Erratum: Astronaut-acquired orbital photographs as digital data for remote sensing: Spatial...

int j remote sensing 2002 vol 23 no 20 4403ndash4438

Astronaut-acquired orbital photographs as digital data for remotesensing spatial resolution

JULIE A ROBINSONdagger DAVID L AMSBURYDaggerDONN A LIDDLEdagger and CYNTHIA A EVANSdagger

daggerEarth Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory NASA Johnson Space Centerand Lockheed Martin Space Operations 2400 NASA Road 1 C23 HoustonTX 77058 USADagger128 Homestead Kerrville TX 78028 USA

(Received 15 November 2000 in nal form 9 August 2001 )

Abstract Astronaut-acquired orbital photographs (astronaut photographs) area useful complement to images taken by orbiting satellites They are in the publicdomain and have been particularly useful for scientists in developing countriesas supplementary low-cloud data and for studies requiring large numbers ofimages Depending on camera lens and look angle digitized astronaut photo-graphs can have pixel sizes representing areas on the Earth as small as 10 m orless although most photographs suitable for digital remote sensing have pixelsizes between 30 m and 60 m The objective of this paper is to provide a practicalreference for scientists in a variety of disciplines who want to use astronautphotographs as remote sensing data The characteristics of astronaut photographysystems that in uence spatial resolution are detailed and previous image acqui-sitions relative to these elements are summarized Methods are presented forestimating ground coverage under three diVerent levels of assumptions to meetaccuracy needs of diVerent users Of the more than 375 000 photographs takento date at least half have the potential to be used as a source of digital remotesensing data

1 Introduction11 Overview of NASA astronaut photography

Astronaut photography of Earth is produced and archived by the NationalAeronautics amp Space Administration (NASA) and provides an important record ofthe state of the Earth that has not been used to its potential (Lulla et al 1996 ) Thepractice was the foundation for the development of other forms of orbital remotesensing (Lowman 1999) Although the geometry is more complex than that of avertical aerial photograph astronaut photographs still provide information that canbe interpreted by knowledgeable observers (Ring and Eyre 1983 Lowman 1985Rasher and Weaver 1990 Drury 1993 Campbell 1996 121ndash156 Arnold 1997)

OYcial NASA campaigns of terrain ocean and atmospheric photography werecarried out during the Gemini missions (Underwood 1967 Lowman and Tiedemann

email juliearobinson1jscnasagov

Internationa l Journal of Remote SensingISSN 0143-1161 printISSN 1366-590 1 online copy 2002 US Crown

httpwwwtandfcoukjournalsDOI 10108001431160110107798

J A Robinson et al4404

1971) the Earth-orbiting Apollo missions (Colwell 1971) the Apollo-Soyuz mission(El-Baz 1977 El-Baz and Warner 1979) Skylab (NASA 1974 Wilmarth et al 1977 )a few Shuttle missions (eg the two Space Radar Laboratory missions of 1994 Joneset al 1996) and the Shuttle-Mir missions (Evans et al 2000) Extensive training inphotography is available to members of all ight crews during their general trainingperiod and during intensive training for speci c missions (Jones et al 1996) Mostphotographs have been taken by astronauts on a time-available basis Astronautphotographs are thus a subset of the potential scenes selected both by opportunity(orbital parameters lighting and crew workloads and schedules) and by the trainingexperience and interest of the photographers

As remote sensing and geographic information systems have become more widelyavailable tools we have collaborated with a number of scientists interested in usingastronaut photography for quantitative remote sensing applications Digitized imagesfrom lm are suitable for geometric recti cation and image enhancement followed byclassi cation and other remote sensing techniques (Lulla and Helfert 1989 Mohler et al1989 Helfert et al 1990 Lulla et al 1991 Eckardt et al 2000 Robinson et al 2000a2000c and in press Webb et al in press) The photographs are in the public domainthus they provide a low-cost alternative data source for cases where commercial imagerycannot be acquired Such cases often include studies in developing countries in areasthat have not usually been targets for major satellites needing supplemental low-clouddata requiring a time series or requiring a large number of images

12 Extent of the datasetAs of 30 September 1999 378 461 frames were included in the photograph

database (OYce of Earth Sciences 2000) comprising 99 missions from Mercury 3(21 July 1961) through STS-96 (27 May to 6 June 1999) The database was reviewedremoving photographs that were deemed unsuitable for remote sensing analysisbecause they were not Earth-looking (no entry for tilt angle) had no estimated focallength were over- or underexposed or were taken at oblique tilt angles (furtherdiscussion of these characteristics follows) The remaining 190 911 frames (504 ofthe records present in the database) represent photographs that are potentiallysuitable for remote sensing data As the database is always having new photographyadded statistics can be updated on request using the web link lsquoSummary of DatabaseContentsrsquo at the Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth (OYce of EarthSciences 2000)

13 ObjectivesThe overall purpose of this paper is to provide understanding of the properties of

astronaut-acquired orbital photographs to help scientists evaluate their applicabilityfor digital remote sensing Previous general descriptions of astronaut photographyhave been much less extensive and have tended to focus on numbers of photographstaken and geographic coverage and emphasized interpretative applications (Helfertand Wood 1989 Lulla et al 1993 1994 1996) By providing a unique compilationof the background information necessary to extend the use of astronaut photographybeyond interpretation to rigorous analysis it is hoped to provide a resource forscientists who could use this data in a variety of disciplines In keeping with apotential interdisciplinary audience we have tried to provide suYcient backgroundinformation for scientists who do not have extensive training in remote sensing

We focus on spatial resolution because it is one of the most important factors

Astronaut photography as digital data for remote sensing 4405

determining the suitability of an image for a remote sensing objective In remotesensing literature spatial resolution for aerial photography is often treated verydiVerently from spatial resolution of multispectral scanning sensors To providesuYcient background for a discussion of spatial resolution for a data source thatshares properties with both aerial photography and satellite remote sensing we rst summarize the ways that spatial resolution is typically quanti ed for aerialphotography and satellite remote sensors

Given this background information we (1 ) describe and illustrate factors thatin uence the spatial resolution of astronaut photographs (2) show examples ofestimating spatial resolution for a variety of photographs in a way that willenable users to make these calculations whether or not they have a background inphotogrammetry and (3) compare spatial resolution of digital data extracted fromastronaut photographs to data obtained from other satellites

2 BackgroundmdashSpatial resolution of imaging systemsSpatial resolution is a fundamental property of any imaging system used to

collect remote sensing data and directly determines the spatial scale of the resultantinformation Resolution seems intuitively obvious but its technical de nition andprecise application in remote sensing have been complex For example Townshend(1980) summarized 13 diVerent ways to estimate the resolving power of the LandsatMultiSpectral Scanner (MSS) Simonett (1983 p 20) stated lsquoIn the simplest casespatial resolution may be de ned as the minimum distance between two objects thata sensor can record distinctly[but] it is the format of the sensor system thatdetermines how spatial resolution is measuredrsquo By focusing attention on the proper-ties of the system (and not the images acquired) this de nition can be applied to avariety of types of images provided by diVerent systems In order to provide ascomplete a treatment as possible background is provided on several views of spatialresolution that are relevant when considering the spatial resolution of astronautphotography

21 Ground resolved distancePhotogrammetrists were measuring spatial resolution of aerial photographs using

empirical methods long before the rst scanning sensor was placed in orbit Thesemethods integrated properties of the imaging system with the other external factorsthat determine spatial resolution Ground resolved distance (GRD) is the parameterof most interest because it measures the applicability of an image to a speci c taskThe GRD of an image is de ned as the dimensions of the smallest discernible objectThe GRD is a function of geometry (altitude focal length of optics) equipment(internal system spatial resolution of the camera or scanner) and also on re ectancecharacteristics of the object compared to its surroundings (contrast)

Performance of a lm lm and camera or deployed aerial photography systemis measured empirically using standard targets that consist of black-and-white barsof graduated widths and spacings ( gure 6ndash9 in Slater et al 1983) The area-weightedaverage resolution (AWAR) in lp mm Otilde 1 ( line pairs mm Otilde 1 ) at the lm plane is deter-mined by measuring the smallest set of line pairs that can be discriminated on anoriginal lm negative or transparency Line pairs are quoted because it is necessaryto discriminate between one object and another to detect it and measure it

Film resolving power (in lp mm Otilde 1 ) is measured by manufacturers under standardphotographi c conditions (Smith and Anson 1968 Eastman Kodak Company 1998)


at high contrast (objectbackground ratio 10001) and low contrast (objectback-ground ratio 161) Most terrestrial surfaces recorded from orbit are low contrastfor the purpose of estimating resolving power of lm Kodak no longer measures lm resolving power for non-aerial photographic lms (Karen Teitelbaum EastmanKodak Company personal communication) including lms that NASA routinelyuses for Earth photography

AWAR can be measured for the static case of lm and camera or for thecamerandashaircraft system in motion For example AWAR for the National AerialPhotography Program includes eVects of the lens resolving power of original lmimage blur due to aircraft motion and spatial resolution of duplicating lm (Light1996) Given AWAR for a system in motion the GRD can be calculated bytrigonometry (see equation (3) in sect5 d=1AWAR and D=GRD)

An impediment to similar rigorous measurement of GRD for orbital remotesensing systems is the lack of a target of suitable scale on the ground thus spatialresolution for most orbiting sensors is described in terms of a less all-encompassingmeasure instantaneous eld of view (see below) Additional challenges to measuringAWAR for a complete astronaut photography system include the number of diVerentoptions for aspects of the system including diVerent cameras lms and orbitalaltitudes These elements that must be standardized to determine AWAR providea useful list of those characteristics of astronaut photography that will mostin uence GRD

22 Instantaneous eld of viewThe instantaneous eld of view (IFOV) is generally used to represent the spatial

resolution of automated satellite systems and is commonly used interchangeablywith the term spatial resolution when comparing diVerent sensors IFOV is a combina-tion of geometric mechanical and electronic properties of the imaging systemGeometric properties including satellite orbital altitude detector size and the focallength of the optical system (Simonett 1983) The sensitivity of each detector elementat the wavelength desired plus the signal-to-noise level desired are electronic proper-ties that determine a minimum time for energy absorption For a linear sensor array(pushbroom scanning) this minimum time is translated to areal coverage by theforward velocity of the platform (Campbell 1996 p 97) Usually each detectorelement in the array corresponds to a pixel in the image Thus for a given altitudethe width of the pixel is determined by the optics and sensor size and the height ofthe pixel is determined by the rate of forward motion When magni ed by the ratioof the sensor altitude to the focal length of the optics of the sensor system IFOV isthe size of the area on the ground represented by an individual detector element(pixel Slater 1980 p 27)

The equation of IFOV with spatial resolution can be misleading because IFOVdoes not include factors other than geometrymdashfactors that largely determine thelevel of detail that can be distinguished in an image For example IFOV does notinclude characteristics of the target (contrast with surroundings shape of an objectcolour) atmospheric conditions illumination and characteristics of the interpreter(machine or human) Factors in uencing spatial resolution that are included in IFOVcan be calculated from design speci cations before the system has been built whereasthe actual spatial resolution of an image captured by the sensor will be unique tothat image IFOV represents the best spatial resolution possible given optimalconditions


23 Imagery from scanners versus lm from camerasLike aerial photography systems the GRD of early remote sensing scanners

(electro-optical imaging systems) was calibrated empirically ( gures 1ndash6 in Simonett1983) but such methods are impractical for routine applications Satellites are nowcommon platforms for collecting remote sensing data small-scale aerial photographsare widely available within the USA and Europe and astronaut photographshave become available worldwide Straightforward comparison of resolutions ofphotographs to IFOVs of scanner images is necessary for many applications

How can spatial resolutions of data from diVerent sources be compared usingcommon units Oft-quoted lsquoresolution numbersrsquo actually IFOV of digital scanningsystems should be at least doubled for comparison to the standard method ofexpressing photographi c spatial resolution as GRD simply because of the objectcontrast requirement The following rule of thumb has been used in geographicapplications to compare spatial resolution of scanners and aerial photography (Welch1982 Jensen 1983) a low-contrast target may be converted to an approximate IFOVby dividing the GRD (of the photograph) by 24 Such a rule of thumb might alsobe reasonably applied to astronaut photography making it possible to convertobserved GRD to IFOV and IFOV to an estimated GRD

In this paper we discuss the spatial resolution of astronaut photographs in termsof system properties and compute the area on the ground represented by a singlepixel the equivalent to IFOV To complete our treatment of spatial resolution wealso provide estimates of the sizes of small features identi able in images for severalcases where this can be readily done

3 Factors that determine the footprint (area covered by the photograph )The most fundamental metric that forms the basis for estimating spatial resolution

of astronaut photographs is the size of the footprint or area on the ground capturedin a photograph (see review of satellite photogrammetry by Light 1980) The basicgeometric variables that in uence the area covered by an astronaut photograph are(1) the altitude of the orbit H (2) the focal length of the lens f (3) the actual sizeof the image on the lm d and (4) the orientation of the camera axis relative to theground (the obliquity or look angle t ) The relationships among these parametersare illustrated in gure 1 (also see equation (3) in sect5)

31 AltitudeHuman space ight missions have had a variety of primary objectives that required

diVerent orbital altitudes The higher the altitude the larger the footprint of thephotographs The diVering scale of photographs taken at diVerent altitudes is illus-trated in gure 2 The two photographs of Lake Eyre Australia were taken with thesame camera and lens but on diVerent dates and from diVerent altitudes In (a) thelake is relatively ooded while in (b) it is dry A 23timesdiVerence in altitude leads toa corresponding diVerence in the scales of the resulting photographs

32 L ensesThe longer the lens focal length the more magni cation the greater detail and

the smaller footprint A variety of lenses with diVerent focal lengths are own oneach space mission (table 1) The eVect of lens length on spatial coverage and imagedetail is shown in gure 3 In these views of Houston (a)ndash(c) taken from approxi-mately similar altitudes with the same camera most of the diVerence in scale of the


Figure 1 Geometric relationship between look angle (t) spacecraft nadir point (SN) photo-graph centre point (PC) and photograph principal point (PP) The dark shaded arearepresents Earthrsquos surface The distance covered on the ground D corresponds totable 5 Original image size d is listed for various lms in table 1 Variables correspondto equations (2)ndash(9) in sect5


(a) (b)

Figure 2 Example of the eVect of altitude on area covered in a photograph Both photographsof Lake Eyre Australia were taken using a Hasselblad camera with 100 mm lens(a) altitude 283 km STS093-702-062 (b) altitude 617 km STS082-754-61

photographs is due to the diVerent magni cations of the lenses Although taken froma diVerent altitude and using a diVerent camera with a diVerent original image size(see table 2) an electronic still camera image taken with a 300 mm lens is alsoincluded for comparison

For remote sensing longer focal length lenses are generally preferred (250 mm or350 mm for Hasselblad 300 mm or 400 mm lenses for 35 mm format cameras andESCs) Unfortunately longer-focal-length lenses exhibit poorer performance towardthe edge of a frame For example a 250 mm lens (Distagon CF 56) used on theHasselblad camera has spatial resolution of 57 lp mm Otilde 1 at the centre but only51 lp mm Otilde 1 at the edge and 46 lp mm Otilde 1 at the corner (tested with Ektachrome 5017f8 aperture and high contrast) A longer 300 mm lens used on the Nikon camerahas a greater spatial resolution diVerence between centre (82 lp mm Otilde 1 ) and corner(49 lp mm Otilde 1 ) using Kodak 5017 Ektachrome f4 aperture and high contrast FredPearce (unpublished data) There are tradeoVs among lens optics and speed Forexample the lenses for the Linhof system and the 250 mm lens for the Hasselblad(Distagon CF 56 see footnotes to table 1) are limited to apertures smaller thanf56 This becomes an important constraint in selecting shutter speeds (see discussionof shutter speed in sect42)

33 Cameras and actual image sizesAfter passing through the lens the photographic image is projected onto lm

inside the camera The size of this original image is another important propertydetermining spatial resolution and is determined by the camera used Cameraformats include 35 mm and 70 mm (Lowman 1980 Amsbury 1989) and occasionally5times4 inch (127times100 mm) and larger (table 1) Cameras own on each mission arenot metricmdashthey lack vacuum platens or reseau grids image-motion compensationor gyro-stabilized mounts The workhorse for engineering and Earth photographyon NASA missions has been a series of 70 mm Hasselblad cameras (table 1) chosenfor their reliability The modi ed magazine databack imprints a unique number and


Tab

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55times

55

50

100250

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1990ndash19

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Cam

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229

times457

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2143

1984

Mis

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only

(Mer

kel

etal

198

5)

Maure

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times55

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1961ndash19

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orm

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(35

mm

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no

tin

clud

edin

this

table

bec

ause

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the

larg

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Carl

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0m

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r20

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28

(50

mm

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(110

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ele-

Tes

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50m

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Tel

e-T

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rF

E4

(350

mm

)3 T

hes

eca

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wer

ein

xed

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nti

ngs

on

the

outs

ide

of

the

Skyla

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stati

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A

ltho

ugh

not

hand

hel

d

the

lm

isca

talo

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ther

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aut

ph

oto

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ph

yan

dis

incl

uded

her

efo

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mp

lete

nes

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NA

SA

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igned

cam

era

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itud

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fere

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syst

emfo

rd

eter

min

ing

pre

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nadir

poin

ts

Dat

ais

no

tcu

rren

tly

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ted

into

on

lin

ed

atab

ase

bu

tis

cata

loged

by

Mer

kel

etal

(1

985

)


(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 3 Example of the eVect of lens focal length on resolving power Hasselblad imagesof Houston were all taken from an altitude of 294 kmndash302 km with diVerent lenses(a) 40 mm STS062-97-151 (b) 100 mm STS094-737-28 (c) 250 mm STS055-71-41 Forcomparison an Electronic Still Camera image with 300 mm lens at 269 km altitude isalso shown (d ) S73E5145

timestamp on each frame at the time of exposure Cameras are serviced between ights Occasionally there is enough volume and mass allowance so that a Linhof5times4 inch (127times101 mm) format camera can be own Nikon 35 mm cameras are own routinely also because of proven reliability Electronic still cameras (ESC)were tested for Earth photography beginning in 1992 (Lulla and Holland 1993) Inan ESC a CCD (charge-coupled device) is used as a digital replacement for lmrecording the image projected inside the camera An ESC (consisting of a KodakDCS 460c CCD in a Nikon N-90S body) was added as routine equipment forhandheld photographs in 1995 ESCs have also been operated remotely to captureand downlink Earth images through a NASA-sponsored educational programme(EarthKAM) Discussion of CCD spatial array and radiometric sensitivity arebeyond the scope of this paper but are summarized by Robinson et al (2000b) The


format of the lm (or CCD) and image size projected onto the lm (or CCD) aresummarized for all the diVerent cameras own in table 2

34 L ook angle or obliquityNo handheld photographs can be considered perfectly nadir they are taken at a

variety of look angles ranging from near vertical ( looking down at approximatelythe nadir position of the spacecraft ) to high oblique (images that include the curvatureof Earth) Imaging at oblique look angles leads to an image where scale degradesaway from nadir A set of views of the same area from diVerent look angles is shownin gure 4 The rst two shots of the island of Hawaii were taken only a few secondsapart and with the same lens The third photograph was taken on a subsequentorbit and with a shorter lens The curvature of the Earth can be seen in the upperleft corner

Obliquity can be described qualitatively ( gure 4) or quantitatively as the lookangle (t gure 1 calculations described in formulation 2 (sect52)) Because obliquityand look angle have such a dramatic in uence on the footprint we summarize thedatabase characteristics relative to these two parameters Figure 5 is a breakdownof the spatial resolution characteristics of low oblique and near vertical photographsin the NASA Astronaut Photography database Number of photographs are grouped(1) by calculated values for look angle (t ) and (2) by altitude After observing theoverlap between near vertical and low oblique classes we are currently restructuringthis variable (lsquotiltrsquo) in the database to provide a measure of t when available Userswill still be able to do searches based on the qualitative measures but these measureswill be more closely tied to actual look angle

341 Obliquity and georeferencing digitised photographsOften the rst step in a remote sensing analysis of a digitized astronaut photo-

graph is to georeference the data and resample it to conform to a known mapprojection Details and recommendations for resampling astronaut photographydata are provided by Robinson et al (2000a 2000c) and a tutorial is also available(McRay et al 2000) Slightly oblique photographs can be geometrically correctedfor remote sensing purposes but extremely oblique photographs are not suited forgeometric correction When obliquity is too great the spatial scale far away fromnadir is much larger than the spatial scale closer to nadir resampling results areunsuitable because pixels near nadir are lost as the image is resampled while manypixels far away from nadir are excessively replicated by resampling

To avoid the generation of excess pixels during georeferencing the pixel sizes ofthe original digitized image should be smaller than the pixels in the nal resampledimage Calculations of original pixel size using methods presented below can beuseful in ensuring meaningful resampling For slightly oblique images formulation 3(sect53) can be used to estimate pixel sizes at various locations in a photograph (nearnadir and away from nadir) and these pixel sizes then used to determine a reasonablepixel scale following resampling

4 Other characteristics that in uence spatial resolutionBeyond basic geometry many other factors internal to the astronaut photography

system impact the observed ground resolved distance in a photograph The lensesand cameras already discussed are imperfect and introduce radiometric degradations(Moik 1980)Vignetting (slight darkening around the edges of an image) occurs in


Tab

le2

Max

imu

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lre

solu

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n(p

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size

inm

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itud

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lm

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2400

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(pix

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per

inch

10

6m

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1 )

Min

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of

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Maxi

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itud

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asy

stem

mm

timesm

mp

ixel

s2(2

22k

m)

(326

km

)(6

11

km

)

Lin

ho

f125

mm

90

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lens

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times120

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11

434

261

383

718

250

mm

lens

94

138

259

Has

selb

lad

70

mm

100

mm

lens

55times

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times519

823

534

564

725

0m

mle

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94

138

259

Nik

on

35m

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36times

24

3308

times217

478

115

216

400

mm

lens

59

86

162

ESC

35m

m18

0m

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18

530

69times

204

311

116

330

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67

98

184

400

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50

74

138

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em

inim

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ugh

ST

S-8

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mis

sion

s)

2 Act

ual

pix

els

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C

oth

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med

dig

itiz

ati

on

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erin

ch)

equ

alto

10

6m

mpix

elOtilde

1 3 T

he

mo

stco

mm

on

con

gura

tion

for

Eart

hph

oto

gra

ph

yas

part

of

the

Eart

hK

AM

pro

ject


Figure 4 De nitions of look angle for photographs taken from low orbit around EarthThe example photographs of Hawaii were all taken from approximately the samealtitude (370ndash398 km) and with the same (250 mm) lens on a Hasselblad camera(STS069-701-69 STS069-701-70 and STS069-729-27 [100 mm lens])

astronaut photography due to light path properties of the lenses used A lack of atness of the lm at the moment of exposure (because cameras used in orbit donot incorporate a vacuum platen) also introduces slight degradations A numberof additional sources of image degradation that would aVect GRD of astronautphotographs are listed

41 Films and processing411 Colour reversal lms

Most lms used in NASA handheld cameras in orbit have been E-6 processcolour reversal lms (Ektachromes) that have a nominal speed of 64 to 100 ASAalthough many other lms have been own (table 3) Reversal lms are used becausedamage from radiation exposure while outside the atmospheric protection of Earthis more noticeable in negative lms than in positive lms (Slater 1996) The choiceof ASA has been to balance the coarser grains ( lower lm resolving power) of high-speed lms with the fact that slower lms require longer exposures and thus areaVected more by vehicle motion (approximately 73 km s Otilde 1 relative to Earthrsquos surfacefor the Space Shuttle) Extremely fast lms (gt400 ASA) are also more susceptibleto radiation damage in orbit (particularly during long-duration or high-altitudemissions Slater 1996) and have not traditionally been used for Earth photography The manufacturer stock numbers identifying the lm used are available for eachimage in the Astronaut Photography Database (OYce of Earth Sciences 2000)

412 Colour infrared lmsColour infrared lm (CIR) was used during an Earth-orbiting Apollo mission

(Colwell 1971) in the multispectral S-190A and the high-resolution S-190B camera


Figure 5 (a) Distributions of astronaut photographs by look angle oV-nadir (calculated fromcentre point and nadir point using Formulation 2) Data included for all photographsfor which centre and nadir points are known with high oblique look angles (n=55 155) excluded (Total sample shown is 108 293 of 382 563 total records in thedatabase when compiled For records where nadir data was not available number ofobservations for qualitative look angles are near vertical 14 086 low oblique 115 834undetermined 89 195) (b) Altitude distribution for astronaut photographs of Earthtaken with the Hasselblad camera Data included for Hasselblad camera only focallength determined with high oblique look angles excluded (Total sample shown is159 046 of 206 971 Hasselblad records with known altitude and of 382 563 total recordsin the database when compiled For Hasselblad records with known altitude data notshown includes high oblique photographs using 100 mm and 250 mm lenses n=20 262and all look angles with other lenses n=27 663)

systems on Skylab (NASA 1974 Wilmarth et al 1977) and occasionally on Shuttlemissions and Shuttle-Mir missions (table 3) The CIR lm used is a three-layerAerochrome having one layer that is sensitive to re ected solar infrared energy toapproximately 900 nm (Eastman Kodak Company 1998) protective coatings onmost spacecraft windows also limit IR transmittance between 800 mm and 1000 nmThis layer is extremely sensitive to the temperature of the lm which createsunpredictable degradation of the IR signature under some space ight conditions


Tab

le3

Det

ails

on

lm

suse

dfo

rast

ron

aut

pho

togr

aphy

of

Eart

h

Dat

ain

clud

ep

ho

togr

aphy

fro

mall

NA

SA

hum

an

spac

eig

ht

mis

sio

ns

thro

ugh

ST

S-9

6(J

un

e19

99

378

461

tota

lfr

ames

inth

edata

base

)F

ilm

sw

ith

lt50

00fr

am

esex

po

sed

and

lm

suse

dfo

r35

mm

cam

eras

only

are

no

tin

clud

ed

Res

olv

ing

Nu

mb

erof

Film

man

ufa

ctu

rer

AS

Ap

ow

er1

fram

esP

erio

dof

use

Cam

eras

Colo

ur

posi

tive

Kod

akA

eroch

rom

eII

(2447

2448

SO

-131S

O-3

68

)32

40ndash50

513

8196

8ndash19

85

Hass

elbla

dL

inh

of

Kod

akE

kta

chro

me

(5017

502

56

017

6118

SO

-121

64

50

113

932

196

5ndash19

68

Hass

elbla

dL

inh

of

Role

iex

SO

-217

Q

X-8

24

QX

-868

)19

81ndash1993

Mau

rer

Nik

on

Kod

akL

um

iere

(5046

5048

)100

105

743

199

4ndash19

98

Hass

elbla

dL

inho

fK

od

akE

lite

100

S(5

069

)100

41

486

199

6ndashp

rese

nt

Hass

elbla

d2

Fu

jiV

elvia

50C

S135

-36

32

13

882

1992ndash19

97H

ass

elbla

dN

iko

nK

od

akH

i-R

esolu

tio

nC

olo

r(S

O-2

42S

O-3

56

)10

096

74

1973ndash19

75H

ass

elbla

d

S19

0A

S190

B

Infr

are

dand

bla

ck-a

nd-w

hit

e

lms

Kod

akA

eroch

rom

eC

olo

rIn

frar

ed40

32

40

704

196

5ndashp

rese

nt2

Hass

elbla

dL

inh

of

Nik

on

S190

A

(8443

34

432443

)S

190B

Kod

akB

ampW

Infr

are

d(2

424

)32

10

553

197

3ndash19

74

S190

AK

od

akP

anato

mic

-XB

ampW

(SO

-022

)63

10

657

197

3ndash19

74

S190

A

1A

tlo

wco

ntr

ast

(ob

ject

back

grou

nd

rati

o16

1)

aspro

vid

edby

Ko

dak

and

list

edby

Sla

ter

etal

(1

983

256

)R

esolv

ing

pow

erw

as

dis

con

tin

ued

fro

mth

ete

chn

ical

test

sper

form

edb

yK

odak

inapp

roxim

atel

y19

93

an

dit

isn

ot

kn

ow

nif

curr

ent

lm

sh

ave

sim

ilar

reso

lvin

gpo

wer

too

lder

ver

sion

so

fsi

milar

lm

s(K

T

eite

lbaum

K

od

akp

erso

nal

com

mu

nic

atio

n)

Th

egra

nu

lari

tym

easu

reno

wpro

vid

edb

yK

od

ak

can

no

tb

ere

adily

con

ver

ted

toa

spat

ial

reso

luti

on

2 The

Lin

hof

was

use

dag

ain

on

ST

S-1

03in

Dec

emb

er19

99(d

ata

not

cata

logued

asof

the

pre

para

tion

of

this

tab

le)

usi

ng

Ko

dak

Elite

100S

lm

3 B

egin

nin

gin

July

1999

2443

colo

ur-

infr

are

d

lmpro

cess

was

chan

ged

from

EA

-5to

E-6


413 Film duplicationThe original lm is archived permanently after producing about 20 duplicate

printing masters (second generation) Duplicate printing masters are disseminatedto regional archives and used to produce products (thirdndashfourth generation) for themedia the public and for scienti c use When prints slides transparencies anddigital products are produced for public distribution they are often colour adjustedto correspond to a more realistic look Digital products from second generationcopies can be requested by scienti c users (contact the authors for information onobtaining such products for a particular project) and these are recommended forremote sensing applications Care should be taken that the digital product acquiredfor remote sensing analysis has not been colour adjusted for presentation purposesBased on qualitative observations there is little visible increase in GRD in the thirdor fourth generation products There is a signi cant degradation in delity of colourin third and fourth generation duplicates because an increase in contrast occurswith every copy

42 Shutter speedsThe impact of camera motion (both due to the photographer and to the motion

of the spacecraft ) on image quality is determined by shutter speedmdash1250 to 1500second have been used because slower speeds record obvious blurring caused bythe rapid motion of the spacecraft relative to the surface of the Earth Generally1250 was used for ISO 64 lms (and slower) and after the switch to ISO 100 lmsa 1500 setting became standard New Hasselblad cameras that have been ownbeginning with STS-92 in October 2000 vary shutter speed using a focal plane shutterfor exposure bracketing (rather than varying aperture) and 1250 1500 and 11000second are used

Across an altitude range of 120ndash300 nautical miles (222ndash555 km) and orbitalinclinations of 285deg and 570deg the median relative ground velocity of orbitingspacecraft is 73 km s Otilde 1 At a nominal shutter speed of 1500 the expected blur dueto motion relative to the ground would be 146 m When cameras are handheld (asopposed to mounted in a bracket) blur can be reduced by physical compensationfor the motion (tracking) by the photographer many photographs show a level ofdetail indicating that blur at this level did not occur (eg gure 3(d )) Thus motionrelative to the ground is not an absolute barrier to ground resolution for handheldphotographs

43 Spacecraft windowsMost of the photographs in the NASA Astronaut Photography Database were

taken through window ports on the spacecraft used The transmittance of the windowport may be aVected by material inhomogeniety of the glass the number of layersof panes coatings used the quality of the surface polish environmentally inducedchanges in window materials (pressure loads thermal gradients) or deposited con-tamination Such degradation of the window cannot be corrected is diVerent foreach window and changes over time See Eppler et al (1996) and Scott (2000) fordiscussion of the spectral transmittance of the fused quartz window that is part ofthe US Laboratory Module (Destiny) of the International Space Station

44 Digitized images from lmWhen lm is scanned digitally the amount of information retained depends on

the spectral information extracted from the lm at the spatial limits of the scanner


To date standard digitizing methodologies for astronaut photographs have not beenestablished and lm is digitized on a case-by-case basis using the equipment available

441 Digitizing and spatial resolutionLight (1993 1996) provided equations for determining the digitizing spatial

resolution needed to preserve spatial resolution of aerial photography based on thestatic resolving power (AWAR) for the system For lms where the manufacturer hasprovided data (Eastman Kodak 1998 K Teitelbaum personal communication) the resolving power of lms used for astronaut photography ranges from 32 lp mm Otilde 1to 100 lp mm Otilde 1 at low contrast (objectbackground ratio 161 table 3) The AWARfor the static case of the Hasselblad camera has been measured at high and lowcontrast (using lenses shown in table 1) with a maximum of approximately55 lp mm Otilde 1 (Fred Pearce unpublished data)

Based on the method of Light (1993 1996) the dimension of one spatial resolutionelement for a photograph with maximum static AWAR of 55 lp mm Otilde 1 would be18 mm lp Otilde 1 The acceptable range of spot size to preserve spatial information wouldthen be

18 mm

2 atilde 2aring scan spot size aring

18 mm

2(1)

and 6 mm aring scan spot size aring 9 mm Similarly for a more typical static AWAR of30 lp mm Otilde 1 (33 mm lpOtilde 1 low contrast Fred Pearce unpublished data) 11 mm aring scanspot sizearing 17 mm These scan spot sizes correspond to digitizing resolutions rangingfrom 4233ndash2822 ppi (pixels inch Otilde 1 ) for AWAR of 55 lp mm Otilde 1 and 2309ndash1494 ppi forAWAR of 30 lp mm Otilde 1 Scan spot sizes calculated for astronaut photography arecomparable to those calculated for the National Aerial Photography Program(9ndash13 mm Light 1996)

Widely available scanners that can digitize colour transparency lm currentlyhave a maximum spatial resolution of approximately 2400 ppi (106 mm pixel Otilde 1) Forexample we routinely use an Agfa Arcus II desktop scanner (see also Baltsavias1996) with 2400 ppi digitizing spatial resolution (2400 ppi optical resolution in onedirection and 1200 ppi interpolated to 2400 ppi in the other direction) and 2400 ppiwas used to calculate IFOV equivalents (tables 2 and 4) For some combinations oflens camera and contrast 2400 ppi will capture nearly all of the spatial informationcontained in the lm However for lm with higher resolving power thanEktachrome-64 for better lenses and for higher contrast targets digitizing at 2400 ppiwill not capture all of the spatial information in the lm

Improvements in digitizing technology will only produce real increases in IFOVto the limit of the AWAR of the photography system The incremental increase inspatial information above 3000 ppi (85 mm pixel Otilde 1 ) is not likely to outweigh thecosts of storing large images (Luman et al 1997) At 2400 ppi a Hasselblad frameis approximately 5200times5200 or 27 million pixels (table 2) while the same imagedigitized at 4000 ppi would contain 75 million pixels

Initial studies using astronaut photographs digitized at 2400 ppi (106 mm pixel Otilde 1 Webb et al 2000 Robinson et al 2000c) indicate that some GRD is lost comparedto photographic products Nevertheless the spatial resolution is still comparablewith other widely used data sources (Webb et al 2000) Robinson et al (2000c)found that digitizing at 21 mm pixel Otilde 1 provided information equivalent to 106 mmpixel Otilde 1 for identifying general urban area boundaries for six cities except for a single


photo that required higher spatial resolution digitizing (it had been taken with ashorter lens and thus had less spatial resolution) Part of the equivalence observedin the urban areas study may be attributable to the fact that the atbed scannerused interpolates from 1200 ppi to 2400 ppi in one direction The appropriate digitiz-ing spatial resolution will in part depend on the scale of features of interest to theresearchers with a maximum upper limit set of a scan spot size of approximately6 mm (4233 ppi)

442 Digitizing and spectral resolutionWhen colour lm is digitized there will be loss of spectral resolution The three

lm emulsion layers (red green blue) have relatively distinct spectral responses butare fused together so that digitizers detect one colour signal and must convert itback into three (red green blue) digital channels Digital scanning is also subject tospectral calibration and reproduction errors Studies using digital astronaut photo-graphs to date have used 8 bits per channel However this is another parameterthat can be controlled when the lm is digitized We do not further address spectralresolution of digitally scanned images in this paper

45 External factors that in uence GRDAlthough not discussed in detail in this paper factors external to the spacecraft

and camera system (as listed by Moik (1980) for remote sensing in general) alsoimpact GRD These include atmospheric interference (due to scattering attenuationhaze) variable surface illumination (diVerences in terrain slope and orientation) andchange of terrain re ectance with viewing angle (bidirectional re ectance) For astro-naut photographs variable illumination is particularly important because orbits arenot sun-synchronous Photographs are illuminated by diVerent sun angles and imagesof a given location will have colour intensities that vary widely In addition theviewing angle has an eVect on the degree of object-to-backgroun d contrast andatmospheric interference

5 Estimating spatial resolution of astronaut photographsIn order to use astronaut photographs for digital remote sensing it is important

to be able to calculate the equivalent to an IFOVmdashthe ground area represented bya single pixel in a digitized orbital photograph The obliquity of most photographsmeans that pixel lsquosizesrsquo vary at diVerent places in an image Given a ground distanceD represented by a photograph in each direction (horizontal vertical ) an approxi-mate average pixel width (P the equivalent of IFOV) for the entire image can becalculated as follows

P=D

dS(2)

where D is the projected distance on the ground covered by the image in the samedirection as the pixel is measured d is the actual width of the image on the original lm (table 1) and S is the digitizing spatial resolution

Here we present three mathematical formulations for estimating the size of thefootprint or area on the ground covered by the image Example results from theapplication of all three formulations are given in table 5 The rst and simplestcalculation (formulation 1) gives an idea of the maximum spatial resolution attainableat a given altitude of orbit with a given lm format and a perfectly vertical (nadir)


view downward Formulation 2 takes into account obliquity by calculating lookangle from the diVerence between the location on the ground represented at thecentre of the photograph and the nadir location of the spacecraft at the time thephotograph was taken ( gure 1) Formulation 3 describes an alternate solution tothe oblique look angle problem using coordinate-system transformations Thisformulation has been implemented in a documented spreadsheet and is availablefor download (httpeoljscnasagovsseopFootprintCalculatorxls) and is in theprocess of being implemented on a Web-based user interface to the AstronautPhotography Database (OYce of Earth Sciences 2000)

Although formulations 2 and 3 account for obliquity for the purposes of calcula-tion they treat the position of the spacecraft and position of the camera as one Inactuality astronauts are generally holding the cameras by hand (although camerasbracketed in the window are also used) and the selection of window position of theastronaut in the window and rotation of the camera relative to the movement ofthe spacecraft are not known Thus calculations using only the photo centre point(PC) and spacecraft nadir point (SN) give a locator ellipse and not the locations ofthe corners of the photograph A locator ellipse describes an estimated area on theground that is likely to be included in a speci c photograph regardless of the rotationof the lm plane about the camerarsquos optical axis ( gure 6)

Estimating the corner positions of the photo requires additional user input of asingle auxiliary pointmdasha location on the image that has a known location on theground Addition of this auxiliary point is an option available to users of thespreadsheet An example of the results of adding an auxiliary point is shown in gure 7 with comparisons of the various calculations in table 5

51 Formulation 1 Footprint for a nadir viewThe simplest way to estimate footprint size is to use the geometry of camera lens

and spacecraft altitude to calculate the scaling relationship between the image in the

Figure 6 Sketch representation of the locator ellipse an estimated area on the ground thatis likely to be included in a speci c photograph regardless of the rotation of the lmplane about the camerarsquos optical axis


Figure 7 An example of the application of the Low Oblique Space Photo FootprintCalculator The photograph (STS093-704-50) of Limmen Bight Australia was takenfrom an altitude of 283 km using the Hasselblad camera with a 250 mm lens Mapused is 11 000 000 Operational Navigational Chart The distances shown equate toan average pixel size of 124 m for this photograph

lm and the area covered on the ground For a perfect nadir view the scalerelationship from the geometry of similar triangles is

d

D=

f

H(3)

where d=original image size D=distance of footprint on the ground f =focallength of lens and H=altitude Once D is known pixel size ( length=width) can becalculated from equation (2) These calculations represent the minimum footprintand minimum pixel size possible for a given camera system altitude and digitisingspatial resolution (table 2) Formulation 1 was used for calculating minimum pixelsizes shown in tables 2 and 4

By assuming digitizing at 2400 ppi (106 mm pixel Otilde 1 ) currently a spatial resolutioncommonly attainable from multipurpose colour transparency scanners (see sect441)this formulation was used to convert area covered to an IFOV equivalent for missionsof diVerent altitudes (table 2) Table 4 provides a comparison of IFOV of imagesfrom various satellites including the equivalent for astronaut photography Valuesin this table were derived by using formulation 1 to estimate the area covered becausea perfect nadir view represents the best possible spatial resolution and smallest eldof view that could be obtained

52 Formulation 2 Footprint for oblique views using simpli ed geometry and thegreat circle distance

A more realistic approach to determining the footprint of the photographaccounts for the fact that the camera is not usually pointing perfectly down at the


Table 4 Comparison of pixel sizes (instantaneous elds of view) for satellite remote sensorswith pixel sizes for near vertical viewing photography from spacecraft Note that alldata returned from the automated satellites have the same eld of view while indicatedpixel sizes for astronaut photography are best-case for near vertical look angles See gure 5 for distributions of astronaut photographs of various look angles High-altitude aerial photography is also included for reference

Altitude PixelInstrument (km) width (mtimesm) Bands1

Landsat Multipectral Scanner2 (MSS 1974-) 880ndash940 79times56 4ndash5Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM 1982-) ~705 30times30 7Satellite pour lrsquoObservation de la Terre (SPOT 1986-) ~832

SPOT 1-3 Panchromatic 10times10 1SPOT 1-3 Multispectral (XS) 20times20 3

Astronaut Photography (1961-)Skylab3 (1973-1974 ) ~435

Multispectral Camera (6 camera stations) 17ndash19times17ndash19 3ndash8Earth Terrain Camera (hi-res colour) 875times875 3

Space Shuttle5 (1981-) 222ndash611Hasselblad 70 mm (250mm lens colour) vertical view 9ndash26times9ndash26 3Hasselblad 70 mm (100mm lens colour) vertical view 23ndash65times23ndash65 3Nikon 35 mm (400mm lens colour lm or ESC) vertical 5ndash16times5ndash16 3

High Altitude Aerial Photograph (1100 000) ~12 2times2 3

1Three bands listed for aerial photography obtainable by high-resolution colour digitizingFor high-resolution colour lm at 65 lp mmOtilde 1 (K Teitelbaum Eastman Kodak Co personalcommunication) the maximum information contained would be 3302 ppi

2Data from Simonett (1983Table 1-2)3Calculated as recommended by Jensen (19831596) the dividend of estimated ground

resolution at low contrast given in NASA (1974179-180) and 244Six lters plus colour and colour infrared lm (NASA 19747) 5Extracted from table 2

nadir point The look angle (the angle oV nadir that the camera is pointing) can becalculated trigonometrically by assuming a spherical earth and calculating the dis-tance between the coordinates of SN and PC ( gure 1) using the Great Circledistance haversine solution (Sinnott 1984 Snyder 198730ndash32 Chamberlain 1996)The diVerence between the spacecraft centre and nadir point latitudes Dlat=lat 2 shy lat 1 and the diVerence between the spacecraft centre and nadir pointlongitudes Dlon=lon 2 shy lon 1 enter the following equations

a=sin2ADlat

2 B+cos(lat 1) cos(lat 2) sin2ADlon

2 B (4)

c=2 arcsin(min[1 atilde a]) (5)

and oVset=R c with R the radius of a spherical Earth=6370 kmThe look angle (t ) is then given by

t=arctanAoffset

H B (6)

Assuming that the camera was positioned so that the imaginary line between thecentre and nadir points (the principal line) runs vertically through the centre of thephotograph the distance between the geometric centre of the photograph (principalpoint PP) and the top of the photograph is d2 ( gure 8(a)) The scale at any point


(a) (b)

Figure 8 The geometric relationship between look angle lens focal length and the centrepoint and nadir points of a photograph (see also Estes and Simonett 1975) Note thatthe Earthrsquos surface and footprint represented in gure 1 are not shown here only arepresentation of the image area of the photograph Variables shown in the gurelook angle t focal length f PP centre of the image on the lm SN spacecraft nadird original image size (a) The special case where the camera is aligned squarely withthe isometric parallel In this case tilt occurs along a plane parallel with the centre ofthe photograph When the conditions are met calculations using Formulation 3 willgive the ground coordinates of the corner points of the photograph (b) The generalrelationship between these parameters and key photogrammetric points on the photo-graph For this more typical case coordinates of an additional point in the photographmust be input in order to adjust for twist of the camera and to nd the corner pointcoordinates

in the photograph varies as a function of the distance y along the principal linebetween the isocentre and the point according to the relationship

d

D=

f shy ysint

H(7)

(Wong 1980 equation (214) H amp the ground elevation h) Using gure 8(a) at thetop of the photo

y= f tanAt

2B+d

2(8)

and at the bottom of the photo

y= f tanAt

2Bshyd

2(9)

Thus for given PC and SN coordinates and assuming a photo orientation as in gure 8(a) and not gure 8(b) we can estimate a minimum D (using equations (7)and (8)) and a maximum D (using equations (7) and (9)) and then average the twoto determine the pixel size (P ) via equation (2)


53 Formulation 3 T he L ow Oblique Space Photo Footprint CalculatorThe Low Oblique Space Photo Footprint Calculator was developed to provide

a more accurate estimation of the geographic coordinates for the footprint of a lowoblique photo of the Earthrsquos surface taken from a human-occupied spacecraft inorbit The calculator performs a series of three-dimensional coordinate transforma-tions to compute the location and orientation of the centre of the photo exposureplane relative to an earth referenced coordinate system The nominal camera focallength is then used to create a vector from the photorsquos perspective point througheach of eight points around the parameter of the image as de ned by the formatsize The geographical coordinates for the photo footprint are then computed byintersecting these photo vectors with a spherical earth model Although more sophist-icated projection algorithms are available no signi cant increase in the accuracy ofthe results would be produced by these algorithms due to inherent uncertainties inthe available input data (ie the spacecraft altitude photo centre location etc)

The calculations were initially implemented within a Microsoft Excel workbookwhich allowed one to embed the mathematical and graphical documentation nextto the actual calculations Thus interested users can inspect the mathematical pro-cessing A set of error traps was also built into the calculations to detect erroneousresults A summary of any errors generated is reported to the user with the resultsof the calculations Interested individuals are invited to download the Excel work-book from httpeoljscnasagovsseopFootprintCalculatorxls The calculations arecurrently being encoded in a high-level programming language and should soon beavailable alongside other background data provided for each photograph at OYceof Earth Sciences (2000)

For the purposes of these calculations a low oblique photograph was de ned as

one with the centre within 10 degrees of latitude and longitude of the spacecraftnadir point For the typical range of spacecraft altitudes to date this restricted thecalculations to photographs in which Earthrsquos horizon does not appear (the generalde nition of a low oblique photograph eg Campbell 199671 and gure 4)

531 Input data and resultsUpon opening the Excel workbook the user is presented with a program intro-

duction providing instructions for using the calculator The second worksheet tablsquoHow-To-Usersquo provides detailed step-by-step instructions for preparing the baselinedata for the program The third tab lsquoInput-Output rsquo contains the user input eldsand displays the results of the calculations The additional worksheets contain theactual calculations and program documentation Although users are welcome toreview these sheets an experienced user need only access the lsquoInput-Outputrsquo

spreadsheetTo begin a calculation the user enters the following information which is available

for each photo in the NASA Astronaut Photography Database (1) SN geographicalcoordinates of spacecraft nadir position at the time of photo (2) H spacecraftaltitude (3) PC the geographical coordinates of the centre of the photo (4) f nominal focal length and (5) d image format size The automatic implementationof the workbook on the web will automatically enter these values and completecalculations

For more accurate results the user may optionally enter the geographic co-ordinates and orientation for an auxiliary point on the photo which resolves thecamerarsquos rotation uncertainty about the optical axis The auxiliary point data must


be computed by the user following the instruction contained in the lsquoHow-To-Usersquotab of the spreadsheet

After entering the input data the geographic coordinates of the photo footprint(ie four photo corner points four points at the bisector of each edge and the centreof the photo) are immediately displayed below the input elds along with any errormessages generated by the user input or by the calculations ( gure 7) Although

results are computed and displayed they should not be used when error messagesare produced by the program The program also computes the tilt angle for each ofthe photo vectors relative to the spacecraft nadir vector To the right of the photofootprint coordinates is displayed the arc distance along the surface of the sphere

between adjacent computed points

532 Calculation assumptions

The mathematical calculations implemented in the Low Oblique Space PhotoFootprint Calculator use the following assumptions

1 The SN location is used as exact even though the true value may vary by upto plusmn01 degree from the location provided with the photo

2 The spacecraft altitude is used as exact Although the determination of the

nadir point at the instant of a known spacecraft vector is relatively precise(plusmn115times10 Otilde 4 degrees) the propagator interpolates between sets of approxi-mately 10ndash40 known vectors per day and the time code recorded on the lmcan drift Thus the true value for SN may vary by up to plusmn01 degree fromthe value provided with the photo

3 The perspective centre of the camera is assumed to be at the given altitudeover the speci ed spacecraft nadir location at the time of photo exposure

4 The PC location is used as exact even though the true value may vary by upto plusmn05deg latitude and plusmn05deg longitude from the location provided with the

photo5 A spherical earth model is used with a nominal radius of 6 372 16154 m (a

common rst-order approximation for a spherical earth used in geodeticcomputations)

6 The nominal lens focal length of the camera lens is used in the computations(calibrated focal length values are not available)

7 The photo projection is based on the classic pin-hole camera model8 No correction for lens distortion or atmospheric re ection is made

9 If no auxiliary point data is provided the lsquoTop of the Imagersquo is orientedperpendicular to the vector from SN towards PC

533 T ransformation from Earth to photo coordinate systemsThe calculations begin by converting the geographic coordinates ( latitude and

longitude) of the SN and PC to a Rectangular Earth-Centred Coordinate System(R-Earth) de ned as shown in gure 9 (with the centre of the Earth at (0 0 0))

Using the vector from the Earthrsquos centre through SN and the spacecraft altitude thespacecraft location (SC) is also computed in R-Earth

For ease of computation a Rectangular Spacecraft-Centred Coordinate System(R-Spacecraft ) is de ned as shown in gure 9 The origin of R-Spacecraft is located

at SC with its +Z-axis aligned with vector from the centre of the Earth throughSN and its +X-axis aligned with the vector from SN to PC ( gure 9) The speci c


Figure 9 Representation of the area included in a photograph as a geometric projectiononto the Earthrsquos surface Note that the focal length (the distance from the SpaceShuttle to the photo) is grossly overscale compared to the altitude (the distance fromthe Shuttle to the surface of the Earth

rotations and translation used to convert from the R-Earth to the R-Spacecraft arecomputed and documented in the spreadsheet

With the mathematical positions of the SC SN PC and the centre of the Earthcomputed in R-Spacecraft the program next computes the location of the camerarsquosprincipal point (PP) The principle point is the point of intersection of the opticalaxis of the lens with the image plane (ie the lm) It is nominally positioned at a


distance equal to the focal length from the perspective centre of the camera (whichis assumed to be at SC) along the vector from PC through SC as shown in gure 9

A third coordinate system the Rectangular Photo Coordinate System (R-Photo)is created with its origin at PP its XndashY axial plane normal to the vector from PCthrough SC and its +X axis aligned with the +X axis of R-Spacecraft as shownin gure 9 The XndashY plane of this coordinate system represents the image plane ofthe photograph

534 Auxiliary point calculationsThe calculations above employ a critical assumption that all photos are taken

with the lsquotop of the imagersquo oriented perpendicular to the vector from the SN towardsPC as shown in gure 9 To avoid non-uniform solar heating of the external surfacemost orbiting spacecraft are slowly and continually rotated about one or more axesIn this condition a ight crew member taking a photo while oating in microgravitycould orient the photo with practically any orientation relative to the horizon (seealso gure 8(b)) Unfortunately since these photos are taken with conventionalhandheld cameras there is no other information available which can be used toresolve the photorsquos rotational ambiguity about the optical axis other then the photoitself This is why the above assumption is used and the footprint computed by thiscalculator is actually a lsquolocator ellipsersquo which estimates the area on the ground whatis likely to be included in a speci c photograph (see gure 6) This locator ellipse ismost accurate for square image formats and subject to additional distortion as thephotograph format becomes more rectangular

If the user wants a more precise calculation of the image footprint the photorsquosrotational ambiguity about the optical axis must be resolved This can be done inthe calculator by adding data for an auxiliary point Detailed instructions regardinghow to prepare and use auxiliary point data in the computations are included in thelsquoHow-To-Usersquo tab of the spreadsheet Basically the user determines which side ofthe photograph is top and then measures the angle between the line from PP to thetop of the photo and from PP to the auxiliary point on the photo ( gure 9)

If the user includes data for an auxiliary point a series of computations arecompleted to resolve the photo rotation ambiguity about the optical axis (ie the

+Z axis in R-Photo) A vector from the Auxiliary Point on the Earth (AE) throughthe photograph perspective centre ( located at SC) is intersected with the photo imageplane (XndashY plane of R-Photo) to compute the coordinates of the Auxiliary Point onthe photo (AP) in R-Photo A two-dimensional angle in the XndashY plane of R-Photofrom the shy X axis to a line from PP to AP is calculated as shown in gure 9 The

shy X axis is used as the origin of the angle since it represents the top of the photoonce it passes through the perspective centre The diVerence between the computedangle and the angle measured by the user on the photo resolves the ambiguity inthe rotation of the photo relative to the principal line ( gures 7 and 9) Thetransformations from R-Spacecraft and R-Photo are then modi ed to include anadditional rotation angle about the +Z axis in R-Photo

535 lsquoFootprint rsquo calculationsThe program next computes the coordinates of eight points about the perimeter

of the image format (ie located at the four photo corners plus a bisector pointalong each edge of the image) These points are identi ed in R-Photo based uponthe photograph format size and then converted to R-Spacecraft Since all computa-tions are done in orthogonal coordinate systems the R-Spacecraft to R-Photo


rotation matrix is transposed to produce an R-Photo to R-Spacecraft rotation matrixOnce in R-Spacecraft a unit vector from each of the eight perimeter points throughthe photo perspective centre (the same point as SC) is computed This provides thecoordinates for points about the perimeter of the image format with their directionvectors in a common coordinate system with other key points needed to computethe photo footprint

The next step is to compute the point of intersection between the spherical earthmodel and each of the eight perimeter point vectors The scalar value for eachperimeter point unit vector is computed using two-dimensional planar trigonometryAn angle c is computed using the formula for the cosine of an angle between twoincluded vectors (the perimeter point unit vector and the vector from SC to thecentre of the Earth) Angle y is computed using the Law of Sines Angle e=180degrees shy c shy y The scalar value of the perimeter point vector is computed using eand the Law of Cosines The scalar value is then multiplied by the perimeter pointunit vector to produce the three-dimensional point of intersection of the vector withEarthrsquos surface in R-Spacecraft The process is repeated independently for each ofthe eight perimeter point vectors Aside from its mathematical simplicity the valueof arcsine (computed in step 2) will exceed the normal range for the sin of an anglewhen the perimeter point vectors fail to intersect with the surface of the earth Asimple test based on this principle allows the program to correctly handle obliquephotos which image a portion of the horizon (see results for high oblique photographsin table 5)

The nal step in the process converts the eight earth intersection points from theR-Spacecraft to R-Earth The results are then converted to the standard geographiccoordinate system and displayed on the lsquoInput-Outputrsquo page of the spreadsheet

54 ExamplesAll three formulations were applied to the photographs included in this paper

and the results are compared in table 5 Formulation 1 gives too small a value fordistance across the photograph (D) for all but the most nadir shots and thus servesas an indicator of the best theoretical case but is not a good measure for a speci cphotograph For example the photograph of Lake Eyre taken from 276 km altitude( gure 2(a)) and the photograph of Limmen Bight ( gure 7) were closest to beingnadir views (oVsetslt68 km or tlt15deg table 5) For these photographs D calculatedusing Formulation 1 was similar to the minimum D calculated using Formulations2 and 3 For almost all other more oblique photographs Formulation 1 gave asigni cant underestimate of the distance covered in the photograph For gure 5(A)(the picture of Houston taken with a 40 mm lens) Formulation 1 did not give anunderestimate for D This is because Formulation 1 does not account for curvatureof the Earth in any way With this large eld of view assuming a at Earth in atedthe value of D above the minimum from calculations that included Earth curvature

A major diVerence between Formulations 2 and 3 is the ability to estimate pixelsizes (P) in both directions (along the principal line and perpendicular to the principalline) For the more oblique photographs the vertical estimate of D and pixel sizes ismuch larger than in the horizontal direction (eg the low oblique and high obliquephotographs of Hawaii gure 4 table 5)

For the area of Limmen Bight ( gure 7) table 5 illustrates the improvement inthe estimate of distance and pixel size that can be obtained by re-estimating thelocation of the PC with greater accuracy Centre points in the catalogued data are


plusmn05deg of latitude and longitude When the centre point was re-estimated to plusmn002degwe determined that the photograph was not taken as obliquely as rst thought(change in the estimate of the look angle t from 169 to 128deg table 5) When theauxiliary point was added to the calculations of Formula 3 the calculated look angleshrank further to 110deg indicating that this photograph was taken at very close toa nadir view Of course this improvement in accuracy could have also led to estimatesof greater obliquity and corresponding larger pixel sizes

We also tested the performance of the scale calculator with auxiliary point byestimating the corner and point locations on the photograph using a 11 000 000Operational Navigational Chart For this test we estimated our ability to readcoordinates from the map as plusmn002degand our error in nding the locations of thecorner points as plusmn015deg (this error varies among photographs depending on thedetail that can be matched between photo and map) For Limmen Bight ( gure 7)the mean diVerence between map estimates and calculator estimates for four pointswas 031deg (SD=018 n=8) For a photograph of San Francisco Bay (STS062-151-291) the mean diVerence between map estimates and calculator estimates forfour points was 0064deg (SD=018 n=8) For a photograph of San Francisco Bay(STS062-151-291) the mean diVerence between map estimates and calculator estim-ates for eight points was 0196deg (SD=0146 n=16) Thus in one case the calculatorestimates were better than our estimate of the error in locating corner points on themap It is reasonable to expect that for nadir-viewing photographs the calculatorused with an auxiliary point can estimate locations of the edges of a photograph towithin plusmn03deg

55 Empirical con rmation of spatial resolution estimatesAs stated previously a challenge to estimating system-AWAR for astronaut

photography of Earth is the lack of suitable targets Small features in an image cansometimes be used as a check on the size of objects that can be successfully resolvedgiving an approximate value for GRD Similarly the number of pixels that make upthose features in the digitized image can be used to make an independent calculationof pixel size We have successfully used features such as roads and airport runwaysto make estimates of spatial scale and resolution (eg Robinson et al 2000c) Whilerecognizing that the use of linear detail in an image is a poor approximation to abar target and that linear objects smaller than the resolving power can often bedetected (Charman 1965) few objects other than roads could be found to make anydirect estimates of GRD Thus roads and runways were used in the images ofHouston (where one can readily conduct ground veri cations and where a numberof higher-contrast concrete roadways were available) to obtain empirical estimatesof GRD and pixel size for comparison with table 5

In the all-digital ESC image of Houston ( gure 3(d )) we examined EllingtonField runway 4-22 (centre left of the image) which is 24384 mtimes457 m This runwayis approximately 6ndash7 pixels in width and 304ndash3094 pixels in length so pixelsrepresent an distance on the ground 7ndash8 m Using a lower contrast measure of astreet length between two intersections (2125 m=211 pixels) a pixel width of 101 mis estimated These results compare favourably with the minimum estimate of 81 mpixels using Formulation 1 (table 5) For an estimate of GRD that would be morecomparable to aerial photography of a line target the smallest street without treecover that could be clearly distinguished on the photograph was 792 m wide Thesmallest non-street object (a gap between stages of the Saturn rocket on display in


Tab

le5

App

lica

tio

nof

met

hod

sfo

res

tim

ati

ng

spati

alre

solu

tio

no

fast

ron

aut

ph

oto

gra

ph

sin

clu

din

gF

orm

ula

tion

s12

and

3Im

pro

ved

cen

tre

po

int

esti

mat

esan

dauxilia

ryp

oin

tca

lcu

lati

ons

are

sho

wn

for

gure

7V

aria

ble

sas

use

din

the

text

fle

ns

foca

lle

ngt

hH

al

titu

de

PC

ph

oto

gra

ph

cen

tre

poin

tSN

sp

ace

craft

nadir

po

int

D

dis

tance

cover

edo

nth

egr

oun

d

Pd

ista

nce

on

the

grou

nd

repre

sen

ted

by

apix

el

OVse

td

ista

nce

bet

wee

nP

Cand

SNusi

ng

the

grea

tci

rcle

form

ula

t

look

angle

away

from

SN

Form

ula

tion

1F

orm

ula

tio

n2

Form

ula

tio

n3

fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

2L

ake

Eyre

ST

S093

-717

-80

250

276

shy29

0137

0shy

28

413

71

607

11

767

413

7609

ndash64

212

013

760

9ndash64

7121

124

ST

S082

-754

-61

250

617

shy28

5137

0shy

28

113

50

135

726

1201

18

013

8ndash14

827

517

9138ndash15

3277

294

Fig

ure

3H

ou

sto

nS

TS

062

-97-

151

4029

829

5shy

95

530

5shy

95

4410

78

8112

20

5348ndash58

990

1205

351

ndash63

8951

10

36

ST

S094

-737

-28

100

294

295

shy

95

528

3shy

95

5162

31

1133

24

415

8ndash20

334

724

3158ndash20

7351

390

ST

S055

-71-

41250

302

295

shy

95

028

2shy

93

766

412

8192

32

5736

ndash84

715

232

273

9ndash85

7154

185

S73

E51

45300

2685

295

shy

95

024

78

0F

igu

re4

Haw

aii

ST

S069

-701

-65

250

370

195

shy

155

520

4shy

153

881

415

7204

28

9876

ndash98

917

928

688

0ndash10

9181

210

ST

S069

-701

-70

250

370

210

shy

157

519

2shy

150

781

415

7738

63

414

9ndash23

336

760

7148ndash55

6394

10

63

ST

S069

-729

-27

100

398

200

shy

156

620

5shy

148

2219

42

1867

65

432

8ndash13

10

158

62

4323+

311

N

A


Tab

le5

(Cont

inued

)

Form

ula

tion

1F

orm

ula

tio

n2

Form

ula

tio

n3

fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

7L

imm

enB

igh

tS

TS

093

-704

-50

250

283

shy15

0135

0shy

15

013

58

623

120

859

16

963

0ndash67

3125

16

863

0ndash67

612

613

2P

CR

e-es

tim

ated

shy14

733

1352

67

64

5128

623

ndash65

5123

128

623

ndash65

712

3127

Auxilia

ryP

oin

t611

062

3ndash65

112

312

5F

igu

re10

N

ear

Au

stin

T

XS

TS

095

-716

-46

250

543

30

5shy

975

28

6shy

1007

120

230

375

34

613

5ndash157

281

34

1136ndash16

128

636

0

1 All

pho

togr

aphs

exce

pt

on

eta

ken

wit

hH

ass

elbla

dca

mer

aso

dis

tan

ceacr

oss

the

image

d=

55m

m

for

S73

E51

45

taken

wit

hel

ectr

onic

still

cam

erad=

276

5m

mho

rizo

nta

l2 P

Cand

SN

are

giv

enin

the

form

(lati

tud

elo

ngit

ude)

deg

rees

w

ith

neg

ativ

en

um

ber

sre

pre

senti

ng

south

and

wes

tA

ccura

cyo

fP

Cis

plusmn0

5and

SN

isplusmn

01

as

reco

rded

inth

eA

stro

naut

Ph

oto

gra

phy

Data

base

ex

cep

tw

her

en

ote

dth

atce

ntr

ep

oin

tw

asre

-est

imate

dw

ith

grea

ter

accu

racy

3 C

alc

ula

ted

usi

ng

the

mea

nofth

em

inim

um

an

dm

axim

um

esti

mate

sof

DF

orm

ula

tion

2co

nsi

der

sD

inth

ed

irec

tion

per

pen

dic

ula

rto

the

Pri

nci

pal

Lin

eo

nly

4 C

alc

ula

ted

inho

rizo

nta

lan

dve

rtic

aldir

ecti

on

sb

ut

still

ass

um

ing

geom

etry

of

gure

6(B

)F

irst

nu

mb

eris

the

mea

no

fth

em

inim

um

Dat

the

bott

om

of

the

ph

oto

and

the

maxi

mum

Dat

the

top

of

the

ph

oto

(range

show

nin

the

tab

le)

and

isco

mpara

ble

toF

orm

ula

tio

n2

Sec

ond

num

ber

isth

em

ean

of

Des

tim

ated

alon

gth

eP

rin

cip

alline

and

alo

ng

the

ou

tsid

eed

ge

(range

not

show

n)

5 Alt

itu

de

isap

pro

xim

ate

for

mis

sion

as

exac

tti

me

pho

togr

ap

hw

asta

ken

and

corr

esp

on

din

gn

adir

data

are

no

tava

ilab

le

Lack

of

nad

irdata

pre

ven

tsap

plica

tion

of

Form

ula

tion

s2

an

d3

6 Au

xilliar

ypo

int

add

edw

as

shy14

80

lati

tud

e13

51

2lo

ngit

ude

shy46

5degro

tati

on

angle

in

stru

ctio

ns

for

esti

mati

ng

the

rota

tio

nan

gle

para

met

erare

conta

ined

as

par

tof

the

scal

eca

lcu

lato

rsp

read

shee

tdo

cum

enta

tio

n


a park at Johnson Space Center) that could clearly be distinguished on the photo-graph was 853 m wide

For the photograph of Houston taken with a 250 mm lens ( gure 3(C)) anddigitized from second generation lm at 2400 ppi (106 mm pixel Otilde 1 ) Ellington Fieldrunway 4-22 is 3 pixels in width and 1613 pixels in length so pixels represent151ndash152 m on the ground These results compare favourably with the minimumestimate of 152 m using Formulation 2 and 154ndash185 m pixels using Formulation 3(table 5) For an estimate of GRD using an 8times8 inch print (1369 enlargement) and4times magni cation the smallest street that could clearly be distinguished was 822 mwide the same feature could barely be distinguished on the digitized image

We also made an empirical estimate of spatial resolution for lower contrastvegetation boundaries By clearing forest so that a pattern would be visible to landingaircraft a landowner outside Austin Texas (see also aerial photo in Lisheron 2000)created a target that is also useful for evaluating spatial resolution of astronautphotographs The forest was selectively cleared in order to spell the landownerrsquosname lsquoLUECKErsquo with the remaining trees ( gure 10) According to local surveyorswho planned the clearing the plan was to create letters that were 3100 fttimes1700 ft(9449 mtimes5182 m) Photographed at a high altitude relative to most Shuttle missions(543 km) with a 250 mm lens Formula 3 predicts that each pixel would represent anarea 286 mtimes360 m on the ground (table 5) When original lm was digitized at2400 ppi (106 mm pixel Otilde 1 ) letters correspond to 294times188 pixels for a comparablepixel size of 27ndash32 m

6 Summary and conclusionsAstronaut photographs can be an excellent source of data for remote sensing

applications Best-case resolutions are similar to that for Landsat or SPOT withpixels as small as lt10 m It was estimated that of images taken to date 504 hadlens and obliquity characteristics that make them potential candidates for remotesensing information Digitized astronaut photographs can be overlaid with othersatellite data using GIS (Eckardt et al 2000) or used to ll in gaps in time serieswhen other imagery is not available As a source of public-domain information theycan be very useful for scientists who do not have access to satellite imagery eitherbecause of the expense of image acquisition (to the end user) or the computersystems needed for processing satellite images These diVerences in image acquisitioncosts (to the user) are summarized in table 6

Searching of the complete database of NASA astronaut photography includinglow-spatial-resolution browse images is available via the Web (OYce of EarthSciences 2000) This provides nearly global access for identifying images that willcontribute to a speci c scienti c project For the most detailed studies digitalproducts posted to the web will not be of suYcient quality To date we have madeit a practice of digitizing small numbers of images when requested by scientists atno charge Such requests (including a description of the project involved) can bemade through the authors or using the contact information listed on the websiteInvestigators with needs for larger numbers of digital images have also been servedthrough collaborative agreements

In our experience scientists that nd the data most valuable are those in develop-ing countries those studying areas that have not usually been targets for the majorsatellites those having diYculty in nding low-cloud images those interested inconstructing time series or those interested in using a large number of images


Figure 10 Patterns of forest clearing outside Austin Texas serve as a test pattern forestimating spatial resolution (a) Complete eld of view for STS095-716-46 taken witha 250 mm lens from 543 km altitude (2 November 1998) (b) Detail of a portion of theframe (c) Aerial photograph taken with an ESC (Kodak DCS620C) from an unknownaltitude with zoom lens (2 March 2000 B K Diggs Austin-American Statesmanused with permission) (d ) Detail showing the limits of spatial resolution when the lmwas digitized at 2400 ppi (106 mm pixelOtilde 1 ) The legend in the right-hand corner showsthe eld measurements for the letters (P Tovar Jr personal communication) and thecorresponding pixel size


Table

6C

om

pari

sons

of

chara

cter

isti

csof

ast

ron

aut-

dir

ecte

dp

ho

togr

aphy

of

Ear

thw

ith

auto

mati

csa

tellit

ese

nso

rs1

Info

rmat

ion

com

piled

fro

mw

ebpage

sand

pre

ssre

lease

sp

rovi

ded

by

the

age

nt

list

edun

der

lsquoRef

eren

cesrsquo

Land

sat

Ast

ronaut-

acq

uir

edSP

OT

orb

italph

oto

gra

ph

yM

SS

TM

ET

M+

XS

AV

HR

RC

ZC

SSea

WiF

S

Len

gth

of

reco

rd19

65ndash

1972

ndash19

82ndash

1999ndash

198

6ndash

1979

ndash19

78ndash1986

1997

ndashSp

atia

lre

solu

tio

n2

m9ndash65

79

30

30

20110

0times40

00825

1100

ndash4400

Alt

itu

de

km

222

ndash611

907ndash91

5705

705

822

830

ndash870

955

705

Incl

inati

on

285

ndash51

699

2deg982

deg982

deg98

deg81deg

99

1deg

983

degSce

ne

size

km

Vari

able

185times

185

185times

170

185times

170

60times

60

239

9sw

ath

1566

swath

2800

swath

Co

vera

gefr

equ

ency

Inte

rmit

tent

18

days

16

days

16

day

s26

day

s2times

per

day

6d

ays

1day

Su

n-s

ynch

rono

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No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

orb

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wan

gles

Nad

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bliqu

eN

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Nadir

Nadir

Nadir

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qu

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Nadir

plusmn

40deg

Nadir

plusmn

20deg

Est

imat

edpro

duct

$0ndash25

$20

0$425

$600

$155

0ndash230

00

00

cost

p

erpre

vio

usl

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ene

(basi

c)R

efer

ence

sN

AS

AE

RO

SE

RO

SE

RO

SSP

OT

NO

AA

NA

SA

NA

SA

NA

SA

1 Ab

bre

viat

ion

sfo

rse

nso

rsand

gover

nm

ent

age

nci

esare

as

follow

sM

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Mult

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Sca

nner

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atic

Map

per

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ced

Th

emat

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dvance

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ery-h

igh

Res

olu

tio

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oast

alZ

on

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olo

rS

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Sea

-vie

win

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ide

Fie

ld-

of-

view

Sen

sor

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OT

Sate

llit

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ur

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ati

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erre

X

SM

ult

isp

ectr

alm

ode

ER

OS

Eart

hR

esou

rces

Obse

rvat

ion

Syst

ems

Data

Cen

ter

Un

ited

Sta

tes

Geo

logi

cal

Surv

ey

Sio

ux

Falls

So

uth

Dako

ta

NO

AA

Nati

onal

Oce

an

ogra

ph

icand

Atm

osp

her

icA

dm

inis

trati

on

NA

SA

Nat

ion

alA

eron

auti

csan

dSp

ace

Adm

inis

trat

ion

2 A

ddit

ion

aldet

ail

isin

table

2B

est-

case

nad

irp

ixel

size

for

ara

nge

of

alti

tudes

isin

clud

edfo

ro

rbit

al

pho

togr

aphs

3 Det

erm

ines

deg

ree

of

var

iab

ilit

yo

flighti

ng

con

dit

ion

sam

on

gim

ages

taken

of

the

sam

epla

ceat

diV

eren

tti

mes


Because use of astronaut photography data is unfamiliar to most scientists andremote sensing experts we have tried to provide a general synopsis of its majorcharacteristics One common source of confusion about the data arises from itsvariable spatial resolution The issue of spatial resolution of astronaut photographshas been treated to a level of detail that has not been previously published Inaddition a primer of equations has been provided that can be used for calculatingspatial resolution of a given photograph and user-friendly methods have beenincorporated for non-specialists to estimate spatial resolution of speci c photographs(using tools on our Web interface or by downloading a spreadsheet) Although morevariable than other types of satellite data the information in the images can beextracted using familiar remote sensing techniques such as georeferencing and imageclassi cation This makes the data source valuable for remote sensing applicationsin ecology and conservation biology geography geology and other related elds

AcknowledgmentsWe thank the astronauts cataloguers and scientists whose eVorts over the last

25 years have developed and preserved the remote sensing resource described in thispaper Barbara Boland served as a primary beta-tester for the Photo FootprintCalculator and helped to improve its user interface James Heydorn searched data-bases to help in compilation of summary statistics and gure 5 he also did theprogramming for our web display of photo footprints Joe Caruana researched older lm types James C Maida helped to produce the three-dimensional visualizationin gure 9 Karen Scott provided comments on this manuscript and input into thesection on window eVects Serge Andrefouet Kamlesh P Lulla Edward L Webband anonymous reviewers made constructive comments that greatly improved themanuscript

ReferencesAmsbury D L 1989 United States manned observations of Earth before the Space Shuttle

Geocarto International 4 (1) 7ndash14Arnold R H 1997 Interpretation of Airphotos and Remotely Sensed Imagery (Upper Saddle

River NJ Prentice Hall )Baltsavias E P 25 April 1996 Desktop publishing scanners OEEPE Workshop on the

Application of Digital Photogrammetric Workstations 4ndash6 March 1996 L ausannehttpdgrwwwep chPHOTworkshopwks96art_1_4html

Campbell J B 1996 Introduction to Remote Sensing 2nd edn (New York Guilford Press)Chamberlain R G 1996 What is the best way to calculate the distance between two points

GIS FAQ Question 51 httpwwwcensusgovcgi-bingeogisfaqQ51 (revised inNovember 1997 and February 1998 11 April 2000)

Charman W N 1965 Resolving power and the detection of linear detail T he CanadianSurveyor 19 190ndash205

Colwell R N 1971 Monitoring Earth Resources from Aircraft and Spacecraft NASASP-275 (Washington DC National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

Drury S A 1993 Image Interpretation in Geology 2nd edn (London Chapman and Hall )Eastman Kodak Company 1998 Kodak Aerochrome II Inf rared lm 2443 Kodak Aerochrome

II Infrared NP lm SO-134 Aerial Systems Data Sheet TI2161 Revised 3-98 Alsoavailable at httpwwwkodakcomUSengovernmentaerialtechnicalPubstiDocsti2161ti2161shtml (29 November 1999)

Eckardt F D Wilkinson M J and Lulla K P 2000 Using digitized handheld SpaceShuttle photography for terrain visualization International Journal of Remote Sensing21 1ndash5

El-Baz F 1977 Astronaut Observations from the Apollo-Soyuz Mission Smithsonian Studiesin Air and Space Vol 1 (Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press)


El-Baz F and Warner D M 1979 Apollo-Soyuz T est Project Vol II Earth Observationsand Photography NASA SP-412 (Houston Texas National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration Lyndon B Johnson Space Center)

Eppler D Amsbury D and Evans C 1996 Interest sought for research aboard newwindow on the world the International Space Station Eos T ransactions AmericanGeophysical Union 77 121127

Estes J E and Simonett D S 1975 Fundamentals of image interpretation In Manual ofRemote Sensing edited by R G Reeves (Falls Church VA American Society ofPhotogrammetry) pp 869ndash1076

Evans C A Lulla K P Dessinov L V Glazovskiy N F Kasimov N S andKnizhnikov Yu F 2000 Shuttle-Mir Earth science investigations studying dynamicEarth environments from the Mir space station In Dynamic Earth EnvironmentsRemote Sensing Observations from Shuttle-Mir Missions edited by K P Lulla andL V Dessinov John (New York John Wiley amp Sons) pp 1ndash14

Helfert M R and Wood C A 1989 The NASA Space Shuttle Earth Observations OYceGeocarto International 4 (1) 15ndash23

Helfert M R Mohler R R J and Giardino J R 1990 Measurement of areal uctu-ations of Great Salt Lake Utah using recti ed space photography Houston GeologicalSociety Bulletin 32 16ndash19

Jensen J R 1983 Urbansuburban land use analysis In Manual of Remote Sensing 2nd ednVol II Interpretation and Applications edited by J E Estes (Falls Church VAAmerican Society of Photogrammetry) pp 1571ndash1666

Jones T D Godwin L M Wisoff P J Amsbury D L and Evans C A 1996 AstronautEarth observations during the Space Radar Laboratory missions Proceedings of theIEEE Aerospace Applications Conference 3ndash10 February 1996 Snowmass at AspenColorado (Piscataway NJ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Vol 2pp 29ndash46

Light D L 1980 Satellite photogrammetry In Manual of Photogrammetry 4th edn editedby C C Slama (Falls Church VA American Society of Photogrammetry) pp 883ndash977

Light D L 1993 The National Aerial Photography Program as a geographic informationsystem resource Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 59 61ndash65

Light D L 1996 Film cameras or digital sensors The challenge for aerial imagingPhotogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 62 285ndash291

Lisheron M 6 March 2000 Jimmy Luecke thinks big Austin American-Statesman E1 E6Lowman P D Jr 1980 The evolution of geological space photography In Remote Sensing

in Geology edited by B S Siegal and A R Gillespie (New York Wiley and Sons)pp 90ndash115

Lowman P D Jr 1985 Geology from space A brief history of geological remote sensingIn Geologists and Ideas A History of North American Geology edited by E T Drakeand W M Jordan (Boulder CO Geological Society of America) pp 481ndash519

Lowman P D Jr 1999 Landsat and Apollo the forgotten legacy PhotogrammetricEngineering and Remote Sensing 65 1143ndash1147

Lowman P D Jr and Tiedemann H A 1971 T errain Photography from Gemini SpacecraftFinal Geologic Report Report X-644-71-15 (Greenbelt MD National Aeronauticsand Space Administration Goddard Space Flight Center)

Lulla K Evans C Amsbury D Wilkinson J Willis K Caruana J OrsquoNeill CRunco S McLaughlin D Gaunce M McKay M F and Trenchard M1996 The NASA Space Shuttle Earth Observations Photography Database an under-utilized resource for global environmental geosciences Environmental Geosciences3 40ndash44

Lulla K P and Helfert M R 1989 Analysis of seasonal characteristics of Sambhar SaltLake India from digitized Space Shuttle photography Geocarto International 4(1)69ndash74

Lulla K Helfert M Evans C Wilkinson M J Pitts D and Amsbury D 1993Global geologic applications of the Space Shuttle Earth Observations Photographydatabase Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 59 1225ndash1231

Lulla K Helfert M Amsbury D Whitehead V S Evans C A Wilkinson M JRichards R N Cabana R D Shepherd W M Akers T D and Melnick


B E 1991 Earth observations during Shuttle ight STS-41 Discoveryrsquos mission toplanet Earth 6ndash10 October 1990 Geocarto International 6 (1) 69ndash80

Lulla K Helfert M and Holland D 1994 The NASA Space Shuttle Earth Observationsdatabase for global change science In Remote Sensing and Global Change Scienceedited by R A Vaughan and A P Cracknell NATO ASI Series Vol I24 (BerlinSpringer-Verlag) pp 355ndash365

Lulla K and Holland S D 1993 NASA Electronic Still Camera (ESC) system used toimage the Kamchatka Volcanoes from the Space Shuttle International Journal ofRemote Sensing 14 2745ndash2746

Luman D E Stohr C and Hunt L 1997 Digital reproduction of historical aerialphotographic prints for preserving a deteriorating archive PhotogrammetricEngineering and Remote Sensing 63 1171ndash1179

McRay B Scott J and Robinson J A 2000 Technical applications of astronautorbital photography how to rectify multiple image datasets using GIS EarthObservations and Imaging Newsletter OYce of Earth Sciences Johnson SpaceCenter httpeoljscnasagovnewslettergis

Merkel R F Salmon J G and Sims B A 1985 Mission Ephemeris for the Maiden Voyageof the L arge Format Camera (L FC) aboard the Space T ransportation System (ST S)Mission 41G Job Order 84-427 JSC-20383 (Houston TX Lyndon B JohnsonSpace Center)

Mohler R R J Helfert M R and Giardino J R 1989 The decrease of Lake Chad asdocumented during twenty years of manned space ight Geocarto International4 (1) 75ndash79

Moik J P 1980 Digital Processing of Remotely Sensed Images NASA SP-431 (WashingtonDC National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 1974 Skylab Earth Resources DataCatalog JSC-09016 (Houston TX Lyndon B Johnson Space Center)

Office of Earth Sciences NASA-Johnson Space Center 14 Mar 2000 The Gateway toAstronaut Photography of Earth httpeoljscnasagovsseopdefaulthtm

Rasher M E and Weaver W 1990 Basic Photo Interpretation A Comprehensive Approachto Interpretation of Vertical Aerial Photography for Natural Resource Applications (FortWorth TX United States Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation ServiceNational Cartographic Center)

Ring N and Eyre L A 1983 Manned spacecraft imagery In Introduction to RemoteSensing of the Environment 2nd edn edited by B F Richason Jr (Dubuque IowaKendallHunt Publishing Company) pp 112ndash129

Robinson J A Feldman G C Kuring N Franz B Green E Noordeloos M andStumpf R P 2000a Data fusion in coral reef mapping working at multiple scaleswith SeaWiFS and astronaut photography Proceedings of the 6th InternationalConference on Remote Sensing for Marine and Coastal Environments Vol 2pp 473ndash483

Robinson J A Holland S D Runco S K Pitts D E Whitehead V S andAndrersquofouet S 2000b High De nition Television (HDTV) Images for EarthObservations and Earth Science Applications NASA TP-2000-210189 (HoustonTX Lyndon B Johnson Space Center) Also available at httpeoljscnasagovnewsletterHDTV

Robinson J A McRay B and Lulla K P 2000c Twenty-eight years of urban growthin North America quanti ed by analysis of photographs from Apollo Skylab andShuttle-Mir In Dynamic Earth Environments Remote Sensing Observations fromShuttle-Mir Missions edited by K P Lulla and L V Dessinov (New York JohnWiley amp Sons) pp 25ndash42 262 269ndash270

Robinson J A Lulla K P Kashiwagi M Suzuki M Nellis M D Bussing C ELee Long W J and McKenzie L J In press Astronaut-acquired orbital photo-graphy as a data source for conservation applications across multiple geographicscales Conservation Biology

Scott K P 2000 International Space Station L aboratory Science W indow Optical Propertiesand Wavefront Veri cation T est Results ATR-2000 (2112)-1 (Los Angeles CAAerospace Corporation)

Astronaut photography as digital data for remote sensing4438

Simonett D S 1983 The development and principles of remote sensing In Manual of RemoteSensing 2nd edn Vol I Theory Instruments and Techniques edited by D S Simonett(Falls Church VA American Society of Photogrammetry) pp 1ndash35

Sinnott R W 1984 Virtues of the haversine Sky and T elescope 68 159Slater P N 1980 Remote Sensing Optics and Optical Systems (Reading MA Addison-

Wesley)Slater P N Doyle F J Fritz N L and Welch R 1983 Photographic systems for

remote sensing In Manual of Remote Sensing 2nd edn Vol I Theory Instrumentsand Techniques edited by D S Simonett (Falls Church VA American Society ofPhotogrammetry) p 231ndash291

Slater R 1996 USRussian Joint Film T est NASA Technical Memorandum 104817(Houston TX Lyndon B Johnson Space Center)

Smith J T and Anson A editors 1968 Manual of Color Aerial Photography (Falls ChurchVA American Society of Photogrammetry)

Snyder J P 1987 Map ProjectionsmdashA Working Manual US Geological Survey ProfessionalPaper 1395 (Washington DC US Government Printing OYce)

Townshend J R G 1980 T he Spatial Resolving Power of Earth Resources Satellites AReview NASA Technical Memorandum 82020 (Greenbelt Maryland Goddard SpaceFlight Center)

Underwood R W 1967 Space photography In Gemini Summary Conference NASA SP-138(Houston TX Manned Spacecraft Center National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration) pp 231ndash290

Webb E L Evangelista Ma A and Robinson J A 2000 Digital land use classi cationusing Space Shuttle acquired orbital photographs a quantitative comparisonwith Landsat TM imagery of a coastal environment Chanthaburi ThailandPhotogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 66 1439ndash1449

Welch R 1982 Spatial resolution requirements for urban studies International Journal ofRemote Sensing 3 139ndash146

Wilmarth V R Kaltenbach J L and Lenoir W B editors 1977 Skylab Exploresthe Earth NASA SP-380 (Washington DC National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration)

Wong K W 1980 Basic mathematics of photogrammetry In Manual of Photogrammetry4th edn edited by C C Slama (Falls Church VA American Society ofPhotogrammetry) pp 37ndash101


1971) the Earth-orbiting Apollo missions (Colwell 1971) the Apollo-Soyuz mission(El-Baz 1977 El-Baz and Warner 1979) Skylab (NASA 1974 Wilmarth et al 1977 )a few Shuttle missions (eg the two Space Radar Laboratory missions of 1994 Joneset al 1996) and the Shuttle-Mir missions (Evans et al 2000) Extensive training inphotography is available to members of all ight crews during their general trainingperiod and during intensive training for speci c missions (Jones et al 1996) Mostphotographs have been taken by astronauts on a time-available basis Astronautphotographs are thus a subset of the potential scenes selected both by opportunity(orbital parameters lighting and crew workloads and schedules) and by the trainingexperience and interest of the photographers

As remote sensing and geographic information systems have become more widelyavailable tools we have collaborated with a number of scientists interested in usingastronaut photography for quantitative remote sensing applications Digitized imagesfrom lm are suitable for geometric recti cation and image enhancement followed byclassi cation and other remote sensing techniques (Lulla and Helfert 1989 Mohler et al1989 Helfert et al 1990 Lulla et al 1991 Eckardt et al 2000 Robinson et al 2000a2000c and in press Webb et al in press) The photographs are in the public domainthus they provide a low-cost alternative data source for cases where commercial imagerycannot be acquired Such cases often include studies in developing countries in areasthat have not usually been targets for major satellites needing supplemental low-clouddata requiring a time series or requiring a large number of images

12 Extent of the datasetAs of 30 September 1999 378 461 frames were included in the photograph

database (OYce of Earth Sciences 2000) comprising 99 missions from Mercury 3(21 July 1961) through STS-96 (27 May to 6 June 1999) The database was reviewedremoving photographs that were deemed unsuitable for remote sensing analysisbecause they were not Earth-looking (no entry for tilt angle) had no estimated focallength were over- or underexposed or were taken at oblique tilt angles (furtherdiscussion of these characteristics follows) The remaining 190 911 frames (504 ofthe records present in the database) represent photographs that are potentiallysuitable for remote sensing data As the database is always having new photographyadded statistics can be updated on request using the web link lsquoSummary of DatabaseContentsrsquo at the Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth (OYce of EarthSciences 2000)

13 ObjectivesThe overall purpose of this paper is to provide understanding of the properties of

astronaut-acquired orbital photographs to help scientists evaluate their applicabilityfor digital remote sensing Previous general descriptions of astronaut photographyhave been much less extensive and have tended to focus on numbers of photographstaken and geographic coverage and emphasized interpretative applications (Helfertand Wood 1989 Lulla et al 1993 1994 1996) By providing a unique compilationof the background information necessary to extend the use of astronaut photographybeyond interpretation to rigorous analysis it is hoped to provide a resource forscientists who could use this data in a variety of disciplines In keeping with apotential interdisciplinary audience we have tried to provide suYcient backgroundinformation for scientists who do not have extensive training in remote sensing

We focus on spatial resolution because it is one of the most important factors































(a) (b)







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logued

asof

the

pre

para

tion

of

this

tab

le)

usi

ng

Ko

dak

Elite

100S

lm

3 B

egin

nin

gin

July

1999

2443

colo

ur-

infr

are

d

lmpro

cess

was

chan

ged

from

EA

-5to

E-6
















18 mm


18 mm

2(1)













P=D

dS(2)













d

D=

f

H(3)


















a=sin2ADlat


2 B (4)



t=arctanAoffset

H B (6)



(a) (b)



d

D=

f shy ysint

H(7)


y= f tanAt

2B+d

2(8)


y= f tanAt

2Bshyd

2(9)

































































Tab

le5

App

lica

tio

nof

met

hod

sfo

res

tim

ati

ng

spati

alre

solu

tio

no

fast

ron

aut

ph

oto

gra

ph

sin

clu

din

gF

orm

ula

tion

s12

and

3Im

pro

ved

cen

tre

po

int

esti

mat

esan

dauxilia

ryp

oin

tca

lcu

lati

ons

are

sho

wn

for

gure

7V

aria

ble

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use

din

the

text

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ns

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lle

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hH

al

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de

PC

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oto

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tre

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tSN

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ace

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tance

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on

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grou

nd

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sen

ted

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ng

the

grea

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form

ula

t

look

angle

away

from

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Form

ula

tion

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n2

Form

ula

tio

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fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

2L

ake

Eyre

ST

S093

-717

-80

250

276

shy29

0137

0shy

28

413

71

607

11

767

413

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212

013

760

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ST

S082

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250

617

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113

50

135

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827

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3277

294

Fig

ure

3H

ou

sto

nS

TS

062

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151

4029

829

5shy

95

530

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95

4410

78

8112

20

5348ndash58

990

1205

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10

36

ST

S094

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100

294

295

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528

3shy

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5162

31

1133

24

415

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334

724

3158ndash20

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390

ST

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41250

302

295

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93

766

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715

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aii

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153

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917

928

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210

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250

370

210

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157

519

2shy

150

781

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7738

63

414

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336

760

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6394

10

63

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S069

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-27

100

398

200

shy

156

620

5shy

148

2219

42

1867

65

432

8ndash13

10

158

62

4323+

311

N

A


Tab

le5

(Cont

inued

)

Form

ula

tion

1F

orm

ula

tio

n2

Form

ula

tio

n3

fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

7L

imm

enB

igh

tS

TS

093

-704

-50

250

283

shy15

0135

0shy

15

013

58

623

120

859

16

963

0ndash67

3125

16

863

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612

613

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e-es

tim

ated

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733

1352

67

64

5128

623

ndash65

5123

128

623

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712

3127

Auxilia

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oin

t611

062

3ndash65

112

312

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igu

re10

N

ear

Au

stin

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XS

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-46

250

543

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1007

120

230

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34

613

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281

34

1136ndash16

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636

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1 All

pho

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ectr

onic

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erad=

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ude)

deg

rees

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ith

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ativ

en

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ber

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senti

ng

south

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(a) (b)







Tab

le1

Det

ails

on

the

cam

eras

use

dfo

rast

ron

aut

ph

oto

gra

phy

of

Eart

h

Data

incl

ud

ep

ho

togr

aphy

from

all

NA

SA

hu

man

spac

eig

ht

mis

sion

sth

rough

ST

S-9

6(J

un

e19

99

378

461

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esin

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dat

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e)1

Imag

esi

zeT

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al

lense

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um

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of

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era

make

(mm

timesm

m)

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m)

ph

oto

gra

ph

sP

erio

dof

use

No

tes

Has

selb

lad

55times

55

40

50100

2502

288

494

1963ndashp

rese

nt

Lin

ho

f10

5times120

90

250

29

373

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nt

No

won

lyo

wn

occ

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nal

lyM

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100250

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1990ndash19

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this

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(a) (b)

(c) (d)














Tab

le2

Max

imu

mpo

ssib

led

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tio

n(p

ixel

size

inm

)fo

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Tab

le3

Det

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on

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of

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h

Dat

ain

clud

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fro

mall

NA

SA

hum

an

spac

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ht

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lm

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eras

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no

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clud

ed

Res

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ing

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of

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d(2

424

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(SO

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grou

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1)

aspro

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dak

and

list

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ter

etal

(1

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esolv

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as

dis

con

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chn

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test

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edb

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dit

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kn

ow

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curr

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ave

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lder

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18 mm


18 mm

2(1)













P=D

dS(2)













d

D=

f

H(3)


















a=sin2ADlat


2 B (4)



t=arctanAoffset

H B (6)



(a) (b)



d

D=

f shy ysint

H(7)


y= f tanAt

2B+d

2(8)


y= f tanAt

2Bshyd

2(9)

































































Tab

le5

App

lica

tio

nof

met

hod

sfo

res

tim

ati

ng

spati

alre

solu

tio

no

fast

ron

aut

ph

oto

gra

ph

sin

clu

din

gF

orm

ula

tion

s12

and

3Im

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ved

cen

tre

po

int

esti

mat

esan

dauxilia

ryp

oin

tca

lcu

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ons

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sho

wn

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gure

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text

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on

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ula

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look

angle

away

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Form

ula

tion

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ula

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n2

Form

ula

tio

n3

fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

2L

ake

Eyre

ST

S093

-717

-80

250

276

shy29

0137

0shy

28

413

71

607

11

767

413

7609

ndash64

212

013

760

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124

ST

S082

-754

-61

250

617

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28

113

50

135

726

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013

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827

517

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3277

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Fig

ure

3H

ou

sto

nS

TS

062

-97-

151

4029

829

5shy

95

530

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95

4410

78

8112

20

5348ndash58

990

1205

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10

36

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S094

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100

294

295

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528

3shy

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5162

31

1133

24

415

8ndash20

334

724

3158ndash20

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ST

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302

295

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93

766

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715

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Haw

aii

ST

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-65

250

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917

928

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250

370

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157

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2shy

150

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415

7738

63

414

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336

760

7148ndash55

6394

10

63

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S069

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-27

100

398

200

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156

620

5shy

148

2219

42

1867

65

432

8ndash13

10

158

62

4323+

311

N

A


Tab

le5

(Cont

inued

)

Form

ula

tion

1F

orm

ula

tio

n2

Form

ula

tio

n3

fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

7L

imm

enB

igh

tS

TS

093

-704

-50

250

283

shy15

0135

0shy

15

013

58

623

120

859

16

963

0ndash67

3125

16

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612

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e-es

tim

ated

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733

1352

67

64

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128

623

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3ndash65

112

312

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re10

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ear

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stin

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XS

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-46

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543

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120

230

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ectr

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ude)

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rees

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ativ

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ng

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of

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sam

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Tab

le1

Det

ails

on

the

cam

eras

use

dfo

rast

ron

aut

ph

oto

gra

phy

of

Eart

h

Data

incl

ud

ep

ho

togr

aphy

from

all

NA

SA

hu

man

spac

eig

ht

mis

sion

sth

rough

ST

S-9

6(J

un

e19

99

378

461

tota

lfr

am

esin

the

dat

abas

e)1

Imag

esi

zeT

ypic

al

lense

sN

um

ber

of

Cam

era

make

(mm

timesm

m)

use

d(m

m)

ph

oto

gra

ph

sP

erio

dof

use

No

tes

Has

selb

lad

55times

55

40

50100

2502

288

494

1963ndashp

rese

nt

Lin

ho

f10

5times120

90

250

29

373

1984ndashp

rese

nt

No

won

lyo

wn

occ

asio

nal

lyM

ult

ispec

tral

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era

(S19

0A

)57times

57152

32

913

1973ndash19

74S

kyla

b

xed

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nt3

cam

era

(NA

SA

1974

)E

art

hT

erra

inC

amer

a(S

190B

)11

5times11

5457

5478

1973ndash19

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kyla

b

xed

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nt3

cam

era

(NA

SA

1974

)R

ole

iex

55times

55

50

100250

4352

1990ndash19

92L

arg

eF

orm

at

Cam

era4

229

times457

305

2143

1984

Mis

sio

nST

Sndash41G

only

(Mer

kel

etal

198

5)

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r55

times55

76

80818

1961ndash19

68

1 Sm

all-f

orm

atca

mer

as

(35

mm

lm

and

ES

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are

no

tin

clud

edin

this

table

bec

ause

of

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larg

enu

mb

erof

len

ses

and

con

gu

rati

on

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at

have

bee

nu

sed

and

bec

au

seth

ese

data

are

no

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tly

incl

uded

inth

edata

bas

efo

rall

mis

sion

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dm

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cture

dby

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Dis

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4(5

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Has

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nw

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and

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the

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ron

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yan

dis

incl

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her

efo

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nes

s4 A

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Dat

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no

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tly

inco

rpora

ted

into

on

lin

ed

atab

ase

bu

tis

cata

loged

by

Mer

kel

etal

(1

985

)


(a) (b)

(c) (d)














Tab

le2

Max

imu

mpo

ssib

led

igit

alsp

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lre

solu

tio

n(p

ixel

size

inm

)fo

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asy

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ast

ron

auts

top

ho

togr

aph

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hb

ase

do

nth

ege

om

etry

of

alt

itud

ele

ns

and

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size

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ula

tion

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sum

eth

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tran

spar

ency

lm

isdig

itiz

edat

2400

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18 mm


18 mm

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d

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f

H(3)


















a=sin2ADlat


2 B (4)



t=arctanAoffset

H B (6)



(a) (b)



d

D=

f shy ysint

H(7)


y= f tanAt

2B+d

2(8)


y= f tanAt

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2(9)

































































Tab

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lica

tio

nof

met

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alre

solu

tio

no

fast

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Tab

le5

(Cont

inued

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Form

ula

tion

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18 mm


18 mm

2(1)













P=D

dS(2)













d

D=

f

H(3)


















a=sin2ADlat


2 B (4)



t=arctanAoffset

H B (6)



(a) (b)



d

D=

f shy ysint

H(7)


y= f tanAt

2B+d

2(8)


y= f tanAt

2Bshyd

2(9)

































































Tab

le5

App

lica

tio

nof

met

hod

sfo

res

tim

ati

ng

spati

alre

solu

tio

no

fast

ron

aut

ph

oto

gra

ph

sin

clu

din

gF

orm

ula

tion

s12

and

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ved

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tre

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int

esti

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esan

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oin

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ons

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sho

wn

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gure

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ns

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ula

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look

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away

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Form

ula

tion

1F

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ula

tio

n2

Form

ula

tio

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fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

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)(k

m)

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(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

2L

ake

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ST

S093

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-80

250

276

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28

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71

607

11

767

413

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013

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ST

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Fig

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8192

32

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232

273

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370

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10

63

ST

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100

398

200

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156

620

5shy

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432

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158

62

4323+

311

N

A


Tab

le5

(Cont

inued

)

Form

ula

tion

1F

orm

ula

tio

n2

Form

ula

tio

n3

fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

7L

imm

enB

igh

tS

TS

093

-704

-50

250

283

shy15

0135

0shy

15

013

58

623

120

859

16

963

0ndash67

3125

16

863

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612

613

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CR

e-es

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ated

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1352

67

64

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N

ear

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stin

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XS

TS

095

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543

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18 mm


18 mm

2(1)













P=D

dS(2)













d

D=

f

H(3)


















a=sin2ADlat


2 B (4)



t=arctanAoffset

H B (6)



(a) (b)



d

D=

f shy ysint

H(7)


y= f tanAt

2B+d

2(8)


y= f tanAt

2Bshyd

2(9)

































































Tab

le5

App

lica

tio

nof

met

hod

sfo

res

tim

ati

ng

spati

alre

solu

tio

no

fast

ron

aut

ph

oto

gra

ph

sin

clu

din

gF

orm

ula

tion

s12

and

3Im

pro

ved

cen

tre

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int

esti

mat

esan

dauxilia

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oin

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lcu

lati

ons

are

sho

wn

for

gure

7V

aria

ble

sas

use

din

the

text

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ns

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hH

al

titu

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tre

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ula

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Form

ula

tion

1F

orm

ula

tio

n2

Form

ula

tio

n3

fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

2L

ake

Eyre

ST

S093

-717

-80

250

276

shy29

0137

0shy

28

413

71

607

11

767

413

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ndash64

212

013

760

9ndash64

7121

124

ST

S082

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-61

250

617

shy28

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28

113

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726

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013

8ndash14

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Fig

ure

3H

ou

sto

nS

TS

062

-97-

151

4029

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95

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4410

78

8112

20

5348ndash58

990

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351

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415

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32

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715

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273

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156

620

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432

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62

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N

A


Tab

le5

(Cont

inued

)

Form

ula

tion

1F

orm

ula

tio

n2

Form

ula

tio

n3

fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

7L

imm

enB

igh

tS

TS

093

-704

-50

250

283

shy15

0135

0shy

15

013

58

623

120

859

16

963

0ndash67

3125

16

863

0ndash67

612

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-46

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543

30

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5 Alt

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de

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pro

xim

ate

for

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as

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tti

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pho

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ap

hw

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data

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Lack

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Form

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P=D

dS(2)













d

D=

f

H(3)


















a=sin2ADlat


2 B (4)



t=arctanAoffset

H B (6)



(a) (b)



d

D=

f shy ysint

H(7)


y= f tanAt

2B+d

2(8)


y= f tanAt

2Bshyd

2(9)

































































Tab

le5

App

lica

tio

nof

met

hod

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ati

ng

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alre

solu

tio

no

fast

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clu

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tion

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Ran

ge

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)(k

m)

PC

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N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

2L

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ST

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A


Tab

le5

(Cont

inued

)

Form

ula

tion

1F

orm

ula

tio

n2

Form

ula

tio

n3

fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

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(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

7L

imm

enB

igh

tS

TS

093

-704

-50

250

283

shy15

0135

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15

013

58

623

120

859

16

963

0ndash67

3125

16

863

0ndash67

612

613

2P

CR

e-es

tim

ated

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733

1352

67

64

5128

623

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5123

128

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712

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112

312

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XS

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-46

250

543

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1007

120

230

375

34

613

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1136ndash16

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0

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for

S73

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taken

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onic

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are

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(lati

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deg

rees

w

ith

neg

ativ

en

um

ber

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ng

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01

as

reco

rded

inth

eA

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naut

Ph

oto

gra

phy

Data

base

ex

cep

tw

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en

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atce

ntr

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-est

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dw

ith

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alc

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mate

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tion

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Pri

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Lin

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nly

4 C

alc

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ted

inho

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nta

lan

dve

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on

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ass

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ing

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nu

mb

eris

the

mea

no

fth

em

inim

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Dat

the

bott

om

of

the

ph

oto

and

the

maxi

mum

Dat

the

top

of

the

ph

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(range

show

nin

the

tab

le)

and

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Sec

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ber

isth

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ean

of

Des

tim

ated

alon

gth

eP

rin

cip

alline

and

alo

ng

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ou

tsid

eed

ge

(range

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n)

5 Alt

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de

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pro

xim

ate

for

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sion

as

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tti

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pho

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ap

hw

asta

ken

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no

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Lack

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tion

of

Form

ula

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d3

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int

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as

shy14

80

lati

tud

e13

51

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Table

6C

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pari

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isti

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dir

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aphy

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ith

auto

mati

csa

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ese

nso

rs1

Info

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ion

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piled

fro

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lease

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ded

by

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Land

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1999ndash

198

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1979

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78ndash1986

1997

ndashSp

atia

lre

solu

tio

n2

m9ndash65

79

30

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20110

0times40

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1100

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Alt

itu

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km

222

ndash611

907ndash91

5705

705

822

830

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955

705

Incl

inati

on

285

ndash51

699

2deg982

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99

1deg

983

degSce

ne

size

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Vari

able

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185

185times

170

185times

170

60times

60

239

9sw

ath

1566

swath

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swath

Co

vera

gefr

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Inte

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tent

18

days

16

days

16

day

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day

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per

day

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ays

1day

Su

n-s

ynch

rono

us

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

orb

it3

Vie

wan

gles

Nad

irO

bliqu

eN

adir

Nadir

Nadir

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qu

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40deg

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Est

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edpro

duct

$0ndash25

$20

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00

00

cost

p

erpre

vio

usl

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edsc

ene

(basi

c)R

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ence

sN

AS

AE

RO

SE

RO

SE

RO

SSP

OT

NO

AA

NA

SA

NA

SA

NA

SA

1 Ab

bre

viat

ion

sfo

rse

nso

rsand

gover

nm

ent

age

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Mult

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atic

Map

per

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ced

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emat

icM

app

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Res

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erC

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on

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olo

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erS

eaW

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Sea

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ld-

of-

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Sen

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Sate

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ter

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onal

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an

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ph

icand

Atm

osp

her

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inis

trati

on

NA

SA

Nat

ion

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csan

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inis

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irp

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nge

of

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tudes

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clud

edfo

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rbit

al

pho

togr

aphs

3 Det

erm

ines

deg

ree

of

var

iab

ilit

yo

flighti

ng

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dit

ion

sam

on

gim

ages

taken

of

the

sam

epla

ceat

diV

eren

tti

mes
















































































d

D=

f

H(3)


















a=sin2ADlat


2 B (4)



t=arctanAoffset

H B (6)



(a) (b)



d

D=

f shy ysint

H(7)


y= f tanAt

2B+d

2(8)


y= f tanAt

2Bshyd

2(9)

































































Tab

le5

App

lica

tio

nof

met

hod

sfo

res

tim

ati

ng

spati

alre

solu

tio

no

fast

ron

aut

ph

oto

gra

ph

sin

clu

din

gF

orm

ula

tion

s12

and

3Im

pro

ved

cen

tre

po

int

esti

mat

esan

dauxilia

ryp

oin

tca

lcu

lati

ons

are

sho

wn

for

gure

7V

aria

ble

sas

use

din

the

text

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ns

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hH

al

titu

de

PC

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ph

cen

tre

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tSN

sp

ace

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tance

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oun

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Pd

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nce

on

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ng

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Form

ula

tion

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tio

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Form

ula

tio

n3

fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

2L

ake

Eyre

ST

S093

-717

-80

250

276

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0137

0shy

28

413

71

607

11

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135

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Fig

ure

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TS

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4029

829

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95

530

5shy

95

4410

78

8112

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351

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ST

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5162

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1133

24

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620

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Tab

le5

(Cont

inued

)

Form

ula

tion

1F

orm

ula

tio

n2

Form

ula

tio

n3

fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

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m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

7L

imm

enB

igh

tS

TS

093

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283

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15

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a=sin2ADlat


2 B (4)



t=arctanAoffset

H B (6)



(a) (b)



d

D=

f shy ysint

H(7)


y= f tanAt

2B+d

2(8)


y= f tanAt

2Bshyd

2(9)

































































Tab

le5

App

lica

tio

nof

met

hod

sfo

res

tim

ati

ng

spati

alre

solu

tio

no

fast

ron

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ph

sin

clu

din

gF

orm

ula

tion

s12

and

3Im

pro

ved

cen

tre

po

int

esti

mat

esan

dauxilia

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ons

are

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text

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Form

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set

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DP

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Ran

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DP

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m)

PC

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N(k

m)

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)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

2L

ake

Eyre

ST

S093

-717

-80

250

276

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28

413

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Fig

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432

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311

N

A


Tab

le5

(Cont

inued

)

Form

ula

tion

1F

orm

ula

tio

n2

Form

ula

tio

n3

fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

7L

imm

enB

igh

tS

TS

093

-704

-50

250

283

shy15

0135

0shy

15

013

58

623

120

859

16

963

0ndash67

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16

863

0ndash67

612

613

2P

CR

e-es

tim

ated

shy14

733

1352

67

64

5128

623

ndash65

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128

623

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712

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Auxilia

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112

312

5F

igu

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ear

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stin

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XS

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5shy

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120

230

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34

613

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281

34

1136ndash16

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image

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S73

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taken

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Data

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on

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ut

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ass

um

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irst

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mb

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the

bott

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of

the

ph

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Dat

the

top

of

the

ph

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(range

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and

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5 Alt

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6C

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Len

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of

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82ndash

1999ndash

198

6ndash

1979

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78ndash1986

1997

ndashSp

atia

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solu

tio

n2

m9ndash65

79

30

30

20110

0times40

00825

1100

ndash4400

Alt

itu

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222

ndash611

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705

822

830

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955

705

Incl

inati

on

285

ndash51

699

2deg982

deg982

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deg81deg

99

1deg

983

degSce

ne

size

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Vari

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185times

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185times

170

185times

170

60times

60

239

9sw

ath

1566

swath

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swath

Co

vera

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Inte

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18

days

16

days

16

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us

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

orb

it3

Vie

wan

gles

Nad

irO

bliqu

eN

adir

Nadir

Nadir

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RO

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NO

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NA

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NA

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1 Ab

bre

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(Cont

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Form

ula

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m)

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and

the

maxi

mum

Dat

the

top

of

the

ph

oto

(range

show

nin

the

tab

le)

and

isco

mpara

ble

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ula

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n2

Sec

ond

num

ber

isth

em

ean

of

Des

tim

ated

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gth

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rin

cip

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ng

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tsid

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ge

(range

not

show

n)

5 Alt

itu

de

isap

pro

xim

ate

for

mis

sion

as

exac

tti

me

pho

togr

ap

hw

asta

ken

and

corr

esp

on

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gn

adir

data

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no

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ilab

le

Lack

of

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ven

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tion

of

Form

ula

tion

s2

an

d3

6 Au

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add

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shy14

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lati

tud

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51

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eca

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Table

6C

om

pari

sons

of

chara

cter

isti

csof

ast

ron

aut-

dir

ecte

dp

ho

togr

aphy

of

Ear

thw

ith

auto

mati

csa

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ese

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rs1

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ion

com

piled

fro

mw

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pre

ssre

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rovi

ded

by

the

age

nt

list

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der

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cesrsquo

Land

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ronaut-

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ph

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XS

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HR

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SSea

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Len

gth

of

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rd19

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1972

ndash19

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198

6ndash

1979

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78ndash1986

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atia

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tio

n2

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79

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30

20110

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Alt

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de

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705

822

830

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705

Incl

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on

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1deg

983

degSce

ne

size

km

Vari

able

185times

185

185times

170

185times

170

60times

60

239

9sw

ath

1566

swath

2800

swath

Co

vera

gefr

equ

ency

Inte

rmit

tent

18

days

16

days

16

day

s26

day

s2times

per

day

6d

ays

1day

Su

n-s

ynch

rono

us

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

orb

it3

Vie

wan

gles

Nad

irO

bliqu

eN

adir

Nadir

Nadir

Nadir

O

bli

qu

eN

adir

Nadir

plusmn

40deg

Nadir

plusmn

20deg

Est

imat

edpro

duct

$0ndash25

$20

0$425

$600

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00

00

cost

p

erpre

vio

usl

yacq

uir

edsc

ene

(basi

c)R

efer

ence

sN

AS

AE

RO

SE

RO

SE

RO

SSP

OT

NO

AA

NA

SA

NA

SA

NA

SA

1 Ab

bre

viat

ion

sfo

rse

nso

rsand

gover

nm

ent

age

nci

esare

as

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al

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nner

T

MT

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atic

Map

per

E

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ced

Th

emat

icM

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Res

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sor

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rces

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rvat

ion

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ems

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ter

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ited

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tes

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logi

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uth

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ta

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AA

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onal

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ph

icand

Atm

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her

icA

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on

NA

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Nat

ion

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csan

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ion

2 A

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ion

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case

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nge

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al

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erm

ines

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ree

of

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ilit

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ng

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dit

ion

sam

on

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ages

taken

of

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sam

epla

ceat

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eren

tti

mes







































































Tab

le5

(Cont

inued

)

Form

ula

tion

1F

orm

ula

tio

n2

Form

ula

tio

n3

fH

DP

OV

set

tR

ange

DP

3t

Ran

ge

DP

4P

ho

togr

aph1

(mm

)(k

m)

PC

2S

N(k

m)

(m)

(km

)(deg

)(k

m)

(m)

(deg)

(km

)(m

)

Fig

ure

7L

imm

enB

igh

tS

TS

093

-704

-50

250

283

shy15

0135

0shy

15

013

58

623

120

859

16

963

0ndash67

3125

16

863

0ndash67

612

613

2P

CR

e-es

tim

ated

shy14

733

1352

67

64

5128

623

ndash65

5123

128

623

ndash65

712

3127

Auxilia

ryP

oin

t611

062

3ndash65

112

312

5F

igu

re10

N

ear

Au

stin

T

XS

TS

095

-716

-46

250

543

30

5shy

975

28

6shy

1007

120

230

375

34

613

5ndash157

281

34

1136ndash16

128

636

0

1 All

pho

togr

aphs

exce

pt

on

eta

ken

wit

hH

ass

elbla

dca

mer

aso

dis

tan

ceacr

oss

the

image

d=

55m

m

for

S73

E51

45

taken

wit

hel

ectr

onic

still

cam

erad=

276

5m

mho

rizo

nta

l2 P

Cand

SN

are

giv

enin

the

form

(lati

tud

elo

ngit

ude)

deg

rees

w

ith

neg

ativ

en

um

ber

sre

pre

senti

ng

south

and

wes

tA

ccura

cyo

fP

Cis

plusmn0

5and

SN

isplusmn

01

as

reco

rded

inth

eA

stro

naut

Ph

oto

gra

phy

Data

base

ex

cep

tw

her

en

ote

dth

atce

ntr

ep

oin

tw

asre

-est

imate

dw

ith

grea

ter

accu

racy

3 C

alc

ula

ted

usi

ng

the

mea

nofth

em

inim

um

an

dm

axim

um

esti

mate

sof

DF

orm

ula

tion

2co

nsi

der

sD

inth

ed

irec

tion

per

pen

dic

ula

rto

the

Pri

nci

pal

Lin

eo

nly

4 C

alc

ula

ted

inho

rizo

nta

lan

dve

rtic

aldir

ecti

on

sb

ut

still

ass

um

ing

geom

etry

of

gure

6(B

)F

irst

nu

mb

eris

the

mea

no

fth

em

inim

um

Dat

the

bott

om

of

the

ph

oto

and

the

maxi

mum

Dat

the

top

of

the

ph

oto

(range

show

nin

the

tab

le)

and

isco

mpara

ble

toF

orm

ula

tio

n2

Sec

ond

num

ber

isth

em

ean

of

Des

tim

ated

alon

gth

eP

rin

cip

alline

and

alo

ng

the

ou

tsid

eed

ge

(range

not

show

n)

5 Alt

itu

de

isap

pro

xim

ate

for

mis

sion

as

exac

tti

me

pho

togr

ap

hw

asta

ken

and

corr

esp

on

din

gn

adir

data

are

no

tava

ilab

le

Lack

of

nad

irdata

pre

ven

tsap

plica

tion

of

Form

ula

tion

s2

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d3

6 Au

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ypo

int

add

edw

as

shy14

80

lati

tud

e13

51

2lo

ngit

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5degro

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in

stru

ctio

ns

for

esti

mati

ng

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rota

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gle

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met

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conta

ined

as

par

tof

the

scal

eca

lcu

lato

rsp

read

shee

tdo

cum

enta

tio

n












Table

6C

om

pari

sons

of

chara

cter

isti

csof

ast

ron

aut-

dir

ecte

dp

ho

togr

aphy

of

Ear

thw

ith

auto

mati

csa

tellit

ese

nso

rs1

Info

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ion

com

piled

fro

mw

ebpage

sand

pre

ssre

lease

sp

rovi

ded

by

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age

nt

list

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der

lsquoRef

eren

cesrsquo

Land

sat

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ronaut-

acq

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edSP

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orb

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ph

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SS

TM

ET

M+

XS

AV

HR

RC

ZC

SSea

WiF

S

Len

gth

of

reco

rd19

65ndash

1972

ndash19

82ndash

1999ndash

198

6ndash

1979

ndash19

78ndash1986

1997

ndashSp

atia

lre

solu

tio

n2

m9ndash65

79

30

30

20110

0times40

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1100

ndash4400

Alt

itu

de

km

222

ndash611

907ndash91

5705

705

822

830

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955

705

Incl

inati

on

285

ndash51

699

2deg982

deg982

deg98

deg81deg

99

1deg

983

degSce

ne

size

km

Vari

able

185times

185

185times

170

185times

170

60times

60

239

9sw

ath

1566

swath

2800

swath

Co

vera

gefr

equ

ency

Inte

rmit

tent

18

days

16

days

16

day

s26

day

s2times

per

day

6d

ays

1day

Su

n-s

ynch

rono

us

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

orb

it3

Vie

wan

gles

Nad

irO

bliqu

eN

adir

Nadir

Nadir

Nadir

O

bli

qu

eN

adir

Nadir

plusmn

40deg

Nadir

plusmn

20deg

Est

imat

edpro

duct

$0ndash25

$20

0$425

$600

$155

0ndash230

00

00

cost

p

erpre

vio

usl

yacq

uir

edsc

ene

(basi

c)R

efer

ence

sN

AS

AE

RO

SE

RO

SE

RO

SSP

OT

NO

AA

NA

SA

NA

SA

NA

SA

1 Ab

bre

viat

ion

sfo

rse

nso

rsand

gover

nm

ent

age

nci

esare

as

follow

sM

SS

Mult

i-sp

ectr

al

Sca

nner

T

MT

hem

atic

Map

per

E

TM

+E

nhan

ced

Th

emat

icM

app

erP

lus

AV

HR

RA

dvance

dV

ery-h

igh

Res

olu

tio

nR

adio

met

erC

ZC

SC

oast

alZ

on

eC

olo

rS

cann

erS

eaW

iFS

Sea

-vie

win

gW

ide

Fie

ld-

of-

view

Sen

sor

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OT

Sate

llit

epo

ur

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serv

ati

on

de

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X

SM

ult

isp

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alm

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OS

Eart

hR

esou

rces

Obse

rvat

ion

Syst

ems

Data

Cen

ter

Un

ited

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tes

Geo

logi

cal

Surv

ey

Sio

ux

Falls

So

uth

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ta

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AA

Nati

onal

Oce

an

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ph

icand

Atm

osp

her

icA

dm

inis

trati

on

NA

SA

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ion

alA

eron

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csan

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Adm

inis

trat

ion

2 A

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isin

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est-

case

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irp

ixel

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for

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nge

of

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isin

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rbit

al

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togr

aphs

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erm

ines

deg

ree

of

var

iab

ilit

yo

flighti

ng

con

dit

ion

sam

on

gim

ages

taken

of

the

sam

epla

ceat

diV

eren

tti

mes

















































































Table

6C

om

pari

sons

of

chara

cter

isti

csof

ast

ron

aut-

dir

ecte

dp

ho

togr

aphy

of

Ear

thw

ith

auto

mati

csa

tellit

ese

nso

rs1

Info

rmat

ion

com

piled

fro

mw

ebpage

sand

pre

ssre

lease

sp

rovi

ded

by

the

age

nt

list

edun

der

lsquoRef

eren

cesrsquo

Land

sat

Ast

ronaut-

acq

uir

edSP

OT

orb

italph

oto

gra

ph

yM

SS

TM

ET

M+

XS

AV

HR

RC

ZC

SSea

WiF

S

Len

gth

of

reco

rd19

65ndash

1972

ndash19

82ndash

1999ndash

198

6ndash

1979

ndash19

78ndash1986

1997

ndashSp

atia

lre

solu

tio

n2

m9ndash65

79

30

30

20110

0times40

00825

1100

ndash4400

Alt

itu

de

km

222

ndash611

907ndash91

5705

705

822

830

ndash870

955

705

Incl

inati

on

285

ndash51

699

2deg982

deg982

deg98

deg81deg

99

1deg

983

degSce

ne

size

km

Vari

able

185times

185

185times

170

185times

170

60times

60

239

9sw

ath

1566

swath

2800

swath

Co

vera

gefr

equ

ency

Inte

rmit

tent

18

days

16

days

16

day

s26

day

s2times

per

day

6d

ays

1day

Su

n-s

ynch

rono

us

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

orb

it3

Vie

wan

gles

Nad

irO

bliqu

eN

adir

Nadir

Nadir

Nadir

O

bli

qu

eN

adir

Nadir

plusmn

40deg

Nadir

plusmn

20deg

Est

imat

edpro

duct

$0ndash25

$20

0$425

$600

$155

0ndash230

00

00

cost

p

erpre

vio

usl

yacq

uir

edsc

ene

(basi

c)R

efer

ence

sN

AS

AE

RO

SE

RO

SE

RO

SSP

OT

NO

AA

NA

SA

NA

SA

NA

SA

1 Ab

bre

viat

ion

sfo

rse

nso

rsand

gover

nm

ent

age

nci

esare

as

follow

sM

SS

Mult

i-sp

ectr

al

Sca

nner

T

MT

hem

atic

Map

per

E

TM

+E

nhan

ced

Th

emat

icM

app

erP

lus

AV

HR

RA

dvance

dV

ery-h

igh

Res

olu

tio

nR

adio

met

erC

ZC

SC

oast

alZ

on

eC

olo

rS

cann

erS

eaW

iFS

Sea

-vie

win

gW

ide

Fie

ld-

of-

view

Sen

sor

SP

OT

Sate

llit

epo

ur

lrsquoOb

serv

ati

on

de

laT

erre

X

SM

ult

isp

ectr

alm

ode

ER

OS

Eart

hR

esou

rces

Obse

rvat

ion

Syst

ems

Data

Cen

ter

Un

ited

Sta

tes

Geo

logi

cal

Surv

ey

Sio

ux

Falls

So

uth

Dako

ta

NO

AA

Nati

onal

Oce

an

ogra

ph

icand

Atm

osp

her

icA

dm

inis

trati

on

NA

SA

Nat

ion

alA

eron

auti

csan

dSp

ace

Adm

inis

trat

ion

2 A

ddit

ion

aldet

ail

isin

table

2B

est-

case

nad

irp

ixel

size

for

ara

nge

of

alti

tudes

isin

clud

edfo

ro

rbit

al

pho

togr

aphs

3 Det

erm

ines

deg

ree

of

var

iab

ilit

yo

flighti

ng

con

dit

ion

sam

on

gim

ages

taken

of

the

sam

epla

ceat

diV

eren

tti

mes






































































Erratum: Astronaut-acquired orbital photographs as digital data for remote sensing: Spatial...

Documents

Transcript of Erratum: Astronaut-acquired orbital photographs as digital data for remote sensing: Spatial...