the affectivity manifests itself in the adult when it expresses its emotions, as something conscious that allows a self-perception of itself. In this sense, the processes of teaching and learning that favor works with the perception, imagination generate conditions of great relevance in the construction of knowledge.

To understand adult learning experiences when expressing themselves by describing their experience about their learning, Dirkx (2001) states that personal and meaningful learning derives from the emotional and imaginative connection of the adult, i.e. the self and its relationship with the social world. According to the author, adults describe their learning experiences as something “boring,” or “fun” or “exciting.” In this way, for the author, the images are produced from the experiences, from the emotions and feelings:

These meanings arise through our imaginative connection and engagement with these contexts. Our initial construal of meaning within particular emotional situations is largely an act of fantasy and imagination, guided by our emotional connection with both our inner and outer worlds. They help us understand and make sense of ourselves, our relationships with others, and the world we inhabit (Dirkx, 2001, p. 66).

Therefore, it is worth noting that the emotional and affective experiences of learning, according to the author, contribute to a positive and meaningful educational experience. It is also a question of understanding that experience brings with it something that can not be grasped solely by rational logic. Through the perception of his experience, the subject can become aware of himself as an agent of his transformation and of the appropriation of meanings that become links in the learning processes in contexts of the formation.




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The relationships between attentive and engaging teachers, encouraging students’ expression, and listening to them, favors the meaningful learning experience of their students. The adult makes use of images to construct the meaning of what he learns since they are capable of establishing relations between the inner, irrational world and consciousness. The images show the emotions and feelings and, therefore, they potentiate the meaning of a learning situation or reality. This fact can help in the more significant integration of curricular contents, making learning more meaningful (Lopes & Vieira, 2017, p. 2401).

The idea of meaningful learning, presented by Moreira (2008), is that the meaning of the new knowledge is acquired through interaction with some prior knowledge and relevance. The author draws attention to the question of interaction between prior knowledge and new knowledge. This interaction takes place through consciousness and a predisposition to learn. That is, for meaningful learning to occur. It is necessary for the student to “want” to learn meaningfully.

In meaningful learning, the learner initially captures accepted meanings for new knowledge, but then internalizes or reconstructs them internally, adding indiosstricrates. New knowledge is incorporated into its cognitive structure, and it has many connotative aspects. (Moreira, 2008, p. 16).

Considering the two conditions that the author scores for meaningful learning to occur we have: prior knowledge and intentionality. Also, the interaction is fundamental, being necessary the insertion of the figure of the mediator, that is, of the teacher who will articulate the knowledge through different languages. For this theory, didactic materials are powerful resources and also need to be organized in a potentially meaningful way.

It is worth mentioning that when working in an online or distance education perspective, we consider that a student of this modality, in theory, meets the prior knowledge conditions presented so far since the public of this modality in Brazil is composed predominantly by adults. The student who is willing to take a course in distance learning should have a certain autonomy and willingness to learn by interacting with a set of didactic materials that make up the pedagogical model of online and distance courses.

The virtual environment or the virtual classroom should provide the student with moments of interaction with teachers and peers. According to Silva et al. (2015, p. 14-15), it is in the interaction with teachers and colleagues that the effectivity of the students becomes apparent, especially in times of forum and chat, where written language is the main resource.

It is in this relationship with other people in the social group that the subject appropriates socially constructed meanings. As it is not possible to isolate the affectivity of cognition, learning and affection are interwoven and thus the social relations, especially those of teaching-learning marked by manifestations (aversive or pleasant), that will affect in some way the performance of that student.

From the assumptions presented, we understand that affectivity permeates the adult learning relationships in the way the teacher mediation action can offer conditions for the meaningful learning of these students. It is an attention to what is the need of this student and how mediation or available resources may or may not favor this appropriation and awareness of the meaning of what is learned.

We sought to investigate, through the analysis of the written records of an optional distance course called Methods of Studies for Distance Learning, offered to students of the undergraduate courses in the modality Distance Learning, namely: Pedagogy, Philosophy, History, Mathematics, and Letters of a University of Private Education of the state of São Paulo. We start from the initial provocation about the questions we posed at the beginning of this article about the possibility of being effective in virtual environments and if it is necessary to be affective to teach in virtual environments and how this affectivity is expressed in the teacher-student and student- student. How can teacher mediation create conditions for meaningful student learning in virtual learning contexts?

Online Mediation and Pedagogical Intentionality: Affectivity And Meaningful Adult Learning in Distance Learning

The data analyzed in this research were obtained through the records of the activities of the forum, and individual records of learning exchanged between the teacher and the students of the course Methods of Studies for Distance Learning, the optional and introductory course of the 1st. Semester of the five undergraduate courses mentioned above. Mediation occurred on the 1st. Semester of 2017 and the objective of the course is to offer a methodology of studies, based on the specificities of the pedagogical model of the institution and the own characteristics and necessary for studies in the modality Distance Learning.




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The course was attended by 17 poles of face-to-face support, located in the Southeast, Midwest and Northeast regions. All students were enrolled in the course, automatically, and were informed that it was an optional course as a resource to support the start of the course in the Distance Learning mode. A total of 189 participants were enrolled and attended the theme 109.

The pedagogical conception of this course is structured from the concepts of meaningful learning, constructing a virtual environment of learning and activities that took into account the creation of conditions so that the information could be anchored insignificant concepts existing in the cognitive structure of the individual. The course lasted eight weeks, counting on a methodological organization that combined didactic materials such as videotapes, complimentary videos, rDistance Learningings, exercises, learning objects and mediation by forums, chat and personal learning records. In this course the mediation is done exclusively by the teacher, not having the figure of the distance tutor. The mediation took place predominantly asynchronously and counted on a synchronous moment, through a chat for evaluation and closure of the course. All these elements were organized into learning paths, to allow the student to have the opportunity to interact with such contents to establish hierarchical cognitive relations of concepts that “become abstractions of the experience of the individual” (Moreira, 2008, p. 8).

A general forum and three thematic forums were held: 1. My impressions of distance learning courses and the virtual student profile. 2. Time Management. 3. Production of academic papers - difficulties in the elaboration of academic papers. In addition to the forums, the students interacted with the teacher through individual learning records sent to the teacher. All tasks and activities carried out received individual feedback from the teacher. For this research, we will analyze the posts made in the general forum and the thematic forum 1 - My impressions about distance courses and some personal learning records.

3.1. The Mediation of The Forum with Pedagogical Intentionality

At the beginning of the course, the mediator tried to establish an empathic environment for communication, creating a general forum in the first week of class so that the students could present themselves as they were geographically distant and also from different courses. For this initial provocation, there were 53 participations. It is possible to perceive relationships of empathy and sharing of personal matters of the life of each one and the experience of proximity and trust even in a virtual environment.

Figure 3.1.1 – General forum interaction1

Teacher’s provocation

Dear students, be very welcome to discipline study methods for Distance Learning. I am the prof. Maria and I will be with you during this course which is very important for those who decided to study in this modality. At this first moment, I want to ask each of you to introduce yourself, tell us the course you are doing, what kind of pole would you like to tell us about your region? Do you accept the invitation? I’m sure we’ll have some great dates! Virtual Hugs! Profa. Maria!

Students’ reply

Hello, my name is Daniela, and I’m going to teach pedagogy at the Brás unit. I have always enjoyed studying, and for a long time, I have been focused only on the care and demands of my eldest son who is special. From this experience also comes the desire to learn more about learning disorders and educational methods. I want to improve myself and learn a lot about this passionate subject. I’m a little shy, but I’ll be very welcome to meet new people and exchange ideas.

Good Morning! I am Juliana; I am enrolled in the course of Letras - Português do Brasilia unit. I graduated in journalism five years ago and decided to do second graduation to expand opportunities. A curiosity of Brasilia: the weather forecast

is crazy. In one day it can rain torrentially and make the sun crack.

1 The names of the teacher and students are fictitious. The emphasis were added by the authors for the analysis proposed in this study. Applies to all Figures.




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Hello, my name is Helena, I’m studying History Degree at Higienópolis unit. I live in São Paulo - SP. I am happy to be studying at [. . .] University so well regarded. I hope to make this virtual environment as real as possible. Success to all !!!

Hello! I am Tania, 43 years old, married and with two children, graduated material engineer and post graduate in business administration. [. . .] I believe that the dynamics may be different, that the relationship between teacher and student may be more significant. I come here with a lot of desire to learn, to meet people and their experiences. May it be a great year for all of us !!!.

Hello, teacher and dear friends My name is Luana, I’m 35 years old, I live in Paulínia, SP, and I’m a nursing technician. I have worked with special children for a long time, and I have realized over the years that this work is very painful, and it does not bring me more pleasure, so I was thinking about what to do to change my profession. I never wanted to go to college, but one day I had a crack, and I decided to go back to school, so I chose mathematics because it was the subject I ran most in college. I made a friend here today in the forum, and I am very happy. I hope I can make more friends. A big hug to all and good study!!!

Good afternoon everyone. I’m studying Pedagogy, at the Alphaville campus. I had coursed Language, some ten years ago, but he did not conclude. I always kept Pedagogy in mind, but I did not have a chance to do it before. When I learned that (this institution) would have ODD I got excited and did not think twice. I’m very excited about the course, with the whole Moodle system of the university, with the interaction that we have here, nor expected all this... And that makes all the difference. Good studies at all.

Hello everyone. My name is Ana Paula, and I am studying pedagogy at Unit Alphaville. I must say I’m enjoying studying Distance Learning, it’s better than I expected. I feel that gradually I am getting into the rhythm of the rDistance Learningings, the dDistance Learninglines, and the entire virtual environment. I’m 35 years old; this is my second college. Not that I have resolved to change the area, but I believe I want to expand knowledge, after all, I think that the

more information we get, the more incredible the world becomes. A hug to everyone and even more

Good afternoon, Mariana, campus Higienópolis I started the course of letters. I’m having a bit of trouble organizing time, but I think I’ll learn in time. Let’s go and have a good year for everyone.

Source: Elaborated by the authors.

From the analysis of the students’ posts, it is observed that they are at ease in this environment, motivated by the possibility and interaction and enthusiastic to study in this modality in a format that meets the requirements and conditions of learning. We can highlight that, by sharing their life histories and the reasons that led them to seek this modality of teaching, students establish learning relationships based on the experience of each one. Still, the initial movements for rapprochement, friendship, and affection among the participants of the course are perceived. Mediation became intense in the thematic forums, and student participation increased significantly. In the thematic forum 1, My impressions about distance courses and the profile of the virtual student, 239 posts were made. In the following Figure, we present some of the interactions between students and the teacher, and students and their peers, highlighting the manifestations of affectivity, understood as corresponding to the learning needs, especially, for the construction of shared knowledge.

Figure 3.1.2 – Thematic forum interaction 1

Theacher’s provocation

Dear students, will we use this topic to participate together? Our course aims to offer some steps for the use of technological resources, and as we have a large group, my methodological proposal is that everyone put their considerations in this space and everyone responds here so that we do not miss. I invite the other colleagues to answer the two questions I have put to the discussion. And since we speak of discipline and routine of studies, I ask you to see the 1st. should Video of the Distance Learning Study Environment, Study Habits section, which presents some valuable tips on how to study! It’s short: 5 minutes, but worth it! I want to continue this debate with you! Thanks!

Students’ reply




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I was a student in the classroom, and I was demanding about my studies. With DISTANCE LEARNING, my requirement and dedication be greater, considering that I have reasons that may cause a distraction in my study (example: family, including husband, small child, pregnancy in progress, home, etc.). All these reasons are important in my life, but at the time of my studies, attention, and dedication should be exclusive to “studies,” because the success of ODL depends on this. Commitment, focus, and dedication to studies always. The consequence? Not just good grades or good performance, but rather the professional quality that I seek for my future. Let’s study!! Juliana.

Hello Juliana, nice to meet you! I thought it was cool that he shared a bit about his life and his routine, I believe that his experience with face-to-face teaching is positive, because just as you had dedication in class in class, you will have with Distance Learning. The important thing is not to let the distractions get in the way, but the flexibility in the studies will give you more time to be able to dedicate to the other tasks (not only student but to be wife, mother, besides everything pregnant). Who knows your child in your womb is not born knowing a little of the content? (laughter). I wish you good luck! Hug, Marcos.

Hello guys! The exchange of experiences that we have in forums like this is sensational because from here we can draw ideas that can help us in the organization, in the studies and the accomplishment of the tasks. For the time being, I must confess that I am having a hard time getting used to this type of teaching, because I greatly appreciate the contact with the teacher and my colleagues, but, little by little, I think everything is going to be right; new means that I will have for this. Flávio.

Good evening everyone! I understand that being a student of a distance course will not require different behavior, because all the skills required in the Distance Learning also serve us in the classroom course. I believe that the difference is the non-obligation to be present in a certain place at a certain time. As well as the use of the tools of this modality. [. . .] A study in the best possible way and when problems or doubts arise to heal with our tutors. The platform offers an immense range of forms of learning such as video lesson, rDistance Learninging indication, etc, take advantage of it. Jessica.

Hello teacher! Hi, classmates! Answering the question of ‘What is being a distance learning student,’ I believe it is a huge way to take responsibility for learning. At Distance Learning if there is no commitment and dedication of the student, nothing will work! I would like to comment on the Study Guide - Study Methods for ODL: I found the subject to be sensational because we think that time passes faster as we get older, I went to the illustrative website that has been linked in the subject, and it all made sense! (LOL). Rosemeire.

I’m feeling kind of lost without knowing where to start or how to organize because I have access to all the content of the material at once and do not know how long it takes to study each one. I’m also trying to get used to the platform. It helped me a lot to have received an email from teacher Maria with the dates of deliveries of activities contributing to my organization in the study of the subject Methods of Study for Distance Learning. But I am optimistic that we are adapting to studying through an online platform and managing to get better organized throughout the course. Hugs to all, Márcia.

Teacher Maria, in this link I expected more guidance. But I found more than that. I have heard, amid the notes and words of delight, his sensitivity, which is one of these beautiful gifts that God has brought, not just to me, but to all the friends in the class. Thanks. A big hug to you Maria, and to all the friends! Thatiane.

Good afternoon everyone. I am deeply grateful for the generosity of your words teacher. I take the opportunity to congratulate and thank you for your dedication and accompaniment at this beginning of the course. You were the first to send messages and have become so present in helping us and contributing to our learning, punctuality, and interaction with the platform as a whole. He commented and added our posts, gave us valuable tips and general tips, this is very gratifying and demonstrates his extreme dedication to discipline, progress and each one of us. It was indeed extremely gratifying and a great differential!


It is noticed that the students address their colleagues and the teacher affectionately and gratefully because they identify that their work contributes to the learning and adaptation to the reality of studies of distance education. In the dialogue between the students, one can also identify aspects related to the own perception and assimilation of this new reality, from previous knowledge, previous experiences and the experience of affection and emotion that give meaning to what they are




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experiencing and learning in this course. The reference to teaching materials is also of great relevance, since we consider that the combination of the materials, through the learning paths, allied to a mediation with pedagogical intentionality create the conditions for a meaningful learning in the media in which it helps the student “to assimilate structure of the disciplines and to reorganize their cognitive structure, through the acquisition of new meanings that can generate concepts and principles” (Moreira, 2008, p. 41).

We can also understand, according to some reports, that the structure of the course and the form of meditation offer conditions for this means learning to become an experience for the participants. Another interesting aspect to be observed is presented in the form of language with which the students interact with the teacher, in a close, effective and friendly way. We can understand that the relationship established between the students and the teacher, through mediation made possible the broad participation of the students and, according to the last two participations listed in Figure 3.1.2, the experience of gratitude to the teacher for contributing to the students’ learning process.

We will present the analysis of reports that corroborate our work hypothesis.

3.2. Personal Learning Records

The learning records present important aspects for our analysis, once the form of learning is perceived and how the consciousness, the emotion, and experience are present in the following reports.

Figure 3.2.1 – Personnal data sent to the teacher

Data

Thank you for the new opportunity you gave me to send out the missing summaries today. [. . .] What I have to say to you is that although your discipline is not compulsory, it was the fundamental tool for me to achieve the other subjects of the course. I learned to organize my time better and with that to develop all my activities, and I enjoyed learning about the main guidelines for the production of our academic work, in short, this discipline was of paramount importance for my course. Thanks for the motivations and your attention with us. Thanks for all the messages, it has helped us a lot. I’m loving the Distance Learning course; I never imagined that I could learn so much in an Distance Learning course, thanks for the attention Andreia.

I am very fond of all the tips for getting organized in Distance Learning, mainly because I have not been studying for years, and now with home, husband, work, and children, in a scenario quite different from my first graduation, these guidelines are being valuable for me to learn to study better and with greater use. On the first day, his energy and excitement in the profession infected me, increasing my interest and willingness to begin this new path. Virtual hugs with affection and gratitude!!! Tania.

Teacher Maria, thank you very much for all the tips and the content of the classes and the forums. Now is to apply this “such” time management, certainly the biggest challenge for us. A hug!!

Teacher Maria, I have seen your comments on my tasks, and I appreciate the words and the guidelines. Yes, I enjoyed your subject very much, and I learned a lot too. You see yourself in the corridors of the school. A hug! Paulo.

Teacher Maria! Thank you very much for your attention and encouragement. The motivation that passed us, from our first contact, was very important for us to feel embraced by the faculty and not give up on the difficulties that were to come! [. . .] I stopped doing two activities of your subject, but I did all the material and learned, tips and insights very important to the course performance. Thank you for the lessons, for the present countryman and for being so affectionate with the students. Virtual hugs and even integrating meetings! Rachel.

Thank you so much. I will try to improve on what has been pointed out. This discipline helped me a lot in organizing my studies. And of course with your help and your affection were fundamental for that to happen. Virtual Abs. Jussara.


It is possible to perceive in the reports the relationship of gratitude and affectivity for the contribution of the teacher’s mediation in the learning processes. We emphasize that it is related to the way in which the student understands the gestures of care of the teacher about the possibility of learning of the student.




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Final Considerations

From the analysis of the data obtained through the records written in the course Methods for Studies in Distance Learning, we were able to verify how the elements perception, emotion, and imagination are present in the processes of significant learning of the students. In this sense, the theoretical assumptions were appropriate to the hypothesis presented in this study. It was possible to perceive, although, in the perception of the students, the interaction in the virtual environment with a pedagogical mediation makes the learning easier.

They present themselves with more freedom to participate in this space, to ask questions, share difficulties, make suggestions and praise, and collaborate with colleagues. It was also possible to observe how the affectivity was built along the course development and how it was possible to experience this relation in a perspective of attending the needs of the student in his process of knowledge construction.

References

[1] Bannell, R. I. et al. (2017). Educação no século XXI: Cognição, tecnologias e aprendizagens. Petrópolis, RJ: Vozes.

[2] Bauman, Z. (2007). Tempos líquidos. Rio de Janeiro, RJ: Zahar.

[3] Dirkx, J. M. (2001). The power of feelings: Emotion, imagination, and the construction of meaning in adult learning. In J. M. Dirkx, The new update on adult learning theory (p. 63-72). USA: Wiley Jossey-Bass.

[4] Gonzales, P. A. V. et al. (2015). Conceptos estructurantes de la educación a distancia. Revista de Investigaciones UNAD, 14(1), 115–149.

[5] Lopes, A. L. S, & Vieira, M. M. S. (2017). Afetividade em ambientes virtuais de aprendizagem. In Proceedings of the XXIII Educere Congresso Nacional de Educação, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil, 2017.

[6] Larrosa, J. (2014). Tremores: Escritos sobre experiência. Belo Horizonte, BH: Autêntica.

[7] Moreira, M. A. (2008). A teoria da aprendizagem significativa segundo Ausubel. In E. F. S. Masini et al., Aprendizagem significativa: Condições para ocorrência e lacunas que levam a comprometimentos (1st ed., p. 15–44). São Paulo, SP: Vetor.

[8] Moreira, M. A et al. (1982). Aprendizagem significativa: A teoria de David Ausubel. (1st ed.). São Paulo, SP: Moraes.

[9] SILVA, P. C. D. et al. (2015). Afetividade nas interações em AVA: Um estudo sobre a interação na educação à distância. Revista Brasileira de Aprendizagem Aberta e a Distância, 14, 11–20.

[10] Vygotski, L. S. (2008). Pensamento e Linguagem. São Paulo, SP: Martins Fontes.

[11] Vygotski, L. S. (1998). A formação social da mente: O desenvolvimento dos processos psicológicos superiores. São Paulo, SP: Martins Fontes.




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Relationship between Organizational Control and Job Performance of Special Education Teacher in Pakistan

Ibtasam Thakur

Assistant Professor Dr., Institute of Education

Lahore College for Women University, Lahore

Uzma Quraishi

Prof. Dr., Director, Institute of Education

Lahore College for Women University Lahore

Fazal Abbas Rana

Public Functionary

Abstract

Over the last decades, Organizational performance has been often studied by different human resource managers. Many studies have suggested how to enhance performance and guide employees. But there is dearth of such researches in the field of special education schools in Pakistan. Keeping in view cultural context of Pakistan this study had examined how organizational control in special education schools was related to teachers’ job performance and how effective control could increase job performance. Therefore, purpose of this study was to examine relationship between organizational control and job performance of special education teachers. Using data of 374 special education teachers from 9 districts of the Punjab, researcher found support for research questions. Stratified cluster random sample technique was used to draw the sample. The data was collected through questionnaire developed by the researcher for job performance and organizational control in schools. The results of this study showed that there is positive relationship between job performance and control of organizational culture. Findings of the study showed that if organizational control will be effective, the job performance will also increase and similarly if control in an organization will be weak, job performance of teachers will be decreased. It was concluded that organizational control leave strong impact on job performance of special education teachers. The implications of the results for further directions and research were discussed.

Keywords: Job performance, organizational control, Special Education Teachers

Introduction

Organizational control is a procedure by which an organization directs his subordinates in specific way that lead to fulfill organizational objectives and goals. If organizational control is properly designed and focused, it helps to accomplish organizational strategy and job performance. Organizational control related management practices affect job performance and increase employees’ organizational trust as well. (Weibel et al., 2016). Organizational control is strong mechanism which can influence workplace outcomes. (Zhang, Tsui, Song, Li, & Jia, 2008) Job performance is an important aspect of organizational control. As a result of good and effective organizational control, job performance increases and can be measured properly. Organizational control embroils four steps, first one is to establish standards second one is to measure performance third one is to compare performance against standards and fourth one is to take corrective action as needed. Similarly, job performance is theorized as a multidimensional concept consisting of more than one kind of behaviors that includes, task specific behaviors, non-task specific behaviors, communication, effort, personal discipline, helping out the groups and his or her colleagues, supervisory or leadership component, managerial task (Campbell, 1990).Main

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components of job performance teaching skill, professionalism and job motivation are monitored with the help of organizational control. Although control leads towards better job performance but few organizations like schools may not understand its proper meaning and don’t take much interest in control practices while it has been observed that formal practice of control brings fruitful results for an organization. Effect of formal control on performance is much stronger and leads towards accomplishment of organizational goal. In this way, on the one hand, organizational control enhances organization’s liability and determination and on the other hand increases job performance. ( Chenhall & Moers, 2015).

Keeping in view the cultural milieu of Pakistan it is quite obvious that still many special education schools are not that advance as there is dearth of knowledge concerning how control factor can affect job performance of teachers. Consequently, many teachers’ job performance outcome is problematic. Ineffective control hampers efficiency and performance of teachers and they lack trust in their organization and leadership. Two reasons have been offered as to why organizational control helps to build trust in their organizations, first, control practices may signal the organization’s predictability, fairness, and reliability. In other words, controls may lead to perceived organizational goodwill and as such enable employees to have more trust in their employing organization. Second, control practices may also signal organizational ability and thus may enhance the belief that an organization is capable of delivering its promises to both employees and external stakeholders (Bridoux, Stofberg, & Den Hartog, 2016). Therefore, it was high time to realize the importance of control in special education schools. Hence, the purpose of this study was to examine relationship between organizational control and job performance of special education teachers in Punjab.

Rationale of the Study

Organizational control aligns the action of employee with the goal and objectives of an organization. If this control lacks, the whole structure of organization gets weak and job performance decreases. In few Punjab special education schools, practice of control is declined and control has been limited only to the official documents. As a consequence, job performance components: professionalism, teaching skills and job motivation affects and teachers are unable to meet relevant performance standard. Therefore, present study was an effort to identify the gaps between organizational control and job performance.

Research Question

How organizational control affects job performance of teachers in special schools of Special Education Department, Government of the Punjab?

What is the relationship between job performance components and organizational control?

Objectives of the Study

To examine the relationship between organizational control and job performance of teachers in special schools of Special Education Department, Government of the Punjab.

To explore the relationship between job performances’ components viz. teaching skill, professionalism and job motivation and organizational control.

Method

Research Design

The research design applied for this study was descriptive in nature. All the data has been collected and analyzed in numerical form. The researcher’s aim was to explore the relationship between organizational control and job performance of special Education teacher. Therefore, the research design was co-relational.

Participants: Participants were obtained from nine (9) randomly selected districts of Punjab. Teachers and heads of special education schools Punjab working in four (4) disabilities were population of this study. Total 374 respondents were selected.

Sample: Cluster stratified random sampling technique was used to collect sample of study.

Instrument: Two questionnaires were used. One was used to measure job performance, three components of job performance, professionalism, job motivation and teaching skill were measured with the help of 30 items questionnaire. Second one was used to measure organizational control consisting of 38 items. These questionnaires were developed by





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the researcher. The reliability of the pilot test for questionnaire of organizational culture was .791. The reliability of the pilot test for questionnaire of job performance was .768.

Results

Frequency Table

Table 1: Table of frequencies of distribution of respondents according to their demographics

Sr. Variable Frequency Percent

1 Gender Male 108 28.9

Female 266 71.1

2 Age 25 to 40 years 281 75.1

41 to 60 years 93 24.9

3 Education Matric 8 2.1

Intermediate 8 2.1

Graduation 9 2.4

Masters 334 89.3

M.Phil 15 4.0

4 Designation JEST 170 45.5

SST 135 36.1

Others 69 18.4

5 Experience Less than one year 74 19.8

2 to 4 years 139 37.2

5 to 7 years 84 22.5

More than 7 years 77 20.6

Table 2: Regression Analysis of control in organizational culture and job performance

Variables Correlation Β r2 Significance

Teaching Skill .217 .217 .047 .112

Professionalism .118 .118 .014 .393

Job Motivation .166 .166 .028 .226

Table 2 reveals correlation, regression values of organizational culture’s variable control and teaching skills of teachers. Table shows that correlation value is .217, which shows positive correlation between organizational control and teaching skills. This means that teaching skill will decrease with the increase of organizational control and vice versa. Table shows that the value of Beta (β) is .217 which also shows the positive relation between teaching skill and organizational control and there is no statistical significant difference as the significance value is .112. It means there is no significant difference between respondents opinion. While on the other hand R- square (r2) value is .047, which means it can be said with 53% confidence that if control will increase the teaching skill will decrease.

Table 2 reveals correlation, and regression values of organizational culture’s variable control and professionalism of teachers. Table shows that correlation value is .118, which shows that there is positive correlation between organizational




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control and professionalism of teachers. This means that professionalism of teachers will decrease with the increase of control in organization and vice versa. Table shows that the value of Beta (β) is .118 which also shows the positive relation between professionalism of teachers and organizational control and there is no statistical significant difference as the significance value is .393. It means there is no significant difference between respondents’ opinion. While on the other hand R- square (r2) value is .014, which means it can be said with 86% confidence that if organizational control will increase the professionalism of teachers will decrease.

Table 2 reveals correlation, and regression values of organizational culture’s variable control and job motivation of teachers. Table shows that correlation value is .166, which shows that there is positive but very weak correlation between organizational control and job motivation of the teachers. This means that job motivation of teachers will increase with the increase of organizational control. Table shows that the value of Beta (β) is .166 which also shows the positive but very weak relation between job motivation of teachers and organizational control and that is no statistical significant difference as the significance value is .226. It means there is no significant difference between respondents’ opinion. While on the other hand R- square (r2) value is .028, which means it can be said with 72% confidence that if control will increase, the job motivation of teachers will also increase.

Overall this table reveals that there is positive relationship between job performance and control of organizational culture. If control will be effective, the job performance will increase and similarly if control in an organization will not work, job performance of teachers will decrease.

Findings

Correlation value which is .217, shows that there is positive correlation between organizational control and teaching skills. This means that teaching skill will decrease with the increase of organizational control. Correlation value which is .118, shows that there is positive correlation between organizational control and professionalism of teachers. This means that professionalism of teachers will decrease with the increase of control in organization. Correlation value which is .166, shows that there is positive but very weak correlation between organizational control and job motivation of the teachers. This means that job motivation of teachers will increase with the increase of organizational control.

Conclusion

Effective control is essential in schools; if it is strong then quality of job performance will be high. Similarly, if control in an organization will not work effectively then standard of job performance will decrease among teachers. Result of this study suggests organizational control creates integrity in structure and function of an organization and job performance may be enhanced by implementing organizational control. Therefore, there is need to focus on organizational control in special education schools and this research may lay foundation for further research in this field.

Recommendations

In order to enforce effective control a formal mechanism in schools may be introduced to meet goals and objectives of an organization. It may help to raise job performance standard of teachers. To enhance three components of job performance, professionalism, job motivation and teaching skills, it should be aligned with better organizational control. Organizational control plays a vital role in shaping the organizational culture and job performance. Heads of institute of special education department should focus on organizational control strategies, which could reduce emotional exhaustion and may increase job performance among special education teachers.




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Principal Leadership Style And Job Satisfaction Of High School Teachers

Erida Elmazi

P.h.D cand. Faculty of Economy, University of Tirana, Albania

Abstract

This paper deals with the issue of school leadership as one of the main priorities of education policy and focuses on the role, importance it has mainly on teacher’s job satisfaction. It tends to highlight the influence of the school leaders’ style in the pre-university education context. Two dimensions of leadership conceptualization are underlined in this study: the transformational and transactional leader. Teacher job satisfaction is often considered as an important aspect in their performance and productivity. In addition leadership style is considered one of the major influences affecting the job satisfaction of the teachers. The scope was to study the relationship and correlation between the style of the principals and job satisfaction of teachers. Various research techniques, primary and secondary data sources have been used to carry out this study, which are intertwined with one another. As a source of primary data were used two surveys, one for evaluating the principals’ style of leadership and the other one for measuring job satisfaction of the teachers. The sample consisted in 5 teachers from 25 high schools in Albania and Kosovo. There is evidence from the findings that transformational leadership has significant relationship and it has beneficial effects on teacher job satisfaction. These leaders transform, inspire, and empower followers by creating changes in their goals, values, needs, beliefs and aspirations.

Keywords: job satisfaction, leadership styles, principal, teacher, transformational leadership, transactional leadership.

Introduction

When work is a pleasure, life is a joy (Gorky, 1970).

Researches in educational leadership have been the focus of scholars, considering the importance of the principal in the quality of the school. Several studies are conducted in this area and scholars have been investigating more narrow approaches in order to study specifically the dependent variables of educational leadership. Investigation is pursued in regard of relation with motivation, commitment, engagement, organizational communication, job satisfaction, etc.

In a globalized world the problems faced such as teacher turnover rates and training costs need a specific attention, clear designed strategies in order to increase their job satisfaction as a key factor in order to have a more stable environment for students and foster the organizational climate.

Teacher job satisfaction is very an important factor in the context of the school success and student achievement. In order that they create a positive classroom climate they need to be satisfied. Teachers cannot create and sustain the conditions for the productive development of students if those conditions do not exist for teachers (Bishop & Mulford, 1999; Blase & Blase, 2000; Louis, 1998; Sarason, 1990 cited by Leithwood & Hallinger, 2002).

This research intended to study the impact of principal leadership styles on teachers’ job satisfaction. The scope was to investigate how much satisfied are the teachers and to search how this level of satisfaction relates with their principals' leadership style. Can this level of satisfaction be attributed to principals' style? Based on 125 teachers perceptions, it was analyzed the style of their principals and beside this, it was investigated if the teachers were satisfied or not in their job. The first part of the study starts with a literature review on teacher job satisfaction, followed by transformational and transactional leadership styles. Scholars’ findings within the literature conclude strong relationships among specific leadership styles and teachers job satisfaction. The research question of this study was: Which leadership style does impact and affect the teachers’ job satisfaction in Albanian and Kosovo high schools?




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Teacher Job Satisfaction

The concept of job satisfaction has not a universal definition. There exist several definitions from several scholars. Job satisfaction is a positive or pleasant emotional state resulting from a person’s appreciation of his/her own job or experience (Locke, 1976 cited in Demirtaş, 2010). It is defined as positive or negative evaluative judgments that people make regarding their work (Weiss, 1999) and their teaching role (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010). According to Amoroso (2002) teacher job satisfaction is refered as the degree to which a teacher feels secure, challenged, rewarded and successful at the current school in whic they work.

Accoring to Zigarreli (1996) teacher job satisfaction is predictor of effective schools. The importance of satisfaction can be tracked in psychological theories of hedonism. Hedonism has in its roots the idea that people are keen to ask for satisfaction and to avoid pain (Manxhari, 2010). It is natural that people seek to maximize pleasure and minimize the worrying situation or lack of comfort in their daily lives. The more pleasure people experience, the more motivated they have to be, and vice versa (Llaci, 2017). The accelerated rate of globalization and change has increased the challenges that institutions face. Achieving the organizational objectives has become difficult nowadays. The success and effectiveness cannot be reached without focusing and investing on human capital and human resources, who have to be motivated, evaluated and need to feel good at the work place. Teachers’ job satisfaction is fundamental for reaching the school goals, thus ensuring satisfaction of the teachers is an important task of principals.

Teacher job satisfaction is important and also a predictor of teacher retention attrition (Green-Reese, Johnson, & Campbell, 1992; Huberman, 1993; Sargent & Hannum, 2005). Satisfaction is determined and influenced by several variables, such as internal and external school’s factors, environment, reword policies, leadership styles, etc. Blegen (1993) identified 13 variables which he argued that were predictors of satisfaction. They were divided in two categories such as personal and organizational variables. According to him personal variables include age, education, years of experience and locus of control, whereas organizational variables include supervisor communication, commitment, stress, autonomy, recognition, routinization, peer communication, fairness and professionalism (cited: Güleryüz, Güney, Aydin, & Asan, 2008 and Vermeir, et al., 2017).

Leadership Styles and Influence on Job Satisfaction

The manner in which a person leads an organization, department, team or individual is referred to as their leadership style (Krallis & Souto, 2014). In contemporary literature there are discussed several leadership theories. Leadership styles such democtratic, autocratic, laissez faire, supportive, participatory, transactional, transformational, charismatics, instructional, servant, etc, have been elaborated. Special attention and interest has drawn on transactional and transformational leadership. Burns (1978) provided the conceptualized approach of these two leadership styles, as the opposite end of the leadership continuum. The origin of the concepts seems to date and have its root on Downtown (1973) work and later Bernard M Bass (1985) extended the work of Burns. According to Burns the main distinction between these leadership styles is based on the process by which leaders motivate followers or how leaders appeal to the followers’ values and emotions (Nguni, Sleegers, & Denessen, 2006). In fact this distinction is emphasized in all transformational approaches (Yukl, 1999).

Bass (1985) argues that transformational leadership has four components such as idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. This leadership style articulates a vision of the future (Yammarino & Bass, 1990), stimulates and inspires the followers and impacts their faith, values such as justice and integrity and guide how an organization should be effective and successful (Kuhnert & Lewis, 1987). Transformational leaders increase the level of job satisfaction of employees by developing shared vision, motivating the followers (Voon, Lo, Ngui, & Ayob, 2011). Teachers who work with principals, who share information with them, and involve them in management decisions are more satisfied (Bogler, 2001). Effective principals through convince may transform the institution. These kinds of principals motivate teachers in achieving extraordinary outcomes, they support and empower them.

Transactional leaders base their power on reword and punishment. According to Bass (1985) conceptualization of transactional leadership has three factors such as: management by active exception, management by passive exception and contingent reward (cited: Elmazi, 2018). Followers obey to the rules and guidelines determined by the leader and implement all the tasks. A successful implementation of the job is translated into a financial reward,




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otherwise delays and failure to comply will be translated into punishing actions. Transformational leaders differ from transactional leaders in that they do not merely recognize the needs of followers, but also attempt to elevate those needs from lower to higher levels of development and maturity (Nguni, Sleegers, & Denessen, 2006).

Based on meta-analyses studies transformational and transactional leadership styles affect and predict lots of dependent variables on individual and institutional level. In the past and nowadays, scholars and researchers continuously have conducted several studies in order to investigate whether the leadership styles produce impacts on school outcomes and on teachers’ job satisfaction. From a study conducted in China, with teacher respondents from 180 elementary schools, 172 secondary schools, and 187 high schools it was found that the principal's leadership style and teacher job satisfaction are significantly and positively related to each other: β2=0.17, C.R. = 2.195, p <0.05 (Hui, Jenatabadi, Ismail, & Radzi, 2013). From several studies it has been demonstrated that there exists a significant positive relation between leadership style and employee job satisfaction (Rad & Yarmohammadian, 2006; Bartolo & Furlonger, 2000; Erkutlu, 2008; Hamidifar, 2009).

Over the years, the link between leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction has attracted the attention of many scholars. Several results of these findings are shown in the following table.

Transformational Leadership Transactional Leadership

(Koh, Steers, & Terborg, 1995) From the investigation in 89 schools in Singapore, it was found that transformational leadership style had significant add‐on effects to transactional leadership in the prediction of organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, and teacher satisfaction.

Transactional style has a negative impact on employees’ job satisfaction.

(Bogler, 2001) In his study developed in Israeli schools, with 745 respondents, it was found that transformational leadership style of principals affected teachers’ satisfaction both directly and indirectly through their occupation perceptions.

(Barnett, McCormick, & Conners, 2001)

The study conducted in New South Wales in secondary school showed that the transformational leadership behavior (individual concern) was associated with the teacher outcomes – satisfaction, extra effort and perception of leader effectiveness.

(Griffith, 2004; Ejimofor, 2007) Transformational leadership style leads to a higher level of performance and job satisfaction.

(Lee, 2005) From a study of 1,250 Taiwanese secondary school, it was shown that the model of transformational leadership has significant and positive effects on job satisfaction and school commitment teachers.

(Nguni, Sleegers, & Denessen, 2006)

In Tanzanian primary school it was found that transformational leadership dimensions have strong effects on teachers’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior.

(Nir & Kranot, 2006) From a study conducted in 5 districts of Israeli, transformational leadership was likely to affect intra-school circumstances by promoting teachers' satisfaction on the job.

(Aydin, Sarier, & Uysal, 2013) Using the method of meta-analysis from 12 research findings, conducted in Turkey, findings showed that transformational leadership style affected positively job satisfaction and organizational commitment of teachers.




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Methodology

In this study, we have tried to identify whether, in the Albanian and Kosovo context, principal style of leadership influences the teacher satisfaction. The methodology followed in this paper has a quantitative approach. Two quantitative questionnaires using Likert-type scales were administered. Questionnaires were used to identify the principal style of leadership as perceived by teachers, and the teacher satisfaction. For identifying the leadership style of principal, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Form 5X was used in order to measure seven factors, such as: Idealized influence, Inspirational motivation, Intellectual stimulation, Individual consideration, Contingent reward, Management‐by‐exception, Laissez‐faire. For capturing of teacher satisfaction, a questionnaire was borrowed from the Ciampini-Boccardo Institute of Higher Education with 6 items was used. The questionnaire was distributed physically among the teachers of 25 primary schools in Albania. There were a total of 125 responses from 200 distributed questionnaires.

Analysis of results

The study involved 125 primary school teachers, where 86.4% were woman and 13.6% were man, all with a high level of education. Respondents (teachers) were asked about the perception they have on the principal style of leadership, and their job satisfaction. Responses were measured with a Likert scale of 1-5.

For data analysis the statistical program SPSS, was used. We have measured the impact that principal leadership style has on teacher satisfaction through simple regression analysis. Specifically we have tested the impact that the transactional leadership of principal and transformational leadership of principal, plays on teacher satisfaction.

Coefficientsa

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients

T Sig. B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) -4.127E-16 .090 .000 1.000

Satisfaction -.071 .090 -.071 -.786 .043

a. Dependent Variable: Transformational Leadership

Coefficientsa

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients

T Sig. B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) -4.936E-17 .090 .000 1.000

Satisfaction -.003 .090 -.003 -.029 .097

a. Dependent Variable: Transactional Leadership

Regression analysis shows that transactional leadership does not affect teacher satisfaction, for a confidence level of 95%, while the transformational style of leadership, for the same confidence level, positively impacts the teacher satisfaction.

Correlative analysis has been used to test the strength of this relationship (teacher satisfaction and transformational leadership style). The results show that transformational leadership style of principal has a strong, positive effect on teacher satisfaction.




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Correlations

Transformational Leadership Satisfaction

Transactional Leadership

Transformational Leadership Pearson Correlation 1 .071 -.066

Sig. (2-tailed) .043 .462

N 125 125 125

Satisfaction Pearson Correlation .071 1 -.003

Sig. (2-tailed) .043 .097

N 125 125 125

Transactional Leadership Pearson Correlation -.066 -.003 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .462 .097

N 125 125 125

CONCLUSIONS

A common conclusions about transformational leadership style emerge from the literature review: it is an important management and leading style, which promotes work performance and employee satisfaction, as it has already been proven by several relevant research studies in the past (Keller, 1992; Howell and Avolio, 1993; Lowe, 1996; Pawar and Eastman, 1997; Thite, 2000; Nielsen 2009; Paulsen, 2009; Eisenbeis and Boerner, 2010; Liu, 2011; Ahmad, 2013 cited: Krallis & Souto, 2014).

This study sought to examine the relationship between principal leadership and teacher satisfaction in the Albanian and Kosovo context. According to the results of the study, transformational leadership positively effects teacher satisfaction. Furthermore, this relationship appears to be strong. Job satisfaction is an important predictor of effective schools thus principals should pay a great atention to their behaviors and consider implementing effective strategies in order to increase the teachers’ job satisfaction. Moreover a great attention should be paid by gonverment and their educational reforms who should consider to implement special actions.

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The Role of the Family in the Education of Children in Conflict with the Law: Empirical Evidence from Albanian Context

Dr. Brunilda Zenelaga

Department of Sociology. Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Tirana

Dr. Blerina Hamzallari

Department of Sociology. Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Tirana

Abstract

A child is considered in conflict with the law when he/she has committed or has been accused of committing an offence (UNICEF, 2006). According to local context, a child can also be in conflict with the law, when it is taken up by the justice system for minors or for adults, due to the alleged dangers faced by the child in view, or behavior or environment (IDE, 2016:2). The family is a primary agency that influences the child socio-psychological formation. In the case of children in conflict with the law, on one hand family can contribute on creating causes of antisocial and deviant behaviors of children, but on the other hand, it can be an important factor for rehabilitation and correction of the children attitudes.Recently, in Albania, children in conflict with the law have been in center of the attention of policymakers and researchers, but very few of them have explored in depth the role that the family plays on the education of children in contact with the law. This paper aims to fulfill that gap of researches in Albanian context.The methods used to gather data are based on: (a) the use of the secondary data such as international and national literature about the topic, researches with the focus on children in conflict with the law, statistics and other data from different Albanian institutions; (b) the use of the primary data taken from the interviews with experts who work in Probation Service in Albania, school psychologist, experts and professionals in prisons etc. The study revealed that the role of the family is crucial, especially for the children in conflict with the law. Empirical evidence from Albanian context shows that children in conflict with the law came mainly from families with socio - economical problems and/or lack of the attention to the education of the children. The collaboration of the family with other socialization agencies such as schools etc., can be an effective way for the correction of the attitudes of this category of children.

Keywords: family, children in contact with the law, education.

Introduction

The term ‘children in conflict with the law’ refers to anyone under 18 who comes into contact with the justice system as a result of being suspected or accused of committing an offence (UNICEF, 2006). According to local context, a child can also be in conflict with the law, when it is taken up by the justice system for minors or for adults, due to the alleged dangers faced by the child in view, or behavior or environment (IDE, 2016:2).

This article aims to explore the influence of the family on the children in conflict with the law. On one hand the family is seen as a social agency which can generate push factors for children who come in conflict with the law, but on the other hand it can serve as an important agency for the support, rehabilitation and reintegration of this category of children.

Recently, in Albania, children in in conflict with the law have been in center of the attention of policymakers and researchers, but very few of them have explored in depth the role that the family plays on the education of children in contact with the law. This paper aims to fulfill that gap of researches in Albanian context.

Family, as primary agency and its role on children in conflict with the law. International literature review

Although the family does not perform all the childrearing functions that it once did, it is still regarded as the primary agency of education and socialization of children that encompasses emotionally significant relationships. In national and




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international interdisciplinary studies, contemporary societies are increasingly focusing on the most important role of the family and especially parents in successful socialization of children. In identifying the role of the family in the child raising process, it is important to clarify the similarities and the differences between the three concepts that are often used in confusing ways instead of each other:

socialization as the process of acquiring the ability to participate in society and includes the way to learn the norms, beliefs and the values of a particular culture;

the development of child that considers the time dimension of change and growth;

education entails those processes used to assist and to enhance the learning of skills, knowledge, and other life tasks of one person from another (Darling, 1987: 823).

From one side, the way that the family fulfills the functions of socializing, educating, and developing children is one of the determining factors for children's reports with law and society. On the other side, a child’s level of well-being is socially influenced within all social contexts. Given that children have little control over the social and family contexts influencing them, then they are at the mercy of the adults and cultural influences that contexts provide. The parent-child relationship initiates a child into the social world. Through the socialization process, children acquire the knowledge, attitudes, skills, values, and expectations that allow them to become increasingly integrated into new social relationships (Peterson and Rollings, 1987: 470).

The existence of threatening and difficult environments may be a threat for child’s well-being. In such cases, the family and the role of the parents became a key microsystem influences through the definition of the socialization goals, the ideologies that drive parents’ plans for their children’s future, and influence the parenting tactics they implement (Howe, 2012: 304).

In the sociological analysis of the causes of children in contact with the law is referred the importance of social competences that are part of the process of socialization and education in the family. This set of competencies learned in family is then used to guide the action of children outside of it. The multidimensional complexity of the use of social competencies becomes a determining factor for the child's relative abilities to function effectively within long-term reciprocal role relationships in society. Thus, young people are socially competent when they demonstrate high levels of self-esteem, conformity to (cooperation with) significant others, moral development, independence, achievement, and internal control. In contrast, children are less competent within the learned roles when they are low in these qualities, display substantial antisocial behavior, and have identifiable personality disorders (Peterson and Rollings, 1987: 476). In this sense, the child's social incompetence would be a cause for conflict with the law.

A wide range of sociological texts emphasize that parent-child socialization consists of both “structured” role relations and dynamic processes. Howe in her analysis of family life differentiates the family structure from family processes. According to Howe (2012:8) “Family structure itself does not reveal very much about a person’s experiences. Family health, success, and happiness don’t depend exclusively on family structure, its composition, how many members it has, whether people are married, their ages, and other demographic variables… To understand a person’s long-term adjustment we must look into a family’s processes, that include interactional variables like problem solving, quality of emotional support, and discipline provided for children.”

For this reason, the causes of the child who conflicts with the law will be analyzed by linking them with some of the most important processes that take place in the family and are a natural part of the educational, socializing and child rearing functions.

Following the recognition of a broader international literature, the most frequent causes of deviant and problematic behavior of children closely related to family processes are:

various family problems, deviances in the family;

the problems of young people with romantic relationship;

problems with friends, deviants in peer groups;

school problems;




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the degree of religious engagement;

use of prohibited substances;

participation in the gang.

All of the above categories of causes are potentially risky for the deviant behavior of the children and express aspects of the family's inability to successfully control and manage processes within it. The findings of Froggio and Agnew (2007) Froggio and Lori (2010) orient the attention to the importance of any problematic display in family life starting from any difficulty of relationship with the parents and siblings, a bitter discussion between one’s parents, parents’ divorce, misunderstandings with parents, emotional distance of parents, to the predictive significance of the precedents of deviant behavior in the family (mother, father, sister, or brother) if someone on the family had committed any deviant or delinquent act. Despite all the influential role of the family and the relationship within it, there are studies that neglect the negative influences of the family in the emergence of deviant behaviors. The findings of a study conducted by Brank and Lane (2008) with 147 juveniles in Florida Department of Juvenile Justice revealed that the juveniles generally did not believe their parents were responsible for the illegal activities of the juvenile. Often, studies on the role of parents in the behavior of children are directed towards monitoring and continuous control of adults on their children. According to this point of view Brank & Lane (2008: 344), Lippold et al. (2014: 1816) children break the rule and law even when their parents are very involved in the continuous control of children. Parental control and monitoring may not be enough to keep the child away from legal problems. Parental monitoring is important but it is not the only factor that can minimize the incentives for anti-child behavior to children and young people in relation to other important factors outside the home.

Researchers Wood, Avellar and Goesling (2008:9) Thornton, Axinn and Xie (2007:124) evaluate the importance of family processes, referring to how children and young people project the importance and form of romantic and intimate relationships. According to Crocket & Randall (2006:765) family models are also important in how conflict resolution is addressed in the romantic relationships of young people. Lack of conflict resolution tactics may be a cause for deviance and contact with the law. Froggio and Lori (2010:587) found that among young Italians romantic engagement or betrayal of one partner and breaking up of romantic engagements, as well as breakup of an important friendship often become a cause for deviant behavior or behavior contrary to cultural and even legal norms. Among the young Italians resulted to be important the level of involvement in peers group. According to this study the more involved in the group the child is, the less likely to behave deviant behaviors, and the less involved in the group the child is the more inclined to the deviance in the family, school environment, and the wider social environment. Children involved in non-stigmatizing groups are likely to have low indicators of deviant behavior. Often not legal behavior of children is found in patterns of deviant behavior of the peers group.

Part of the discussions of many studies are also the problems of children in the school, a bad relationship with teachers or bad academic performances, getting failing grades at school.

When the discussion is oriented towards the causes of anticonformist and deviant behaviors among children and adolescents, studies also refer to the importance of religious beliefs in the family. Frequently, religious belonging and religious practices in the family have been seen in sociological studies as important elements in family processes to mediate deviant behaviors and to incorporate the importance of social control and social morality among children and adolescents (Simons et al., 2004; Pickering and Vazsonyi, 2010). In the study of Simons et al. (2004: 559) the results showed that religious belief is important to help young people to perceive social morality. Generally they tend to choose people of common beliefs and values in their peers group, so religion commitment serves to discourage involvement with deviant peers.

Among the most problematic profiles of behavior in conflict with the law of young people are their engagement in the gang and the use of forbidden substances (Velleman and Lorna, 2007; Young, Fitzgibbon, Silverstone, 2014). As has been discussed earlier, even in these cases the family is placed at the center of the debate on sociological studies being seen on the one hand, as a result of conflicting behavior with the law on children (Young, Fitzgibbon, Silverstone, 2014: 173-177) and on the other hand, as a factor in helping their rehabilitation through its participation in the criminal justice and education system (Velleman and Lorna; 2007: 28).

The interest of this article is to explore the importance of some of the factors analyzed in the review of literature in the cases of minors in conflict with the law in Albanian society.




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General description of the methodology

The overall analyze is based on two main methods:

First, the analyze of the secondary data was based on the documents taken from different sources such as, research and studies from Albanian and foreign actors related to the children in conflict with the law.

Second, the analyze of the primary data was based on the information gathered empirically through in depth interviews with professionals who work with children in conflict with law.

In the interviewing process participated 17 professionals. 6 of them were school psychologists, 6 employees of the social care sector at the Institutes for the Execution of Criminal Offenses, and 5 specialists in Probation Service Offices, mainly professionals who work with the category of 14-18 years old but in the case of school psychologists the information was referred even for the category of 12-14 year old. The study was conducted in cities of Durrës, Kavaja, Elbasan, Rrogozhinë and Tirana.

Study limitations

First, this study is part of a larger research, conducted by the authors, so the findings are limited and should be considered as preliminary data.

Second, the data are collected only from professionals who served as key persons, so, the results reflect only their perceptions. The whole research involves a larger interviewing process, including minors and parents, but at this stage the data are based only on the perceptions of professionals working i with minors in conflict with the law.

Third, given that the study is based on qualitative methods, its findings are limited and can not be generalized.

Empirical evidence from Albanian context

There are some studies In Albanian context, undertaken from different actors, who deal with children in conflict with the law. Usually the studies in Albanian context are focused on exploring the risk factors that influence the criminality of juveniles in Albania, among which the family factors remain the most important ones.

According to Haxhiymeri, family environment shapes the life and the character of children, young people and adults, in general. A large number of minors and youths involved in criminal offenses come from problematic families. The rise of criminality at young ages over the last ten years is directly linked to the crisis experienced by Albanian family during the transition years. Juvenile delinquency often meet with those individuals who come from families with divorce parenting, violence, or parenting in immigration. In such environments, with significant emotional but also material shortcomings, children and adolescents are not exposed to the appropriate model they need at this stage of their development. They can feel unsupported, neglected, and not respected. Moreover, the environment brings them to the stressful situation and difficulties often unaffordable by them (Haxhiymeri, 2007: 8).

Another study conducted by Beqo and Doçi from General Directorate of Prisons in Albania on 2015, untitled “Minors in conflict with the law. Analysis of risk factors that influence the criminality of minors” revealed that family and elements related with it, such as antisocial or criminal parenting behaviors, substance abuse, neglect, type of parenting, domestic violence, parent divorce, psychopathology of the parents, family structure, multiple family members, economic problems of family, etc. can lead minors to delinquency. According to Beqo and Doçi family factors do not act outright but often they are related to other factors such as the influence of peer groups, place of residence, school, community, etc. (Beqo and Doçi, 2015).

According to a study conducted by Cilingiri, family factors compose important factors of influence for minors recidivism risks. According to her study, many of recidivist children in Institutes of Execution of Criminal Offenses, have lived in families where violence was exercised, in families with divorced parents or with cousins with physical and mental health problems (Cilingiri, 2015: 25).

The above studies stressed the role of family as an agency that creates the risk factors to the juvenile delinquency. A very interesting study conducted by Albanian Foundation for Conflict Resolutions (AFCR) reveled that family can be an important factor for the correction of attitudes of children in conflict with law. According to this study, regarding the question of "who




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do you think is the most appropriate person to help you resolve a conflict?", the juvenile involved in the study listed three main sources: a family member (47.2 percent) a professional mediator (18.9 percent), a friend (14.2 percent) (AFCR, 2016: 24).That means that family composes an important source of trust for juveniles, and as such, a very important agency for reintegration and re-socialization of juveniles in conflict with the law.

According to the data taken from the General Directorate of Prisons in Albania in August 2018, the number of minors sentenced in Albanian prisons was 5, (1 from the category 14-16 years old and 4 from 16 to 18 years old) and the number of pre-detainees was 17 (5 from the category 14-16 years old and 12 from 16 to 18 years old), mainly in Kavaja, Korça, Vlora and Lezha IECO.

IECO Pre-detainees Sentenced

14 -16 years old 16 - 18 years old 14 -16 years old 16 - 18 years old

Korcë 1 4 0 0

Kavajë 2 3 1 4

Vlorë 2 5 0 0

Total 5 12 1 4

Table nr.1: Number of minors in the Institutions of Execution of Criminal Offences in Albania, August 2018

Source: General Directorate of Prisons in Albania

Comparing to the previews years, the number of sentenced and pre-detainees minors in Albania has decreased considerably. On August 2016 the number of pre-detained minors in all IECO-s of Albania was 67 and the number of the sentenced was 7, while 2 years later, on August 2018 the number of pre-detainees was 17 and that of sentenced was 5 .

IECO

Pre-detainees Sentenced

14 -18 years old August 2018

14 - 18 years old August 2016

14 -18 years old August 2018

16 - 18 years old August 2016

Ali Demi

0 1 0 0

Korcë 5 11 0 0

Kukës 0 1 0 0

Lezha 0 20 0 0

Kavajë 5 18 5 7

Vlorë 7 16 0 0

Total 17 67 5 7

Table nr.2: Number of minors in the Institutions of Execution of Criminal Offences in Albania,

August 2016-2018

Source: General Directorate of Prisons in Albania

The Juvenile Justice Code, which came into force on 01.01.2018 in Albania strengthened the application of alternative sentences for this category of people. There are not official statistical data about the category of 14-18 years old in Probation Service, but specialist from local offices report that recently the number of juveniles who are followed by this institution is considerably increased.




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Important findings

The three main topics which oriented the interviews with professionals were:

The familiar conditions of children who are in conflict with the law

The outside influence on children in conflict with law and the role of the family

Recommendation: How families can help the reintegration of children in conflict with the law

The familiar conditions of children in conflict with the law

When it comes to describe the family conditions of children in conflict with the law, attention generally focuses on the socio-economic status of their family.

A specialist of social care sector at the Institute of Execution of Criminal offenses in Kavaja, claimed:

“Children with whom we work come mainly from marginalized families, with very few opportunities to make a normal life. Generally are children from poor families, with hard economical problems, but even with parents with law education level. This is reflected on the level of education of these children. Rarely you may find children who have finished the obligatory education. Usually they have 2, 3 or 4 years of formal education. Generally these children come from periurban or rural zones”.

Professionals who work with this category of minors claim that in many cases the difficult economical situation drive the child to the road of delinquency.

“We work with children who have committed minor theft. They often have done so to help economically their families. For example, someone have stolen ironmongeries, in order to take some money by selling them, or someone has stolen a mobile, because he thinks he will never have the possibility to buy it…and many times we are very sorry about that…”

Some professionals stress the idea that minors who come in conflict with the law, lack the right education from their families. They come from families who haven’t give to their children the adequate attention or who have not modeled them with the right values. Focusing on their prolonged-time work, parents may have neglected these children and have not exercised their parental control properly with them. A specialist from Local Probation Service Office of Durrës, during her interview claimed:

Generally minors in Probation Service have committed offenses such as theft, distribution of narcotics, blows between pears, etc. It is true that the biggest part of our minors comes from families with low socio-economic status, but there are also those who, have been introduced to the deviance route, benefiting from the lack of parental control. In a family where the rules do not work, it is easier for kids to "slide down". Especially in adolescence, parents need to have a special focus on children.

According to a interviewed psychologist the emotional support of family for its member is crucial, especially the emotional support of parents towards their children. Interviews showed that a part of juveniles in conflict with the law comes from troubled and dysfunctional families, such as single parent families, a dead parent, family with communication problems, families with many children, with physically or mental health disabled parents, with parents having problems with alcohol, orphans or abandoned children. With a big compassion, a specialist form the Institute of Execution of Criminal Offenses in Kavaja, claimed:

Do you know that some recidivist children in our institution come again here, because they do not have a home and a family. When they go out of here, they intentionally commit an offence and come again and say “At least here we have a bad, something to eat and people who care about us. Outside we have nothing. ”




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Another specialist from the same institution claimed:

In my experience, I remember two cases that, when came the moment for the minor to go out from here, there was nobody from his family to come and take him. We have been in trouble to find him a cousin, a relative or a responsible person. It’s a big drama.

Different studies show that a member of the family in conflict with the law can serve as a model for a minor. As Froggio and Agnew (2007) Froggio and Lori (2010) have revealed, the precedents of deviant behavior in the family (mother, father, sister, or brother) influence the deviant behavior of minors at the same family.

According to a study conducted by Cilingiri around half of children who participated in the study have had member of their families in conflict with the law. Their father or brother was or had previously been convicted of at least one criminal offense (Cilingiri, 2015: 38).

According to the interviews of professionals a family model can strongly influence the experience of the minor. A specialist from the Local Probation Office in Elbasan claimed:

We have many cases of minors who come from families where the father, big brother, or uncle, have had stories of delinquency or criminality. For these children the commission of an offense or criminal act is not a big problem, but as I can say… “a part of the life”.

Some other social factors that have influence the family life may also influence to the children in conflict with the law. For example, emigration of father or other family members or the migration of the whole family from one part of the country to another may influence to this category of children. In many cases families of children in conflict with the law live in periurban zones, where the social control is weak and the possibility of the involvement of minors in deviance groups is greater. A specialist of the social care sector in Rrogozhina IECO, during her interview claimed:

For a teenager, especially boy, the presence of the father is crucial. In my experience I have had to do with boys who lived with their mothers because of the fathers emigration, divorce of the parents or because their father have passed away. In such conditions, mothers who deal with many other issues of management of the family, have no possibilities to control their sons.

The outside family influence at children in contact with law and the role of the family

Many studies show that in general teenagers and especially those in conflict with the law are strongly influence by their mates or other adults. According to a study conducted by Cilingiri, more than 50 per cent of minors have committed the offence in collaboration with adults or other minors (Cilingiri, 2015). A specialist from Probation Service of Durrës claimed:

In my experience the biggest part of the cases, where minors have been involved, were offences in collaboration with adults or mates. I remember a girl 14 years old have stolen scrap metals in collaboration with her mother. They came from Roma minority, with socio-economic problems and the sale of scrap metals served to them to survive. In many other cases of drug dispersions and thefts, teenagers are involved in groups, they do not act alone.

From the above interview it is clear that in some cases the collaboration for committing an offence comes from the family or at least a member of the family, and in other cases it comes from other social agencies influence, such as peers, a group of adults etc. When the influence comes from outside of the family and the lack of the family control is weak, the probability of child to be involved in criminal offences is high.

Another important factor that should be taken in consideration is the relationship with the school. The interviewed professionals indicated that the majority of minors in their institutions have had a poor relationship with the school and their parents had been uninterested in their school progress and development.

According to a school psychologist, when teenagers are focused on school achievement, the probability for them to be involved on criminal acts is low, while if their focus is not directed to the school success, the possibility of involvement in deviances and delinquency is higher. According to her, nowadays the exposure of teenagers to different information offered by the internet platforms, strongly influence their behaviors and attitudes. Family must play an important role on controlling children in this aspect.




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Instead of conclusions, some recommendations: How families can help?

As we explained above, one of the topics discussed on the interviewing process was the role of the family as a rehabilitation agency for children in conflict with law. During the interviews, the professionals who work with children in conflict with the law, mentioned that the role of the family on the reintegrating of this category of children is crucial. During her interview, a specialist from Probation Service, Office of Tirana, claimed:

Some parents are not aware about the importance of their presence on the children’s life. The parents negligence and the lack of the control toward their children can have important consequences for these children, directing them towards antisocial and deviant behavior. It is important to include these parents into special programs in order to raise their awareness about the important of parental control .

As mentioned above, family is not an agency that operates alone, but its life is strongly influenced from social conditions and other social agencies. Consequently the improvement of these social conditions can lead to the improvement of the family function. During the interviews a set of recommendation about how to strengthen the positive influence of the family on rehabilitation of the children in conflict with the law, have been gathered.

Including parents on special programs in order to raise their awareness about the important of parents care, interest and control towards their children.

Offering free assistance (medical, psychological, legal, etc) for parents of children in conflict with the law.

Drawing policies for raising professional skills for parents of children in conflict with the law and creating employment possibilities for them.

Strengthening the collaboration of the family with other social agencies such as schools and extracurricular centers, legal and psychological services etc, in order to offer to the children predisposed to be in conflict with the law, another vision and constructive possibilities for their lives.

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[18] Velleman, Richard D. B & Templeton, Lorna J.(2007). Substance misuse by children and young people: the role of the family and implications for intervention and prevention, Paediatrics and child health, Vol. 17, Issue 1, PP. 25-30, https://www.paediatricsandchildhealthjournal.co.uk/article/S1751-7222(06)00187-9/pdf

[19] Wood, Robert G., Avellar, Sarah & Goesling, Brian (2008). Pathways to Adulthood and Marriage: Teenagers’ Attitudes, Expectations, and Relationship Patterns, Mathematica Policy Research, Washington.

[20] Young, Tara; Fitzgibbon, Wendy & Silverstone,Daniel (2014). A Question of Family? Youth and Gangs, Youth Justice, Vol. 14(2) 171– 185.




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Leftization of Education in South Korean Society Centering Around the Authorized Textbooks

Bok-rae Kim

Professor of Andong National University

Abstract

In South Korea, education is no longer a place for learning, but a base for preparing ideological warriors, due to left-wing ideology education and fervent and conscientious teachers’ union and strong left-leaning media. Since left-wing president Moon took office in 2017, omnidirectional “leftization” of education is ongoing in society. According to Prof. Chul-hong Kim, the current left-leaning “authorized” textbook system strenuously inculcates students with the appropriateness of materialistic historical views. A high school student engaged in the protest against the campaign of “state-designated” textbooks says at a press interview, “I’m a proletarian class. It’s only the proletarian revolution that can change our social structure and its fundamental contradiction.”1 For reference, there are three kinds of textbooks: (1) state-designated textbook published by state (so, its copyright belongs to state), (2) authorized textbook published by private publishing companies, on the condition of passing through the government screening system (inviting criticism for its “poor screening”), (3) free-published textbook left entirely to the private sector without any state intervention. Prologue The second authorized textbook system is a “compromise” plan between state-led and privately-led textbooks. The main motive for adopting authorized textbooks (from previous state-designated textbooks) was to introduce “diversity of views and opinions” in Korean education, but a conservative journalist Gap-je Cho concluded - from analyzing 14 authorized history textbooks - that “promoting educational diversity” by authorized textbook system ended in failure. Because a great majority of left-wing professors and teachers take part in writing historical textbooks on the basis of Marxist

class struggle theory: that is, Koreanized “popular view of history” or populism-based historical perspective (民

衆史觀). These authorized textbooks are adopted by almost 99% of high schools across the country.

Moreover, they tend to implant one “monolithic” idea (historical materialism) in the consciousness of young students. According to Cho, the authorized textbook system mired in controversy is degraded into a “certificate” of anti-state, pro-communist education, in place of diversity.2

Keywords: leftization, education, south korea, authorized textbooks

Introduction

Today the terms “left-wing” and “right-wing” are used as symbolic labels for soi-disant progressives and conservatives in South Korea. A hot controversy over the relationship between left-wing progressives and right-wing conservatives is a snare of Korean academic society, almost impossible to escape once you are trapped in. The left-right metaphor is a specialty of the Earth. At first glance, the concept of left and right seems to indicate direction, but it’s almost completely static in reality. On the contrary, the idea of progressivism or conservatism can be different for different situations. Being “progressive” is up to those to criticize the power of vested interests and the problem of dominant ideology, and to be emancipated from them. Both left and right wings can be progressive; therefore, progressivism is no longer the exclusive property of leftism, despite the unilateral claim of South Korean leftists who want to preempt/monopolize progressive values and really don’t like being called “communists,” “Reds,” or “followers of North Korea.”

1 Hyo-jung Kim, [in Korean] “If we consider five big events that leftize Korean society,” Weekly Chosun, December 15, 2015. Retrieved from http://weekly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?nNewsNumb=002386100005&ctcd=C02 2 Gap-je Cho, [in Korean] “The authorized textbook system: why has it failed?,” Chosun Media, September 23, 2015. Retrieved from http://pub.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?cate=C03&mcate=M1008&nNewsNumb=20150918393&nidx=18394

http://weekly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?nNewsNumb=002386100005&ctcd=C02

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The biggest variable in the political propensity of South Koreans is North Korea. South Korean leftists are very compassionate towards North Korea from a nationalistic point of view, but the concept of nationalism is considered as a right-wing element in the West. Historically, those who called themselves “progressives” have not only captured the political agendas, such as human rights, anti-war campaign, and anti-nuclear movement, but also struggled for the realization of their objects. However, South Korean leftists called “progressives” bizarrely keep silent about the “human rights” in North Korea. Vis-à-vis the North Korean nuclear issue, they are busy downplaying the danger of NK’s nuclear development. So, they voluntarily lose their progressiveness. South Korean leftists claim to advocate progressivism or democracy, but they are branded as pro-North, anti-American, anti-Japanese Koreans, Gangnam leftists1 and the Reds. On the other hand, Korean rightists claim to stand for capitalism, liberalism, market economy, individualism, and anti-communism. They go by the nicknames “conservatives,” “anti-communists,” “industrial warriors,” “authoritarianists,” “pro-Japanese/pro-American Koreans,” “Taegeuk (Korean national flag) crusaders,” and “tultak people whose dentures are stiff (crazy conservative old people).2

We can also enumerate Antonio Gramsci and Louis Althusser as the representative foreign thinkers who have largely influenced South Korean left-wing scholars. At the bottom of Korean leftism, the old-fashioned Juche ideology is also added, due to Korean historical particularity (national division of North and South).3 Thus, South Korean left-wingers, with the catchphrase “unriminzokkiri (Our People Together),”4 are just “pro-North” Koreans locked in the old communist frames, without knowing the living zeitgeist called “progress” that keeps evolving all over the world.

South Korean left and right-wings are now engaged in an ideological war of attrition, but this war is not using force of arms, but high-tech cultural media. According to prof. Chul-hong Kim, the so-called textbook war heating up in the educational world is a historical war, and this historical war is nothing but a synchronic cultural war. It means that Korean left-wings could seize cultural hegemony in art, culture and education, etc. According to Prof. Young-hoon Rhee, Korean history textbook controversy is a religious war to liberate our “free reason” from the demonized nationalistic powers. To understand the “untimely” textbook war, we should know how left-wing ideology has taken roots in all sectors of the country. Their beginning was in the university towns in 1980s.

This paper is divided into two diachronic/synchronic sections: (1) five big events which can move South Korean society into the left (2) education under the darker shadow of socialism.

II. Five big events which move South Korean society into the left

1. Introduction of Juche ideology into university towns in 1980s

Left-leaning Korean textbooks are a byproduct of what we call “popular view of history” (as an opposite of elite view of history) that came in the eighties. The mutations of historical materialism take the form of: (1) popular view of history in South Korea and (2) Juche (self-reliance) view of history in North Korea. The former brings “people” (instead of famers and workers) up as main protagonists of history, whereas the latter claim to advocate “humans” (instead of materials) as prime movers of history. For reference, the Juche ideology is no more than a deification of Il-sung Kim (1912-1994), communist

dictator of North Korea. Those who support the popular view of history (民衆史觀) do not only consider Republic of Korea

1 These days, the newly-coined term, “Gangnam leftists,” is quite fashionable in Korean society. The term, which refers to leftist activists who reside in the rich district of South Seoul, is similar to the pejorative American term, “limousine leftists”; Seong-kon Kim, “Gangnam leftists vs. Gangbuk rightists,” The Korea Herald, May 17, 2011. Retrieved from http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20110517000825 2 The tultak refers to the elderly people who behave in an entitled manner, or, in some annoying manner. It comes from two Korean words “tulni” (dentures) and “taktak” (onomatopoeia for click-clacking sounds). 3 Juche is usually translated as “self-reliance.” It is the official state ideology of North Korea, described by the government as "Kim Il-sung's original, brilliant and revolutionary contribution to national and international thought.” It postulates that “man is the master of his destiny,” that the North Korean masses are to act as the “masters of the revolution and construction” and that by becoming self-reliant and strong a nation can achieve true socialism. 4 The term can be broken down into uri, meaning “we”, “our”, or “collective self”; minjok, meaning “race”, “people,” “nation,” or in this case simply “Koreans”; and kkiri, meaning “with,” “between,” “together,” in some cases with an exclusionary nuance, presumably intended in this case to convey the notion that Korean issues are to be solved by the Koreans themselves and not third parties or superpowers.

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(ROK) as a colony of American imperialism, but also sees Korean modern and contemporary history in a conflicting structure frame “ruling class vs. common people” in form of Marxism-Leninism.

In the mid-1980s, student movement started to metamorphose into heterogeneous one by taking Juche ideas as a guiding ideology for action. The political pamphlet Subordination and Cry being passed around secretly in 1983 marked the beginning of Juche ideology movement in South Korea. According to this pamphlet, Korea is a colony of American imperialism and the U.S. has a control of Korean military regime. With the advent of famous Letters of Kang-chul (in the form of sending letters by a labor activist called “Kang-chul (pen name)” to young students) in 1986, Juche ideology became mainstream in university towns. Kang-chul asserts that 100 years of Korean modern history have been dotted with invasions and people’s struggles against Japanese/American imperialism, and that Korean society is still colonized by US, so it’s necessary to be freed from it through the communist revolution. In the past, most South Korean activists saw both North and South Korean military regimes as their main adversaries, but they target only the U.S. and its imperial invasions. On March 1986, the Confederation of Students for National Salvation was founded at Seoul National University. On April 1986, this confederation formed a struggle committee for anti-fascist independence, anti-American democratization (Jamintu). This struggle committee gained the hegemony in nation-wide student movement through their fierce struggles for popular democracy and launched the Nation Council of Student Representatives (NCSR) in 1987. Now, many of the top positions of the left-wing Moon government are occupied by people who used to be key-members of the NCSR.

2. Launch of Korean Confederation of Trade Unions in 1995

The big struggle of workers after the June struggle1 served as a momentum to provide them with political empowerment. The camp of labor movement could not only gain self-confidence through 3 300 labor dispute cases, but also concentrate their energy to create another new labor union against the first and only legalized Federation of Korean Trade Unions (FKTU).2 In 1990, 600 branches of labor union took part in forming a Korean Confederation of Trade Unions (KCTU). In the beginning, the Young-sam Kim government (1993-1998) considered it as illegal, but the president Kim decided to accept “multiple” labor unions in the wake of general strike by the KCTU. After the president Kim’s meeting with two opposition leaders, the KCTU was finally legalized. Soon, they entered the arena of politics. In 1997 they formed a new labor party to run a radical candidate in the 1997 presidential election. Mr. Kwon, chairperson of the KCTU, became a presidential candidate and he gained 1.2% of the vote (about 300 000 votes). In 2011 they reorganized the Unified Progressive Party (UPP). In 2014 the Constitutional Court dissolved the UPP by founding it illegal.3 According to Prof. Chul-hong Kim, the political struggle of the KCTU is an external war with the US, but also an internal war between bourgeois class symbolized by Korean conglomerates called “chaebol” and workers represented by the KCTU. As a result, previous anti-American and anti-imperialistic Juche movement in university towns in 1980s is now passed down to the KCTU.

3. Legalization of Korean Teachers & Educational Workers' Union (KTU)

The Korean Teachers & Educational Workers’ Union (KTU) was founded in 1989. In 2013 Young-ju Go, chairman of the Foundation of Broadcast Culture, maintained that the reality of “true education” the KTU claimed to advocate is a “communist” education. Chairman Go, a former public safety prosecutor, came to read a secret memo of suspects by investigating the trial on the “periodicals of people’s education” in 1985 and learned their true identity. It said that it’s necessary to conscientize elementary, middle and high school students, and further to organize a union of teachers to achieve people’s revolution. When the reality of true education was reported in the press, more than 90% teachers of the KTU severed themselves from the organization. Those who did not secede from the KTU were dismissed till the early 1990s. Since then, they have started political struggle against the government to re-legalize the KTU. This struggle by the first generation of the KTU lasted almost ten years. The left-wing Dae-jung Kim government (1998-2003) legalized the KTU. Consequently, the KTU could move into high gear with their solid organizational power.

1 The June Struggle was a nationwide democracy movement in South Korea that generated mass protests from June 10 to June 29, 1987. 2 The Federation of Korean Trade Unions (FKTU) was formed in 1960, after a military coup and the dissolution of the General Federation of Korean Trade Unions and its affiliates. The FKTU was placed under the guidance of the military authorities. The FKTU was the sole legal trade union center in South Korea until the Korean Confederation of Trade Unions was finally recognized, in November 1999. 3 The South Korean government petitioned the Constitutional Court of Korea to dissolve the UPP due to their alleged pro-North Korea views in November 2013, two months after the UPP members allegedly involved in the 2013 South Korean “sabotage plot” were arrested




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In 2001, Soo-ho Lee, former chairman of the KTU, claimed that the National Security Law1 is an evil law to obstruct advanced ideas & learning, progressive social movement, and to foster “clique consciousness,” saying “discard your guard against North Korea!” Indeed, teachers of the KTU continuously shouted anti-Americanism, anti-war peace, abolition of national security law and withdrawal of US armed forces in South Korea, as their provocative slogans. In 2000s, many of them were often arrested or indicted for violating the national security law.

According to Joongang Monthly Magazine: November 2004 Issues, the analysis suggests that left-wing camp will succeed in seizing power for 20 years, thanks to militant teachers of the KTU leading and using the public opinion. Since the legalization of the KTU, the left-wing conscientization movement has started in earnest, in order to develop the 2nd and 3rd generations of the KTU. The KTU was and still is the nucleus of leftist movement in South Korean society. The kernel of opposition forces against the restoration movement of state-designated textbooks is the KTU. All key people involved in the political struggle to abolish state-designated textbooks come from the KTU.

4. Establishment of Korean Film Commission in 1999

In 1999 the left-wing Dae-jung Kim government disbanded the Korea Film Promotion Corporation and established the Korean Film Commission. From then on, Korean film world began to be rapidly leftized. For example, Korean People Artist Federation (KPAF) founded in 1988 by 838 pan-genre artists fighting against dictatorship and institutionalized arts took the lead in the leftist “people” art movement. Since 1993, the KPAF has transformed from previous resistance-driven into more democratic, more mass-oriented movement: from voluntary into incorporated association to expand throughout the whole country. In 2002, 700 people in culture and art communities formed a support movement called “Rohsamo” (literally meaning people who love Roh).2 With the inauguration of the leftist Moo-hyun Roh government (2003-2008), they gained political empowerment in culture and art world. For one thing, Chang-dong Lee, a left-wing film director, served as South Korea's Minister of Culture and Tourism from 2003 to 2004. Yoon-soo Kim, former chairman of the KPAF, was appointed as the director of the National Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art (MMCA). With the rightist Myung-bak Lee government (2008-2013), some right-wings were appointed, but it was difficult for them to put down roots in the left-leaning movie world. There is a considerable problem with some hit movies over the most recent 8-9 year period. The Korean films Shiri (1999),3 Joint Security Area (2000),4 and Welcome to Dongmakgol (2005) skillfully erase the ideological difference of two Koreas by leaving the audience “defenseless” against communist ideas. For reference, Welcome to Dongmakgol that entered the 3rd grade middle school textbook describes Korea during the Korean War in 1950. Soldiers from both North and South, as well as an American pilot, find themselves in a secluded village, its residents largely unaware of the outside world, including the war. The story is based on two themes: (1) the cooperation and reconciliation between North and South Korean soldiers who fight together against the merciless attack of American bombers and (2) their glorious death. Another anti-American films Taegukgi: The Brotherhood of War (2004)5 and May 18 (2007)6are also included the textbooks. In particular, the Host (2006)7 is portraying US as the root of evil. Veteran (2015) that recorded over ten million viewers8 is based on anti-business, anti-capitalistic sentiment.

On the other hand, South Korean television dramas - Misaeng: Incomplete Life (2014) or Good Manager (2017) about which young people are enthusiastic - tend to instigate a mockery or a hatred for big companies. For example, the TV

1 The National Security Act is a South Korean law enforced since 1948 with the avowed purpose “to secure the security of the State and the subsistence and freedom of nationals, by regulating any anticipated activities compromising the safety of the State.” In other words, the act made communism illegal. 2 Moo-hyun Roh (1946 -2009) was a South Korean politician who served as President of South Korea (2003–2008). 3 Shiri was the first Hollywood-style big-budget blockbuster to be produced in the new Korean film industry. It also contained a story that draws on strong Korean national sentiment to fuel its drama. 4 This mystery thriller film concerns an investigation into the circumstances surrounding a fatal shooting incident within the DMZ, the heavily fortified border that separates North and South Korea 5 It tells the story of two brothers who are forcibly drafted into the South Korean army at the outbreak of the Korean War. 6 The film is based on the massacre at Gwangju on May 18, 1980. It occurred when General Doo-hwan Chun tried to eliminate any rebels by using military force. If Taegukgi transcendentalizes cruel war into sublime brotherhood, May 18 is a propaganda movie instigating “antagonism against Korean army” by highlighting the crackdown of air bone troops. 7 It’s a 2006 South Korean monster film directed by Bong Joon-ho. 8 Veteran is a 2015 South Korean action comedy film written and directed by Seung-wan Ryoo.




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drama Good Manager by the main public broadcaster KBS1 starts with the following publicity texts: “pocketing, embezzling and a bribe paradise Korea!” That’s always the way big companies operate with bribery and unauthorized business operations or Korea is a Hell Chosun (old Korea). It’s a socialist way of thinking to deny income/status gaps based on individual competitions. This anti-capitalistic mode of thinking is rapidly spreading through the left-leaning mass media. Ironically, it is easy to see some young people enjoy capitalist lifestyle, openly saying “changing societies is not possible without breaking down capitalist class by working class!”

5. Adoption of authorized textbooks in 2003

The authorized textbook system was first introduced into history textbooks after the enforcement of 7th curriculum (2003), under the left-wing Moo-hyun Roh government. The current authorized textbook system was formed in 2010. According to the book How have Korean history textbooks been leftized, it started with young scholars influenced by the popular view of

history (民衆史觀) in 1980s. They were jumping to write Korean history textbooks with enthusiasm. They formed a think-

tank on people’s historiography after the mid-1980s and vigorously carried out two missions: (1) severe criticism on previous state-designated textbooks in the name of diversity and (2) mass publication of new textbooks for wider public use. For example, 5 out of 6 writers of authorized history textbooks by Samwha Printing are members of the KTU or the Association of Korean History Teachers (AKHT) that already have over 2 000 members (1/3 of all history teachers across the country). Thus, the golden age of authorized history textbooks has been accomplished by Korean popular historians, teachers of the KTU and teachers of the AKHT endorsing people’s history or history from below. This actual war on textbooks shows well that Korean leftists’ conscientization movement did not come overnight; therefore, it’s necessary to understand the historical contexts to win this textbook war between two opposed camps.

III. Education under the darker shadow of socialism

1. On the Alert: Korean-styled yutori education

Three prohibition policies and three “noes” policies Korean left-wing superintendents of education are zealously pushing forward may be summarized as follows: 3 prohibition policies of prerequisite learning, individual university admission exam and out-of-school activities and 3 no-exam, no-homework and no-discipline policies.2 The real condition of Korean education is compared to the case of failure of Japanese “yutori” (latitude) education or education that gives children room to grow.3 The yutori education was introduced into Japan in 1990s in order to better support “experience & activity-focused education” escaping from excessive competition in entrance examinations or rigid education system that is focused around cramming and memorization. However, Japan abolished it in 2007 due to marked decline in the academic ability of students and disparities of student achievement. In recent years, the mass media in Japan have used this phrase to criticize drops in scholastic ability.

Nevertheless, the actual left-wing Moon government is pushing for Korean-styled yutori education under the highest goal of reducing heavy study burden or academic stress on students and excessive private education expenses. By way of illustration, the prohibition of prerequisite learning ignores large differences among students in the classroom. So, it’s difficult for teachers to give rational guidance to top-ranked students. As a result, it inversely accelerates the collapse of public education in crisis. Left-wingers bitterly oppose the “rankization” of schools and students, because they think it fosters “social disharmony” among students by raising some privileged students to the modern day peerage. In regard to three “noes” schools, left-wing superintendents are immersed in child-centered education. They consider fierce entrance exam-oriented competition and blind education fever, as deep-rooted problems to eradicate. Saying “our children are not happy” with insistence, they tend to exaggerate the agony of students and the side-effects of rankization.

The problems facing the Korean education caught in a trap of leftist values can be summarized into two words: high expenditure and low efficiency. Even though more than 60 trillion wons (Korean monetary unit) of annual budget (2017) were poured into education, more than half of middle and high school students could not follow their regular classes. The academic ability of university students is showing steep declines, but the competitiveness of Korean education is also

1 Korean Broadcasting System. 2 In addition, policymakers are strongly advocating ‘three bans’ - on universities’ own written admission tests, grading of high schools and college admissions in return for financial contributions 3 Yutori education may be translated as “relaxed education” or “education free from pressure.”




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absurdly low in over-educated world. According to IMD (International Institute for Management Development) Korean education competitiveness is ranked 37th in 2017, down 4 notches from last year.

On the other hand, Korean private education market amounts to more than18 trillion won. It could leave the public education teetering on the brink of collapse, and mass-produce “silver poors” (poor senior citizens) or “edu-poors,”1 due to huge private education costs forming a great part in their household economy.

What is the main cause of overheated private education culture prevailing in Korean society? It is said to be a byproduct of the Era of High Economic Growth. In the past, the most important key to success was to gain entry to the best universities. It was easier for those graduated from prestigious universities to get a good job or a rapid promotion in company. Thus, a growing number of parents began to invest in private education as a way to make their children successful. Nowadays, however, the overgrowth of private education market comes from the crisis of public education locked in the trap of left-wing values.

2017

Total private education expenses (hundred million won)

Annual average private education expenses per student(10,000 won)

Monthly average private education expenses per student (10,000 won)

Private education participation rate (%)

Private education participation time(average time per week)

Total 186,223 325.3 27.1 70.5 6.1

Elementary school

81,195 303.6 25.3 82.3 6.7

Middle school 48,181 348.8 29.1 66.4 6.4

High school 56,847 340.5 28.4 55.0 4.9

Regular high school

54,568 396.3 33.0 61.2 5.5

Recently, Korean-styled “open education” inspired from Japanese yutori education to eradicate the evil of private education is being grafted onto an “innovation school model” started to fuel innovation in public education in 2011. The current Moon government has pledged to expand innovation schools throughout the whole country as his main election promise by emphasizing on the state’s responsibility for education. Now, the innovation school model is operated at 1 164 elementary, middle, high schools in 14 cities and provinces, except Daegu, Ulsan, North Gyeongsang province. Why is the Moon government carrying forward such innovative schools, in spite of their fundamental problems: (1) anti-state education in the name of “people” and (2) decline in scholastic ability? In 2017, the nomination of some schools as “innovation school” foundered as a result of objections of school parents and students. A nationwide scholastic achievement test among school children in 2016 shows 11.9% of innovation high school students were placed in the “deficient” category – almost triple the national average (4.5%). According to Mr. Lee, a 49 year-old school parent who had sent his son to an innovation middle school, it was very difficult for his son to catch up with his school work after going to non-innovation high school. Furthermore, most innovation schools have a high proportion of teachers of the KTU in charge of innovation school operation program.

The extension of innovation schools is also the common pledge of left-wing education superintendents. The normalization of public education is the foremost task they are undertaking under the banners of experience study, nature education, and equality & community-oriented education. Most innovation schools neither require experience study expenses, nor school supplies, because almost everything students need is provided by each innovation school authority. Where does such overwhelming financial support for innovation schools come from? Being designated as innovation school needs the approval of more than 50% of teachers and school governors. If once designated with the superintendent’s permission,

1 “Edu-poor,” a South Korean neologism deriving from the words “education” and “poor,” is a nod to the financial difficulties faced by families who spend a large portion of their income on their children’s education.




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they can receive one hundred million won per year. This means that the financial source they enjoy is based on “taxes” (educational budget) that can be allotted into non-innovation schools. Even though left-wing superintendents and high-level public educational officials put enormous budget of ten billion won into innovation schools, many of them show their “duplicity” not to send their own children into such innovation schools which have become synonymous with the decline of academic performance.

Like a “paradox” where left-wing economic policy for indigent people gets them in trouble far from reducing income polarization, left-wing education policy is also counterproductive. As the final outcome, children from low-income families are the biggest losers whose opportunity for upward social mobility is cut off, as a result of marked decline in their scholastic ability and poor accumulation of human resources. Faced with growing distrust of most school parents about more than 1 000 innovation schools all over the nation, left-wing superintendents attempt to adopt a new evaluation system capable of estimating the imagination and creativity of students. They come out with a plan to change old evaluation criteria, like moving the goalposts for being goalless in football game! However, emotional ability, void of basic scholastic ability is not getting on in good shape. How to measure numerical values of human imagination? Under the education stuck in socialist hard-core mindset, children of low-income families are more likely to sink into a swamp of poverty without even knowing the reason. For example, dumbing down education means more people unable to think for themselves and challenge a government. So, poor school parents should not to be fooled by the beautiful slogan of “innovation” or “progress.” A majority of educational policies propelled by left-wing government are all relevant “universal welfare services,” but the nation’s finances giving priority to universal welfare and/or overusing pork-barrel politics are bound to be bankrupt, under the banner of educational socialism.

In the hope of enhancing the “fairness” of education or restoring the “social ladder” to move up, the Moon government promised to adopt the abolition of “educational discrimination” in hiring or in workplace settings (cf. adoption of “blind” hiring to remove undue discrimination), the fairness of law school admission test, and the extension of supporting students from disadvantaged backgrounds (at the college entrance exam), students with disabilities, students of multicultural families or students escaping from North Korea. But the hypothesis that the enlargement of educational opportunities to socially disadvantaged groups would promote social equality turned out to be false in 1960s. Therefore, the mission of Korean education is to liberate Korea from a downward standardization education, as a shortcut of retrogression.

2. Politicization of education with the left-leaning authorized textbooks

Under the authorized text book system, it is more likely to produce citizens with ideologically biased view of history, than to acknowledge more plural conceptions on history. The legitimacy of the Republic of Korea (ROK, or South Korea) is negatively described or even denied in many authorized history textbooks, while North Korean communist regime is favorably depicted, despite of North’s provocative actions against the South and their military despotism. In its new guidance for authorized history textbooks to be used by middle and high school students from 2020, the left-wing government said it will change the definition of its national and political system from “free democracy” to simply “democracy.” The Ministry of Education also changed 1948 from being the founding year of the ROK to being the founding year of the government of the ROK.1 Right-wing camps have contended that the removal of “free” from “free democracy” could lead to mistaken interpretations, such as “social democracy” or “people's democracy,” whereas left-wing camps have insisted that “democracy” is a more neutral term.

For reference, Bruce Cumings has been known as “the left's leading scholar of Korean history.” Cumings’s Origins of the Korean War translated into Korean and introduced in 1986 has great effect on the epistemological change on Korean contemporary history.2 He asserts that the 1950-53 Korean War was a civil war due to deep-rooted class conflicts and the US government was responsible for starting this war. He likens the indiscriminate American bombing of North Korea to genocide. Cumings’s “revisionist” interpretation was enough for young Koreans under the repressive Doo-whan Chun regime to get excited. In such a period even hard to obtain research materials on Korean contemporary history, his revisionist view of history, well organized with the refined theory of “class conflicts” was unquestioningly accepted among Korean student activists and left-wing scholars. As a result, a recent study found that 69% of high school students think

1 Regarding the changed definition of the modern nation's founding, the ministry explained that clarifying August 15, 1948, as the day of the foundation of South Korea's government is meant to respect the legitimacy of the provisional Korean government set up during Japan's colonial rule in 1919 and the history of Korea's independence movements. 2 Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War (2 vols), Princeton University Press, 1981, 1990.




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South Korea invaded North Korea in Korean War!1 Because these students are indoctrinated with erroneous national sentiment and misdirected anti-American sentiment through authorized history textbooks written by their teachers of the KTU. Nowadays, we make an issue of Japanese history textbooks’ tilt toward the (far) right, but we don’t need to raise a question about the leftization of Korean history textbooks?

Injecting a lopsided (anti-foreign/anti-capitalistic) view of history into young students’ brain is no longer an education, but a discipline or a brainwashing. According to prof. Young-hoon Rhee, a member of the Textbook Forum of the New Right Party, young historians with the ardent “popular view of history” obtained the right to write historical textbooks, and their “cultural power” was more consolidated with the enforcement of authorized textbooks. The original aim to adopt the authorized textbook system was to improve the quality of history textbook (designated as an “elective subject” at that time) through the competition of various textbooks, and to present a variety of views on history to students. However, more than 90% of authorized textbooks are written by left-wing writers and the content of any textbook they wrote is one-sided and monotonous under the shadow of socialism. Even they joined forces to kick one right-leaning textbook by Kyohaksa publishing out, because the latter is ideologically different. They already paid attention to the creative power in human consciousness. Because they know well the decisive role of human consciousness (super-structure) in the change of sub-structure: that is, in the transition from capitalist society to socialist paradise.

IV. Conclusion

Public education plays a pivot role in Korean education, but it faces a serious crisis because of disruptions in classroom, remarked drops in scholastic ability of students and loss of teachers’ authority, etc. The causes of collapse in public education come from (1) distrust of school parents, vis-à-vis the public education based on “standardization policy” that makes “educational excellence” difficult and leads to “downward leveling,” despite of its initial positive effects, (2) national college entrance system which shows how often it is changed by educational officials, according to left or right-wing government propensity, (3) relatively low-grade education system in comparison to other OECD countries and top-down management system controlled by schoolmaster and educational officials, and finally (4) too much politicization of Korean education.

“A bird flies with two left and right wings.” It’s the title of the essay published by Korean left-wing scholar Young-hee Lee in 1994. According to him, we Koreans have been living for over half a century after liberation, under a delusion that right-wing is sacred, but left-wing is evil. He denounced blind anti-communist and reactionary ideas, as remnants of the Cold War era prevailing in South Korean society. Thus, this phrase is a representation of extremely right-leaning Korean society according to him. But now the shoe is on the other foot. Ever since this left-wing government came to power, the phrase has become the catchphrase of right-wing opposition party. Right-wingers insist bird can fly longer with an appropriate balance of two wings and politics too. There is no future for a country tilted excessively to the left.

Leftization of Korean education has been ongoing for many years, so Korean education moves to the left without break. As you can see in the case of a high school student who took to the streets to protest against “state-designated” textbooks (you can also find her on YouTube video), our education field is an arena of opposition between left and right-wingers, and between teachers of the KTU and non-KTU. There are three main objectives at which left-wingers are aiming: (1) seizure of public education, (2) control on the management of private education, without regard to the infringement on private property rights and (3) “human remolding” by education. Under the slogan “putting humans first,” they have been trying to create new human races who are anti-American, anti-Japanese and pro-North Korean to reproduce huge “left-wing groups” armed with anti-liberalism, anti-market economy sentiment through left-leaning education.

To my way of thinking, Friedrich Hayek in The Road to Serfdom (1944) best sums leftism/rightism up by considering the former as “planning” or “collectivism,” and the latter as “liberalism ” or “individualism.” Those who control ideologically-divided Korean peninsula are “planners” who plan everything for the benefit of many. However, their plan is based on totalitarian ideology to deny individual freedom itself. To propel their plan they need large popular groups’ support; therefore, planning and collectivism are, inevitably, two sides of the same coin. In general, these “popular groups” they need to seize power are not an aggregate of highly refined, educated individuals, but non-creative and non-independent people on the basis of numbers. The latter is vulnerable to political propaganda, easily fooled by rumors (fake news) and prey for emotional instigation. This public is large human resources to inflate the size of totalitarian party. Why do “our planners”

1 A North Korean invasion of the South is an established historical fact.




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spend money (from “taxes” paid by us) freely to unspecified mass people? Under the political-patronage tactic to gain votes, people tend to lose capacity to make their own way. Don’t you agree that young people with infinite potentials for being future Steve Jobs or Mark Zuckerberg become lethargic “slaves” by receiving one million won per year as a gift? This is really a dreadful dystopia! Political philosophers like Tocqueville or Lord Acton warned socialism means slavery. Free democracy is fundamentally based on individuals or individualism, and it is irreconcilable with collective socialism which is proved “retarded,” through the failure of communist countries of the 20th century. For example, China and North Korea claim to stand for people’s democracy, but they are nations of deformed bureaucratic “state capitalism” where the totalitarian state systematically exploits workers and people in fact, as the greatest capitalist who controls all modes of production

To conclude, let’s come back to the problem of historical textbook between two camps, in relation to the leftization of Korean education. As mentioned above, it started with the law revision from state-designated to authorized textbooks of elementary, middle and high schools by the left-wing Moo-hyun Roh government in 2005, in order to seek “diversity.” Diversity is a virtue to win the highest praise in the period of cultural relativism, but the diversity itself has not an absolute value. Since the enforcement of authorized textbooks, many younger scholars have taken part in writing history textbooks. They were specialized in Korean modern and contemporary history in a heyday of “popular view of history” in 1980-90, so the popular

view of history (民衆史觀) becomes a political hot potato. For that reason, the controversy of textbooks is often considered

to be the opposition between popular and non-popular views of history. These “popular” historians (民衆史家) apply one

schematic Marxist historical materialism to Korean history, like a Procrustean bed: from primitive communism into ancient slavery, medieval feudalism, modern capitalism, contemporary socialism and finally future-oriented communist society. This stereotyped social developmentalism is not only a normative frame in writing Korean modern and contemporary history, but a theoretical basis for revolutionary strategy. Surprisingly, young students learn Japanese colonial rule (1910-1945) or history of the Korean independence movement, in the way popular historians/left-wing activists read history as class struggle. So, students think the U.S Military Government in Korea (1945-1948) after liberation was another form of imperialistic invasion, so they consider ROK (South Korea), as a colony of American imperialism. Here, romanticized people

(民衆) are the main subjects of liberation from oppressive imperialism. Popular historians divide all social classes into two categories: (1) workers, famers and socialists and (2) Japanese/American imperialists, landlords and capitalists. The class struggle between two opposed groups can be solved only by a communist revolution. This linear pattern of popular view of history is very similar to that of Juche view of history in North Korea. As long as left-leaning “authorized” textbooks are used in classroom by teachers of the KTU, there are high probabilities of incessantly reproducing young generation with socialism-friendly attitude. According to teachers of the KTU, “the question is always with capitalism, and the only answer to this is socialism.” But socialism is a fraud for exploiting people using “unreachable socialist dream” to bait the hook. The writers and teachers of authorized textbooks speak up for “diversity” as an icon of the era. Thus, they seem to be leaders of relativism in appearance, but they are renegades of relativism by absolutizing diversity. In fact, diversity is long gone in the Korean academic world dominated by the great majority of popular historians. So, a right-wing opposition member says 90% of Korean historians are left-wings.

In Korea, the problem of historical interpretation is no longer the exclusive property of historians. According to Prof. Chul-hong Kim, it’s not a debate among scholars, but a “war of culture,” because Korea had a war due to ideological difference. After Korea’s liberation in 1947, South Korea choose free democracy and free market system, while North Korea, people’s democracy and planned economy denying the right of private property. This ideological war escalated into Korean War (1950-53) that ended with the armistice, not a peace treaty, leaving the Koreas technically in a state of war. The Korean War was not a war where Korean people fought each other on behalf of US and Soviet Union, but an internal war free democracy vs. people’s democracy. And this war is currently underway in South Korean society, with remaining unsolved conflicts between two camps. The existence of authorized text books is living proof that there are people who claim to change regime into people’s democracy by denying the current free democracy and market economy. The problem of leftized textbooks is a war of culture. So, it’s necessary to regain the cultural hegemony from those immersed in left-wing ideas deeply rooted in Korean art, culture and education, to win this one-hundred-year old cultural war adjusting a balance of two wings.




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References

[1] Cho, G. J. [in Korean] “The authorized textbook system: why has it failed?” Chosun Media, September 23, 2015. Retrieved from http://pub.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?cate=C03&mcate=M1008&nNewsNumb=20150918393&nidx=18394

[2] Cumings, B. The Origins of the Korean War (2 vols), Princeton University Press, 1981, 1990. [3] Fact-finding mission committee, [in Korean] White Paper on Standardization of history textbooks, April 30, 2018. [4] Huh, G. [in Korean] Authorized Textbooks in Korea, Iljinsa publishing, 2004. [5] Kim, H.J. [in Korean] “If we consider five big events that leftize Korean society,” Weekly Chosun, December 15,

2015. Retrieved from http://weekly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?nNewsNumb=002386100005&ctcd=C02 [6] Kim, P. J. [in Korean] “Reality of conscientization education in Korea,” Cho Gab-je.com, June5, 2014. Retrieved

from http://www.chogabje.com/board/view.asp?C_IDX=48255&C_CC=BJ [7] Kim, S.K. “Gangnam leftists vs. Gangbuk rightists,” The Korea Herald, May 17, 2011. [8] Park, J.J. [in Korean] “Park Jung-ja Column,” Pen and Mike, July 10, 2018. [9] Retrieved from http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20110517000825




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Issues of Special Education in Romanian Schools

Ana-Maria Bolborici

PhD Lecturer, Faculty of Sociology and Communication,

Transilvania University of Brașov, Romania

Diana-Cristina Bódi

PhD Lecturer, Faculty of Sociology and Communication,

Transilvania University of Brașov, Romania

Abstract

School managers, teachers, students, as well as their parents are faced with increasingly frequent attempts to integrate the diversity of pupils as a result of integration policies at national and European level. Educational needs of impaired persons require special attention. Is necessary to make steps should be taken to ensure access to education for each category of disabled person as part of the education system. Legislative framework in the field of special education Romania takes into account the legislation created by the international bodies on the education of persons with special educational needs, to which Romania has adhered. This paper presents aspects regarding the organization of educational support services dedicated to children, students and young people with special educational needs in mainstream schools in accordance with Romanian law; it also underlines the international legal framework of reference.This paper is part of a wider project that focuses on teacher training to optimize the integration of SEN pupils into the mainstream school; we used data collection methods, such as social document study and focus-group. An integrated and tailored approach is needed for children with SEN (special educational needs); focus-groups organized with primary school and gymnasium children, as well as with support teachers, revealed a number of adaptation issues from both sides (pupils with SEN and students with no problems). On the other hand, the itinerant teachers are assaulted by a series organization problems and it becomes impossible to provide support and assistance to children with special needs who are growing in numbers.Training of teachers is one of the most important pillars in the integration of all those involved in education, it is the way to optimize service organizations. Teacher training must respond to the real and complex needs of the beneficiaries, based on exploratory learning.In the final, will be presented and analyzed the main important problems faced by both teachers and pupils in the current educational context.

Keywords: special education, educational needs, integration policies, children, teachers

Introduction

In any democratic society, every individual’s right to education is unquestionable. However, there are categories of people who do not have open access to education. Moreover, this right is limited and difficult to obtain. This category includes children with disabilities, with special needs, children who, like typical children, have desires to learn and to achieve success in their lives.

The legislative framework in the field of special education in Romania takes into account the legislation created by the international bodies on the education of persons with special educational needs, to which Romania has adhered. Romania has produced several legislative documents in line with key international documents on the education of children with special needs since the mid-1990s.

In Romania, the right of these children with Special Educational Needs (SEN) to integrate into mass school (Law on Social Work, No. 292/2011, Law on The Protection and Promotion of Disabled Persons Rights, No. 448/2006, Law on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of the Child, No 272/2004). These children are supported by teachers who are




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specially trained to work and adapt the curriculum to the skills of every disabled child. All students participating in the educational process, especially those with CES, should benefit from educational differentiation as they feature different abilities and different interests, they come from different social backgrounds and exhibit different affective behaviors (shyness, emotion), they have individual learning potential and different learning styles and methods.

The present article will describe a part of the PION project, (The itinerant-pawn teacher of integrating students with SENs into mainstream schools), a research project aimed at implementing a continuing professional training program for itinerant teachers. Such a training program was extremely welcomed by itinerant teachers, given that it was the first continuous training program, a pilot project for Brasov County.

We will describe the documentation for the training program, the research methods used in the initial evaluation and a part of the implementation of the training courses of the itinerant teachers.

Theoretical framework

Studies on disabilities distinguish the concepts of impairment, disability and handicap (WHO, 1980; Gherguț, 2001).

Thus, impairment means any loss, anomaly or disturbance of anatomical, physiological or psychiatric structure or function.

Disability means any lack, reduction or loss of ability to perform an activity under the conditions considered normal for a person.

Handicap means any disadvantage suffered by a person as a result of a deficiency or disability that prevents or limits the total or partial satisfaction of the tasks considered normal for a person (depending on age, gender and various social and cultural factors).

Some authors make a distinction between the terms according to the way of addressing the issue of people with special needs (Gherguţ, 2001, p. 12). Therefore, from a medical point of view, we talk about impairment, according to the functional aspect we talk about disability, and from a social point of view, of handicap.

One of the changes in recent years is the transition from handicap, better understood in the medical sense, to disability, which has a more relevant social component. The notion of disability is broader and also includes the social role of the person with impairment or disability, being disadvantaged compared to other people in the concrete case of the person's interaction with his/her specific social and cultural environment.

Thus, WHO, in 2001, defined disability as a generic term for deficiencies, limitations of activity and participation restrictions and revealed the negative aspect of the interaction between individual and society.

However, the most comprehensive definition, and perhaps closest to reality, was given by the United Nations in 2006 at the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities: disability is an evolving concept and it results from the interaction of people with disabilities and attitudinal and environmental barriers that prevent their full and effective participation in society at a level equal to other people.

Statistics show that around 10% of the world population is estimated to be dealing with disabilities (WHO, apud Yeo, 2001). However, at the level of Romania there are 742,353 (3.63%) adults with disabilities, including 63,300 children. Also, at the level of Brasov County, the rate of people with disabilities is 2.97% 1

One of the greatest risks that this population may face is poverty (Yeo, 2001), especially due to social discrimination and the inaccessibility of people with disabilities in education. Disability can lead to discrimination, marginalization and, ultimately, to social exclusion by being perceived in relation to social barriers which deny the opportunity of employment for people with disabilities (Burke, 2008). Moreover, people with disabilities are "considered to be one of the social categories at high risk of multiple social exclusion" (Lazăr, 2009, p. 206), with disastrous consequences at individual, family and societal level.

1 (http://anpd.gov.ro/web/transparenta/statistici/trimestriale/).

http://anpd.gov.ro/web/transparenta/statistici/trimestriale/




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Studies conducted by UNESCO show that in developing countries only 1-2% of children with a certain deficiency receive education, boys being more often the beneficiaries of education compared to the female population.

However, in developed countries we see improvements in equality and in the removal of barriers of any kind meant to increase participation of people with disabilities in schools and society.

As stated before, when talking about disability, we have two ways of approaching this concept, accepted by specialists: the medical model and the social model. (Manea, 2006).

The medical model emphasizes individual loss or disability, due to a medical problem, considering that the difficulties of people with disabilities are due to their biological and psychological inferiority. According to the medical model, the problem of disability is related only to the person concerned, who is inactive due to his / her deficiencies and who needs medical interventions in order to recover the necessary skills to adapt to environmental requirements. One of the moral dilemmas that arises is that of other people's interventions, which are usually without disabilities, in the lives of people with disabilities. They can decide, for example, what school a disabled person should attend, what kind of support he or she should receive, where he or she has to live, whether or not he is allowed to reproduce (Campbel & Oliver , 1996).

On the other hand, the social model comes with a humanistic perspective in understanding disability, taking into account the social environment in which disability manifests itself. The model blames society when it comes to incapacity and disabilities of a person with a medical problem. Manea (2006) considers that "interventions focus on the environment, aiming at the elimination of restrictions, barriers that impede the participation of people with disabilities in various aspects of social life" (p.2).

Beyond the "treatments" proposed by the medical model, which focuses exclusively on impairment and disability, the social model takes into account the client system, with all the interactions between the person concerned and other people, organizations, and society.

The disability theories attempt to explain the phenomenon and to bring understanding in its approach by society. Thus, one of the most well-known theories in the area of disability is the social model of disability discrimination based on the disability paradigm (Pfeiffer, 2001; Barns & Oliver, 1993). This model suggests that the study of experience of people with disabilities focuses on several variables that have negative effects on disabilities and interact with each other as well as other human characteristics. In the field of disability studies there are at least nine interpretations or versions of the disability paradigm: the social constructionist version as found in the United States; the social model version as found in the United Kingdom; the impairment version; the oppressed minority (political) version; the independent living version; the post-modern (post- structuralist, humanist, experiential, existential) version; the continuum version; the human variation version, and the discrimination version. (Pfeiffer, 2001, apud Pfeiffer, 2002).

Another explicative theory of the phenomenon of disability is symbolic interactionism, through Bordieu, who brings forth the concept of habitus and the understanding of the body as a bearer of value in society. The body and its social location are interdependent and body control is essential to obtaining status and distinction (Bourdieu, 2000).

In this theoretical and legislative context, there are several strategies for people with disabilities.

Thus, we have the European Disability Strategy 2010-20201 whose overall objective is to provide people with disabilities the opportunity to enjoy full rights and to participate in European social and economic life. To achieve this goal, eight main areas of action have been identified: accessibility, participation, equality, employment, education and training, social protection, health, and external action.

Another strategy was adopted in 2015, namely the national strategy "A barrier-free society for people with disabilities" (http://www.mmuncii.ro/j33/images/Documente/Proiecte_in_dezbatere/2015/2015-10-08-proiecthg-strateg-diz-anexa1.pdf) which aims at employment and accessibility of disabled people to an inclusive work environment, while ensuring access to support services to increase employability.

1 (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/RO/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52010DC0636&from=LV)




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We must note that all the strategies lead to one common goal: the education and social integration through education of people with disabilities.

Studies point out that people with disabilities are disadvantaged and marginalized in the labor market in all European countries, a fact which is reflected by lower participation rates, higher levels of unemployment and lower levels of education than the rest of the population (Greve , 2009).

Inclusive education is defined as the type of education open for all children, starting from kindergartens, schools, training centers to universities and other educational systems.

The education of children with special educational needs should be in line with their development needs by properly assessing the learning / development potential and by ensuring rehabilitation - recovery and compensation for learning deficiencies, disorders or difficulties. Inclusive education involves individualized learning, which means selecting those strategies and learning tasks that facilitate the student’s learning progress, also enhancing individual resources, depending on age, individual needs, pace of development, learning style and type of intelligence.

Inclusive education is an alternative to special education, which allows child support services to provide real opportunities for recovery and reintegration for children who would have otherwise been targeted by special schools. For school and social integration of children with SEN, holistic, multi-level action should be taken, at the biological, psychological, and social levels. Also, it should not be forgotten that inclusive education is a circular relationship between school, family and community.

Methodological framework

This paper is a part of a broader project that is centered on the theme of the itinerant teacher-pawn integration of pupils with SEN in mainstream schools and it presents aspects regarding the organization of educational support services for children, students and young people with special educational needs in mainstream schools in accordance with the Romanian law.

Our project meets the needs of the local community, taking into account that managers, teachers, pupils and parents, all are increasingly confronted with the diversity of the types of integrated pupils as a result of national integration policies.

The training of teachers is one of the most important pillars in the integration of all those involved in education, being a way to optimize service organizations. Teacher training must respond to the real and complex needs of the beneficiaries, based on exploratory learning.

The overall objective is to develop a training program involving exploratory itinerant teachers, coherent policies for national and European social development in order to optimize the integration of pupils with SEN in mainstream schools.

The specific objectives are: to identify the perceptions and attitudes of school managers, teachers, students, parents and various local community representatives on the integration of children with SEN in the mainstream school.

Designing a training program for itinerant teachers; impact analysis and monitoring itinerant teacher training program.

School managers, teachers, students, as well as their parents are faced with increasingly frequent attempts to integrate a diversity of pupils as a result of integration policies at national and European level. Educational needs of disabled people require special attention. It is necessary to take steps to ensure access to education for each category of disabled person as part of the education system.

Regarding the methodology, we used data collection methods, such as social document study and focus groups, on the one hand with specialists like the itinerant teachers, but also with indirect beneficiaries, pupils aged between 10 and 14 years.

An integrated and tailored approach is needed for children with SEN (special educational needs). Focus groups organized with primary school and gymnasium children, as well as with support teachers, revealed a number of adaptation issues from both sides (pupils with SEN and normal students). On the other hand, itinerant teachers are assaulted by a series of organizational problems and it becomes impossible to provide support and assistance to children with special needs who are growing in number.




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In the following, we will present the results of the SWOT analysis of the Itinerant Teacher Training Program, developed following the analysis of the qualitative data described in the methodology.

Findings and discussions

Related to our project we had a workshop attended by a large number of itinerant teachers (about 30). The participants worked in teams and conducted some SWOT analyses on the socio-educational system of children with SEN in Romanian schools.

The discussions proved to be amazing and lead to some very interesting conclusions.

The SWOT analysis revealed that the teachers unanimously appreciate the existence of a well-established legal framework regarding the access of children with SENs to mainstream schools in mass school. By integrating children with SENs, they have models, they copy the behaviors from other children and thus gradually learn to behave and adapt to everyday life.

Itinerant teachers consider that the existing Romanian legislation is in accordance with the needs of children with SENs, thus benefiting from financial support.

They also consider that there is a specialized human resource, even if there are not enough itinerant teachers, but the professors unanimously stated that working with theses special pupils is a very rewarding experience.

The professors appreciate the existence of a curriculum and an evaluation method adapted for pupils with SENs.

The discussions revealed that itinerant teachers working with children with SEN built a long-lasting relationship both with them, and with their parents.

The participant at the focus-groups acknowledged that there are many Romanian NGOs which support children with SENs.

The itinerant teachers consider that the existing Romanian legislation is in accordance with the needs of children with SENs.

The itinerant teachers have underlined that a strong point is also the fact that there are training programs to specialize them in the specific problems of children with SENs.

The WEAKNESSES mentioned by the itinerant professors were as follows:

The reality shows a high number of children with SENs and on the other hand an insufficient number of teachers who have limited time (just one hour) to deal/counsel one child per week.

Even though there are a lot of itinerant professors enrolled in working with children with SEN, there is however a general lack of human resources, for instance, a lack of specialists in speech therapy, physiotherapy and so on. The professors believed that the reduced number is due to the low number of candidates on the one hand, but also due to the low interest in working as a teacher (the salary being quite small in the budgetary Romanian system).

Another important aspect stressed by the itinerant teachers is the necessity of a better involvement of the team of specialists in the evaluation process of the children with SEN for a correct framing (and not by IQ tests).

Unfortunately in the Romanian mainstream school there are still teachers in mass schools that do not understand the importance of working differently with children with SENs and they ask for the same demands and common evaluations with the other pupils from the mass class; still, those professors see the SEN pupils as "a burden" for the entire educational system.

Another weak point would be the need for curricular adaptation depending on the level of children's ESCs, having regard that at present teachers have to explain what they teach in mass schools and do not have a separate curriculum; in other words, the purpose of the education should be focusing on the perception of children with SEN.

It is obvious that at the Romanian national level, there are no subjects adapted to pupils with ESCs, for example, at the Baccalaureate exams, pupils with SEN extra time to solve the problems and they have the possibility to be supported in writing if they have vision problems.




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The focus-groups revealed that there is a lack of equipment and material resources especially in schools in small towns and also a lack of training for school principals as well as for teachers in mass schools for them to better understand the particularities of pupils with SEN and to better integrate them.

The SWOT analysis pointed out some opportunities such as services free of charge for children with SEN and the emphasis on the individualistic strategies which is in the benefit of children with SEN. During that past few years, many projects have been registered and NGOs came to meet and integrate children with SEN while also offering complementary services. The itinerant teachers appreciate the importance of workshops, training courses and conferences dedicated to these children with issues, although they seldom take place in Romania.

Over the last decade, Romania harmonized internal regulations and now there is a comprehensive legal framework in matters related to the European legislation, but also international legislation which protects the rights of these special children.

Finally, the main important threats resulted from those focus-groups are as follows: Many pupils with SEN drop out of the school and hence, there are little chances of adaptation and integration into society of those in the next future. On the other hand, because of these children's drop-out, future adults can become a real danger to society.

The reality shows that the special education system in Romania isn't focused on the products of the activity. Frequently, children with SENs have to repeat the classes because they cannot even read or write and eventually they abandon school.

The itinerant professors admitted that some repeated transfers between schools have been registered because these pupils with SEN are not accepted by the pupils in the mainstream schools or by the teachers. They cannot integrate themselves and they do not feel comfortable thus, dropping out of mainstream schools.

The same itinerant professors recognized that there is some confusion among teachers about the role of the itinerant teachers (for example, curricular adaptation), their job description.

Another vulnerability is related to the reduced professional integration of these children with SEN at the end of the school, usually, employers avoid to hire them because of the less level of performance in the companies, although they may have some substantial tax breaks.

Conclusions

As we previously mentioned in the theoretical framework, the approach to inclusive education must be an integrated and holistic one that embraces the individual, one’s family, one’s community, and society.

We notice that the educational system for children with disabilities is still in development. If at the legislative and institutional level, things seem to evolve and work, we cannot say the same about applying inclusive education. There are still barriers, regarding the individual, families, communities, as well as organizational barriers.

Unfortunately, nowadays in Romania, pupils with SENs have a "tolerated status" they do not fully benefit from the idea of inclusion in its true meaning.

Teachers we have spoken to stressed that the change should occur primarily among teachers in their thinking and approach, so the prospects can be positive in terms of inclusion of these extraordinary children.

Family, parents have an extremely important role and they should be given the emotional support, besides the material one, that is not always so important.

Aside from the fact that these systems that need to work together in order to truly achieve inclusive education, there is a need for more training programs for itinerant teachers. The program described in the article is the first one in Brasov County. The need for training for itinerant teachers is high and it is necessary to develop continuous training programs for them so that they can truly provide an inclusive education to children with SENs.




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[7] Greve, B. (2009). The labour market situation of disabled people in European countries and implementation of employment policies: a summary of evidence from country reports and research studies. Human European Consultancy, University of Leeds. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.469.998&rep=rep1&type=pdf

[8] Lazăr, F. (2009). Persoanele cu handicap [People with disabilities]. In M. Preda (ed.), Riscuri si inechitãti sociale în România. Raportul Comisiei Prezidentiale pentru Analiza Riscurilor Sociale si Demografice (pp. 206-226) [Social Risks and Inequities in Romania. Report of the Presidential Commission for Analysis of Social and Demographic Risks]. Iasi: Polirom Press.

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Teaching through Alternative Methodology

Sonila Tatili

Abstract

The rapid development of information and communication technology has a significant impact in the teaching process. This happens because of the existence of the advantages that this sphere entails in the pedagogical practices and methods. As such, they are briefly brought to us : easy access to information; increasing interest in learning; more ability to embed it into memory and preserved in the knowledge gained as a result of the inclusion of visual memory improvement; interactive teaching as well as easy exchange of knowledge, etc. With the aim of identifying the advantages that the technology incorporates in the teaching process of methodology, this paper aims to highlight the role of technology in the teaching and learning process of English , the achievement of the student in the learning objectives and how the technology of information and communication is intertwined in education. The study's research is about determining what impact technology has in the teaching process, meanwhile the supporting questions raise questions about the advantages of teaching technology as well as the impact on the level of learning of Albanian students. Study hypotheses, which are expected to be proven to be sustainable or not, are: Technology brings quality-enhancing teaching of English; efficient use of ICT enhances student learning. The study methodology is based on the combination of theoretical and empirical analysis, according to the case study.

Keywords:Teaching process, technology, information and communication technology, learning, education, multimedia, skills.

Introduction

Research paper vindication.

Information technology and communication as a case study in the education nowadays. The processes of political, economical and social globalization implicit new initiatives which aim together societies in a smaller world and solve problems and connect easier. The school is considered as a social institution so to help new generations better in order to develop psychophysical overviews for the individual as in important actor in the society. The society of the future never stops and never gets satisfied with the present but it is always in search of the best aiming to make the school a place where students can get wisdom but at the same time education. The future of the humankind is more over depending on the development of the education culture, science and technology from which all the contemporary societies make positive changes for a better future in educating generations. Nowadays we randomly listen about new concepts such as technology, competences, strategies, new lesson plan, innovation but the problem is that teachers are not finding the right way how to adopt these concepts in the classroom. The classroom is considered as a sacred place but also an important mean of helping individuals to face every life existing dilemmas which is considered one of the most problematic situation in education nowadays is that teachers do not know enough the functions and the importance of ICT in the teaching and learning process especially in the pedagogical aspect. The changes that are happening in education make us the teachers, to have a different view of the interior reorganization of the lesson structure but also teachers are always aware of the fact that these changes affect the exterior structure of the education considering the individual´s behavior in education activities. This means ´´every change in education before and after being planned, means an essential study of the existing situation and the factors which limit a specific change´´. (Osmani 2010) Studying the situation this is a condition for a successful change in order to make a better system of education and also helping individuals to be not only professionals. The inclusion of ICT in teaching and learning process is a very important step especially on education reform system. This inclusion means not only exactness but also preparations by professionals so this innovative issue may be successful. The innovative concepts in education are introduces the last ten years but they were not well-oriented so to swipe up from the old system of education to improve teaching tools, to enhance new methodology, to use contemporary strategies in order to know




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better the interest of the students. It is very important to know the interest of the students in order to plan, organize and succeed in the teaching process. The inclusion of ICT in the Albanian context is considered as a positive phenomenon from the experts teachers, students, parents but it is existing a serious problem in proving that the student knowledge are more stable and as a result of this the performance of the students should be more satisfied. At the same time, there is a serious problem by the part of the teacher to adapt ICT in teaching process. There are some difficulties in adapting ICT for the different reasons. Teachers should find and get improved in finding the right path so to include means of ICT to introduce a mirror of this situation in Albania and to prove all the above issues, this scientific study based on hypothesis, ICT in teaching influence that the knowledge taken in school are more stable and facilitate the work of the teachers. For a school to be contemporary it is necessary to find new approaches in teaching, by starting from the methods, textbooks,trainings for the teachers so to adopt the ICT in the learning process. The main objective is to advance ICT and include it in today’s education: ICT nowadays has given a new dimension to the teaching and learning process of the foreign languages. The new generation of the students are undergoing with their will to this new era of education. This is seen also as a force giving methodology by the Ministry of Education but not only. At the same time teachers are finding difficulties in perception this new element in the teaching process, despite the fact that the students welcome ICT with such a big pleasure. This research also enforces the use of ICT especially in the foreign languages classes. We will treat the integration of ICT and the professionalism of the teachers using this last concept, but at the same time giving theoretical, methodological and institutional aspects of interactive teaching and learning. The adaption and use of ICT in the learning and teaching process in the high schools in Elbasan. There is no doubt that there are many difficulties that the teachers are facing in using ICT in the classrooms, starting from the missing of the infrastructure, lack internet connections, the non professional teachers, and at the same time the judgment that the mentality enhances.

Many of the professionals, are of the opinion that the main objective of ICT is to adopt new interactive techniques and strategies at schools which reinforce critical thinking, motivate and easily helps the process of learning a second foreign language .But, in the Albanian context these innovative practices don’t have the right importance and are given an easy shot to make it clear.

Theories supporting this research thesis:

Some of the authors have given their professional overview and their theories in ICT integration and use in the classroom , by forcing the idea that the use and integration of ICT means not only to put them in the class and make a new structural lesson plan(Bray,1999:14), and to integrate it twice a week , and not only to use it by ICT means(Dockstader,1999:73) and to fasten this process with the ICT integration, (Bailey, 1998:57), but it very important to know how to adopt them in the right manner sot to have a successful teaching and learning process.(bailey, 1998:62). To my opinion, ICT must be in function of the learning process, but we should find the most professional clothe of the ICT usage and integration.

Some of the authors are of the thought that the ICT integration is a didactical means of teaching, concerning the interactive and constructivist attitude. According to some of the authors Larose and Lafrance “The teachers support a constructivist and a socio-constructivist attitude , which means that if teachers know how to use ICT means and learning how to transmit them to the students in class, everything will be successful and we will have a better contemporary system of teaching and learning a foreign language process”(Larose F; Grenon V and Lafrance S, 2002:27) Educational experts consider learning as an active process that leads to knowledge acquisition, which is long-term and sustainable, measurable and specific to behavioral change (OECD, 2007). The primary function of learning is to encourage individuals to develop skills to solve a problem, as well as to sharpen reasoning as a critical and creative thinker. Learning also helps to develop an individual's self-awareness and awareness of his or her environment. The purpose of the teaching process by ICT is to make learning possible. However, while the purpose of the

There are many theories aimed at supporting the ICT learning and teaching process. Thus, for example, Paivios' theory on dual coding (established in 1986) states that visual and image codes that represent information are used to organize incoming information and to convert them in which knowledge can be taken, stored data, and retrieved for later use. The emphasis on the importance of memory has evolved into broad imaging applications, aimed at accelerating the process of acquiring knowledge. A foreign language has always been involved in this process, but it was explicitly included as an educational partner when images began systematically to take shape as a picture. However, memory remains a decisive actor, because it is the basis of all knowledge and thoughts. The importance of memory is argued and dealt with more widely, because learning and memory are at the core of educational objectives. In particular, an important element for the dual coding theory and its applications are useful effects in recalling concreteness and images (Paivio, 2006, chapter 4):




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Learning process means a good state of mind and memory is a very important part in fixing the new information and to achieve this one of the best ways in by concrete experiences and practical tools.. Concerning concreteness, memory performance generally grows uniformly from abstract words (eg. truth, justice etc.), with concrete words (eg. chair, man), for objects (or their images). In the case of language, the effect of concreteness occurs with materials ranging in length from words to sentences, to long passages, to concrete memory, exceeding the abstract memory work with an average ratio of 2: 1. The advantage of concreteness is even more striking in the tasks related to the memory, in which the behavior in the mind of the response elements is caused by the concrete words of stimulation or the pictures. (Paivio A., 2006)

Severin's theory (1967) emphasizes that learning has grown as the number of available stimuli has increased (Severin, W. J. & Tankard, J. W., 2000). The incentives supplied through different channels should be relevant to each other; otherwise it would lead to a decline rather than an increase in learning and knowledge consolidation (Kaur S., Rose HJ, Lazar R., Liang K. &Metherate R., 2005).In 1974, scholars Baddeley and Hitch, in their quest to describe an accurate pattern of short-term memory, laid the foundations of active memory theory. This theory suggested a model consisting of three main components: the central executive, the phonological sketch, and the visual space designer (Baddeley A. & Hitch G., 1974).

In 2000, in the studies on active memory theory, Baddeley added a fourth component of the previous model: episodic buffer (Baddeley, 2000). Concretely, today the components of the model of active memory theory, as presented in the scheme of this model, are :a) the central executive, which acts as a supervisory system, and controls the flow of information from and toward its subordinate systems, which are short-term custodians dedicated to a content domain, such as, for example, verbal and visual spatial ;b) Phonological illumination, related to language articulation, preserves the verbal content of vocal and sub vocal repetitions; c) Visual space plotter serves for visual space data, which consists of visual memory; d) episodic buffer, subordinate subsystem, which by its own name determines, supposed to hold integrated episodes or shreds in a multidimensional code. By doing so, this element / component act as a buffers, not only among active memory components, but also connects active memory with perceptions and long-lasting memory. (Baddeley A., 2012)

Sweller's theory of cognitive load (1988) refers to the total amount of mental effort used in active memory within the workload of active memory work while solving problems, thinking and reasoning (including perception, memory, language, etc.). Sweller argued that teaching designs can be used to reduce cognitive load among students (Sweller, 1988). The theory of cognitive load differentiates the cognitive burden into three types: perceived, foreign, and closely related specifically :a) Conjunctive internal load, perceived, is the effort associated with a particular subject ;b) Foreign Cognitive Charge refers to how information or tasks are presented to a student ;c) Conjecturally related load refers to the work carried out in the creation of a permanent scheme or permanent preservation sector. (Kaur et al.,2005).

Hypothesis and research questions.

H 1: ICT helps and facilitates the teaching and learning process of English language!

H 2:Teachers of English need supports and qualification in order to be professional in integrating ICT in the process of teaching English.

Research questions that support this study are:

Which is the situation of the physical classes concerning the ICT means?

If this infrastructure of the classrooms is satisfying, can teachers make them functional

Are the teachers of English enabled to use the means of ICT and do they know how to adopt and integrate them in the English teaching processes?

How do the teachers feel about the integration of the technology in education’?

Are the teacher trained enough to use the ICT in the classroom?

Does ICT facilitate the learning process of the English language?

Does Albania have the proper infrastructure to use ICT?

The problematic clarification of the topic.




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This ICT introduction in the classroom and its thematic aspect, are innovative issues through which this study will improve and enhance , motivates and stimulates teachers to respect the past situation in Albanian education but their main objective is to make a better over view in enriching teaching with techniques methods and shapes designing new teaching results , this means enrollment of the learning process . This study is concentrated in the integration and usage of new ICT techniques of teaching and learning foreign languages, English in this case, seen in some dimensions in the Albanian context. English teachers face many difficulties in adopting new means of technology. The science and new rules are coming faster than thought. And this situation is not as easy as for the teachers to be competent in practicing all the teaching techniques based on innovation. But studies all over the world on this field have shown that the socio-cultural and the economic-political context influence a lot in the integration of ICT in the teaching and learning a foreign language. But in our context, in Albania the integration of innovative means of teaching and learning a new foreign language has problematic issues. Some of the problems are:a. the lack of the teachers’ trainings, b.the innovative equipments,c.the scale of using ICT in the classrooms in the process of teaching and learning.

These are serious problems concerning the usage of ICT in Albanian classes, and for the above problems, there is a deep study of the actual situation in the classes and also it was needed a research study, based on interviews and experiments. it was very important to get a clear mirror of the scale of the acknowledgements by the part of teachers and students and to extinguish the problematic barriers which lack the process of using ICT. From what was seen in general and in specific situation was that the ICT usage and terminology was seen only in theory but in practice there were things unclear to them. What was of a great importance was to know the disposal of the teachers to accept the new methods and techniques so to get involved in the alternative methodology of teaching. But what was of the biggest interest was the fact that they were not ready to use these new ICT tools because of the mentality existing in Albanian system of education. To this point what was the strongest point of the study was to discover how much and how many times ICT tools used were.

The term “information technology and communication “ it is usedto include a series of services and applications referring to some tools which function to enhance and facilitate a specific process through webs and telecommunication. Referring to Gerbault (2002:13) ICT is referred as “ a unit of the most development technologies to treat and modify the information in a synchronically way through voice,figure, or animated images and text. In a world divided by clashes of cultures and beliefs, the potential ofthe new media for fostering intercultural understanding and exchange is enormous. In the history of mankind, access to information and knowledge has never been so straightforward at a local, regional, national, or global level. Judicious deployment of ICTs can encourage and sustain cultural and linguistic diversity in individuals and in society in general. Facilitating access to other cultures and languages is the chief goal of the language teaching profession, and using ICT resources effectively in their teaching represents one of the chief challenges facing language teachers today In their contribution to this study (Modeling a Field-Based Internet Resource for Modem Foreign Language Learning: the Case of RussNet), Dan E. Davidson and Maria D. Lekic demonstrate the potential of ICT-driven language learning, highlighting the flexibility of the media available.

According to Chris Abbott (1998;197) the ICT is considered as a “ set of numerical technologies , which are based on the usage of the computer with the only objective , so to spread the information and to maximize the effect and impact of the communication” There is also an Albanian contribution on the “standard of the ICT teachers standards which in fact clarify the usage of these in the system of education in Albania. ICT is considered as the set of the electronic devices to collect, work with and also to represent the information gicen to the users so to facilitate their work .

As far as we see and read about the ICT we come to the conclusion that this is a set of electronic devices and means to transmit the information wanted. ICT in education is used in order to manipulate and also to attract the attention of the students so to make a more interesting class, but at the same time it facilitates the work of the teacher not only to be a better performer in the class but also to help him / her to make and practice a contemporary methodology viewed from the didactical point of view.

Models of using ICT in the class.

The Moersch model (1995,2001-22) insists that there are seven levels of which a teacher should pass in order to integrate the ICT in the class .

Zero model, represents the non use of the ICT in the class for different reasons. This may happen for different reasons such as the non access of the internet or any other different problems.




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The sensibilisation means the phase in which the teacher is in contact indirectly with the means of integration of ICT.

The exploration is the phase when the teacher uses ICT to search extra information in order to solve the problems in the lesson process.

The infusion is the phase where the teacher uses the ICT means in order to support the pedagogical activities, in order to reach the decision taking. For example the teacher may use the ICT means in order to illustrate any problematic issue in the class, for the students to get better the ideas in the class to connect the theory and the practice.

The integration means the use if the ICT means in order to identify the real problem solving connected to a real situation problem.

Expansion means that the teacher interconnects with the people outside the institution where he or she works in order to reach the pedagogical objectives.

Perfection. In this stage the teacher makes the student be the main protagonist of the lesson class. The student is the one who checks for the information he wants to use in the lesson. In the case of the English learning , the students decides what information to search for. For eg. In the case of the Present Simple learning , the students in order to learn in better and faster, searches for a text, such as a fairy tale or a song text with lyrics in present simple. He is not obliged to learn it in the textbook during the class.

There exist another model which explains the phases of the ICT integration in the lesson class. This model takes the name from the person who invented it as useful to be known by the teachers in order to get accomplished with this integration. It is called the Morais model. This model includes two phases.

The first stage is called the “starting point”and it is divided in two other subphases “compatibility and the “ the practicum. In the first, the teaher should be very attentive in order to see what is the perfect strategy to use in order that the lesson is student-centered. The second one deals with the teacher, because he is the one who tries to use the ICT means for two reasons. The first is connected with the personal usage of ICT in order to adopt the method used in he class. The teacher also decides what to use in the class in order to reach the specific objectives. The second one it is on the teacher to decide what material to choose for the specific class and theme , and if it the right means for the class to be used.

By bringing these two models we come to the conclusion that the teacher who is motivated to use ICT in the English teaching process, should be very professional in following the right steps. This is what is lacked in our Albanian context in the system of education. Teachers are misleaded and confused because they do not follow the steps needed. What teachers have to do is to start from the personal conscience to use ICT for “personal usage” and then to use some of these means by following the way of the “professional usage “ and to reach in the “professional usage” only in this manner , the teachers are going to be professional and didactical.

2.5.What are the methods of teaching?

Teaching methods and techniques are standard procedures that teachers use in collaboration with students to present and develop materials and learning activities to achieve learning goals and objectives. Teaching methods are divided into two large groups: the methodology that teachers and learners have in mind. In the last decades of the last century, priority has been given to the skills that give priority to the student's activity. This trend has begun to be felt even in Albanian schools.

Methods centered on the teacher aim to provide information that will provide the basis for developing further thinking. This group includes: explanation, lecture, conversation, deploring, questioning.The student-centered approaches aim at meeting the learning goals and objectives by actively enabling the learner. These methods are divided into two subgroups: group work methods and research methods.

Because of the characteristics of the class group, some of the most successful methods and techniques are those that relate to group work. These techniques influence the student's higher activation in the learning process, changing attitudes and ideas. These techniques increase the effectiveness of teaching, as learning outcomes are high. This subgroup includes discussion, debate.Research methods have as main characteristic, information exploration and conclusions drawn by students themselves. This subgroup includes: research project, survey, excursion. To use the methods successfully, the




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teacher should know well their characteristics, methodical progress, select them in accordance with the subject they develop and the student's particulars. One of them should not be overstated, but should be used in combination.

Learning methods are ways, ways, steps, and didactic processes that use the teacher's teachers in the process of teaching and learning abroad for the transmission and acquisition of knowledge, skills and habits. Historically, they have changed, been perfected and modemized in relation to the transformations of the society, with the intentions and interests that it has presented to the school at different times, as well as with the specific changes of the school itself, of various sciences: psychology, pedagogy and sciences the other.Teaching methods are conditioned by the content of the lesson, but also by the forms used in the organization of the learning process.

The teacher directs the work of the groups in such a way that they all become active and express their opinions. In order for the activity not to go out of control, the teacher should provide clear instructions for each step of the activity. Working in groups requires students to communicate, discuss, analyze ideas, develop their thoughts through conversation. Working with groups improves students' ability to think, creating opportunities to raise hypotheses, verify and analyze them.

Working in groups is organized in 3 stages.

Phase One: This is the "silent" phase, no pupil suggests to a friend what he should do. In this way, the respect for the companion's work, as well as the responsibility of each in front of the group's friends, is nurtured.

Second Phase: Students of each group chat together, make corrections, give arguments, and eventually decide on the final decision they post on the chart as their group work. During this phase, setting some rules is indispensable. Pupils should respect each other. They should listen carefully to the companion's arguments to provide convincing and compelling arguments. In working with groups, students feel the need for communication with courtesy, with no impunity and respect. In the sense that responsibility is solved by group members, relationships of optimism are created in the organization. In this way, the group turns into a miniature of an effective organization.

Third Stage: The affairs of the groups posted on the blackboard are subject to group review. The teacher chooses a student of any group to respond to the remarks of other groups. Students ask questions to other classmates. The climate of debate and exchange of arguments is more hot. In these two phases each student has the moral responsibility for the proficiency representation of the work of the group he has participated.

Organizing group activities brings a variety of benefits to the student's teacher. The student is more likely to communicate with each other. Pupils are more focused on learning because each has its own task and responsibility, from which to determine and the outcome of the group. Pupils feel cheaper and safer than when asked before the whole class. Increases the amount of time each student has to speak. Working in groups helps the student to shy away from expressing thoughts. Students with difficulty feel better, they ask more freely about a friend than a teacher, cooperate with them, follow them with interest and feel less of their mistakes.

Working with groups is organized so that students interact with each other. Groups are formed with four to seven students, where they have the opportunity to exchange views and express ideas, communicate freely and discuss. Groups can also be formed according to the preferences of the audience. Groups are usually heterogeneous, so they have learned.

The teacher must adapt the method that is more efficient for one lesson. Each of the methods has its own benefits and shortcomings. Of course the more knowledge the teacher has, the more skilled will be to make decisions about any situation that is created in the classroom.

These sampling actors helped me a lot to do my research, and at the beginning there are given all the characteristics of the subjects taken in the research, a study which was held during 2015-2017. Then every result is given in tables and graphics by respective comment.

In the city of Elbasan there 16 high schools, and in every school it is taught English, even in rural areas there are 18 high schools, and English is taught in all of them. In some schools , English is taught as a first foreign language , while in other it is taught as a second foreign languages.




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School Students of English in the class X

Students of English in the class XI

Students of English class XII

Teachers of English

Participants in the interview

Active participants

A 140 109 87 2 23 100 B 111 98 74 2 14 68 C 130 88 91 2 13 88 D 145 121 116 2 23 44

Table 1. The characteristics of the first four schools.

All the participants of the first four schools were very curious to participate in the interviews which held not more than ten minutes per each student. We do not exclude the fact that they were embarrassed in front of the interviewer but with the passing of the seconds they became more active and eager to give real answers to the respective questions.

What was worthy to be mentioned, are the schools characteristic connected to the ICT.

School Labs Computers in the lab Internet connection Other devices/ means of ICT

A 2 22 YES Video-projector,CDs;DVDs,TV etc

B 1 23 YES Video-projector,CDs;DVDs,TV etc

C 1 16 YES Video-projector,CDs;DVDs,TV etc

D 2 14 YES Video-projector,CDs;DVDs,TV etc

Tab.2. Schools situation concerning ICT.

As far as these schools are considered as experimental schools, and four of the best schools in the city, where also the government funds every year to improve their performances, even the real infrastructure is very good, and in excellent conditions.

Teachers of English Number of qualifications T1 2 T2 3 T3 2 T4 No T5 2 T6 3 T7 1 T8 No

Tab.4. Concerning the qualification of the teachers.

Students poll results




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Question no. 5:Do you know about ICT? YES/NO

Graphic 1. The students acknowledgement of ICT

This is a very important starting point to the research. The recognition of the term ICT and everything includes is crucial. Even in the didactic terms, the process of understanding the unknown has a very important effect on what is going to be learnt. According to these questions, the majority of the students were aware of this term, because their daily life nowadays is surrounded from the computer and what it contains. Despite the main objective they use the ICT means, which is in fact to use the social media webs (facebook, instagram, twitter ,snapchats), they also used the means of ICT in order to send emails to the teachers and to build a communicative area with mates and the teachers. 76% of the students are a very high percentage in fact, which is satisfying in order that the class functions. The other part which is 24% had never heard of ICT, even though they were in touch with its means every day.

Question no. 6:Do you use computers in your school? YES/NO

Graphic.2. The use in percentage of ICT from the students.

This answer consists in knowing if the students use the computers or not. It is not awkward that there are still students who cannot use the computers. And in fact 8% of the students taken in the interview didn’t know how to command the mouse and to navigate in the computer. They added that some of them had never used the computer because they didn’t know it or they were not interested to. But, the majority of the students as shown In percentage, 92% of them were good users. We cannot pretend to use ICT if they don’t know to use a computer, and how could they navigate and use it for pedagogical aims.

76%

24%

YES NO

92%

8%

YES NO




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Question no. 7:How many times do you use them? (times/week)

Graphic 3. The frequency of usage of ICT.

As far as in the curricula of the high schools, English classes are developed three times a week, my interest was to discover the frequency of the usage per week. This question in fact was very curious because that depended on the level of the class. 23% of the students taken in the interview answered that they were included in lessons based on ICT once a week, especially in the listening section. The other 63% were included in individual work at home to enlarge the information through short stories, movies and songs on the radio in order to practice home their skills in English. This was very interesting because it shows interest by the students. The other 14% used in three times a week so to make the homework during the Google Classroom. One of the teachers used the new innovative class when the students were home, as an extra homework so to be in contact with the language.

Question no. 8:Do you have internet access?

Graphic 4. The internet access in school.

The internet access in the school was always in connection and with a goof speed. This is due to the latest politics made in education, for the administrative cohesion of the school and the performance of the head of the school in order to report everything happened in the school. But also, due to the necessity that the schools had in having labs, the internet was always present. We can’t take in consideration the fact that once in the time, it was a disconnection for some minutes, but in general the students were satisfied.

Question no. 9: For what reason do you use the computers?

Lesson aims, Social Media, Games, To learn English

23%

63%

14%

Once/week Twice/week Threetimes/week

100%

YES NO




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Graphic 5. Reasons of using ICT in the class

The usage of the computers by the students was taken in general in order to see in what extend they used the computers in the labs and at home. 15% of the students told that used the computers in order to find the extra information for every project works, essay or any other kind of homework. Even when they wanted to learn more about the daily topic taken they navigate and selected a movie, a song, a short story, a documentary. 40% of them, proved the daily problematic issues that teachers and parents have recently; the time that students spend on the internet and in front of the computers or in the other cloned device , laptop(lap ---top, made for comfort, a device the same as the computer which could be handled on the top of the lap, for comfort). This group of people used these in order to chat or to review in their accounts created on the internet for massive communication objectives. Games was another aim of usage, the majority of the students using computers for gaming were boys. They also told that they could spend hours in gaming. The most satisfying answers belonged to the main aim of this research: To learn English! With or without the assignment homework by the teachers, they individually used the computers by downloading programs in order to learn English. These students were aware of the fact that English is a language that they couldn’t do without.

5.1. Conclusions.

In this chapter there are mirrored all the conclusion taken from the study in order to answer to the research question and to verify the hypothesis. During the research ICT has an important role in our system of education even the Albanian context lacks a lot of things. Teaching English nowadays in Albanian classes has been facilitated by the integration of ICT. The responsibility is held by the teachers of English. In this study was highlighted the definition and the understanding of the ICT in education. In the literature review many author were consulted in order to explain the definition and the impact that ICT has in education. ICT is the set of different media used in order to spread the information. Some of the means used are the computer, video projector, CD, DVD, interactive board. At the same time it was discussed the impact that they have in the class for example: raise of motivation, interaction, critical thinking and successful output.

There were identified the factors affecting the didactics usage of ICT interfering in its performance such as personal, cognitive, institutional, pedagogical factors. There were many models presented in order to make the teachers be aware of the functions and positive effects of ICT integration. The first objective was to see the physical infrastructure of the actual situation of ICT in Albanian classes. In fact during this research what was seen is the absence of the computers and other means but not only the internet connection was slow. The internet access was missing in the majority of cases. These made the students to be not .motivated and the teachers too. The missing of the infrastructure and the lack of the internet access in school are the two biggest obstacles in affecting the integration of ICT in the class.

Secondly, in the literature review was seen that there are a limited number of researchers on this topic especially on the relation that ICT has with foreign languages, English in this case. Meanwhile the first thing to be seen was the disposal of the teachers to welcome the ICT. All the teachers should be aware of the fact that integrating this new era of education can facilitate their job by having positive results. On the other hand, it should be accepted that this process is difficult and still in progress affected by external stimuli such as cultural, psychological, didactics factors, making it complex.

Thirdly, in this research it was made a clear establishment of the role of the teacher as a result of the integration of ICT. On one hand, we should have a teacher who is prepared, trained, qualified and ready to adapt the changes because the role

15%

40%

17%

28%

Lesson aims Social Media Games To learn English




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of the teacher in this aspect is very important. Teaching means science and art. It is science because the teacher transmits scientific information to the auditor but it is an art because of some features that an alternative teacher should possess. Teaching process through ICT as a part of contemporary methodology means that the role of the teacher is not only being a facilitator but also a connection means, good manager. In the traditional class the work is based on textbooks and blackboard while in alternative classes the teacher goes from the unit to the global and this means a virtual world within the class by using ICT mechanism but before doing this the duty of the teacher it to welcome the integration of ICT, get use do it, be qualified, become an expert and them put them in practice.

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Primary School Science Teachers’ Attitude Towards Using Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) In Teaching Science

Mohammed Yousef Mai

Faculty of Human Development, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris

Ghaneshwary R. Muruges

Primary school science teacher- Master student-UPSI

Abstract

The aim of this study is to identify the attitude of science teachers towards the usage of Frog VLE in teaching and learning primary science. The sample consisted of 148 science teachers in Cameron Highlands and Taiping (45 male and 103 female). Data is collected by questionnaire which contains 40 questions with 5 Likert scale. The independent t test and One-way ANOVA is used to answer the research questions. Findings indicated that the science teachers in Cameron Highlands and Taiping have neutral attitude towards the usage of Frog VLE in teaching primary science. There are no any significant differences in the attitude towards Frog VLE among science teachers between male and female. Teachers with less experience (younger teacher) have greater attitude compared to old teachers. Science teachers with higher professional grade have greater attitude compared to the teachers with lower professional grade. Hence, science teachers are encouraged to attend courses and develop skills in using Frog VLE to increase their attitude in usage of Frog VLE in teaching science.

Keywords: science teacher, IT, science education, Frog VLE.

Introduction

In the current globalised era, teaching approach in Malaysia changed from teacher centred to student centred learning mechanism. Teacher centred is mainly focused on content whereas student centred learning gives autonomy to students to seek knowledge and construct meaning from gained information and previous experience (Kasim, 2014). Many programmes had been introduced in order to utilize ICT in education such as Smart School Roadmaps and Policy on Education 2010. Integration of ICT into very idea of teaching and learning always places pedagogy over technology (Majumdar, 2006).

In the Malaysian Education Blueprint 2013- 2025 stated about the globalised online learning which explains teacher’s role in integrating ICT in teaching and learning process. It is clear that Malaysian government emphasise the innovation in ICT to improve teaching and learning processes.

Teachers usually face some difficulties in delivering and conducting a lesson which is suitable for these three group of students. One way to solve such situation is create interactive multimedia based instructional materials where learner is given control to review the topic at their own pace. Students will get the chance to learn the same subject, same topic but with different pace using ICT. Students can learn better with technology environment as they are very interested in technology applications in this era. With the presence of ICT in education, teachers and students can explore wider knowledge without bound in limited curriculum and resources. Students able to find more information about a subject.

Technology innovations in education lead to the application of new methods and instruments in teaching and learning process. Frog virtual learning environment is one of the method introduced to fulfil the needs in education in Malaysia based on Malaysian Education Blueprint. Frog virtual learning environment is a teaching method under “1 Bestari Net Project”. It uses high speed wireless broadband, Yes 4G. It is introduced to schools by MoE in 2011 (National Audit Department, 2014).




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VLE is a network provides access to learning resources, online storage and communication tool first developed in UK. Teachers, parents and students are users of VLE. Teaching and learning, collaboration among learners and educators, administrative functions can be done through VLE. It can be accessed in schools and from anywhere else with internet connection. VLE is important for learners to share ideas and resources.

Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) is a system for delivering learning materials to students via the web. These systems include assessment, student tracking, and collaboration and communication tools. In Malaysia, the program called Frof Virtual Learning Environment (Frog VLE) is emphasised by Ministry of Education to be implemented in the teaching and learning process at school. Frog VLE. Frog VLE is a pedagogical component in teaching and learning which initiated by 1BestariNet. Frog VLE is developed for the use of students, teachers and parents in Malaysia to improve the education as a step of succeed the Vision 2020. It is a platform where students can do online studies, parents monitor their children’s studies and teachers to encourage students’ learning at home and also all the time.

Attitude is the way of thinking and feeling about certain thing which is reflected by a person’s behaviour. The attitude can be positive, neutral and negative. The positive attitude is showing interest, motivation and agree with certain things. Negative attitude is showing the unhappiness, disagree and have feeling of against to certain things. Neutral is a feeling where do not have either positive or negative feelings. There is a relationship between attitude and effort. Attitude is significantly associated with the effort taken by individuals (Lilian, 2012). In this research, positive attitude towards Frog VLE indicates that the teachers likely and highly motivated in using Frog VLE in making science lesson a success. Teachers with positive attitude collaborate with colleagues to enhance the usage of Frog VLE, maximise the usage and have the tendency to use during science lesson. Conversely, negative attitude towards Frog VLE is the unlikely feelings and less motivated to implement Frog VLE in science. Teachers with negative attitude feel Frog VLE is time consuming, not beneficial, not confident and refuse to use it during lesson. Neutral attitude shows towards Frog VLE indicates that teachers do not find Frog VLE is beneficial or unbeneficial. 5 Likert scale is divided into three to find the attitude of teachers. The mean score of 1 to 1.7 is considered to be negative attitude, 1.8 to 3.4 is considered as neutral attitude and 3.5 to 5 is considered positive attitude.

Problem Statement

Malaysian Ministry of Education, 2014 (MoE), (p.213), VLE usage by teachers, students and parents was very low, that is, between 0.01% and 4,69%. This shows that there is not expected return from the government’s investment in that project. Many courses and guidelines given to teachers to improve and increase the usage of VLE in schools. In spite of completing the Frog VLE training, a number of teachers failed to use it in their daily teaching and learning process. (Hussein, 2015). Teachers play important role in implementing VLE in schools. They are the instructors in classroom. Their motivation and guidance affecting the usage of VLE among students. It is important to study the factors affecting the use of Frog VLE among science teachers in Pahang and Perak, so that they can show positive attitude towards the usage of Frog VLE. This study aimed to know the perception of teacher’s in Frog VLE.

According to the results of research done by Barker & Gossman (2013), virtual learning environment has a positive impact on students learning. It increases the students’ motivation to learn, promotes communication and collaborative learning. ICT have a profound impact on the process of learning in higher education by offering possibilities for learners and teachers which have an impact on students’ performance and achievement (Yousseff, 2008).

Research Questions

According to the problem statement and aims, researcher fixed some research questions as followed:

What are the attitudes of science teachers in using VLE?

What are the differences of the science teachers’ attitude in using VLE according to their gender?

What are the differences of the science teachers’ attitude in using VLE according to their experience?

What are the differences of the science teachers’ attitude in using VLE according to their qualifications?




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Research Methods

A descriptive research methodology was used for this research. In this research, researcher used quantitative research. A survey was conducted to a selected sample from the population of science teachers in Cameron Highlands and Taiping.

Population and research sampling

Science teachers from Cameron Highlands and Taiping are involved in this research. According to the information gained from district education office in Cameron Highlands and Taiping, there are 25 primary schools in Cameron Highlands and 27 primary schools in Taiping. There are 235 teachers teaching science in the year of 2017. There are 80 teachers in Cameron Highlands and 155 in Taiping. The sample consisted of 148 science teachers in Cameron Highlands and Taiping (45 male “30%” and 103 female “70%”). Teachers are divided into three groups according to the age group. The following three group established: less than 30 (age 1), 31 to 45 (age 2), more than 45 (age 3). According to their teaching experience, four groups were established as follows: less than 5 years (TE1), 6-10 (TE2), 11-20 (TE3), more than 20 (TE4). Teachers with the experience of 1-5 years are the most which is 45.9%. They are the newly posted teachers after training. Only 14.9% of the teachers from the sample have experience of more than 20 years. They are nearly retired. 20.3% of the primary science teachers are teaching science for 6 to 10 years. Teachers who have teaching experience of 11 to 20 years is 18.90%.

Research Instrument

In this research questionnaire is used as instrument to collect primary school science teachers’ response. The questionnaire contains 40 questions with 31 positive items and 9 negative items. The evaluation of the negative items is in reverse order. 5 Likert scale is used in the questionnaire. Likert scale questions comprised five points ranking which are 5 (strongly agree), 4 (agree), 3 (neutral), (2 disagree), 1 (strongly disagree).

A pilot test is done on 50 respondents who were teaching science in primary school. 30 of them are in Cameron Highlands and 20 in Taiping. The 18 male teachers form 36% of the sample and the 32 female participants form 64% of the sample. The result of Split-half reliability test and Cronbach’s alpha is the measurement of reliability was calculated for the scales for the items. The split half reliability test result is 0.960 for the first twenty questions, 0.845 for the last twenty items and Cronbach’s alpha is 0.954 for the attitude towards usage of Frog VLE. The Spearman Brown coefficient is 0.901. The results of reliability test show the Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.954. The instrument has a good reliability and can be used to measure primary science teachers’ attitude towards usage of Frog VLE in Science teaching and learning.

Results

Research question 1: science teachers’ attitude in using VLE

Descriptive statistics has been used to reflect science teachers’ attitude towards usage of Frog Virtual Learning Environment. The mean score less than 1.7 is considered to be negative attitude, 1.8 to 3.4 is considered as neutral attitude and 3.5 to 5 is considered positive attitude.

Table 4.5

Mean scores for the domains in usage of Frog VLE

Domain Mean SD Attitude 1. Frog VLE is used in instructional 3.30 0.57 neutral 2. Confidence in using Frog VLE 3.20 0.66 neutral 3. Encouragement from colleagues 3.31 0.80 neutral 4. Frog VLE socialization 3.09 0.49 neutral 5. Frog VLE relative advantage. 3.43 0.71 neutral 6. Complexity in using Frog VLE 3.12 0.63 neutral 7. Barriers in using Frog VLE 3.23 0.67 neutral Total 3.27 0.53 neutral

All the items indicate that the science teachers in Cameron Highlands and Taiping have neutral attitude in using Frog VLE in teaching science for all the domains. Primary school science teachers have slightly negative attitude in using Frog VLE to improve socialization among teachers and students.




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Research question 2: The differences of attitude in using VLE according to the gender.

An independent sample t-test was conducted to compare primary school science teachers’ attitude towards usage of Frog VLE for male and female (Table 4.6).

Table 4.6

Independent sample t-test: Attitude towards usage of Frog VLE by gender

Domain Mean SD df t-test Sig. Male Female Male Female 1 3.26 3.32 0.60 0.56 146 -0.55 0.24 2 3.14 3.23 0.64 0.67 146 -0.74 0.54 3 3.29 3.32 0.83 0.80 146 -0.22 0.57 4 3.02 3.12 0.41 0.52 146 -.1.07 0.06 5 3.35 3.46 0.76 0.69 146 -0.87 0.70 6 3.07 3.14 0.71 0.60 146 -0.60 0.34 7 3.17 3.25 0.72 0.65 146 -0.72 0.29 TOTAL 3.22 3.29 0.54 0.53 146 -0.74 0.49

As table 4.6 indicates, there was no significant difference in the teachers’ attitude in domains and in general for the total according to their gender. These results suggest that both male and female have the same attitude towards the usage of Frog VLE in teaching science for primary children.

Research question 3: The differences of attitude in using VLE according to science teachers’ experience.

A one way ANOVA was conducted to explore the attitude of primary schools science teachers on the usage of Frog VLE in teaching science according to their experience level. The result is presented in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7

ANOVA Table: Science teachers’ attitude on usage of Frog VLE according to their experience.

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1

Between Groups 2.47 3 0.82 2.63 .052

Within Groups 44.79 143 0.31

Total 47.26 146

2

Between Groups 3.35 3 1.12 2.66 .051


Total 64.00 147

3

Between Groups 8.58 3 2.86 4.75 .003


Total 95.20 147

4

Between Groups 2.23 3 0.74 3.19 .026


Total 35.86 147

5

Between Groups 4.39 3 1.46 2.99 .033


Total 74.78 147

6

Between Groups 3.18 3 1.06 2.74 .046


Total 58.92 147

7

Between Groups 3.67 3 1.22 2.83 .041


Total 66.04 147




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There was not a significant difference of experience level of primary science teachers on their attitude towards Frog VLE in domain 1 at p< .05 level for the three condition [F (3, 143) = 2.631, p= 0.052].

There was not a significant difference of experience level of primary science teachers on the attitude towards Frog VLE in domain 2 at p< .05 level for the three condition [F (3, 144) = 2.655, p= 0.051].

There was significant effect of attitude towards usage of Frog VLE in teaching science for primary children in domain 3 at the p< .05 level for the three conditions [F (3, 144) =4.751, p = 0.03. Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe test indicated that the mean score for teachers’ attitude for less 5 years experience (M= 3.53, SD= .767) was significantly different than the experience of 11-20 years (M= 3.04, SD= .827) and more 20 years of experience (M=2.93, SD= .942). However, the experience of 6-10 years (M= 3.35, SD= .589) did not significantly differ from the less 5 years, 11-20 years and more than 20 years.

There was significant effect of attitude towards usage of Frog VLE in teaching science for primary children in domain 4 at the p< .05 level for the three conditions [F (3, 144) =3.186, p = 0.026. Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe test indicated that the mean score for teachers’ attitude for less 5 years experience (M= 3.01, SD= .573) was significantly different than the experience of 11-20 years (M= 3.34, SD= .545). However, the experience of 6-10 years (M= 3.03, SD= .292), more than 20 years (M= 3.07, SD= .234) did not significantly differ from the experience of less than 5 years.

There was significant effect of attitude towards usage of Frog VLE in teaching science for primary children in domain 6 at the p< .05 level for the three conditions [F (3, 144) =2.239, p = 0.046. Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe test indicated that the mean score for teachers’ attitude for 6-10 years experience (M= 3.33, SD= .411) was significantly different than the experience of more 20 years (M= 2.83, SD= .711). However, the experience of less than 5 years (M= 3.13, SD= .654), 11 to 20 years (M= 3.11, SD= .655) did not significantly differ from the 6-10 years of experience.

There was significant effect of attitude towards usage of Frog VLE in teaching science for primary children in domain 5 at the p< .05 level for the three conditons [F (3, 144) =2.993, p = 0.033.

There was significant effect of attitude towards usage of Frog VLE in teaching science for primary children in domain 7 at the p< .05 level for the three conditons [F (3, 144) =2.825, p = 0.041.

It can be concluded that the less the experience level, the more the attitude of science teachers in using Frog VLE in teaching science for primary kids.

Research question 4: The differences of attitude in using VLE according to science teachers’ professional grade.

A one way ANOVA was conducted to explore the attitude of primary schools science teachers on the usage of Frog VLE in teaching science according to their professional grade. The result is presented in Table 4.9.

Table 4.9

ANOVA Table: Attitude of teachers according to their professional grade

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

A

Between Groups 2.39 2 1.19 3.83 .024


Total 47.26 146

B

Between Groups 2.72 2 1.36 3.21 .043


Total 64.00 147

C

Between Groups 6.31 2 3.15 5.14 .007


Total 95.20 147

D

Between Groups 0.48 2 0.24 0.99 .376


Total 35.86 147

E Between Groups 3.44 2 1.72 3.50 .033





160

Total 74.78 147

F

Between Groups 5.20 2 2.60 7.02 .001


Total 58.92 147

G

Between Groups 3.23 2 1.61 3.73 .026


Total 66.04 147

There was significant effect of professional grade on primary science teachers’ attitude towards usage of Frog VLE in teaching science for primary children in domain 1 at the p< .05 level for the three conditions [F (2, 144) = 3.832, p = 0.024. Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe test indicated that the mean score for teachers’ attitude for professional grade of DG 44 to 52 (M= 3.48, SD= .420) was significantly different than the professional grade of DG 29 to 38 (M= 3.01, SD= .867). However, the professional grade of DG 41/42 (M= 3.32, SD= .502) did not significantly differ from the professional grade of DG 44 to 52 and DG 29 to 38.


There was significant effect of professional grade on primary science teachers’ attitude towards usage of Frog VLE in teaching science for primary children in domain 3 at the p< .05 level for the three conditions [F (2, 145) = 5.143, p = 0.007. Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe test indicated that the mean score for teachers’ attitude for professional grade of DG 41/42 (M= 3.38, SD= 0.774) and DG 44 to 52 (M= 3.48, SD= .0.595) was significantly different than the professional grade of DG 29 to 38 (M= 2.81, SD= .968).

There was not a significant difference of professional grade of primary science teachers on their attitude towards Frog VLE in domain 4 at p< .05 level for the three condition [F (2, 145) = .985, p= 0.376].

There was significant effect of professional grade on primary science teachers’ attitude towards usage of Frog VLE in teaching science for primary children in domain 5 at the p< .05 level for the three conditions [F (2, 145) = 3.498, p = 0.033. Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe test indicated that the mean score for teachers’ attitude for professional grade of DG 41/42 (M= 3.47, SD= 0.702) was significantly different than the professional grade of DG 29 to 38 (M= 3.06, SD= .844). However, the professional grade of DG 44 to 52 (M= 3.56, SD= .506) did not significantly differ from the professional grade of DG 41/ 42 and DG 29 to 38.

There was significant effect of professional grade on primary science teachers’ attitude towards usage of Frog VLE in teaching science for primary children in domain 6 at the p< .05 level for the three conditions [F (2, 145) = 7.015, p = 0.001. Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe test indicated that the mean score for teachers’ attitude for professional grade of DG 41/42 (M= 3.14, SD= 0.594) and DG 44 to 52 (M= 3.43, SD= 0.563) was significantly different than the professional grade of DG 29 to 38 (M= 2.73, SD= .720). The professional grade of DG41/42 did not significantly differ from professional grade of DG 44 to 52.


It can be concluded that the primary school science teachers have higher attitude correspond with the higher professional grade, which is higher qualification.




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Conclusion

Primary science teachers have neutral attitude towards the usage of Frog VLE in teaching science. Teachers do not understand the importance of implementing Frog VLE in teaching and learning science. They could not understand the reason the government introduced Frog VLE in education.

Male and Female primary school’s science teachers have the same attitude towards usage of Frog VLE in teaching science. Both male and female science teachers show neutral attitude towards Frog VLE.

Primary science teachers with less experience have greater attitude towards usage of Frog VLE in teaching science. This teachers with less experience are young teachers with the higher competency in ICT as ICT being a part of their education and life. Teachers with less than 5 years of experience have greater attitude on usage of Frog VLE especially in the domain 3 (encouragement from colleagues) compared to the teachers with 11 to 20 years and more than 20 years of experience. In the domain 4 (Frog VLE socialization), science teachers with less than 5 years of experience have more attitude than teachers with 11 to 20 years of experience.

Science teachers in primary school with higher professional grade have greater attitude compared to the teachers with lower professional grade. The teachers with higher professional grade are more qualified and most of them awarded for their performance in the professional. They have the intention to learn new programs and try to adapt themselves to the changes in the education.

Discussion

This study shows that science teachers have neutral attitude towards the usage of Frog VLE which is an element of ICT. This is different from other studies such as the results found by (Mai, 2015) (Angadi, 2013) (Singh, 2012), which stated that science teachers have positive attitude towards ICT. Hussein (2015) stated in the research on Frog VLE that only small number of teachers have positive attitude towards the usage of Frog VLE and the workload, time consumption and the slow internet access are might be the reasons for the teachers’ negative attitude.

This study shows that male and female have same attitudes toward Frog VLE. Similar results shown in the research done by (CAVAS, 2009) stated that male and female have same perception on ICT. The results discussed by (Beacham, 2012) in the research on student teachers attitude and beliefs towards using ICT, stated that male had significantly greater positive attitudes towards ICT than female student teachers. It is because male teachers have more experience on ICT whereas female teachers are more anxious and lack of confident in using ICT. Female teachers facing difficulties in handling technical errors during the usage of ICT. Another research which showed the same results is the research done by (Singh, 2012) in India on attitude of teachers towards ICT and he stated that the mean score of males is higher than the females. It means male have greater positive attitude than female teachers.

The study done by (CAVAS, 2009) (Komis, 2006) (Beacham, 2012) (Singh, 2012) on science teachers’ attitude toward ICT in education, they found that science teachers shows the same results found in this research. It stated that science teachers have positive attitude because almost 65% of the teachers are young individuals with the age of below 35. The young teachers might have higher experience with ICT as they use it during their education and training.

Teachers with higher professional grade shows positive attitude towards usage of Frog VLE compared to the lower professional grade teachers (ungraduated teachers). It is because the science teachers with higher professional grade attends more courses and training on ICT as they are increasing their qualification in teaching profession (CAVAS, 2009), (Fu, 2013).

In an overall view, it can be concluded that all primary science teachers in Cameron Highlands and Taiping have neutral attitude in using Frog virtual learning environment in teaching science. There is no differences between the attitude in using VLE in teaching science between male and female primary science teachers. Primary science teachers from younger generation have more positive attitude towards Frog VLE compared to the teachers from older generation. Teachers with higher qualification (professional grade) have more positive attitude towards using Frog VLE in teaching science compared to the lower qualification.




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Suggestion

Based on the findings from this research, researcher would suggest the following:

Teachers should increase their attitude towards Frog VLE by optimising its benefits in teaching and learning process.

Primary science teachers should attend the courses related to Frog VLE to increase their skills on it.

Headmasters should encourage science teachers to use Frog VLE in teaching science.

Ministry of Education to organise more courses and workshops on Frog VLE for the primary science teachers.

References

[1] Angadi, G. (2013). Science Teachers Attitude towards ICT. International Educational E-

[2] Barker, J & Gossman, P. (2013). The learning impact of virtual learning environment: Students’ View. Teacher Education Advancement Network Journal, 5(2), 19-38.

[3] Beacham, N. a. (2012). Student teacher attitudes and beliefs towards using ICT as part of inclusive practise : A 2008-2009 pilot survey. Scotland: University of Aberdeen.

[4] Bulent CAVAS, P. C. (2009). A study on science teachers' attitudes toward information and communication technologies in education. The Turkish Online Journal of Education Technology, 8(2), 20-32.

[5] Fu, J. S. (2013). ICT in Education: A Critical Literature Review and Its Implications. International Journal of Education and development Using Information and Communication Technology, 9(1), 112-125.

[6] Hussein, T. K. (2015). Teachers' readiness in utilize Frog VLE: A case study of a Malaysian Secondary School. British Journal of Education, Society and BehavioralScience, 5(1), 20-29.

[7] Kasim, T. S. (2014). Teaching Paradigm: An Analysis of Tradisional and Student-Centred Approaches. Journal of Usuluddin 40, 20.

[8] Komis, A. J. (2006). Exploring secondary education teachers' attitudes and beliefs towards ICT adoption in education. Themes in Education , 7:2, 181-204.

[9] Lilian K.Y. Li. (2012). A Study of Attitude, Self-efficacy, Effort and Academic Achievement of CityU Students towards Research Methods and Statistics. SS Student E-Journal, Vol. 1, 154-183.

[10] Mai, M. Y. (2015). Science Teachers' Attitude towards Using ICT and Mobile Learning Technologies in Malaysian Schools. Europian Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 3 No (1).

[11] Majumdar, S. (2006). Emerging Trends in ICT for Education & Training, 13.

[12] Malaysian Ministry of Education. (2014). Maklum balas ke atas Laporan Ketua Audit

[13] Negara Siri 3 Tahun 2013. Malaysian Ministry of Education: Malaysia

[14] National Audit Department. (2014). Auditor General’s Report for the Year 2013: Series 3. National Audit Department: Malaysia.

[15] Singh, K. S. (2012). Teachers' attitude towards Information and communication technology. 3(2).

[16] Yousseff, A. B. (2008). The Impact of ICT on Student Performance in Higher Education: Direct Effects, indirect Effects and Organisational Change. The Economics of E-Learning, 5.




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Social Partnership in Vocational Education and Training in Albania

Ejvis (Shehi) Gishti

National Vocational Education, Training and Qualifications Agency, Albania

Abstract

In the course of the still ongoing transition process the country has performed major structural and economic reforms. The Albanian economy, the labour market and individuals’ aspirations have undergone fundamental changes in the past years. The Vocational Education and Training (VET) system has generally not been in a position to keep pace with these developments. Good practice examples exist only in certain institutions and programmes that have benefited from sustained national, donor and/or private sector support. Numerous analytical and strategic papers have concluded that more systemic efforts are needed at this point to bring VET provision better in line with identified labour market demands. There is no sense of offering education and training for young people or adults, which is of little value for them in terms of becoming skilled workers or progressing on in education to develop higher levels of skills. Within this context, the definition of social partnership in VET is still unclear for both governments and the social partners themselves and is presently not seen as a mechanism for supporting decision making. Social partner organizations are poorly structured to deal with their new roles in VET. A combination of several factors still limits the effective participation in VET systems of social partners. In the conclusions of this study, it is important to know that the governance and decision-making capacities of social partners need to be improved, as well as their technical and operational knowledge of the vocational training sector. It is important to ensure that all potential misunderstandings and overlapping functions in this complex plethora of advising bodies are clarified as soon as possible. Careful revision of the roles and responsibilities of social partners that participate in a number of different councils can be a good starting point for acquiring a clear picture of potential overlaps.

Keywords: Social Partners, vocational education and training, clarity of roles

Introduction

1. Legal and Institutional Framework

All the countries in the region have enacted laws or regulations to formalize the functioning of social partnership (mostly labour laws and specific by-laws). These regulations define the minimum standards for the responsibility and participation of social partners in employment and VET policies. A variety of legal documents are been developed taking into consideration the principles and practices of social dialogue and social partnership.

It is clear that the legal framework for a partnership between government and social partners is already in place (even though it is still not complete) and that it is not being used in the ways provided for in the different laws and regulations. This may be due to the centralist tradition of government decision making and the still inadequate experience and very weak capacity of the social partners to commit to and sustain engagement in VET policy and decision-making processes, a new field they may sometimes seen as secondary. Nevertheless, several examples indicate that employers have started to become more concerned about the need for a qualified workforce and are looking to initiate joint projects with public institutions with a view to making the VET system more responsive to labour market needs.

The main stakeholders assisting the development of the VET system, are employers' organizations, such as Business Albania, Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Professional associations, etc. Their main tasks include as following: (a) Represent and protect the legitimate economic interests of its members; (b) Promotion of industrial and commercial activities in the country and trade cooperation with other countries; (c) Organizing and managing the marketing of exhibitions and fairs; (d) Consultations; etc.




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Trade unions in Albania are independent organizations of employees workers based on a clear legal basis, but the quality of their organization and their bargaining power is still low. At national level has variety of trade unions, such as Confederation of Trade Unions of Albania, the Union of Independent Trade Unions of Albania, The Union of Banking and Services in Albania, the Union of Trade Unions of Albania, etc.

Public sector includes respective Ministry of Finance and Economy (MoFE) and their respective subordinate bodies in charge for developing VET in Albania (as abovementioned). The MoFE develops policy and legislation in the areas of employment, VET, and the labour environment. The Ministry is the main governmental body responsible for preparing and implementing of educational policies and management of the VET system, including overall resource management of the public VET system and supervision of the non public VET sector.

The National Agency for VET and Qualifications is a subordinate institution of MoFE and its mission is the establishment of a unified VET system at nationally level and internationally recognized. The main functions of the Agency are as follows: developing the national list of occupations and occupational descriptions; developing the national vocational qualification framework and Frame Curricula; accreditation of VET providers; establishment of standards for initial and ongoing training for teachers and trainers; and establishment of student’s evaluation and certification criteria. The role of National Agency for VET and Qualifications is highly important for enabling the transparency and recognition of adult learning in Albania and in the same time achieving VET system quality assurance.

The National Employment Service (NES) is an autonomous body under MoFE. The highest decision-making authority of the National Employment Service is the Tripartite Administrative Council with the participation of three employer’s representatives, three employees’ representatives and seven representatives of the state. The services offered by the NES includes activities like, job matching, career guidance and qualification for the jobseekers; incentives for employers who create new jobs and employ persons with disabilities; and preparation of labour market surveys including SNAs in national level. The NES, as an institution that implements employment policies in the labour market, accomplishes this mission through a network of 36 Employment Offices

Non profit organisations are important components of civil society that support cross-cutting issues such as social inclusion, gender aspects and environmental issues and have an increasing weight in HRD, for example offering informal training and further VET in different occupational fields for special groups, etc.

1.1. TRIPARTITE BODIES IN ALBANIA

In Albania, the objective in the field of social dialogue is the encouragement of social dialogue to contribute to improving governance and economic performance. The main legal acts regulating labour relations in Albania are: the Law no. 7961, dated 12.07.1995 "The Labour Code of the Republic of Albania" (amended), and the Decision of the Council of Ministers no. 730, dated 06.11.2003 "On the functioning of the National Labour Council and the appointment of representatives of the Council of Ministers in the Council".

The National Labour Council (NLC) is the highest institutional tripartite structure in Albania and acts as an advisory body to the MoSWY. It is composed of 27 members including representatives of seven related ministries, 10 representatives of employees’ organizations and 10 representatives of employers’ organizations. The NLC responsibilities and working areas are as following: Social security, health care and pensions; Wages, prices and taxes; Economic and social legislative acts; Employment issues; Occupational health and safety; Issuing its opinions on draft laws, laws and government strategies; etc.

The Tripartite Administrative Council (TAC) is a governing body of the NES and is chaired by the Minister of Finance and Economy. It is composed of representatives of six other ministries, three representatives of employees’ organisations and three representatives of employers’ organisations.

These two councils are places where businesses can voice their concerns about the needs of the labour force.

The National VET Council is an advisory and tripartite structure in charge of VET coordination among the MoSWY, MoES and other related public and non-public institutions. Its functions and responsibilities include promotion of social dialogue in VET, recommendations on VET policies and strategies, recommendations for harmonization of activities in VET and VET financing. There have been some challenges to the NVETC’s functioning, mainly attributed to the unclear role of the technical secretariat, the organisation of sessions, and to some degree a very general and restrictive role related to advising




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the government on VET policy. Currently with amendment of the VET Law (2014) the NVETC is not formally re-established by the DCM.

VET providers boards, which have recently been re-established in all public VET providers, involve directly employers, who currently are actively supporting mainly VET provision in their own working sites for the internships.

In the framework of the CARDS VET 3 project as well as with the support of Albiz Project, (Kulturkontakt), a model for public–private partnership was elaborated and VET teachers were trained to act as coordinators for social partnership (PASOs). Their task is to discuss and establish agreements with local companies in order to facilitate curriculum development with the input of industry specialists, including practical training (internships) for students in the companies. They helped change attitudes towards social partnership, identified businesses for more structured cooperation, and developed networking in the regions where the selected VET schools function.

The employers’ and employees’ organizations have their representatives in all advisory and decision-making bodies at national and local level such as the National VET Council, National Labour Council and boards of VET providers. However, there is need to further develop a continuing communications with social partners and other stakeholders, in order that social dialogue be developed in all levels- national, regional, local, in all fields of VET organization and implementation (VET policy-making, VET planning, organizing, developing, implementing and monitoring) and especially in missing till now sectoral level.

2. ANALYSIS OF THE SOCIAL PARTNERSHIP IN VET

Social partnership in Albania is still in its embryonic stage, although numerous tripartite structures exist in the country. Lack of tradition on a social partnership related with the market economy, too much political dependence, lack of organization culture, high level of segmentation, lack of resources and other factors has weakened the influence of social partners in solving social problems in Albania. Shared decision making does not form part of the traditions and it appears that policies are elaborated by the government. Governments tend to take a very top-down and centralized approach to the governance of such systems, meaning that other bodies have little real role in decision making. Additionally, a large number of social partner representative institutions are not prepared or keen to engage in a field they do not know enough about and one they do not consider to be strategically important. A combination of these elements continues to limit the development of effective education and training systems.

Investments into HRD are not part of the economic strategy of most enterprises. Employers obviously do not see a great need for high quality VET because of low standards of products and services they currently perform that can be done by a workforce with traditional qualifications. The same understanding is characterizing trade unions, also. Similar to other countries in the region, the first initiatives to involve social partners in VET issues are coming from the Government part (with the pressure of donor organizations). National Labour Council was the first tripartite body to establish the social dialogue at the central level.

Regarding VET issues, the partnership was more active at the delivering level. All pilot projects operating in vocational schools and training centres made efforts to establish links with the business in several areas such:

school management (business representatives as members of school boards);

curriculum renovation (business representatives as members of curricula teams);

practical activities for students at the work place in enterprises;

assessment of students competence (business representatives as members of examination commissions);

training of teachers and instructors (contacts with new technology and work processes).

There are no cases of initiatives undertaken by the partners and their participation is not very active. At the end, they have no real influence in the decision making process and in most occasions they are not even informed on what is decided about the issues discussed.

Important issues such as VET levels, types (profiles) and frame-curricula are traditionally considered as strictly governmental “businesses”. Regardless of what is described above, many initiatives undertaken by different actors in VET




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during the last 10 years have increased the communication and exchange between VET and labour market in order to improve the quality of vocational qualifications. The most relevant initiatives are:

Introduction of occupational analysis (DACUM approach) as the source of information that helps to define standards, formulate vocational profiles and develop training modules, in the context of course programmes and frame-curricula (initiated by the Swiss Government ISDO Project and the former Institute of Pedagogical Studies - IPS, is currently implemented by other donor projects and National Employment Service - NES). Selected expert workers are directly involved in the occupational analysis process.

Inclusion of selected expert workers in developing occupations and qualification descriptions, curricula, etc.

The designing of the Strategy on Social Partnership in VET in the framework of CARDS Program.

Development of Albanian Qualification Framework with the participation of main stakeholders in this field.

The most common challenge for social partners is their organizational fragmentation. Several trade unions and employer organizations are often in direct competition for influence. Employers or trade unions are not always well organized and there are problems with their representativeness. Their main activity is social dialogue, in which the public authorities usually participate too. Social dialogue encompasses all kinds of negotiation, consultation and exchange of information between the partners.

Meantime, one of the main problems is the low capacity of social partner representatives to engage in policy debates and development. Participation in a meeting is not enough. Social partners should be able to contribute proactively by finding problems to be solved, analyzing government proposals and making counterproposals. People who are nominated to be members of this type of bodies need to know how to represent the interests of their constituencies in a constructive way. Formal consultation is only the first level of involving social partners in policymaking or practical development. A more inclusive way of working should be to invite social partners to contribute to working groups or committees that make proposals for political decision makers. This would allow stakeholders to contribute from the outset, instead of giving them an opportunity to comment already finalized proposals.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Although there is an orientation towards establishing links between education and business, the common view is that there is a persistent divergence between the legislation, policies and enforcement in practice. Apart from a formal participation in national tripartite structures, there are no major initiatives in terms of the practical implementation of VET and business cooperation outside donor projects. Social partners in Albania find it difficult to translate policies into real practice, and the implementation gap is present over the long term. In fact the education and training are traditionally considered (by both government actors and social partners) as the responsibility of ‘the state’. It thus appears that despite the many advances that have been made, the underlying logic of governance still entails a high degree of centralisation in terms of government bodies’ decision making, and this has an impact on VET and business cooperation. Among social partner organisations and businesses there is s considerable lack of awareness of the need to make VET cooperation a priority.

Social partnership and social dialogue depend on the skills and the resources of their participants. These need awareness of the importance of skills and competences for VET and lifelong learning. They require a profound understanding of VET and its links to the labour market. The overall capacity of social partner organisations depends on the interests and capacity of their elected people and the staff. The capacities of social partners have often been developed in a spontaneous fashion, without being considered an important component of the economic growth of the country. Social partners’ limited capacities to engage in meaningful activities are a major obstacle to VET and business cooperation. Far greater effort is needed to turn the principle of social partnership into a real working mechanism, especially at the regional and local levels, as well as the sector level.

All councils regulated within the existing legal framework – NVETC, NLC, TAC, etc – should be made more operational and productive. It is important to ensure that all potential misunderstandings and overlapping functions in this complex plethora of advising bodies are clarified as soon as possible. Careful revision of the roles and responsibilities of social partners that participate in a number of different councils can be a good starting point for acquiring a clear picture of potential overlaps.




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In order to populate the AQF with the relevant qualifications is very important to address a sectoral approach, where the focus is on not just developing qualifications, but ensuring coordinated skills, labour market and socioeconomic policies in particular sectors should also take into account that the professional bodies may play crucial roles. Working with the needs and possibilities, as well as institutional strengths in particular sectors probably has the best chance of success. Social partners, especially employers, have been involved in the development of Albainan Qualification Framework. They can offer an invaluable contribution to the process of translating labour market information into occupational standards, qualifications and even qualifications frameworks. Employers’ and workers’ organisations can also offer important contributions to the development of learning outcomes for qualifications. Businesses have a key role to play in the assessment of skills needs, and should be actively involved in this initiative. An efficient and effective mechanism for articulating periodic training/qualification needs in predefined economic sectors should be the establishment of the respective sectoral committees with the representatives from businesses, unions, VET providers, universities etc. These organisms will link better labour market demands with VET system. Involvement of social partners in VET depends on the structures of cooperation and the legal frameworks that support these. Social partners can play a role if there is room for their contribution. Therefore, sector committees are needed. These can be effective cooperation platforms if they have the required mandate and means. These structures need to be recognised through appropriate legislation that gives them authority. They need resources (e.g. a secretariat) to successfully perform their tasks.

The governance and decision-making capacities of social partners need to be improved, as well as their technical and operational knowledge of the vocational training sector. A peer learning methodology could be used for this, also involving government services. Pilot projects and good practices should be identified and shared. Two kinds of competences are needed to help social partners play an active role in VET: policy and decision-making skills (through formal representation of elected members) and technical skills (with staff dedicated to supporting the decision makers). As regards selection of board members, priority should be given to those who are convinced of the value of HRD. These individuals should be knowledgeable about policies and strategies in the field and to some extent should be the owners of the social partners’ strategies. Technical staff are expected to provide permanent support to the decision makers by supplying them with updated information, preparing briefing notes and reports, organising relationships with other partners, drafting papers, organising interventions by technical teams in discussions and workshops, and so on.




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Management of Performance in Higher Education Institutions: the Application of the Balanced Scorecard (BSC)

Peter N. Kiriri

Associate Professor of Marketing, United States International University – Africa (USIU-A), P.O Box 14634 00800 Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract

Universities play a crucial role in the development of any nation. The success of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) is the bedrock of the growth in human capacity required to support the growth of an economy. However, HEIs have been criticized for not playing their rightful role in national development. This has been partly attributed to not being able to manage their performance in view of the dynamic and turbulent environment they are operating in. Most HEIs have been caught up in the “business as usual” situation preferring doing things in the traditional ways as opposed to changing with the times. As a result their survival has been at risk especially from those HEIs who have adopted the “business un-usual” mentality. It is as a result of the challenges facing Kenyan HEIs that this paper proposes an adoption of the Balanced Scorecard as a management tool in HEIs. This paper provides a review of literature on the HEI environment globally and in Kenya, highlighting the challenges faced by Kenyan HEIs and proposes the use of the BSC to address the same. The BSC is a tool that helps mainstream the vision and mission of HEIs in their activities thus making the HEIs become strategy focused organizations. The BSC is a strategic planning and management system used to align business activities to the vision and strategy of the organization and to monitor organization performance against strategic goals. Finally, a sample BSC for HEIs in Kenya is proposed. It is felt that if HEIs focused on the issues proposed and measured their performance on the issues identified, their performance will be improved tremendously.

Keywords: Balanced Scorecard, Higher Education Institution (HEIs), Performance management, Kenyan Universities

Introduction

The demand for higher education has increased tremendously in the recent past locally in Kenya, regionally and internationally. The demand has also been met with an increasing requirement of quality delivery of education and learning outcomes. Radical changes have also been witnessed in HEI as a result of various changes in the macro environment including a decline of state funding on public universities, and an increase in the number of private HEIs. Due to these factors, various stakeholder groups have increased their expectations on the HEIs.

Since the 1990s, accountability in higher education has become a challenging issue for HEIs. Increasingly, institutions of higher learning have been required to provide performance indicators—empirical evidence of their value—to state, alumni, prospective student, and other external stakeholders (Stewart and Carpenter-Hubin, 2000).

Competition in the higher education sector has also been tremendously increasing especially from the non traditional sources including e-universities. As international competition in educational services has become more intense, many countries have invested in university education in an effort to maintain international competitiveness (Chen, Yang and Shiau, 2006). To adapt to the strong competition, there is an immediate requirement for states to improve the quality of their national university education (Chen and Ho, 2003). Performance management and evaluation have become the focus of discussion in recent years as a way to aid in the new competitive landscape (Storey, 2002).

To survive in the turbulent environment, HEIs have adopted strategic management practices. In specific more and more HEIs are developing long term strategic plans. However, most of them have also been faced by the challenge of implementing the strategic plans. Various reason could be attributed to this including a lack of shared vision; being unable to link individual faculty and staff performance to the strategic plan; the inability to link incentives to performance; inability




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to fully exploit technology by staff and faculty; failure to plan and measure the right things that drive value; inability to align processes to the plans in order to deliver strategic goals and; inability to empower and reward people for doing the right things.

To ensure academic excellence in a time of increasing competition in the higher education sector, a university must apply an appropriate performance measurement system that reflects and gives the opportunity to improve on its research and teaching quality, and on the quality of its facilities and staff. Such a performance measurement system should also incorporate the perspectives of all university stakeholders. The performance of a university must be evaluated via an appropriate method and the adoption of a robust performance measurement system that is key to improving the competitive status of a university, both locally and internationally, while at the same time maintaining its academic excellence (Chen, Wang and Yang, 2009).

To adapt to the great competition from all over the world, there is an important and immediate required improvement to the quality of higher education to meet international academic trend and raise overall academic standards and education quality (Chen, Wang and Yang, 2009). In response to growing concerns from stakeholders about poor or inconsistent quality, institutions of higher education are increasingly seeking ways to improve education quality (Lawrence and McCullough, 2001).

State of HEIs in Kenya

The Kenyan higher education sector is faced by a myriad of issues and challenges both emanating from internal sources as well as externally. Some of these issues face both the private and public universities. The issues range from financial stability to lack of consistent quality. For the public universities, since the mid 1980s government funding has declined in real terms. The causes have been many but generally have included changing donor priorities, changing government rules and regulations to cope with national economic turbulence, international economic trends, legislation and political trends in the country (Onyango, 1996). Numerous problems facing public universities in Kenya have resulted in a constant rise in unit costs of education, declining academic achievement, and the near collapse of physical facilities (Mutula, 2002).

Also afflicting Kenyan Universities are issues of gender inequality, and low research capacity, quality of graduates produced, ineffective adoption of the use of IT. The question of unemployment among graduates and the rush to enroll in universities abroad for courses offered locally at a cheaper cost is disturbing (Mutula, 2002). Both public and private universities are faced with a situation whereby much of their income goes towards operating expenses with very little or nothing left for research and infrastructure growth.

In the recent past the education sector in Kenya has witnessed massive expansion especially in terms of student’s enrollments. The massive expansion of university education in Kenya has not taken place at the same pace as the infrastructure to meet the needs of the students (Bogonko, 1992). As universities have admitted more and more students every year, they did not build lecture halls, hostels, laboratories, workshops and hostels at the same pace. The lecturers in public universities have to deal with large classes, without the relevant communication media to handle such numbers (Mutula, 2002). These lecturers are a minimal 4,000 to cater for about 60,000 students. The ratio of staff to students is about 1:60 or more in some undergraduate programmes and 1:15 or 20 for masters’ programmes and 1:8 PhD students (Aduol, 2001).

As a result of the above, a decline in education standards have been noted (Mutula, 2002). The declining standards in local universities have created perfect conditions for foreign universities to do lucrative business in education (Kigotho, 2001).

As mentioned earlier, financials have been an issue in the local universities. The public universities are trying to put in place measures to generate income to augment declining government allocation.

In a study conducted by Mwiria et. al., (2006) on university education in Kenya, a number of challenges were identified that required immediate and continued action. These included:

Need for improving student welfare;

Quality control and internal/external evaluation systems;




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Enhancing equity by recruiting more students and staff from traditionally disadvantaged groups/regions and providing facilities for physically challenged students;

Improving internal governance systems;

Increasing research funding;

Procurement of modern teaching and learning equipment, textbooks and journals;

Electronic linkage to other institutions and resources outside Kenya;

Training and upgrading the skills of reform managers and academics;

Supporting staff participation in local and international academic and non-academic gatherings;

Strengthening linkages between the public universities themselves and between public and private institutions by promoting collaboration in training and research;

Strengthening regional and international linkages by funding collaborative teaching and research programmes and student and staff exchanges;

Diversification of revenue bases/sources to ensure financial stability and sustainability;

Offering attractive market driven on demand programmes at affordable costs

Dissemination of research findings;

Innovative strategies of widening access to university education; and

Instituting of monitoring and evaluation systems to various facets of education effectiveness.

In considering the performance of both public and private universities, it is imperative to consider the aims of university education in Kenya as outlined by the Ministry of Education, (1994):

To develop, advance, preserve and disseminate knowledge and to stimulate intellectual life.

To train and prepare high level manpower needed for development.

To promote cultural development and the highest ideas and valves of the society.

To provide through research and consulting knowledge, skills and services to the community.

To assist the government in achieving its planned development.

It is a result of reviewing the performance of universities in achievement of the broad aims stated above that leads to a conclusion of shortfalls on the expected broad outcomes. This has begging questions as to what is ailing the Kenyan university and whether the reforms undertaken so far in the Kenyan Education sector are working as expected or not. This paper proposes the use of strategy management and deployment tools to ensure that universities in Kenya are playing their rightful role in national and economic development. The trend all over the world is for increased accountability for universities and their employees on their performance. The Balanced Scorecard has been tried and tested by various HEIs and hailed as one tool that if well implemented in HEIs would ensure fulfillment of the missions and visions of such institutions.

There is a need for educational institutions in Kenya to establish a set of performance management tools to establish educational objectives and standards, and to increase the competitiveness of university education in a globalised environment. These are the pressing imperatives for university education today (Chen, Yang and Shiau, 2006).

The Balanced Scorecard (BSC)

In 1992, Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton introduced the balanced scorecard, a set of measures that allow for a holistic, integrated view of business performance. The scorecard was originally created to supplement “traditional financial measures with criteria that measured performance from three additional perspectives—those of customers, internal




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business processes, and learning and growth” (Kaplan and Norton, 1996). The BSC, measures performance and successful strategy implementation and has been implemented in hundreds of companies and organizations with generally successful results (Dumond, 1994; Kaplan and Norton, 2001),

The Balanced Scorecard was developed in response to concerns about traditional methods of measuring organizational success, which were felt to be too focused on financial measures, and hence backwards looking. Kaplan and Norton's Balanced Scorecard consists of a series of performance measures combining both financial and non-financial metrics, grouped under four perspectives.

The reason for use of the balanced scorecard is to formulate strategy objectively in the four perspectives, considering their multidimensional effect (Epstein and Roy, 2004). The balanced scorecard tracks key strategic elements through a balanced series of performance indicators to ensure that action is meeting strategic objectives, while demonstrating that the institution is meeting accountability expectations and legislative requirements.

By adopting financial and non-financial measures and measuring current performance outcomes as well as future performance drivers, the BSC gives feedback around both the internal business processes and external outcomes in order to continuously improve strategic performance. To this end, the BSC employs four perspectives and develops metrics, collects and analyzes data relative to each of the four perspectives (Papenhausen and Einstein, 2006; Bailey et al., 1999).

The financial perspective – “To succeed financially, how should we appear to our stakeholders?” – uses traditional financial measures to measure past performance.

The customer (stakeholder) perspective – “To achieve our vision, how should we appear to our customers?” (How do stakeholders see us?) – focuses on stakeholder satisfaction and the value propositions for each stakeholder. Relevant stakeholders for an academic institution include faculty, staff, administration, students, parents, alumni, employers, the community, and the image of the institution.

The internal process perspective – “To achieve our vision, how will sustain our ability to change and improve?” (At what must we excel?) – refers to internal organizational processes. Metrics based on this perspective allow managers to gauge how well their organization is running, and whether its products and services conform to customer requirements (the mission). This also translates to quality of educational offering and providers.

The learning and growth perspective – (can we improve our ability to grow?) – includes intangible assets such as employee knowledge and organizational cultural attitudes for both individual and organizational self-improvement. In a knowledge-worker organization, people – the repository of knowledge – are the main resource. This translates to the currency of the program, and providers. The program must be leading, to attract employees, as well as to sustain the institution

The BSC is a strategic planning and management system used to align business activities to the vision and strategy of the organization and to monitor organization performance against strategic goals. The BSC has evolved from its early use to a full strategic planning and management system (Kaplan and Norton, 1996). The balanced scorecard system emphasizes articulation of strategic targets in support of goals. In addition, measurement systems are developed to provide data necessary to know when targets are being achieved or when performance is out of balance or being negatively affected.

Originally meant for the commercial (for profit) organizations, the BSC has been adopted by nonprofit organizations both public and non-public. However in the process of adoption, different perspectives have been recommended for different organizations. Some of the changes adopted include the naming of the four perspectives and including of extra perspectives that addresses the mission of an organization. Various model of BSC have been recommended for HEI by various authors as captured in a section below.

Reasons Why HEIs Should Adopt the BSC

The concept of applying the Balanced Scorecard to a university is increasingly popular among researchers. There are many studies related to this concept, including the uses of the Balanced Scorecard for university management (Stewart and Carpenter-Hubin, 2000; Lawrence and Sharma, 2002; Ruben, 1999), for academic departments (Haddad, 1999; Bailey et al., 1999; Chang and Chow, 1999), for university research (Pursglove and Simpson, 2000), for university teaching (Southern, 2002), and for internal service providers in a university (Purslove, 2002). Not only is the concept of the Balanced Scorecard widely praised among academic researchers, but it is also being increasingly applied in universities. There are




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reports of colleges using the balanced scorecard to develop frameworks for measuring institutional effectiveness on the macro level (Karathanos and Karathanos, 2005; Ruben, 1999). Such adaptations provide university administrators with a measurement system that is not only linked to mission and strategy, but is also a learning model that supports continuous improvement and environmental responsiveness.

In view of the fact that HEIs are now facing severe competition and that there is a need to reform their operations, universities need to develop strategic management tools if they are to turn strategy into action (Chen, Yang and Shiau, 2006). Adopting the key performance indicators of instruments such as BSC would allow universities to develop and allocate resources in a strategically coherent manner. In turn, this can be translated into effective reorganization of such operational matters as daily staff tasks (Kaplan and Norton, 2001a).

Universities must also remain competitive to meet the demands of accrediting bodies. Administrators face increasing demands for quality and accountability from internal and external forces and constituents, and in the past have looked to the business management literature for help in developing programs that keep pace with the demands of a competitive environment (Welsh and Metcalf, 2003).

The balanced scorecard framework is recommended because it enables the formulation of strategies that focus on continuous improvement efforts that are linked to vision and mission and it points to critical activities and objectives, and suggests ways of measuring them and presenting the results in a concise and organized fashion (McDevitt et. al., 2008).

The BSC has been identified to help HEIs in (D’Uggento, Iaquinta and Ricci, 2008):

Translating vision into actions;

Communicating and linking strategic objectives and measures;

Linking unit goals to macro goals in all scorecard areas, developing strategies to achieve them and allocating resources to different strategies;

Developing reliable measures of progress toward goals;

Feedback and learning.

The adoption of BSC by HEIs help create a cause-and-effect linkage involving feedback from staff and faculty members and communication among corresponding functions (Chen, Yang and Shiau, 2006). The BSC represents an opportunity to improve strategy through staff involvement, to create a multidimensional control system of performance and to leave behind the traditional bureaucratic managerial model in most universities and adopting a modern one. BSC has the advantage to grant an integrated approach to the several variables regarding Academia, being particularly useful in the big and complex Universities. Also the BSC ensures HEIs appreciate the concept of Accountability both at internal and external level considering social and environmental factors (Chen, et. al., 2006).

Introduction of the BSC in an educational institution requires faculty staff to work together. It begins with senior supervisors who are responsible for policy making and execution in a top-to-bottom hierarchy. Five basic principles are involved in the establishment of the BSC as part of the strategic core of an organization (Kaplan and Norton, 2001):

Translating the strategy to operational terms.

Aligning the organization to the strategy.

Making the strategy part of everyone everyday job.

Making strategy a continuous process.

Mobilizing change through leadership.

Performance Measurement

According to Osborne and Gaebler (1992), organizations need to measure performance using objective methods. They contend that if one does not measure results, they cannot tell success from failure; If they cannot see success, they cannot




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reward it; If they cannot reward success, they are probably rewarding failure; If they cannot see success, they cannot learn from it; If they cannot recognize failure, they cannot correct it; If they can demonstrate results, they can win public support.

With important stakes such as increasing financial resources, encouraging high-quality student applicants, and attracting faculty dependent upon how they “measure up,” universities are rightly concerned with how best to present themselves. Institutions attempt to improve accountability while dealing with the more difficult and complex issue of how to improve university effectiveness. The real test for institutions is to create meaningful systems for strategic organizational assessment and then use that information in internal policy and resource allocation decisions (Stewart and Carpenter-Hubin, 2000).

The Balanced Scorecard translates an organization’s mission and strategy into a comprehensive set of performance measures that provides a framework for a strategic measurement and management system. Organizations that adopt this approach achieve the following (Kaplan and Norton, 1996):

Clarify and gain consensus about vision and strategic direction.

Communicate and link strategic objectives and measures throughout the organization.

Align departmental and personal goals to the organization’s vision and strategy.

Plan, set targets, and align strategic initiatives.

Conduct periodic and systematic strategic reviews.

Obtain feedback to learn about and improve strategy.

Unlike performance measurement approaches that focus on controlling behaviour, the balanced scorecard affords opportunities to motivate organizational members to achieve goals that support long-term vision. Through new and expanded applications, the scorecard can play a central role in integrating strategic management systems by linking long-term strategic objectives with short-term actions (Kaplan and Norton, 1996).

SUGGESTED HEI PERFROMANCE PERSPECTIVE MEASURES

Having reviewed the issues facing HEIs in Kenya, and the critical role the BSC can play in ensuring that the HEIs are performing to their call, the author proposes some areas of performance measurement that could be adopted. The BSC is built on translating strategy into actions and as such the recommendations herein are seen to be in line with the objectives and strategies of most of the HEIs. By aligning the performance of all the members of an institution to such a framework it makes strategy become everyone’s everyday job and as such all are able to contribute to the achievement f the performance goals of a HEI.

Objective Measure / indicator

Financial Perspective

Increased revenue generation from tuition % increase in tuition revenues % increase in other revenues

Reduction of wastage % reduction in wastages %reduction in repeat jobs

Reduction of operating costs % reduction in operating expenses Expense - income ratio

Increased research funding % increase in research funds

Increase in consulting revenues Amount of consulting revenues

Reduction in maintenance costs % reduction in maintenance costs

Increased fundraising Kitty Total increase in Funding

Revenues from commercialized research % increase in research revenues

Revenues from industry collaborations % increase in revenues from collaborations

Revenue diversification Revenue Mix




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Customer/Stakeholder Perspective

Increased student satisfaction Customer satisfaction index

Employers Satisfaction Employers satisfaction index

Alumni Satisfaction levels Alumni satisfaction index

Increased in Number of students Number of students

Parents/Guardians’ Satisfaction Parents satisfaction index

Graduate employment rate % of graduates employed within one year

Student completion within the planned time % of graduates completing their course of study within the allotted time

Increase in 1st class Honours students % of graduate receiving first-class honors’

Increased enrollment of undergraduates in Masters Programs

% of graduates going for further study within one year

Increased Student retention Retention rate

Enhanced Public Image Among the top 3 Number of sustainable CSR projects

Increased level of collaborations Number of local collaborations Number of international collaborations Number of staff and students on exchange programs

Involvement of alumni Number and value of projects supported by alumni


Internal Business Processes Perspective

Facility utilization Number of contact hours per course

Student to Lecturer ratio Lecturer-student ratio

Integrated use of technology in Teaching Number of courses taught using technology support

Student to computer ratio Number of computers per full time student equivalent

Use of internet in learning Number of computer network connections Number of e-learning supported courses Internet usage rate

Academic staff Quality % of lecturers holding doctoral degree or equivalent

Teaching effectiveness Student opinions on lecturer teaching efficiency

Teaching excellence Number of national and international awards related to the learning process

Quality of research and library support Number of online databases subscribed to Number of journals subscribed to Number of hours of library and computer service

Quality of library services Number of books on shelf - % library stock issued Age of books on shelf Level of satisfaction with library services Annual Library Budget

Reduced Turnaround time % reduction in turnaround time of university processes

Automation of processes % automated processes Computer usage rate Budgeted vote on ICT

Market Driven Programs Number of new demand driven programs Number of students enrolled in new programs Revenues from new programs

Use of innovative teaching methodologies Number of courses taught using innovative techniques

Increased Distribution/Reach

Student Mix (International vs Local; Student Diversity; disadvantaged Students) Distance learning students

Program Quality Number of units passing an external quality assurance assessment Faculty Assessment

Overall academic programs quality

Rating by CHE Reviews by external program auditors

Use of ICT ICT Capacity utilization levels




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Learning and Growth Perspective

Staff and Faculty development Headcount of staff development attendees Number of staff development events attended per FT member of staff Percentage of new appointments at lecturer, senior lecturer/ and professor level

Individual development Number of staff/faculty registered in PhD Programs Number of staff-training hours

Research output Number of journal publications Number of conference presentations

Leadership development Leadership index

Staff/Faculty satisfaction Staff/Faculty satisfaction index

Faculty involvement in seeking research grants Successful Research grant applications submitted per annum per member of academic staff

Increased in FT faculty members Number of staff on fixed term contracts as % of all staff employed

Recruitment and retention of competent staff/faculty Staff/Faculty retention rate Ratio of FT to PT faculty

Leadership quality Number of student disturbances/riots reported

Conclusion

Although the BSC has been implemented in developed countries such as European and American countries for many years, it has not until recently been adopted by organizations in Kenya. However, the BSC has rarely been applied in higher education sectors in Kenya. The discussion in this paper authenticated that BSC is a performance management system and a strategic management tool that can and should be adopted by HEIs considering the environment they are operating in.

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