Educational Considerations, vol. 26 (1) Full Issue

Educational Considerations Educational Considerations

Volume 26 Number 1 Article 12

9-1-1998

Educational Considerations, vol. 26 (1) Full Issue Educational Considerations, vol. 26 (1) Full Issue

Chad Litz Kansas State University

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Litz, Chad (1998) "Educational Considerations, vol. 26 (1) Full Issue," Educational Considerations: Vol. 26: No. 1. https://doi.org/10.4148/0146-9282.1340

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Educational Considerations, Vol. 26, No. 1 [1998], Art. 12

https://newprairiepress.org/edconsiderations/vol26/iss1/12DOI: 10.4148/0146-9282.1340

considerations BOARO Of EDITORS ChId Uti

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Vol. XXVI. Number I, Fall 1998

TABLE OF CONTENTS Opcn IJluc

PtlvltC fundin, of Public School>: lOClI [dl,ution F" und.tiDrll in Michi"n ••. .••.•.•..•. .... .. .. ................. .•...• ....•. .... .

Mo;h~ Addono.zlO

CII."Ccl in Reven .... an~ Its Usc in Tllru tow Spendinc Ditt,iclS foJlowilll Mi<.hilan·1 finant~ RdOfm ............................................................. 8

Clth(nne Sd'e

finlncin, [duuUon in Minnesotl: II Tr~dition of I'<ot:~n. 1911· 1"8 ......... .. ... I~

Muy J~1It GU)I

W.£.B. DuB ...... [ducotionol Philo.ophcr: Will the Re,1 DuB"i, Plene St.nd Up! .......................................... ... . ............ 11

Doo Huffe<d

Ev'I~.tin~ Mu ll;e~ llu .. 1 UI~r.lurc for Usc In the Cl1I5,oom ............................ 28 J ul ~ WilO,os ~n d Robert J. G:.Irnt.re

PrincipIl1 ond CounulOfl : Cruti n~ Effective Elomooll,>, S<hool CounHfini Pro, .. m, ........ .... . .. ...................... . .......... .... ................. ... n ~~ .. BJIXl; ~nd Dd>,. Pont,

Rcxlr~h ~n~ Dcvo:lop .... nl in [~uc:&tion .... ..................... ............ .... .. .. ........... 38 ~11Ia A. York

8l*ildin,·bued DKi. ian Makin!' II Sr..rtd PII"noi .. ~ MooHI for Ind .... "" Smool ................................................ ....

Mo;h~ P Brody. aurles It C~~a..-.;f P.tt, C, C.mpQo{{

Ener,lzln, . Directing .nd Susu.inin, MotivatiOll in • So~i. 1 Studies P,oflrom ................. ..... .... . ... . ... . ....... . ............... .. .. .. .......... 49

OlVld l Grifflll. SI

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3

.. By the year 2000 there will be 4.000 oublic school I oundalions lhroughoul the U.S.

Private Funding of Public Schools:

Local Education

Foundations in Michigan

Michael F. Addonizio

Since ,he beginning of this decade. public schools in the U.S. have been faced with a dramatic slowing of per pupil reve.nue growth (Hanushek and Rivk,n. 1997) while both enrollments and expectations for academic ach,evement continue to rise. To meet their Students· and communities' expectations, local school districts in recentyears ha,-e turned increasingly to a new form of nonprofit organiza· 11011- the educational /oundation. In Michigan. 144 such nonprofit organizations have been established by local districts to 1aise revenue for curriculum improvements. enrichment activities. capital proJects. and instructional materials and to strengthen links between schoolsand cornrnunities. Th,s activity ,n Michigan is representative olactivity nationally. The National Association of Educational Found,1· tions (NAEF) estimates llm by the year 2000 there will be 1.000 public school foundations throughout the U.S. (NAEF. 1996).

While the rise of these organizations is not unexpected in light ofthe slowing of revenue growrh io1 public schools. this development has not been viewed with universal approval. The equalization o! educational opportunities for all children. rega1dless of the wealth of their respective local communities, has long been an important goal of educational policymakers. Virtually every state allo:ates scllool aid to local d;stricts by means of

.. equalizing'' formulas designed to offset

disparities in local fiscal resources.' Local education foundations havearoused concern tha.t they may exacerbate fiscal disparities. For example. political economist and former U.S. Labor Secretary RobertReich has ch;,ractenzed these organizations as O another means by which the privileged are seceding from the rest" (New York Times, May 17. 1992).

This study examines lhe organizati

on and operations of local education foundations in Michigan and the fiscal and programmatic impact of nonp,ofit education found2ticns on Michigan public schools. The study also compa,es the socioeconomi c characteristics of foundation and nonfoundation districts and tests the hypoihesis that residents of local drstricts wich education foundations differ from res,dents of nonfoundation districts in terms of preferences for 1>ublic school spending.

Section I summarizes national trends in K-12 public school spend· iog. Section II summarizes recem trends in Michigan. including the state·s fundamental reforms of 1994. The rise of local education foundations in M ich,gan is discussed in Section 111. This section summarizes key findings from our survey of local educatron fotind.;.tions and local district superintendents and compares foundation and nonfoundat,on dis11icts on selected socioeconomic and

Michael Addonizio is Associate Professor, Wayne State University

Educational Considetalions. Vol. 26, No. 1 Fall /998

educational variables. Section IV presents a model of local edocation demand to test for behavioral differences between residents oi foundation and nonfoundation distlicts. along with data for estimation of the model. Empirical results are presented in Section V. A sumrna1y and conclusions are presented in Section VI.

I. National Trends in Public School SpendingFo1 the past century. public elernenta1y and secondary education in

the U.S. has enjoyed remarkably steady revenue growth. Hanushek and Rivkin ( 1997) report that: real expenditure per pupil increased at 3.S percent per year over the entire per

i

od of 1890-1990. with total annual expenditures rising fcorn S2 billion to more than $187 billion.in constint 1990 dollars. over this period. This nearly 100-fold increase is more than triple the growth of the U.S. Gross Natior)al Product (GNP} over this period. with K-12 public school expendituresincreasing from less than I percen, of CNP in 1890 to 3.,1 pe,cent in 1990.

Since 1990, however, the growth rate in per pupil expenditures appears to have fallen precipitously. While real spending pe.r pupil grev1 at a 3.75 percent ,ate ,n the 1980s. the growth rate from 1990 to 1993 was a mere 0,6 percent (National Center for Education St.ilistics. 199S). This lowe, growth rate is due, in part. to the return of growth in school enrollments. which have been rising nationally since 1981. Further. resulting fiscal pressures on public schools are exace.rbated by the steady growth of the special education population. for whom financial support is mandated by rederal law. On average. per pupil expenditures for special education equals approximately 2.3 times per pupil expenditures for regular education (Chaikand. Danielson andBrauen. 1993). Moreover. the special education population commuesto grow more rapidly than the general student population, rising from 11.6 percent of total enrollment in 1990 to I 1,9 percent in !992.'

If. School Revenue Trends in Michigan

A. Spending Since 1981.

T1ends in state and local revenue per pupil from 1981·82 through1994·95. m constant 1992-93 dollars. are presented in Table I.

As Table I reveals. total per pupil revenue fell in 1982·83 and 1983-84. as Michigan and the U.S. weathered a recession that began in1979 and persisted until 1983. Real revenue then rose slowly through1985·86. ar)d increased a robust 9.6 percent ,n 1986·87. following a

modest 1.2 percent increase ,n 1987-88. revenue rose by fully l�.s percent in 1981"89. The 1ate of real grow,h then fell steadily from 1989·90 through 1992·93, turning negative in that year, This decline

,n real per pupil revenue growth, combined with Oat or falling enrollments in many Michigan school districts and increasing academic expectations as reflected by more challenging state assessments of pupil achievement in reading. writing, mathematics and science and an achievement-based school accreditation program created by the legislature in 1994 led some distrrct.s to search for nontraditional sourcesor support.

B. Michiga,1 Schoo! Finance Reform.In 1994. the Michigan legislatuie enacted the state's most sweep·

ing fiscal reforms in more than 20 years, reducing property taxes. increasing the state share of school funding and substantially reducing local discretion regarding school taxation and expenditure decisions. On the allocation side. the new legislation replaced a 20·year-old district power equalizing (DPE} school aid formula andnumerous categorical grants With a foundation formula which closelyte�ulated local per pupil revenue. Each distnct's 1993-94 combined

4



,tate ,nd 1oc.1 Cb.,.") "",nL>t fe< >Chool Operotiool oo:, m( the b<lis 0" d<\ermmmg m 1994-95 fou nd' t"'" . 11ow,,,,,._ Th e m'lor comf>O<1enll of • dISt ri ct', b,,, ",venues _ " 1oc,1 .d v.lorem P'opi',ty t'''''s. DPE stott , id l nd most stm o.tegoric,1 'id .

Tabl~ I

Re.1 Stat. and Lonl R~v.nu~ pel Pupil. 1981 _82 Ih rou~h 1992-9l (Constant 1992-93 DolI~ .. )·

Yelr loc, 1 R.vt nL'" State R'vtnu. Too l Re',"n""

198 1·82 $1.933 ~U77 $';,SID

1982-83 ;:,86;: I AS;: 4,31 ~

193-).34 <.835 I All 4.<61

1984·85 1,884 1.503 4.446

1985-86 2,832 10654 4,4&i

1986-81 ) ,103 1,8 14 4,917

1987-88 3.1 14 1,859 4.973

• 1988-89 3.731 1, 963 5,695

I 989 ·9(l 3,9 19 1.039 5,953

199(l '9 I 4,065 <'<)96 6,160

1991-92 4 110 ;:, 154 0.3;:4

1991-93 4 ,16) 2, 150 6,3 13

% ch:;mge • 41 ,9 + ,6 ,6 + 400

'P,e" n"" w., d.flmd by tn . ",,, liCIt d.fl,to' I:x , tm lIId loc,1 ~overrl m ' nl 'Pernling, Source: N. tion:.ol Edu « tion A'so<:i' tI OO , " ",port. d in Am erioan Eduealioo nno""" Jbocialion (1995)

TO. legi~ .ture plO'I'K!ed that <w ry district h,,'" fc-u rnl,tion .lkJwan", of no It" th.n $<1.100 pt; r pupil .nd t!,.t ey!ry di ,tr>ct ,!ceiy<.n inc".,e m pel pupil "venues (rV!r 1993-94 1e",11. "" th ,"ch ir-.crw;e, lflymely " Iated to 1991-94 b' st ll~ leve ll_ A, loch. (he new <t.le form lll. ,ub,tanmlly con't",,~d pel pu Pil ",,,.nLl/; growth I:x hlgh,pen ding dimict',' figu," I ,how, th. rJnge of per pupi l ,,"rnue NlCI""" ,lIawed di,trict; '" 1994 ·93 " • fur-.ct loo or pr>:x )'t"

r!venu(, fLl<!lle r, th e $Wle-,mpostd coow" nt 00 I)! ' pupil rt", nue &rowth

w", (J<"gned to b<>come bm din 8 00 r'rlC<e toe.1 distrIcts in to. 1995-96 h",.1 Y'" ,nd beyond This cOIlstra in t is imposrd on 10(>1 di,t(l(t, In the bm of , m{e -b",ic fOLmd'tlOO ,lIow,nc.:· ,et . t S5,0C() lor 1994-9S l nd ind.x<d , nnu. lly to nomi n, 1 ",hool-l ld·fund ,ev.nu. po r pup;l, Th i, b,,1C oIlow,nce rme to S5.I S3 In I9'JS-96 ,nd S5 .308 ,n 1990-97, Loc.1 dllt,i, t, . t or .00"" t tl< ba,1C Ioo nw tl Oll . llow;me! ~ r~y receivt 00 .bwlut. doH., incrt"" in ttl<" distl'ct foundatioo all owances <<jIJ ,1 to th e do11. r mCI!. >e in the b' <lC found.t ion .llow,"Cf ' Di'tnc{ , b. low th, b"" foundation

, lIow.nc! in 1995-% ~ f\d sub"'luent yom r!cel" In,,,,,., up to daubl. that amoun t Th" coosmint .• rnl ii, "rmge p!tsr rving" dfW """r tim< , if' d, pK:t.d in Flgu,";: A, !l1e fir\lr-.ce S)"ltem " cu",ntly d."gn .d , the number 0/ 10(31 d,str;ct, l ubJ<ct to thIS com lwm wi ll !tsr eoch )'elf. ;os rtl3ti", ly low-spt;nd,ng d"trfC{'." txx>md to th! b»i<; fou rnl' tion .llomn" and thm "loc ked In - ,1 th lt I.vel

Figu,o I FY95 Po,_Pupil Fo undation I"c,u.~

Now '" It, th"d )'eiO r, Mioh,g. n', rou rl4 ltion fo<"," l, ha< c"'''tra ined per pupil r(>t nL>t growth lot 1oc. 1 dlStllm wi th IoondatOO ,.-;'""" in exc(ss or the mte b"jc 1,,,,1. ThIS ,,,wdcwn in Srowl ll " ." h rrom """ ,",!rlChoo, 00 both 10ClI ",hooI district tlX f:)te$ . nd ,me ""rnLR ded i"ted to K- Il prog" ms. Th rs slowdown hlS b"n p:lrticul,,1y .(ute !of di strict, w'lh exccptio,,,lIy hig h IlX b"ses l nd pel pupi l lewn ",,_

Figu,~ 2 Foundation Simul~tion Effee! 0"", Timo

'- ,,-- - --

\ .-. ------- .. ::::""~~:---.-.-.--.

T.blt 1 prO'.'ide, SDIll e (Omext fo, vi, win£ tht I<S( of IOell .due. · t"", fou nd.1noo , in Michl~.n th! oldest or wt1ich dat' from 1981, wtl<n Itl< n.l ion's eco nomy W<, in reces,ion .nd Michi£, n', K- 12 Opwtinr, ! xptnditure, "" re f. lling ,n re.1 {" m" Inde.d, beSinriing In 1979·80, ru l cu", ,,t opWl:ng expt; nd,lu", I<1lloo r coosec uti", ye;u s lnd did not I!g.in ttl< 1979 -80 level until 199 1·92. S<lCh • sIo'-IJdown in rell publ>c revenue glo,,1 h p!O'Iid". t 1"'1 sor". "'t"",.1e fo< the "'" o/ loc. 1 .d ue.tOO found' tion, In Mrchig"' ,

Educat,onal Considerations

5

Table 2 Total Current Operating Expenditures (TCOP) for local

School Districts in Michigan, 1978-79 through 1995-96

Total Current Operating Expenditures

Year Current $

1978·79 $3.500,835.368

1979·80 3.826.569.438

1980·81 4.121.362.304

1981·82 4.311.715,359

1982-83 4.389,380.997

1983-84 4,6 I 4 .552 .543

I 9!H-85 4.899 .844 .003

198S-86 5,279.439.298

1986·87 S.S78.143.123

1987-88 5.942.575.941

1988-89 6.288.766.404

1989·90 6.724.945.765

1990-91 7.203.792.607

1991-92 7.701.674.138

1992-93 8.036.838.341

1993·94 8.748.283.541

1994·95 9.606.041.49 I

199.>·96 10.253.359.164

Source: Michigan Department of Education

Ill. local Education foundations

Constant ( 1978) $

$3,500.835.368

3.552.989.265

3,438.193 .296

3.169.213.788

2.922.357.521

2.895,678.052

2.979,353.036

3,081,264.911

3,138,902.213

3 .28 I .5S9 .413

1.348.829,226

3.440.045.918

3,516.275.007

3.566.745.769

3,571,928.152

3.774.879.629

4.024.147.078

4.186.582.485

Generally. a foundation is a non-profit. tax-exempt entity with a board of trustees engaged in raising. managing and disseminating resources for one or more designated purposes. such as charitable. relieious. liteiary. scientiiic or educat ional. Foundation trustees aregenerally selected from the local community and focus on raisingresources. while directors implement policies and programs.

Creating a local education foundation in Michigan is relatively simpfe. Organizers file a four-page "Articles of Incorporation" form. alongwith a $20 fee. with the Corporation Division. Corporation andSecurities Bureau. Michigan Department of Commerce. as requ;red by Michigan·s Nonprofit Corporation Act (P.A. 162 or 1982). founda· tions generally begin operations within 4 to 6 months of filing "Amcles." and often exist alongside booster and parent groups that

Educational Consideraaons. Vol. 26. No. 1, Fail 1998

Table 3

Profile of local Education Foundations Responding

to Survey, 1996

Year Yeacs Number of foundations

Estab!i$hed of

Ope,ation Urban Suburban Rural Total

1995 I I I I 3

1994 2 0 I 2 3

1993 3 I 2 I 4

1992 4 0 2 3 5

1991 5 I 3 4 8

1990 6 0 0 I I

1989 7 0 I 0 I

1988 8 0 2 2 4

1987 9 0 2 3 s

1986 10 I 4 4 9

1985 11 I 2 2 6.

1984 12 2 t 0 }

1983 13 0 0 0 0

1982 14 0 0 I I

1981 15 0 0 I I

Total ... 7 21 25 54

Avg, Fcundat,on $64.891 $19,734 $11.258 $19.539

,e.,.enue. 1994·9S

•one foundation did not respond lo .. urban/suburban/rural"question.

also raise funds for the local public schools. Although !heir fundraising activities may overlap (e .g .. caifles. sales. etc.). foundations often focus on developing partnerships with corporations. individual majordonors and other foundations. and seek planned gifts through wills and memorials. Grants are often made to teachers for innov.irive instructional pcactices . visual arts. and technology, areas seldomsupported by booster groups. further. education foundations usually limit grants to items not normally part of the local school district budget.

3

6



A, Swwying fo"ndQ:ionl in Micil,gal1, Loc.1 edue'tiooa IIo Lllld' tioo, In M>d1 I ~' n wei! >d! nli litd through

• coroputer "'.I< h 01 lile> 01 bOIh the COIpoe,t"'" DrvISiOI1 . COIpara· Mn , nd Securi l .. , 8u""u, Michrg.n Depmment 01 Commeru .nd th. Ch'lrtabie TIU,t D,yil:oo or the Mlchi.,n AllOiney Gen ... I', oll:c, . A tot.1 01 144 loco l !d..,;.tloo f()!,md,tions "''' l3entifil:d, QlJ<woona ire, we" l",n m.il!d to {h! !d"';.{iOO lounu,llO/"l, , nd, II • loI\ow' !l?, to {h ei r <s<oc" te d kxal «:hool district '"pe"nten· J~nl$ , A profile of the re,pondent, "pre""nt,d in T.ble },

As l ,b;" } LndICales, [oc.1 N ",'!LOO lourx!'lions . re "wer. lly Iound In r",,1 .nd , uburb,n «:hooI dim"t' , Orgln, •• tooa l "l~'ity iKe! I,,· m d during the p'riad 01 {9S5 th'oogh 191J.3, • pe rm m.,'ed t-t " ri. bI< growth In ", I vo r pupl [tv.n", growt h, (Indeed , tile gr(,te,l 'ncrelSt '" 1oc.1 foo n&noo, occur"d m 1986, wM. reo l >tot, , nd 1oc11 pe ' PU~rI re~noe roS( lully 9,6 pe rc< nl dLlfing t'" 1986·87 zI>::>oI be,1 y'''I, fOlmal:oo of fleW foo ll d.tJOrl, Il l> ><cele,.ted ""''' 1991, when e,ght re'pondwg fOun aalJon$ wert !Sl.bllslled, AI1 nu. 1 fOUM.lloo "wn"", . however. h" b<.n quile mode't, averaging. mere ,19 ,539 in 1994 ·93 .

B, ComparilOn 01 foundalion and I\'on·foundation 01511iol<. Wh ile lOt. 1 Io und.llon r"""n"", to dm I,.,.., t>otn mod"l thu,

f", til< Pl"e>er,,. oj 1 kx. 1 eo oellio n foo "&1Ion provide" po:enl,,1 ","roe of , uppl . men ta l revenue for j nd lUggem , ile lghtentd ,o" H""rt,\y Inte" 't In leG I pubk ><1>001" To b<gin {esllng fm doe'llon,lIy " I.".nt dif! .. t nce, bel",,".n fo un d, lloo . nd noo· foundotr oo dlltr:Cl" cn"wlY , nHy, i$ 0; Y"rrl nce win us<d to comp,,,e til< """n v,I""" of ",!tc ted di,:nct " 'ltn"", ""'" L"t>, !IouS/:' lK)hl econom io d",,,,tcnm:;s, dJStr;{t II", and measu 'e> of ,l .. '<lent ochrewmenl of ""h di,trict group, Til< "foond.tlon" distr"t' COO ,6t of . 11 144 di$lrrm Iden tLf,ed through the ,1m daob" " described ' OO'lt. OQt ,""ely lh . , urvey ",por;ients ft.,,, mea n Yllues . nd .",xi, ted $'~n; l!cl il Ct 1t~1 , '" presented in T,b., 4

A, T, b;" 4 ,ndICa les, loc.1 di , tll el, wIth .ducotom l l:xJ na. ll oo,. OIl '''''"ge, enloy h,gh" u""stll md pu bt" revtnu! p! r pUjl< 1. £rtl l< r . "rol ll]", nl" hl &il<r ho u,ehol d ,r.co,m ,nd hrgiltr stu<knt ,chitvt· rn, "1 lilm to." rlOnfoo nd. tJOrl coumerparl,. Ti're di fference> on the groop mean, art mti,tie,lIy ~gn lf;cant lor ",.ery variable "cef'! W:b;l ",

VOr i'<' prl .M lentil grode r.,dlng "h""",,,,,,nl. Sornt d"f",,,,,,, '" s(rl king. Fa !',,'"ple, ilouS(hoI d i""OIl1es " e more th'n 10 P<' runt high " . 00 the '''' ''gt. In fo "nd ,lion d.ltIi(I," oomp;;red wilil th err noofoondltloo coo ntelpm" Foondatioo dlStr.;l, llso h.Ye l ~r perc! lIt;lge of child" n .Iigible for I[!e lild reduced prlCt lunch UM" {h! Nal>Ofl/.1 Sct,wI l u""h Act , nd kM~r F. d,,,1 Ch'pte< 1 (rlOW [!named Tid , II """nUllu re, tlllrllh'" noo fouod .lion CQunte rp"l, further. til< ""'''ge perc,n t Df ' tud, nts ea rni ng s1.t" loctory \Cores C<' the Mi<;h'l:on Edu"t>on As,""m.m Progl, m (M EAP) are 'ign if"' n l~ h:gi>tr ' ,"C<1g IOUrx!l ~ oo di w IC l, 00 fl"" of tt.. ']x IT>i'<sur.s

Th!" I!$ull ;, wh rlt nol. "",,"_wed , "i" co"". m, regard ing tM. equ.ty In the d.SI"WUC<1 of ed..,;,llcIliOI /t w urces "ross IOCll ><roo dlSt"ct, In Michlg. n, Mdl.~l n , .Ioo~ w,th vrrtlHllly ewr)' oth er "", t. , h" . dopld stot. school lKi form" l" des:£""d to drstr'bute mar. ,tate lid to "",I dIStric t' wilh rtbt.",,!y luw f i $C~ 1 e,pacity. genm ll y "",,,,,red In term, <.>i tlX,ble prol"'rly "", lIh per pc pil. Furtt.. .. ,tm ca tegor" , 1 gr.nt f'!ogr<.m$ weh .! , pro , 1 ed""tioo . ooo"",o"lory (d"';'{I OO and bo llngu, 1 !d",,{c()<, .rt dl;lIg""d to ta'l;e l .ddi lKm, 1 ,"sou rce, to kx' i dim"" Wl lh "1l[,~ ly ~ r"t corx.rw, Uoo$ 0/10'" . irxorne ch 'ld,," . nd or h" ch ildr,n who,re ,d\Jc. t:oo, lIy ' t· n,' Th.

Tobie 4 Compari .on of found.l ion ond Nooloundation Di,tr;ct

Mean. 01 Selected Measu re. 01 R"""nu~. Househo ld Incom~. Enrollm~nt ond Pupil Achi~""m"nt'

On. ·W oy ANOVA

Yl".I~! faund ' t"'o ~.

P·", I", I,..m.t~ n

Hoo,ehold I""""", $19,336 $24,359 < ~,

... S"b~d l "d l unch D% '"' < =, TlXN >t pe r Pup il $1 16,937 \ 114,48) 7748

~th r.:~n! G< , N .W% 6066,", 00"

Moth r.:~_nt G< , 53 11% 4865% 00'<

M"h A,hi<vtf11<f.l Gr " 38.72% J364% 01 16

R«d i"l Ad",,,mm' Gr , 43,18% 40,95% 000' Re' d i n ~ Ach...., rn ,nt Gr, , J7~M 33.98% OOW

""~,,. ""h.<' ... ~ . .. G< ," 4) 11% 4.144% 1561

Enroll"",n{ 1,267 2.605 042 1

Ch. I R,y, po r Pupi l \ 109,59 <;163 ,17 ,QI3I)

(j,."'tr~"d 1'ubI ~ IS,)3o $5, 148 0537

i'.tvtOl>t per PDpi l

10" 'ff Comp iled by aUlhe< Wl lh publ.sil<d data Jrom the Mrlll g' " o.p" tmenl of Ed""tloo and the M d lg,n o.pmmem of Trt " UfY,

",. of kx,1 decal"m, 1 Joond'IOOS ,n rel' t""ly high ·expendilu1e and h,gh"rxorn. d,stncl< may offm to som, d'gret {he eQ llIlY e~re,t> of t" , m l" ><hooI .Jd ')'Stem, furtil<l, 'lOden!' .molled ill fouIOd ,· t oo ddr"ts were o"'rwil<lm ln~y wMe, wiU, , n unw"glltd 'y"'g' of 91 p",, "1 'nlOr'~ lil!,. rJISlr';!" lhu, ,"",n g addJt"", 1 'qu lty cnrx!rn\. Th e .. CC<lWrlS , re r"IIlt.g,ted . iIoweV.l, by the "IJt,ve!y <mall f""nCIlJ cootributJOrl' of Iil< kx . 1 educotloo,1 Joo na.loo" iM r<.glng S 19.539 " 1994·95 among r!spor1dlng "'0001 di, lrn, Til<,. . Ifw, may bt fu!the, m,t ga{,d by the " I. llvel y I"ii' foorK,l,lIUf' con trrbul ions m,de to urOOn d" trrm,

IV. A Mod el of loc.1 Schr>el Di,trict Spend i ~c

Ti're demlnd for ed"';'lion wend ing i, """med to be d! ri",d Irom , med~ n·voter , m~c<ity· ru le rTlO(!el wll<,e il " n be $~n tllo t. undor (ell, ill conditio n"" c()mm"My"1 ef!«;tl'" c!em;lnd lor edUCalJOrl will ~ that of ,!> mtOIlO Ir>:;Ul"It vot" (,,' Selg,trorn ,nd GoOOm.n, 1971 ) ,

If m. pr"e of p""' te goods" " deooted t-t p, the In di"id", I', budgel cons!r1,m with prrlat. IIlrome y"

y . px' T ( H) ( I )

T - loc,1 properly I"es

f · the pm part: oo of loc,1 pro"efl), {ax!! ofht by th! deductJb.l,ly of pfCVrty I"e, from ,Ill! oM I~dera l

I""arne tox",

£du~a!iona/ Con;ideraliom 7

Property taxes are supplemented by lump-sum and matching aid to cover the total cost of local public education. further. the median voter pays cnly a fraction of the total local cost. based upon her share of total taxable property in the school district. Thus, the tax obligation of the median vote, is given by:

where r = {c-k) ( 1-s) (VmNt)

c = total cost of public education in districtk = lump-sum aid paid to district s = state share of additional dollar of educational

expenditures V m = median household property valuation V, = total p1operty valuation of district

(2)

Substituting (2) into ( I} and rean�nging. the median voter's budget constraint becomes:

V V

Y�K( V m )((1-S)·( l+S)) = px+cl( l -5)-f( I +S)J( ,;') (3) ' (

Thus. the total income of the median voter consists of private income and her share of lump-sum aid received by the district. while the voter's price of education is the marginal cost of increasingeducation expenditures per pupil by one dollar.

The median voter is assumed to maximize a ut!lity function U =U (x. c} subject to the budget constraint given by (3). A demand function for local public education can the" be derived in terms of price and income. A simple model of education demand is:

E = b, � b, PmCE + b1 INCOME., b, FREE+ by ENROLL (4) 'Nhere

E = educational expenditures per pupil. including local. state and federal funds

PlllCE = rnarginal tax price faced by the disllict's medianvoter

INCOME = rnedian family income ,n the district FREE = percent of children ,n district eligible for free or

,educed price lunch under the national school lunch act (a proxy fo, educational need)

ENROLL c total distrrct membership (to test for economies oi scale in the supply of education)

Mrueinq/ Tax Price. A district's marginal tax price of school spendingis the cost to the district's median voter of increasing per pupil spending by one dollar. I n a guaranteed tax base (GTO) aid system. used in Michigan in 1993.9,1 to emblish "foundation" spending levels for 1994·95 and subsequent years. the matching rate (m) for a lccal district is the state share of an additional dollar in locally financededucational expenditures. This matching rate. in combination with district enrollment and the median voter's share of the local districtproperty tax base. determines the margin.ii tax price:

PRICE = n (V ,,JV,){ 11( I • m)) (5)

n= number of students i n the district V. = average residential state equalized valuation (SEV)

in the district (proxy for median household SE\/)v, = total SEV of the district

Educational Considera1ions. Vol. 26. No. 1 fall 1998

Table S

Variables Associated with Public School Expenditures:

Descriptive Statistics - 1994-95

Foundation Districts Non-foundation Districts Variable

Mean SD Mean SD

txpendrture 5.336 934 5,148 1,018 (F.)

PRICE .8504 .1800 .7774 .2112

INCOME 29.335.5 I 8,044.58 24,358.86 7,783.37

FREE 23.02 13.97 30.10 16.15

ENROLL 4,267.03 4.375.61 2,605.01 9.418.08

N 141 390

Table 6

WLS Regression Coefficients for Michigan School District

E>1penditure Equation, t994-9S

(standard errors in parentheses)

Independent WLS Coefiicient P-valueVariable

Const�nt 3147.36 .0000 (373.80)

DUMMY 2584,09 .0003 (708.78)

PRICE -33.54 .1813 (47.59)

D'PRICE -3232.64 .0000 (356.64)

INCOME .06899 .0000 (.00970)

D'INCOME ·.01196 .5086 (.01808)

ENROLL .0046 .0149 {.0019)

D'ENROLL .0179 .1768 (.0133)

fREE 914.52 .0554 (476.38)

D'FREE -2566.69 .00/43 (894.63)

Adj. R' e .313

5

8



m· I( V' . V,lN,i lf tile d 1S 1 11Cl1tC~1 GTe 1o<~ ... I ~

i ia, OO(tl"wlle

V' ~ !\Ot'f'loNl GTS ~"" I a $EV ptr I"Jpl gu1ll1ntft

V • ""UK!'S Sf V ptr pupl

~ TM Ii!.!a on loul sdlaol d,WKt enrollments, •• poet>d,tau. SEV and free . nd reduced PiKe tl l&oblu _e obU!U>«! r""" tho M"",~n 0epKvntn1 01 [duutlon T~ diU! Q(I <btnc:1 ~ 00.",. !>Old '!lCQmt welt obu,neO from If>< I.1 Kh'a.n 00p11tmenl or Trusury.

V. Emp;,ic.1 Ruults The mocId of school e. pend.lU!n l.ql.Ql~on ~ ) 0$ (Stomaltd WIth

WI ~ term PRICl alt~Llled xeD/d.ns to t ql.Qluon} Dtscr,ptM S!au>ta lew tach ... ".ble ~t PItWl!ed In T~ S To itS! lew bell .... ,CIt>! O,fft~es betwun .. s.denls 01 ..,·fQrmul. :aM out-of·formLla d,<tn(t$.. a..mmy ... '.abln '" u<I'd b lilt ,mercePl . nd I", .adI indt?tnrIMt ... , .. ble. The eql.Qltons V! umnat!1l by _8tll. d leaS! sqUlIU. ""'tit tM """Ilw>g be!OI ,I Iflt squa .. root 01 tile numbc, 0/ fomil",' In tho sr:1IooI d~\lKl'

A:; "'own in T.ble }. It$!Ot ml 01 fwndn oo dllIDels spend rnor. pe' pupi l I,om pUblle (1'~) sourcu than nonfoulldibO.' dlstlKl ,,~ <lenU. allloou&h !hey fKe' hl£1W 1~ prICe br Khaol ~r>d "IE Aver' g! .hw<l'hold InCOrM '1 Iu l ~ 20.4 Ptrctn l hllh er ill t,xHld;iu(IIl d.'U:d\ , wh lk> the pl rCtnt Qf pupols ellS'bft "" f"e .1Id " dLle'" P''''' 1und1 is}().S pe"ent higlle ' in r">(IIl rCur.dl tloo di st"m, Me.n . mo ll· m, m i< h'gl>!r i moog Ioundi tioo dJltr>Cts , while t rtrollOT>eOls , ary ml.OCh more omong nonloundUIOO d'l!"m

Th . ,.~"'s'oo '(lu lt, In T~ble ~ ~<l1 Wl.OC tur<l1 ddfertflc.s In the <lerrn nd I", pLJt>" sr:MooI spernj lng m Oll tM two 'o'Ot, r ~rooP$ TM ccdf" ,t nt on OU MMY nos the e .~c ted POS lt11't , iE" ~nd '$

m~sti~11y $1,n,IKl nt. ,Mauna I jlrl'r~ "" II ISh .. il'Jbhc 'IdlooI 'f"'nd ln! on rr., pllt O( Ioond.I.tJOn d, , !!,:! !tSHit,m mat 'I r.:x ",:pt.:ntd b'! ~"(t , lIIComt trwollm,m 01 high educ"tooll n .. d (i , .. fIIHl Tn< «>efllO(nt 011 PRlC! ~"S !he ~d "~i~U'o't Sl&!' but" >latmiully ,n .. ""f,canl. Th~ ~oe!lO::Wl 011 O'PIIIC£ ~ " ',",;l!~ 10(1 sogoifaot. u'd0e4!:r11 m:,x( pr:<;e~I:I~ der'Noo Iew.ct.cd spo!<1diolon t"- p~t of fooodI~oo dlSl"CI 'flodenl1 u l"".u.d poIlU poet d"llC,toel 01 demand ukut,,!t<I n mnn (leI QUPOI Vlpond,t ....

Irwl. and ma'iOnal WI. plOCfl. """ . 5203 lor found.l~on dlW<f YOWS .00 ·.OO~I to< voteI'! ,n nonfwnGit.on drstnm'

Tile coeflic .. n( on oncornt Ills tM txp«".td POSd~ $!8fI "nd IS s:gn.f.:;.nt>! tM 01 If<,oel noe coolic .. nt on O' lNCOMf '$ 1r\S". n,flC<lnl hO'l'o'tVel. ondaung tIl"t tho reLilooshrp _n ,ncomc . nd <Ie$!~ ""tIooI ~,n£ dots noI V3l'f 10"0" d.stnet aroup .. The po>.u,," and .. .,..,I;cant coerr < .. nt on ENROLl (P. ... , ... of OI~9l.nd

th' ,ns:,:n,fanl ~oeffic.otrll on O' (NROU ,nd.c.,.!hE presence ot c""","llIblt sr:,I~ tfte<:ts ~mong bofh d,w,ct groups foRally, IJ:o: <o·dfi".nl on fREE,s srgn,rOCillt (p. O~541.OO oItht upct1<d I""'tivr "gn. Indlt:.tortg hLghulChoo1 spo!<1d'rtg ,n distrotts With ~ttr propo,tlonl 01 ~h,ld"n With eJ«: ~pC"m" e",,<>l<On.1 n .. d In <OfI~ .. t, tl>! ""Zi t"'" V'I!I $ ,,,,.lK~nl $"" on o"rRH ,,,ck~l<S • o'>egati .. ,d~tion! l"p belwten sd>ooI ~n(lLnB ~nd COrlCentr.t.Om 0' Iow ·incom e cllild,m ~'l'lOrl i fOUf\diII OO dl\lloCU, Amoo, lIIls d" I"Cl ~p, h'il>! r Sptndlnt alTl<.lng h'!:ll·irn;Qmt .rId hlSh 1:1. b.lS. r ... .. K>w PRICfl di'lIo:l, rl1 i)' $Wimp Hie trr.clS 01 ,cr11ll. n$.l!or~ .pw dIr"Ij!; In I,,, JffI"t n! foundl llQ!1 d,Wlctl

,

VI. S~mm .. y ond Cond~s;ons

S,,,,. m. beg.,nong of th" <le<;odI; , PU ~oC s<:hOO I I~ tl">e U.S, nM betn !ic.d WIth I dramatIC sjawin, 01 pel pupil '!'o'tou. i(OWtn,

wlIik both 01001 ~rollm'nts ~oo ! 'll'ctatlOns !of "..:\emo; .ck;~""· TI>!I1t o;"tioue to ,is(. 10 """I CO/11r\"Nnlry e. pe<:uuon., Iocaf IChooI dl\t(oCts '" (~.nt )"''''' to ..... tumtd ontl .. 'mgl~ to ~ new lewm 01 nonpro/;t <xganizatlOn ~ th~ ""lICit""",1 fwnd,u01 tn Mdtlg>o. t~~ su oh nonp,ofn o,,,,n,zatlOns hil'( b« n u Ubhshed by IOQ\ dlsmcts to ""'. ~. for OJrnclAum ""PfO"'tments. apolJI P.l$.. m,t,uuiOlli\ rrnlt' ,m and en,"".......,t ~CtMtltS ,nd to suenCUOen links bctv.o:m.wool.:aM ~~es Tills >ttMlY on Modt'l1'1 IS ~t:m .... of act,,,ty naLMwodr: The NatIOnal Assocl3too 01

Eduut:onal roundltoo, elUmoles mol by th' )'u' 2000 melt WIN be ~.OOO ~"b1;; $dl""t foun<:;allons mro"lhO!rt rhe U.S

Whole tho list 0/ thtst OI~n'''lIOn> os noI un.xptCl<d .., Icht 01 m • .rcrow>g of ~ grm<Ih .rod "son, t)!pe<:U~ons for pubfoc KIIooI> thi. d...-dopmwi /Li, nOl been ........... d w,th un "'1>1 .pp,(7If;l1 The ~ .... I'l>!lOn of educatron~1 OPportun,,'ei 101 .11 c/>ildren. ''IP'dIus 01 <he wt"31111 of me" lfll)tCl .... Ior:al ~omnun~ ~S. hO> long tot... 00 Importanl g<l31 of eduw01 pohcyrtlO~" Vilt""Uy rwry \I~t • • 'Ioc>tr< sr:!Iocl.,d to locJl (Io$.tr,m by muns 01 " q""I;:u n,; ' Iormut:l< ';'<l lIntO to off!'lt dI SI""~t~ .~ local fisr:.I1 ," ",,,,,e<. local . d"",t<>n foundl~on< ~ .... ~rou<l'd (orocem mil t i>ty may txiIC,rt.t' II>! "",y fisul dl$p'''llfl p" blK polocy !'I"s to ,.d"",

Tile Mi ,h'ion ,.st.;t~ hos revt.ted tim tOli l loo.mditoo '~ue, to d~t' h~,," be,n mode't, """8,~g 1m.,. SI9,SJ9 PII r p~'t (1P' 1"1i dil lr:Cl m 1994·95 . K"",,"er, sm,mll d.ff"tncu w! re found be!wetn foo nd,tion an<! ncnfoundll>o n d'stn m. With ~I't'. gt hou ,tllold Ir"oCC<T>e ''''''''g m. h ", .. group ""<.w,ng th. I' lt! r by rl"IOI't thi n 20 p .. " m. TI>! found.~oo d.slri , l" U , gr()UP , ~Iro hI .. I Iowtt perc,n t • .., of <nild,on el lglhle 10' rr, e.nd Itduced 1)1:<:( 1~rd1 "",lot

th' N. lie",1 S<:hOO l~,1d1 kl J'U W Pt' pUp,1 r .... nues from ~~it",,", . 1 l>x >OUfCl", ,M ~ nlf""",,IY 1l'if1 .. m<!"u rU of studenl "n ...... m.m In '"'~ I ng . nd m;otltUUt,CI. ~l mUSlJred by tnt MICh.-g.n fdl.OC.tIOn ,o.' Sf:SS"",nl f'logI,m fu'mt ' ilvdell($ enrojit<J ,n fou-Idlt"'" <iWlcts -e ~gI\o wtutt. "'IM ~n U~ltd .. ..-.g< 01 91 r:>erW'1 :actO« thost d'lir(1I """'n. ~. thtIt equity <"",,<on$ aot m"'K~ted sorntW~t by the ,el'I'vety Im~U r .... ncuI conh,fMlhon, 0/ m. klc.>1 <dlGt"",al!oundllJO(ll

In a~""1lI1. tht dtmand [0, goods .nd stfVKts. ,ndud na e(!lGtlOn. ~d< on poet. n:omt ,nd t .. tU A one·W3j' "naljl$.s of ....... nce foo.n:! pr1C1' .nd ,ncomt to (\j[/(r ~",,(,andy «twetn tho fOtn:!~I"", ¥>CI non·foun<l.l.t"", d,l.Uo;t ruo"l" fun.ha, lilt tlllO'naW! sthoof aprnd:ru,. modtl. ~,. ,....~1t<.to..tal'l(;aI ptr p",,1 'Pt1IdOnI <bfitrmcn ICIOSS tho IfWP! INtrt 1",1I. 11y o pl:l;nM by d.fftrt~ ,n poet. orocomt. enroIlrr.ent Irwl, and con" ,mot on, oIl"",,·irocQmt ch~dre<>

In Jiglll ot """'" finding<. 11 ' PP'ars tIt>t!he Ost 01 IouledlQul>r\ fwndlnons .n M"Iuion hi. no! musurably n.pt«! t~1 $tate'$ dlo,,. to "a"", Int( rdL>lroC\ d'J.P<nt;ts <h,oo.ogII Ihe ,dll,m of p"blLc fur"lm& o>!Chofli sms. TM ,"suit co<lld ,~~t;. I'>clwt\ot,. is \I>e ltole lu OO'n~ ,e\mm 'C<lt,nu" \(J ,"I1<u.,n per PWII revenue 8fO"'Ih In hlSt Olj,,11y high',pe"dlng l nd h.gh Income dIW le!, ~" d w en d"tnct, I'''' >cnJ;t"",.1 " "ffilLl' r,om IlOI1UJdit lO~1 s()""n

tduca lional Conlid~la! I'On$

,

9

References

I. Addoniz,o. M.f. ( 1991 ). "lnte,governmental Grants and theDemand for Local Educational Expenditures." Pub/ie FinanceQuarterly. Vol. 19. No. 2. pp. 209-232.2. Addonizio. M.f .. Kearney. C.P .. and Prince. H .J. ( 1995). "Michigan'sHigh Wire Acl," Journal oj Edueation Finance, Vol. 20. Wintec.pp, 235-269. 3. Be,gstrom. T. and Goodman. R. ( 1973). "Private Demands lo,Public Goods," American Economic Review, Vol. 63 (June), pp.280-296.4. Cha,kand. S .. Danielson. LC .. and Brauen. M.L. ( 1993). "Whal DoWe Know About the Cosls of Special Education? A Selected Review."Journal of Special Educalion, Vol. 26. No. 4. pp. 344·370.5. Gold. S .. Smith. 0 .. and Lawton. S. (ed.s.) ( 1995). Public SchoolFinance Programs of lhe United Slates and Canada. 1993·91, (Al· bany: The American Education finance Association and The Nelson A. Rockefeller Institute of Government).6. Hanushek. E.A. and Rivkin. S.G. ( 1997). "Understanding theTwentieth-Century Growth in U.S. School Spending." The Journal ofHuman Resources. Vol. 32. No. 1. pp. 35·68.7 . Kearney, C.P. ( 1994). A Primer on Michigan School Finance. 31d ed.(Ann Arbor: Educalional Studies Program. School of Ed,,cation. TheUniversity of Michigan).8 . Kelejiar,, H.H. and Oates. W.L ( 1981 ). /n(roduction 10 Econo·metrics. New York: Harper & Row.9. Kmenta.J. ( 1971 ). Elements of Economelrics. New York: Macmillan.'.0. National Association of Educational foundations ( 1994). tducational Foundalions focus. No. 1. Summec. 11. Wass mer. R. W. and fisher. R.C. ( 1996 ). ·'An Evaluation of theRecent Move to Centralize the firiance of Public Schools inMichigan." Public fina�ce and Budgeting (Fall). Vol. 16. No. 3. pp,90-112.Endnotes

I. Nationally. states provided 46 percent of K-12 public schoolrevenues ,n 1993-94. with roost aid distributed so as to offset differ· ences among local distlicts in the ability to finance education. Thesole exception is New Hampshire. where state aid comprises a mere 7pe,cenl of K · 12 public school revenue. Local property taxes. on tile oti1er hand, provide 90 percent of school revenue, while fedecal sources provide 3 pe1cent. (American Education Finance Association. 1995). 2. further. because of lhe mandated status of spec ial education. the expansion of special educ.tion in either scope or ,niensity would take a Iaeger share of any new revenue in times of slow budget growth. 3. The foundation formula guaranteed each local district a per-pupilallowance lhat ranged fcom the $4,200 minimum to a maximum of $6,660. provided lhe district levies a local prope,ly tax rate cf 18 mills on nonhomestead property. Specifically. local districts with 1993·94 base per pupil revenue below 54.200 are raised either to $4,200 or to $250 over their 1993-94 level. whichever is gre.atec. Districts be�.veen $4,200 and $6.500 in 1993-94 received a per pupil increase varying linearly from $250 at $�.200 10 $160 at $6.500. finally. local districts with 1993·94 base per pupil in excess of $6.500 were allowed an increase of up to $160 per pupil if local voters approved "hold harm· less" millage sufficient to raise the additional revenue. This local millage is levied against homesteads. up to a maximum of either 18 mills or the district's prior year millage vote. whichever is less.4, The annual change in the basic foundation all owance is determined by a "final index," wh,ch may be written as follows:

Educational Consideralions. Vol. 26. No. 1. Fall /998

where

f = ( R,IR,.,J(M,.,llv1,)

I = final index � = total school aid fund revenue in current year I\,., = total school aid fund cevenue in prior year M,., • total pupil membership in prior year M, = total pupil member .ship in current year

The annual basic foundation allowance is determined by: Bf, = BF,., • I

Where Bf,= current year basic foundation Bf,., = prio1 year basic foundation

The local foundation allowance for an individual distcict is determined as follows:

where

Lf, =LI,.,+ 2b - [(b-$50) • (LF,., - $4,200) i (C-$4,200))

lf, = district's cucreni year foundation allowance lf,., = district's pnor year foundation allowanceb = I"BF,., = current year increase in ba.sic foundation allowance c = Bf, = current year basic foundation allowance

5, from 1973 through 1993·94. Michigan required direct voter approval of local school taxes. Since 1994,95 district spending levels under the foundation system were linear transfocmations or prior year spending (see Addonizio. Kearney and Prince. 1994) and local school districts serve a single purpose. 1994-95 d,stnct expenditures are likely to conform to the predictions of a median-voter model. 6. Because sampling theory reveals that the erro1 team will be afunction of the size of the population tested (hetecoscedasticity).ordinary least squares would be an inappropriate estimation technique (see. for example. Kmenta. 1971. 322·26). 7. The estimated price elasticity of demand for education spending forthe combined sample obtained horn a natural Jog fo11n of spendingmodel is approximately equal to the po,nt elasticities reported above. This estimated expenditure equatron is:

In£= In $.72 · .1294 In PRICE� .2699 In INCOME

(.21 j (.0130) (.0207)

Adj. R2 = 278

Tile small standard errors indicate that the coefficients are statistically s,gnificant at the .01 level. This log form is a popular functional form !or economic models because each slope coeff icient may be interpreted as the ( constant) elasticity of the dependent variable withrespect to the independent variable (see, for example. Kelegiao andOaies. 1981, 102-4).

1

10



fmance reform hos allowed I~chool diSllicI$J 10 mamlaln Ihe ~IGIUS quo wilh only modesl proglOmnu;IIC changes

The Changes in Revenue and Its Use in Three Low Spending Districts Following Michigan's Finance Reform

C. th~ri n . C. Si. lk.

While f,nilnce leform .. . n ,,","" ,n roosl ,f nOl.ll l}/lh, SO SI~I.I .

1.I,cn,IPn· I ilpp10ich to ,elorm " .. bo-on SOOlO'\>lhJl d,n.,cllL. IJkt 11\0$1 SlOleS. Modi giln had IeI.td havity on 10<.1 p<opcrl)' liI>CS to WppoIl tchools. "tn lllooJgh Mrdl~ used. gu.,. nlffi1li1X bost funding 'PPIOoiell 111.11 rtWiIrdtd lor lotill elbl 10 ~"X wle support. d.~I.ld t>:oted Attord:ng to t.ilchog.an DePilIl.mel'lt of [ouaoon RqloII~ ~ po.rp.! 1001 m<! state ~U($ lor 199).9~ .... ntd fIoon 'U11 .n ONvqy to $lO,n S In BloomfICId H ••.• "'"go of 11.081 There -..tl. ~I 'C-ls0n5 b thest di""nt""

In Md1'I!I1. PfIl!le'IY .... 10. to< 1<1 .. ,,,,,, PUlpO>o' OS relerrtd 10 oS lilt WIle . qv.I, Z(d 'Ilue (S(Vj .• nd II i, "'1",,1 to!>O poru nt 01 the """'tl villue. Tile !lne I, d ITltm bershlp 1=..,11 m! I ,orn bllll too fllt irant plu ~ a oo ll.l, .mou nt P" mlllltv"d , Ih ~ j mO<Jnt Wi! ci ll ed t ... iro~! membersh ip illow."",e or GM A Sl<Ittl .d wI! lhe dilfe rerl," i:><twee n whit coold b. geO(r.t. d ioal ly . nd Ih. GMA hOst d"l"m whOst bel l doll." ..:e«Ced Ihe GMA welt a lltd • OIJH)I. ""mul. : . nd illlI\OII&" lhtr • ...." no p'{»" l$icn lor ltCilplure of ,. .... n ... 1 !c~r.ttd Iot.lt,<. til ttg,,,,,,,,1 gr~ nl$ .n oo! ·or·lormulii d,s:r,m ~ "",II,t<:! to Itopl~"

Accotd,ni 10 Itj O[ ~. 1993·94 <>PO"r.rta mIl,,&< illeS br d'<lJlr::!$ ,n ItjdlolJln .... "cd I",,,, -. """ 01 7 S mls 10 a IIrgh ot 4S 61 molls ",!h. mWl of 1l)9 mllls.OO. mea,.n oil) 89 (mls loul td'lool dl<lllCt pI'Ol'('l)' wulth ....,.td I",m iI low 01 $IS QS7.l80 to. nfll' 01 IM~1.48U)6 T ... d."",l.t th. fohn potJ(tIllle bod iIJl S£V 01 $l2.1!lJ.411 ... hilt t!o( d"IflC\ . t {lie 9~t11 po!fantdc hod on S£V 01 11,19S.%1.&'Hi The S£V ~, popl "",>e.j Irom 0 low 01 Sl2.18~ to 0 h gh 01 SI,08S .l46 Cluny" m, lI ",,><'d In OIl. <J 'lln<:! dod nc(

eenm t~ :he !Om! num bcl of <10 11 " 1 " • mil l levi ed in I roolllCr J 'SI",l,

Toot Wl rt' numbe, 01 dlS{,im 11"'1 [~d lOW" ~'iI ~ee ilnd ~d 5(VI I'(r pupl [1 .. [ "-'<ilt h'llh ,roough 1o pUl them Oot·of·k:tmwa, modo tlle,r eattgo"nl glinls 'ubte<t 10 rt( .pl~r( , .nd b!pr cI>em lew 'I'( nQtfl& OrIiIwJy 's iln clQrnpit 01 ,octo. diwlCl On3W7j' hid ~n S[V per puPIl of ' 11).691 .nd Itvoed 21 6} mls Under Itj.ch'ii" I 199J.9'1 '\.lIe aJ(! !cumuli. OniWly w., oUl-of·formulii ~ I~ ~ ~{ncd onty 13.177 Ilo!I po.rpd On lhe oIh.r hondo BIOOrrtr.eld HMs. WIlli .11 h!ih S(V per po.rpd 01 S40054Q, could ... st (M( S 10.000 per PUPIl I7t le"'l1n& 24 mins. OC-lrty .• mIll ....... d ,n one dist"r::t d.:ll"rOt £(n"ilte Ihe SI ..... number 01 dctlil'I'" moll ...... d ,n ilnorItcr dsWet

Colnedn _ Sie lkc is A.,i.bnl Prol • .,or, W •• tun M ic hi~. n

Unive"ll~

&""r"ig nil< t~ t«h l .. p.yer.1Id PlJP ,llntQU'lotl In July 01 1993. th. s\.Ire 1.,,$toWIt. II • wrpnsc m<>o'e. VOled 10

eI.rron:ott ploptll)' t ..... all<lttlhcr k::w III< SUflIlO< I of schools. The ""lory .nd poh~" 01 the raTIiI.!OOg SoIl( months 01 !991 . ,. wtli

dcx""""", .. d by AddoniZIo. Kt.imt"Y. ilnd PlIJIC. ' ilnd by VorgiIri'. Til< end ~ ..... '""' • biiIot proposiil. ~I A to ilmmd :h. con,btu· 1lOn. wh.eh Wl$ ~rnnetY 'ppr<:I"'!d by ~,'" eon -..:lters n ~lordt 19'J-<l TIlt amefllitntnt ""lItd to. In",,!OS on til. Silts lU ~rod O(licI m .. «II.n..,.., I...., .nd mc ltsw/iitoon SO<l"ot p~ny rax.,. Un"', f'mI:>olill A. I'<OI""(Y i , (Iilsslfitd u !.the, nome.teod (p~m.,y «,,,!enc!) 0' non·nome'lnd. [ ,gIII .. n mIll' . r. IeYlCd by kxll ~"tri,t.\ on nc<>·h Olllm .. d proptll)' Ind .,. mil l' Ir. I.vied by the m it on , II P'''P( lly

In ,dd,l"'" to "",.~ ". ch.nges, ~iloo:o l K)n of 1M. dol l, r. tu 10,,1 ><: hool d'I!JIct> w. s ,hi nged ' D,WICII wcrc di 't<Xd ,nto Ih ree lunding 10m '....-h dl we,. d.lerm,1'ICd by t ..... J 199}·94 \llle ilrod leol '!:'Tnur< Thest (t.1:L{l, milt hild ,.".nutS les.< lhin ~ 200 were r;listO ptr p"pil. ,.t,,<1,· ('vet '""' 2""1,,, DdtJlell WIth 'MIluH .bovr \.6.}()() ~t,.,....j •

mrrunum ''''''~ 01 $160 per POp,1 Tllest d"trrc:t' nn levy hold hirmlU$ ""I~ by seel rnll -..:lte, .ppn:wiil to. .nOllgh m.r~ to

illiow them In ,.m"n >1 th." ~'&h ,per,<:h"S flU. Thooe dr>trocts In the m,jdI, t>tr '.., ...... d • 1"'1 pupJ ,nere.lot thilt r~nll'!d (ront $2:50 to S 16'3 dep<o&n& 00 rio. d,w,et', pia" on II\( eon!lOwm. Thi' meiIJlI {h.t (l,WI(\S ,e«~ ;flCJUSU on '. "enoe th., "need from n60 P"'ctn! (c,-, ........ y) to Ln ptfC<!ll l (B I""mfi(!d HJI.) Th( ,,!oJ,.,..,.., 01 1M dOS lfIC r , I Wl ·9~ loco l anu stltC reV(nuel (hoth genml memo." h, p " d ,nd mol l Cll I~iO!ICa l grlnl$) plu, lhe .dd,boml dol~" "' d. ",,,btd .t<:>.<r beclme the d'IU:(t·, foun datlOll .lIaw· , rKe U lei:OJiu l gr>nt' hlVC , rOf the rTlO5-l POI! betn !I,ml.-..led '" 'hO\' h;we I:><tn ,ub$\J l.-..d ,nto Iht d,wicl's fO!Indol..,.., . 11"",.r«. A "t .... ,mgo,,<>1. lund,ns 101 ~I-lil ' ~I udont~. h/.s h •• n eouled D"u>C:!, btl....- the $6.500 IC\'tIa,c Ihgoble \0 <KIM dollar, b ;>Hi""iJdml' Tho amo..,1 i, a lunulOrl oIlh< ddl"C t'< \ound.t>M onow· 0,.." .00 IIIe numba 01 "iJdmu eI ,gobie 101 Ille l~tlOl I,.., "'neh pfO!Jlm. ~tu::l.nts dlg,"bl. lor teduc:.d luntn .It JIOl counleO ler the stale .t-<'$I:: do"""

Thc n ..... pt.n .lso ailed fo, Ih, dttermuluoo 01. ~r:: found/;· 1ion .lIow.noe of $~.00l foI 1994-9)' T"ht baloi<: found>bon ~llow~ ClII ~" ~ (!tlO"lbtd I~' U~{ m,""""m (ool'ld:lboo .11ow· .!>CO I~, the MdI,~. n leglstilture oec.d«! ,,'" 'o fOl $O . 11 low 'P'nd lng dimiC!, 10 tim ~mou n( immedlOllIy. dloo" ng "lSI~'" 10 r''''. "" ',rlll,,, In , '''' low lIl end1nr. d,S(flm C'<!! • numbe r of }''''', In oddit"'" , tile I . el~.tur. d!Glded to ,.x lQW< r I .. I"~ ""r !Ptnd ",~

d~u"" (0 tht $S.()OO I."". '11\t ~i'~'lure eIlo .. to i"""" ' .... en .. s In dill" ,,, brI"", III< b.l...: Io..,d.tian allC'W'anc •• ,. la"" m, lhin lnos. . bC'<! tht $5,000 . mount In wbleQlJ!nl ye"<, lho inu .... gr.nlw to ddtrlCI' Will be O>lI<d on In IndeX liIt:or cokulo .. d by lh. Consen, us ~u. l$!:milonS Ccrnm,IIet" TMctI!1VT>I1I" k;rm • • COJlstnWlon $Ute It>WU.S bosed on ..,OllOmi< rn<ilcottn SIKh .. Ih< CPt u .... "'plcrymcnt .. te etc ThIS 1rr<:JUlt" thm .ppli«l to I~. b;isoc Ioundobon albw3nr::e DoWICIS.I tho mlnmum ...... n"" le>d ree.,.. twoce Ihe ak .... ttd IOC<ei.. Th~ d"ma, btl"""" Ih. I,,,",m...n .00 {II< b;isr:: illlow>noe te<:tM iIJl .mounl betww-1 Ihe Qk:uI.W! ioc1 .. st . nd IW", tit. Inertn. '" an iI,noun! roo, 10 oxcted Ihr r.rw e,,,,, 1'00OO.1[>on allowlnr::e Do>lne(s .O<M ttl. b,,", (O<J<>i1 . 100 , 11ow.nee ".,.,,,, Iho c.k:ul, t,d "'cruse Th" melhod .lIews th.

~r " ""''''' d'ltrt<:t, 10 expe ller!« nltlte r tevtniJe ~ro">'Ih 1"-'" the

[ducal ,ona l Con;;deralionl 11

other districts so that disparities continue to be lessened. Local districts were given the option of requesting voter approval for threeadditional enhancement mills for up to three years. This local option will be replaced by a regional enhancement millage option beginningwith the 1997·98 school year. The regional enhancement millage must be approved a majority 01 voters within an imerrrrediate school district thereby broadening the tax base. and improving equity in te,ms or property wealth.

A Study of Reform's Impact

The purpose of this study is to examine the impact Mich1gan·s finance reform has had on three of the low revenue distr icts. This resea1ch is very important because other researchers' have pointed out that while total dollars for educauon have increased significantly ever the years. the number or new dollars coining into any d;strict at one time has been relatively small. This research focuses on three Michig;)n districts that received significant revenue increases for the1994-95 school year. Although these districts will continue to receive more dollars per pupil ove, the next five or six years. the amount of the incre2se will not be nearly as much as they received during thefirst year .

This study examines changes in revenue and how these revenues were used by the districts. Analysis has been limited by the fact that the 1994·95 was the first year of reform. Financial reports were not completed by the districts until December 1995. and the MOE released the information in January 1996.

There were 31 districts (out of 524) whose local and state revenueswere below $4.200 in 1993·94. The low revenue districts are locatedin the upper peninsula. northern lower Michigan. and southwestern Michigan. Constraints. such as lack of funding and professional commitments. limited travel to distant sites. The three districts that were selected lor analysis a,e all located in southwestern Michigan. The three districts do differ in many ways. including enrollment growth and socio·econornic status.

In addition to five years of financial data obtained from MOE. 1994·95 board minutes for each district were. reviewed for information onchanges in staffing. curriculum and other areas that may have been impacted by reform. �lfter a ieview and analysis of the financial dataand the t>oard minutes. conversations were held with the supetintendcnt and/or business administrator to clarify and respond to questions about the data. These central office personnel offered insights into the effects of reform on their districts that may not have been evident in the other da12. Each conversation lasted approximatelyI· I 12 hours. District personnel were promised anonymity.

Changes in Revenue in the Districts Table I summa,izes the characteristics oi the three selected

districts. All three districts levJed below the state average rnill rate in

1993-94. Since the state aid membership formula rewarded for 1�"{;31 effort. these districts placed themselves in the low revenue category. District C had the highest State Equalized Value (SEV) per pupil: infact. the property wealth in Distr:ct C combined wiU1 its low millage rate put this district (like Onaway) into the position of being a low revenue. out·of-forrnula district. thus making its state aid categoricalgrants sl!bject to recapture.

Educational Considerations. Vol. 26. No. 1. Fall 1998

Table I

District Characteristics - 1993-94

DiSliict A District 8 District C

State EQ<>alized Value/PIJpil $90.826 $84,8$5 $110.656

Pupils (FT£) 2.935 2,275 3.472

Operating Mills 25.98 27.76 3042

Total Revenues Srl.639.4H $8.822.812 $13.464.419

T oral Expenditures S 13.052,616 $9,431.230 $13.676, 139

Total Expenditures/Pupil $4.447 S4.14S $3.939

Fund Balance $2,359.468 $4%.948 $1 .944.267

Average Teacher Sala,y $34,896 $40.396 144.50)

Rank in State 446 269 I So

Administra�ve & i,129 -�27 S348 Sus,ness Costs/Pupil

Rank ,n State 457 284 �21

free & Reduced Lunch 41.2% 205% 9 .4%

l)rop Out Rate 12.2% ,t.6% 0.8%

Completion Rate 59.4% 84,0% 96.4%

Rankings were computed b\• MOE based on 52q districts. Source: Information provided by Michigan Department of Education.

Lack of taxpayer support of millage requests is part of the history of these districts. which is why they arc low revenue. District A is a resort area; a lot of the property is owned by non-residents. Many students a1e Uansient. children of migrant workers who come here to work during the tourist season. The residents of the district have low incomes. as evidenced by the high percentage of f1ee and reduced lunch students. and not inclined re increase property taxes .. l\dministrators in Districts 8 and C described their voters as conservative. In District 8. property ownecs have seen the valuation of their property inc,ease as new. expensive houses are being built on many of the srnall lakes within the district. District C has a large number (approximately 2.000) of private. parochial school stodents within itsboundaries. Although the district has no proof. administrators are inclined to believe. that the parents of these students were unwilling to tax themselves for schools they do not use.

9

12

T' ole 2 po'ovi<\e, the inf",m,twn ">td by the Md1i g,n o.pmmem of Tr .. ,UiY to c. !cul.1e (.ch di, U>::I's 199)·94 bm [oo nd.tOon , 11ow,nee, Included in this c. lcu l. t ion w<re tile .mounts co llected in 100;,1 pro >",rty t>xes ,nd p, yowm; on I"u 0/ t. "'S {PILOT) . Rev. n"" rtc">td fmm t tl< ,t, t. In ttl< form of ,tate membtrshlp ., d ,nd ,.legOl;.;;,1 aid we re ' dded . fiCA m, , <.teg",,,,1 th.t h.d bu n . dded dUring the 1991 -93 school yw. FOI m.nY)'em the mte hId p,id the .mplo)'Cr 'h'" 01 f iCA. In tile I. te 1980 ... tile mt. hld 100;.1 dis!II ,t, p,y I ICA btlt direc!ly reimbursed t ilt distri ct,. In 1991-9l. dlst<lc!s be~,n accoo nti ng [OJ IICA os, rev<nLJ< ,nd ">",ndi t,,," , ,nd DtC,u>e it 1'1" I, "(led. Clt<gO/lCl l &"nl, i! w" ,ubj<C! to I",'pt"" for those d istricts !h't we" ou!·of-folmu l, In 1993·94, FICA leimbul>ernen t wl, flO" n .1 70 p(IC(nt 01 !h •• mount rec.i",d in 19'12-9 ) , Sirl" th' mid · 1970<. Md1 ig, n districtl ho d been p,)ing l l~

j)<rcent 01 rot",rm nt com lor ils ,mployers : the s.r:m p. id th ' "mor ning , moon!. The blse foon d'!loo e, lcul. t lOn included !h • • mou nt the mte h.d p;l rd for tile diWiC!'S emplo)«, du ""p' the 199)-94 ..:hool )'Car. In .dd,t>On, IS.7 pel«O! 01 wil , ! , di s!rKt had 'P.nt rn fun d b.allOC. wls rol led In (o th ! t.ku l, lioo., r!ven e>e ,

Tt.. "",thod of (.hl'Mil !he b;ls. r, ilt\ qe>e,!IO/lS, for e""mp l., DrWICt C lost , Imost $100,000 in recl ptu re during 1'193-94, While ,"coptu," w", nm e,lculmd.,. "wn~. It . l,,, wa, rot ,ubtr. md OIl! 01 tt.. , l, le ,"wnu.", !h. "by OWISUtlng the d,W<:t', rewnue; 10 ~dd i ! i {ln , c,ntr.1 oIf", administrator, Q\J ,,~on th . "" lu'lOn oltht expendittJie 01 food b, l.oc"" , r",'"nu,

The need !o us, lund b>.h nce in 1993-94 woo n."",,it't.d by " gi,latlve . ction' th:o! we re de,'gned 10 provKle t.xp.yer rohd but ",u ltd loss of "wnut to d"Uld' . In 1992·93, ';(V< In the It. l< were ilOle n Th. ,(V, for 199) ,94 <ep"", nt,d two )""", of growth. often • doubl e d'ilt p~ rc. ntil11" Ino",,,, A con, ti!utioo,1 ofrendm,m {P.A. )5 01 1979. often referrtd to" th e H •• dl .. Am.ndfrem) rtQ U" '"

roll b.,~ ,0 loe.1 m;lIlge roles ,1 the 100;.1 t.x b.", {StY) irK" ''''$ more thln infl. tlOll. Ttl< roll bod co used • foss of ), 19 " "li s ,n Drl!r>e! A, 1.J1 mill, irl [),Slllct S, ,nd 0.4 mill ' tn Dr'tri, t C. Wh ll. Drstr>::t C di d not " k 'lOt,,, for • Heldle, o",r<rd,. Di st'>:: ts A ,nd B d..J. T"PJ)-tl$ dele.t,d II" reQ\Jw In both d"tll cts B,,,u,,," the stote ,id folm ul;l w, s driv( n by mrl l> I<v i. d. the d"trlcts lo't ,u b,!.nt",1 dollars . The dem-.-;.n re«tIed In .1 thrte distn,;!s w, s to U>e fund b,11OC' rother than to cut mff . nd pmgr,ms

[);s!rin A recei"d the grem\t I!Wnu ' ,nere. '.e ill 1'/94-95 01 the thle" ",Iec!, d distnc!s, Th. In""", of 'ppm"m>te ly $,,00 PO' pupi l I! pJ!", nt,d . 10,S p<!ce nt "'" In IOCll ,nd m!, ,ev,nuts O"trK! 8', JlM:r"", 01 $l87 p< r pup, ( I O , I ~ ", rcrm) w,; ' hghtly mo re th'n Dr mrot (", IrK"'" of ;335 >",r pupil (8.l9 p" rc.m) ,

Exp ondituro, for S~I.,ie • • Ben.fit.. St.ffing and Curriculum AII,mloo " now !urn,d to how tho d"ulCI' ""d !h' n,w dcllm

th<y r""" ,¥ed . T,bl" l, 4, ,nd I plovki •• bre" down 01 obj"l, of e'j)<nd l!ure lor In s!ruction . nd sup port ., , >",,-<, nt'g' of loC,1 expendltu res lor .. five )'tor !irn~ p"md In, truClIQrl include, , II e'p"n", fo, d.SIIoom i nl ~uction incl uding b"i<; K- 12. lpec i, l edu cation . vocatioo.1 ,due' hOll , . nd oth" added ne.d< ,u ch " '1-!d student, . nd glft.d.nd la"nted. SuPWt exp,nd,:u", incl ude all.dm,m,tranoo. mmpomtlOfl , bu"""" ""'."". ml"'t,n,fj(,'OO o>",,,tlom. non·c\o.ssroom , upWt "rvIC~' !or 'tud,m, .M mff {coo n", ling , prof"' ''''''1 de""lcjlrmnt) , etc. The"" i r~ gener~1 fu nd c>",,,ti ng ,xp<n,e, 1M undel Michlg''''s xcoonhng e~de do no!

Incl ud. " pend ltu" , lor food ""rvIC., .!hle!!", . debt ret".mem, buli<J lng l nd $lie lun d" .nd "n',n£ fund"

T~bl. 2 Di,trict Bas. Foundation C.l<ul>lion 1994

D,,!r ,,! A Dll tr>::t B

Prop hx", $6 4 5),) 16 $4,9-03,637

P,ym."" in 17 .0Cl0 0 l .. u of T"e;

TOTAL LOCAl %,470,3 10 $4.90) ,6] 7

S~te AJJ

form ul. $1,014.8]8 $1.979.441

Rec.ptu,,· 0 0

Cakgori(ll 452 ,l'9{l 291 ,05 1

Grom,

FICA 455 ,131 3l6.9)7

Re!" erlltnt '/ 10 ,046 491.393

TOTAl $H4LlOo Sl ,09S ,Sn STlm AID

f und ~.I. n" 19l.64 1 I t9.345

TOTAL $10,305,263 $8,lnOOS RlVlN UlS

P,,,. y" , 1,8) I 2, 130

Pup'! ..

B,,,,,'f'tJpil $3,802 1) ,81 )

to<Xld,,,,,,, $4 .200 ~.~ Illlo'"",,,,,

l R!Cl.ptur( Wj, W co nSlde"d a ,,,,,,,nut b. Thts<: number. Jill" s l lgh~ y f,om T,b"

OlStrK! C

$11,410,522

).800

$11418']11

S49 6 1>00

1'/9 .S I)

JIlS.78t

469, 747

7Jl,1l6

$1.207 .:JO.1

3J ,07 I

$ Il AU,S8)

3.485

$) ,865

~NC

So"I~: Inform, t, ,,,, provided by MKIlI.,n O<p:!rtownt of Educ.t,Ol1

Tt.. rooS! obv:oo •• nd ,x>",ct,J i"c r e;l ~! In expend ,tur" occ ur, In benefJts, Thert w's . n ,rxlt;l«' In th" exp. r1<1tUrt "'. in 1993-94 when FICA beg, n to be JCcoomed for" ,n .xpend ilure.od;ln ('t n Il lg" irKr .. " for 1994·95 the flm )""r 01 I"",nce r! form . " dlS!rrm ,;sumed t t.. fu ll coS! of re!ir",,,,nt. Diwlct A. whd1 h. d O(tu,lIy "c(l",d $1 ,t61 J 7S c"d lted !o its b.>e kl"od. tioo c. lculltl oo for fiCA .nd "tl""",n'!' ,x>",nd. J ,1.&>1.399 lor the>e !I'-<l Item, thoit h.d been "t, ilted Iro", ,me re,po,wblll ty!o s.r:hool di stri ct respon~bili ly,

Dlstr: c! B l.ceived crtdl! lor $818,3)0 but "pended $1,316,8t6 Iur the", lwo fl(Ifl.(j isc"toon"y txpenltS, 0"11><1 C r<H I",d er(dot lor $1.102,113 but """nded $2 .0)7)75 !or FICA ond reMm. nt.

Educalional Conl'iderQlionl'

13

Table 3

District A - Expenditures as a Percentage of Total Budget

1990·91 1991-92

INSTRUCTION

Salaries 41.7 47.4

Benefits 7.6 8.4

Purchased Serv 0.8 0.7

Supplies V 1.7

Other 0.3 1.0

Total Instruction 53.( S9.2

SUPPORT

Salaries 17.7 20.S

Benefits 3 6 4.1

Purchased Serv 7.0 5 .1

Supplies 2.1 2.2

Othe, 16.6 8.6

Total Support 47.0 40.S

DISTRICT TOTAL

Salaries 594 67.9

Benefits 11.2 12.6

Purchased Se,v 7.7 5.8

Supplies 4.8 39

Other 16.9 96

TOTAL 100.0 998

Oisoepancies in addition due to rounding. Source: Computed by author from information r,om MOE.

In reviewing the data in Table I. we can see that District A is clearly al lhe low end in the slate for teacher salaries and ,drninistrative costs: District B is below the median for these personnel costs. Although Distnct C was on the highe, end of the rankings for teacher salaries. it is almost fast in administrative costs. These are not districts that are leading the state in salanes in 1993·94. and for 1994·95 these three districts approved only three percent or less across the board salary increases. The need to use such a significant portion of the revenue increase for mandated benefits arises because of the way thebase was calculated and not by increases in personnel or huge salary settlements.

District A has begun many new progiams targeting its very needy, at-risk population. One such program is a four level cu11iculumdelive,y system which gives students alternatives to a traditional high

school curriculum. One part of this curriculum is a half day of academic and vocational classes with the other half day devoted to

Educalional Considerations. Vol. 26. No. 1. Fall 1998

1992-93 1993·94 1994.95

47.3 46.4 42.4

8 .9 12.1 IS.S

0.9 0.8 I. I

1.9 1.5 2 .4

o.s 0.5 0.3

59.S 61.3 61.6

20.7 18.S 16.3

4.4 54 6.4

5.4 59 5 9

2.1 2.3 4,5

7.8 6.5 8.8

404 386 38.4

68.0 64 9 58.7

13.3 17.6 21. 8

6 2 6.7 S.9

4 0 39 4.S

8,4 7.0 9.1

99.9 100.0 100.0

tutorial programs and other student support systems. According toboard minutes. early reports by the administration to the board of education state "learning is up and discipline problems are down.· A pilot school/court liaison program is in place. An all day kindergartenin a multi-age setting has been implemented. In the elementary grades. a multi-age continuous progress curriculum is provided with teams of teachers ( consisting of regular classroom teachers . special education teachers and Title I teachers) working with students. These programsare serving as models for others across the stare and appear to be in keeping with some of the recommendations or Miles• and Odden andClune• as ways to reform education and better utllize existing resources. Central office administrators stress that these programs have no connection to finance reform. The new superintendent is responsible for bringing these innovations to the district. and theywere started before reform. The innovations have been funded by usin� a fund balance that had been allowed to grow ove, the years by

II

14



T1b l~ " Di.t,k!. B _ hpendit .. ,n.$' h _ nt.g. 01 Total Bud",1

1990-9 1 I 1991-92

INSTRUCTION

SiI .. ,1tS SL6 '" 8tnefots " ..

i'uo;nll(d )eN "' "' S U~ l tS n '" Other "." 00

101 .. 1 10SI'...::,,00 "" 6j,7

SUPPORT

SiI .. ,otS '" '" Stne111S " "

i'u<chilSfd )eN " " s..pploes .- " "",. " " Tool s."pport 36,0 '" DISTRICT TOTAL

~~"n 10.7 lOA

StndllS 13.0 ". Purch .. std Sot", •. , "

s..pl.'ln " " ""'" " "

TOTAL 1000 ~,

(l,\Crt!»OCotS III ~.uon due 10 rooodlng So~r«: CompulM by lutl10r from ",Iollm uoo lrom ~O£

. dmlnl Slrllors Ind bo;l rd omnl><" ;0,1,0 b<1~d lhey _ . beo nS Il sc, lIy responSlblt. Adm ln lltr. tor, 1><1""", th. 1 re!<lrm dots noc all "", Ih em 10 00 "" IO'IiI ..... !rod crt>~ .... th ing" In 1>c1, thiS d,llrtCI btll M!s th .. II hll lJ.u n nlil. lI .... ty ,mp.<: tIO by tho n ..... ,,·ns k tIo lI ;rs bee.u\.! Ihl dlwICL h. d ~I","" 'WlII"'." t doll"'1 untlel II"ie old al.&OIlc .. ' P/OV<Ims for COfl\ptIl""ory t<\uuwn .. nd k>w 1fIC0me The>( a legoral sr. nls dod 001 .. wOe! "'" populalIOIl for "hodl Ihtse doll .. ,s could be "''&tied A,-mk doIlat> mull bt spall 00 • J,proflQlt)r defined popul.lIOn. Admlnls:r.o">t> '"Y Il101 IIltrt won bt no .. dd,llOlllln P/OV<Im 01 lUff 10< nu t ~r: IhI: dlSl,,"". lUst bI .. bI. to mtel "'" ~)OVII

(l,S!rlCI 8 ldm,nlSU .. lors ~ m.t Itwy u" d thl ntw montj/1o aMI

u .. sho,t/III from the H ... dltc fdlbock ol tho pI .... O .... Y'" (l,wc 6 us<d It. /;(·os~ doIlalS (0 I~SI.\y t~ • tu l"" ng plOi,am ;0,1, ,(" II ""Io"ttd j( <JPP(I Iit men w y . rod t~ midctJ. ..:1lCd glldn Tht disirICt hilt(! 5, . ... otru, uon .. 1 .. "",.nt, to inlpl. rfI< nt Ihls progrlm

I 1991-93 I 199).94 I 1994 -9~

'" ... 46_5

" " . 1M . , ••• " .• " II " "' "' 0.'

"' ." "' '" ,n ,ao

" " " II '" .. " " " .- 0 II

15J '" B .6

.,. 0' "' '" '" n.O

" " " .. " 'A

" .. " ~9 '00' m

The ," <II""tlon.1 " , imms 1 .. ,." ,f .. d t!K~'S "no h. ve t<e. n UN~' to fi nd fuU tim. tuchln 8 Pbs, SO th t di >!ri(t , no '{udents ftc ..... I~ I><n,fit, 01 • f<llly w~f~d teoCMr whk p. "ng noo-teKht ' unl()rl p;ry Th, 61",,, , t hos hod to n~oJmt mort 'PO' w Idu<'t"'" ,om NeilIS<' Ihl ,nll,mtdr.ote Iottlool d'llIot:t ml ll'~ lor ",,,, .. I MlIC.t.on ",n """" IUI'Pml only .bool 10 IHIJClnt of lhe «>St •. no. find.ng ... Io.ttplng 'Mlh 1,",1 01 Lankfor<.l Irn! Wydo/f ......... o roorn! m.1 In Ntw York mo .. doIla,s /;,. Ijltnt on the dlSlblt(! It lhe aptn .. of tho 1qIli .. "",denu far Dow.:t 8 t/Itro ""I no ntw ItOIn~ iI<>d no aJl'll"on. otho, t,",n thl .. t ,,\I; plOf"m. IR .. n offort to <In costs. Otst,C 8 ,",s tltd ",I .. ,y Inc ... ~ to ~ ,nc .... ", In ~d.t""'. 111< .... 105 In hullh Inl<"iIRCIl .nd ,.t".m. n( ""'" will t.. \Ubuxttd from thl "'I"y....na .. The onl)llnc .... st III ''''''''':!J{u .. , 10, " Pltot oo~"" "t "'" "SlJlt 0( tilt netd to pIJ<"d1'" n ...... busu

O"ui<;t C ustd >Om< i(, doI lm 10 <!OOlld .nd Inh. n-ce fLK1d ba l''''''' In addltlOO . Q,Wctl C Illi u .. d al new do ll.,s to ooy IllIng.

15

Table S

District C - Expenditures as a Percentage of Total Budget

1990-91 1991-92

INSTRUCTION

S,laries 48.5 49 I

Benefits 8.8 8.8

Purdlased Serv 0.2 0 .1

Supplies 2.9 3.3

Other 0.1 0.1

Total Instruction 60.5 61.4

SUPPORT

Salaries 19.6 19.6

Benefits 2.9 3.0

Purchased Se,v 6.5 7.1

Supplies 2.4 2.2

Other 8.1 6.7

l"ot.l Support 39.5 38.6

DISTRICT TOTAL

Salaries 68.1 68.8

Benefits 11.6 11.8

Purchased Serv 6.7 7.2

Supplies 5.) 54

Other 8.3 6.8

TOTAL 100.0 100.0

Discrepancies in addition due to rounding. Source: Computed by author from information from MDE.

other districts in the surrounding area already have. It added staff withits new dollars. DistJict C is growing at the rate or approximately 200 students per year: however. the st;ite uses a blended student count(the previous year's February en/Ollrnent and the current year's October count) for purposes of state aid. so each year the district is behind revenue for approximately 100 students. Enrollment has increased 47.1 percent between 1988 and 1994. Prior to finance reform. elementary classrooms including kindergarten. had 30 or more students per class. Additional staff reduces class size somewhat. In addition. a psychologist and social worker have been added. The district has six elementary school buildings. Prior to finance reform. the district had two elementary principals. It was able to add a

principal in 1994-95 and another one in 1995·96. District C was able to add a prog,am for its at-risk students with the

new dollars. It had not been el'gible for low income dollars and even if it had been. recapture would have taken most of those dollars away.

Educalional Considerations, \/o/. 26. No. 1. Fall 1998

1992-93 1993-94 !994·95

52 6 4 8 .6 46 9

9.9 12.7 15.8

0.3 0.2 0.3

2 .8 2.5 2.6

0.1 . 0.1 0.2

65 7 64.1 65.8

19.7 17.7 16.9

).2 4.1 5.5

5.8 5.4 0.6

2.3 1.9 5.5

3.5 6.7 5.7

34.5 35.8 34.2

72.3 66.4 63.8

13.0 16.8 21.3

6.1 5.6 1.0

5.0 4.4 8.1

3.6 6.8 5.8

100.0 100.0 100.0

Like District B. this district is using otherwise unemployed te.chers to work as instructional aides to p,ovide services for at-risk students.District C has a very high graduation rate. so it is not surprising that additions to the cuiriculum have been at the high school level. Additions include advanced placement courses. advanced co,nputerapplications courses. and specialized English classes. District C is the only district or the three districts studied to have schools that have achieved summary accreditation based on their high scores on the Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP - Michigan's assessment tool).

District C is also working to bring change in the teacher salaryschedule. For example, once a negotiated settlement is reached withteachers. $2.000 is subtracted from steps I and 2. The argument for this action is that it represents the job market. There are far more teachers than positions: the board of education wants tea.chers to make a commitment to the district before receiving more dollars. In

/3

16



,dcl,!JOn. tht dIstrICt tws fmC)Itmtnttd In lIICun...., PIIlC/IIIl 10< Iud!", ..no ~ de<nonwited ~~Irw IS I~ US( 01 du~ ICChrdCl)' Ind who thtrl XL illt,dtrs In ~I ' rIg lW.noIocY.

o.WOcl C tws i Iont IuslOlY 01 !Itc~ mon~ 11'1 Mllocd, cI dt<:l5Ioo-....... - budttl4 _"""&. h"'"," ''''''' ......... OlilD<! C h .. hod iII>d <OOlInllH 10 ~ IW'l)' lon, ~ pUor>$ lor onlOll~I. mit"", IKlI,b .. , etc T~1t I<t INn)' o:onum'_ fOf tJQ11'IIl1e the d<IDl(I " >11 til< m,dl.l cI • I" .... bYjldonl ptQ&t.m <J ot lO liS "'ClUlInl tnoolimern Thd WIll ""'" .ddJIIOlul s!.Iff .rod ~w !lie nmI '" add dQII.rs to It. budctt lor ;ncrustCI (OW, 0I1I'Q1I'IUo'III'I& incI optI.~ Iht rocw- bcoIdonp II IS alrul:llm tNl 1M dum;1 ...... .-d 10 llId S}60.000 to tti bud&fil"il lot ICulille m"ntmll"lCt incI optr.~OO I whtn lho cur~ 1 (O<\WUCIIon IS ""'"'f' ...... Tht dlSlllCt II &c<n& to COfIIInut 10 be hlJrt bot JKeVIOIl.Illt dolbro baltd 00 • bI.ndtd roo.nI: 01 cu'renl)'t~ 1<1<1 pnaf )If" t~tOl

Tt.. ~ 1(1 ModupI' lorgtU .. form ""'Y XfOSS tilt wltcted d,w,1CIl; Tht >\Im,n,struor1 .. Om"c;1 A be~ INI Iebm IS no! worbn& bc<.ijW not Il'IOUIIh doIb,. ~It put omo lho ,dOlm 1100_ fqu,fY tws nol bHn xIwYed ,rnJ fU' lIIt< ~lfY mUll ,gtl>ldtr lilt ,,,,,,",''Il00 btIrll e.cIuQttd AdmotlOs.Ir>l<n '" o.w.:1 A. ""th lIS ~ rudy lIC1lLQIIOO. bdoM II\iI\)' m~ IbIion ~ netdt<j ~

!On '" 0..",« A Jlso lI0I'I1 OUI thol tI>ne;" m<KQ<O;.p(oOO Qn Int

p,orl of ~ public 1$ Ie 00w oNfI)I doIbrs :He t...",....,..M"I! bot lilt "<lII.:t. The lUte !.IIi , .boul Ih< bose foor>dl~oo (""1'11,11 bfloln I t 15.ooo.net hu HIC ... ,w 10 1S.l5l) Tht ,Um>ntWIIOn '" Oo.lnCI A beh . ... WI _ 'oIOters do IIOC undtrsl.1nd 111M tht twx bJn~1IOO IS • !.I'F' iIIlII th.t d'WI(tlo~ ~nts CIIl be u bot u '" 200 o.WICI A ~ ~ could do • .,. """. WIth saoo ~ ~ n.dent

Ol$uoct 8 bt lI M' Itwt ,I .s btm, on botIUIot 01 lin.1"ICIII ,.,Iorm The <Lstnct IIftdot( o.W'«-1 btbtf thol Ih. bcnd "lilt """"Id h.I,,,.. I.iied Wlthou! fin.a""" 'dorm_

Oo,uoct C " J>Ol.I~"" .boot lin,nc. ,eJOrrn 11 now h' l _ 'uou.(t! INn ~ h.d I:do:n, but II w,~ dcrl ngt how \t>( ,<IOUIn1 Q!ha rliwoctl h .... In odd.bon lilt tquoty ...... h .. nct t>Hn ftlQt,oed T!>e <istua, hom .ofl .~.nnu~ 11.1. <Ion. wd h,(h .,.d"'l,oo " It , ~drop-o..1 'm. 1"1:" ""I SCOl ••• ,Id ,I 110 •• po<! 1.p..I. bCn ScI>ooI chsuOCI .d,m""u.",,, >If <onc.lot<l ~t n 1I"l0l1 ptOpIc ~ onto III< ccmrnuo,1Y the d!wlCI rmy not be IbIe 10 t..... ~ 10 u:pr:c~ _ ......... ~nut IAtIUSOS .... not Ioee!> III« WIth In. """,'ill Cond lloion

fll'W1C' rt/Olm '" t.\ochcIn h.Is i"'ICfQ!tctS '" 1.4 chopn buI tw not ~d the ~ ISS'" Reform oco.ontd 1-1 I Mlt -.tI ... diSlllCt. 'Nt .. Iindn& Ih<mS<""1 ..,.tOIe 10 0(>1'''' frIOft (MOues UvI:>u&tt Ioal mil~ dbl' , Rtf",m IaIilwtd 011 tho h.,11 01 O'''.'l>t.ncu th, l had .. d..:td .. ",,0 .... COI'IIIn, InlO dm"CiS In.lddouon,,,,110 il"lC"'wd r:Iolbn abo ~ oncn:utd (O<.i' III:U wm slWltd 10 IocJl school doscnm Nev.r dc:oI3n IfII belOl 0Md 10 <_ the to'" 01 non-ddutwn.ry ,terns IUdl IS m.tn"'lod bontf'lI Nt,.. doll." ., • • Iso 11<10& UI~ 10 ,teO"", 10Sle! • ..,."..,(<<[ U. Itwtt of lilt Hudlte rc llNek """och kmed dollrOCIS 10 ..... Ilnl bll.nc. I>thrr th ... INI:t mn\Nt CUt.

Tht dIStrIcts s.iudotd 11M: nqoo.ied rM>dtsi ullry II"OCINSCI .-.:I h .... Ioo.rnd l!>emlt",,' ,bIo to Iftlpitmem KIITIt 0(\111 PIOIIIIIIS l)IIt>::uil'tv lhosot ormtd " .1 ... ", S1udrnl_' N. ,.. dolt... Iuw "'"

bHn used for m.nl$lIll1OO e:copl '" o.<lfICi C. """-ch "",I clelrl)l underst>!Itd. It 'f'C)e1l"l !hit '" m.w fluff kJor IP""1in1 iJ ;ch"", IChQaI dL\lJOC," , f,n.aO<ll ,.,Iorm h:n ,~ th,m 10 mlln~,n !ht !tiM Q..o .... ,I h 0I'II)I1I"lOdtsl prQ&r;MM\ltoc cillOit' w_. I C, C Sltlkr_ "111< lqu,fY d Scho:lI rilOl,~" ,n Moch",n' (p.Jptr p,ut" ted II tht meeti ng of fht AlMflc. n [dut~l,on ' ,n. nct IWocllllOO ilk La. CiLy IJuh ~I~n:h 1996) 2 M / Addoo.ZIO, C P K.eI<nty ilnd H J PtO'lR 'l.4ochog.>n. HLP W IlC Acl' """'/WI! 0/ r- r""""", 16 (19n) lJH69

1 S Vtrpn. 'S<hooI "nora !l.tlo'm '" I.4dloIIA. /0",,101 '" fduccuoQil '''',lnelll (199}).1SNTO • C P I<I; • • .....,.,}I "'-' on Mlcltl"'~ SdoooI f",allC' tAnn Ptboo-. \JrIlWrs~y ol l.4O:I\cIn. 1994) l Sto C P -<umty. A Pnrnrr lot • mcft complete dlKVS!O'l of Ihl!

-.~ 6 "IYI founda~oo AI""",,,,,,, WISA FOlln~~1fI1S (l99~);} I J ( AdoIms "~pend,1IC School ~fOlm Doll". In KI;"iucq IlmlL'J' P, lltln. and Now P'OI .. m •. hi II '~II Rtfo,,,,'" CdI.otut~ Wahlo(oOII C>Id FoIo<y A"io/)'j .. 16 (f99<l) m·)90: 1 0 Pocus. O. 1\ TItftI~1I.. incI L H"WL. 'The AIoo;IbQn .nd Us< cI £dLK'IIOII,1 I\tsoun;u' (P'P" plesent.d ,11M I_t,ni of Ihe Amtro:¥1 (d. ClIIOO ,,, .. nee AuoCl.l\;OO. ~nNh , CA M.fI;h. 1995): Y A. Nl kJb. 'Sqrond OoWII;IlMll"o;ocnd,IIJ' ... Rr:_~ .-.:I Ow '" I"".do S PutoIoc $c:hoQIs- (pope, pre><nted II me nwdorc 01 lilt IIrotncIn tdu::.luOl't f'OlllCt ",,-,lOOn. s.._h GA. l.4.tth 1995) 8. K, H M~.,.'/r«on.~, to. 1"""",,"'1 School. A em 'itudy of Tud\., AUom,oo ... IIosICWl PublIC 5d>ooIs. fd"",:10<1<!1 [1oOWI'''' and PoIrt AM/rsd 17 (1995) ~1f>-.oI91 , ,. Oddm.oo W Ouot, .~ fdL.aOOf\ll PrcdllClv,l)'....r SdloaIlll'lln:c.- fdllMl.O>CI Rt>l<t,dl<1 1. (1995), 6·10 10 H l. n'la,d Ind J W;.tiolf 'Whm l-lis lilt Money Go ... An ~,>,s.os 01 SdIooI Du.tr,(l Spon4 .... m 1'1(\111 l\:wt fducchonol [whlo!!"" G.~ A*y 1IrIIl/)'m 17 ( tm) 416 .. 491

I

17

Private citizens and officials ... hailed the new law as the

"Minnesota Miracle."

Financing Education in

Minnesota: A Tradition of

Progress, 1971-1998

Mary Jane Guy

Minnesota School finance Background/History

Minnesota has been viewed as a progressive state in the area of education. In addition to charter schools. it has ,nitiated many reforms since the 1970's which ushe1ed in the "Minnesota Miracle" ,n the 1970's that set the stace on a path of educational reform. However. when we examine the legal precedents and history of Minnesota school finance since the 197o·s. we note that most K-12 educational finance 1eforms have not involved signif icant. prog,essive or "pacesetting"financing changes until recently and are rather conventional or tradi·tional.

In 1997 afte1 a tense s1<1ndoff over cax breaks fo1 private school tuition, Minnesota lawmake1s agreed on a $6. 7 billion. two-year education finance bill th2t n,akes far reaching changes in the public school system of Minnesota.' The .

. Students first .

. plan constitutes a

shift away ilom the state's traditional emphasis on funding schooldisvicts and focuses on giving students and their families money to use as they wish.' This along with legislation passed in the sp11ng of 1997 to establish the first statewide testing prog1arn' has been hailed by Robert J. Wedi. the state education commissioner. as " ... the most significant reform in ou1 history."' The recent furor over low test scores in the Twin Cities. caused legislators in the 1997 legislative session to approve a $ IOO million increase ove1 two years in compensatory aid (anti-pove1ty funds) for a total of $360 million that woold go di1ectly to schools rather than districts.'

The state's approach to educational finance is still a modified"foundation" approach. even though restrictions have been placed on local school districts to supplement the foundation level. Today. howeve1. 1·,iinnesota is almost completely responsible for the availability of new revenue for public schools. As ,n many states today. elementary and secondary education in Minnesota 1s financed through a combination of state collected taxes (primality income and sales) and property taxes collected locally in acco1dance w

i

th a constitutional mandate that requires a thorough and efiicien1 system of schools. Minnesota's education a1t1cle is one of the most strongly wo1ded educational mandates expressing the notion of a 1epublican system of common schooling in America:

The stability of a repuotican form of government depending mainly upon the inLeUigence ol the people. it is the duty of the leg

i

slature to establish a gene;al and uniform system of public schools. The legislature shall make such p1ovisions by taxationor othe,wise as will secure a thorough and eff,cient system ofpublic schools throughout the state.>

Mary Jane Guy is Associate Professor, Winona State

University

Educational Considerations. Vol. 26. No. 1, Fali 1998

The Minnesota Miracle

Numerous cou1t challenges throughout the United States in the 1970's have reflected the gene1al consensus that an overhaul of school funding was due. In Minnesota. the Governor and legislatu1e in U1e 1970's initiated changes which brought the state's school financing system more inl.O alignment with its constitutional mandate "to establish a general and uniform system" of education. In 1971 the Omnibus Tax Act sought to equalize tax effort of property owne,s in Minnesota while promoting greater equalization of school expendi· tures throughout the·state.

Minnesota state support for elementary and secondaiy educationinitially was based solely on Tnte1est income from the permanent schoolfund. Supplement.al stale aids. were distributed as early as 1915 and the state attempted an equalization approach to sl<lte aids in 1947. foundation aid. established by the 1957 legislature. was mea.nt to provide an adequate basic educat,on and to compensate fo1 variations of property wealm among Minnesota to advantage poor school districts. The method of computing the foundation aid remained the same until passage oi the Omnibus Tax Bifl in 1971.

Prior to the Serrano decision'. Minnesota Governor Wendell Anderson proposed his "fair School financing Bill." The reform in educational finance that followed was a compromise between variousforces based oo this Governor's proposal. It ignored features to equalize pee pupil expenditures. but made major changes in reducing tax inequities throughout the state. The shift in financing and the change in emphasis was so great that a federal bi-partisan commission composed of p1ivate citizens and officials at all government levels. hailed the new law as "the Minnesota Miracle."

School aid 1eform was also addressed during a special session of the 1971 legislature that made substantial changes in the philosophy and rnethod of linancing K-12 education. The foundation aid (ormula shifted the primary revenue-raising responsibility lor school operatingfunds from local to state level. It defined a "standard cost" pe1 pupil unit to provide an adequate education; it established an ·allowed"level of expenditure for each district dete1mined by the relationship of the district's maintenance expenditure to the mnda1d cost in thatyear. The "allowed expenditures" were financed for the first time by a found.tion aid formula Which provided poorer school distcicts with proportionately more state finapcial assistance. The financial aid formula increased equalization in expenditures by providing "low cost"districts with additional power to increase allowed expend,tu1es annually; and it placed stllngent limits on school district mill rates fo1 maintenance purposes.

Prior to 1971 schools in Minnesota we1e financed by a combination of state and local monies \vith about &% from federal sources. The state sh.re was diYided among three aid programs. foundation aids. categorical aids. and tax ,elief aids. Excess referendum levies were part of the Minnesota Miracle. School distncts had been able to levy_ with voter approval. amounts for district operational costs beyond levies speci!ically authorized in Minnesota. Local school boards had much greater flexibility in deciding then own levies and the levy was limited la1gely by the need for money and the ability and willingness of the property taxpaye1s in the district to provide resources. The 1971 lawwas the first effect ive state-imposed and voter-controlled levy limit onschool district levies. It prohibited school district levy increases above state statutory limits unless local voters approved the increase by referendum.• In the decade following the "Minnesota Miracle," numerous

15

18

m~ndrntlm \0 II...: I;IIV"'lltcl r..vt relltclod $,glHk'nl Ch~"ltS In $ChooIS;lnd SOCitty not "nllC'lI"ted by 100.. ",00 d,;lllod lhe 1971 ~ 11'111.1000. dtd,ning tnlllllm<m. tilt 'n".~'''i ntt<h oIlPtc~ i't'up$ .• nd. most ,t<:tn~y. dtChn'''II ~I ,1'1 ;I ItCts!oOO"Y n:ooomy pfQlll)l~ I~ ;lmrndlllMl$. 5oo>e bel..-.e ,1'1 IAlflntSOli th;ll I~ ch;logtS line·I..,.d tht 1:1'1/; others $.>W the$( <dorms ;IS

"'UMS ;In unw,eldy ,nmum.nt dJfi<:ull [00 undersund ;lnd u"'espoo~ to ~sent needs ~. til. 1911 bw rm1;1,ne<;I III

plxo w,th only m,nor dunges ,1'1 tht 191Q·, thfOOi" lilt u~y 1990·s • from 1991 cllwud tile problem of the ,ele,.ndum levy "";IS

,d dr eneo so In,l I~Y the rtlcrendu m proceu " m.,.;n mort cOl1trcH l~ AI,y Ied muSl. be It ... o 'gl ln Sl. t t.t mlr~ •• 1 .... 01 prop< rty " 1t.tl tNn ",,1 !;I, c;lp;1, ily T ill S h.s 111e d lect 01 , hifMB;I 8rtmr bUHien cor Ih' " feren dumlevy Ie ,ts>den· 1 .• 1 'i"Culturll;l1l<l 'tc'Uloon.1 propo 't"' .... d.lI .. th.1 OInetWlIt or. !<>'to >I I~ r.~n II\io rllO$l oxh" 1)'pt' 01 plopt,ry Rtlertnduon 'M" .... lodJy 'S l,mLI.d \0 $801.l~ pt, pupil 0011 .1'1 199!>-1991 DtSlnCI ,eferendum 'Mn .... may noI t><ttt<l lhll .mount ...... ss • drslIlCl II cl",bIe lor spa,~ry ' ..... 1'1 .... 00' the reltrendum .I~nct W;I, h,ght"'l • pft\ilOl)l; ~., Til:' not berne lilt a ... lb( d,w", lNy 001. IIICIUS1t ,IS ItltlCndum """,,ue. Thr du"~on 01 tht IdtrMdum ..... st be sPK,fot<l on lilt b;l11o! .nd rmy not vo::wlttn yem .,

Ucftfl w. S!~ lt 01 M,,,,,,,o!d m t. I,sal rt>p<.mClli ty for td..allOn .• nd !edu<:td rdoone. 00 ",.1 eo;(.t< 1,"<1. but It ""', ~ ill .p~menl thll M,nnnoU·S schoo lundin g '~'lcm could ~ more .qu'l~b lt Ind t ff ic>(nl The m t{ , reilll"" ly 11I ~h dependtnct 0!1 10· 0 1 ,t'"O! rI .... con~l'lf,Ie d totrem 'M d, do ' l11ct f,sal drs","~n Ind l\li ~d li ttle ,dlhOrlSillp \0 1oc, I nted or .bdity to P>Y

In 1938.}2 outer ""$ 'ubu'~n md ," .. I ,,1I00I d,~"cu tl~tHnl· >"II 2S ptR;en! ot II>( !.!Mtt·, K·12 t"'cllmenlliled' tr.vSUll in the d.suicl toun d.,,,,,n& th.1 ~llflr"".ou·, stI>ooIl,n.nc" system W;lS unconS!lWloONl breluse 11M: [on.""e ')<'tern W,j\ I"lOl I>'I<Ionn ind school d,WKU ItCtM.'Itd upon foul p<operty 10m 4nd me (r;l,n,n,lr1d '''Il''n",(:r 4nd ",pplernentol IMnun !hit Ire f!lly equol,ztd sua .1Il ~'Ol< 01 Iht ieI',,'I' tOuc.uon .-ev.n .... PlOiIlm

In Decembe( 199 ' . tilt W"gh l (O\Jnty DLllr>::1 Co..Jrt !uie<.lth<l th roe (ompone nts 01 M",""cto·' educ.hon fundi ng Ior muills Wl rt u ""oo'I<IU~>OI\a1 The il c~""n1' prO'lid!d lor th e 11100:11100 01 ' PllroI<Hm~ely II [l<'rte nl of the m l" 100 10<;.1 re'"O!nul !P(ttl on tdur:.toon Tr.r,. "'""I'e (I) <lebl W''''' I",,,,,-Ihe IMl 10 POI)' II,. prlf'l<lpal: .na .nll .. S( on 1:>00(1< used 10 I,n,,,,,e r' ''''lotI. (2) ,elt .. n. <111m I"'OH-the 10<;.1 '"lI" ,ppH1l~ d Itvy >uth()flly tim .11ows. sd>ooI bo;o,d \0 obilin mOlt 'Mllut thiin ~gul>' fuodlna lor'~ull$ prtP"II(It. 4nd (ll tnt ",pprtmentll .... n .... -. &"IIldbth" plCMlfon tn.l holds lu,mltlS a,SI"C!! Ih;ll ,.c.i..,d more re..,nul! undt' P"v,ous ionrMJln.

The MJlntsou Supremt Court on PJJgull 20. 199) ~ <e\"O!,1otd 11M: In.1 COU"I.nd htld th'l sua·, I"",nee system CO<1lt1lU~0I11.1. II rultd lhi! «juaton '" M~ 'S .lu"Wo'I"IMCI1 niht Ind ttn! mt cYI~m """em 01 td..I"t>;}o fimo1Qe \;I~sl ... 'hIt ~ii1! The e(hJrt loond tr..t aI ilIa.nllf! "hod di <t"m r«<,vtd In ideQu.a edvcl loon th rough sufiicl'''1 fLlOd ing 10 metl b.\i<: r~(h Thl! Cl)O..<t

ij",d the le<m ·oOtQ ... I"· '" "a<leQuK)'" !O me.n lilt me.sure 01 "'t<l 11l:i! must be mrl .nd flO! .\Orne ""n,,,,,1 IJoe.-. II ll"tu$ tsl.bhshtd • mlmmum lI.odl,d IIlI: S(>!t mull metl "' <lesrgnin! .1'1 td"",lion Jundc"i sy5Iem HI.II II ooruhlut:on~1

In 1992." ~ re.ult of th,s ~Laal!Ort. IWO ,",POn.nl <:Ii;ln", 10 tht wucw,e 01 Ill( stote·s Khool fi,..ncf syslfm _ .. m..o. by th. t,1,n....oc. If:go,;1,WIt. II Idopltd _rid funded. d<bl WVlce rq .... hz.· Uon progr.m rMr. IhrH )'t;l' pit'$!! ,n !It"oo. Ind Iowete<1 tht ap on ,.I<"odum .. _uo f,OOl lS [!eIcen! to lO pt«<nl 01 the gtner.1 td"C~lIOn Ic,mu', ~llo""lnct. "",th distrICts .bo"t tn. up • &"lI<lf. I".,ed· "' .1 100' c ... ltnt !t>;:1 td It~ {!e"".1 . duo t;;;" f(>" m" l. from $3.050 p<r Pl' pil uM 10 Sl. ISO lor 311 sr:1>ooI di lln ct<. 1i 000000"". th e ~ IOO incr"'$( "'.S u>td 10 ,.duct S\lPI' ~ ""' nt. 1 ,.,.. nut , nd ..l<ltrrlJm Itwnut. A dls~'(t ""Ih Illt.1I SIOO ptr PUP'I unil "" wppltm,nUl.nd ,d.,,,,,du·rn '''''~I1''''. ,n erfec!. "'os h.k! 1< .... 1 Thl$ redUC:l!d ,uppltmmul ~nut stoUWOClt !ro", Sl~ m.IILCO 10 $3.5 ",.II"'n ma" ~i: lilt ",ppltmrnlll IfYtn"e compo",nl muth Itss SlIU1,foc.nt ReI.,."dun ~n .... W;lS Itduced bOOl Slll m,loon to S1f.oO m,lI",n. AI thl> tmr lilt mte •. d 8uol"lnt~ on the f,ost Sll~ lit' popil u04 01 txCeSS ",I~dum /tVen .... W;I~ '"Cltlsed bOOl the ~O ptfCtJItlMl10 1M 100 perartll~ lilt wne.s lhe ",,,,,,.1 t<lole.· I"", Io.muI. ~ £xce« Itltrtndum ft.YI:n .... W;ls .Iso c;.pped.1 SIST [!eI pupl unit. (Hou .. Woys (, Mf;lOS Commrt~. (99))

Sr"u '993 . 'e-.<t"~ ff':lm txetlS Itfe....,d. hl< i"'"'" ,ubs!.n~I'1y lnd IS , I"'''''''l of toul ' ..... n .... " 1101 gr<7>"I ng Todly. """ th,..,· fO[Ktn, of M", ,,,,sota sclOO dilUlC1S Ioo~ ' t!t<l; rocium 1<:\O!nU( . It grew '8"n subm nti. li'! in 1996· 1997. now eOflSl l tulln ~ 6.6 ~ rc. n l oI tot.1 I!doc.t l.io n r""",u , from the 2 9 ptrct nl ln Int e. lly 198(Y,

A ~'" 4S!.>e oddrus.r:d by lilt 199/ legls!>tu", '''is the "¥en .... ""p'" on K·12 ed..:.I>Oo. It .. sla~on ~'sW In I99S ~"d the 1:'",,,01 .duc.oon fonroJl> and ,tGuct<l tilt s.tC(>"'d.>ry f>l4>i1 ",,1 ~-ghl· 'ng \O:...q, ~e<led K·!2 eWe.loon spfn(l.l1g II:< fY ~99 w,th,n !nt Dudgtlto'get. >el '" 199~ An >dd.1lOI1.1 U91 m,lI",n w.s for"" .. <1 for at""'ll f""d ,~es ~nd uPtOd<IU~ .1 the fnd 01 FY 99 Wh,lt 1It:~ fo'ec>'1 P'OItcted '(¥eI1uts txefed'"i ... pendn.m:. by S, l b,lIoon. th.ll:go·J.n .. e pused and Ib( ~rnc:w .~. biH R:jleiOlOi the ' Ulp$" II'! K·12. ~ Itltrtnd .. " equ;lhl:;l1101l Irvy for 1'19'i .nd btyond • "lu,1i tht da11"'S oe!trtnd,." equ.hulloo """'0 .... lmes tho I" ..,. of 0f1t ¢< ~It 'I~O of IItt d<iUICIS !el.,.,,~um markt! ... 1"" ptI ><1" ,1 pUpIl unot to $tO.oc.<t$ to \.Ia!e ~I><t' In M.nf1tIC(' """ It.. bfr,g.,! )Um? t!1" p" l 1991 ttg i ,lo~ I '"O! 5..,\1011 Tilt ·M" ..... wta M<;ode· "'lS j.>I"ompttd m.lnly by a propeny tlX roo ut ,on wlltlr ~' c.me 10 lilt op:!ll '0 ",ns w( r huge pro\lt rty ll>o:, 10 fin,,,,,e pJ bl ic sr:~ I, The (~".'" l.,Su-t 1M Govt'r"iQ< ArlOerso" .1 lilt \Irt ... pt<J~d on ,,,,"us.r: '1'1 I~ InCOmt ,,_ With mort ,me fuoo.ng.1I1I1 ~O'W"InK Ie< 1=1 levy f", ~dd Orl!. the stIle Iu< .«......:1 more 01 tht tdu:;.>ton co,1. espeo.11y WIth ;IdtloilOnil IMn .... \0 .ndc<s.r: l~e V.d ... ton ruI, ~

Equ,ry" <trU." 'ss ..... 11 .. $.\~~ u M.ml!"lOIG"~. but potICY '~Ikt'~ btl ...... th.It 1M( Iht poll few Y'.,I t.llIlnesota has 1Il;Id<. grUl de;l1 of PlOW''' Thr gtuto:llllmlu ,n equal.za!"", ~ OCOollred ,n me "' .. 01 <iebl "duc:non 001 school d'II"CI$ breluse 111. $lOto: 11.os t.oltn consrdtrlble ~Sf'<'rI!,bHy 10 eQU;ll,ze P"lIW!y tn: • • Accord,ot to tilt o.p1l!mel"!! of (n ildte~. hmd>(s .rId tUTn"'i. sdlool di'tm! dlsp.ny aoo e Q Ll:I~ sttms to be If II 01 an IWJ. now oM >o<n."",t d,mln l<l1,d du" ng ' " 'nf l ~ I .ol\lry [l<'r,(Xj • (T I .. «,,,, I ~bsel-..e<J In

Educalio nal Consid,ral.aru

19

1991 that the legislature had equalized more of the st,,te funding, with the pe,centage oi uniform basic revenue rising roughly frorrr 67.5% in 1984 to 90% by 1990.)

Today the general education formula is an " equalized" formula-the state pays in aid the difference between what is raised by the local levy and the fom1ula allowance. The portion that rs local levy can be determined by comparing a drstr,crs adjusted nee tax capacity per pupil unit to the equalizing factor. The equalizing factor is determined by dividing the basic formula allowance by the tax capacity rate. for1997·98, the equalizing factor calculation is : $3.5811.374 = $9.57$. The basic revenue allowance for each district for the 1997·98 school year is $3.581 per pupil unit. State aid of $2.6 billion and property tax levy of $1.4 billion provide the basic revenue for all districts. The total of all state aid is $3.3 billion. and the total levy amount is $2.3 billion. State revenue comes from compensatory revenue for free and reduced lunch. operating sparsity 1evcnuc for small and isolated schools. Beginning in 1996·97. the basic formula increased by $300 per pupil unit rep1ese.nt1ng the 'roll,,n" of transportation and training and experience revenue.

Additional revenues are provide from Transportation SparsityRevenue which p;ovides districts with additional funding based onlhe number of pupil units per square mile. The operating Capital Revenue formula will allow for increases in technology this year . In 1997·98 a district$' supplemental revenue is the same per pupil amount as the district received 1n 1992·93. However. supplemental revenue is reduced by S 100. represem,ng the increase in the formula allowance. This revenue is an aid and levy combination in the same ratio as u,e district's general education revenue allow. A total of $5.4 million insupplemental revenue was allocated to about 32 districts in 1987 ·98.

Educational Investment The Minnesota lcgista,ure will conduct the 1998 legislative session

with a record budget surplus. Today forecast ,evenues exceeded fore· cast expenditlires by $2.3 billion due to a robust economy. Governor Carlson wants to spend most of the new money on property tax relief. but there will still be hundreds of millions available for opportu· nHies for education in the form or budget supplements. tax c1edits and deductions. and capital improvements in the future.

The regional impact or the funding changes contained in the the omnibus 1991 K· 12 bill and the changes in the distnbution or revenue among school districts reflects a geographic distribution of new money over basel,ne amounts for FY 98 and fY 99. Statewide there has been a 4.9% increase over the FY 99 base: in non metro areas a 5.6% increase: JO suburban metro areas, a 3.7% increase and in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis/St. Paul, a 5.9% increase based on per pupil unit general education revenue amounts. Statewide per pupil increases when measured against the base amounts for fiscal years 1998 and 1999 are 3.5% and 4.9% respectively. Additional new money pumped into the K· 12 system this past legislac,ve session ($6.1 billion for the K·12appropriation- a total revenue increase of 14% over the previous biennium) has affected the spread in school district revenue when measured by the $th al\d 95th percentiles or general education revenue because of the added Compensatory Revenoe-from $836 per pupil unit in fY 97 to $1.00S in FY 99 under the conference committee proposed amounts."

In an analysis of changes in school Funding in Minnesota over thepast two years. Au gen btick and Myers ( 1997) point to marginal revenue growth above ,nfiation." Generally in Minnesota. school

Educational Considerations. Vol. 26. No. 1. Fa/I 1998

districts spend what they get. They may build up a balance or go into debt. so the best data to examine for how school distrkts are faring 1s school district revenues. Considering all funds, the most current revenue figures [including revenue to pay for buildings) in 1998. the revenue per average daily membership is $6.264. a .0067 percentincrease over fY 1997 which was $6,222. What is slated in currentlaw for fY 1999. however is $6.786. a 2.5% increase."' "A few years ago in Minnesota we had 59 school districts with operating debr. This year only ro districts have bee.n eliminating their operating debt through consolidation. so Minnesota·s 362 schOol disiricts are in pretty good shape.""

Education ,s the largest single item in the state's general fundbudget. accounting for about 33·34 percent of total spending (this percentage includes a relevant portion of property tax reduction aid). Higher education in Minnesota receives only 10 to 11 percent." Total state and local revenue for schools increased over 128 percent since 1985. When adjusted for inflation. the increase is 46.2 percent despite the fact that as economic grov/lh has slowed while student population has increased. Revenue per student. adjusted for inflationhas increased by 22.3 percent from fY 1994 to fY 1997. It is estimated that tOtal school district revenue ior e,iCh student (ADM) Will average $7.191 during the 1996·1997 school term-this includes funding frcni state. local. and federal sources ."

State funds for K-12 have particularly increased for career teacher· family programs. youth service. alternative delivery or specialized instructional services and other programs to meet the needs of targeted children and youth. ln 1994, an additional $1 million was appropriated for violence prevention grants with another $ I million appropriated for youth apprenticeships and establishing the connec· tion between youth and community service."

Selected Education Issues and Policy Trends Affecting

Minnesota School Finance

The constitutional requirements or Minnesota. the current statutory framework for education finance. the history of litigation. and developing legal theory have all recognized and anticipated the pacesetting reforms lo achieve greater equity and accountability that have taken place recently with the passage of the 1997 Omnibus Tax Bill for K· 12 education. For example in H.F. 350. Article I. Section 25 we read:

Financing the education of our children is one or the state government's most important funct,ons. In performing this function the sl.al.e se,ks to p1ovide suffici,nt funding while encouraging equity. accountability. and incentives toward quality improvement. To help achieve these goals and to help control future spending growth. the state '>ill fund core instruc· ti

on and related support services. will facilitate impro\<enlent in the quality and delive1y of programs and services. and will equalizetevenues ra,sed locally for disc,etionary purposes."

In 1989. the Minnesota legislature first addressed the issue of the proper locus fo, democratic conttol in the state. The legislature adoptedgeneral principles and a policy statement to guide state·local finance reform which stressed accountability. i.e. a preference for state fund· ing of state·rnandated activities and local funding of local decisions." In 1991. the Minnesota legislature adopted a rn,ssion statement foreducation which emphasized such concepts as "participatorydecision-making." "accountability." and integration and coordination

I 1

20

01 -h<lO'llll Kf'«a for Ielm=.. ... In 1992 ~ 101 Muou.I.~ Ila!.ft (rQCtod tIw ~lnfl(1Ot.l Edt.ouon lilunc( Acl K II*,IOed In &ontnl Ifmll, ~ r. ... ",. ,,,,,.m baltd on "b_ tnSU..::1JOrII1 'HI: -(I«b'o't

ooutru::uon'I~, and -10<;>1 d'I(JtIJQ<\OIy <t'¥tIlue:" !\obk tchool ... clintu! I'IIs &'Q'Ml WI ...,.,,1 )'('1'1- nIII"C 10 ..

.. um.I.d Il/.2ll (AO~ ) ,n til, 1m-1991:KOOo1~' (,htr _", yom 01 ckcl'n'ng S!uil( nt P<lI'uliloont.) ~l ln rlf5OtO Pbnnonli hiS projected It ..... &I""" IQ 80>8.000 toy the ye .. l'OOl-.....ch wooid rose In 3(1d.~ SJ10 m,HIOn txIl yur Tho> prdtu-d ilUCItnl ifG"'Ih ""R bt <;erW;."lroltd Ill. ~ .... mbe' 01 the ~', 362 school (!isuocI, ~I <)/ , lI lfOWIh hom I9'iJ t~ 1999 o>ap((ltd to be ,nJUIot 10 d"mm ,,",,'c •• ond llllll/l!: TIIM ( ,lJ(. Tho. could pUI prus.m. on (he klLslolult from th. v.no". poor ,...,1 '0111 ,tat, sdlooI ~oeu>'

The Mlnnesouo Iopbtu"l ~I idop1e"d tho /011""",. poIIcoes tNl tIlC<l",.g. "tilt, 'Q .. I~ . nd acrounC.h.lily In ttu, u.u, 1""1 baSIC polocoe. n..... upondtd P~I.IIJUI.dtIlI cho<:e. 0000«. onel..",. dw~ "hooh, which btpI WI 101"",""", "~., one 01 ......".1 wlyl 10 ."COUt •• tIt3k.,. compet.uon ~ K.hoo/s and ...,It .... schools .nd d'll,oeu

1_ Tn D<hetioto. olld C,folito lot !'ublio oM Hco..,...lIic £<IN",' io"

In 19'16 Gc:Mot'lOr (,,1_ rroPOWd' Int _cher prcogr.m ~rnil j , 10 tjl( one III MMuIoet, WI for tIw d.wlClso l MlMupohs. 51 PI"!. 8roo1..')<1 Unttr. and 011< !..wI ruAI doSlIOCL In M......w Ln Mutlk< ~ A/lrI Q,. ,n 198)" doterAlltd th.1 w.lIOn IU c~:ts -..toe conu.liIIoONl Tho "tlrt 01 the GM'I>Qf' proposed ""'-'Ch6 J)'SIttII

~ Ihtrtb". to i!'\'e ",!!filS' WI. ,n .moum 01 mor,t)' l.dtrm'hIo only 100 lu,bOO.I. "' .... Ie tchool, Uo\:jc, the Gc:Monor',~, ,I ill, 'oOUchor _mount wn len thin the _ lor tilt """* school clltoso:n. ",rtnlS """"" ~ had to P¥I lho d.lft'tIl« lllr$ ~I .... s dtJeIl~d 'n lilt Je~ I 5JlIurt '" tilt 1997 ,, \1<111_ h.....-c.... r li1~ ~l lb\Y!e dod propose ~l9 moIIion Pt''''~ 4nd MWldItr l iS ",111100 lor ~ WI the I.IX ~ WI tho 1991 %>eO~ 5es_. J ..... 16. 1998)

The ~l -S1uoX<ll fIrst- pj>n In Qrnn,bul 1 ... !M 01 1991 ,I ~ «>mprorn,~ bi ll '~June 2. II i SD«0i1 Jel'lIl1 l\'e .. ""'" wl"ch onducIu /leW I .. atdoll for li ouUes II¥JIItIt! IlH99 MId bdaw 10 po..tdIIst , WIdt ....... of «Iualoon-rdiou-d StI"VICU The cnc;.u ~Iso an bf. U1td 10 http off .. 1 t.<"'s.pooW.on .. pon .. , itlC! ~ Jor S\.mrr-..f scl"lOOl 'nd e;Ir~1 hrrdJH I~;t don 'l urn trIOIlgh 10 I:1Nt L<lW w. eel chtd<.1 10< the .,noOOI 01 cr9tJ !hoy qw~IY /Dr W

Ikkft the riot: 1991 ~ WS$IOII nlt~ co.lcl dtdud $1.1)00 Iof 5WdtflU WI Ifldol , \0 12. and }6)0 lor It.Jodtl'lu., Irides \,.onder,,11(11 10 6, Tiles<: Iom,u ""II InefU,. to Sl,)OO .nd tUl) ~., tho tax)OU, 19')8 Thtt Ikd...cbOn yn bt ~~d 10 htlp oif,.1 tn. cost of pr .... ~ tchool 1 .. 1iO'I.. WI .ddobon 10 II>t Lnds 01 semttS cO'l'effd ...ott Ilk ...... th atd.t. f,ndy, Ihr 1997 S6.1 billion. I...., )Or'" tduc.~on foNnet b," .lso UpModI lho stilt's

wor kolli,flmofy we ert dll 10 proYIdt household, IIIK ~ cl1 ddrtn VId firn S19,OOO . )'Nol ()/ less WOUI In ~.trONI 12000- , )SO C>tdol ..... h an be used b lIlY ~pcose ordudlO& ....... Ie school ",.1>OfI

OfW" [ /\rollmon, In 1981, tho ~w" laIIowin& ti"Ie ~J.I 01 CcMmor Rudy ~, lulhOlatd tondtr"lI.n IlIIckch twellth &Jidt SIUdalu 10 onooll on. school """OCt OIhor!Non (In( ,n ",t"GIIIIIt ItUdtnllr.ul

Tho 1988ltg1wlIM .wdo: tho proawn ........ulUry lor tIouno;n .oth It lelll 1,000 IolUdtIlIS for Ih~ 19"-90 school jot". iI\d 100.11 dln ,,,\, 10, Ill( 1990-91 )'tl' Scllool doSI/ItI. ""'Ih dtwgrt,lbon pi .... , .ppIO>Ied by I .... SUit \>OOfd of (cluuloon Q/l Wn;r tmISI(ol ., :In!! alii 01 u,." dfunC1110 _ comp~ ..... 1Il tt-oo.. pL.",. Tht 1991 llw chao1p >upl'Qlt.d b,- GMrnor C~~1(IfI pttmolS j r>Jn 'U,dtn! "hooi d,wict to flI'O¥'dt pupil lI.n,,>::,,1>bon I()/ • non ~I SluCknt "",Ihou! linl seekonB apPlO"'l from Ihr "Iudtnt 00II0:1 ThIs _dmen! ~lel'ny ".....,0.' .. '1 beN by JoInt P¥tnu Ind studtnt~ ~,."" tdoooI do .. ,. ~ the,r h""", dt>llOCI Th~ urLOtnYLl'a I'SCII "t"", , 1f: .tIC! JUWhwoon il Il'IIt school d"I",1S Slmpl11'1i1d lor I .... numb<r 01 pupoi' troty ICtuoiy ~

' 0.1 SH.oM .. " £M,olbu>ll Opiian AooIIl<f Mlnl'!tS<X. pobey t~! tM.,,,,,~ cho.:e '" M,nntSOU IS

tilt. I'oll-St,ond/I,y (nrollm. nt o,.l'on (PSEO) Tt>< PS(O ...... 'NCltlllro't IUWltllM r .. t",.<Io: _,bbIt 10 _IS duri"liloe 1935-86 school _ Tills pqrom I1iows II In 0IId mil ""ac J)UI:k $doool IlUdtm, 10 w end I M,t"W\UQI. post IKOOdlry onnrtLJbD!l ~I IUt! V¢ItIlW:, U<t the o;oen tIlIOI'ntnI opiJOrI.

~LC",,1oOn OIl IhlS pJOil¥'l hn l'ICrV~d $It.iId.Iy ~ne, ,I ..... l lnt INIk "'lOIibIt. lhe "'III"Jb<f <>IlIudtnlS Iilo!t ~ 01 It ! PSlO ;,;,S oncfUStd from »)11 sWdtnlS III 19M,86 10 6ll~ on Im-w> Somr ¥Ill,.:;" j~d d'Rrlct Idmon.sti. tOl1 oblcrvlllh. t PS(o \too 10 dr ... 1Ioe his" ado!CVtt\ ~y 110m It", schook IoMrlz ~~" btfur;;I $w. IIoe IBOIIt'f iOO ....m Iht ItLOknl. the d..cno;l .. left wtn I,ss _ IIId 1 h"htI C_tr.Iloon 01 ~ studenlS M~ny "hoof .dmlnLWi1O<l1td lhal PS(O tJ(~.t .. l/I!: lllooltrn ,n I SYSI"," 01 .. 111)1 ""0<1 01 lund> In ~1iI'OO .md_ II1II1 dlslrim mil' n::oIllM tM thlttal ..... ss<>l studtIlts ne<l"SSIIY 10 0I1a ct>Ue&e ___ WI Il'c ""'"' school TM COIl 01 JU:It _ ~ ,.,Ih lost lhan ~ I ... d . u oI5Iu<ients -...o.Ao bt "lith h'E'''' in IhoK KIIooI dlStnclS ChI~' In (he PSEO lorHI.,g 1110«" ""<C L9'i2 ( .... Iuch I'll .. coOl

tltUll lt lbout '2 2 mrU,co) n..... 1tSU-':td ,n school ~IS 1'tU~ SOi!',IOClr.tl)o m lunG"" lew PSlO 1i.rl(n\S lodo)o pc><! WC()/l~

!I1!.loIUlOOfl$ ~""" the COSI oIt.<oll()l! boQU, MId toes lor • PS(O coo',. IfOrtI thr: K·12 b~1 ~~ Ibf.y hid 1n IY 1991 fundL,"" lor I'S€O swdenu !rom thr: poSI !«OrlO:bry budlO'tl ' ,cduc(d lrom ..... p cost llIt\dInc 10 tI'IiIrglnal cost '''''''''''' ,.1nch ~ only aboul)l1II 01 thr: _. cost <>I 1I<U\1C1lOn undn 1/"1 fl;lfldo", proCtu 1M r...nut mo IdtooI dlllrlCl rKt Ml tt no blct< d(~nI on I .... • moun t <)/ w .tO()/l lhll ..... , ~Id Iof the $Io(!c nt Set.:»! ~'W1Cts .. UM\ • , ... M pOItoOn of lllroe,,1 eduuoon JeYrIIur wfo.~ pose steOO"dMy .,.:.wttom rettM\ I ~ fbTIhurs.tment: PtI CrN\ plus ",,,,,Nil cou ~a, Th .. iund>nI pr~s eI,nuno: .. ,lmal! _II of !h~ tlCl/~ ~n .. 1<:10001 d'OInCiS Itu""d ~ndo:r m~ O'lilnal (1991) f.mone procu, 1'11( totaj COlI 10 tile !!1I~ .. f)' 1991 Ird 1m, fUIdr1C ..... ' ,)t.~1).ooo Anilym ~'i"" IN! 'In tIIo 100& ItmI the ~ rmy ...... rnoroty of .t~1l PiI'1oOpiI1I: '" PS(O betH,. thr: :Iti~ ~ I ... ,n poSI WCC<lda,y ("~dlO& lor , PSfO SlUdtnI ~''''' b ~ 1t£!J1" put'" coltlJe ,tua.nt ~OOI' tt>t.In:/! tS n"de<l1O dtlfftTol\t wntthor berld6 vaSil Ie< m.oderoll

eo"' ........ , ... y JlI~ .. «ised ... ~ plans IxauIt ""Ill the MW ptrfor,.,.",t SIIOdIIds so mud! dtptnDs "" lO:OUf\I.bo/.tr 100 scudtnt iChl~ The M,n"('iOI1 itl'sblLR

21

passed permissive legislation in 1987 allowing school boards to enter into an agreement with a ··school site decision making team." Thiscouncil can be thought of legally as a "mini-school board," that can decide tools and policies in curriculum, discipline. budgeting. hillng and firing of personal as a team consisting of the principal. 1ep1esen·tativcs from staff. parents. students. members of the community. Schools may now voluntarily enter into performance contracts. but more pressure may be brought to bear on accountability for previous state compensatory dollars. The 1997 compensatory aid package provides $ I 00 million more aid that would not ao to the school districts but directly to school sites. based upon the number of students qualified for free and ieduced lunch. Discussion Jn the lastsession. however. hinged upon how the aid should be calculated and defining what is a learning site."

Charter Schools (Formerly called Outcome-Based Schools)

In 1991, the Minnesota legislature enacted a bill authorizing school dist1icts to sponsor a limited number or charte, schcols. The original amhorization of 35 cha,ter schools v/as increased to 40 in 1995. By 1996·97, 20 charter schools have been approved for operatJon. but only 19 are opeiational. The number of students now enrolled in charter schools in Minnesota authorized as of Janua,y, 1997 is t.814 (Minnesota Tax Payers Association. 1996. p. 26). lawmake1s in 199S appropriated S7S.OOO for the state board of education to evaluate the performance of charter schools. Money for the school comes from the state in tile form of general education aid (which now Includes both transport.tion aid and capital equipment aid. The 1991 law authorizing school boards or the state board or education to pe.rmit one o r rnore teachers to form schools made charter schools eligible for otheraids. grants. and revenues from the state as though 1he school were a school district.''

The 1997 "Students Fi,st" plan lifts the CU!fent 40 ·school cap on the number of charter schools in the state and mandates that the $350 million in compensatoiy aid conta1 ned in the bill follow students to schools. rather than be spent at the district level. It designated $50,000 grants to help with st.rt·up costs of charter schools.created grants for building repairs. and allowed highei educationinstitutions to sponsor charter schools. This plan could benefit largeurban school districts in Minneapolis and St. Paul that serve largenumber oi low-,ncome children. "Some sites CO\Jld receive as much as $ I million to spend as they see fit to improve educational outcomes for poo;fy performing students.''"

Standards-Based Reform

Minnesota has ,anked very high compared to other states on most standard measures of student achievement. while spending only slightly higher than the national average per pupils." The state board of education led the nation in adopting Outcome-Based Education (08E)" and new g1adu.Llon standards. By 1991. funding ($1.35 million for the biennium) was provided for grants to selected school districts to serve as demonstration sites." In 1993 the Minnesota legislature updated the Minnesota Educational Ufectiveness Program (MEEP) to specify expected p,ograrn outcomes." In August 199S. the mission of MEEP has been to prepare schools for implementing graduate standards and the federal

.. Goals 2000" efforts. The 1995 law appro

prrated $775,000 eacb yea, (FY 1996· 1997) 10 achieve educational effectiveness. 4'

Educational Considerations, Vol. 26, No. 1. Fall 1998

Technology

In 1995. the Omnibus Education Act included an entire article devoted to technology initiatives with a total of $26.8 million appropriated over the FY 1996·97 biennium. $5.4 million was funded fo; instructional transformation technology grants: $800.000 in FY r 996 for iegional library telecommunications aid foi data access.technology. and technical support. and promotion to electronic access to the public; $800.000 for grants to continue Internet access: $6.387,000 for lnte,active television \vith substantial increases for capitalexpenditure equipment and statewide telecommunications access 1ouling system. In 1996, lawmakers added another S 11.9 million 10 fund various technology projects during the 1996·97 bienaium.

Conclusion

Many Minnesotans today see these educational initiatives lo the 199o·s as a triumph for choice . Tax dollars can now be provided on atuition basis either by public schools 01 b-; groups or public school teachers. Minnesotans can probably look to many more charter schools as families create a market ior summe, schools and other services with newly acquired tax-credit dollars. Educat,onal Commissioner Wedle commented on these revolutionary developments in tt1e state of Minnesota: "It's M longer what the system can provide ... Now parents have some resources to pu,chase educational services.''"

Greater demands are now being placed on a traditional finance system and the taxpayers in Minnesota to effect these prog,essive policies. Because of the ever-increasing concentration of pco1 and needy children in urban schools. inadequacies in U1e levels of basicfunding are becoming more appa;ent. Minnesota education was found by the Minnesot. Supreme Court to be

.. adequate" in 1991. Indicators

or inadequacy today. however. include low achievement and test scores. high dropout rates and poor attendance. particula1ly among disadvantaged students in urban aieas. As more and more courts throughout the United States begin to target "adequacy

.. in equity rulings.

adequacy and accountability will become mo,e central issues. The growing revelation of educational .. inadequacies

.. in Minnesota mayforce lawmakers in this state to redefine a basic education relative to the proper funding of standards-based reform.

Endnotes

I. Laws 1997, t st Special Session. Chapter 4.2. Id . Article l3.3. Minnesota Statute 121.11. Subd. 7-C. 1997 Supplement.4. Bradley. A. Education \\leek. 184. (July 9. 1991).5, Supra note I. Article I. Sec. 43. 12,iA.11. Subd. 3.6. Minnesota Constitution. Article XIII. Section I.7. Sea a no v. Priest S Cal. 3d 584. 96 Cal. Rptr. 601, 487 P. 2d 1241( 1971).8. Strom. T. & Novak. K. Minnesota School Firwnce: A Guide forlegislators, Research Department. Minnesota House ol Representa·lives (n.d.J.9. In 1973. an amendment prohibited districts from holding morethan one ,crerendum election per year (Laws 1973. Ch. 683, Sec. 18).In 1977. the referendurn law w.is amended to permit ballot language specifying the years of duration of the levy. and requiring that the ballot disclose the amount of 1eferendu111 levy in mirts and the total to be raised in the first year in dolfars (laws 1977. Ch. 447, Art. t. Sec. 19). In 1982. the referendum revccation provisions were amended to allow for an election to reduce- as well as revoke. 3 referendum levy

19 22



(tCIUf 1'181. (II S48, Art I. 5« 11). In 198) a t912 prw~""'!N1 ~ <bllo;tl to hold two ttft~ levy t~OOI on """ )UI _ II!»t pernla .... nt [laws 198) Ch )I ~_ Art " 5«. l~) In 191'1 ..... ,foCilnlltldooorul :amendn>ent. to reftlerd<m ~ ~ ~ OOSUo;ll ""It b.ruted to 00< I'I'I<!aldum "<lIe pes.,.. .. (1aw5 1919 CIt )19 Alt I S« 4) SthoOl OtstNets .Iso wm fW,ILl'td 10 "",I rlO!tslo IiXp;ytIl .nd to 'I>t<,/y on lro, :»11o! tile numbe, 01 ),<"'1 bwIt'(ll, rdf'ltflduII! 'nyco.rkl be "l tf1ea (In! SIltCtOI SmoooIIGWf. 1919. (II I. An. 9 5«. S) 10 ArOtfldln& M",ntsou $(.MtI 1996 StCI>OrI 1141'1 Ol _ sobol II mk II su.1I ~ *It 0{ MrnrltSOlo SOS NW 2nd 299 12 Houst W'YI and Munl Comm!ltte Morn MOil". }I PIII>/>roboo of 11'1< HobK Way. and \WOU Com",lltH 5IaJI "" Cowmmt"1 ('""_ /nots, ( 1991) I) TNS '11tI ..-ncod~nl to tIw. I9'i6 Til>! 8,11 Xc ~ nc:u II , XcIlOn 12401 Sob(! lb 14 ~blo;k ""U M,..". Inc An Ar1;l~, 01 Chanaes III SdlooI I~on MomtsCUCM.-lhe Pul 20 y .. ,, " ACornn.UIQrIal ScW)I b ~ t.("' .... ~ SdIcw:II ao.rd. A<soc"tUl O"''''''Y I) 1991) I~ Two ilwsu,/s ... no..- ptndoni on Ih. l,.;n Cn.t' .... PI .. nhH, ... nat 1'I\WlC tqUIt)I bt1_ dislncU. bUI.dtqow;y 011 !Nl thtI. .tt ~I _cis tNl ... nat lit"" mel. Onr. 0I1t1t e<!U 1!i-ttl.lltd ilwsUlI< h.I. bern In,l.Latt4 by II>e $(, Pou I\otk SdIoot Boa'd . ...... cb ..:lIed ~mbtf 1. _ to rolo I """, .... 1 on IIMnICY County (l,$U'O;t Cwn. This SU,I cO<IW\d. 111.11 tile stlto 1$ (lrtMd"'l! Imuffoc.ent "'<!d. "'i 10 0<11>1;.10 tho dltntf l POWO"I popul.~on d non·(nchlh .pelion,. pocII. ""nanty.nd I4>!'WI tOJul.,., ~:._ Thr St P.ut Cilit ",U lit ,,",. Id In tho r.n 01 1998 .nd tile NAACP (I •• ,. ~ lew I~ on Irbruily 10 Otodo 01'14 I3ltt Wit. (r~ C; , Irurrvlow. J.no..qory 9, 1998) ()epjltmtnt 01 (Mdttn rilmdots!lld It''M'8 , f,,"<1('" Ofhcr 0 1 ~ i n.c<mtm St.-o;u, St. P,1l1i ~N It.. (;Ie!> )'elf" ItqUUW by,~ the ~.nnnot' Otpaovntnl 01 CMd'rn. F ........... nd t..,n,"I <'''101 > !lblr th~, ......... ntn tilt d'wanty '1lIO gf dtstuct. ~I tht 9Sth and III< ~Ih perCtt\~"'s T~'I /a1oO kdJna .1 11;1101; ..... ;11 IMnut ('OI1u:II otdJdti boll! ....,... ontnU! Ind ttft~du", """'~) II the 99th P<fC( nbH: ,n ttI.toor> 10 tilt Sth PO>antolo '$ Cu,trntl)' 1m eM,. iM!n)UI Pfnod the 1.nlnc"I.'11 IormJli hi. ~ 10 dr<ttil~ Chit 'iI>O 110m 1m to 1.298 Ron&n of '0::1, .. 1 to poc.-nt d"tliCI'" the 99th per<:rnl" ..-.d It lilt III percent-Jr on IY n "'.1 SUllO; on 1998 ,I " SIJ./9 ~nt 01 ChokRn. ''''''''ltl. iIId Wrnrrc Octcber I. 1991 18 T SuOO\ .-A RcPOr'l 00 lro, Regoo~ Imp»:1 of fund"" Oo, nge'l Con1"oed .... tilt 1991 K- Il B," - Io'tMtKItl HOlM oIl\rlIIHontlh>n Rnwdo~I\mtnII-2(t99/) 19 n ... stud\' ~d Ihlt ""th the pteS(nt -bn'llb ,II(/W,n«, lhe !liSle IeYtf 01 SUit IllfIVl ms AUto 110m ..... 'bcM 10 bdcIw fIlloCJr\iJl ~ on ({·Il ~ ...... ~u l'loe lhat on 199(;·97 Ihr Stole 01 ~,nnts(lll _Id nmI to PlOY de mort Will '1t04 rtl iIiOOll.., Older 10 mortpOWlIht ob)tCh,," 01 "' .... -~-oc tile ((· 12 ..:t\IU1.,., bmuI. ~Ilowanct "' ,ts ,nflill.,.,->dj~d (198S· lm) IMII Aull"flbld alld M;oer. Inc. ·An 1\I\.~soI Cto.Oi"$ on $t;nooJ F.....ton& on Monnuou. CMt I.rot Put 10)'u.s " A Comm'l..onrd SI..dy b- Iht t.(,rlOtSOU 'i<:noaIlklilrds Alsor-oal.,., ijoonulry 1$, (991) 10 s-co ~ I,

"

11. r.rl ~nd G Otl.utmtrll 01 Choldren. fMl,Ltl, and l<.llnmi. 'orQIncOiOl Qlra 01 Mlnotvnenl Scrw:n. St. 1'1,,1. t.IN (Into'\<ot'o'i J.n....-y 9, 19'.18) h,ures PKMded by Inr Mtn"uot. HOI.K 01 lI(p.nenu~ ..... I\tKMch Ocponm.n-t.t"QW II'IIt thm h.Is bfrn .., ~ hom tht bmW aIlawinct ~ Ihr POS1 nne )'till IKIm 1989--91) 10 19~899. n-.. bal': _nur Incll'ne,jl t<luc.t"on H:'O')' h.ts ntr • ...a 2 .... (N;HoOt. C "'-.. (d~tm on M,""ItSOl4o. 1997 98" A _I ~ IhI: HouK IfIC.1 AnlIl'1'G SUI (199/). al~ on th.~ (,,,,,trS , If In!I.~on ~ ],. ~ )'tv. you ...:ouIc expect I 2~ ""ru,,_ so 1"", ""~K (7JCt Ihr PiS! dtcIdt con proiH~1y Dt aco;oon~d 10< ;If onbcon 2l. (~_ on the 199/ IUfOon lilt MlI1n .sota lqr<lIwr( l()I..d !or 'IK") Ill ..... lor '''&I't' ed>c.bon IIId on ~ 1-10 ""'loon 10 d_ lIP "JCher (duatoon., IN 199/ S!I<C>II Sc>..:on,) 2) SuO"'"". B "SdtcIOd (dI.ohOO P.rforms and 1bI.q Truods Sooct 1911 ' M",,..:o<lU ~ 01 C~, F..-niIot<. ond \<:"""'1-Off.a 01 Cu....""ntnt RelatO)rl$ (1991) ". u Tilt j,j,nr"UOII BUIJI>t S$ f'a,tn ... h,p fd~tlIIl"'~ fi"~n .... CdIOCOlIO>\ ~a['I~ OM fulldmt Rtf"' ''' }I /?tporl c{ lilt [duro",," rflllllU Sulrrown.ltlf (MJIC/I. 1991l l6 t.(onntsOU SoIl.US. SKtIOtt 3 02 11. Min nUClQ )utu~'. SK~Ot' 1100111 n M,mrsou SUIuleS. l«t>on> 1141'1 tlJl 10 1241' 7.1 Z9 8ra<ky A (d\ocalion w...;; '86-189 (l4<"'_y •• 1998) 10 ~6) U S :wi ( 198lJ, )t SII.OtO nClt I, Afto<Ir 11 )1 UfOl,n. S" tJury, J, Be,," D. (, (mr,_, !l.. TIw I'bS1ltrond<l'~ £~,ollm.nl ODioOM PrOl/DO! }I R~,tQlch HtllO'l RuU'(~ OtplO'tr/JtfOt. I.IonrwSOIO tiouK III RtprHttl\.l~ ( /cbtuIry. l!/9l ) 1) lows 1991, !"" SpeoiIl StSSJOl!, Ch 4. Ar~<t. 8 1.4 ~n,=._n lS 6tldlry. "'PIG nc:u 21 ., lO. 16, In 1994, I.rot """"ge SAT «Ott ,n M n .... 1«3 wll oY<, 11,..1xw< lho NIICIfW -'et ...... it. Ihr fIft pupd spt"dorC ,0 IN1)'O" wu ItlO'Yt the ilOft1let Of OlU'K no ant "''''''tt Of ...,. co;rnt.nltoJn of m ... u". llV<:s • {Om~l. nct(lllon o! school porfomolllCt ldo.oaDt;o .Itx..-.II t--.:~ ha .. WlfOSWtlDy po,lo<tned wtI on RIII<brd<ud Ic$I st:0tt1. l~hO"2h thr; tre'ld ,n school fontnO;lnc ,n M,....-.e$QC1 .. flecll tIN: pUbl.: cQII(r,n tadit' ,h.tt (00 rna",. s!ullttm ar. no1 ~.W)r po'jWcd Joi IN cha1((Ogel 01 It>( nut CfntlJr,. and lhal standOirdl-b.litd teform JftIIIt be 'IW,fQrlily f...-.d.d ;1 ,I ,s 10

~"" 17 06E 1$ dtfincd on MonnnotiI .. , .pufIOI (_d, oesutts-onrn!M s)"trm II<ttTH .. d 00 Iht bel'd Ihal ~" 'n ~lv, d ... ls an ((>I n " M,nntl«i Stalul< 126 (>61 SoAxI . ,_ Th. IOWI dol,non&: OB( "'os ~ on Autult I. 1991> SH ~n. SUPI~ M*'I~_ 38 M,onrJOt~ Sllwt. 116661. SYbd I 19 Tho. nc.n~ ... wn to ""IUS( p>tTfItII ,llYI>Iw ..... nt: ""_ onuIU'OI~!od """"'10'1.1 POOCtiitS. crute fIv:,blr schoOl~ Ot". nlutoo.IIUL(tU .... : .rod 10 ~ Ih>dot1l Kh...,..mrnl Th, 19?11IW ....,.odo:d stolt "" ......... lI .. ns to wIoc~ KhooI ,,(6 40, s..-, 5I<I'(Q nolo< 31 .1 We""" cmd In B,adley. ,""p'O oW n

23

He was a prophet... but without appropriate honor in his

own land.

W.E.B. DuBois as Educational

Philosopher: Will the Real

DuBois Please Stand Up?

Don Hufford

The '\vho·· or W.E.B. DuBois (J868·196l) is in ··the eye of the beholder· · He has been interpreted as being an historian, sociologist.journalist. editor. novelise. poet. and scholar. He has been creditedwith- and blamed for- being a politically agitating gadfly who grandfathered the Civil Rights Movement. He has also been denigrated by those who do not consider him 10 be radical enough as a traitor t o th,s same "cause. ·· He has been recognized as a passionate. art iculate defender of the ideals and principles of a democratic so:iety. yet condemned for articulating socialist ideals and forjoining the Communist Party in his 95th year. He was a pragmatic p.viot who could. write: ··our country,s at war ... this is OUR war. We must fignt it with every ounce of blood and treasure:··, but who

later renounced his U.S. citizenship to become a citizen of Ghana. He 1•:as a champion or the powerless masses. but was criticized for

his failure to interact and to personally ··connecf' with che common man. He was a prophet- in the 6 iblical sense- but without appropriate honos in his own land.'

The list of differing understandings of DuBois the ··individual" goesori. To interpret DuBois as an educational philosopher- as this paper dces- is 10 open the door to divergent hermeneutical possibilities. and to ddinitional challenges from both philosophers and educators. A thesis may. however. be offered- and defended- that there ,s an

implicit philosophy of education woven into the fobric of the writings of W.E.8. DuBois. This philosophy is found imbedded in his works or creative liction as 01ell as in his non-fiction. autobiogr.phical, and academic writings. Jt is possible to extract from his \vritings- and life experiences- an educational philosophy whrch ,nay be used to betterundermnd the contenuous educational battles of the 1990s- battles wh:ch in his words are ··as old as the ,wJrld and as young as the babe born tonrght.">

DuBois had an early flirtation with academ,c philosophy. and he once delined the core of his "self" by proc1airn1ng. "I arn a teacher!··, And. of course. he was. He spent much of his 9S years as an educator. Many years were spent in front or a classroom. and many with pen in hand producing the wo,ds that would sting the conscience of a nation. But in defining DuBois as an ··educator'' it is important to recognize an expanded definition of the word. DuBois was an educator not just because of his classroom experiences- not because he taught young children in a one-room schoolhouse in a culturally and economically impoverished rural area of Tennessee'not because he taught classic languages. and German and English. and history. and economics at the university level- not because he -i,as a qualitative and quantitative researcher'- not because he was a

Don Hufford is Associate Professor, Newman University

Educaiional Considerations, Vol. 26. No. 1. Fall 1998

prolific and well-published scholar- not because he was a ··criticalpedagogue·· and ··1iberatory educator'· (in the Paulo Freire mold) before these terms was invented.

DuBois was an "educator· in the broadly defined sense of one who communicates: who stimulates, challenges. critiques. stirs-up. arouses ... who questions. A classroom is one arena for this education to ta.ke place. But we must move beyond the classroom to pursue a meaning· ful definition of W.E.B. DuBois as "educator." or to interpret an understanding of his educational philosophy.

DuBois educated as a social critic. as a social activist. as a challenger of the political and economic status-quo. He educated as avoice for the powerless: as a foe of injustice. racism, discrimination, capitalist exploitation. and imperialism. He educated as a champion of the oppressed. of women's rights. of the disenfranchised. of the miseducated. He educated through Che pages of The Crisis and other periodicals. He educated through his novels. his poetry, his research and scholarly writing. his newspaper columns. He educated throughjournal articles. and lectures. He educated through hrs extensive correspondence with both the powerbrokers and the powerless of the world.

A caveat rnay be necessary at this point. The attempt to distill an educational philosophy from the prolific literary productivity and longlife experiences of a ,nan such as W.E.B. DuBois is by its very nature an interpretive process. And ... it must be remembered that such an interpretation is always circumscribed by !he existentially defined ·· self" of the interpre.er. We often find what we are looking ror. and may create an hermeneutical ··self-fulf illing prophecy."

The process of defining a DuBois "educational philosophy-· involves not just an intellectual analysis and evaluation. but also an emotional· even spiritually tinged · assessment of a man who was complex. notalways consistent. sometimes ambiguous in word and deed. DuBoiswas not a perfect man. He made mistakes. His life was a mirrorreflecting both human strength and frailty. He could be a pa,adox ofcontrolled rage and reconciliation. He was a man whose life bridgedtwo centuries- who possessed the genetic strains of divergent biological and cultural inheritances. who merged classical learning withpractical educational expediency, and who was continually forced toseek reconciliation of opposite tendencies in both his own personalityand the world in which he lived.

DuBois left an intellectual and moial legacy for scholars to interpretand for social activists to apply. To study the educational thought olthis rnan is to find oneself replenished in 1nind and spirit- but strangely discontented. There is much in such an intellectual/spiritual exposure thai is paradoxical. conllicted. incons,stent. and disturbing. There is also much that is steady. uplifting, intellectually stimulating. and spiritually healing. To experience with Ou Bois an educational searchfor Truth, Goodness. and Beauty is to experience a parallel search fo, Social Justice and Human Dignity for all. It is to be 1eminded of how mankind has trivialized the great questions about life's meaning. falsified the answers. and sullied ttle search. But to engage in the search is to experience the hope that it represents a continuous process of renewal or both self and societ y . It ,s to restate basicquestions. the answers lo which must be lived in the present moment

In evaluating DuBois as an educational theorist and practitioner. Herbert /.\.ptheker affirmed that in his lifetime ··no one in the United States was more expert in the area of t,,e nature. theory, and the purposes of educat

i

on:· 1 This rnay be an arguable conclusion when considered in llght of Aptheke(s personal affinity for OuBo,s and the

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odas he ¥\KuUltd_ T~ hit ¥1d wnnnp of ~ do ~ PfO'>'I<I< p~~ ."d I.,Slonnl ;""""s !!ItO educi~ONI ~~" Idul~. Ind pllCllC l l .pphCOlioOl- Into Inc nlMe, ll1eory, lnd purposes of ed",j~OI1

DlJlIoo$· ed",atlOnol p/loIoWphy ..........,d 0 mtll physlul ~ndttuaJJd-111,01 T,uln- on qml~1 ~~ lor IItN< Truth 1\ 1JoMI_ lncI In llOcIofc.lappha.bO!l of Trutn .. lIIt WOIIcI of peopk .nd ~U II" 1,,,,,II,,n\ '" ,nlt'p"'hnl Due"'l iI on t d,l(.lrlr- lQ 1tCOV'Z< tIl~ 1lt .... I.bIe 10 hold Iht ~1u1O 01 clflltailelltr -T,IIlh- "'. CItiCM!. d'iNmoc tl:"...,., ""til SlNliIttIt! -truths' IN! ill auitd t:'I' !IuIoilll btliii' on Ibr fIuod. cllilllpnc...odd 01 hlWIrIUI~""" Ht WlS ibIt lQ OOtl:IKh."y c~ Iht IimSlOO COIIlII"C I""" the mc",n. 01 oppoSI!! poln oIthOUVlt Ind U) dlrt<:I I/Ie !neIlV

p,Qd",ed InlO cr .. ~ .... rodQ.o)r In !tr'III~ 01 eduuoon [)J800s undmtcod- and I ppbrd- lIN !tIhly

ifill -hurr"l¥1 edUCilIJOl1 (,S) Ihll~' lII!CUSIIy corptHn;aliOll oIlh< pe'(Nnent .nd tho concnctnl -of tilt Ide.ol lnd me PfICl.:.1 ,n """'" . !lIe eq ull,bllum (wl1"h) has tlHn, I! It ,null. be In t¥tI'y 11\1 I n<1 place , I O\lllt! 01 ", Ilnllo exPt",,,<nl .o"<l Iftq..eot II\IlIll<a."' In lOllI',,1 e.dUCillJONl .,.,"'- IS l:1li' POI b"~ tIIII&ed tdaom PILl<> lilt 00- /I IS lI'II: -o.abbIt tQUilitiOur"I- INI stemS to be; l'I!;tcttd

III bVOI 01 -""""U t!<per1mt11(S IIld loequem r'usnlots - TIme whr;I

l.le UP ompfIQ.tK ~0I11 ~rd,,,, tdoJ(ltlOnol pu'POXS ond fIIflIIOOs mlP11 -U tI~ httd 01 Du8o .. IdmonlDOO mil '10 no 0r1t

~ 01 rnond IS It If .... n (Iht abloty) to disctftl till U)til1\' 01 tr!lCh"t It "WI' bt ...... td loom 0.,8ot, WfIIII1l$ ~I- .. l!<1otiIoorrai ~ p/I)'- C IS btsI to bt Ikd::k iIId Ol)!fl r.!Nr u.,n !!pd ~ qn.l'{

~ 'I but to m~ rQOOf'C\JOnS berwern ~ jlQtO¢ iIIld the JCotnlll". 1M Inlu ll"" Ind tho rm pHICII, IIIe Cont!mj>l11M! Irld tile ,,1M:. I~ WQr1dvot"" ollho: Id .. h" mI.I tI .. !\r.I,,,_ 01 lilt Pripl31LSl and III< bosctnlJ3ol!l-l_ tho methods 01 lilt bc'-aoiSC .. . nd lhe hun\ltlO:ruc

."',, Du600,' td .. nl""~1 philosophy ..... WU"'1)0 not IYSlt Oli!1C ,n foIm

01 o;ort~lt<ll in P'tWlt'liOII fn 'MOld> .. lid U) <itknbe; ~ "ttr-e&<> CNfICIIf on onl 01 1 ... novtis. -I>t kid , mInd 100 "'10 be ,,,,,,,,,. It'" '-0..01 lle-. 0 Ouao.s lJoOiCt.pou hh noted t!Ut·1lt Itnd up 10 /IIiII)' ~ 50 lIUCUI'id)' _ 10 ~ iIIld ~ doctonly • It may fu>oe b«n. lICk of JY"flnlllC -COIlSlSlIfIcy- .. ,,"liM& lQ (Oflttn~ou. ouuel- "",,"ch .... 1tflId ,"d ,tttIIIIsro om n,ne wdll 01 hit- L~'I hI5 led U) lilt SHrrufIIJY -contr~ctorf" .. 0.80. It ITIIY ~ bt PIn,led lI.n R. .... s not 50 nro.odL O!ICOI'-

1'11Cnq" l/IouitIl INI Qm Du600s IQ ~It POIII'O'"'' ,\ .... 1 .n vodllS!md lni d Iht t>llst<nliOl ... I,lY of dNtrl""l"'llld'1n'>

Amo ld IYII""" ... ,J I", ,uld 11011 DuIlOl I WI! 'rllIn Will, I ~ 1001 of • poel .nd Ihe . m llecl ot • ICil:11ost; ~ IMd I I Iml , double 1,1t. con~n~ COfIIPeIIcd 10 ~1POI'od 10 the cholltre 01 rttOnOhrc OPI'OSI\Il-u ... CuBo" ccukI ~n ~" rfW'Id 10 -0PP0t.o1t1 only _n welt I 1'1I .. ~ ..... 1 rt:«>nedllhon did nat eo<IlPfOlll'''' I "",,".1 ,bloi"lt SvdntY Ho",. hn WI,Utn 01 thLS I ,nd 01 .mOhQ",,1I ~IUJI ~ .. ruodU'IC on III< penCOI who ~ Lioll. -no PMCII'It ... conctpt. iIIld no Systrm 1S.a.ibII 01 Iontr.....tolo: ."'us it IumlIO 1OIa11t. 10 X,lOIb. 0.- to ""_.n~ .... ~~ lhe 0I1>cr Nat -.,.,!II >U -OP!>OII"::'-- IIUd! ~ ler!'poIlle "",til bl ... hood- but w.th ,11 Y,n .nu YJn& W>L1"f1&:IIId campirm.nl"'i nch od>tr-~

DuBoIS rtfused 10~ ""'Ih b lxbood Tilt TIUI_lhrCood_

ond Iht 8ullt.lul-tht R'I\h! ind \III J"u~ mull be _d hI lit hXl .n Ol'tl' InQWlnl[. qu<nlOfIlfI& ""nd ....... h iIIIowtd h"n to ~","e

"

thl IIOWI' of c'ut. .... Iln\OOO ~nel1~d bt~en dol ~ts of ~ifnl ~"" • k >s hut "'a.,,~ llul tII~ rm<l of I'OIf MIC"bcd -do<J b., (OI1$CK/Ul nm-" WI$ , bit 10 tIoId I -doo uit .00CII'ONI pil,K>JCoproy- '" j PGS>I> .... Clutm le ......on. One Wil WItO 0/1 Ih~ I b!Oh.oU:s 01 ph,1oICopho1 IduloSmlRuloU!r, IUUILoJli f1 jn

-!loIQ.I tduullOnll madrl The ether ..... bHId on I ph~ Uoucfll<lhst HuONl'lW"n. ",,,,1M, in, o.lul 1ICdI&OI)' model much aLn U) thl I,)er'la<y tdUCillion upouK<! t:'I' "'ulo mill

Du80ts dod nat Iller '" IllS .... ,1nIfi 10 I -ll'lli/tory- 01 a,IIC" ~- t<t.at#llllnlldd, but IN: 'flllIoU\lCItIS ""tIt lheroe 'Mltn he _ of ·Twg Saou d ~1'Ioolltnc. htd~ \ItfIo.un \<,Q

<dual"",", I'UfPOKI th.1 JNy be dtf ntd ...........r.H Iac:oSeIjo n -U) m,ke. 1"""'Il and -10 ml~ I llle H'I lhm..nl on Ih4 illUt 1\:11 .. ",>liuol mnOlO, lao the 1990s

Con5C1OUI1)o 01 UntOfl'O<lUlJy ~ 'Y'ltm oIedUCilI.oOll hli Noo i<mI ""hoch (In nevtr ., th,~ ,mpcrka WOIIcI be; btOU:ghl ,nU) ~Ie 'V!!"""'\. TI>t OI1t . 11'1< h1ghe, .01 brolder 11m ,s the lull ~kopmcm '" Iht .ool", ~ u;o l 10\,1 10 III ~'~$ I U~ ily; l -.e etlle' is ~ Iralntl'l& 01 11", 1fIdMd0,i.31 1(l tim • I""" i-tolt I<f;Slht rtiI prOOlem 01 tOUCilUro ,probItnt II oIcI as the ""'OIkI iII>d I. )OKOl1S 11M: wbe born 1OII'&flI How 11'1111_ t<:~ca~ <:0.1" ctoiId'eIllO \NI u..., mI)' be CUlWltd mt~ iIIld _~ ind ~ IbI.to um'lMni 111\ . IlICI C[UI\l.on ind one on whicIIlfIItIy • noloan Iw blundered •

It _ 0uIl0G- ~lloaJs 011 -(o;ItOlm! men iIIld--...nltIx Ius led O'W»O 10 _ twn IS' PflittOnl .... _ 01 !lit IChGIItty

lI1{tl\'I£I'Ii<l Ind to bej, .... IflJl he W'$ Ul """'=ltoorralll,IOSl....no tlIsed h>1 1UClma Ind .d .... ,I<:<1J I I~ on p~'cll l6ti l,vn

Aod tII'$ v....., IICOI",tll. ~'~.I trulh loo" rl"a'illn . ."deI of thl N' bon oI lsI. m. rdt</td to lilt edu(.ll.",.1 -d,l,st- on Du80ls wlltn he noted ,n 1996 "Wt I!:Id 0..801$ ....too ..... tNl _ shoukl be tOOcOI~ 111 tilt ¥li Ind sc .. nc~ Wt should be tdIoI¥$ . ." M, h,,'kiuo hO"e ft!.lt!1 10 • rmmO/)' of tilt n lly Dubs ln ~ 1111 COO~>CI w,lh 6oo1.e, f Wn~'Mi\O" fl>t I .... men tnpQId If' i CClIl\lIlUof"C cItbMe w.m p/Iobsopht .. iIIld pcIotIUI undtrtonH. _ -~- - ond_ "'1'O'lIf1I!y. -""'Y-'- lOedu:ilo A/tan~, ",,110 wert dkctl'fty ",dudtd hom laL"" tull 'dY"'I~,.. at !dUCIIIQnIi oworll.ntlrS DuBoil ...... '1"'& QI C<Io.Ia1ll)tl ,n lho: IIle Mllllloth (tnl....,.. notrd !hal -"""" Wi\ """-"'Ii Wlltll.!! f"'CIllt I,le me and IiIousonds 01 othrrJ w1'Io moPI II ..... rrr., ab,1Ity and U("Ul.onS _ ~lused pe''1'IlJl'on lQ bt pM! 0/ tilt, --w..-. Bo1h Duklos oH1d Wish",&lOn SO<I\lhl """Y$ to .mtlio!ilt Ihl JoNjlO"

c..Soo$ W~J "")Otldt'~ '" 111$ r ' ~hl fc:< the -bolt- edUUIOO !Ix tht - bell - N,o; 1I!l'1t1lC',1 fIIIIIIl$. ",hi" W ... llInzlO1\ "'.J ""II n& to ",~le "'h>l i>o ,..... 1$ nou.ury com ... orno~ """h LIIr: whr\o _, WUCMI: TIx DullooSl Wllh"",on on-go.nl do~llIid_ [lIr"hiPJ. IS mUCh 10 do Woth !.O(,"'potot.uI pow!' ,n thr Aloon AmlUCIn COIM'IUnllV II ,I dld .... th odUCilllOnol owo,run'lICI - II d,d. h_r, hdplQ tsUbhlJl Du8",s' rtPuLI1ll)tl 1$ .n edUCII~ eI'~1I and ~1i1I.bSI

IluIo!I cOllCqll oIlI'II: -LIIm!td IotI'tII -- alt/loutll b&tt ~I"'" ond~ modoted .. >O<OC1"bOJ'I 01 JOC~I .w,\.oH l ito hltr.ed co IIllb-\,\h j conlk4"'11 '!IlOlt 01 the -'eol- 0..801$ .. tht mondl 01 !l\iJly [);ovid G Du801s hI< """uen 01 00w- IhlS """at .".."n. aWe .nd ""fillodlly

hilit mort IS pa$~d on III OUI )'Oolln to<b.y of W [ 8 DuBoo$ lI'.n lilt d't!ll conctllt of bI..:it lude"l'IJp. m~ Tllentl d Tt n:h

•

25

'

,

Last year (l was) introduced to a young African Amencan ... At mention that I was a stepson of W. LB. DuBois. the young man responded in recognition: "Oh the Talented Tenth1·· This incident confirmed for me once again how great the need is today to make the work. the enormous contribution. and thetruth of W.E.B. DuBois known ... ""

To better understand "the truth of WE. B. DuBois" in terms of his contributions to educational thought I found it ,mportant to consider his educational ·• double consciousness." He was able to seek out unchanging. absolute "Truth which (he.) spelled with a capital."" and to hold it in a dynamic. creative tension with the small-letter truths or an existentially defined, and changing. social reality. In terms or educa1.onal purpose and method he exp1essed an Aristotelian under· standing when he stated, with conviction. that ··the truth lies ever between extremes."" The Platonist in DuBois believed thal educationshould lead to ''a life lit by some large v,sion or beauty and goodness and truth."" As a liberatory educator he also understood the political reality that .. education among all kinds or men always has had. and always will have. and element of danger. dissatisfaction. and revolt. You cannot both educate people and hold them down.""

DuBois recognized the importance of a Perennialist educational philosophy when he wrote. ·· 1 sit with Shakespeare ... move arm and arm with Salzac and Dumas ... I summon Aristotle and Aurelius ... So wed with Truth I dwell above the veil."" He did, however. connectthis educational view with the social activism or a liberatory Reconstcuctionist educational philosophy. and declared that "io be silent when Injustices call out for redress. to fail to speak out whenpove,ty and ignorance keep some in social bondage. to muffle the sounds of indignation and righteous anger is to fail the teacher's call,ng,"" It was the essence oi a DuBois eclectic educational philosophy that he should "wish not only to make Truth known, but to present it in such shape as to encourage and help social reform."" When he wrote that education should be a ·· search for answers to fundamental problems"" he expressed a "double message:" the recognition that the search should connect the great enduring rnetaphys,cal questions or existence to the search for answers to questions regarding current social. economic. and political injustices.

DuBois' educational thinking was influenced by a concept of humanity based on a natural rights philosophy He believed that there is an inherent learning drive in each individual that seeks correspondence with a social/political right lO learn. DuBois understcod thatthe individ<1al- whatever his/her racial. cultural. ethnic groupinherently wants to learn. needs to learn. has a right to learn. One goal of a democratic society should be 10 help each individual achieve "that exercise and unbinding of the human spirit which (enables)mankind to reach its highest and best manifestations·· leading to ··thefullest and roundest development or the powers or the human being.""

The search for knowledge • and even more for critical understanding- is an emotional. psychological- even spiritual- drive inherent inthe self . Th,s $earch i$ an elq)ress,on or a common humanity. DuBois warned thal any imposed barrier- racism. economic inequities andexploitation. political or social discrimination. etc.- which thw;insthis expression is a negation of what it means to be human and oi the right to achieve full humanity. Tile demand for equal distribution or knowledge. and for equitable access to help in undecstanding that knowledge. are social 1esponses to a natural right. This right e.stablist,es a bond that helps unite diverse individuals into a common


humanity. Du Bois unde<stood that educators should be "led by the knowledge that no man should be poor, nor sick, nor ignorant; but that the humblest worker as well as the sons of emperors shall be fed and taught and healed- and that there emerge on earth a single unified people. free. well and educated.""'

DuBois has been denigrated by some social activists for not being eno\Jgh of a radical revolutionary. even though he spent most of his life challenging oppression and injustice. It may well be th

.at he

believed his most productive role was that of ao intellectual agitator.the gadfl\' who would sting the consc

ience or a nation. He warned:

"Here comes the agitator. He is the herald. He is the prophet. He ,s the man who says to the world. There are evils which you do not know, but which I know and you must listen:·" As an educator DuBois reminded those who were "called" to teach that "teachers cannot be pedants or dilettantes: they cannot be mere technicians and higher actisans: they have got to be social statesmen and statesmen of high order:·»

Some people have recognized this aspect of DuBois' educational persona. In discussing DuBois as an academic and a champion of the oppressed. Eugene Holmes has written:

Literally and historically there had not been any philosophers of freedom up until DuBois. who made it the basic theme in his belles letters. in his sociology. and in his history ... DuBois always regarded his methodology as embracing the equal rightsor human beings to strive to live."

DuBois agreed w,th the Idealist. Plato. (and the Realist. Aristotle) that the good life for the individual is inexu,cably bound to that of the just society. His enduring search was for that society which would encourage and permit the "fullest realization of the individual human spirit." He sought for each and all "an education that encourages aspiration ... sets tl\e loftiest of ideals and seeks as an end culture and character rather than Uust) bread-winning:·" DuBois recognized that "culture:· "character." and ··bread-winning" are equally jeopardized when an individual's search for self-realization is restricted by exterior forces. He understood that "to educate" and "to libe1ate" are bianches of the same philosophical root system. He expressed this idea when he wrote metaphorically in one of his novels: ''When you're educated you wont want to live ,n the swamp:·» He was well awa(e that "lO stimulate ... untrained minds is to play w,th mighty fires:·" To "know" provides the stimulus to "act."

DuBois believed in the Jiberatory potential inherent in the educationally supported process of growing and expanding toward individual possibility. because "\vhat (people) are depends on the way they have been educated ... the vray in which their possibilities have been developed and drawn out."" He believed that lo1mal education should hefp develop one·s ability to creatively harness- and make practical use of- the tension developed between the desire for self-realization (an indiv

idual dynamic) and the call for sac11f1ml

service to others (a social dynamic). DuBois stood for the right of every indiv:dual "10 be." but he stressed

the importance that "to do" - to act for the good of the larger societyis a complimentary and necessary obligation. He modeled the liberatory educational theory that education is for both self and society. He ,ssued a challenge in the form of a question: "Are we going to use our education [01 enjoyment or for service?"" The answer(s) has/ have both individual and group implications. Without a social dynamic the educational process is narrowed by an egotistic,

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-... t"'on'IleII- I~rdnn$ mol ~~s 10 cons.dt111lt "otlln- But ed""ll>OO. WI!lIQvt \11( Ind ..... d .... 1 dy<'l~mlc. I~c~' • ·o:tf'I,~d

~tpose ¥Ill mol''4t>QNI."t.llll~ I.t~ In rnt «i<.o:::ItIONl thou&:ht of ~ .. tht bt\;ef INC the

powotlllly OPfIO'>otJoNl demond! of M'-~If_on lind sotoil ~ ,.1;,01,1)1 m~ ex"" 11'11 tint""" ,"",,~I"" 1f11!lQ11 PI»oIM lHI>6utu ..... . ct"", O«~" ....... n 1m in dMdo.Ql.1\ow$ ~"'II''1rldllC be ""'." ..... 1)1 'IlVOMd In IMp'. " .. II/otOO.' ll'llOiukp!no)fn\ OCbO<U. OuJoo! bflorotd 11'1 lilt ~t.ln« of I PQ$IIM: .. U~ ("01 <kttUle ~e 11'1 thor . dumJOn 01 t;ltII )OUth 1$ tho ..... ~nll 01 proeX "J. but U/Idf!$I00d tl\>1 idf.o:onctpl II 1Il IndtvdJ., , .. I,ty IS areo;dy ftoted 10 tho o:omm ....... "quoj,ty· 0/10(111, toonOII\Jt pr>ibaI lIld tduc.toon.I JU!ot« 11'1 In)' ~ sotttty Itt PIOmOIed the lTlXWuntt d ,ndntiduol !.CIllulI6onont ",,\I>on !he tOOaliONl MiOd> b ~n pcn~bolol:y. bul he plj«d tilt COOCr\ll 01 ;m~'IY (Il0l II'IIIM~JlI· '0lIl) ..... !h'n lhe Ia,te' COIlI,XI 01 we .. 1 f)<J'j)O>e 1M common huml'" .\)'.~ h~ ., one m",'11 '""" WI(hon u.. !.CIt Ilte "1(IO,j1·bfl ul)I of Inr.n~ _,.bII;ty .nd endIt>s drvtlopm .. ,,"· tII(OIl1Ull , .. JU; !hi pas ...... \)' of the idl·t~ ~spoosrblilty 10 'dtda .. OO( hou 10 " ... nlna OIh,(, _. lbe upr<.>:x"'11 oIllO'I't'tY .• nd to the b~tn".,.. 01 t,k >nd bwlI fa ~um.n i()I,.!<"~

0.11; .. ~!tw I'" PtdISOC.aI proem !/louie! 1tltWIIIt.ltl INdIfcLu>l!Uld'l lew Q!l1~1-I.LL .. T,.1I1 ond .... empoll1-.; il""MflCU 01 sotlllllwt< Ed..auon ,00Uid pI(M(Ie rIOIIUS! tho *'" CuL 1110 lt1< mo(JV;OIJOn fa< 0111 LO tni"iI' 11'1 ton!1l'>tll ..... _1II .. 00n ~itd 01\ mt.tll ~toon 01 the <S9.It$ "l'W:lhotd w-,,1J"iC or one 01 M f,eb:lNl ~ISIS DuIlOlJ deio100i IhlS <alM1tOrnI1 fort. -Ht W¥Ittd 10 Itl hIS Nnds nlO tht u,ni1e1 of tOO WOIiI:I H. ~ntM IC undtuUIld ~ wn. IonS"'i lor ac~OIl. broltn, Mlplulne., .... 1 OOI'ISIlIIC1M dtc<ls " OI>Bc" W>I' <_ 01.,01 ""Un->!. Incr h! beI,Md eGLOt.OO should dtvriop "dtumm towW ~ brUo" --'OI\ ,~\lOn- ,"",etl rn~ <t pOIsrb/le lor OuB<los to combine dlelm .nd <Ictd ll'lto h •• pmorq.! bf.nd 01 _~1 K\MY1t In. DuBo:s~, rducaUOl'l II \he '''let> lor Trill\! GoodnHl, ~M Bull!\' I"d:ng to ll>e PI.Wet oIlobtrly, I".tlCt_ IIld eQlllhty

Th! plllioSOphtaI klul,1[ ... ~ tonled an ..... llecru. 1 _.ft< d.d~ 10 cit. R.UC/llor me~1 TuM. ~u. >lid 8uUIy BUI t!lo plhlO>OPhouI PrOS""IISl ~ INI till " ",n" mcfdy. drnm I,,, tleOO" .n IICl demlt spewI.toon ullt,l"

.I'd ..rntss" ~ "mOKle It" by III. l>lOt@UII IfIIPIotIIlOn< 01 ....,..., """,., ¥Id ~fle ... DuBas und'r!.Iood rnA t<1IUlG"ln:wIIS CII'II\I lilt 1h~~,,," pOIs.botrt.H 01 the <mI1J-1tmt to"th. 01 Ikrty. jIl$llCO. IIld eq>J.l.lyon tht a..t WIlli 01111. ~d Tilt dl~ 01 ap.L.Ii\tllor Truth"'1 Pledoc.t!d by 1n Idr:;oliSl ed~III01L1i pho\osopity-- ItQU'fCS M M'IIditctuol ,..,d'I lui tho ,,"th 01 <!Nt. fltnle menu,J e .. 1C.Gt unless '<nowled~ poMd " .... ddr:d ro I ,"1tU1 ~nde'mndl/l8 of 1e,1 world ruhttes It>d Inn.lo,med OlIO ICI ..... ~ '\IIce 10 hu",aMy.

C\.IIof" ' •• "grt,l,t)'" "-01 t!l>fI"Ij)Ie 01 the "","blhty 01 u","" d.-YtII'M educlh",,>1 ~'H l' ~lt • ·PO"h.... tal~ ,,"""'" ",aul.V!:, proo...:t ............ 3 [duCitJONI wnt"""ISY- 'IIIhtrI (I ItMlI\oeI t~. OCl(n p"p"ssion 0\ IIld d,"IOI"" ,t>.:>ut, dll1e,onl ~hal v~ <qO'dlne ed..w"",ol Pt>'po$Ot aond n'reIhod" QI1 h>'Yt I ~ tflKI on I,n" ............ loColIy _ Nl'OfWly_

leP<l'"& Iho duftbOn 0/ publlt td"'"""'" In Ameto A tt<N<I< m.d! dUfl~' t951 TV Int." .......... Ih Duk<s- ilthouSh not .\f>et,'kll!y "~led IC f<l>u1lOr1.1 phtb$op/l.u- .. po fhncrlt IC thO! ftoh1~ WhI~ tlu IN}' III< sood lbalol W,lhm o...eo.s p/I>Iowjltun "-

II orq """'" ILlS ~ tI"llOI be .. ~. ortt wIlt1Ilhoy .1ft dtnotd uUt .. ntebet.~" rntV.1t ul\pOllul" VI....,. ""~ wilen Ih.,t ., s.lenc~ OM soIomn 'a>tetJ.ol, oou Un. !OO ll lty IlIen SUI)(! in --"Sllenc • .,d ........ I&IHm.nl· '" 1Odo)I1 tduC'l~ MN -.old be M Ind""toItNt one ~" "" ~Iul, and _iii ...:.C!:S .It st<kd 10 the h"te<y of Amtt,nn td UCI~on Iorlur\lle~. tha'. hM ~ bein p-hilosophoull)l dtfon.d d<lltnton l<Wy 0 .... pMowop.oI _d. " ... -..." .... ~I.-.1lOnI1 6<CI$OOn m,lona. \k.l ~ v;ews contonut 10 oI8u ch.lle"ll'$ IlI:>Iht I'dIJcol00n01 _

IUu<W" Tht v~nt cOuc.t.ONl J.nguase 5p{llcen lodfY" """ oI1l:chniC,1 OOn'I\II!\mC)I ",flutnted by rotpo<OIe·~d dtflfllbOlll1 mndilfd! ot oceilena" J"I>( Iocu1 "on ~ It>c""" d nnpa.::._ 01 SUndirdiled lUll. OIl "'I< ;01<1""1 clIf'''uIdm It.:>. 1toI" and ,,>lION! per'<IIIfIIIIt( IU!:Slon'Itnll. bottcnl~~ d100tnC)'. oM t .. (her account.bll,ly mellu(td by IIlXknt "S(~I" b.sed o-n I "I,.. ~I «oT"9ttotM ~

T~ s RuhstJ[mp"iclsl edllC~uon.l JIo/Ijosopby see~ jl<lbIo: eduu!"", .s ~ (.oJ1, 1000. Itch"OO"~IO:. free-m."'e\- '"IoIlud PIOtu.t lng 01 ( .... mol0,,.11 (ItOOeoll) ",U> • p<l:'phflflfd proc\u<;l ("we-tid <1"",- ~(l) There Ife. _, OtM. educ:t lI01l. 1 p/IIIoooph ... 1fld mtlllOdoIopn ~ p!Otn01ed 11demt, Ik/m.Irusli WLtnbJh!l;) tNl tnike pos!lbk ~ Coni""'"" edooeXIDNI "'~o ...... ",d ltep the OO"'lfIInl -COrp""lt 1T"rOdt1" from toruli In "NlIOI<ru: 0t1. s..:h edUClboNl.It.,1l.111Yt ml)I be SIlted 11'1 Du8o;$ln co.mlOi( poinl ItmIS He UW -edlUlJOn 1$ ~""J 1I'I(t, .. dllllts Jo< \h(

bIoIde< loft. flOl IicII) ()IOCM:~on 01 aoodl ""1"11:) devdo~ IC""" It .. pot'"~ e-.<a)' UPOO:1\V God hnlf¥l'll ul • ThIS me'~1 m>!. 0 .. p\lbl" ..:Ilo:dl""''' prom:)tl 'me powtIl 01 ;",1 .. 1."1 IIIe .... nt oIlI'Idr~ndtno: Ihou&hl. o"P.nd .. torIItlOUsnt<S."· .... "'Ie IC$ost· in( "In. lCnCLtnCy Ill:> ~ "'"""" be.n" n IIIIOIltIlIhr! tr'QtelAi "'~fI;n 01 !he Ilnd to br lIJ,,-,.d .... Ih In .,.. ~ to lu!U('

di .. dtnds ". 0<1&01$. of cOUt", LII'Id"II00ct!hl: ''''IXl.t;In(e of ~lrllt~1mIoI

"I)' _ Imp"".11 n:tthctdolo&v Ho, ""'" n • IOC>lI ,,1tfIt,>t

ne.:tSs.uted Lhit lie dc\OtIql lilt ilIoHs to ooIon the oblV'l.1*: :to! me_roble , tile qu.lot~IlbI~. He ~l'" ~,Ihlt cdd. hltd btl! ~#",~:.d IC I~I,"">I cv>dtnce 'ft OIlly Plrl oIl~t tduc:t~OfIIi fQUltOOrl Hoe ~ III~ he 'OOOoid not br "LIlc tI\ICtI <uk< devoid 01 hUlllln S)'II\IIO!h)' lind ""lui oIlu:n:!n odull.··1Ad lit Slle~ Iml/1t hid "1~1hy for lilt "";01 01 rod. <tnP¥t-ot tl.ncMo1' dir) t:o.! !II~I "'~II not I)( >liowtd SO <Ult nmtt ... h .. 10 ottn Into Ir.seru,l ..... ty IC hu,nln wile!cn& ond "'IUll",. IHe) could not be ~ calm. «101. "'~td I(IIN-<II w1lII! N.".,.. _Iyn<hed. m ...... d lind Ita"¥td-""

01>60:. "",tJd .pet" ", plft" "',10 ont of IOd:Iy"S tduc'.1IOrI,1 ",tICS, [0 .• Iw:h. It· lhil, 'I,ltnle cullure is til< mosl d,,,,,,,,'lk co.t\u", On c..o bncI I f>Odudes /IObody ~ CU" KtOIS go~ .,ld soc,.1 PO"'"'..,;1 dnltS .• IS not II$II>Ily anti hg cuItutt DIll •

1Io0lAtl1l<......,.ants HCCnd. """"" IS 01 doe< ~ th. Ill"""" Wl>«uot f.",i~, ne,ghborhood • ."d regIOn" 0u8Ol1. ~", ... ,.dd WOrltfy chineo"t 1~ pIvut . ~ exdoJiIe! nobo<:Iy." .1Id dC(1lni 1M ...n. (""'on bbefty ... rt.... wt 1'lH<I. not .... 1fY- bul toe1ha .,.

27

Cultural knowledge, the f1uits of a literate. education. is empty o! meaning unless interpenetrated with liberty. iustice, equality, and equitable opportunities for dignified work.

As a scholar DuBois had much in common with \lie educationalthinking of such men as Robert M. Hutchins, Mortimer Adler. and

Allan Bloom. I le, too. was a defender of the liberal arts uadition. andof the educational importance or the great enduring ideas or the past.

As a philosophical Idealist DuBois believed that schools should "educate ch1ldren in the broadest, hrghest way ... (because) wisdom is

the principal thing.''" But. as a social activist. he also embraced elements o! John Dewey's Pragmatism. He believed that "with this genera! and theoretical (knowledge) must go a definite and detailedobject suited to the present age, this present group, the present set of problems.''" His educational philosophy allowed space for the rou11dational wisdom of the past and the ne,v educational theoriesthat were slowly helping to forge a better future for "the children of all." He prayed for a liberato1y education that would be a process of ..

... criticism and searching ... the insistent questioning of old ways and old deeds, ever mindful of the solemenness of world · old things (while)welcoming the things that are good and true and the eternal beauty ol both old and new.""

Today's contentious educational battles have philosophical roots; political right vs. political left. Christian fundamentalists vs. secular humanists, progressives vs. behaviorists. public school defenders vs . "for profit" entrepreneurs. back-to·bas1cs traditionalists vs. the p,oponents of curricular diversity -ldealisl/1\ealist vs Pragmatist/ Existentialist. We need to listen to W.E.8. DuBois: "We find if necessary lo guard carefully least undue insistence on one of these

methods ... may spoil the balance between tile (others).' '" An understanding or DuBois· educational thought-as interpreted

from his writings-does not encourage us to compromise personal philosophical ideals or stron�ly held beliefs: he would say ,"fight on!!·•

But he would remind us tlm a precarious balance is not only possible but may represent the strength of a democrat1c society, and provide

an ar\tidote to a "silent and solemn agreement." If. as DuBois . .

believed .education is the foundation stone of our democracy:·" then it is important that there be intellectual rebels willing and able tochallenge any educational philosophy that becomes all,powerlul. By "daring to be honest rather than orthodox"" these challengers of the educational stattJs,quo provide the motivation and the will to main· ta111 the precarious balance.

And we serve lirst for the S<lke of serving-to develop our own powtrs. gain the mastery of this human machine. come to the broadest. deepest self·realiza1ion. And then we. sef\<e for the real end oi service, to 1nake life no narrow. selfish thing, but let it sweep as Meeps the morning-broad and lull and free for all men and all time, that you and I and all may earn a living and earn, too. much more than that-a life worth hv,ng."'

Endnotes and Sources I. W.E.B. DuBois. Wri1ings in Periodicals edited by W.£.S. DuBois:

Selecao,1s from Tlie Crisis. vol. I, ed .. Herbert Aptheker (Millwood.New York: Kraus·Thomson Organizalion. 1983), 160.

This quote from an August.1918 article in Tl,e Crisis was proceeded by his contrcvers,al article. "Close Ranks." in the July, 1918 issue, in vMch he wrote: "We make no ordinary sacrifice. but we make it gladly and willingly with our eyes lifted to the hills." Ibid., 159.

Educational Considerations. Vol. 26, No. 1 Fall 1998

2. Herbert Aptheker has described DuBois as "a kind of biblical prophetcalling the nation to the path or rectitude. warnong of the realitie.s ofretribution; (who) writes as one filled with a kind or nationalconsciousness in his own people and s1mult.neously as one who is profoundly in love with the United States of the Declaration or Independence and who is seeking to rnake or this land ... one fully in accord with that immortal manifesto, .

. The literary Legacy of '>IE. B.

DuBois (White Plains. New York: Kraus International Publishers, 1989). 51.

In Biblical wms ·the prophet was a person with extraordinary spiritual and moral insight who called the people's attention to in· justices and the realities of existence. DuBois v,as also a prophet as def ined .s one who is "an effective or leading spokesman for a cause,doctrine, or group." Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, tenth edition, 1993. 3. W.f.8. DuBois. Wricings in Periodicals failed by Ochers. vol. J, ed. Herbert Aptheker (Millwood. New York: Kraus-Thomson Organiz,;,tion. 1982). 83.4 DuBois. Tile fducatio11 of Black People; Ten C1i(iqt1es. 1906· 1960,ed. Herbert Aptheker (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press,1973), 6.

DuBois' early interest ,n philosophy was a basic reason for his interest in a. Harvard education: ·1 was in Harvard ... to enlarge my grasp of the meaning or the universe ... above all I ,vJnted to study philosophy! I wanted to get hold of the basis of knowledge and explore foundations and beginnings:· DuBois, Tile Autobiography of W.£.8. DuBois. tenth printing (New York: International Publishers Company, 1988). 132-133.

But it was as a teacher that DuBois hoped to be remembered. At age 89, during a 1957 TV interview with Channel 5. Nev/ York City. he answered a question: "Well. the thing that I would want to be remembered for would be my writing and teaching. I have liked teach· ing ... I have tried to teach." The Seven!ll Son; The Thought and \1/ril· ings of W.£.B. DuBois. ed. Julius lester (New York: Random House. 1971 ). 708. ( It is interesting to speculate on the fact that DuBois used the singular "thing" in referring to "wnting and teaching." He viewed his writing as synonymous with teaching,) 5. DuBois' experiences in a run·dowo, i l l·equipped. one-roorn school·house in the rural, segregated south did not negate his faith ineducation. He wrote: "I loved my school. and the fine faith thechildren had in the wisdom or their teacher was truly marvellous. Weread and spelled together, wrote a linle. picked flowers. sang. andlistened to stories of the world beyond the hill." Ibid, 117 · 118.6. Many are not aware that "DuBois embarked on a career as asociologist prior to the turn of the century ... through a careful .scientific, sociological analysis or black Americans. From 1896 to 1910Du Bois was an extremely productive sociologist:· Preface 10 \11.E. 13.Du8ois: On Sociology and tile Black Comrniinit)'. ed. Dan Green and fdw,n Driver (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1978). vii.

tlijah Anderson has declared that ·w. E.8. DuBois is a foundingfather <Jf American sociology,· DuBois. The Philadelphia Negro, ed.Elijah Anderson (Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996). ix. 7. Aptheker. ed., The Educa1ion of Black People, x.8. DuBois. The Souls of 8/ack folk, ed. Donald 8, Gibson (Nev, York:Penguin Books, 1989), 77.9 Ibid.

25

28

10, OUOo;$ wrOte In • Cri,,, ., t",!. (Apri l 1934): 'I .m 001 worr"d about "" ng coo,isten l. Wh ' t worrie$ me 'S tOe Truth ." , nd in his 0Ccl, in Bal[k lor Pro",. tl< rw,d th. t ,. cootradi,!ion, aOO pa"dox powed (N(;r pmdo.>:' ,nd oonwdiction,:

W,IKe Dr.,. found the .pparent ,ncC<1\I$!en (its , p pe;"m~ dc~i ng DuBoos" ",,,.,.1 decodes of Wllhrlg 00 w ntrovt"i,1 "'"'" to tM • n, IUI,1 result 01 , n InquII"'g mind, "A SE'tm lngry .ndu",,& st"In In

tills m." w3s horll;,ty,.nd honesly ,nd exp,ndi nv, ,melli g, nce 'i.QlJkI ca ll upon DuBoI$ to . Ite' , nu rnbef 0/ prev",,,,, V!l;Wpoi "t,: Willie D"k "Ffom Reform to COO"IIl1<Jni"", T h~ Intel!ec.wal o.vek>pme nt of W E, B, DuBoi,:' (Pil D.dlS>eft.t.oo . ComeU Um",,, ity. 1985). 96 I I, Quoted In "DlJBoJ>: Scholarty Activist: Clludt LewJ', Cl\l ·[d po:?" Th. Wicltila Eagle, Nov.mOO 10, 1993 , A comm.nt,,,y 00 O.vid Le",rrn€ Lewis. W.e. R D"80ls ' Bwgropny of Q RQ~' 1868·1919 (N<:w ~ed, H.nry Holt ,nd Company, 1993) ,<, Arnold iGmper .. d, n. All and imagiealion 01 W£.B, DuBoi,

(New Yo, .: Sd1cden S(){)~S, 1990' re~IJOt, C3mbrid ge H" ""d Unlvc{s,!y Pres •. 1976) . vii Il . Sydney H'Iri, . The AUlnen!ic Pmon (Nil . , . il linoIS : Argu, C,xnmunlc<t>::m, 197<), 9S , 14, )omf resww." who h>vt .,.,Iy,.d ttl< ten"oo, g."""lw by OuSoos" wl!<tl,,'~ with OIliX'lIboo" i,",,, .nd KI",ls rave d<:!in.d hi' lhocght ;" term> of l di.llect~" procel', for ,x.<nj;# see Keith e~,,",n .

"Two W""ng Idr. ls The 0"'e<;\r<;.1 Thocgllt of WE.e DlJSc<' (Ph.D, di' SE'mtioo . Purdue Un i""" ilY. 1978) , 15, DuBo" WlOt. of hI> "doubl . consciou,n.,, " on n" "", roo, """>OnS, ifi cludiog in Sou[;, 45. - It " • p.cul"r ", n",tlOn, thIS doubJt coo<;o;iousnell. O<>e e"" r fe" $ hi, twoo,s,- , n Arrl(rr c:.n, , Neg;o : two >001, . two thoo~h t" two w ,e<;C<XI!ed .\trIVIfltl$, I"", w:lrIl ng idr, ',. " The "twont,, ' of hIS ,du<l!looal phil~hy might h ...... bee n ' t' ted ", ,im rlar te,m,. thougn ""th 1/:" p',sooal emotloo Jtt.l, h<d 10 ttl< 'MOrd,. 16 Ou8oi" Willing, by W.f.B. Quilm, ,e hrlodkal. fdiled By O!hm wi. I, t d. Herbert Apltleker (Millwood , New Yolk, Kro u,· ThOO1SOO Org.ninuoo , 1981) . 83 17, Loo i, F.,,,kr..n , QlJ C(ed ", an ,m"y"W by John Ken ""dy. II, on «<(>fte, iJ<:toiJ.< r, 1996 , 18. DuSO<I, DUll: of DaW" ,n N, th, n HUg(!,n" W£.B. DlJBoJS" Wli[Hl,!' (NC'W Yed. Th . Llbrory of Am",:; •. 1986), 574 19 . Both DuBoi, . od W»hin gtoo b<>lit,,,d In th. imp ort. n" of wueul ng Afr>::,n Am, nClns f'" th' oppo',tu mt"" and <e,pon~b rllt""

01 atoze~shlp in • democratic soo:i.ty. The il dtff" e"'e< w"'" ,"~I,d to , n iss,,, th. t h .. d.ep h,<tor",,1 aOO phlkl;op/llnl '001' , and whl,h coo llnues to g,nerate tl<lted eoo!<o ... rsy rtgOlding publIC ,ehoo4 ptJ r>"l'"" In , onpilf .. d terms the " "'" " 0"" of -Ir.>::kl ng: with "''''" ,too. nl, .ncou,,~ed I()'.,md , "llbe,,/." ,ollege·boon d edlJC. · t,on, ~ n d Ol he r, -cl . st ,,,, d- 10f • world·of·work CUrri cu lum W.,hington w" wllI ,ne to Mtle !or , VOClt>On, lip<>t\ IC" edoJtl!roo ~. !elminal pro;:" , . DuBoi, demanded th' "ght to . liber, lth umm· i<tIC .due'tlon-. co nt in Uing pi"':''' m,king opportu nitlts lc< h.-gtl<r , oot.t"" ;MII, bk 10 Alri,"" Am",,,n, , W"hon gton w's will ,ng !o ,omproml<e ,du,. tioo, l, pel itlC.l , 3nd Civil tight> lor wo<k·pl;t<;e op>"l rIUn1\" s. DuB"" woul d not comp romise . He bel"""d th 't -noc.smy", it" to eorn , I,Vlrtg, ,t" more L"l"' rUnt to wo , lilt

liVing i, not for ",ning. but "'ning i, !or liVin g. The edue'too th' l tf .. n, meo Slmply IaJ ,aroing 1 h"ng " not edue'tion: Til< Educalion 0.1 Black hopi" ~ 14 .00 115.

26

10, O.vKi D. Du BOIS, ·Und,,,unding ttl< L'g.cy of w. E. B, OuB"'.' :' fm",!,. Octoo." 19</}, 63

In , 1910 ,pe.oh to. "'whit<. rd1, . nd """II- born - ,u dleoc. i" 8rookhne , M.$$O chusen, DuBois 'aid th'l "ttl< fi,,\ Iter towOId li[Mg the >ubmerged ma" of bi .o' p"ople in th. Soulh " thlOugh m. hi ghe r I,,, nl ng of tM t.knted few." L. ter he 'Mot.· -My forth hith"to h.d "", n on wh3t I ()r1ce dtnom ln' ted" th, l,lented le<l lh I now re, li z. tr..t .. ou t of th' tr"' S of the w"" Jng Cl.,,,,, , who know li f, In II, b,m r sllLlggle, will oontlnu,lIy nse tOe lui , un"lfi,h ,nd ,1<,., ,ighled leadership: ' Thl! W,I Wfl m n , fter h. com, 10 o. l""'e t tl< ,ooc.ted "t,lent.d lentj, " Iud b aed In 10 0011&' 100 W

hrJp 11ft Itl< "1m" of HII; """king cl,,,,,." For . con tempor;irY in te'preUlJO(l Di a "grnmoon X- "em"" of

U .. t,lented tenlh <ee th. 1997 film, SWlng<fS -They eros, d" ,mt,:; OI, ial bam'" Th,y show Ih. unlvtr$Jlity o/th' Amen"n d",m and ltl< Arner: nn exp"ience 00" the , tereotypts "" put _lY,· Bob ( urt"ght, frlnt rev"""" Wiehila fogf', M,rch 19, 1997 11 CoJBol>. Th, C",,,,pondrne, 01 W £,8, QuBoi$, wf. 3, .d . Hero.n Apttl<ke, (Amtl<"t Un ivmtty 01 M",.chusetts Plm , 1978), )95 ,

t ... n tj,ovgh DlJBoi~ enle<ed H",·"d "to diSC""'" Truth:' he 1,1" - ~3ve up tM mr(h for 'Absolute' Truth: r<X from do ubt 01 (its) ,,,s!er>::( .. t:<,Jt p,c' ''''' I w..", th< t oo r lrul,d knowfed\:e . nd clumsy nt~ l hods of re,e",h m,d. Jt impo" Jbl. now to (omplet~ l y , pprehe nd TlUlh .. . I oss"mtd lh< ,",sten" ofTruth (",d).. th>1 Truth w., only pa rti,'~ 'fIOwn." Ib<J n. Ou[\o,s , DQfkMlI." Vok" "0m Wili,in th' Veil (M illwood . IWw Yc;k: Kr,uI·Thorr\!Ol'l O<gan izat>On. 1988. Rtp"m, New ye;\;; H,";o\" t '[ld BrKe. 191 / ), Z04 l3. DlJBors. Wat[d, o{ Color, /;oo;l 3. The Black Flame: i1 Tlilog, (Mi ll wood, N,w York: K"u,·T hom""n Or&,n rZ1I>On, 19 76), 166. 14 DuSo!" Thr 0i,I" I.nu "y, 1911, in Huggln" 1139 15, Duik<" T/r , Sou[, of 8Iock felk, With Introou C!ion, by N.tI,," H,re , nd AM" Poo,,.ml (New Yo r" Now A"",,,e. n Librl ry, 1981), 139.

P""nn"' ,,,m , ",n .dlJC'~on.ll p j"k::>sop/l~, IS b' SE'd 00 an und .. · m nding Ih,t hUlTIO n r .. M e il in n.te, . nd "",ywh,," th' ",mo, ,""pi!. di fknng t ny;ronment.ll c()r1 dltions. This boli.f i, coupled Wltn ttl< bel it f thlt tllere ,Ie t);t,,,. hnhmenlJl, ""~LJI1 ng oos _nd "lrUlh$." Ih' t ""'" bee n "",., I, d over l imt thwugh t tl< g".t work, ofl, t.",· lure , hi'lOry. phllorop hy, It ligion , nd " ier,:;e TIle"fort . th ere" • "'b"k " edlJC,tion thot ,r.:xod p, Ih! "me for " I ,tude nts. 16. DlJB,",. T/r. eri,il, M.y. 1914, in Huggins, 1157 Z7. D",""" , DlJ5k 0/ Qown

18 DuB,",. CDrre5pood,"""" "" 3,394 19 DlJaol, . ,d Aplhekef, Eaucalkm 01 Brack folk, 10 )0 , "We ore or" """,Id " ,,1 u\ re, ll z, "'" ",!,on,i billt '"s: Do,""" Prayers. 16 , 31. DlJBoi s. fOU M ,0 R,m p"",d . All and imaginaliM, 11 32. DuBm, ed ~he,"" fducalion 0{ mock felk, 18 J3. ! ugene Hol"",s, Bla,t Tilan.' Wfll. DlJ8ois .• d. loon Clarke, tl II (Boston: B.""oo P'eSl , 1970), 78 34. Duik<" The $out 01 Bla"" Folk, .d , [}Q r,.1d B. GlbsQJ1 (N.w York P, niuln Book" 1989), 34. )5 , Du,""" , Th, QU ' 5I oll h~ Sifv~1 f1~,ee , With an fOllcdU'l ion by Hem.ft Aplh" " (M ill wood, N<!w YorL K"," , ·Tho msoo Org3nl.'· tlon, 1974 R'p!Jn!. (hlc.~: A.C. M,( lurg and Co" 1911). SO 36. DlJBo", Soul" . d, Hw , nd f'ouS\;l lnl. 131

Educafional Consideralions

I (

I ,

29

37 . DuBois, Against Racism: Unpublished Essays. Papers. Addresse5, 1887-1961. ed. He1bert Aptheker (Amherst: University of Massachu· setts Press. 1985), 252. 38. DuBois. Negro Digest. April, 1947. 235·236.39. DuBois interpreted the negative aspect of "individualism" aspromoted in a Darwinian. capitalist economic philosophy: "Its loundation is the idea of the strong man- Individualism coupled with the rule of might... the advance of one part of the world at the expense of the whole: the ove,whelming sense of the I, and the consequent forgetting of the Thou.· Autobiography, 146. 40. DuBois. Periodicals Edited By Others. vol. I. 219.41. DuBois. Prayers far Dark People. ed. Herbe1t Aptheker ((Amherst:University of Massachusetts Press. 1980). 59.

42. DuBois. Dark Pri�cess: A Romance (Millwood, New York: Kraus·Thomson Organization. 1974. Reprint. New York: Harcourt and Brace.1928), 42 43. DuBois. Autobiography, 281 and 423.44, DuBois frequently referred to the trip!e responsibilities of work,service. and sacrifice. In one example he exhorted the 1898 F,skUnive,sity graduates to "gladly work. and sacrifice, and serve." foundin Hugains. DuBois \Vritings. 839.

for a schola1ly treatment oi Du8ois as a philosophical Pragmatist see Corne! West. The American l:uasion of Philosophy (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. 1989). 45. Al Morgan. in an interview of DuBois on Channel 5. New YorkCity. July 4. 1957. Found i n Seuenth San, ed. Lester, 708.46. DuBo,s. Manual Builds a School, 319. and Educaiion of I/lackFolk. 13.47. DuBois. Outlook. October 17. 1903.48. DuBois, Souls. ed. Hare and Poussaint. 126.

Educational Considerations. Vol. 26, No. 1. Fall 1998

49. DuBois. Autobiography. 202.50. DuBois. Correspondence. vol. 2. 174,51. E.O. Hirsch, Jr .. Cullura! Wero.Cy: Wllar £uery American Needs wKnow (Boston: Houghton. Mifflin Company, 1987). 21.52. DuBois. Souls. ed. Gibson. II.53. DuBois. Darkwater, 210. This quote was preceded by the mean·ingful statement that "we must seek not to make men carpenters. butto make carpenters men:· and followed by the question. "Is not theproblem of their (African American) education simply an intensifica·tion of the problem of educating all children?."54. We might use Jeff Zom·s term. "a tough minded pluralism" tohelp define DuBois' educational philosophy. Zorn speaks of DuBoiseducational ideas as "complex ... incorpo,ating a high regard for ·uniquely Black' matters. a giounding in traditional studies ... and aquite stringent characte1 training." In a letter to the "Afterwords"column in Educa1io11al Theory. fall. 1993. 483.55. DuBois. Prayers. 65.56. DuBois. Periodicals Edited by Others. vol I. 85.

DuBois once adrnonished teachers to "teach the truth as they see iteven if it means they lose their jobs ... to give up te3ching and go to digging ditches before bowing to slavery of thought." Educaiion of Black People. 157·158. 57. DuBois. Annals of the American Academy of Science. November.1928, 9.

DuBois wrote that "the public school should be a great democracy where all elements of the population come to realize the essentialhumanity of each." Co11espondence, vol. I. 453. 58. DuBois. DuBois Wrilings. ed. Huggins. 83159. DuBois. Ibid .. 832.

27

30



Books should not be chosen simply because they have min or il y charocters and are avwlable

Evaluating Multicultural Literature for Use in the Classroom

/uli. Wilkins and Robert J. G.mble

Introduction In , W\Jntry ., cuit ur. II ,· d,V'"" " ;h. Uni t.d Stilt." Il "

lmpamn! that cl' $sroom !duCltors te,e h <hll d,.n . bout th. mulhc ultu lal compo< itlOl1 01 the I, nd lIlty rnh ,b,t 0"" w.y thi' e,n be .cl1 ievd is through literature , wI1 lch wtro:n uled p,c-peny. (In help chi ldren ,«epl. ,nd b< "' n Sl~V< to the d,,,,,,,ty 0/ other<_ R"ding .t:.out "'ci,1 e< ,Ul nie g'oop' hdps ci1d dren "" Ii" that <xh er prop:' '"'\It f" llng', emctioll$ . • n<! needs si,nll" to th, irs Throlll:h w:::h "'fIOSU,", chlldr,n discover tlllt while not , II peopl, rruy IrnA l"" »me, c< ,I",,. th, ir l"',soo,1 belief, , nd ", I""" tMy , II d"""" eqw l r"ptct. At the »m. \IInt, 'h ~d"n who ore m, mber< of r",,,1 0(

etl,w mlno"t"" c""'"' to re,l"e !h.t their cu lture , 1<0 rml:(, imPOrt,nt contr ibo.Jt i o~ to til< "",'Id. tr.. ,eby ImpfO'v1 ng their own ",IfCOOctpl.', whde nurtlHlng prl d. in tt,eir h<rit.W

Th'" ,re m, ny ,n li ~hten in E, edu" tion,1 multiwitu,,1 booob ,,,,, iI.bI. todJ.y, target,d t,-"",," ' e.(Ie,\ 01, 11 'w', The ch' lIt'0' fo< el-<,,,oom !each", " ' rl(Jwing Oow too rewgnlZe "~" mu ll ie" ltu,,1 bo:::'" .00 sdec! th.m fee In the;( ([~$W""'"1 The fir$t thi ng t"Cr..IS u,oold do Wetn choosi ng book, i, to question how ch' dren wlil re<pond W r.,d,ng thrm; Wi ll childre n feel th't they ,hare common, l,tie! with il"OP" In ot ""r cu ltu ,"s' Will ,\00" oo ild up "' If-esteem l()r ch il dren wOO ore m.mbers 0/ t"" ,,,i,1 , nd 'thOle grOlJp' b< lIlg d/::;cribtd? I" .<Xf,l:on to tho", Q""si:>Jn" th ere are m,ny othei imporul1t im",\ to w ",.der ,n th e ,.I"tion P'oc,,, Th i, artie" examrnes Ihese I\S",5 .nd pwvKk, , peaflc "itt,., th, t shoold b. u"d in evaluating mult O,J ltu r. 1 litmtur. w th.1t t>:::<:i, chos.n tru~ r.Pf",m d""" , cullu", .nd do nO( p"p<tU3 te stereotype, COmmon in l,t"'M' of the pw

TM lli.l<lry of MuW""ltural Litera!",. Histe<ie,lIy, muc h oof tile literature ",.d by te>oh", "",""'ttd

m",o(it, .. sterw!)'plc.I ~, or , I" ""de them In .. "bI. by omlttin~

th tm 'n trr.~. Booh Ih. t Indudd m""",l.'s m"gln, li Led them, putting th em in rolt, n .. \ we" roo( cent,,1 to the stc.oy",d tr.. ro"s th ey h,d "",e £,r,,,,, lI y \lt reotypetl Wh i ~ Af"",n A.,.,,, ,,m """. often ,hown '" 'Wee,b" lrx! comp li.nt, thi ~ w., a.pdeJ 'n ,w,y w~..::h w» b<littling. <howi n ~ wrn to Ix 1m SOph i \~med th.n th' ir wn lte co unterp., t,_ A 1965 wr~y lo""d th, t oo ly 47 01 the J49 book, "",mined includ. d AlrlC,n Amerie.n, in the text. and the rn.jo" ty ot th, ,, ch",ctm were d.~ "ted Ln men,,1 po<,t>oo" wh ile th' m,in ch>."cter, Wert .IIMst , Iw,y, C,u,"",n (Lu" ek, '965 )

Juli. WHkln •. H~rita~e Education Progr.m. Bu/blo. NY Rob",I/. Ci.mbl ~. D'Youvill~ ColI.ge. Buff.lo. NY

W,th I, ,,, ,"C~p tl on', ('LlCosi , n, have domin . t.d ch il d"n', litera tu re . nd have inv.mb~ bt,n the herc-<s, n ",y h,v, bt'n port"ytd In both th e th ~mts ,nd th~ d l u m,~oo, " ml' lIi gent. mriiCt,,", , physb ll y w ong, ,nd n,,,,,,,, N.t"" Arn wc.n, . how...-e" untd recently we," often ~po,\.d os I"OI"rorne "",~e', w.th ill u<\l,tloo< ' howing tfle'" <Il irtle". <po .. throwing. Jnd d.ne ln . lrOOLlI'ld teep"" . H"panic P"OOpI~ have gen." lIy be, n ,tereotYP"d " I",y . nd ,ub,.,vi'nt. Wh,n ,1Io"'n in Jo b $IIU,~ OO$ thty h.ve typ,,,I~ Ix.n " "g.t.d to tt.. kitchen 0: ~,rd~1l A".ns h."" b"n <l"tot)'Ptd os (ompl" nt. \impli't'c , nd mt' k. A, with ottler mln ootie" th<rr ro"" "' I,teroture ha ... (oo"'tenll-,- put them In ~ tu,t<XlS wbord!n ,tt too C'Lln.!, n,

Why U •• MuUi.~ltural Utrratut<? Oroe 01 th, pr-imory re,$Orl\ fc< u'i" g mu ltio;ulb",1 lit""ure il to

htlp chrldrtn devtlClll posl ll"" ,ttitULIe> ",Id ,e<jl€ct fo, 'Mivrd ult~ in , II c "hu r~' . l ,temu rl' 1\ 00""' w.y of t,, " ,m ittlng the" v, lue, to ch il d"n In d,,,,, lopon g , n un dmt.ndi ng of di ffe"nt !:fe,tyte., mu ltieultu"t I,tmture , ncoll"r.t' ~ brwd .. ni!'" 01 we,,1 rel'tlon$hI P', open""". ,"~ intere,t In ottler, Mul~cu lt",'1 book< <h-:Jutd Jlw bt u;ed to engender (leial pM<

lit'''tu" , ff.m rl(Jt oo nly Oow st ~ents Vl<W P"op l, from oth" , ulturt" but ,Iso in rtcoence, how Cilildle " v:;:W th<m"lve, ,00 th ~ i,

own cL1\ture . tt ha, been ro und th.t li mit ed .. ,d,bility of Q", lity boo<, with mlnOfity chmot", c." n.~' llYely .ffett ch ild"n , rtW ng. I'''&"'ee de>tlCV<f'!nt .• r>:! set f-esteem {Costello, 1991 : I~Re imer. t992 )

P[Qbl~m> in S~luU"t' and C""lu .. ting Appropr;at. Lit .. a!u,~ Thtre hl' been , pfo lif~r.t lOl1 of chd dren', txxlk, ovt, th' post

""",.de, giVll1g t."he« , wrdt ,nd v'''ltd >elect<Xl of mu ltlw Hu,,1 t>:::<:i, to chao" from , H"""""", g.,'tn the skyroc. eting (osts of tx>olI. ,00 !he I,n th't not ev,ry mu ltrc<Jftu r. 1 book is, "good" nlultl cuitu,,1 t>:::<:i . educ.tc rs mu,t be very dlscor""'g ,nd cri ti,,1 when se l tCM~

Ill"' tu ,e lor u>e In th e ,I<o;!<oom,

Portr.yi ng ml(¥)fiu" in , fIOS' llvt liEht " no\ enough to m", , good baok- the content' nlU,t 31:;0 be eYJ lu.ted in tm", of the qU3 lity of wrr\Orlg, The " rne m r"tt,d$ 'rp~" ,n .11 good I,tmture _ the li«'rory t lement' 01 plot, , h'l.m,il.ltiol1 , ,r(M 8, th, me, ,nd sty~ should b. "",II de.'eIOjl<d , nd ,hould ""'XlSt wah ,,, It",. 1 aocurocy

A praN.., te","",; will undou bl.dly flOe in the "'ht"'" v.oc'" "wl>etht r to ~ I ,m in.te du<i" of th. pa, t b<cau;e tl'")' '"' rocISt by ",d.y'~ standard,_ Indeed, "Inju n )0<" an<! "",mbo- ty l'" ch"" ttrs do p<rpttu"" the worM kind of derogote<y \toreO(ypes il <e, d wjthout guld ,ne. or e<pl 'n.ltKHl . Kowevt r. boo" $u<;h " .I\d"e ntu", of Hcctle\>e rry linn (Tm"", 188S).rId Thf Adw mu", oo f Toom ':o.lwyer (Tw"n , 1876) ~.n bt u>ed to tflch c h~d" n abou t th, we,,1 d,""tt 01 the t" In wt1rd1 IMy ""''' written. With ,u ff OC1, nt b" ,-ground k"",,,t.dg •. ch~dren e, n b< enl,ght.ned rl(Jt ooly through fIO~ tl'"

,tc.oy li"eI. Wt JI~o from t., rning ,bout the n"'''''''mi"dedne!, of oth", . If , ueh books .re used, t • ..::Ite" 'h oo ld prtf"," t h~m by dl",u'~ng when th e 000k, ~" wlltten or, d th e ' ttltuCe' 0/ tt.time" Ch ildren "'" tr..n "pi"", r.;.w >ltilL<it' ,od o.hav.orl 0/ ttl< :>< <1 .re Mler< nt from too>e 0/ lCd.ly

Educational Consideration> 31

How to Evaluate Multicultural Literature

Many classroom teachers have. limited experiences using books written from the perspective or, or about racial and ethnic minorities. As the1e a1e numerous issues to conside1 when choosing multicultural literature. teachers must learn how to assess books as app1opriate foruse in the dassrcorn. Below are outlined specific criteria that should be used when selecting multicultural reading material so that bookschosen truly represent a pamcular culture and present accurate and respectful images of minority caces and ethnicities. Suggested books with outstanding illustrations and text are also provided,

Illustrations

If books with illustrations are chosen. the pictures should be exarnined to see if characws are easily recognizable as people ofcolor. Children should be able to identify characters as black. llispan,c. Asians. and natives. without.them being shown as caricatures. There should be physical diversity within the groups themselves. so avoid boob that show all black or Asian characters w,th the �ame exaggerated facial features that make them all look alike. For example. if all Asian characters have round faces. straight black hair, slanted eyes and a yellowish tint to their skin coloring, it is recommended that :mother book that displays diversity within therac,al group is chosen.

There are many books that have excellent true,to-life pictures of people of different races. One example is the African fable, Tlie Markel Lady and r/1e Mango Tree (Watson and W<1tson. 199•1). This book contains realistic pictures of black chil dren which make them immediately recognizable as Africans. Ano1her well illustrated book which realistically portrays black characters is WOOD-HOOPOE \VWie

(Kroll and Roundtree. 1992), The illustrations show a boy ,nd his pa1ents in everyday situations wearing both African and Western

cloth.ing. with hair braided and straightened. as 1t is worn by many African r ,mericans today. Another outstandingly illustrated book is Bro:ller fag/e, Sisler Sky Oeffers. 1991 ). The pictures illuminate the words and wisdom of Native Arnericans in their belief of a nacural and beautiful wo;ld. These illustrations help teach children about the exemplary relationship Native Americans have with the earth and shows theworld through their eyes. Another noteworthy book, ,deal for the Chnstrnas season. is Christmas Carol (Te,sdale and Gottlieb, 1996).

This book poruays the three ,vise rnen with different skin colors. andalso shows toe angels and shepherds in varying shades of pink. yellow. and brown.

Te><t

Once 1t has been established that a book's illustmions transcend any Stereotypes. the text SilOuld be examined to identify how the characters are portrayed as a racial 01 ethnic group. Is it suggested that all members oi the group 1,ve in poverty1 If not. are they shown as being from a variety of socioeconomic backgro•Jnds. educational

levels and occupations? Minority groups should be culturally diverse, with individuars portrayed as having their own unique thoughts. emotions and philosophies. It is important that the characters of any one cultural group are as disparate as characters would be in stones bised on n1ainstrearn culture. Diversity among African Americans is illustrated in Back Home (Pinkne}'. 1992) in which a young woman returns to her �lorth Carolina home after hv,ng up North. Even though she is now a "city girl". she finds great pleasure. In returning to farmbfe. Masai and I (Kroll. 1992) tells the stoiy of a little girl who learns

Educational Considerations, Vol. 26. No. 1. Fall 1998

about East Africa and the Masai in school and imagines what her lifemight be like if she were Masai. Such stories show the different lives black people lead in the same country and in different parts of the world.

The text should a fso be studied carefully to see if minority cha1acters are respected for themselves. or whether they only achieve success by giving up the distinctive values and lifestyle.s of theirculture and adopting those of mainstream white society. Minoritycharacters should be able to find w.iys to succeed without losing sight of their heritage, and their achievements should be noteworthy for the acts themselves. not because they are valued by white society. 01 represent some sort of weakening of their own culture and adoption of mainstream culture. The forwr,e Te/lers (Alexander. 1992) is a wonderful story of a carpenter in C,me1con. West Africa. who goes co a ionune teller to see if he will become rich and famous. and whether he will marry and be happy. After the fortune teller disappea.rs. the carpenter finds all the predrct1ons come true due to a hu1no1ous twist in the stoiy. The carpenter is successful in achievinghis dreams of wealth, !arne. marriage and happiness. all within the context of his West African life. without any outside intervention. This type of story sl1ows that white inte1vention is not necessary for success in the Jives of characters of color.

In a similar vein, if minority characters in the book have personal problems, they should be shown as being able to solve them themselves. witl10ut the intervention of whites. Beviare of books wh,ch portray the "White Man" as some sorl of savior. protecting minorities from hardships and providing the way to a better life. One noteworthy book for showing black solidarity and the ability to solve piobfems for themselves is 1,l//1i(e Socks Only (Coleman. 1996). This tells !he story of a little gi1I in Mississippi who, because of a sign saying "Whites Only". takes off her shoes to step op to a water fountain ,n her clean white socks. When a large white man abuses her for drinking at the fountain. ihe black community rallies around to suppoit the girl. and the "Whites Only'' sign ,s removed from the fountain forever. This book is Important In showing the strength and ability of minorities to stick together to fight oppression and prejudice.

Once ii has been established th<lt individuals within racial or ethnicgroups are represented as diverse characters. capable of achieving success and solving problerns for themselves. the text should be checked to see whethe1 minority cultures are tre.ited with respect. or whether they are depicted as inferior to the dominant white culture. At the other end of the spect.ium. are minority lifestyles shown in an overly romanticized way. instead of being placed within the context of everyday act1VIt1es familiar to all people? Often in trying to show the positive elements of other cultures, they are depicted in their traditional form and romanticized in a way which is degrading and distorting of !he culture. for example, Native Americans are often seen happily huddled around camp fires, wearing iraditional costumes. living close to nature and in harmony with each other. How close is this to the reality that most Native Americans now live in the United States' Although it is important to IC4rn about the traditions of other cultural groups. it is also necessary to learn about the true-to-life.every day situations that members of the group experience. An authentic v,ew of Native Amencans is portrayed in Toughboy andSister (Hill. 1990). the story of a young native Alaskan bro1hcr and s1ste.r who must survive after tliei1 fother dies in an alcoholic seizure on a fishing trip.

29

32

Llllly. wh~t ,iii u nlln,n& thoe w<1. ,0«1; 10 ~I..t Sur. 111:11

c';IlJIn >ft not IoPnptd "'10 tIII.nI coo"k""u.1eS """" IiIIlboflll

tlbds """'~ H -Notrw Am.nan" -As<on Amencan" 01 -HOSP¥IIC

Amt"'2n" fii Sp,,,,, AmeliClO n l,t,'I'urt ,nclud., III<; (Oollu<1Il

Ul40\.10111 01 Spill'. Cul>l Ctmal A~. Soulh Amonro. the

CInbiInn. MWco.lIld I'I.oMoIt.(o I-~I '" ~ !hoy~d

u.md ~ of !hoy .,. Iht Umt Tht d,fltrtn«S lITIOIli Iht mOIl)'

cull .... WIthIn uch "c ullulll conlJlOmlr.ne" mIIll not bI a.otIlookt<l

fO' w.mplc. ~~ boW Al;<I/l the lilt 01 the 50uth Ktwlllll>Othel

flemll from _ w:th he< o;h,ldron " ~bouJld T_ Il>Ipw.

1996) Il '<tty do!!mm horn m. h~ 01 Po!.",,,, Sh,bollo,l IMnI WIth

her ~ from III .... .,.d mll.glll' In Hout~ (St~u 199')

1IrJ.,....·s o..om (F'KIc 1981) .ho il/uwl,,=, Iht IKI 1/1;11 no! II

~ from Allot lock 11 ,10: . toll; ~'ke Go 11M rn. ...... o;ultult

"""'.<> E .. /uk )lUI""'. kuu$( .iIOSftI ~Mltl INn,lt1t. Olldf III subrl< WI)'I- ~ IS no!

.r..".. uS)' IQ ,den~f)o m hi. III,,", II ,s!llmb. ,mpc<lInt to ClQm.

lilt "'ff'J' ClI.lully m. text oI.U!ho:lt1; -.f,o ... nQI them",lYe. rrwrnbeB

01 !tit IXsaI Oi tthnoc poup d. IhrN Cl'lalKttlJ Fa- ClQ~1< ...toou

m,ddI. ,II .. people may wo:" btl" to "".It iItooul bit ,n Ih. I!IIIeI

e.I.oes. bul Ml: unlIlody 10 be ,bit 10 do .., loom 111. poonI 01 v"", 011

b/od; pellOfl ~ bliot~ PtOPI< lNI' bI P<atnI '" Ihr bed< ,rod

n:>h1l,U~ porlQ)'<d liIoKs II no! !tit \Qt. we ,I< rnI)I h<MIn& T.1,o: lor wrnplt, tho IWIrd·w'n n,ni The- S""", Do ,,,,,-, (f(fl, 19/1)

lbOl'f"""""" tho slOry II"'" his poonI 01 Yirw. ~ ,;I_nlly "",iii rho

\Y!"I\Plthy n.!\a, b rhc bliOc llMllnd itt! Ndry lboul 111< p;i in h(

IIH to ondurt Dr ...tcIun& rhu IUIlmnrJ; HoI: CI""e,on. !hot«fim

becom. rra. tmpa1lnl to uS thlll thoor 01 lilt bIIr:i ~ wOO Irt

bt"" = \.nte<.! on dlt. U'I>p Althoo ~h 'I II lhe llM s' 'I,""" 11Ity,1(

I'rOI ...... I "00:_ ""m """"'" Ii! Id ,~ Tho do I'rOII<II u •• boo.oI: \lIcJf

wfIe<"" but onmld I\M. whole ""I. Id II b them Such boob

wh"h pOrUl)lliIo Itvt. 01 ............ toel fru rn <Om<OIIt tl$(', ~I 01

__ U'lould w eho:im ,*,th ~"on

Thoro I I( I .... _y 01 'l'Jilll'l' bookllboul ~"""I c<*u<ts

.... 'tltn by rntmbtts 01 tto. <U~llIlll1'QUP5 on ",hodl IIwy.~ WJCd

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ill< cu/wQI IfOUP ... \hell If"oa R4"" ~ %(,,,,1 01 y",,",

Nali\ll! ","",'leum (Hllt<;hltloW II'ld v,ga 1991) II • o:oIl«bon of

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Itprt .. ntiltlOll oIlh'1ltoe1onli IIld vr;tloenc:n 01 N.IM: Arneran. IS

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AmeroI, paets rho ('oI\t(1Ion Clpto.ru tilt P\"I W d~ 01

ch.ldllood ..... th'n 1M 1jl«,rlC <onlt't 01 mt Africl n Am.,,,,",,

t~!leI""'"

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Tuclltrs onusl be artful 01 uW\ll only crmon I)o;IeS 01 boot.s to

orpow c~ to lhoe ~, 01 m,nonllr$ Mh x tIOOb ,bout

0 .. ha«!s~ P'I of ISW",I.l!on /I IS I/I'I.?O'U~I tllK ctuldltrl ~ lhe

..ood ,n 11I mll'lY dllllt""OOU Ino;\ 111<)' sI1O<A<:\ I ..... daft be (xPOItd

to .. ,",,'l!1y 01 boob dtpocl'''I lIWD.y M. ,1'1 multhnoor$ ~(W"(N'II

Tn.,e II< n",,","KItfS books ""'01 _ bolh It.. pIc~ .nd

"

hlrdU'l,p. 01 bt'I'IIIII"IIIIOI'IY ,I' Atncna A zood book lor .... "'"008

rM prebIom. AI,an Amuoart. may txpCIltJl« III blon, I n'WIC:tOry

'" i w!btt lOOtty 1$ \IoIIOt>t Do I Go ,..,. Hn-.' ('ilkii<)'. 199)) n... tdI. II'I( IIO!'Y 01 N~ ...no. Ifr.. bllI'I8 ~d /rom 5d>ooI1or

fi~~n&. 100II. II wlm ncr old j"tndl a'e <loon, II I"<:m<. ~"~I"nl

ml! she ......... _ out 0111\0. the IWf)' tmI"C)I,l,u 1 )'OI.I'Ii AfT"rt2n

ArnoIlUl>"l~ to lind Ipb<_ III tilt world On ~If' doIltltnt

noIt .It C/I<UIdmoIt", oM I and Grand,lalh., arid I (8udr.ky Ind

Qnesod. 19i1-4) "",do ~ t>t.lu!,hAty IlultJlwi books ,hcrwlnt !lit

_mill ¥Id dow ...... 01 NtJCII'l Arnenc.on """"n. 1'I11K1.IIrIy III<

bor.cI bolWHll ctlildltl\ ~ m." g<. ndPlI.nu Mud! H"Plno; lo«m

l isa Kx:ust:> on iii< botod, Iond mportan« of limd)'. iud> u fam,,,.

"-:lUllS (G1'V, (990) \IIIr,eh portr¥ III>Im II""", tdIb0115hps. and

Abwlo (Donorl. 1991) wlldo r;ksCflbIs th_ lnenclll'w!> IIrr:t>oftn I I'~

and h., yandmotl'ler AI t~ O!ntl end 01 the SIltclrum lIIe bookl

IN! oncn bt !1It Ied"'ll' 01 IsOOloon 1M f'~wltl(Wl IIIiI "'''I)' Iio"""", Arntn(ll'll up<ncnct l>«itU .. rhty Ipco l , d,l\tmit

I~ from tim 01 "''''''trurn SOCot!y 'fLuI (Mohr, 191~) Ihows

lhe ~l oIl1ndclll>lI<Ln& e.cptllell(td ~ ielltl. AmaU" .... 'i!'boIl

.bout lilt i'tilii' ",hod! IItf I~ IIfcIulll' W1h dItI"I tlOl'l Putrto

RIco M. rry d.rlcrtnl npecls of mollOrll)l hie Ilf ~)fnl.d In

",,,n.cu lwllf i,WIIlI" 11>4 ,I II irnooUlnl IlIaI books do<ntn lor tht

(1,_", rtpmtnl tilt WO<j_ Ii"'£! of 1oIt1l)4e1 0tI1111<1 on It:II+lt ~ts ,." .xcdltnl (1Q1IIClIe 01 wch a boo! IS Why 0., You C«!I Mt

00c00::z1t Boy! (PIN<, 1991). """ 1$ tllied 011 tho ~I t«p<W>(ts

01 tilt 1Uthar'. IOn wt.o _ !roW.I'" b)l1ho ...... ht ...... Clltd by

c:tI>« boys.. T~IS ltory h.lps doddren urlOOmnd the .cnorl~ ,nncr

... 1 ,n IICII"II :and like pno. POQIIIe un 1..1 ,n tilt_ I!IhrOc htol>~

Jino1ho1 NcfIIIo oe<a"""ondrd ~"I book " W<>r • .on l);)nl

Or A Sea"", Mtmoot 0/ th. B<:rt~ 10 IrJ."o/' lIW. """"1 CtrIll>I

Hilh (8UIs. 1995) rl"o$ IS an autoto.ocropllotllllolY lbout I ,,>(Iter!

)QI' "" pi dIosen to I>dp 1Il1ql'.1t Ctr." .. "'ih 5d'IooI '" U!dt W . Ar\in .. , '" 1957 Aeiderl ttl I Iim·hlnd accoom 01 the

I""Iu<lM e.c perotr.::. d by In. IUlhor and 111_ lIor,!bed. """'" 1'111"

on lhe "'1""~1)I of .ac,,,,, ItO lilt Sou!h dur,", tho C..,r I(.gto! I ........ Thert art rn • ..,. bed<l wi"," help tl'llkftn r,om mukleoo .. 11 blcl:.·

p::urnIl unde'lund t.::o..liIey ~I< I'IIt 01 dlfltlerl! Culllll'tS WId ho;P.ti

10 ItCOOOk POloSlbie conIIctI betwee~ 1II<m. In O'Iildltn 0I1f1t ItMr

,Cstw, 1m) KV!IIIW\ )OU' old wnd ... «>'IW, iIo ImIlS ", 11'1 be",

~n 1\nItn(ll'l. """ I. ",rna.n,1'II II,th!,,1 to h., """ pcOpIt .!~ I IIa""

Cirnbod.. AnotIItl ICcllltrltd t>oOIt ""'''h an bI II50td IQ fI<:~~

unde~tln6r'C of !he prOOiorns AIOIIII\rrotntIons may IIa on 1m,,,,

th." ,<lffiI,t"'ll!. fond;", M-r ~ ,le_ 1991). n". ~"'Ihe 1Wf)'~1

Elltn Sun&. Ih. only IbII'l Arnel~ III hoI "'hool wtIo '11IIb,.at<l

10 IIC:I$I «>mI IIOI IIS MId don no! ~ wtIetIItr 10 loIIew '" "',

1Ir.t!f. bot!.t<f)5 to HlM<d Much of 11>. /TIrJIbto.lturll hr...~", .c.::.x

Amn Am.f1tIns locusoes on m..r '''' '~ ' B'l~on Dr IIlw . Xpt ,IIflC.1

<II'Ief Wy '~ '" Ame,o In Ar.,.-l 0I0It O<<lg(I" OIM (Wr.t. 1981)

UI h~ 11'1 I"' tJnoted !olIlts """"'" he< rnoIh., rtm.>m 11'1 VICUWITI

AIII'IorJ~h 51ke 1td"sobIW in l/Ie StIlts. silo" u~bI(!o expo"" hoi

........ 1m,ngS Mm)r ~n ""'0 hIVe UlIIIt to til< llo~ed StlIH

frorrrI 0I1Itt «>unu.oes ..... tit obI< 10 odmtrly WIlfI !hex sIO<fl

33

Othe1 books that show how children can be tom between cultures are uiose that involve living by strong ethnic traditions in a society where these traditions are not the nonn. Shabanu: Oauell(er of (Ile Wind (Staples. 1989) shows the problems that can be caused by arranged marriages. having grown up in a society which does not practice this custom.

Multiculwral books can also be used simply to expose students to other cultures and the ways in which other people live. Dreamplace (Lyon. 1993) introduces children to Native Ametican life by describing a young Anasazi girl's vision of early life in lvlesa Verde. and A Woman of Her Tribe (Robinson. 1990) describes fifteen year old Anneue·s jou1ney from her rural Ncotka community to the city of Y,ctoria. Canada. to discove, her cultural hemage. Also. The Girl \Vllo Loued Caterpillars (Merrill. 1992) is a wonderful story showing traditional Japanese life. It tells the tale oi young Izumi who embarrasses her parents th,ough her love of caterpillars. In· refusing to conform to other people's expectations. Izumi proves herself to be an indepen· dent woman ,n a culture where this 1s not typical.

T,anslated books can also be a good source of multiculturalism byteaching about children·s lives ,n other parts of the world. An excellent translated book ,s Tile Man from me O!frcr Side (Orlevi, 1991). Th,s book is based on real life events and tells the story of a lourteen year old boy li,,ing on the outskirts of a Wa,saw ghettoduring World War II. He and his grandparents help shelter a Jew,sh man. lhis 1s an ideal book for exposing children to the persecution of Jews unde, the Nazi regime. Another highly recommended book for this purpose is The Devil's Arithmeac (Yolen, 1988) in wh,ch a young woman struggles to understand wl1at her fornily went through duringthe Holocaust. Howeve,. using only books about Jews that describe ,heir persecution should be avoided. There using only books that illuminate the joys and happiness of Jews. One example is S:arliglu and Candfe5: Tile Joys of aie Sabbaill (Manushkin. 1995). This tells the story of a Jewish family getting ready for the Sabbath and shows ,he closeness of the family during this weekly Jewish holiday.Another entertaining and amusing story is T!ie Cho.nukkah Guesl

(Kimmel. 1990) in which Bubba Brayna makes potato latkes to celeb1ate 11anukkah '.vi1h the Rabb,. but ends up entertaining a beardue to her poor eye sight,

Conclusion

Although there has been a big increase in multicultural literature in recent years. maklflg it mucl1 easier to find books for ihe classroom, itis important that teachers are able to recognize the qualities that make a good mul!icullural book. Books should not be choseri simply because they have minority characters and are available. They should oe analyzed and chosen using specific criteria such as: Is the text accurate and respectful of different cultures. while port,aying them as true·tO·life? Are characters diverse and from different backgrounds. with eclectic and vatied lifestyles? Are differences among cultures within each "cultuial conglornera.e·· acknowledged? Do illustrationsrep,esent true qualities oi the race or are they stereotypical caricatures? Does the author write fiom a personal. enlightening perspective? All teachers are aware of how powerfully images and stories can affect children. When choosing literature. it must be remembered that books send very strong signals. not only to children about people who are different from them. but also to child1en about themselves.

Educalional Considerations. Vol. 26. No. 1, Fall 1998

References

Alexander. L.. & Hyman. T. ( 1992). The foriune tellers. New York: Dutton Chifdren·s Books.

Balgassi. H. ( 1996). Peacebound /rains. Cla1ion Books.

Beals .. M. ( 1995). Warriors don·i cry: A searing memoir of lhe baWe10 in1egra1e Li We Rock ·s Central High. Archway Paperbacks.

Buckley. H .. & Omerod. J. ( 1994). Grandfather and I. New Yo1k: Lothrop.lee & Shepard Books.

Buckley. H .. & Omerod. J. ( 1994). Grandmo(her and /. New York: Lothrop, lee & Shepard Books.

Coleman. E., & Geter. T. ( 1996 ). \1/lli!e socks only. Albeit Whitman & Co.

Costello. P. { 1991 ). African American We1ature: A con(emporaryperspeclive. Harpe, & Row.

Crew, L. ( 1989). Clli/dren of !he riuer. Dell Publishing.

Dorros. A. (1991). Abue/a. New York: Dutton Children's Books.

fox. P. ( 1973). The slaue dancer. Bradbury.

Garza. C. ( 1990). Famify piclures. San fr�ncisco: Children's Book Press.

Hill. k. ( 1990). Touehboy artd sister. New York: Macmillan.

Hirschfelder, A .• & Singer, B. ( 1992). Risirig uoices: Wri(ings of young

Naliue Americans. Charles Scribner's Sons.

Hudson. W .• & Cooper. F. ( 1993 ). Poss i! on: African American po·

e!ry for children. New York: Scholastic Ir".

Jeffers. S. ( 1991 ). 8101/ier eagle. sister sky. New York: Dial Books.

Kimmel. E. ( 1990). Tlte Chanukkah guesl. New Yori:: Holiday House.

Kroll. V .. & Carpenter. N. ( 1992). Masai and/. New Yoik: four W,nds.

Kroll. V., & Roundtree. K. (!992). \\IOOD·HOOPOE WWie. Mass: Char!esbridge Publishing.

Larrick. N. (1965. September 11). The o.ll·whi(e world of cliildren·s books. Saturday Review, 63·6$.

lee. M. (!992). Finding my uoice. Houghton Mifflin.

Lyon. G. (1993). Dreamp/oce. Orchard Books.

Manushkin. F .. & Chwast, J. ( 1995 J. Scarlighc and candles: the joys of the Sabbalh. New York: Simon and Schuster Books for Young Readers.

Merrill. J .. & Merrill. J. (1992). Tlw girl who loved cawpillors. New York: Philomel Books.

Meyer-Reimer. L. ( 1992). American black folk!ales. Knopf.

Moh,. N .. & Cruz. R. ( 1979). FeWa. New Yo,k: Dial.

Orlevi, U. ( 1991 ). The mar, from !he olller side. Houghton Mifflin.

Paek. M. ( 1988). Aekyung·s dream. San Francisco: Children's Book Press.

Parker. C. ( 1993 ). Why do you call me chocola(e boy> Gull Crest.

Pinkney, G. ( 1992). Back home. New York: Dial.

Robinson. M. ( 1990). A woman of lier uibe. Charles Scribner's Sons.

3/ 34



SI..pIt" S, ( 1993), fJal!tll Alfled A KoopI

St;Jples, S, (1989) 5.'1ob<:nu, dGu,hltl 0{ I~ willd Alfred A, KnOpf

SlIm. M, & MIl, Y·D. (1981) An,.r c/1,ld, df(lfO'1 cl!ild M,lwlultt , WI; C'!n!\l.UR.o,nuu

Tt.I~le. S" " Goul>el:>. 0 (1996) OulWM' CC/ol Nfw l'<I<I<' Homy HoII"~ny

Tw;o,n. M (I88S) Ad ..... nWlti of fJ"ddtbtlry f,mI. N<w Yook; (lwin L Web~1

T"""n, fA ( 1876) , 10, adl!tnlu", 01 Torn SoWY" H,'tfo<d, (1 Am.f1CIn Put>i'hln~ Co,

W,tsoo . P .. "W.tSO<l, M. (199-4), Tnt m<7If.(! i<ody orld I~ OI<In,o Un , Now l'<I<I<, T.mbou" .... 8ocl<,

Wd.y. V (199]), W/wl' do r 10 (rom Ill'" New Y<ltk: SchoLISt". loc ..

"f<:IIen.J. (1988). TN ~uir, anlMlllle V,I<ong,l«wel

[ducaticnol Ccnsld!ralions

35

Counselors are faced with an onslaught of unceasing demands and negalivity from children. parents. community and staff.

Principals and Counselors:

Creating Effective Elementary

School Counseling Programs

Barbara l. Drock and Debra L. Ponec

{Schools) are the center of the community now ... not the church. they gave that up ... Social serv,ces ... have prett; much broken down ... dropped the ball ... <lon·t follow through. We have become the missionaries for all th.it society wants us to fix.

The words of an elementary school principal echo the wide-spread sentiments of teachers and principals struggling to serve the needs oftheir students. Many of the responsibilities and roles previously heldby parents and family. are today assumed by the elememary school. In short. American schools appear to becomin� ,in alternative family (Petersen. 1997). However. elementary teache1s and principals do not have the educational background 01 the time to effectively address thepersonal problems of students and their families. Teachers andprincipals are turning to counselors for assistance.

Schools mirror society. Our element.iry school children are confronted with accelerating crime rates. drug abuse. declining family support systems. neglec1. divorce. and increasing single parent house· holds wi1h incomes below 1he pove11y level. ln addition. some minor· ity students find themselves alienated from the mainstream of society.facing limite(f opportunities for education and employment (Neukrug. Barr. I loff1nan, Kaplan, 1993 ), These factors. combined with the shift of parental responsibiffties from home to school. alert us to the need for a new model of elementary education. one in which elementary guidance and counseling programs are integral components (Peterson. 1997: Neukrug, 8;;11, Hoffman. Kaplan, 1993).

Elementary school counseling programs evolved f;om the vocational counseling model that predominated at the high school level. However. at the elementary school level. a developmental model that embraces a total life guidance approach is preferred. Counselors using a developmental model work co promote social and emotional. P-s well as academic and vocational development: the major responsibilities of the counselor being: counsel ing, consulting. coo1d1naticn. and curriculum (Hardesty & Dillard, 1994).

Since counselors and counseling prog,ams <He reh1tively ne\v to elementary schools (Hardesty & Dillard. 1994). they present an unfallliliar experience for many principals. A unique dwllenge emerges.that of p1eparing principals for the role of superv,sing counselor andmonitoring the success of counseling programs. Responsibilities of principals regarding counselors and prograrns vary according to school district. However. 1t is safe to assume that the principal will be

Bar.bara Brock is Assistant Professor, Creighton University

Debra Ponec is Assistant Professor, Creighton University

Educational Consideralions. Vol. 26. No. 1. Fall 1998

responsible for some po1tion of the following: selecting and supervising the counselor, establishing and monitoring the counseling program. and evalua1ing the performance of the counselor and the counseling program.

Elementarv school principals need to understand the elements of a deve.lopmen;al guidance and counseling program and what constitutes an appropriate role for the counselor. The relationship betweenadministrator and counselor is an important factor in determining the counselor's role and subsequent effectiveness of the counseling program In addition. a teamwork approach to developmental guidance and counseling is strongly advocated in that the neiwork of suppoit enhances preventative practices and the delivery of servtCes to students (Paisley & Peace. (1995).

Given the importance of the relationship between principal ,nd counselor. the mearchers initiated a study to explore relationships among princ:pals, schcol counselors and teachers in order to provide insights rega;ding effective delivery of guidance and counseling programs to students. Qualitative research methodology and ,mer. view techniques allowed participants to express their personal experiences. perceptions. and beliefs. This paper reports the results of the study with a focus on a profile of the comporrerrts of exemplary piincipal·counselor relationships. The intent of the authors is to promote increased awareness of the role of the principal and the necessity for teamv,ork between the principal and counselor in crea!lng effective counseling programs.

Metllod

Participants

Four elementary schools in a metropolitan school district were selected based on their reputation for having exemplary counseling programs. The administrative and counseling personnel of each school were participants in the study. ,our principals. two assistant princ1· pals. and five counselors were observed in their natural settings and participated ,n personal taped interviews.

Field observations in each of the schools revealed that the schools were dissimilar ,n terms of school populations and school personnel. Although the four schools belonged to the same school district. theirschool populations were different in terms of number of students.racial composition ol students. and socio,economic status of families. The principals and counselors also presented diversity in ages. experience. and ,acei ethnicity, Although the principals represented both genders. all of the counselors were female. The personalities and leadership styles of the principals were noticeably different in each of the schools. The eagerness of the principals to participate in thesurvey varied considerably. from one who was enthusiastic about the process to another who w.is noticeably concemed about the presence of the cape recorde1 and needed repeate-d reassurance regarding confidentiality.

The one similarity in demographic factors was the prior experiencesthat the six administrators had with counselors and counseling programs. Three of the principals reported having courses in counseling. fou1 of them reported havin� considerable experiences working with counselors in previous. settings or being instrumental in the district's effor1s to develop counseling programs. for elementary schools. Two of the principals reported involvement in committees that looked at identifying the role. purpose and service that counselors could provide for schools and addressing community forums to exp,ess the need for elementary counselors.

33

36

-IoU ,virwtls/ReMO rdM ..

Tho r..oo ~"<u.chrt1 who (orOoatIt !lit study poDm

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to INI::t mllOt1l. <;Of'ItttIOn1. Ct cI.nfa~OIIS 10 the tr.ruaobfd

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PfOII'm, tilt '~rnlceolmuW"lnJlI.'nd<Olm'lUnIC'bOO ~

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S",CHloi ttlt PIt'iIIITI$ [xh 01 ttlt themel .... tit lultllfl.'~

¥Id dliC~~

Tho Re le e l lho Coun .. I",

1'm<l1>OI1.nd courn..Iot, I~ (1,,( the most ""Cl'01\¥It roIt 01

Ine cO'j"'~IUO: W3S ..... .t" .... ,In Ilude">tl ¥Id lloe .. I. """U

[ir""1lOOI'1 01 ttlt p.,!q)m otpd'''lIlhe COlmdoorIIOir 'rKl~

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37

understand the needs and feelings or the faculty. as well as p1edict faculty response to possible changes. Other principals fielded advicefrom the counselor regarding how to approach an individual te.che1 or group of teachers. and how to present issues so they will be positively 1eceived. One administrator said. ·The counselor is so perceptive. [Arter meetingsJ she tells me what she noticed regarding staff responses and offers suggestions on how to proceed. such as going slower. etc. I really do value her opinions ... she is a good soundingboard:· Other principals reported that they did not have discussions with the counselor about administrative or personal issues.

Communication ·with the Counselor

Communication was cited by both principals and counselo,s as key to the success or their counseling programs. Principals and counselors reported Frequent and daily communications about students. One principal remarked that the counselor had ·an open home and I know staff call ner anytime or day or night. I do too."

Two forms of communication were apparent: frequent inrormalcontacts and exchange of inForrnation: the oiher the formal process or siudent rererrals. Although both principals and counselors commented on the importance of face·tO·iace dialogue. they also emphasized the need 101 paper documentation 10 inform both parties of occurrences. A referral system. outlined by the school district, was repartedly followed in all oi the schools in the study. One administrator 1eported. ·we use the counselor rererral so that we all have ,ecords or exactly what the need is and how that need has been addressed. When a parent comes In. I can pull up that file and say that the counselor worked with your child on this particular day and this is what they have been wo1king on."

What Makes the Program Work

Trust was reported as an essential component of the counselingprogram. The principals consistently spoke ol counselors est2blishing trust

i

ng re lationships with students and families. as follows

Because !the counselo1J has worked with many of the families year aher year and because the{ve had siblings that have come through she knows the families. visits the families and the fam:lies trust her.

jOur counselor has) established a rapport in U1e community with many of the families. touched base. helped them so they have a certain conFidence in her and reel comfortable when there is a concern to make a contact...

.. .ifs just a good ai, that [the counselor] creates with all the people that she touches.

People trust our counselor explicit ly.

The uust basis c,eated by the counselors provided the principalswith leverage to work with fafTlilies.

The personality and dedication or the counselor was mentioned by the principals as a key factor ,n the success of the counseling program.. fhe following semimems were shared by the principals.-what makes [our p1ograrnj work 1s having counselors that actuallycare about the students and care about the staff members." Otherattributes used to describe the counselors included:

dedicated to what they are doing. an advocate for kids.a unique style.


conFidence in the skills and capability of the person. a relationship with students that's one or "I care. I

underst2nd. you can talk to me:· low key. talks very softly, kind of soothing until the

student can be spoken with and communicate.comprehend. and understand.

very visible. pro-active. which is why things operate so smoothly. brings a lot of knowledge to the school.

Problems to Resolvl!

Principals reported three counseling issues that needed to be res9lved: I) classroom teachers· understandine and accepting the counselor's role: 2) counselors being assigned administrative roles: and 3) a lack or counselors in elementary schools. One principal painted out that some teachers wilfingly accept the counselor as a resource. while others are reluctant to have another adult in their classroom. Other principals noted that the process ·takes time." "Once teachers Find out that the counselor can provide assistance. a nice team develops. V

k

re at a point now where they know we·1e all [wo1king) together Jo, the betterment of the kids.· .. Another principalsaid that irutially some teachers became upset when they lost their scheduled life·skills training classes due to a crisis that derna nded the immediate attention or the counselor. Once they fully understood the counselor's role. they became more fle�ible in their response to the lnter,uptions.

Principals were united in their sentiment that assigning counselorsm administrat ive roles negates their errectiveness. One principalcommented dispa,agrng about schools in which the counselor wasthe unorficial assistant for overworked. Frustrated principals. citing a building in which a counselor participated in teacher obse,vations. The principals interpreted inapp,op1iate roles for counselors as scheduling. discipline. and handling angry parents.

"The counselor isn't supposed to be in the role or handlingvolatile parents. She might help out when teachers are havingconferences and a parent is angry or upset. but should alvl;lys be viewed by students and parems as mo,e or a suppon. If anyone's going to be the police. that's the rote the principal will take. Due process and discipline are not the counselor's role". ..

I do not wish to have my counselors ever placed in an administrator role. It waters down their effectiveness if they arelooked upon by students [as having a role other than[ to assist and help them. I know in other buildings counselors do have administrative functions. Out not here."

One principal blamed university g1aduate preparation programs for principals· lack of counseling knowledge. ··1 don·t see anyone teaching principals to work with counselors. That's why you probably see a wide variance or how a counselor is 1/eated at the elementary level of counselors". This principal also noted that the counselor is directly accountable to the building administrator. Thus the role of the counselor is ultimately determined by the building administrator. somei

i

mes 1ega1dless of district guidelines. Principals were equally adamant about the critical need ror a

counselor in every elementary school. Howc.ver. as one principal pointed out. .

. We fought ror years and yea,s to get counselors. and we can

lose them as ras, as we got them:· The Following comments echo the need ror rnore counselors coupled with a rear of b11dget cuts that

35

38



threaten current 1>rograms. ··we have been blessed with an outstanding counselor .ind nope that financial constraints ... will nm diminish from this prog1am. The needs our children bring to us are ever 1ncreas1ng. Every school needs a counselor [regardless of whatJ your reduced lunch rate is."

Discussion

The building principal is responsible for everything that occurs Within the school. Thus. supervision oi the counselor and the ultimate success of the counseling pmgram are the pnncipars responsibility. However. many element1ry principals do not have sufficient familiar·ity with counselors and counseling progiams to adequately supervise them.

The fact that all of the p1111c1pals and assist.nt principals ,n this study had experienced counseling classes or had previously ,vorked with a counselor was not surprising. These principals understood the role of the counselor. the value of counseling programs. and were committed to providing quali ty programs. Not coincidentllly, the counsefing programs in their schools were known for their excellence.

If elementary school principals are expected to administer counseling programs housed within lheir buildings. they need tc be educated in the issues of elementary .s<:hool counseling. School dist1icts that plan lo develop elernenrary school counseling p1ograms need w

provide adequate training for all levels of district administrators. Universities offe1ing prog1arns in elemenwry school administrationneed to include a course that addresses administrative issues in elementary school counseling.

The distinction between the priocipal's role and the counselor's role lies at the heart of a successful counseling program. The roles of the counselor and the administrator are distinctly unique. Sy nature of the counseling 1ole. the counselor is in a mo1e advantageous position than the principal lo budge the gap between school administration and community. Ao effective school counselor becomes the ·· heart" of the school. providing the hurnan touch that links people together. enabling the administramr to focus on administrative tasks. Allowed to perform an appropriate role tile counselor can complement and enhance the administrators· role.

The adminisuator's support of the counselor's role is a critical component in the success of any co,,nse.ling program, All of the princ,pals in this study of successful counseling programs were scrupulous in their adherence to and support of the counseb(s role. They viewed their role as providing guidance and empowerment to the counselor; they welconied the ass,stance of their talents in achievingschool goals.

In some schools overworked p11nc1pals have counselo1s perform administrative tasks to an extent that the counselo1 becomes the unofficial assistant principal. Th,s �egates the role of the counselor and the purpose of the counseling program. The prir,cipals in this study ,,.,ere disappointed with the many instances in which they saw this happening. Their displeasure with counselors who perform noncounseling school activities is consistent with previous research by\/acc. Thyne·Win�er. and Poidevant. ( 1993).

Principals have a responsibility to convey and define the pararneiers of the counselor's role to parents. students. and teachers. One principal noted that a parents' common perception of need,ng acounselor is .. there's something wrong '.vith me or my child."Students sometimes have the same misconception. Principals canfocilitate acceptance and trus( of the counseling program by providingaccume ,niorrnation that oullioes the program and the role of tile

36

counselor. This trust base. is then solidified by the counselor throughhigh v,sib,hty and irequent contacts with students and farn,l,es.

Equally impo1tant is communicating the counselor's role and the purpose of the counseling program to teachers. In schools where teachers are wary about counseling. principals need to encourage interaction oetween teachers and counselors. In other settings. teachers view the counselor's office as a convenient dumping ground for problems, In this study the acceprnnce and utilization of the counselors was so pronounced that some of the pnncipals reported a need to define some limits. In either case. the solution to the problem lies with the principal's articulation of and adherence to the role of the counse lor and the counseling program.

Counselors are faced wii:11 an onslaught of unceasing demands and negativity from children. parents. ·community. and staff. Unless the school district has a support system and stlff·development program lor counselors. these tasks falls within the parameters of the adrninistrator's responsibilities to provide on-going support and professional development for school personnel. This need ,s consis· tent with the Ondings of Paisley & Benshoff. ( 1996 ). who encourage systematic induction programs and p,ofessional suppo1t and Vacc. l\hyne•Winker. and Poidevant. ( 1993), v!ho reported that two (h11dsof the counselors they interviewed stated thal they had no directobsertation or supeNision of their counseling by othe1s.

The possibility of budget cuts thw-.rting existing or potenlial counseling programs is a concem. P1incipals know that regardless of the qualit}'Of instructional programs and teaching. ··if a student walks in the door with baggage. thinking about everything else. he's not going to learn:· However. counseling isn't as vis ible as test scores. athletics. and the arts. Schools don't publicize the number of clllldrenand families who •Jere helped by the counselor. Ironically. the confidentiality that creates ttle trust necessary fo, a good counseling program also puts it on the endangered l,st.

Elementary school counselors need to actively demonstrate howtheir work cont11butes to the oveiall school environment and the development of the students. The public may not yet vie·o/ counsel ing as the school's functi on, which underscores a need for more documen1.ation of the efiectiveness of elementary school counseling in the literature (Hardesty & Dillard, 1994). If guidance and counseling programs are to survive, counselors and p11ncipals need to engage in effect,ve public refations. informing the public about the valuable contributions made through these programs. (Hardesty & Dill.rd. 1994:Hughey, Gysbers & Starr , 1993 ). . .. The follow111g ,ecommendations are suggested for ,ndivrdua/s unending to create new or strengthen existing elernentary counselingprograms:

Principals • Kno,1 the role of the elementary school counselor• Inform student.s. teachers. and parents of the purpose of

elementary schcol counseling and the role of tire counselor• Define and maintain the counselor's role within appropnate

pararneter.s

Principais and Counse/o,s • Establish frequent communiC<liOns• Create mutual t1ust

Counselors • Maintain high visibility• Keep publics informed about your work and your successes

Educational Considerations

39

Several factors limited the findings of this study. First. a relatively small sample of principals. assistant principals. and counselors was interviewed. Additional par ticipants would be needed to saturate the data and develop additional support for the themes identified. Second. the data gathered were based on the objectivity and reliability of the interviewers. Typical of interview data gathering. informant integrity becomes an issue of rigor. Finally, the interviews were confined to a midwestern metropolitan area. limiting the generalizations of results. Despite these limitations. the results of the study reveal the significance of the role of the principal and the characteris· tics of counselor/ principal relationships found in effective counseling programs. The paucity of research on counselor/principal relationships and the increasingly important role that counselors play io elementaryschools suggest a need for additional research on this topic.


References

Hardesty. P. H. & Dillard. J. M.( 1994. December). The role of elementary school counselors compared with their middle and secondary school counterparts. Elernenlary Sc/Joo/ Guidance and Counseling. 29. 83·91.

Hughey. K. f. Gysbers. N. C. & Starr. M. ( 1993. September). Evaluating comprehensive schcol guidance p1ograms: Assessing the perceptions of students. parents. and teachers. The Sc/Joo{ Counselor. 41. 31 ·3S.

Neukrug. E.C.. Bair. C. G .. Hoffman, L. R. & Kaplan. L. S. (1993). Developmental guidance and counseling: A model for use in your schcol. The School Counse{or .. 40. 3S6-362.

Paisley. P. 0. & Benshoff, J. M. ( 1996. February). Applying developmental principles to practice: Training issues for the professional development of school counselors. Elemencary School Guidance and Counseling. 30. 163-169.

Petersen. G. J .• ( 1997). looking at the big picture: School Principals and violence prevention. A paper presented at the annual confe1enceof the MidWestem Educational Research Association. Oct. IS· 18. 1997.

Yacc. N. A .. Rhyne-Winker. M. C, Poidevant. J. M. ( 1993. March). Evaluation and accountability of counseling services: Possible implications for a midsize school district. The School Counselor. 40. 260·266.

37 40



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tho ~ 01 tI'If IndlVidwl te"htr.llld clu$rocm •• ICliOn 1Hf0fCh 5/,. od>o. R&D tfloru OCI;\II"" lt1f d'l/J1" Irod '" tho IIIIm 0( ~ !rom sQtr. It-dof.ol and "" .... t •• gtflC>tl These ... nu ulWli'y ncludt 1't000000000tl Iof cI:s5t"..,.tm of nbmIbon .• Il(! _ PfOd\ICIS ~e ~Ied uodu It-.... """d,lm. FIHuortI condueted It tilt """"'lilY ~. by OOflClfOfit Of",n'ZltrOll', ""d com~~ ",t.testl >It doscnbod btIorw

I CrimI> ''''to Ql!llt UM'm,J, Itl!fllCt~ttll and /ru1,MtI" Un"",,,t,,, h ..... Ions bte n ch>'e<'d Wl1h \lit ~lflO!t$lt;tI}I b

I'tIUII;h In ed ..... oon .100 In ott... 1rU'. M>rl)' un-.,tltS n ..... nub~,slltd II"1$IlluUl or c.nttf1lr1!1oc:h M ~d ""'Iy 10 Itse;old! .flonl. or>::! ~ sh>~ suff itId l.Ie""", 10",""" tho most (II tI'If doioll.......u:. An lU~ 01. «I"Ilfr whlCI1 .. IDa.zd on ~seltt/l Illho /~, Portft Gr.h>m OIlllJ ~( c .. ..., ,"MlCh " Pilt 01 Iht u.-o,tJ of Nooth C.tootr~ <It CIt.",,1 tt.II Tilt (tnw dtocnbn IU "",,on '" Ille "*""""I ""f"

Tho '(,nk Portel Gri Mm Ch.ld tltvtIopm.n t Cente, .... S "U~,,1Ird ,0 196b 1$. multod,sc.pJ,nM)' ""(It" lot ttlf lotlldy 01 cUd,.....,d I.mil,!!. ~1IeC..uy dl,idren it ".Ior dt'llllop' "ltotl! poobltrm dIJ. 10 blOlop::_~ ()f Inwonmtlltll l;octors Tilt Cmw', ""'lIOn hll ~ DWl dtdouttd 10 tnII.ncln& ItIf ~nl of )'OlII't1 o:/'1.~d'tn ond ,uppo.Un, II'If" I1II1IIoes IhtOU&flIfSUlCh publIC un.c'. _ teldll .... Tho Untr. lIII.ntil<Jtl 1 IOanI o;omn> 1'Ile'\I Ii> p_ng thx ~ tlIptr10ncn how:. _lui ",tum:r. on chddlau o...Iopm."t ~"""'" cu"",,"m ","wills )r>::!Ieid1'"1 watlil!S, 100 demoosll.~"i til ochrrl tilt I.""" 01 """(fI(n most l'l:tl)r 10 mill",. cntld ~lImt

41

Research projects have included the Abecedarian Project. a longitudinal study of che effect of early intervention on at-risk child,en which began in 1972 and continues today. and other research which looks at issues concerning child development including child care. health, disability, and family support. Products which have been developed include training material in early intervention. and numerous books and othe1 publications (F PG, 1997).

The Wisconsin Research and Development Cente1 for Cognitive Leaming was established in 1964. and is another example of a resea,ch and development center. At the time of i•.s creat

i

on. it was charged with conducting basic resea1ch. translating research findings into materials and p1ocedu1es that could be used in schools. demonstrating and disseminahng the information and products that were created, and providing leadership to the field of education as a whole(Klausmeie1, 1968).

Now called the Wisconsin Center fo, Educational Research. the locus remams on improving education and conditions in the schools. Cuuent and past projects have examined writing skills, the teaching of mathematics and sc:ence. educational policy. child care for young ch,ldren. special education and the education or students irom cultulally diverse backg1ounds. Dissemination effo,ts include a nurnber ofnewsletters and publications. as well as training and partnership with schools as outlined rn individual grants and projects (WCER, 1997).

2 Regional research and deuelapmenc cencers In 1966. t11e fedml government charted ten regional laboratories to

b1ing about educational improvement. These laboratories are still in existence today and address a number or educational concerns ,nclud,ng rural education: assessment and accountability: cuniculum, learning and inst1uction: technology: school change p1ccesses.language and cultural diversity; urban education: and early childhood education. The laboratories offer publications and consulting servicesto educational agencies, and ,nformation is disselllinated on the Internetas well as through more. ccnvemional sou1ces (NWREL. 1997)

The far West laboratory was chattered as one of the regional resea,ch and development cente1s in the mid· 196o·s. Berg and Gall( 1989) wo1ked the1e developing min,courses for teache1 inse,vice. In 199S. the Fa, West lab became 1Nest£J. and their work continues ina number of educational areas(WestEd. 1997).

3. No11pro{,1 01ganizaiions

Anothe1 source of 1esearch and development in education isnonprofit organizations who gather ptivate and public funding to create new educational products. An example of this type of 01ga111-i,tion is Zero to Hiree whrch was founded in 1977 by leading expe11s in the field of child development and which ·· disseminates key de',elop,nental mfo,mation. tra,ns pt0v1ders. promotes model approaches. . and works to increase public awa1eness about the significance of the ficst three years oi life·· (Zero to Three, 1997). P1oducts available From Ze10 to Three include a monthly jou,nal. numerous books and other publications. videotapes and ttaining opportunities wh,ch are all ptov,ded at a very 1easonabte cost.

Another example of research and development which was done bya consortiulll of individuals and nonprofit agencies is the SurvivalSk,lls Workshops for Urban Women curriculum which is desc1ibed at length late, in this paper. It was des,gned by teache1s. social workers.home visitors. and graduate students who were working directly with low incorne women. They came together for the specific purpose of c1eacing 1he mate, ials which Were ult,mately produced, Funding came

Edueational Considerations. Vol, 26, No. 1. fa/( /998

From federal and state grants. private donati

ons, and through the ··sweat equity

.. of the develope1s themselves (l. Thurston, personal

communication, October 30. 1997).

4. Comme1cia/ companiesPerhaps the most successful ,eseaich and development is that which

is done fol profit. Educational materials produced by comrne1cial enuties include much of the educational software. textbooks. assessment tools. and hands on materials that are used in the classroom.These materials are developed using the same steps that a,e outlinedbelow, and many are meticulously tested ,n a school environment. The testing for compute, sortware recommended in Apple ( 1994) closely parallels the Borg ten step process

Research and Development Cycle

Borg & Gall outline a ten step research and development cycle which includes.

I. Resea,eh and information collectingNeeds assessment is a vital piece of the research and information

collecting phase of the cycle. The researche1 must determine if the p1oduct or p,ocess that is being designed will be considered valuable by futuie users. A need can be defined as "a drscrc.pancy between an existing set of conditions and a des

i

red set of conditions'" (Borg &Gall. 1989. p. 761). McKillip (1987) and fullan (1991) feel that needs assessment involves value judgments on the pa, t of resea1che1s and subjects alike which determine p1iorities, and which can have a huge impact on the implementation of the finished p1oduct.

The first step in a needs assessment is to determine the identity of sta�eholders. Johnson, Meille1, Mille, and Summecs ( 1989) dividestakeholde1s inco two groups- consumers. those who will be using the p1oduct. and prov,ders, those who supervise or assist consume1s in its use.

Stakeholders at all levels can be expected to give subjective info1rnation that will come from p1evious expenence and values. This may or may not be rellable and helpful to the researcher. Therefo1e, in addition to simply asking participants above thei1 perceived needs. it is important to examine mtistics and attifacts that may give more objective views of the situation. It may also be helpful to observe the behavior of those involved to determine the actual level of need for the product. If the 3M company had 1nie1viewed office workers and asked them if they needed little pieces of paper to make notes that could latec be 1emoved. they probably would have received little response. However. they tested the marketability oi sticky notes by handing out free samples. Once the office worke1s we1e able to use the litlle yellow note pads, their value became apparent, and they shared them with friends and begged fo1 lllDte- which created a market for the product. (Nayak & Ketteringham. 1986).

Next. a lite1ature review should be conducted to dete1mine if thep1oposed p1oduct is al1eady in existence. 01 perhaps has been tried in anothe1 form previously. II no information can be found rega1ding thetopic being explored. that would indicate that eithe1 there ,s a need lor information on that topic or that the1e is virtually no inte1est in it. A value judgment would need to be made at that time 1egarding whether 01 not to continue.

Another aspect of the needs assessment p1ocess involves looking at the level oi resOUiCes of the 1esea1che1s to determine if it would be feasible and p1ofitable 10 develop a given product. Borg and Gall ( 1989. p. 785) suggest that the following four questions be asked

39

42



., pm <>f til( owll aucnrr~t prOCtSS;

CMs !he pro~d P'Od<>i:t "leet i~ importint ,oow.o,~ l l'I«d' 15 thf: SUte 01 thl I't 5UrrO::It!1 ~y adv/.nc,d !/Il tttlt"" a

fe>lQ<1ible jlOtIhobil,ty tml a 5U(~lf,,1 pOQdOC( can ~ b,dt' flR pmooll(t aV30lable ""'" 1H><e tilt sbll s. ~~~. and

""pr"iencI! neC!S50<y to buid tnlS product? On Ille pmduct bt de><e/optd wotM a fUSONblt (le!<Od

0/ MV:'

l Pl.lnnUl, Once an vnpIe OII1OIInt 01 onloromtioo hu betn roIlec!ed. thf:

re5Ur<iIer 'hould p'e~ a pion 01 thf: poodUCI. ondudon& the its MUll: usc. POIenb;j1 aucLen<e. and a deK,'Ilton of yt ..... 1 rutu,es It should ~ tll:en dO 1((QOJnt Iml ttv: o:oncepc of uv: producl WII ",bnmlatty ctQn", ~'II"'! bUl tlIe peann.nR poxes. 15 lui 01 vit.11 impolUnce tSori & <;'11 t989) Prqcct ~5lhoutd be dfViscout ttlt ~Ios>mml process (Apple. !994)

3 Ot~lop Pltiimino'y {of'" of plIXJI/CI Ad R(,() !"O)CdS lhould be dts:gntd ""II> SPe"lic obt",~vtS on

nund, G.ogrv: 1988 U~I ~lo&nelS 10 Ictep the resu~s of <fI1)i,ol tWlng .1 the ""d'OIlI wIltn (rue,,& n~ prooocts and mm". I. -Tt>t,ti",e, It is e5Kll~al thot ~ dt~'td WICO",.S oIllv: ~s.grv:d IrlSifocoon ht ,ltarlyanJ u"..mblioous~ stoted Thesc OUI(",'''15 Irc V3'iOosly 11!.,,,,d to i s be"-"'Ofa l obie(ilvtl, Iwn." OO"':I,,'U, C< pc'!OflNnCt 0b!W,ivo.' ( p.121)

The cfl:ui<.ln of th t prototype ~'C5SCS tht CooI! nl p,,,e of th, R&D ",mit. A prototype of th e plopootd prOl !ct sIrou ld bt plOp.rod d"W1ng on "scarch "~lrd "'i rot il lub;ecl maTtI'. ' '' 0 Ju r", ng t~ A, the p" l,mrnI'Y form il p,cduced. tht dcyc lope r Will m.,~ de<: i,ion' ,tx>oJt wl" t will be !jUBht, Ind Jilool tloe k"'nn ,,, whICh tile ;;ootent "" II be prcS!nted

A ~"gn .. 01 ~ler ooi!w'''t m:omm~mh thn tl1~ d(~fln 01 thf: proIoI~pc emboojy uoe pr<.>j«t's cO(\(~Pt, P<J'posot and mu~"s, Tlr .. apr>l~' to otllt' med .. as ~II f;octCt'l to COOl.!.' ""htr' O'el~ne I PJOIO!ype .hCtM oncltide · ~"""IJO(~ , C(II1flSWiCY. ~Ilglgement dcI'd., lun. aMd afklldob,l.ty· (Awl!. 1994. P 128)

Aoolhtq>.a!t of tlus Itep os to ~ ~ method lot f.cld ttSIonA Ih~ producl The okvtlopcr "" '. decode; who (he ((«tII ... 11 be. anJ wha( qUf:<l ..... ~ wolf be ~>IOe<:I reg.J,dons poss,blt UIU lor thf: fin,ihtd prOd · "d (8"'i & wll. 1989) Th,s (Cit pfan shoufd bt (ilmly loed to the c<i"",f obt<alvtS of II>~ p!Cf«;l Il OS ,mPOft,lnl to odenl,fy wll.lt win be an end peonl!¥tn a( tllos n'l)! «age (0 ' ~lolKl: th .. t the PKljtCl d ... ~ not l~ 011 ~ II I< of rt~ own ud compi!l(l)! ch .. n;tt shape bolo" II .. (omplt!«l (Apple 1994).

~ Pu-hminc:IY (wid Its!.",

Once the fi" t draft 0I1~ f/'OdlJt1 's a.m:>ItItd. rl should be le~ on a <m .. n Silmp;., 01 ~"'I uS!r1 ... the WIlt type of errv_OIlmen( 1.II.U in wluch II w,lI be uscd Tr5ltfs shllUlcI bt dosc'Y non'lon:d and •• k<d for luggnbon$ al>oU1 'mp!O'>'lnS tile !"oduc;\. In ,ddtOll Ihr: dc>octo;:.<" should do 5O~I~ lype 01 objectM leSlo"& 10 <let!"""v: If go;ofs arc btln~ met. Fe< example. a group 01 tt .. chtrs who I\'!" a fte 1I~,n"'a repor ted lhal 1~ ItIt thai tho ullnlng WOI ~Iy ..... Iv .. bit, oot no ~~m ill JOel, t~od1lnc ""' 1 OOIt d J"",,'I~al oI>!er .. 1>On 15 neceSSlory in arlie, to con form thu tht trll! obttct i~ 01 th~ R&D pro,..:t lit J!'IOo<d bt ln g mtt Th, ft.wtOomt meet can p l.~ i b,~ po rt '" tl\o pr! ll ml ' n. ,y telll,,& proce,! btCIUS! testt rs . nd "'".rects ... ed to ~ 50

do"ly togelher, ,;0 ~flgu:"d, mun be p<JI Into pI"e to ins ... e !ll.at "'" . vohmJOn is in6wl ,,",Cu" tl (Soli & <;'11 , 1989)

~ /,Ja;" p;om.c! ,,"i,iM Af( .. thl prd.m11W)l f;,1d ttll" corrcI.te<l, lIot produ(l M«dl to

t.. '<:vised to ~ """,,'Y COO1Pl<t~ .ut. MC<t ment ..... u th'l pQot\!

,houfd lit gMl1 to iU loon on ili~on to ,tl sub.un(e. OtoS ..... 1 .houJd t.. m.c. .boul priMMa st~c ,n the tlSC of ~ wn«en product Grlph,e des'in. navigauon. ont., fK. Jnd dtbuWni IhQufd bt <on$ldtrm when w"I!k,"i ",,<tI, moll,mcd'J compute, sohwo" Du .. b,hty '$Sues ,n thf: Col" cI ~ to)' 0< g.amc woN need to be UWl UUO accounl (OIllttlt $hould be ed,ted .nd P'OOf~ lot K(U'KY and e<>mom, Pl.3ns will 1lt r.".hztd lor thf: om .~ lid<:! (ewna dunna thrs

"0 6 M"u .. , flrld (mill,!:

I\cco!d,nl!. 10 Apple (1994). thf: .... on ttSh,,& process lho ... oteur In th,.. pha~: u<l, lestonl:.IWl<Lon~f t!Sbna. ind cont.nt teSbn, U", t.<u,,& ""'nlJncs Ille 'd~toonshlp lltlw«n the prorioct ,nd the "od .. nce b wt"ch II was onl~d. Aspects to coosKler InclUOe tilt ~ lhat the prodlJtl ,ust.uru the Inlerelt 01 !he USC'. rlS atxhry 10 m"" ~(le!:iror: Ie~,"llg objcc~ .• nd ""hc~htf torlltttd uscfl ll~e thf: pr",,"Cl ~<>d ltd 1I",t rl meet, 11\0 onleoOed object, .... s In .. dolt.o::>n. \I\tr •• rowld be '>O!'Ile prO<ld~" to ,.,1'0 so. II Slullen1S JIt Iwrung '''' cootent llul "p,."n((d, ,nd LI Ihe product hi' met 115 OI lgJrIIl ,,~

funn"",. 1 t"li ng looks It the f"''''''t of 11\0 projfCI In tht CISC 01 rn ult.rned,. COO"TVJleo progrlml. th is ph." 01 t'S!lns !>~rrr" ... s lhe gI' phor: <Ie"~n , dunbil, ty. cOfTlPallb ll,ty w.th V~'IO\JI ccmp uters , ~nd Ih. w.y Ih'l the prO&,. m !!SjXlndl urr lle, the >ctui l cond itions In """K:h It wiU be u>ed (Orllljloodi0e 1.»Is "'1th prin t mlttfll l would lool it btu", ,ud1 a, b< "~ in& ~oethods . tYl>e of P3 P~ r , pr"'t ~u ,.,.j 'I)-le , .nd """, II bma( lrld c<z~rri" l Kl!r

(""tem "",uld be t(\\(d by 5OO1~or .. ""to !5 In e>;po:l! .n In appropoi.te cooten! .<e •. afid wt>:o hIS no( t--. a p.t rt of tilt produ,( dc>oclopmtnt The pl\ld<J<:t ","wid be c~ lor accuw;y. mv.(Wl and phow, shoold bt Iab~l!d lPP'Oi',jllefy lnd sptflong .. nd gr.mm .. >hoold be ",,~ullt!. Apple (1m) Sims that f,nd"" QOJ~ljfoed tts:." " nO! .. dJffM:ult .. mUonS SUf! doJt they Wot, aU of til( mal",.f and thn they go OWl ,( .Ill more InJn om to 'nsu~ tII.lt thf: ,nJocm:obon potSCnted IS .b",futdy ~t

As ,mporunl .. lhe IoeIlons pooc~ .. It •. 1 ;. ",uf to \;now """" to MOl> T~ will always t.. ~bOOiI l<~tull:S I"-t would be noa to add. and woOOcrfuf we&'Sloon, for ""proye.-1ltnt of II>! prOduct aoe bahl< to rome fJOf'llhe rICId IoeIteJ'S Apple (1994) u!i" ~IopcIS .. t I"'. POUlI to Mum 10 lhelr o"giOlf plan ~nJ ob,..:to." .. and to rtla,n I"" ''''''''pl ...... sooncd at the bfVnnon, of tire P<O)tCI

I; .. rmpolUn1 to a.w a lill( ., th( \.>nd and soy INI aoy 1!l1,,'( 011 Oil( ufo 01 thf: Ii". ne~ 10 get r.n,ih.d and tened ,ompittdy befe«: thf: pm<ilJtl sh'ps Any Imu" on th. Ol/It, sille te"1' ,,~ 0, put "'10 ano1"'" _SLOIl WitlloUl tIllS lin •. the pr,,!c<1 f .. w,ts conhnu! to grow and ItIt 'nittal PU'~' . nJ l""1' ;ttl ",bvt,tt{j Of clwlged w,1hout co~:ous tllw;:/ll Th! tm, III !he scht<!~! (Nt Ih I lint 15 dI.wn, tl\o more eh.n" t~ p:oj<o1 will r.d Ag.,n, I", prodlJtt pi1n 01

J;<0p0!J1 should I>c u .. d!O m lhele 1''''5 (p 219),

7 Op(rallO<lai produci "vi,;oo Op.r. li ooal prod ...:t ""sion t'""' Into ,ccoon! , II of th( <QI 'ler. 1

[ducat,"onal Consideratlonl 43

materials and documentat,on that will be necessa;ywllen the product is shipped and sent off to schools 1n its final fom1- without the developers present to oversee its dissernination and use. Handbooks. instructions and other supplementa1y materials are developed al this mee. The p1oduct should be packaged ,n "Final form" sent to a school or other intended audience group.

&. Operal:orial field lesling Oper.tional field testing is done by regular school pe1sonnel and

materials should be used in as natural a manner as possible. Thedevelopers or the product should have little or no input at this point because it 1s time to see how the product is used by people who are not familiar will', it. Questionnaires should be distributed to determine if u,e almost Finished product Is 1n a form that 1s understanoable and usable to the consumer.9. Final product revision

final p1oduct revision is simply a f inal editing or cement. and minor adjustments that are made based on the Feedback received during operaHonal Field testing. following this final revision. materials are prcduccd in quantity and marketed to the imende<l audience.

10. Dissemination and imp/emenlolionResearch and de'lelopment must occur in partnership with develop

ers and consumers working together through ,11 phases or the project to create a product that will truly meet the needs or the consumer. This is bemg recogn1ied in business as well as education. ,�irplane design is one example. •rhe 777 was not just designed with thecustomer in mind- it was designed with the customer in the room .. (Black. as cited in Endres. 1997).

In order [or the R&D process 10 woik. there must be substantial responsibility placed on the shoulders or the developers in the area ofdissemination and implementation. The ideas contained in the prod�ct rnust be sold to those who could benefit from the product's use The U.S. Office or Education has established the National Diffusion Ne�Nork to assist in the dissemination of successful R&D products. Commercial companies may assist in the marketing and dissemination [or products that they w,11 be handling. Developers need. however. 10 stay in touch with consumers at every stage of the R&D cycle. (Gorg & Gall. 1989).

Examples of R&D

Survival Skills Workshops for Urban Women The Survival Skins program designed under Lile leadership oi Dr.

Linda Thurston of Kansas State University to teach skills necessary for everyday life to low income women is an excellent example or the ten sl�P process outlined by Borg and Gall ( 1989). The project originally grew out or a need. I lome visitors working w,th parents or young disabled children in Kansas City. Kansas in the late I 970's became concerned because the parents v.rho were participating in the serviceswere often distracted or un�ble to work with their children because their low income status kept them in a state oiten of constant crisis.They attempteo to find matecials to use with these fornilies in ceach· ing them liie skills and were unable LO locate any programs which Fit their needs. Therefore. a team of twelve professionals including teachers. administrators. home visitors and graduate students was put together to create a program that could assist low income "''Omen in becoming more independent. After 3 1/2 years of research. the Survival Skills p1ograrn w<1s developed.

Eduea!ional Considerations. Vol. 26. No. 1. Fall /998

In the next step. members of the team used surveys and Focus groups to identify the topics that would need to be covered jn a ser,es or workshops tha, would be presented to the target audience. Proressionals 1n the fields of education. social work, health. nutrition.etc .. members ol the inner city community. people who had risen out or poverty. and low income mothers themselves were all polled and ,esponses were grouped according to specific categories. In addition. the computer records or a local television station's "Call lor Action .. hotline were examined to determine e,ommunity concerns. Once the topics were identified. lists were d:stributed to experts to prioritize in order to dete1mine which should be covered with the greatest intensity. A task analysis was done to determine the best way to present the inFormation.

The team then broke into ·comminees who were charged with developing modules to address the topics that had been chosen. Prototypes of each session were deve loped. and the entire teamcontinued to meet to ensure that each segment or the prograrn was true to the original intent and mission of the project. Sample workshops or .. mockshops" were created. Field testing was conducted ,ntwo phases. the first on each module individually as it was completed. and the second on the series of workshops in a more final lorm. Initially. facilitators presented individuals modules to a variety of groups including Head Start teachers. women on probat,on. and community organizations. Data was kept from pre and post testing to see i[ the content presented was learned. observers attended the sessions to observe the behavior of the presenter and the pa1t1cipants.and interviews were conducted both immediately. and six to eighteenmonths after the training to see if the information had been useful in the long term. Readability levels were checked to make sure that aff written materials would be presented at a firth grade level. Team members developed and identified research tools dunng this phase that would be used during the full scale testing process.

The second phase tested the modules as a completed curriculum. Ten 3-hour workshop sessions were presented as a series. Details such as the seating arrangements. and the best procedures for breaks and snacks were reviewed in addition to the content or the lessons. Rev,s,ons were made to make the content clearer, to remove material offensive to participants. and to insure that the material was presented in a way that was interesting and motivating to low income women who for the most part had not previously been successrul in school or other training situations _ Once a final Form ror the modules had been completed. materials were printed. and operational testingwas performed. Trainers who had not been a part or the development p1ocess were 1<ained and sent to different areas of the country to test the program. facilitators are given a script to use when presenting. so at this stage the method or training trainers as well as the content and format of the package was evaluated.

At the present ti,ne. the program 1s in use in thirty states. two coun1<ies. and has been translated into Spanish. Additional progiams [or men and youth have been developed as well. Data continue to be collected, and often the results have been very positive and reinfo1cing. Most people score near 100% on the post tests or the content presented. and personal experiences ror trainers and participants alike have been very gratifying.

Or. Tl\urston reels strongly that the program has been successful because of the ex.tensive research which was conducted during the development process (l. Thurston. pe1sonal communication. October 30. 1997)

41

44

VolCft olille lO', An """~ of an • .:Io.utJo/l prodoct wh(h ..... s CluterJ by ,

toIIWotIc~ tnlt'P'1It 01 a mulM'td.~ ~ prooeram ... LIlod -vo.on of the 30's' k WI. "''''N ly aroc.....d b\I a I!Jch sthooI It~, . nd I,b, ... '~n to ttiCt1 t ilt Crol't. 0/ Wrolh b)' Jolon SC .. nbec~ II ..... 1 exp.ndood ,lid ~red lor _I dow,b\rIoon ... «JCIIltUb~ dbt by Applt Cortl(Iutt,:Ir'od VIINGS U lurn"" 1nIom\ru:tI.~ nwll OSstumml.nd .,form;obon pll>trlni W11 not MI~bl< , but the PfOItC{ _tl~ ,,~CUI. of • nmilo plOSoMl onIor~I>OO . bouI lilt dIrpru~on to h,UI sd>ooI scOldtnts. PIonnorc ondudtd dtc.I!.oI m.ll "", ~ org.an,ntJon d lilt !II11t,,"1 and ... lln:h of n~1 'Riftamont.l«UOIlor rope tolOOCMr ~t IUnIOn ."d Bob~brD the an2""') OtSlVltrl 0( I:ht pIOI)'iHI\ I(te<l U "",lUll e.oo:;wtI JIId edIIcn. A IIfOI£JIWO _ drvt~ !It.wI and ,,,,,,ltd [M".: thol ~1oIOn, tn. ~ 01 00< I«t.on WII cllVtjtd whoch me, nl ~1 '1>OIt than )(Xl """En ~Cl\.Wtd madir."'11011 b;lI d'It g .. tor. !tit ~t the t.n.shtd prodUCI ..... ' muo;h mort .U,I(lM.. lHtonC IfIChlCltd prooI'Ri ill quoks.old It~rocu ndy(\ed ,n tilt conltn~ n wtll u lel~ng lor b</&"QI p'obIrms in Iht {omputt' p'''ir.aml'T"n&, Tho IIM:IopnenI Itlm IXINGlCd 01 Itn ptOpIo ""', !h. pt,,,,, aI ant }/til. ftI do!velopmerlt C05b ....... ~,iIIdt \.80,000 (~ 1'J9oI)

e"," II,",,,,,,, Nkau ~. ~ n.... b«n upt>>ef\Ud "' lilt R&D poocm Nvc

1~1td POItIlWl p,lll lll. 'nd WI)'I " whoch Ihfy an br ."",<If:t.I I AlorIy dlDWI ,0011

The ncc:ts i1Ssusmenl PfCUU un S"T~ net be U'de,s.t.ltd WStH IhftodI rn>~ "",I "'nl( to ,uu,d"" m;oy not hlw ' I'Y IIUilCtoon " III ~ m;oy not mUI the MMI 01 the COIIil •• n. " 01 tilt I'fO'1KI. l'JOOuuli • pl\IIIucI SImPly for ~I own S>Ioc (In br dig_ 2 Mokmg lilt PfOI«)'JIf 1(1<1 00111"'"

Boll o.r.<l c.. (1919) ",un thH rna"'n, Iht JIIQUK)'Pt lOCI pohsioed an bra WJilt 01 ~t:I arod III'IIt They ... tilt dM\optI to put m~'''''''m dbl ,nto dtYdOl""C' ~,npIc QI!he prodoJ(l whoch .... 10M Inle,,'I)I'OO """ QI (Onl..,l, MlrJ 10 Iotu ••• "", II 00 the tilt Iurrwla I"-Y H"I .... br ..... d on ~11>n& tht ........ at""" Tilt ~ ,hQU4d bt 'II~~ tllOOlr' 10 no! dOIU3o:t IhoK ""'" woW br "''''& Il WI nU1nf1OU1 Chlr.gtl'" Io~ to bt mack dun"i Iht ,nl,mlrll'y ~ preens. Ie ,I ~ I,u~ IOrtIt 10 puc much poh$h onto iI jIfOduct IllhG s"ll!

1. uptru Sonw: RbO prqecll [iJ braust tht ~Q\)m l.Oldeoestunat. lilt

{cnI 01 cn::r.~ • new poacIucl 80rt (, Cd (I.) rII~", • ....n1l thty tIIiIlhr ,,~o of 1-10-10,"",,(1\ I u.cd ... ,"Gullly to UII1N~ tilt rXperll( Qr ruardl ilnd ~09"'t~1 If II rn.Ibon <s \ptI'llltl do tilt b;au; "I(ardl ~ for • p1OJl(l 110 moIoon WIll bo needed 10 carry It ihIouc!Ill'It O(ltfiIU"",,1 fOlld Itlt suI". Jnd '100 d"" ""II br ~nl", I1I¥IUfilCturlng aod d,»c"'mmo~. 1111 ,,~ Illtrtfort.lo ato;u,Kdy ULtr'IOU lroo (0;11 d bnnp't& !he pIOducIlO "'"In, .nd w hM tvr.ioa In pIxt bdort eN 1JIOftt1 i:qol'lS

4 51~r 0/ PfOttCl HOW'III , pi PI<l!KI phn In p~ _me bqln""'il 01 ~ .. P'OIC"I

'" 1lfa""Y 11'1 0Idtr to Ioc:u. Ilw: IOCIp(. 01 wh.1I II IltroIptrd hlt>CuII.~y ,n u .. 1101 d .dClCitloo vd\eIe It ~ uS)' to look arQ<.<l(\ one kiffi~fy -.II rvtry'/I'iltrt. ,I ' I \(m[Itl!'lIto l>Ioo<kn tho '>llIl" 01 lho .nwpnst to II\dudt rrocrt chon an Klu.Uy br iddot$icd WI!h

the ruooJIW ,.,..,lable Tilt oog;l>l COOII \I1oold bt loPl In ", ,,1<1 th~ wlodl ~ _ U"",""dO\IS d,~ 00 !ht ","'I 01 the ~ (Apple. I~)

S lade 0/ Iral,ty Ihd: II:tIawIodp 01 lh< {Nr9t P>(xUI If! tducl\lOO II . nocI\tf ",til ~ 01 tduaollONl lOZI,di MId de- [llpn.lIl_ On! 01 the '1Pl'Cl1 01 m" PIOCt:l1 .. Ihat {hlo&e (100,0'5 bolt .... htr> ou,dddtrs hM In In".untnl ,n tht !lc'lllopme'll 01 lilt PfOIt{t II ,t ps ~Icl)g Tht bolt ~ -'" drvtlopnom aron .... /Im tht drYeOPll alld tilt IU~ -.I: OOSt'lhtt to IIkfltdy ~(~ ~ ..... III b~ .upporl lor oil ulO from tilt pr~c~baIlC' I~ UP mtud C>f rrtl<l1 (I .. iK\mIIIJMIDI Itwf -.

k """' • /onulllif t'OIIlboNl>On oIlht "Ihl filCtorI· a CfJtaI ""S$-IO .u pporllnd 11"0. II,. praa:s> of It lurn", """"" ft:IIlt(U lhe rrwnltrl. roc. needs 01 "ldo"'dwls and ~ :Ind .1 lilt _ bmt f.c~,ulel. ItKaobll:O, .nd prods peq:JIt Irl ch.nge lIl'OLIIh. f)fOI'UI ofl1lum....,l~ I~d deatrnent.1 fill llId It.n Or'Ilht w~ to irutill/bOfllfJll,,& (or, II'PPfIIP.l t •. It)OCllll21 lilt chingt" ~ (FulLon. 1991 p 921

6 I.od of dllStm,naliOll Tt.. m.loonlrup ~n RbD ~M dos.rmrn;ollOO na. nut ~

b«n c1w. buill .. til ItI lilt pro<ns ·'Oroaopm."r 01111_ v.lloOrI 'P!lC'" ID hM bHn ,"~td to mun .Imo<{ f'o'tryt!llnc from tl<>q " nl Ir..orWu l l~n lfi{'hOtlS 10 {IIef" ' field leSlJlli 01 mnd.rdiztd p.Octrklin Ind 'do!\eIIIIII.h",,. ~1'n(OPIpalocd ... h YOIntd Ktr>'tIIS as pqrlm ~. n<W5leum. jOUfNl .,(ide> .nd <yIltm.ltll Irpi " ' bOtl oIlaul p"'C'.ms" (Plont (, 8t 1~"'I', 1912 P 29) TIIno ,uth" .. "'''!lOU lilt (InllOO 01 ~Sh:1IOII MId modd lI"'if"TI.tNl on be otpIialtd " • __ 01 stWOiS Ot:twr ~5U"" wutm !luI d:!W'1I!1'hon II ~ ~loly to be .. (toUlo! whtn lroo product ~s be,n II\Oro"""y 1<sled . nd found Ia be dfr.lM: ""'M oIl1'1ttlS lilt nm! oIlht .odop!lng 19tnC)' MId when funding ~I bftn mode .YOIobbio U ~m'f'ljtoon (S:llIu. (911)

The Io;ey to 1110 dlSsem,n.tIOn poxnl" KMII)' In foIIaotinS. 1I of Sc<& llId C>l1 (9189) 1M SlOP dMlopm.nl JlfOII"" The Survrv>f Slab b Urbon Womrn """" ....... ""IS ldop\fd "" • ...r;k ~ fill me foII""""1 "'$COS It met • ~IS'"i "..d, II WI! thorooihly oesell.lw.d I nd cIoo.Imctote<.l , mr:>dI:l I"'¥'Im W1$ ~. ,I ILIIad II>nr:i>ldolOd """_. -'" (~onp1'& ... won ("'homon

"'" Con.hlJiD~

IItsu<dl MId de>fIopn,.,. '" It.. r .. kI 01 tduulO'l hOi t..tJI nedttled .nd r.etd , 10 ott .. 01'1 ~ ,''''- scal.lOd;oy 1M! ~ btlo .. ~_ th. 1I oIlt1t preens .~ folt ",,1hauI • S)'1WllIIOC 'i>PfOiICh to R&D AI d U>t Wp:! .n tilt pooons IS ou(lroec tlv kq (, (.;o~ C 1989) II. ~ tmIlOlUm II>d ,f Iotlowrd. "''' i"" I Plrxllcl. f>. , !lfUt, di .. >t:. b l<IC«SI SpeclllllunlIOn ~d br IfIId to the neWs ust"mtm p!lXt:l1 ., ordtllh.l ~ ..... " Ittl owtIt,lh", .ond ~l ..... ID the ~m,n'loon pratUI whocn os rAltn """looted by dt'Itloprrs. W~h I "Iorous IOIUrth NI(, , morUlll'ltrlt5lcd In lilt IONJ prodUCt :an d IUrusM dosst,.,,1U1O'I ~ ;and ck'oeIOI)mII'II un product tJobiII clllnlf- " tho lirld aI erIIIcill>On

45

References

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Borg. W . & Gall. M. (1989). Educalional research: An introduction. NewYork: Longman.

Endres. A. ( 1997). Improving R & D the Juran Way. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Inc.

FPG (1997). frank Porter Graham Child Development Center at the University of North Carolina. Website address: w,w,. fpg.unc.edu

Gagne. R .. Briggs. l.. & Wager. W. ( 1988). Principles of iris1ruc1ional design. New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston. Inc.

Hampson. 0. ( 1973). Educalional producl developmenl and evaluation. 1/eport No. I I. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED 110 666).

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Johnson. D .• Meiller. l.. Miller. L. & Summers. G. ( 1988) Needs assessment: Theory and Methods. Ames. Iowa: Iowa State University Press.

Kao. J. ( 1996 ). jamming: The ar1 and discipline of business crealiuity. New York: HarperBusiness.

Educalional Considerations. Vol. 26. No. 1, Fall 1998

McKillip. J. ( 1987). Need analysis: Tools for the human seruices andeducaaon. Newoeny Park. California: Sage Publications.

Nayak. P. & Ketteringham.). ( 1986 ). 8reakiliroughs! New York: Rawson Asscciates.

NW�EL ( 1997). National Network: A national network of regional educational laboratories. Website address: vAvw.nwrel.orglnational/

Paine. S. & Bellamy, T. ( 1982). from innovation to sLlndard practice: Developing and disseminating behavioral procedures. The Behavior Analyst. 5 (1). 29·43.

Stoltz. S. ( 1981 }. Adoption of innovations from applied behavioral research: "Does anybody care?" Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis. 14 (4). 491 ·505.

Thurston. L. (October 30.1997). Personal communication.

Thurston. l. (1990). "Hundreds and thousands of lives"- horn model project to statewide adoption. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Behavior Analysis. Nashville. Tennessee. May. 1990.

WCER ( 1997}. Wisconsin Center for Educational Research. Website address wcer.wisc.edu

West Ed. ( 1997). West Ed: Regional Educational Laboratory for theWestern United States. Website address: W\wdwl.org

Zero to Three ( 1997). Zero to Three. Website address: zerotothree.org

43 46



! Whtn i"lit'll suPPo'! (llld [he oppolflmay to work In buildmg·ba~ p/olllllng learns. Itflmm COil imp/(mtlll ltlIlolkablt sc:hoollt/orms

Building-based Decision-making: A Shared Planning Model for Inclusive Schools

Mkh .. 1 P. 8,.dy, Cho,ln IL Clmp~ell on" ' . 11; c. c..tr'l pbd

5">tc tn. ~.rty IWOf Almron Nuc.Lors h:I"" been I/NOIl'td ,n • conl ............... e~oI S<hocI <dom IIId tulruc""",& ~nu Thoot dlOfI$ ~ b«n p>nly ,n _M 10 t l ) put.loc a,t,m," 01 wuatONI tlCpt<to'.am curncllklm ~JJd p.OOuctMIy (D:lot\t. 1993 R.aVllCfl. 199»), Ib) pm:.,,,,,d de<: ru.n oil otudcnj outtomu '" S(~. rmlh ;and 0II>tr x.<k,mcs (8",.. (, £ncI(f 19921 «) onuuses In I" • ........t>cts 01 .,""'ntl. •. ".. IIId wOO dlOP OUI of S<;hOQl IHodgtlonson. 1991. W~~" U I'odroo 1m) .nd (d) corTOJ"'!l.On 01 studUlt OULCOIllH on AInt""n .a.ca. 10 olhol n.1IOm 1801frJO. 1991: L1&Mh. 199))

hOO CluM 100 <or>com hn ~~~ iI HI 01 (KtlO"""nllliI Ql1 ' IOf rt~t".<_ .... "". IChooI $";' ,lui d betomu II'QII abIo 1(1 ptrbm 10 an ~I ,~d 01 ___ Cum A.\M!y 11M ~ICNS uI5 b ~,,","'I: IlIYt .... ggesled., ~It <l<\I! oIlht ~nl ",fil,,,,,, I Mf(I<Id AC't'QW\I<W<I~y

CiIb for lI\(.tn .. 1 'C((),,'''~blbty "'" on.dvtd tho dt' .. ~nt mol CIJIl'II'<nsoo oIlUd>t, e-n1u:o!tOl1 'Y'~I (SlMm>O. 1983. S"' .. nl. 10y\c0'. 8rody [, Frebe'&- 1989). cIevdoomml 01 J IItm~1C I~i"on rnodeII (~[, Howty. ~'), Jnd v:lrr:>Js ~ 01 p~l'Im.nUI P'08'lmS (el-, 'ofOtJ<h< ... $Nit> so:hoQb. (~ltt Khoob) ,n SOII'IO d'~''':11 (fo.uO)'. 1994 , Cltp)/ b S'I"lh 1987; N£A J99l) "i. I-..std AI/t7IJoOn ,,_ SIaIo Gowt~07IeIIIS

A bc;$ 01 ,n,UlI.....s "' .... o;QmO from ~ MId 10, ,11110<1 ~ Jllte, II\( I<gl l Ind 1;K:aI 111M'"" II .....!I .. ttl. OIpn'w ..... 1 WUt\I.IIn: aI .ct.ooh '" mofly ""In Tho:", IlUU~>ti 11_ .nduood .-.:.u .. na m. dJ)rIlIIocIted lor It..odonI "'>Uuct ..... "UIIII'~'''i <;I!fllCulum mm4.1t •• . {~rlII"" thr I'J~5 f<l< (ert.lo(.l"" I nd prt!.oorlel P'tPllt.uon, Jmll Ioo\J. 01 (/1",&11 ,n 11\( ..... )'$ ,n whICII IOcJI sd>o<:H "IlttlOle (0 Ne,1 IW1, S.l£'C [, B .. " • ." 19901) ) I~ /rulll>Clk><Ial 1'1(Jt1lCtj,

AUwtal II) inW""hotlil prnbCC I", b<-en i hJII(nj'" 01 ~,.,. !d>oaI tfform tflorlS_ Th<s Ills ... cl..clt.l dbts 10 lCI,mofy dIe<,M. tt~, ... b(hlVoOf (Rtldl I'ciSC""'" [,~, 19.1. Sull,np. i9aS), campI,. luclofr-l!ud.nL lOl'Ij(Lio~s ICIOII dill".n! typo. of swdrnt$ { 8,:oo~ Swin~. T.oyIor b foeb('I- 1938). ~ v:IiIOIII IIIOdeiI 01 ~tlOt ... If'od _-u"swd t.~ nl ~ ~. [, SnOllo'frl, 1992) .• M rd me uuMnl c< nl.,.d 'ditch"" l •• ch, n,

M;d.,~1 Po IIndY;1 I'<ofUOClr, Floriu Inll. Uni_Uity o." lfS R. C.mpl>eI1" I'<o"',"or. V, ldon a JUt. Unl~.t"ty Potl, C. C&mpl>eU is AJoco.t. P,of •• "",. V,JdosLo Sid. U"' ..... iry

l"ICt!ru (CQlron, [, ~II;I'~ I'f'lJ ) ~ Dl'wlr/plrltrn 0{ ~~ I'l'0l<'''''-'

Numt!ous ,dorm dlDIU 11M: Id>oc.olod lor ~ drvtlopmtl'll 01 S!'K'.hud prol"m. lor stu';'nt, ..... ,h ~JI'" It lrn'"l· and Ctllw,,1 dillt,eroctl (Harry [, K.I,..np ..... 19901 Reynolds b Wing. 1'181). Th •• t....-IIed '" Irtn'otl'ldous ...... .n '" IpoCOIti ~1Dl. Cl>lptOf I. £ngl..t. ... Stcond l""",Ii', "",,,ml edUOtal 1F1d etlle r IlfOiIm. ThUt spoec'l l, ttd pIOIf>m. t)T<Cl lty 11M: dMlOjlod IS $lInd IJooe 01 pull-{Out mDcIeiS. plKfd Wlth,n 0 ~ "hoof but ... ,Ih "'Plflle sufl .... ;and optfJllOt>I

}. Drwloomtnl 01 "'iWlt Pw1Ir Coo i,l,OOI "...",. of tht ... Iorm ~Jottlo h_ ailed Jot cmna. ... LI\( ac-n...-n and (Ipt,,:;on 01 loChooII b\I buadili «*o1JOm w.1h n tr.:hooU...t brt"'l'm WI11IOOM'f srouPI"td edUOtorl (B.,m, 1m, Soltt, 1991) Th.~ cD.litJOO,bilod schools Itl<nd to bod> ,n~ rllJl..-.d txttln.1 tcl,nl>On.1 ,,1Iucnc .. os I means 01 ~"11 tDlll1'llllUtfl to bLtJd loChooi. r(~ to loul cotrII'I'uo>ttY nttds

fhe d,ver<."!y "' Ifle relorfTU 101' brtn mm hod by tilt dM 'lIly d "t.()Il' ck",n<d 10 ""p~ .... nt 1M .. ,.form, W.ny 01 11'>0 .. ~ . fbtI:(. &: k&sslol~ fNndaia gndjrd,wI ItIC1ltt """1 .... tlOI'I ... !l rllllltl1l.) loe to~ ,m(lI.m.mloon roodtll ClIhr, dbt, (t " S,w', o;wLuon bWcI,n~)". boItom-"P'" ",I<lIt.

lrod .. i"" [dLK"llUOI\ .. nol kllooJ Rtfo< .. A Il(tor rem-ro:)n to .... ny QI tnt lO1(tuctunna ~ llorlS NI ~

mMlJn, m."-I'7f "',UUC10(W1 iIMd SUIIPO"I """.:1tS II! dtllYe:tro to 1tUd!:nts with Of It""" 01 d~ ~Jmlli plOblel[\$. 1'I'~(ubtly i!10-lt ""om lum,,",, I.ntu~.oo su; .. 1 ~ , .. bd'llI!lo WI .... m ... , I, d til!: <'<luG1IONI H1JbI,.M>orI hu been ~ ," ."tenl.M jeboU (MO u.. ~hood 0I1)'pQ1 K!IDoI. btcoInorl& _ ""Iu""'l {8-0Idy. Hunttr, [, Campbtll 1991). othof1 h,.... totm do!pIy e~.d ... dtYdcp'n~. '" l'~rno:nb", Ind e'<. I~.t,"I a ptd4&OKY 01 onciul<vt """'!IOI'I (C~rr(lboo:I b ~I. 1m c....uo. Oon~ [, Moon. 19'11. s.alllbur~ lit II 19'1l) Tht tmptonrS oI11'>!f1: tlforll "'. b<on 10 <rem ,F1d "'"F1\.ion. f,t r>erll r<Iuc.Iloon t"".-onFllcnt .~L....e 01 .tuderus who cr.idotll)Nny ""'" beet! tdut<ottd 00Its.de 01 (0' or. .1, l~ 01 """,.-.I from) ~ eta .... Th .. " .. IudotI .... to 40'lIo of. 1(1looI·'~ IX'PUIoI"" (Skrhc, 1991 ) Ind ",chICle. S1udo:nt: "' ,I~ d:s.lbdobtl. iR.eynokls ... 1oVin,. 194), (/IJ~fU1 01 m,,,onl ,,'ONt1 {~Heilt!ll'locJ-, 199O).I!·r",I. ItIln<fl(USlO. 19'11 w. ....... (. Padoon 199~) IIld studlnts '<Om I.", .... wI>o <10 rIOl ;pei~ !.nglFSfI "11\(~ r"'1 II~" (U$(O 11'91)

A ptdJ&O"ll' oIl1'1dJ ..... cduabon n:<ts_ ,n iWI. on i ICPtot:I commuMy"i w .... 1tSI to ~11CFJtI!( n ,.WUCtF.IMR Iof>d chinle (Il-II'M 1991; Smolt> flu nt« 5<;h .. " 1991), . nd In t""r<:I'~ on tlUI ItWenlS W'tb It¥lUll. ~1lCI»Ct m:lsoo>l d llere_ bolona '" ¥ld btnrf~ ,...., ",hoofs wtw:r( e.g""1Y IS not 0 "'_ lao dmroom uS'iMn.nt (Goodlld [, lcMU, 1991). tn .... lI'n~ I>:J\II Khools btcomt mott ,ndu~ "'. Cliitu (1998) IF1d S.lloSbu,y et f l (19'/1) ddntd If'It.lu" .. KIlDCIb " I Io"C'aI DtItCDmO 01 ><hooI ~Ior<!o ~ 10 t'lt-lt id'oooIs ." p,,<~c~ wtw:le swdents (a) atwld lhe" h-oo>e l:hOQlI ( ... here thoy woold Ulcnd ,I IhO)' h, d no ",,;b,I,t)I) : (h) Plebe r»lt ,n l)'9ical I(.I)DDI JOUI rleS. Kt' I(." '","clllum_ ."j :JdIoddn .• nd (e) _ CbilOf!ed aNy lor m. """""" tlKcm,n& tlil .... ( IOf servers (not lor cirod,ng cl.mroom or JlIOiI.m p~emenll funoo, ,;wdenll ""U> <hub- I,I,n '" lhHe loChooI~ __ rqulOM me'rlb!n of Fner>oI eo:!ugt.., cblSOl, They ~[".trIdod al=

47

with nondisabled students of similar ages (plus or minus two years). and these students represented the natural proportion or similar students in the district. 1n sumrnacy1 inclusive educational experiences

were on-going. not sporadic 01 episodic. To dace only a limited history exists Uiat describes how these schools

became more ,nclus;ve. For example the Catlett ( 1998) and Safisbury et al. ( 1993) studies show a picture of local commicment to schoolrestructuring. In both cases. a bottom-up picture of change has emerged.with parents and teachers as initiato1s of change in school philosophy and practice. This contrasts with the ;epons in other states where restructu,ing ,ni1iatives for inclusive education have come from mte or local administ<ators (Sage & Burrello. 1994: Villa & Thousand. 1992). Common to either route to change is the need fo, local planning. Indeed. Deal and Peterson (1990) and fullan (1993) note that ultimately the success of a reform initiauve depends on active involvement of the leadeiship and staff at an individual school. G.ven the magnitude ol change required to establis�, and maintain an inclusive school. establishing a building-based planning model is a critical mit,al step {Campbell. Campbell. forbes. & Brady. 1998).

In the rest of this papec we desc,ibe a local planning model used in ,oojunction with an mdus1ve education initiative in one state. A

description or the planning model is del,ncated. and ,s followed by a case example of how the ll'lodel was implemented.

The Building-based /nseruice Model; A Case Example

The Building-based lnservice Model (see Campbell et al .. 1998) was developed in response to state-wide requests for assistance to build a planning and suppo1t system for local .schools. The goal ol ,he request-for-assistance was to seive dive,se populations of students better within general education environments. To accomplish this. the project \vas to establish school-based planning teams who would. in turn. develop school improvement plans. In addition. the planning teams were to ass,st teachers withm each participating school to acquire the skills and knowledge needed to support diverse popula· tions of students. thereby making the school ,, more inclusive educational setting.

1he assumption of the Building-base(! lnservice Model is that a local school can prov,de an inclusive education H five criteria are rnet·

1. Constituents within the school (administrato,s. teachers. relatedservice personnel. parents. students. paiaprofessionals) becomecommitted to providing quality inclusive education: 2. Members of the l(.v�al school gain obtain community and neighborhood involvement and support: 3. Capacity to identify needs and propose solutions to problems isgenerated from within the schcol: 4. School constituents acquire knowledge and skills tliat promoteexemplary educational practices: and S. Technical assistance needed to suppott implementation and evaluate student outcomes is pmvided systematically.

Since the project was to restfucture schools around the logic of inclusive education. we adopted the assumption that educators can team to extend and expand their capac;ty 10 collaborate with other professional educators (Thousand & Villa. 1992). Because the competencies needed to teach d,verse populations of students cross many l,nc.s. we adopted operational guidelines that required shared experlfse 1athe1 than assigMd expertise That is. w,� ope1ated under the logic that students would benefit from inclusive educational

Educaiiona[ Considerations. Vol. 26, No. 1. Fall 1998

experiences tf they could obtain the shared expertise of a school staff, rather than the expertise of only a single teacher or program to wh,ch they we1e assigned.

The School

Horace Mann Elementa,y School. a bu,ld,ng housing grades K-6 in a mid-sized midwestern town of approximately 75.000 people. served as a training site and as an inclusive education demonstration selling. Ho1ace Mann was located in a racially and ethnically diverse. lower to middle SES neighborhood on the edge of the city. Although the school was over 35 years old . it was well maintained and matched the ordered. manfcured appearance of the community.

'Approximately 400 students attended the school. and 72% percent of them received free bre�kfasl'and lunch. The school housed one o! the district's English as a Second Language programs. and contained several separate full time classes for students with mild academic disabilities. There were 23 teachers and 15 support staff including a librarian and paraprofessionals for Chapter I, music and special educadon. The teachers were. generally young with an average teach· ing experience of 5·6 years; 101 many, Horace Mann was their fi,st teachirig ,ssignment.

There were four special education teachers assigned to the school: three of the teachers had full-time assignments and one rotated to another school. While most oi the students who received special •ducation had mild disabilities. the district had initiated a plan to;eturn all swdents with disabilities to tl>ei, home schools. In anticipation of this. school personnel had begun to prepa,e. for several students w,th moie complex disabilities {including those w:th rnental retardation. emotional aod behavior disorders. and studems who are deaf and have no speech).

Ho,ace Manr, was selected ror participation after a first year. fifth grade teacher read a brnchure describing the school-based change project and the technical assistance that was available for part1c1pat· ing schools. We then cont;,cted the principal who was eager to arrange for the project to be located in h,s school and to participate actively in it.

Developing Building-based Planning Teams

Three problem solving teams were developed as the initial activity in establishing a bullding-based school change process. The problem solv,ng was centered around g1adc level teams; the early p11mary team consisied of grades K·I. The primary team included grades 2·3. and intermediate team targeted grades 4·6. Membership on the teams included rep,esentatives from each of the grades and any other teacher or support person who would likely provide services to any of the students returning to the home school. A different special education teacher was assigned to each team. This reltected a decision by the teachers to assign students with disabilities to grade levels rather than by spec,al education categones.

Project mfr provided the iraining and technical assistance to prepare the teams to function as instructional problem solvers. The project objective was for the teams to meet whenever there was a student experiencing substanlial difficulty with acadell'lic perforll'lance. personal or social behavior. or school attendance. The team thus was to serve as a p,oblem solving mechanism for students at-risk fo, school failuie or ,eferral to special education. In addition. the teams were to begin planning for. the students Jn other special education programs who were to return to Horace Mann Elementary as theif home school. Any teacher who requested assist;lnce could call for a planning team

45 48

ITIfWI'W. l<Id thltS bKomc I IWI of thol tum Ie. 0,5( ....... "" ibout tho $tWent in Q.el~on. (~ch tnm WlII mode UP of • mtth/III r.c~'I.to,. I lKatdc' .nd the tucher{$\ ,."th loPetof,e Ruden! COmins

InH ,vi« . nd loc hni col . .. ;ouncc Ajl pl'M,"! tum members ,eee,,,,,d iIIw>'i« ,Ina teCM'~

~WlUr« duon! • )'eif-loo& PICIect. TIIos OI1d.-:ttd 6 "'''''MU U"'""" IU:II<lns. on·"" I<Ipt''''11On .nd foIlow·up, tdepllont r;m..,~l>O<', Ind rruto".I, d.-elt(lmtnt.II(! d" .. minltoOn

Tho ,"so,v". content w.1 tho ,.nt.,p>«< 01 1M trchn>ul .ssrsUIlCt Sto .,b .. ,m.,n modoMI; __ dO'>dopcd by pqea wll (Clmpbdf £., c.~1 1m) w 6c"-td ,n :IPf"QI_tdy !_ mQIlth 0I'Ikr .. 1. Top.Q roo U,. lI"'!"'Jt< ,ndUOtO (.) (Of li b om"" ........... (It) cu"w ..... mouo'l'lI. te) 1W!"fKIdI.(o. on mu...,1lOtIiI ddMt)', (d) PHI .. ..:Mo .. nt.1fId te) p~ $ClIOOI tNnt<

[x:tI mO<l<lk wu cId .... 1W 'n a stpmte If!"~ <tl~ uc~ lOS,on VI,!! iPilfQ>llmltd'lo hou rs lon, flo com", ,,,, iofmIl ~ usod b .11 SOI'lOll1 The brrul or'ICNdtd

I l ........ I"'" of knowf. djlO of \tit lope to lH: ~ 1 1~t.f1U1IDn of OOj«llWl of !he ,n .. NlCe;

) Od,oery Ind ,nl!ar1llon of thI new:.kJU iIId PlXbce 'll:tMlItS ~ ~ 01 tho >ClMli .. 6 f~.uon of tho 1fU<In; .nd 1. fIol~"",,"nt 01 IptOf..: ,mpI~UhOO ilttl'l ,t"l!cr tho lole,,oM i .,-

m oddoUClfllO tho .nfl1VlCes, on-SOte USlStMICI: IIICbIod COiIth"'lSO!fUlted p<Otjtm JQ/v",&-1fId teJm con. ....... ><tMbeS. Th.se teJm IClmt.n ""t" d<I,,,,1W .ia, sd"Io<:> .nd ntI't, ."",oded J.O "'."utl) .. cb.oOlJon_

The teJms 'M:JO! 1I"lh: to \I)( I I·SUp proto/(m $01"""1 §tra(qY (idopt!d lrom cnden £., B,urt, (991) Til.l Itm,D' \Md 1 Jo;;ol. OlllJwt c~ ptOOlem ..,...:,I.ed p"or to tht mw.n, Thus .. tum mtflItIr .. _mocd.t!l"lf- ~"..,Ito 11>0<'" Ia>aoIItdp of t/le student o;:onr:rm Tho l·Sup PfOi>Iom """"" W>1q)r rnc:ludtd

I Ot!,n. tho Slucitnt. ,nstruct.,....l , 1'(100II,1. IOCIOI. 01 aUm:!anc. problem;

1 o..nly I'" proItIom T"", iIN: probIom r"IIO' q .... uon .. .nocijl.a1OOl'l of l.nd,"& ,nWUChorlll.iltffl.t"",;

l. U~ b'M~tom\o", to ."pkNt.nd Ident,l~ 111.!nIouvtl Use lOII!Oft$u< to ! ... l order 1I\t lOp .lte,nah'IH.

~ xlod. '1r.1lq)' )IOU ~ "so 10 omplem.rn !he I(Ip .kO' ... t .... S. CIlnIy!he mmgy IdrntJy II .. Itcp. n~ to ""r>i!mrnt!he

su,tqy I citn~1y who ... do w+1Il. 'MItn ind whta 6 Implemenl 1I\t pbn. Collrcl lho I)'Pf oil(! ,mount of <»".i to

.now klr ........ IJCIII of the 'll:1Mi)' 1 flo1l~le tho OIIICOII1II

Chin,..;" sdoool p,acti(u TIIfooChout lho pq«1 )'elf. • fI\.ITIW of obHMbIe dooge:I

occo.rned .. the sdIooI. n.. _ olMou, chine< I() ptQfUt stlff....,1 thitlr"lQlf ·Urvcl .... -~ .ddtd- by th. pj'~" P.tr11 tuclim- to tho """ on """odIlIIf)I !dYed probImls 111a1td to IWd!nu ""or to pjlb{,pjt."!& orr thI IWJO(t net, $pfCgj tducol"'" althtr IIld her ~ Chl'~- of \C!Jdto1l. lhey Kltd II -lNI"IIgt,,- of me. ind lOSlJmed ntaf1y ~1I 1!~onsob,rllY for SI,denIS "SI'uc[~1 ~ {incbttnC dewIop.1I(I( of wpi03l< oo,ect""'- Ie>$OI"I PIlflS. Iuson ~WJns. tIC) Tho .. IUCI'Ief1, !)IOOQIy puled students WI of

£!'II'"II tdI.O["'" clulU b tfIIln>::l""', f;l'tn ""'"n!l"lf- mS"rUtbon WU 1 .... 111 10 lhoil plC'oOdtd by Iht ",~111<1< kachors Wl\, ~ 11<S wn Iht l)'PuJ mrtho<! of we<aOon, ~ WI_ no! ontlIdy NtGI,ClQr"f to lilt ",;dIefJ ~I rdYc_ "acllm ....... t:w9Kted to act ~ oddI"", pr<Mcitt'J ~ , ~.Oi: It"ot! Ind,O' h~. coown ""th. Uu:l!nt "",tn. dlSOboI,ty ~I edUC11lOll luche .. "'poI"ltd thlt lh<y c>!t.~ fdt In.d~U unfm lhey -kntw .U lilt .nso..n.. Grade I!>I!I rucl'lef1, '"""!ltd Jl",;I¥ frustrl\JQm ,I. "soIlItsOn- ptO'o'I(Itd by tho

sptC~ .due'las did not wr:>d.. T~se (,xIl.'1 !yp(I1!y ",porltd tllli !hbt ntl!1 "bon II>:JuId bt 10 rtl" tho ltudtnt b ItPir.t! >P«>iI tdtntJon d. » pIIC ....... l

As tho proJtd YI=¥ pocgr .. otd. __ 'Mnll Q(cUlltd mit i'QvII«:f ,n ~tt" ,ntqut,nl til! "nerllllll(! $pro,1 tdlObon tuclltrs f~3-I

I.hI' de:moon to baw the plo""""C tNm:!. ... )0100 w>de Ii:"oo!h """Itl~ In d'W*""'i opec .. 1 t~ tuch ... ImDnC thI tell!l$, S«ono:I lho IeChnocII U"SI.ru PKUce tt~...:l lhll prcbItm soimll """"" ~ 1I...de"Hlllsea, ~ should OCCur ""tho> a coI llOOll1M tt ..... · mtd .. 1td (Cl/"tW A> lIIt)tir ~sed Iht te"", pooed uoenma: .... th C>Ii.boRb"". '1IIdenl-.",'!n problem soI-o.... felm memlio!fI "'~o,ttd 11111 they st"lted lh<Ir tXPKt31tonl q.,d,n, SI~ts ""th tot I t n~ of d.-..Iop,n&) 11110"" QOObIem<. R:i.lOO IMon ttftmna SllIIIonl. kif lU<SUfl<e. loam ... 1Qbe" ",porle<! thM they drwelocl.d the txpecI_ tha! t.Iwy \booM Itq"e.: U ...... "'rIlI"," It> ".IP ~ .utJ\IC~OfIiI pfQbltml. Th.t II, ~ tu", Pfohl.", sol_In , 1I.ll><d [Ilene" 10 'pull logtlne' ~I 01 thol! UptIl;$t- . nd ~ 'll:1M IlucItnt.t>lotd !iCIIulQ'l:l As OlIO IU(her _Ud til!) -P mort b t/ItI( bod- by hi"", talll-or>enl.d ~UhOlIS

ClIlnaes on tho w~ "lIIIofllS 11'''lk IQ! 1"1u,,, .... d lIlote w,tI! <1.<",*'" _t 1I~ """" noc lImrud 10 I.hI' vnp prqKl)'tOO lor t>oo )'QI1.f!I:, ,ho PfOJ!Cl illO'o'td out 01 Horxr ",.nn. lilt pUnrIonc rnodd [onl.f\utd to Opt'"I._ . I ~,t ... ,Ito p.lrtr['1W'1 8!~'''''d tn!I~ ITQ"p/IC>$I!l fOl UIfnpIe_ one )'I'" olu, tho fIIOICCl tho III~ tnms bqin to IOlItz ~ on .nd 011 tho: 1t¥IU. PI''''''''C _ Iwttd 10 n>Ht dur .... lhe .............. to --.rill( p,ev.oU<)'I1I Ind 10 INtoe

"commend.[""" lo r lho <on""1 schoof)'l" Th! p,oncrp:lf '/"Inge.:! lor fM"""f1& lum .... rr\btfJ 10 <=Nt >I!p(ndllor \htlr $IIITII\'Itt 'OO;rl .... d ItItHo !;me dur"" thllQdomic; _ s..:. ,ts ~ dill prlXOSI 1111 ~ fYIIuittd :Itl<f modil;td tlClI ytl, by thI ~ aanu \Vf',, ~ til( tudlm wtrt thl ",nlf,1 pI.)'t" ., ,,,,.hIlg t't" school's plootll. tho: pnne,p.i! used hoi pO~i~"" to I!!I~I" br teJ(1'Ief1, to 11M thI QP\lOItunr\")' iIId 10 develop tho PflKm

As ttKherf .. p«t3honl Itprd,"i 'OW!Ie<$!1,p' of st\Jdlntl prof)flml chitnged. _II OQtIlM)nJ I cha,...,. :11$0 Q(c",,,d fllSl

tho """"'PII .. pOlled !I11t lito """'00 of rift, .. " to ~1I1 edo.oc.ot.on dKmltd du'~ thI!"C>I«tltlO two lubstQutnt )'I"I,'1thoIJih thI lrequency of .. flore mr.tlnp ,nc~std Tht >USC<l roo !I"If- "",,IUse WlIS 11m W .. $tI11,1IP lit " lild 10 JOI¥o .nd p,."..,.,l tlIIAIW", .. 1 probfl'/"llS Stc.;ond. b lllose ShlOtol$ who ...... n:1emd".;j btan ... eI t·bfe b sprcllf tolJCllIOr"I . ~ 1tudtn1l1tCtro'tCl1!!e" ,nW-.JCIoOI"I "' pIA IIUI OIltPifi tt 5e1Ln&!. WhO. th.re hos btfrI!IO chitnto on tho n,m.,. of III< Itu«nt body ~I 1-10<1« Mann. there hOI bt ... i sublt'!n~.1 chi"" If! tho IludentS p/I«s of In,nlnl Sj)t[O<i/ tduul:Oll teJd!m «)O'I(JOOO: to flIll'<'dI' d-ftd onS!rlJcttOn but II> '"numbt!l GI swdmll. ""n:'I '~&1'1 thUl' iUCN'n ""'k OS to-l<'II:herl ,n centr.1 eriJahon cllisn f, ... Iy. Ji tho Sludents ""th mort compiu oh>bolttH:s hi¥< bell'" t<> mum 10 HoIICe MIM lIomenUly 1$ tho:~ hoR school tiI<.undird opmtlCWlll prlXedur"! " n:::rw to

I

49

I j

I

plan the transition well in advance of placement For example. students now make several visits to the school to learn about its layout p,io, to permanent placement; teachers become familiar with the students and their idiosyncrasies during these visits.

Conclusion The case of Horace Mann Elementary School demonst,ates that

when given support and the opportunity to work in building-based planning teams. teachers can implement remarkable school reforms that include many stvdents who traditionally have remained at the edge of the educational mainstream. Much or Horace Mann's success in becoming a more inclusive school rests. we believe. with the willingness of the staff to participate. m serious efforts to restructu,e the way they did b.,siness. fullan ( 1993) noted that educational restructuring will remain elusive unless the goals and methods are embraced by the community or profession�ls within a school. The specific team strategies developed in this p;oject are consistent withFullan·s logic. Teachers were engaged in local planning of activitiesand processes that would occu, within their own schools. The emphasis of all activit,es was student-based. and the primary skill supported by project activities was problem solving over problemreferral.

Much or the professional literature surrounding inclusive educationpits logic against reason and philosophy against prefe,ence, often with a level of invective uncommon among profess ional educators.While many debate inclusive education as a concept. Brady et al. ( 1997) noted that many educators are actively engaged in developing• pedagogy of ,nclus,ve education. linked with a restructuring of theways sell cols do business. like most examples of ,est,ucturing, changeat J lorace Mann was progressive. Even while the staff altered thetypical expectations and practices for teaching students with learningproblems. some teachers rema,ned skeptical Although the planning teams were still operational three years after the project activities. three teache,s had not participated in any of these activities: theseteachers reported that they still believed that students with disabilities should receive their instruction away from the typical classroom settings. As one of these teachers ,epo,ted, 'Tve decided that I cannot wo1k with this student· she needs special ed."

We expect that the process of planni,,g fo, school change will evolve during the upcoming years. What the Horace Mann experience shows. however. is that building-based planning teams can ope.r ate

i

with a principal's support- within the context of problem solv ng rather than problem referral. In schools whe,e this occurs, we expect

that obse,vers of inclusive education will continue to learn aboutchanging school practices by practicing schcol change.

References

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Barton. P. ( 1993). Lessons from abroad. American Educator: Tile Professional Journal of Ille American federaUon of Teachers. 17.(2). 16·17. 47.

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Brady. M.P .. Munter. 0 .. & Campbell. P. ( 1997). Why so much confusion? Debating and creating inclusive schools. £duca1ionalForum, 61. 240· 246.

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U,S Dtpmment 01 Ed ""l ~on 11993) Remvenling ChapUt I. Th, ",""enl Chapler 1 p{Q~,arn and ",w d",clion<' ,mal "pori 01 the nalional a,wsm, nl o{lhe Chopter I plOgram Washlngtoo, OC; Authm

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ZHTJph<r, N" [, How<y, K, ( 198/), e,,. Hu d", uf ekm"nl.ry te., !>« p"pmliun progrlm' in i> sd100ls ,nd coll,ges of tducotlO<l ioornai 0/ Curriculum & Superu15ion, 2, IOI -llI

Author Nol .. Th" pr"-1t<:t , nd the p"pJ"'too of thi, ",,"It were , uppomd .,

part by Gr.m No_ H086U 10015 ,nd [dLJC'tIOOlI S"vlce ~eement ND H0 80R30 017 to th. Univer,,(y of K, m as /rom th. U.S , Oep, rtr.-..nt 01 Ed"". too. To.. 3Ut~ w.sh to tmnl 0, Will", Ami""" . nd , II of tilt te"h", who partlclp' ted In th" prOjw fo r t""If coop<wiO<1 .nd oospital ay, Th. Prob-:em Sulvinc Sl.rOlegy (tted 10 th' l p. p!r .nd to.. cC<l'4>ltte W >e, of in ,;e,,' ,;e module,,, Jv"l,blt 10 be dowolo;ldtd , t 00 (CS l fwm the Wood Wide Web" an Acrob.t fi l' . t' h~p'/lwwwvald",!,.p""hrret.edulco./cotdl!-ptd/c.m pJprojimo ln.hlml

EdUCOirona/ Con,ideralion;

51

The reality is that certain students seem to need some kind of extrinsic motivator for learning.

Energizing, Directing, and

Sustaining Motivation in a

Social Studies Program

David L. Griffin, Sr.

How many of us have postponed beginning a diet or exercise program because we were too busy, too stressed. or because it v1as. well ... Wednesday? Or. we begin a diet or exercise program with complete dedication. but afce, a period of time, we become less and less diligent abo1>t lollowing through on our ,egirnen. In each case. motivation. or a lack thereof. is a significant factor in the unsuccessful 1ealization of our goals.

It shouldn't be surprising, then. that students often lack the rnotivation to reach certain ed,i<:ational goals. This fact is perhaps most apparent 1n students of the social studies. In 1eviewing seve,al empirical studies. Shaughnessy and J.laladyna ( 198$) found that. at allgrade levels. students reported social studies to be one of the least interesting. most irrelevant subjects in the school curr iclllum. Seve1al hypotheses were orfered to explain students' lack of interest in the social studies. Some claimed that the contern seemed unrelated to students· lives and held much less importance fo, their career purposes than mathematics or English, Others asserted that students· attitudes were affected neganvely by ,heir perceptions or the learning environment (student-teacher relationships. teacher enthusiasm). Finally. poor. repetitive instructional techniques were blamed for the negative attitudes held by students (Mass,alas r, Allen. 19%).

What. then can be done to build a more motivating social studies program for studems' Perhaps a first step is to examine the term "motivation" to ootain a better understanding of the concept. Whilethere are innumerable definitions or the word "motivation". th,eecomponents seem co emerge. Motivation 1s chat which ener�izes.directs. and sustains behavior (Steers & Perter. 1983).

The primary component or motivation ,s the energizing function.Th,t ,s what causes people to act. tc initiate a particular behavior sothat. for example. learning can t-lke place. Without being energized. students would never engage ,n a task. much less cornplete it.

The dirr.cting function 01 motivation acknowledges the existence of

a specific goal and ,mplies that by engaging ·in a particula; behavior. that goat is likely to be tealized. In other words. the behavior has apurpose. Students ,>;ho are directed know what they want to accom· plish. believe they have the ability lo be successful. and understand that they must behave 1n a certain way to achieve their goal. Less motivated students either do not know what their goal is. do not feel they nave the ability. o, do not believe their behaviors will <lirect therntoward accomplishing 1he1r goal.

fin, lfy. the sustaining role of motivation 1s that which helps peoplepersist in the behavior necessary Lo achieve a goal. Successful

David Griffin is Assistant Professor and Social Studies

Coordinator for the College of Education, Kansas State

University

Educational Consideralions. Vol. 26. No. 1. fall /998

students sustain their goal·drrected behavior. always ttying innovative. potentially more successful approaches to accomplishing thei, task at hand. During the "sustaining" part of motivation. feedback Is crmcal for helping students know whether their goal is closer to being achieved.

These three components. ene,gizing. directing. and sustaining are vital if a social studies program is Lo be motivating. Recall the hypotheses that were given to explain the negative perceptions heldby students toward social studies. One hypothesis suggested the content was not perceived as being very relevant or valuable. Thus, it would seern there was fittle to energize students to set goals and initi.ite behavio,s necessJry to be successful. Othe1 hypotheses suggested that the interactions between teacher and students negatively affected the learning environment. Without posiu'te student/teacher relationships, students would lack the motivatingdirection ptovided by teachers. Not only might students lack an understanding of the teacher's objective or goal of ihe lesson. but they also. no doubt. would fail to comprehend the irnplication that their behaviors have a purpose in achieving that goal. Remember, coo. that poor. repetitive instructional strategies ,nfluenced students· perceptions of social studies. It ,s difficult to sustain goal·d�ected behavio,s when students are bo1ed and are not involved in the learning process.

Clea1ly. then. a motivating social studies ptograrn must address notonly what is taught. but also how it is taught. MO program can be successful without considering content. interactions. and strategies.And. ,n improving each of those aspects. we cannot lose sight of the three corr,por1ents or motivation described earlier Content in a socialstudies program. then must be energizing, directing. and sustaining. The interactions that occur between teachers and students must be energizing. directing. and sustaining. And, of course. the same is truefor strategies utilized by teachers to delive, the content. The following gives some ideas of how to merge the three important aspects of a sochll studies program with the th1ee components ol motivation.

Content

A key element jn energizing students about the content of a social studies program is for the teacher co be enthusiastic and energe,icboth ,n delivery and demeanor. Gefore students can be energized. they must be set on fire by what the teacher says and does. Social Swdies teache1s rnllst convey that the content covered in their course 1s relevant to the students· lives. for exarnple. histo,y provides the backdrop for understanding how events and issues have infhienced the students' lives. Governmental decisions affecting national and global societies have created a world both of opportunity and peril for students. The cultural groups that are studied can give new meaning to the students· sense of self as similarities and differences in ideolo· gies and customs are explored. While these examples se1ve to provide a framework fo, rnakiog the content of social studies relevant to students· lives . not all students will see the connection to their pa,t icular situation. In those cases. teachers must allow students toask the question. "How is this relevant to me'" And. equally important. te,che1s rnust give a deserving answer. Resorting to. "you need it to graduate" or "it's on your schedule" or "don't ask foolish questions," or any similar ;esponse is clearly 1n,,ppropnate. If a teacher cannot give a deserving answer to th,t question. he or she needs to rethink the content and purpose of the course.

Fo, content to be directing and sustaining. it must reflect diverse

49 52

I"'f~"n. SM1eflU hom ~ -.-ty 01 ~"'" ""Jol I'Iwt tile .. 0 .. INt thew 1""Sj)eC~~" ~ .. d ~nd tmt t>v UIPi'''i them~vt~ ,n t/le topIC. Ilw: study ""W be purJm<lul Tilri how ~~n, ,t -..Id be to wdmu of they led thr COIII'$I! of Slody " 1 IQItnel1hop _\II the teach<>..-.I tholl. by !ht. ~ of thn '0UI1C 01 swdv the ",SlNCIOI \/J,II h_lurntd I S mlKtl l.:m than u lhey h_ ~~ loom tht ,nlUuctoI

Inl ... <1 .... ' R.esu!d1 /Ioi. >hewn mit root ~p stuOo-nu r«<M; the gmt ~,1)'

ew QLl.intd~oI ,m.,><:tlons,n the dnSIOOOl few e~e. ~h ~oeo·

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s.t.-G'tll., The th," (o_U o' mQlIV~1JOn un fIso lit .. ppIotd ID

=tqlu lIIrhle<l b\r \t.IdIOB '" lilt =IM"""", lo .J'Itrl'lt stWtnII 'rom thr 10ISt diY ol dm_ Jt.Ichtfl' an let IIotrn i<rIcrIJ tn.1 ~

oponoons .tout cou,se conlent ~ ... I!Itd I\sI.I"l $llIden\). 'W"'I do)'OlJ Wlnr 10 Jrlm Irom thll COIIfse" un l'l\<lt ... Iluclents ., lhe IQrno"llWCftSS 110m thr t.eo:'nrl>"lC Thos 1C~"'W(ln lIst> help lelCntrs r.oOOtrmnd t1l1t~ S!u6tnu IJIO)' dr~" \OIfJM oItllo IDOlS tr.'Y ..-

On I 1Io"y bisrl, till ""'YS \0 eno'll'u sioclen" oboUf OI(lson'"

1.'''11w Wtitonl. 'Thoughl for !he O.y" 00 the boom Ihl\ rtblU to

lhe objtc1M lew the Imoo 0$ '" eflt(trvt """1 to It( till s:;agt 101 Io.Im,ng Oq' vallt1)' 01 .~. Irom txpefts 01 ~'otd ~d· &'Wolfs. to tachf'· ... m." en .. _ 10 "...:lent tl"!WI tDrnpiu r.n ,u,loIte till pMosOPhy thlt I 0;1,\1('''1)' 01 OP"" (lfl$ ,$ "<ilutd on Ih. ~1fOC<a Setrol,., JINII tIl,n&s_ sud'r .~ \lS<n, wooed dl31l 10 "'<Ie Ilbmo~cn on tilt b:l¥d. pl.,...........: w'""" sWdmb _ IXlmItIi lIIIO the d~woom. 01 ~IV"" nndy ,...,U '" ~ bcHo1 _ tt>e If!t,,dulce "'~t Cl n ... , to, d,trermct IfI cner&lll"i SlUdenlS.

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thm th.rt tnthrrl an be&r1 C.pionnllhr POUbIot.d oI...n.1 ....ts 100 'W1ln 00.1 r<)l in "'t'ttonl tho ""'lU1: ottds 01 thl " I, .. ner<. fond ,n" tudl .... s.tIlltiD' th" bfst s..its ~ <ludmu' 10.1"""1 ~e IS "'III b«Iu .. 01 ~ Icy rd~1IOJIShc> ~ motrYiIJon .. <ld ~bWl)I To ptrlewm WCUlo$IuIIy_ '>!IIdcnu IrI\III be DOth motJ",*d MId hM tho n..;tnU'j' ... "iI."" ~g'

A ~r .. w of It~thonl w,teilt's Cln do /J'IIICtl1O ""tall \t~den::;' onwmt 11 the cor'tent ~SIS~"'" "'"' IWdoeri Iht t1Ieo:b 01 ~ on tIIOtMIllOn The cUuc: IioWl_ IC\Ioltu III I~e 1920i which VllJIlontd lhe ,d.t>oNhop bltwHO IMiI 01 hghlI .... .,.;I-..ooIoinil tUI,~",",1IM INI c~ ..... tht mOll """", .. nl vll~bIe (d,I(Ulsed If\' s..J (, Knoghl. 19A). wtm Ii now k1\owII ;OS tit. H.IWIhOm. ~ • an ImpOflMll rti •• Ot< 10 luctltn Ih>t cNngt un m.le • l",m'c.do.J$ d,lfeJeIl« In Ihe $ludtnu bdl .... OI. J"ltCello>ty 10< rt>d1J11 I zooi nUl. bt,ngon, In ,lieS! <;>«kers un be • weIcomt do .... ,n _ u weill! PJOWld'1III , dlfle"nt ~.

trve 10 IfTIPJIIMJI In Ibt """"" Wldots T.unc I dd 11",1 . ...tIt"..,.., 1IOS..oJr. von <lud"ml • dIInct 10 ""m .. I .- Itld d,f'Iemlc sewn,_ Ioom"lucherl, rtCOiIJIWf1Ilht ",1"'1 01 ~. do .... Io(rn(

IhOli ,n til';, dOisroom e~.uy Tiley ""'''''''. thtlf ,woe nll ttl fn:;liht """"'1wIa dr(lt"nt- I!III !oeMS 10 hono Iftn <ttsttv.lI""'lIl skiI1 II w'OR u l«p I~t('tsI h '" (agonly when 1M cNnce~ enlo>nct tit. delt.try 01 contem Of aUla OPPOIt .... t:ts lor bctItr ,m ... u""" th o ~its.re grnt. r

A dosr;uw:>n 01 mol .... UlNi IlJit~ 'oOOOId t"IOt bo: CQ~'''' Wlt/"rCd..",. .lItntm .,_10 IfItnnSIC '<5 t>blllSrC rtWird • . Sontr txprm_ II.JdI 3S Mot KoIwI (t!l'96) bd,M the USf 01 mnnsoC rt""mds an xtu.lUy ~"l!he motr_ to lurn. They 1m thll even rulH~ Iludt'lllool fOl u,., ,tw<>RlS btUUst cI lurn"i.nd ""otI' tilt IOWI<d! $lOP Iht moc;q(Jew' \0 Io.Im drop. f\oIo,t~ms foSIeJ .. ' 111 do tin . but v.hil .... 1 P'l to jill lor ... - illlhlCle Othtn. '-Ch is

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53

The reality is that certain students seem to need some kind of extrinsic motivator for leaming. If a teacher senses this is true. indeed "something extra" is required to electrify them into learning. then why not use every reasonable means possible? The critical element. however. is that the purpose of the extrinsic rewards must be dearly defined to the learner. Then. too. extrinsic rewards must be used careiully and in conjunction with intrinsic reinforcement.

Conclusion

A motivating social studies program for students is not unlike a motivating diet or exercise program. In each case. the participants must get energized. This will initiate the behavio1s needed to begin the task. Then it is important that the behaviors are directed toward a specific goal and that participants understand the purpose of the behaviors in achieving that goal. finally. strategies must be in place to help participants sustain interest and persist with the necessarybehaviors. Without all three components. success is unlikely. In asocial studies program. these motivational components must be considered not only in the content. but also in the interactions thatoccur be�.•,een teachers and students and in the strategies employed to deliver content. Merging these concepts will provide a framework for creating a desirable and motivational program.

Educational Considerations, Vol. 26. No. 1. Fall 1998

Endnotes

Good. T.L. & Brophy, J.f. (1971). Analyzing classroom interaction: Amore powerful alternative. Educational Technology. 11. 36·41.

Hunter. M. { 1990). Motivation theo1y for teachers. El Segundo. CA: TIP Publications.

Kerman. S .. Kimball. T.. & Martin, M. ( 1980). Teacher expecta1ions and student achievement. Downey. CA: Los Angeles County Superintendent of Schools.

Kohn. A. { 1996). By all avilable means: Cameron and Pierce·s defense of extrinsic motivators. Review of Educati011al Resea1ch. 66 (I). 1-4.

Massialas. B.G. & Allen. R.F. ( 1996 ). Crucial issues in teacliing social studies K-12. Cincinnati: Wads,vorth.

Saal. f.E .. & Knight. P.A. ( 1988). lndus(rialiorganizo./ional psychology: science and practice. Pracific Grove. CA: Brooks/Cole.

Shaughnessy. J.M. & Haladyna. T.M. (1985). Research on student attitudes toward social studies. Social Education. 49. 692·695.

Steers. R.M. & Poiter. L.W. ( 198,). Mo!iualion and wo1k behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill,

51

54



BOOK REVIEW; Learning Upon Ihe Shoulders of Cianls

fltv,ew 01 1("" R~lsell Tho Sword 0/ ''''''Zin~t'o~: )I Holl · C.7IIIU,ofU",ary c.. ••• !lkI.G!:II1d ~ ~t, WIII_ 5 (a!k"rQns PIlbjlstl"lg~, 1995

Ru •• d D. I. mc.

Thr Sumd 0{ /III~_ IS In .utobJOCfJpiry or the h~ abbtr, "",Itt<> by IW5!d A K" ~ • pr%foc td..:.ll'~ "","W lnd pmNbty lIIe Lou lout Ametan rmn '" )PI".S 1(,,\ puJU lot the .. oOtI I ptetu"SQue porlr"t '" hotftsdl lllrouq. tne use '" lilt thrd _n.,,>IM!

Rud,,'i Ih,s volume lot III. secO'ld ~me In .. INny )lU11', I mnetnbtoed • quou hom ore 01 K"i l od>e! ""'1!b. TlY I!DoU of Atnttln:n O,d.~ -Mankond an endu,. anyth Of 001 bo<tdom· Ko,~ motH ,n Tlot iIuofl of ~'l\Oh"" lonI'tIwIg but bottdom .. ~ tho IUiW IllIOUih PG<an."t .......,. Ih. I , i~ of I son.ond .,nd'loo, student. 'iOIdoa pool.,,,,,,, ........ '" letars, .. nd h~ llId 1;;11,.,. No ~n of Koot', lilt, I bl:lotY<. WJI boI,'"

Krl: I.new tNt IP""" lrIowitdgt ttwoucto Ior~ (d~JOn " conv.~"dibl •. but p;~ Such In tduC<I!loo «In Iud 10.' <10m 1M ~on'u'oOn Kool; lem",ds ul tl\;ll 1ho bUI-f"",.",bt,ed ltilMI md aile'! til( moll "'Iuw)o 1'CS btyond !he diS"""'" Th. I\lUt.! .. ~ Iurns f,om lUa,ng 11"1 I>0oI:. 111.1 bc:rt<lom 0111\1 C<lnII:$ ,""" e<lt.a1>ONl ,dIeness ¥Id tilt rqleu of .,..,ml.on

"

Oo>e >Udl .tcO\InI rNIed to,oKul ., Thr SIwrd oIlm::,c"'''·.JO<I ~ ll1e 'lillY 01 h,s IrlYeil to "east)p lIorsI.1 K"" when • doclOJ.1 Ihldem .1 51 ~ I UnlWl1Ity ., Scod.ond . ..soled .. old ollie mit hid bttfl wm.<J ,mo ... formliOfy 10, dtI,nQ,,",,1 tKr)1 01 !he S<ot"'" IiunIs Thos BorIUI bkr n\Wy olhe!s., 8. u.n n)~ ,lttI !hi: fons: 1lId1 dtI,nque'" oudemy nur ~ hl<:llp<"~t up .lw World W., II II WlS Ihoulhl by IhDIo toCll<I "lotmo;n o! lI·c ~",'}O yurs thll I tho IUtt prov.Std lot ......,rn' ..... lhen • 1)!!SC<l ...,.,Id be eMlt.utd .nd rlDI neW to bl:<:omr • tto"IWIII

Sol .110. Iloe w.nds 01 tn.oIh bIcrw ... hty ," t ... bo:es 01 000)1 rtlormnt, "f'o'Idm:;e<l by tilt Bllrl-li1 ,,10""'1101," Such d<vdop nit ..... on fttL)\ ..... Il.rt <:\D !11K WCtk. n !hi: eduutoon 01 II ... ~~1on wn ~n tD ,uull ,n boItdom flOO1 Upt"",ne nl.1 d .. ,,~. Tilt rdDrm<,. "' Cud! .""ul hod "'" ~ I:oOmiom !hey hod on!~ (Nn8"d,~ plice 01 ,(s",""Ct. I..,m siurru to relo'fn)\CO'Iu

II)! Ro,ro.sd M true tdllC_ WIi tllO ltIen~ 01 mond 'Ad soul. Iotnot< .. "nw,ned but often tM ,nnounl VlCt,m of .n IT~ Uo/MI'1lII by """" "Iormm To .a.cl~ t,," nu--.ci and soul 01'1)<150<1, on. must >U!Id 00 1M ,1Ir:ddm 01 tho "."IS of tho pUt. _'"il 'OIO ~"rory 10 I,,,,, poudtntly., the poesent Kor\I ult<.! Tlw s..""d of tIat -"w,on to I'lOl only ltII 01 hosljle; IS ..... 0 0' It. ,n,n,. but 10 .clucm oct,.,. 011 tho I, ... m<'" 01 tduCltiOn F,nd".. tJoottlornt .round !'IVf (_ tr.I~ ... >nlo(>p.otOJO MId ,n.IoU)' boo~ .. 1d W1th d,httnC(, t.lci"'guL)/1,n& boItdom ~llCgttta

RUIHII D. J.mn io ,'~du. tl ,tudlnl in CO""H~n,. Ad.m. St~tl (oU.,.,. AI ......... co.

55

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NO'W in Its 26th ye.'. £ducaliooQ/ Considerations is . leadIng journ,l in the field of edlX.t>On.l le,dersh ip. Since 1990, fducaliona! Consideration) h.s fe.tu rtd wtW,nding th.""" _nd authors rel,ti ng to leadershLp'

SPRING 1990: " theme iSS"" devoted to public schoolfund,ng. <dit~d by D'''Ld C. Thompscn , Cod irecto r of the UCE A Cent" for Edu c.tio n finance.1 K.nSls :;C,M Univm,ty ,nd Board of Editors of Educolional Cpn.<id" otions

FALL 1990: l the me ISS"" d,vDted to .cad<mLc ,uccm of Af(ic.n-Amenc. n stuMnts. GuesHd,\. d by Robb~ Sk ward, Unrvmity of KanS<lS .

SPRING 1991 , J theme IS,~ devoted 10 school lrTlI"Qv,mem. Gutst- . d'ted by Thom. s Wicks & Gera ld B,ile]', Kans'l State Un ,I'( ,sity.

FALL 1991 ' l theme ,SSue Mvot.d to sehOO choi,e. Guest-edl led by J uli~ Underwocod, Unrwmty of Wi,cons inMadi,on .nd membe' of th~ Editori al Advisory Bo"d of Educational Co~sideraMns.

SPRING 1992; ,n ec l"tic issue <kvoted to phi losophers 00 th' found't io ns of edl.lC.t1<ln.

FAll 1992: an eci<ctic issue <kvoted to admlnlst ,.tioo.

SPRING 199); an .c l"tic issue of m;lnu >c ripts d!.vo:ed to .dmi nistr. tio n

FALL 1993:. t~ rr.. '"'''' devoted to spe, i, 1 educ.t iOn fund ing. GuesHd ited by P'tricia AntOOny. University of Massachusett>-Amhtlst and rr.. mb< r of the Edito ri,1 AdvIsory Board of Ed"cQlional Considerolion,.

SPRING 1994: " thwle issue devoted to an, lysis of funding .ducatlon. GuesHdlted by Crlig Wood . Codirector of t~ UClA Center lor EduWion finince It th< Un iver.\lty 01 Flond. and mem b<r of the Editori,1 Advi>o'y BOa/d of fduCQliono! Comidcra1!ons.

FALL 1994: j theme iss,," devo:ed to an.lysis of ttle feder. 1 10 ", in educ.tion funding. eu.,t·edlt,d by o.bo rah Ymteg.n . Unive r,i\y of Vi rginll , nd mem b,r Edito ri , l Advi:ory Board of [durO/ional Conllderalionl.

SPRING 1995: " the"", i>su e <kvoted to topics . frect lng wornen as educ.tiOll . 1 I£.ders. Guest-edited by Trudy C.mpf;.ell. Kansa, St'te University

FAU 199$: . n ~clect i( '"'''' of submitted rmnusc"pts on .dministr.tion.

SPRING 199~ : • t lleme issue devoted to top ics of tectmology Innovation . Gu"t·, dit.d by Ger>ld D. Bai l,y ,nd Tweed Ross . ka nsas "me Unl""rsity.

FALL 1996; '" "I,ctic IS\1.le of subm itted and Invit,d manuscriptr on educ.t1<ln topics.

SPRING 1997: a the me issue de'oted to found,tlOns .nd philosDphy of ed uCitioo.

FAU 1997: firs t i"",, of. compl nio n the me set (F.IUS-pring) on the ,t. te-of-ttle-st.te'i repons OIl publ IC 'icl1oo1 fu ndi ng. Guest-ed ited by R. Craig Wood (Un lYCIs ity of Florid.).nd David C. Thompson (kon", State UnI""lS ity).

SPRING 1998: second ils"" of a comp.olOn tt..m, set (F.I VSpri ng) 00 th( .It.te-of·the-states reports on public "hoot funding. Guest-e di ted by R. Craie Wood IUnt""r, ity of florida) .od David C Too"l'Ion (k.n.\. s SlOte Universi ty).

FALl 1995: . n eC""tlc issue of sub mJtted m, nu"npts on edu cl~on· ,"llte d tDplCS.

••• ••• •••• ••• . COMING SOON •••••••••••••••

SPRING 1999· th em e ISSllt de,·or:ed to ESL . nd Cultur,l ly ind Lin~u ist,cally Dilltrse populat ions.

FAll 1999: them. is,"" devoted to te,hnology.

Edu""tional Consitk,ation. inYlt.s , ubsc ri b<rs for only $13.00. Eduootional Con.itk,at'on. IS pub list..d arid funded by the College of Educouon.t K.n", SWe UniverSlly. Wllt~ to ED ITOR. Bluemon t Ha ll . kansas "me Univtrstty. M.nh.tt.n. kS 66S06 or c.11 (/8S) S32·5543.

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Educational Considerations, vol. 26 (1) Full Issue

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