education in the context of a displaced population - USP Theses

EDUCATION IN THE CONTEXT OF A DISPLACED

POPULATION: A CASE STUDY EXPLORING

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF THE

BANABAN PEOPLE IN FIJI

by

RUITI TEBWEBWETEWITI TAWANANG

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the

Requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts in Education

Copyright © 2011 by Ruiti Tebwebwetewiti Tawanang

School of Education

Faculty of Arts and Law

The University of the South Pacific

April, 2011

DEDICATION

I wish to dedicate this thesis to both my late father TawanangTenikom and mother

BanuaoTabutoatau. My parents had been sources of inspiration in encouraging me to diligently

and persistently pursue higher and better education.

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ACKNOWLEGEMENTS

First and foremost I would like to thank the Heavenly Father for the strength,

perseverance and determination to have this thesis accomplished. There were many

challenges encountered in compiling the information and gathering facts. However, in

spite of this, I am so grateful that I was able to complete it successfully, through the

prayers of those who cared and had continuously encouraged, supported and assisted me

produce the final thesis.

I wish to thank the following people who have greatly assisted me in the completion of

this thesis:

• My Supervisor, Dr. Unaisi Nabobo-Baba for her professional guidance, advice, and

whose inspirational encouraging support was never a failure. Her continuous critical and

constructive contributions to the thesis had provided a way forward. Dr. Unaisi had

perhaps the greatest impact on the thesis.

• I am also grateful to Dr. Tupeni Baba who provided useful suggestions to the final stage

of writing.

• The Head of School of Education, USP Faculty of Arts and Law, Mr. TewearikiTeaero

for his assistance when I first began on the intent to finalize the research study. His

support had given me the confidence to pursue the thesis. I was encouraged and

motivated by his advice regarding Banaban education in Fiji, of which little or no

literature existed.

• The Ministry of Education for the three months approval to conduct fieldwork at Rabi

High School.

• The Principal, Vice Principal, Assistance Principal, teachers, students and parents of

Rabi High School for their continuous support with field data collection.

• The indigenous Banaban people living on Rabi for their kindness and willingness to be

interviewed. Their contributions had provided a lot of information, which had an

immense impact on the success of this thesis. Some materials may not be relevant but

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certainly they will provide more information for further research work on this minority

group.

• Ex-students must be acknowledged for their valuable contributions as well, some of

whom, on Rabi island, who have successfully become productive farmers, while others

who are currently in higher institutions and in various employment sectors.

• The support of my extended family is also acknowledged. These include: my brothers

and their family, sisters and their family, cousin sisters and my in-laws, cousin brothers

and my in-laws for the persistent interest in the progress of the study. Their continuous

enquiry into the progress of the thesis provided strength and the spirit to move forward.

• My sincere appreciation goes to my nuclear family that provided me support,

encouragement and patience throughout my writing. I had persistently prayed for their

perseverance in accommodating the inconvenience in completing this thesis, in view of

the dire financial situation my family had to endure. I must acknowledge that their

patience had so much impact on the success of this thesis. The family is where all things

are possible. I’m so grateful for their unyielding support. Their cooperation and

collaboration to this research study was invaluable.

• And last but not the least, those people whose names I may not have mentioned. I am so

grateful for the help rendered, one way or the other, in the course of this study. I wish to

extent my heartfelt gratitude to my dear friend Mr Tave who was an inspiration in the

final stage of compilation. His assistance to the final modifying stage of the thesis was

indeed a great success.

• I am greatly indebted to Mr. Pita Waqawai, a Senior Lecturer, at the Communication

Department, Fiji Institute of Technology, who proof read the thesis before it was finally

published. A big vinakavakalevu to you, Sir.

However, for errors and shortcomings that may be evident in this thesis, I take full

responsibility.

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ABSTRACT

The minority group of people in this study refers to the Banabans who are the natives of

Ocean Island (also known as Banaba). The indigenous Banaban people reside in Fiji on

one of its island, known as Rabi. They are amongst the minority groups in Fiji. On Rabi

Island, Rabi High School (RHS) was established in 1984 to provide secondary education

for the Banaban students.

This research study examines the many challenges and issues experienced by the school

administration, heads of departments, teachers, parents and students. It also outlines the

opportunities related to access and equity in education.

The work is reviewed from an indigenous minority group perspective and makes

comparative analysis of research conducted in selected developed, developing countries

and Pacific Island States. The theoretical and conceptual basis of this research study is

drawn from the international and national literature on the education of the minority

groups. The literature reveals that some rural schools even in developed countries like

USA and UK, also shared the same challenges that are found in this research study.

Feminist Standpoint and Post Colonialism are the two theories that have been used to

inform and frame the study by way of the notions of “voice”, “other” and “hybridity”.

Those who participated in the research study included the Principal of Rabi High

School; staff; students; parents; current and retired members of the Rabi Council of

Leaders (RCL); selected employees of the RCL; members of Parents, Teachers and

Friends Association; ex-students of RHS at the tertiary institutions; RHS drop-outs; and

selected church members, including women.

The research study utilizes the qualitative case-study method. This research

methodology employed participant observation; structured and semi-structured

interviews; and documentary analysis.

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The study is guided by five research questions which enabled the researcher to gather

comprehensive data and identifying key findings. The first question is centered on the

historical background of RHS. The second question focuses on the major challenges of

education on Rabi experienced by the Principal, teachers, parents and students of RHS.

The study discusses the challenges and issues that are specifically related to the Banaban

diaspora. These challenges and issues were found to affect the student educational

development both positively and negatively. The fourth question focuses on the changes

and potential opportunities that help resolve the various challenges and issues in

question one. The fifth and final question addresses the roles played by the Fiji

Government, Kiribati Government and Rabi Council of Leaders, in providing better

educational opportunities to the Banaban students.

The research study concludes with important implications for theory, finance,

educational policy, curriculum development and future research.

I believe that this is the first research study conducted on the education of the Banabans

in Fiji. My interest in writing about my own people has paved a way towards a research

topic for my Master of Arts degree in Education. It is envisaged that in future, I may

conduct further research, perhaps on other unexplored aspects of this minority

population.

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ACRONYMS

AGM Annual General Meeting

AAMC Association of American Medical

AUSAID Australian Agency for International Development

BOG Board of Governors

CHS Community of High School

Cr. Councilor

DFL Distant Flexible Learning

DEAR Drop Everything and Read

EFA Education For All

FAB Fijian Affairs Board

FCA Fiji College of Agriculture

FIT Fiji Institute of Technology

FSFE Fiji Seventh Form Examination

FSLC Fiji School Leaving Certificate

HOD Head of Department

IA Internal Assessment

KGV and EBS King George the Fifth and Elaine Bacchain School

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

METT Ministry of Education Training and Technology

MPDMA Ministry of Provincial Development and Multi-Ethnic Affairs

MOE Ministry of Education

MSB Minutes of Staff Briefing

MTNYS Mobile Training for National Youth Service

NZAID New Zealand International Aid & Development Agency

NZPTC New Zealand Pacific Training Centre

NZSC New Zealand School Certificate

PICs Pacific Island Countries

POD Prefects on Duty

PSS Provincial Secondary School

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PSC Public Service Commission

PTFA Parents Teachers and Friends Association

PWD Public Works Department

RCL Rabi Council of Leaders

RHS Rabi High School

RJSS Rabi Junior Secondary School

SIT Sangam Institute of Technology

SPBEA South Pacific Board for Educational Assessment

TOD Teachers on Duty

USP The University of the South Pacific

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………… i

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….. iii

Acronyms ………………………………………………………………………… v

Table of Contents ………………………………………………………............ vii

List of Figures, Maps, Photographs and Tables ………………………………….. xiv

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 1

1.1 Background ………………………………………………………….. 1

1.2 Aim …………………..……………………………………………… 6

1.3 Research Questions… ………………………………………………. 6

1.4 Significance of the Study……………………………………………. 7

1.5 Nature of Investigation………………………………………………. 8

1.6 The Field Work………………………………………………………. 10

1.7 Research Methodology……………………………………………….. 12

1.7.1 Methodological orientation/approach………………………………… 12

1.7.2 Case Study……………………………………………………………. 12

1.8 Research Respondents………………………………………………... 13

1.9 Data Gathering strategies, research instruments……………………… 13

1.10 Some Limitations and Assumptions…………………………………... 14

1.11 Assumptions…………………………………………………………... 16

1.12 Delimitations …………………………………………………………. 17

1.13 Reflexivity……………………………………………………………. 17

1.13.1 The “Insider” as a Researcher………………………………………… 17

1.13.2 Researcher as an “Outsider”…………………………………………… 19

1.14 Challenges of Education at Rabi High School ………………………. 21

1.15 Organization of the thesis…………………………………….………. 23

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CHAPTER 2: FROM OCEAN ISLAND TO RABI: THE PEOPLE, HISTORY,

SOCIETY AND SCHOOL

2.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………. 25

2.1 Ocean Island (also known as Banaba)………………………………… 25

2.1.1 Geography …………………………………………………………… 25

2.1.2 History ……………………………………………………………….. 26

2.1.3 Politics ……………………………………………………………….. 28

2.2 Rabi ………………………………………………………………….. 28

2.2.1 Geography …………………………………………………………… 28

2.2.2 History ……………………………………………………………….. 29

2.2.3 People and Opportunities ……………………………………………. 29

2.2.4 Administration ………………………………………………………. 31

2.2.5 Education ……………………………………………………………. 32

2.3 The Educational Context ……………………………………………… 33

2.4 Schools ………………………………………………………………. 35

2.4.1 Pre-Schools ………………………………………………………….. 35

2.4.2 Primary Schools ……………………………………………………... 36

2.5 Rabi High School …………………………………………………... 37

2.5.1 History ………………………………………………………………. 37

2.5.2 Establishment of the School ………………………………………… 38

2.5.3 Vision and Mission ………………………………………………….. 39

2.5.4 Ownership of the School ……………………………………………. 40

2.5.5 School Administration ………………………………………………. 41

2.5.6 Staffing ………………………………………………………………. 43

2.5.7 Teaching and Learning ……………………………………………… 44

2.6 Summary …………………………………………………………….. 47

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CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORECTICAL

FRAMINGS

3.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 49

3.1 Concept of “Diaspora” ………………………………………………. 49

3.1.1 Reasons for Diaspora ………………………………………………... 50

3.2 Education for the Diasporic Population ……………………………… 51

3.3 Issues, Challenges, and Opportunities of Education in Rural and

Developing Countries ……………………………………………….. 52

3.3.1 Access and Equity Issues for Rural Populations and Minority Groups... 54

3.3.2 Parental Role in Rural Education …………………………………… 57

3.4 Rural Education: Potential Opportunities …………………………... 59

3.5 Education of the Minority Group …………………………………… 60

3.5.1 Factors affecting the Education of the Minority Students ………….. 62

3.5.2 Language Policies for Minority Education ………………………….. 64

3.5.3 Challenges faced by the Minority Groups …………………………… 67

3.5.4 Opportunities for the Minority Groups ………………………………. 70

3.6 Theoretical Framework of the Study…………………………………. 73

3.6.1 Feminist Standpoint Theory and Voice of the Marginalized Groups ... 73

3.6.2 Post Colonialism Theory and the notion “Voice” …………………… 74

3.6.3 Post Colonialism and the notion of “Hybridity” …………………….. 77

3.6.4 Post Colonialism and the notion of “Other” …………………………. 78

3.7 Summary………………………………………………………………. 79

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………. 81

4.1 Methodology Part I: Qualitative Research Design – Case-Study

Approach……………………………………………………………… 81

4.1.1 A Qualitative Approach to Research ………………………………… 81

4.2 Case Study as Methodology………………………………………….. 84

4.3 Methods ……………………………………………………………… 86

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4.3.1 Field notes ……………………………………………………………. 86

4.3.2 Participant Observation ………………………………………………. 87

4.3.3 Interviews …………………………………………………………….. 89

4.3.4 “Talanoa”…………………………………………………………….. 91

4.3.5 Documentary Analysis ……………………………………………….. 92

4.3.6 Data Analysis Approach ……………………………………………… 92

4.3.7 Triangulation …………………………………………………………. 94

4.4 Ethical Issues …………………………………………………………. 95

4.4.1 Protection from Harm ………………………………………………… 95

4.4.2 Informed Consent ……………………………………………………. 95

4.5 Confidentiality ……………………………………………………….. 96

4.6 Permission ……………………………………………………………. 96

4.7 Methodology Part II: In the Field – Community and Researcher

Experiences Documented …………………………………………….. 97

4.8 Research Process ……………………………………………………... 98

4.9 Data Input ……………………………………………………………. 101

4.10 Participant Observation ………………………………………………. 101

4.10.1 Form 4 Teachers, Students and Parents Meeting …………………….. 102

4.10.2 Graduation Ceremony for Young Farmers …………………………… 103

4.10.3 Parents, Teachers and Friends Association (PTFA) Meeting ………... 104

4.11 In-depth Interview …………………………………………………… 106

4.12 “Talanoa” (Story Telling) …………………………………………… 110

4.13 Instruments …………………………………………………………… 114

4.14 Summary ……………………………………………………………… 115

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CHAPTER 5: RABI HIGH SCHOOL: ISSUES, CHALLENGES, MAJOR

DEVELOPMENTS, AND TRENDS IN RELATION TO ACCESS TO BETTER

EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AND PROVISION FOR BANABANS

5.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 116

5.1 Issues …………………………………………………………………. 117

5.1.1 Educational Issues ……………………………………………………. 117

5.1.2 Cultural Issues ………………………………………………………... 122

5.1.3 Social Issues …………………………………………………………... 124

5.1.4 Related Economic Issues ……………………………………………... 127

5.1.5 Political Issues ………………………………………………………… 129

5.1.6 Assessment ……………………………………………………………. 131

5.2 Challenges …………………………………………………………….. 132

5.2.1 Administration ………………………………………………………… 132

5.2.2 Teachers ……………………………………………………………….. 134

5.2.3 Students ……………………………………………………………….. 137

5.2.4 Parents ………………………………………………………………… 138

5.3 Effects of Major Challenges on the Educational Development of

RHS Students ………………………………………………………… 140

5.3.1 Positive Effects ………………………………………………………. 140

5.3.2 Negative Effects ……………………………………………………… 141

5.4 Challenges that are related to Banaban Diaspora …………………….. 142

5.5 Major Developments …………………………………………………. 143

5.6 Trends ………………………………………………………………… 144

5.6.1 School Enrolments ……………………………………………………. 145

5.6.2 Students Performance ………………………………………………… 145

5.6.3 Adult Education ………………………………………………………. 146

5.7 Summary ……………………………………………………………… 147

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CHAPTER 6: RABI HIGH SCHOOL: CHANGES AND OPPORTUNITIES -

ROLES OF FIJI GOVERNMENT; KIRIBATI GOVERNMENT; AND RABI

COUNCIL OF LEADERS

6.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 149

6.1 Changes ………………………………………………………………. 149

6.1.1 Rabi High School …………………………………………………….. 150

6.1.2 Leadership ……………………………………………………………. 154

6.1.3 Improvement at RHS ………………………………………………… 157

6.2 Opportunities …………………………………………………………. 159

6.2.1 Internal Opportunities ………………………………………………… 160

6.2.2 External Opportunities ……………………………………………….. 163

6.3 Role of Governments ………………………………………………… 166

6.3.1 Role of Fiji Government ……………………………………………… 167

6.3.2 The Role of School Management …………………………………….. 170

6.3.3 Role of the Rabi Council of Leaders …………………………………. 171

6.3.4 Role of the Kiribati Government ……………………………………... 176

6.4 Summary ……………………………………………………………… 177

CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

7.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 179

7.1 Summary of the Thesis ………………………………………………. 179

7.2 Key Findings of the Study …………………………………………… 183

7.3 Implications of the Study …………………………………………….. 188

7.3.1 Implications for Theory ………………………………………………. 189

7.3.2 Implications for Finance ……………………………………………… 190

7.3.3 Implications for Educational Policy ………………………………….. 191

7.3.4 Implications for Curriculum Development ………………………… 193

7.3.5 Implications for future Research …………………………………… 195

7.4 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………. 195

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REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………. 198

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I……………………………………………………………………... 235

Research Questions ……………………………………………………………….. 235

APPENDIX II …………………………………………………………………… 236

“Talanoa” Interview Questions …………………………………………………... 236

APPENDIX III ………………………………………………………………….. 239

Interview Questions for Organizations ………………………………………… 239

APPENDIX IV ………………………………………………………………… 241

Interview Questions for Teachers ……………………………………………… 241

APPENDIX V (A) …………………………………………………………….. 246

Interview Questions for Students – Forms 3 and 4 …………………………….. 246

Teachers ………………………………………………………………………… 246

APPENDIX V (B) ……………………………………………………………… 251

Interview Questions for Senior Students – Forms 5, 6 and 7(Arts) …………… 251

Teachers ………………………………………………………………………… 251

APPENDIX V (C) ……………………………………………………………… 256

Interview Questions for Senior Students – Forms 5, 6 and 7 (Science) ………... 256

Teachers …………………………………………………………………………. 256

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1 Characteristics of Qualitative Research ……………………………… 83

LIST OF MAPS

Map 2.1 Geographical Locations of Banaba and Rabi …………………. 27

LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS

Photograph 2.1 The Front View of Rabi High School ………………………… 40

Photograph 2.2 Students Concentrating on Computer Learning ……………… 46

Photograph 4.1 Form 4 Teacher and Parents Meeting ………………………… 103

Photograph 4.2 RHS Ex-Scholars with their Trainer …………………………….. 104

Photograph 6.1 RCL Cr. Tebaia with the Youth Officer and the two

Trainees of MTYNS …………………………………………… 174

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 The Fieldwork Timetable on Rabi Island in 2007 ……………… 10

Table 4.1 Coding the Informant …………………………………………. 100

Table 4.2 PTFA Meeting …………………………………………………. 105

Table 4.3 A Sample of an Interview Transcript by a Form 3 Student …… 108

Table 4.4 Response to “Talanoa” Interview Questions ………………….. 111

Table 6.1 MEA Scholarship Awards …………………………………….. 165

Table 6.2 RHS MEA Awardees and Choice of Institutions - 2008 ……... 166

Table 6.3 Controlling Authorities: Secondary Schools in Fiji, 1999 …….. 171

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This study explores issues, challenges and opportunities related to access and equity in

learning opportunities and success that exist in a rural secondary school in Rabi, and

suggests how these challenges are addressed. Specifically how the Banaban diaspora

affects the development of schooling at Rabi High School (RHS) since the early 1980’s

as seen by a number of stakeholders. RHS has students who are predominantly

Banabans. The Banabans originated from Banaba, (formerly known as Ocean Island), in

Kiribati and constitute a minority population in Fiji.

This chapter provides the background to the study; outlines the aims and objectives;

discusses the research questions; outlines the significance of the study, nature of

investigation and the field work. It briefly presents the research methodology which is

discussed later in detail in chapter 4. In addition, it outlines the limitations and

assumptions of the study. There is also a section on reflexivity which discusses the

position of the researcher both as an “insider” and “outsider”. Finally it concludes with

the organization of the thesis.

1.1 Background

Education is a key to attaining development and economic prosperity. It is the most

powerful instrument for reducing poverty and inequality and lays a foundation for

sustainable economic growth for all nations (Namekawa, 2008:4). For the Banabans,

education is crucial for the development of their human resources and homeland. In an

attempt to enable more Banabans to enter secondary school, a secondary school was

deemed a need for this minority group in Fiji. RHS was therefore established amongst

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other schools in Fiji to cater for the needs of this minority population on Rabi Island.

However, this secondary school faces multiple challenges.

The World Bank (2008) described secondary education as a gateway to the opportunities

and benefits of economic and social development. Since many countries have

approached universal primary education, the demand for access to higher level of

education has also increased dramatically. The growth of secondary education may also

be due in part to global agendas such as Education for All (EFA). The increased demand

for secondary education may also be due to globalization and the increasing demand for

a more sophisticated labour force, combined with the growth of knowledge-based

economies (World Bank, 2008). The World Bank states that:

In the today’s world, secondary education has a vital mission –

one which combines the policy peculiarities of being at the same

time terminal and preparatory, compulsory and post-compulsory,

uniform and diverse, general and vocational. Secondary education

is now being recognized as the cornerstone of educational systems

in the 21st century. Quality secondary education is indispensable

in creating a bright future for individuals and nations alike (World

Bank, 2008, p.2).

Secondary school level of education is where some specialization begins (Adnusa,

2006). At this level, students are introduced into the specialized pre-service training

colleges and tertiary institutions such as medical institutions and universities. However,

secondary school education systems are mostly criticised for their various reforms.

Various reforms in the Fiji education system at the secondary school level had faced

problems of overloaded curriculum and inappropriate combination of subjects, leading

to complications on admission to higher tertiary institutions (ibid).

Challenges are part and partial of secondary school existence whether in urban or rural

context. Adanusa, (2006), stated that the challenges in secondary schools can be

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categorised into: (i) Quality and (ii) Access and Participation. She argued that for low

quality education delivery, the following challenges may be visible in secondary

education in rural Fiji (Tavola, 2000)

(i) Lack of adequate teaching and learning facilities

(ii) Poor infrastructural facilities

(iii) Low number of well-motivated and committed teachers

(iv) Absence of proper guidance and counselling services

(v) Poor management and supervision

(vi) Inadequately prepared secondary school leavers

(Tavola, 2000, p. 162-175)

The above factors could be related to lack of adequate budgetary allocations, inadequate

capacity to manage available resources or a general misguided perception of priorities

(Adanusa, 2006). Similarly, a study by UNDP (1999) has revealed that public funding

for education once almost sacrosanct, has come under pressure particularly as many

countries of the Pacific region, undergo public sector and economic reform programmes.

It is evident that education budgets were reduced across the board.

In the case of access, participation and challenges, Adanusa (2006) had identified the

following which may have some relevance to the study. These are:

(i) Inadequate facilities such as libraries, hostels,

accommodation for staff, laboratories and classrooms, in

the senior secondary schools, which could have absorbed

more students.

(ii) Poverty, making difficult for some parents to afford the

educational needs for their children

(iii) Lack of alternative tracks for people with different

interests and abilities to pursue them and enter the world

of work

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(iv) Inability to meet the minimum academic requirements for

further education;

(v) General lack of interest in further education (Adanusa,

2006, p. 3)

For better and quality education it is always appropriate that possibilities are provided to

the challenges encountered in schools for better improvement of the system.

Furthermore in terms of challenges related to conflict, Lloyd (2006) has identified an

approach that would be used in education to restoring good relationships when there has

been conflict or harm. This approach may be applicable to some related administrative

challenges, and ill relations between staff members that are evident at RHS (Field notes,

2007). He has suggested the development of school ethos, policies and procedures that

reduce possibilities of these.

These approaches are “restorative practices” and “restorative approaches”. Lloyd argued

that these approaches acknowledge that schooling is an increasingly complex task, “with

increasingly wider demands on schools in a diverse and complex world and that

teacher’s work can be challenging and stressful”. These approaches to some extent are

reflected in the interview results of the Principal and teachers (Field notes, 2007). Lloyd

argued that if the concept of restorative approaches is used elsewhere it can offer a much

more relevant focus for thinking about conflict, about change and about schools as

learning communities, (Lloyd, 2006). Lloyd stated that restorative approaches were seen

to involve a set of principles, strategies and skills.

The underpinning principles include the importance of fostering social relationships in a

school community of mutual engagement and the responsibility and accountability for

one’s own actions and their impact on others. He emphasized the respect for other

people, their views and feelings and empathy with the feelings of others affected by

one’s own actions, fairness, commitment to equitable process and active involvement of

everyone in school with decisions about their own lives. The issues of conflict returned

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and a willingness to create opportunities for reflective change in students and staff were

considered important (Lloyd, 2006).

This acknowledges the theoretical framework underpinning other approaches to

supporting children in schools. These include humanistic, person-centered psychology,

cognitive-behavioral approaches, the “social model” and sociological perspectives on

social and educational processes that recognize conflicting purposes of schooling (ibid).

Furthermore, Lloyd suggested that in more challenging situations or with difficult

students, the following restorative approaches are ideal. They included restorative ethos

building, curriculum focus on relationship development and conflict prevention. In

relation to the school under study, the approaches suggested by Lloyd may have been

related to the situations at RHS. He also looked at restorative language and restorative

conversation, checking in circles, problem solving circles – small or whole –class,

mediation, shuttle mediation and peer mediation are equally important. He also

suggested that restorative meetings or small conferences, restorative management of

exclusion/reintegration and few formal conferences may be conducted for improvement

(Lloyd, 2006). These suggestions by Lloyd would be of significance to RHS.

Since the establishment of RHS, it had been praised for its reputation for increased

access to a growing number of students in the early 1980s. The school had taken in

matured drop out students who had successfully completed their Form 6 level at the

school and had pursued to higher institutions including Lautoka Teachers’ Colleges

(LTC), Fiji Institute of Technology (FIT), Fiji College of Advanced Education (FCAE)

and the University of the South Pacific (USP). The students were successful and were

able to secure very lucrative jobs for their living. However, after a period of rising

enrolments and qualitative gains in cognitive achievement, the school began to

experience a great drop in school roll. This was due to many factors including

administrative policies that may have discouraged more students’ enrolment in the

school.

It was evident that the main aims of the Education system in Fiji was to increase access

to formal education beginning from pre-school, primary school level, secondary school

and terminating at tertiary level. In pursuance of this aim, at the secondary level, many

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rural secondary schools, like RHS, were established. The Rabi Council of Leaders

(RCL), in partnership with the Ministry of Education (MOE) and with the assistance of

external funding, from British Aid for example, had combined their efforts to build

RHS, providing education to the minority population on Rabi Island.

1.2 Aim

The overarching aim of the study is to examine the educational issues, challenges and

opportunities of the displaced minority population in a rural secondary school in Fiji.

This is in relation to access and equity to better opportunities of schooling on Rabi. The

main aim is operationalised in the five main questions below.

1.3 Research Questions

The following main questions are used to guide the research:

1.3.1 What is the historical background of RHS - its establishment, major

issues, developments, and trends and what is its role in providing better

educational opportunities for the education of Banabans?

1.3.2 What are some of the major challenges of education on Rabi, as

experienced by the Principal, teachers, parents and students at RHS?

Which challenges are related specifically to Banaban diaspora?

1.3.3 How do these challenges affect the educational development of the

students at RHS?

1.3.4 What are some of the changes and opportunities that affect teaching and

learning?

1.3.5 What roles do these respective government and agencies play in

providing better educational opportunities to the Banabans: Fiji

Government, Government of Kiribati and the RCL.

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1.4 Significance of the Study

The study is significant for a number of reasons. Firstly, secondary education has

increasingly gained importance for the Banabans, since their arrival in Fiji in 1945. It is

now considered as the determinant of better future undertakings for the young

generation of today. Success at secondary school would mean entry to tertiary studies or

job opportunities. It has taken up the efforts and budgets of the Fiji Government, RCL

and external aid to invest in establishing RHS to cater for these pressing demands. As

noted by the World Bank (2005), secondary education plays a key articulating role

between primary, secondary and tertiary education and the labor market. The specific

dynamics of this articulation is crucial because it determines future educational and job

opportunities for young people.

Secondly, the study fills the gap in the literature about the Banaban education in Fiji.

This prompts the possibility of conducting this study to research and document issues,

challenges and opportunities at RHS especially in terms of access and equity of

provisions to education. This is to better inform stakeholders and policy makers.

Although a number of studies such as Sigrah and King (2001); Teaiwa (1999) and

Tavola (2000) have looked at other aspects of the Banaban people. However, none of the

studies has specifically focused a detailed exploration on the challenges and

opportunities of the displaced Banabans in terms of access and equity of schooling

opportunities. While more studies are invited, this study is significant as a beginning in

paving the way for further educational research studies on the Banaban people.

Thirdly, such study as this will create awareness to the Banaban community in Fiji and

educators to understand the underlying issues, challenges and opportunities, and the

importance of establishing RHS. Based on evidence of existing studies (UNESCO,

1977; UNESCO, 1999; Thaman, 1998; Report of the Fiji Islands Education

Commission, 2000), the present research explores the challenges and opportunities of

education in the context of the displaced population. This study is significant in that it

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attempts to enlighten the Banaban community at large of the possibilities of access and

equity of education provisions (Williams, 2000, p. 195).

Fourthly, this diaspora study could also be an inclusion to indigenous knowledge,

philosophy, epistemology and research. Nabobo (2006) postulates that such inclusion of

indigenous perspective in all aspects of research would help empower indigenous

communities. This would, therefore, made this diaspora study still be exploratory and

may represent avenues of research which if indicated and consciously supported could

have an interesting bearing on policies to improve the quality of education in the context

of this displaced population, as well as address (throw some light on) access and equity

and challenges.

Lastly, the study is designed to provide an in-depth description of issues, challenges and

opportunities in a particular school/community context. The investigation is intended to

develop and extend basic knowledge of issues, challenges and opportunities faced by the

Banaban students. The study at the outset is a consequence of a heart-felt concern for

economically disadvantaged (Tavola, 2000) potential Banaban students. These students

continually drop out of school at an early age and resort to early marriage with low

educational background (Terengati, 2006; Tatafu, et al, 1997). In addition, the study

hopes to help educators to appraise available options for the marginalised minority

students given the past and current issues, challenges and opportunities.

1.5 Nature of Investigation

This thesis is a case study on the education of a displaced population in a rural setting.

In a case study, the researcher looks at the entire groups – more specifically a group that

shares a common culture (Leedy and Ormond, 2005: 137). The group is studied in its

natural setting for a specific period.

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The researcher in this case study has to gain access through a gatekeeper (ibid). For this

study the Ministry of Education (MOE) is the gatekeeper to the research site – RHS. At

the research site, I identified the key informants who were likely to provide relevant

information and insights pertinent to the research questions. The key informants are the

Principal, Parents, Teachers, Students, Councillors, and Ex-scholars of RHS.

The principal method adopted in this study for date gathering was through participant

observation. This is supplemented by structured and semi structured interviews, informal

discussions during birthday parties, funerals, entertainment, religious functions on the

island and storytelling or what is locally known as “talanoa”.

In the case of the Banaban society information is passed from one person to another

through informal conversation. This is a very common practice amongst the Banaban

people, especially during weddings, funerals, celebrations, grog sessions, and family

gatherings for ceremonial purposes. Information is carried through this means very

effectively.

Information is passed from one person to another by way of a common means of

communication in the Pacific known as “talanoa”. “Talanoa” is defined as

conversation between two people in the form of telling stories or sharing ideas

(Likuseniua, 1994). Very sensitive issues may be captured and effectively passed

through this means. “Talanoa” is part and partial of the Banaban way of life.

Information is shared amongst men during grog sessions or when gathering at weddings,

funerals, and birthday parties. Women, on the other hand exploit ‘talanoa’ as an

effective way of passing information to others, in which case nothing is concealed as

secrets. They would visit friends after house chores and would “talanoa” to any length.

This way information which is never heard of is actually told by women.

This is one area that the researcher took advantage of during the field work. The

researcher sits around with women and men to ask and listen. Relevant information was

then noted.

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“Talanoa” method supplemented other methods of collecting data like interviews and

participant observation supported by the review of various school documents.

Within the school environment, many school sources were utilized for information

gathering. This include daily attendance registers for students and teachers,

correspondence between the Fiji Ministry of Education and RHS, examination records,

internal memorandum, teachers and students interviews, detention record book, school

assemblies where announcements are made to students, and staff attendance record.

1.6 The Field Work

This field work is conducted to achieve the objectives of the study. It is also guided by

the use of the research questions designed for the study. The fieldwork was undertaken

on the island of Rabi at RHS to observe, understand and record and come to know

(DePoy, et al, 1998, p. 128), so that related issues, challenges and opportunities

regarding access and equity of schooling opportunities are described, explained and

generated.

The research work for this study was conducted in July to August, 2007. It took the

researcher six weeks to complete the research study on Rabi Island. The focus of the

case study research was at RHS.

However, before the actual fieldwork, the preparation stage saw the literature review,

design of research, and attaining approval from the Fiji Ministry of Education and the

RCL. I then, proceed to the fieldwork. The timetable for the fieldwork is outlined in

Table 1.1 below.

Table 1.1: The Fieldwork Timetable on Rabi Island in 2007

Date Activity

2nd

- 6th

July Visit the school and make necessary arrangement with the Principal and

begin with the research within the school. Potential research participants

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were consulted and informed about the nature of the study especially

parents in the four villages. They were informed of the time of the visit.

7th

- 8th

July

First week identify 10 households in all the 4 villages briefing them on

what was required for an interview and that a revisit and interview was to

be conducted after a week. Visit grog sites; and make necessary visits to

women groups.

9th

- 13th

July

Revisited the school and conducted interviews, and use the school

sources to continue other research work. Grog sites were visited.

14th

- 15th

July

Second week-end. Women groups were identified and visited. Involved

in the “talanoa” session. Grog sites were visited. Coding continued at

night, with some transcribing some interviewed results.

16th

– 20th

July

Revisited the school and continued the research work using the school

sources and take necessary photographs, recording. Coding and

transcription continued.

21st – 22

nd July

Third week end. Visit the first 10 household in the researcher’s village.

Interview, recording and taking photographs. Coding and transcription

continued.

23rd

– 27th

July

Revisited the school on the first two days of the week. Visit the second

village and interviewed the parents, and continued with the third village,

and then with the second village. Continued with coding transcription of

the results

28th

– 29th

July Forth weekend. Visit women’s group and continue the “talanoa” session

or grog sessions in the evening. Transcriptions continued.

30th

July – 3rd

Aug

Revisit the school on the first two days, but school closed. Visit the

parents of the third village and conduct interviews, tape recording and

taking photographs. Continue to visit grog sessions and continue

“talanoa” sessions

4th

– 5th

Aug Fifth weekend. Continued “talanoa” sessions. Transcriptions continued.

6th

– 12th

Aug

13th

– 17th

Aug

Visit the forth village and conduct interview, tape recording and taking

Photographs, final stage of fieldwork and packing.

Back to USP, Suva.

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1.7 Research Methodology

1.7.1 Methodological Orientation/Approach

In view of the theoretical approaches discussed in the preceding chapters, qualitative

case study as methodology is utilized. The study is using the associated data collecting

methods, for example, filed notes, participant observation, interview, and “talanoa” and

document analysis to document the historical background, major developments trends

and changes at RHS and to explore challenges, opportunities and possibilities. The

research study is guided by those criteria pertaining to case study research and

naturalistic inquiry as defined below.

1.7.2 Case Study

Case studies are common ways to do qualitative inquiry (Stake, 2006). He states that the

case method (or the case method is a prolonged, intimate, and detailed investigation of a

single case or set of case. The case method is especially useful in illuminating social

worlds that are not appreciated or understood by others.

In addition, there are a number of case study aspects identified by Lodico, et al (2005).

They explain that first, to begin a case study; researchers first identify the problem or

question to be investigated and develop a rationale for why a case is an appropriate

approach to be used in the study. The questions are framed through experience,

observation and a review of related research. Once the questions are clear, the researcher

must decide which type of purposeful sampling procedures can be used to identify

persons, who will be observed or interviewed (Lodico, et al, 2005, p. 269).

According to Leedy and Ormrod (2005) the researcher collects extensive data on the

individuals, program or events on which the investigation is focused. These data are

often observations, interviews, documents (e.g. newspaper articles), past records, and

audiovisual materials. In many instances, the researcher may spend an extended period

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of time on site (Burns, 1997) and interact regularly with the people who are being

studied.

The researcher also records details about the context surrounding the case, including

information about the physical environment and any historical, economic, and social

factors that have bearing on the situation (Leedy and Ormrod, 2005, p. 135).

1.8 Research Respondents

First, at RHS, I identified the participants who were willing to participate in the study.

The following respondents were willing to sacrifice their time:

• The Principal and the Administrative Team

• Heads of Departments and some subjects teachers

• Culture and Local Art and Craft teachers

• Ten students from Form 3 and 4

• Ten students from the arts and science in Forms 5, 6, and 7

• Bursar, typists, and the librarian

The above participants were interviewed and asked to fill in questionnaires considering

the six weeks allocated for the fieldwork.

Second, ten parents in the four villages namely Buakonikai, Tabiang, Uma and

Tabwewa, were identified. These are parents of RHS students. They were also

interviewed and were asked to express their views. In Suva, a number of parents were

interviewed. These are parents whose children attended RHS previous years, but have

shifted to Suva in search for better educational opportunities for their children.

In addition, apart from the above participants, focus groups were also identified in the

four villages. A random of six members were involved in the “talanoa” method and

given questionnaires to answer. The recording of interviews and “talanoa” was

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accepted by few respondents. There was a quite a number of interviewees who disagreed

to be put on record (DePoy, et al, 1998).

Third, there were some former students identified in Suva and interviewed for

information pertaining to the study. These students currently attend Suva secondary

schools, USP, FIT, Fiji School of Medicine (FSM), Fiji School of Nursing (FSN) and

Fiji College of Agriculture (FCA).

Furthermore, areas that were visited included the Ministry of Education and the RCL

office in Rabi and Suva. However, before visits were made, prior arrangements and

permission were sought from the various heads of the areas mentioned.

1.9 Data Gathering Strategies, Research Instruments

Questionnaires were written instruments (DePoy and Gitlin, 1998) and in this research

they were integral part of information gathering. In addition, instruments used included

the recorder, a lap top and a camera to take relevant photographs. Data is then analyzed

after the administration of questionnaires and interview questions. Data collection are

done through semi interviews and recording of information through the use of tape

recorders. The interview questions are included in Appendix I. This is for the 10

participants in the four villages.

1.10 Some Limitations and Assumptions

1.10.1 The visits to the school were done during the school official hours to get teachers

to cooperate and to respond positively during the interviews. Teachers were

engaged during their non-teaching periods. It is assumed that teachers who were

not engaged in teaching were to be interviewed. One possible limitation that

might not allow the teachers to be interviewed is that they are preoccupied in

lesson preparation for their classes. This however, was remedied by

administering questionnaires to participants for them to fill.

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1.10.2 The nature of the data varied according to place of collection. As data collection

in this study was restricted to parents in Rabi and Suva, the capacity of the study

to capture the Banaban parents’ contribution from other parts of Fiji is limited.

1.10.3 The researcher is a secondary school teacher from within the school system under

study. Her familiarity with the system and her associated biases may serve as a

limitation to the acquisition of accurate responses and may provide an “internal”

bias in the interpretation of information.

1.10.4 In the course of the research study on the island, there were limitations that

threatened the researcher’s attempt in obtaining data. The unpredictable weather

condition was a limitation for me from reaching some destinations for gathering

relevant information. It was not possible to reach the school due to damaged

roads as a result of heavy rain on the island. However, at times when at school, it

was difficult to see potential teachers especially, when they were fully committed

with their classes.

1.10.5 Another noted limitation is the difficulty I faced in entering the data in my

laptop. This is due to lack of efficient supply of electricity to the village. There is

no power supply to the village due to the breakdown of the engine plant for the

village.

1.10.6 During the research fieldwork, unforeseen political unrest in the country saw the

Fijian Teachers Association called off its members from work for a strike.

Consequently, some potential teachers who were to be interviewed did not turn

up for classes for this reason. Schools around the country were closed a week in

advance for the school holidays.

1.10.7 Mechanical breakdown of RCL vehicles effectively limited the researcher’s

movement to get to other research destinations. Occasionally, say a day or two in

a week, the truck and the bus would not be serviced due to RCL mechanics

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delays in repairing the two trucks. Furthermore, the transportation problem was

intensified by the lack of spare parts for vehicles on the island. These spare parts

were to be purchased from the main urban centres like Savusavu, Labasa or

Suva.

Alternatively, the boats owned by businessmen were hired by the RCL to provide

services for the people, but at times rough seas would restrain the efficiency and

reliability of transportation to the people. Such limitations at times forced the

researcher to walk to remote to villages and spent nights away from home

collecting data.

1.10.8 While the present study was going to be the first one to document the education

of the Banabans in Fiji, it has several limitations that must be noted. The

limitations will be classified before and after the research study.

One of the main limitations that, has already been identified before the actual

research is conducted is the reluctance of the RCL to allow the researcher to

access information at their office. Some of which were quite relevant to the

research study.

1.11 Assumptions

For the purpose of this study it is assumed that: Education in the context of a displaced

population in terms of historical background, its establishment, major developments,

trends and changes, of parental involvement, related challenges and issues are coherent

and analyzable concepts.

The informants accept the data collection and analysis as interpretive endeavours which

requires their repeated involvement by verifying that the interpretation of their responses

by the researcher are valid.

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Although the Banabans are one of the minority groups in such a racially diverse nation,

they will eventually access and participate in the growing educational opportunities

available to all Fiji citizens.

It is assumed that the findings of the research to some extent are similar to the issues,

challenges, and possibilities of accessing schooling opportunities in the remote and rural

schools in developing countries of the Pacific region.

1.12 Delimitations

There are demarcated categories in the scope of this research study. The scope of this

study is delimited to the perspectives of former and current students, teachers, and

parents of RHS. In addition, the views of stakeholders of RHS are categorised

separately, for instance some former and current Councillors and the President of PTFA.

The study does not attempt to explore the views of various religious groups on the island

and organization for women or men. It absolutely eliminates and is kept away from a

survey of primary school students, teachers and head teachers.

1.13 Reflexivity

1.13.1 The “Insider” as a Researcher

Qualitative case study is characterized by researchers spending extended time on the

site, personally in contact with activities and operations of the case, reflecting, and

revising descriptions and meanings of what is going on (Stake, 2006). The simplest rule

for method in qualitative case work put forward by Stake (2006) is “Place your best

intellect into the thick of what is going on”. He maintains that the brainwork ostensibly

is observational, but more critical, it is reflective. Further, in being ever-reflective, the

researcher is committed to pondering the impression, deliberating on recollections and

records (ibid, p. 449).

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As a researcher, I categorize myself as a native insider carrying out my research study

on my own people. I was born in Ocean Island where I was raised among the people in

the early 1960s. I am a Banaban and an insider to the subject area and all the people I

wish to study. I am, therefore, very mindful of my own subjectivity.

As an insider, my interest in this study was possible through my experience with the

community in Rabi. I joined my paternal relatives in Fiji in 1970s. I continued primary

education on Rabi and then moved to Suva where I completed primary school and

secondary education. I proceeded to tertiary after which I became a teacher. I went back

to teach at the RHS in 1998 until 2005. At the school, I witnessed that many students left

school for many reasons which include problems at school, home, and peer pressure.

My experience as an insider has brought a desire to conduct a study on the school and

expose these problems so that they could be addressed, and assistance could be made

available to the Banabans students on Rabi Island. Many of the Banaban students left

school at the level of class three, four, five, six, seven, eight, and of course at the

secondary level. I feel that these students are a loss to the Banaban community – a great

deal of human resources that could be of great benefit for the community to take Rabi

forward in all its future developments.

Unfortunately, this study focuses only on the secondary school. It is envisaged that in

the future, the research on the education of the Banabans may extend to primary school

level, by other potential researchers.

In addition, past research on the Banabans carried out by foreigners, need interpreters to

link themselves with the community. This is an opportunity for me as a native insider

with a good command of the language to conduct the research amongst my own people.

Whilst introducing myself to some participants, they were grateful that they no longer

fear the presence of an “outsider”, in particular the white man as a researcher. They felt

comfortable in expressing their views in vernacular without difficulties during the

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interview. For this reason, members of the community showed willingness to be

interviewed.

Students were also confident to express themselves in their mother tongue while being

interviewed. This allows more information to be gathered as I find interviewing the

students very comfortable. The students were also confident in answering questions

during the interview.

I spent six weeks with the people and involved myself amongst the groups in my effort

to collect data for the research study. The first two weeks was spent at RHS. This is

where interviews with teachers and students took place. In addition, interview

questionnaires were distributed and were filled by teachers and students.

Various households in the four villages were visited and parents were interviewed. I also

assumed the role of participant observer, while being present in social functions like

fund raising by village people, two funerals, religious functions, entertainment by the

primary students to visiting tourists, and a graduation program for mobile National

Youth Service Training. I moved freely amongst the people and interviewed those whom

I thought worth interviewing.

As a native insider I am interested in conducting research to write more the education of

the Banaban in Fiji. It has always been my desire to investigate the problems

encountered by the Banaban students at RHS. The study at RHS may supplement the

study that had been published by previous writers who had also shown enthusiasm in

writing about the Banaban history and culture. In addition, the study would provide

more resources on the education of the Banabans for future potential researchers.

1.13.2 Researcher as an “Outsider”

As researcher, I am a scholar undertaking studies at the University of the South Pacific

and I am also an “outsider” after I returned to study RHS. An “outsider” defined by

Brook (1991) is a person whose personal characteristics do not match those of members

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of the community or organization under study. However, the researcher for this study is

very much reflected in what Rileylee (2006) describes a typical “outsider” paradigm

which has been adopted by researchers in qualitative case study.

An “outsider” writer in this paradigm has “inside” information about a group of people

he or she is studying. The researcher has been raised in the Banaban community and

had experience teaching at RHS which is her case study. She had left the school for the

past two years, and according to Brook (1991), the researcher needs to be reborn into

research setting when attempting to make the study understandable to outsiders.

Moreover, she needs to include “in-group” affiliations, in order to obtain as much data

as she possibly can. She needs to depend on the informants who posses the insider

knowledge which the researcher lacks due to her absence from the community.

Within indigenous communities of which Rabi people are no exception, “outside”

researchers may have difficulty obtaining the cooperation of individuals with whom they

have no affiliation.

Outsider researchers face the challenge of entering a new social setting and attempting to

be accepted by the substantial data that comes from sharing lives and experiences. This

may be especially true if existence is assigned "gatekeepers" to the community of

individuals which the researcher wants to access (DePoy, et al, 1998). In the case of the

researcher desiring to search the files of the RCL, she was denied access due to

supposed confidentiality of the organization’s documents. An important factor the

“outsider” needs in gaining access to the community under study is his/her commitment

to the participatory research process.

The researcher’s thesis focuses on the challenges or problems encountered by the

Banaban students at RHS. The Principal, teachers, parents, students, and other

stakeholders had been interviewed for their different views, and for insights into the

various challenges and in the attempts to find possibilities to address the identified

challenges or problems at the secondary school.

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As an outsider, the researcher will encounter issues of researcher role, experiential and

cultural knowledge, and subjectivity which become apparent as important influences on

the research (Brook, 1991). These issues are characteristics of naturalistic inquiry

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985 in Brook, 1991).

1.14 Challenges of Education at Rabi High School

The research reveals that students had dropped out of school due to a lot of difficulties.

Parents also faced a lot of hardship in supporting their children access schooling at the

secondary level. In the early 1970s, parents did not experience much of financial

constraints in providing for their children’s education, because of bonus and annuity

received from the RCL. Bonus is the form of money given to every Banaban landowner.

The landowner is paid according to the number of acres of land owned. Annuity, on the

other hand, is money equally paid to every Banaban, from new born babies to the elderly

Banabans.

However, in the early 1990s, under the new Chairman of RCL, bonus and annuity

ceased. The continued change in political leadership had an impact on the education of

minority students. Parents had to struggle to finance their children’s education. Many

parents are unemployed and very much dependent on subsistence for living. This led to

rural urban drift by some families to ensure that they get jobs in towns. Suva, Labasa,

Lautoka, Levuka and Savusavu were the main towns in which some families moved for

better job opportunities which could cater for their survival and education for their

children.

In addition, there were social obligations and economic problems that had a negative

impact on the education of the Banaban students at RHS. Land problems, infrastructure,

and transportation, unpredictable weather conditions, seniority of teachers, attitudes of

students, teachers and parents, financial problems, were also identified by the researcher

as threats to minority education at RHS. However, opportunities such as availability of

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scholarships from the Kiribati Government, RCL, Fiji Public Service Commission and

Multi-ethnic Affairs could be avenues to address these shortcomings.

The education of the Banabans, like any other Pacific indigenous people, have

undergone a lot socio-economic, institutional and structural, political, cultural and

psychological challenges, since they came to Fiji in 1945 (Tawaka, 2006:2). These

problems give rise to challenges. The main challenge is the notion of proper education.

Or more preferably the notion of lifelong learning as reported in the Delors report on

four pillars of learning (MacGregor, 2002:25; Kavaliku, 2002:7 Puamau, 2004: 21).

According to the UN Charter under section VI, No. 26 states that higher education

should comprise civic training and learning activities for all students that will sharpen

their knowledge of the major problems which they should help to solve, provide them

with possibilities for direct and continuous action aimed at the solution of those

problems, and improve their sense of international co-operation (UNESCO, 1997).

There is a need for lifelong learning. However, the above problems need to be addressed

in order to explore ways of promoting the concept. There are problems with developing

and implementing lifelong learning strategies when there is intense competition from

entrenched educational interests or other priorities, or lack of resources generally, or

people have limited opportunities (MacGregor, 2002:26).

Lifelong learning requires radical reforms to, inter alia, link formal and informal

education and increase access to learning opportunities. Thaman, (1998:24) advocate

that improving formal education through concern for equity and access are within the

grasp of many PICs, but this can only happen through practices that value and recognize

the cultural contests of teaching and learning in the region (Burnett, 2002). For

example, teachers would be expected to provide more contextualised learning

experiences and more democratic learning environment (Auxier, 2003).

Financial assistance from the Fiji Government, Kiribati Government and RCL and

abroad (Sanga, 2003, p. 28) has formed the foundation that promotes and assists the

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development of Banaban education. The fund supports new and innovation projects

which strengthens and expands Banaban education, and foster creativity and excitement

in their communities. These financial assistances are committed to raising Banaban

education standards, and promoting excellence. In addition, the notion of the challenge

of globalization (Bacchus, 2000, p. 64) is very relevant to this study. There is no doubt

that the Banabans are entering into the challenges of globalization and competitive

economy of the twenty-first century (Bacchus, 2000, p. 64-67).

1.15 Organization of the Thesis

The thesis has seven chapters. Chapter One provides some background information to

the study; outlines the aims and objectives of the study, research questions, significance

of the study, nature of investigation and the fieldwork. It briefly presents the research

methodology which I discussed in detail in chapter 4. In addition, in this chapter I

explain the limitations and assumptions of the study, delimitation, the views of the

researcher both as an ‘insider’ and ‘outsider’. Finally it concludes with the organization

of the thesis.

Chapter Two outlines the reasons for the Banabans coming to Fiji from Banaba. It also

examines the brief history of the Banabans in relation to formal and informal education

when they came to Rabi. In addition, it discusses the various developments of schools

beginning from the pre-schools, primary schools and a secondary school. This chapter

delineates the historical background and the establishment of RHS.

Chapter Three discusses the relevant literature on the Banaban education in relation to

related issues of access to schooling and its challenges and opportunities. It begins with

the concept of “Diaspora” and then discusses the education of the diasporic population.

It highlights the issues, challenges and possibilities of education in rural and developing

countries. And then discusses the education of the minority education. Opportunities and

factors affecting the education of the minority were also identified. Most importantly,

the chapter elucidates and also woven the Feminist standpoint and the post colonialism

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theories focusing on notions of “voice”, “other” and “hybridity” which helps to inform

and frame the study.

Chapter Four is divided into two parts, beginning with discussing the case study as a

qualitative approach to research. It outlines and discusses the data collecting methods

that are used in the field and looks at the ethical issues that are considered during the

research. The final section explicates in some depth my fieldwork experiences as a

researcher in the community and at RHS in Rabi.

The study findings are presented and discussed in Chapter Five and Six. Chapter Five

begins with the presentation and discussion of the issues, challenges, major

developments and trends that are evident in the school.

Chapter Six draws and discusses the changes, opportunities, the roles of the Fiji

Government, Kiribati Government, and the RCL and their contribution to providing

possible solutions to the issues and challenge that faced the community and RHS.

In Chapter Seven, I summarise the preceding six chapters of the thesis, and identify key

findings of the study. Further, implications are then drawn for the study. These

implications are drawn with reference to the theoretical framings of the study, in

particular to the notions of “voice”, “othering” and “hybridity”. In addition, implications

for finance, educational policy, curriculum development, and for future study are also

discussed. The chapter ends with a conclusion.

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CHAPTER 2

FROM OCEAN ISLAND TO RABI…THE PEOPLE, HISTORY, SOCIETY AND

SCHOOL

2.0 Introduction

The previous chapter introduces the general discussion of the background of the study. It

highlights the discussion of the insider’s and outsider’s view to the study undertaken. It

also outlines the research questions and concludes with the organization of the whole

thesis.

This chapter consists of two parts: Part A and Part B. Part A deals with the context of the

study, which explores Ocean Island discussing its geography, history, politics, people,

and education. Part B provides analysis of Rabi in terms of its geographical location,

historical, economic, societal, political and educational features. These features directly

impact on the education of Rabi students, as well as their access to schooling

opportunities.

2.1 Ocean Island (also known as Banaba)

2.1.1 Geography

Ocean Island derives its name from its central location as a small island in the Pacific

Ocean (Blinder, 1978). Its exact location is between longitude 169.530 degrees east and

latitude of 0.50 degrees south (Sigrah and King, 2001:17), 400 km west of Tarawa and

200 km east of Nauru (Shennan, 2006). The population of Banaba in 2005 was 301

compared to its population of 339 in 1995. The land area is 6.5 square km.

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Banaba, believed to be a fertile island blessed with luxuriant foliage, is now an

abandoned phosphate mine and left unfit for growing and gathering food after decades

of phosphate mining (Shennan, 2006).

The map on page 37 shows the enlarged map of Banaba and Rabi and their geographical

locations on the globe. Banaba is still treasured by the Banabans as their homeland. Rabi

was bought to resettle the Banabans after they were displaced from Banaba. The arrow

shows the route the Banabans took to go to Rabi in Fiji. They arrived at Rabi on the 15th

of December, 1945.

2.1.2 History

Before European contact, the Banabans have no written history. Instead, oral traditions

and dances were used to record important events over the generations (Sigrah and King,

2001).

After European contact, the history of the Banabans was written by Europeans.

However, in 2001, the history of the Banabans was written by Ken Sigrah and Stacey

King. They stated that the people of Banaban have unique customs and traditions that

only altered because of invasions and forced migration (ibid: 21).

The Banabans are Micronesians. Like any other Pacific islanders, many Banabans had

acquired other ethnic heritage from intermarriages, forced migrations and impact of

phosphate in 1900 (Sigrah and King, 2001).

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Map 2.1: Geographical Locations of Banaba and Rabi. (Source: Shennan, 2006:56)

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2.1.3 Politics

After the discovery of phosphate, the British Government promptly annexes Ocean

Island into the Gilbert and Ellice Islands (Shennan, 2006). Sigrah and King (2001) argue

that the annexation of Banaba into Kiribati in the 20th

Century was driven by financial

and political motives following the discovery of one of the world’s richest deposits of

phosphate and the colonization of the island by the British Government.

Constitutionally, Banaba is part of Kiribati. The Banabans have the right to become

nominated members of the Maneaba in Maungatabu provided they qualify under

Chapter 1X of the Constitution of Kiribati (Constitution of Kiribati, 1980). In addition,

they are also entitled to Kiribati Government benefits. For example, in terms of

education the Kiribati Government has extended its scholarship awards to the Banabans

students in Fiji. These scholarships are awarded to students wishing to continue tertiary

education at the University of the South Pacific.

According to the RCL, even though Banaba is constitutionally part of Kiribati, its

municipal administration is by the RCL and Elders based on Rabi Island in Fiji (Field

notes, 2007). The RCL nominates a member to Parliament in the Kiribati Government.

2.2 Rabi

2.2.1 Geography

Rabi has a surface area of 27 square km, is triangular in shape, with a length of 9 km and

width of 4.5 km (Sigrah and King, 2001). The surface area makes Rabi a sufficient place

for this minority group, the Banabans in Fiji, to live on. It lies on the northern edge of

Vanua Levu main land, with Taveuni, Laucala, Kioa, as its neighbouring islands. It is

situated in the remote north-east of the Fiji Isles. Its population is approximately 4,000

living on Rabi, while more than 1000 live in Savusavu, Labasa, Taveuni, Suva, Nadi,

Lautoka, Levuka and other parts of Fiji.

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There are two salient advantages of Rabi Island. First, because of its fertility it is an

excellent farming area for the Banabans to sustain their livelihood. Secondly, it is

accessible to Taveuni and to the main Vanua Levu towns, like Savusavu and Labasa that

would assist this minority group to gain access to educational and employment

opportunities, health facilities, and better goods and services.

2.2.2 History

In 1945, during WWII the Banaban people were taken to Rabi as a result of the Japanese

invasion, and mining of their homeland. The British Government purchased Rabi Island

for the purpose of resettling and establishing a permanent home for the Banaban

community in Fiji. Legally, they are regarded as a “special case” and Rabi Island has its

own semi-autonomous administration, under the Banaban Settlement Act and Banaban

Lands Acts (Tavola, 2000, p. 30).

2.2.3 People and Opportunities

Not all Banabans live in Rabi. A few have returned to Ocean Island where they have

decided to live there, permanently. They have become citizens of the Republic of

Kiribati. However, the majority have chosen to stay in Rabi and become citizens of Fiji.

In Fiji, they have access to agricultural land, educational, health, and employment

privileges and opportunities that are made available to them by the Fiji Government

(Field notes, 2007).

The Banabans in Rabi have altered the environment by carrying out agricultural,

economic and social activities. Many have cultivated the land and engaged in

commercial farming to enable them to provide for their families’ needs. They sell their

produce to nearby centres like Taveuni, Savusavu, Labasa and Suva to provide income

for their children. Sheed and Lyold (1993, p. 88) note that all assets particularly farms

are equally capable of being realised to provide a source of income. They assert it is

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counterproductive for farmers to allow their farm operating stock to deteriorate or to sell

off part of their land in order to meet basic education costs for their children.

Others started their own businesses from the revenue they receive from their crops.

These businesses are mostly retail shops. Through these businesses there are more goods

and services available to the people of Rabi (Field notes, 2007).

Some of them were never employed but live simply on a local diet of fish and root

crops. They sustained their livelihood by selling handicraft, root crops, surplus catch

from fishing while others still practise barter systems. Barter system is very much alive

amongst very close family members especially between family members who are

employed, and those who relied totally on subsistence living (Field notes, 2007).

Many of the Banabans are able to sustain their traditional way of life on Rabi. For

example, men continue to fish and use the skills they had learned from their ancestors.

Likewise, women use their skills in making local handicrafts. Some of these handicrafts

are used for costumes in dancing, decorating homes and are sold to tourists (Field notes,

2007).

Banaban families drifted to urban areas and established permanent homes to enable them

to have access to better educational and job opportunities. For those staying on Rabi

with only subsistence livelihood, it is a huge challenge to save for their children’s further

education, particularly at the tertiary level (Field notes, 2007).

There are many churches in Rabi. The dominant denominations are the Methodist and

Catholic churches. Some Banabans have been converted from these churches to join

other churches like the Seventh Day Adventist (SDA); Assembly of God (AG);

Pentecostal church and the Bah’ai Faith. The remaining few Banabans are converted to

recently introduced denominations namely the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day

Saints (LDS); Christian Mission Fellowship (CMF); New Life; Jehovah’s Witness; and

Islam. Members of the LDS church are assisted by the church members in the payment

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of their children’s tuition fees. Few youths in the LDS church are given opportunities to

go on mission to countries like NZ, Australia and the United States (Field notes, 2007).

2.2.4 Administration

There are four villages on the island namely Buakonikai, Tabiang, Uma and Tabwewa.

The whole island is administered by the RCL (RCL). There are nine Councillors in the

RCL of which two are representatives elected from each village and a Chairman who is

elected by all the four villages. They serve a term of four years as Councillors. Two of

its main responsibilities include the financing and managing of RHS. The manager of

the school is also the Executive Director of RCL. The Executive Director is employed

by the RCL as its general secretary.

The RCL is responsible for the daily administration and development of the Island. It

provides employment and financial assistance to the indigenous Banabans. It also

provides agricultural, health and educational facilities in collaboration with the Ministry

of Agriculture, Ministry of Health and Ministry of Education, respectively. Through the

various development provided by the Government Ministries, the Banabans are able to

have a better living standard.

For its 2005-2008 strategic plans for education, the RCL continues to emphasize

improving accessibility to quality education. In so doing, non-government organizations

(NGOs) and Churches are encouraged to stress pre-school education as the first

institution of child education; support education development at all levels and to

introduce computer and vocational training for school leavers. It ensures that it

implements and enforces law on the island, that children be sent to school; continues to

pay teachers at all levels and authorize that free bus fare for school children is imposed

on the island (RCL, 2005).

Furthermore, the RCL creates initiatives and income opportunities and develop youth

skills and talent for underutilized school leavers. It works collaboratively with

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Divisional Youth Director Northern for youth development on Rabi in areas like sports,

and training of youths in various fields, for example carpentry, farming and business

(ibid).

2.2.5 Education

During the early years of settlement on Rabi, education continued. The desire for young

women to be educated grew. Consequently, educational opportunities were opened to

young girls, resulting in an increased number of young Banaban women going to school.

Education was provided by trained Banaban Elders or Methodist Ministers from Banaba

with the assistance of European educator, particularly from New Zealand. In 1946,

education was provided by those who have held posts as teachers in Banaba. In an

interview, with one of the women elders in Suva, she stated that when she came to Rabi

in the same year, she saw her chance to be educated. She persuaded the head teacher if

they could be allowed to sit with the boys in the classroom to learn.

Unfortunately, the first attempt to have access to the classroom was denied. She insisted

with a few other girls and they were allowed to sit with the boys to learn. The demand

for opportunities for schooling for girls also happened elsewhere. For instance, Scott

(1993) in his study of education of girls in rural Australia had advocated the need for

girls in rural communities to be given and provided with more equal opportunities.

Similarly in Fiji, girls’ Government boarding schools were established, for example Adi

Cakobau School and Ballentine Memorial School (Tavola, 1991).

Earlier in Rabi, army tents were used as classrooms. According to Shennan (2006, p.

62), the canvas side of the tent served as a blackboard. She noted that the children wrote

on the toilet paper left over by New Zealand soldiers who had been stationed on Rabi

during the war. Blunt pieces of coconut shells were used as pencils. Seats were made out

of stacked coconut-shell halves so the children avoid sitting on the mud (ibid).

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Early in the 1950’s and 1960’s, the RCL in collaboration with the Fiji Ministry of

Education developed educational facilities on the island to cater for the education needs

of students (Field notes, 2007). Primary schools were well established by this time, for

example Banaban Primary School was established in 1946.

Few of these students became school teachers. Hare (1991, p. 154) in his research, noted

that the sources of future teachers would come from current students. These teachers

helped to make education the priority on Rabi. The students used to go on sc

holarships arranged by a New Zealand headmaster who served in Rabi. Unfortunately,

the scholarship network ceased and the aspirations of the Banaban students in the early

years of settlement in Rabi were curtailed in the early 1950s (Shennan, 2006).

Financially, the Banabans were better off in late 1990s to cater for their children’s

education. This income to landowners came from royalty payments for their land

holdings back on Banaba (Sigrah and King, 2001). However, there were only a few who

saw the significance of this money and invested their savings in sending their children to

secondary schools, outside Rabi, in urban areas like Savusavu, Taveuni, Labasa and

Suva.

On a similar note, Sheed and Lyold (1993, p. 88) argue that many rural students are

forced to leave home to continue their education, particularly post-secondary. They state

that living away from home is very costly for families and/or students from rural areas.

It is very unfortunate when this benefit ceased in 1998, most families resorted to copra

cutting, fishing and engage in commercial activities (Field notes, 2007).

Although, the annuity and bonus are no longer operative, families were able to send their

children to school with the aid of the local RCL. The RCL assist parents by imposing

subsidised bus fare for all students. Secondly, secondary schools students are to pay $20

per annum for their school fees until 2006, when the fees increased to $50 per annum


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2.3 The Educational Context

Before the Banabans came to Fiji, education was both informal and formal. Informal

Education in this context refers to education organized by the indigenous people before

the arrival of the missionaries. It was a communally-centred type of education,

applicable to and delivered for the survival of the society (Berry, 2002). Knowledge was

passed by the elders to the younger generation by word of mouth.

Formal schooling in Fiji was well established since 1835. Missionaries were greatly

involved in the establishment of the education systems in Fiji. Literacy was introduced

into Fiji by Christian missionaries just over 150 years ago, and for almost 100 years

limited literacy practices were fostered by schools run mainly by the churches

(Mangubhai, 2005). Berry (2002) argued that informal education in villages viewed by

missionaries was “uncivilized”. They brought the attitude that, in order to be civilized

you have to adopt the Western civilization through formal education. For this reason,

Fijian education system leans strongly towards Western knowledge.

During the early contact period, education was introduced by the missionaries to the

indigenous Banabans. The Kiribati interpreters assisted the missionaries to introduce the

Kiribati language. Since its inception, Kiribati was the official language used by the

indigenous Banabans and became a means of communication with the neighbouring

Kiribati islands. The first missionary, Captain W. Walkup arrived in Banaba in 1885 and

convinced the Banabans that they could learn much form a mission teacher and the word

and stories from the Bible (Baibara) (Sigrah and King, 2001, p. 195). Walkup

encouraged the Banabans to take up the language so that they could understand the word

of God.

Education was only available to young men. Men were educated by Kiribati

missionaries and were trained as teachers and church ministers. They were the only

people capable to be leaders, church ministers and teachers. Men were dominant in

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decision making and were considered to be responsible for the survival of their families


The women were denied education, because they were strictly kept at home for domestic

duties. There was hardly any girl or woman who received education on Ocean Island in

the early contact period. This continued under the Colonial administration of District

Commissioner Arthur Grimble, where educational privileges were reserved for boys

only (Shennan, 2006:61). Girls were made to learn domestic skills and to read the Bible.

Women were not involved in any of the jobs men were capable of undertaking. They

were not allowed to get involved in decision making in the community. But such

perspective of confining education to men changed when the Banabans left Ocean Island

to settle in Rabi, Fiji (Field notes, 2007).

2.4 Schools

On Rabi, there are five preschools, three primary schools and a secondary school, Rabi

High School.

2.4.1 Pre-Schools

There are five pre-schools on Rabi, namely Nabeaki Pre-School, Tabiang Pre-School,

Uma Pre-School, Tabwewa Pre-School and Eritabeta Pre-School. The Pre-schools are

located in each of the four villages. For example, Nabeaki Pre-School is located in

Buakonikai village, Tabiang Pre-School is in Tabiang village, Uma Pre-School is in

Uma village. Tabwewa which is the most populated of the three villages has two pre-

school which include Tabwewa and Eritabeta pre-schools (Field notes, 2007). The

establishment of these pre-schools allow children to have access to basic education and

opportunity to learn (UNESCO, 2006; Dorovolomo, 2008).

After completion of the pre-school stage, these students are enrolled in the various

primary schools in the four villages. Tiko (2008: 127) notes the importance of children’s

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transition from pre-school to primary school level and claims that for many children the

entry into new school brings a more significant change in their lives. In this study,

primary schools were available to support this transition of students from pre-school to

primary school, and the new experience that are encountered by these students.

2.4.2 Primary Schools

The three primary schools are Buakonikai Primary School; Tabiang and Banaban

Primary School. These primary schools are located in the four villages on the island. The

Banaban Primary School was the first primary school to be established. This school

provides formal education to the Banaban students in the early years of settlement of the

Banabans in Rabi.

After primary education, many Banaban students attend secondary schools on nearby

islands, for instance, Niusawa Methodist High School in Taveuni and Vatuvonu

Secondary School in Vanua Levu. Others are sent to Suva in Viti Levu for secondary

education, to schools like Lelean Memorial Schools, and one or two are sent to Ratu

Kadavulevu Schools (Field notes, 2007).

After a few years of determination by the leaders to increase opportunities and enhance

education for the Banaban students they further established Rabi Junior Secondary

School. Dorovolomo (2008) asserts that change has to start with the political will to meet

the needs of the rural children, and in this study the need is the secondary school for the

Banaban students on Rabi Island. Rabi Junior Secondary School (RJSS) was established.

In early 1980s, attempts to establish RHS were made. Finally, in 1984 the RCL in

collaboration with the British Embassy in Suva established the secondary school for the

students on Rabi.

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2.5 Rabi High School

Secondary school education is a need for any society. There are reasons for secondary

schools to be established. In Rabi a secondary school is set up for the purpose of

promoting high school education and high moral for the future betterment of all Banaban

generations. Generally, a high school in Rabi aims to develop the child physically,

mentally, morally, social and spiritually.

Secondly the other purpose is to promote Banaban cultural activities and understanding

and to uplift the standard of education as a whole on Rabi (Field notes, 2007). RHS was

also established to assist Banaban parents on Rabi Island in providing a school for their

children who have successfully completed Class 6 and to retain their Banaban heritage

and culture, through the introduction of vernacular and culture as part of the curriculum

taught at the school.

2.5.1 History

Rabi Junior Secondary school was the first secondary school that provided secondary

education to the Banaban students on Rabi. Like other secondary schools in Fiji in

providing their community with opportunities for worthwhile learning (Lal and Yuen,

2005), the RCL decided to negotiate that Rabi Junior Secondary school be converted to a

high school in 1978. The RCL consulted the British Embassy in Suva for funding

assistance for a high school in Rabi, which was approved. This was how RHS was

founded.

Establishing a high school for the Banaban students was a challenge to the RCL.

Because of the first two sites identified for building the school in Tabwewa and

Buakonikai villages, were not approved due to their unfavourable locations. The people

in Uma village did not agree to have the high school in their village. Stephens and Perry

(1991) pointed out that because of the continued significance and due to their current

increasingly difficult condition, the status of rural schools ought to be of paramount

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interest and concern to those responsible for long-term, large scale school improvement

efforts. However, finally in early 1980s, RCL was able to convince the Tabiang villagers

the importance of locating a high school in their village.

So in 1983, the construction of RHS was underway in Tabiang village. The site is

believed to be very muddy, but the Public Works Department successfully cleared the

land. British Aid provided funding for the construction of the school, in particular,

erecting buildings for the main office, ablution blocks and classrooms for Forms 1, 2, 3,

4 and 5. In 1984, Rabi Junior Secondary School was relocated from Tabwewa village to

Tabiang village and registered as a high school known as RHS.

2.5.2 Establishment of the School

RHS was established in 1984. This establishment provided formal secondary education

to this minority ethnic group on the island from Form 1 to Form 5. Later Form 6 was

approved by the Ministry of Education and students were allowed to sit for their Fiji

School Leaving Certificate (FSLC). RHS was downgraded in 2002, when approval from

the Ministry of Education was granted for Forms 1 and 2 to be incorporated in the

Primary Schools. Form 7 was approved in 2006 to allow students sit Fiji Seventh Form

Examination (FSFE) (Field notes, 2007).

RHS is categorized as a rural school and the only secondary school on Rabi Island.

Photo 2.1 on page 54 shows the front view of RHS taken during the field work.

Currently, the school has an administration block, a library, technical building block,

home economics room, computer room, staff room, a separate junior and senior

laboratory blocks, culture and local craft room, and classrooms for Forms 3, 4, 5, 6 and

7.

The school is classified as a rural school by the Fiji Ministry of Education. A rural

school refers to the school which will take between four to six hours travel by bus and/or

two hours travel by boat from the town centre (MOE, 2009). It is co-educational and

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serves the needs of the Banaban community on Rabi. Since this is the only secondary

school on Rabi Island, the future of the Banaban young generations depend largely on

the educational services that the school provides.

2.5.3 Vision and Mission

The Vision and Mission of the school were worded in such a way as to meet the

expectation of the stakeholders including the Ministry of Education, RCL, the Banaban

Community, Teachers, Parents, and Students.

The Vision:

“To develop quality learners who will be able to work and achieve

together with the Banaban and Fijian Community” (Field notes, 2007)

The Mission:

“To educate the students of RHS to become viable life long learners who can

create the future for themselves, their families and for the Banaban and Fiji”

(Field notes, 2007)

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Photograph 2.1: The Front View of RHS. The building on the hill (far right) is the

dormitory (Field notes, 2007).

2.5.4 Ownership of the School

RHS is a Banaban community owned school. It is managed by the Board of Governors

(BOG). The BOG consists of the Council Chairman and all members of the RCL, and

the Principal. Those elected at the general election of the RCL are deemed members of

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the BOG. The BOG is aided by the Government of Fiji to subsidize tuition fees only. Its

expenditures, however, comes under the jurisdiction of the School Board (Field notes,

2007).

The appointed manager is the Director for the RCL. He or she is responsible to look

after the physical development of the school. The physical development refers to the

expansion of the school. The extension of the school is continuously funded by outside

aid, like Canadian and Fiji Government. However, labor is provided by the teachers,

students, and the Banaban community at large. The Parents, Teachers and Friends

Association (PTFA) support the school in all its activities, particularly fund raising for

intended projects and development of the school (Field notes, 2007).

RHS is partly funded by the British aid, Euro aid, The Fiji Ministry of Education and the

RCL. Tavola (1991, p. 42) stated that most of the schools in the rural areas are run by

community committees as is the case with RHS.

2.5.5 School Administration

Like any other school in Fiji, the school is administered by the Principal and assisted by

the Vice Principal and the Assistant Principal. The Principal is the head of the

administration. The Vice Principal provides assistance to the Principal and supervises

the teachers. The Assistant Principal assisted both the Principal and the Vice Principal,

but most responsible for looking after the assets of the school.

There are various departments within RHS. These departments include Language, Social

Science, Science, Mathematics, Sports (PEMAC), Commerce and Technology. The

respective Heads of Department are responsible for administering their own department.

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(a) Head Prefects

The Head girl and boy are also assigned responsibilities in which they assist the

Administrative team and the teachers. They supervise duties and assisted the teachers in

supervising detention. The prefects are also elected to assist the head prefects in carrying

out duties.

(b) Board of Governors

The Board of Governors also plays an important role in the administration of the school.

Its duties include the following:

• To develop and manage the school

• To assist the Principal in the smooth running of the school

• To be responsible for the appointment and dismissal of non-civil servant

teachers in the school

• To approve financial transactions and ensure that proper financial records are

kept for the school.

• To organize the raising of the extra funds necessary for the upkeep and

development of the school

• (a) To set the level of fees for students attending the school, subject

where applicable, to the regulations of approval of the Ministry of

Education.

(b) To determine nominal rental for the school’s staff quarters and to

review such rentals and when necessary

(c) To provide grant to the school where applicable

• To ensure that the buildings and grounds of the school are kept in good order.

• To work closely with the Parents, Teachers and Friends Association

for the betterment of the school

(Board of Governors Records, 2000, p. 2)

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2.5.6 Staffing

Currently, the total teacher population is 22. Eighteen of them are Government paid staff

and four are paid directly by the RCL. The teacher population comprises of 14

Banabans, 4 Indians and 4 Fijians. In addition, there are six non-teaching support staffs

who are employees of the RCL.

The staff is dominated by the Banabans teachers. This makes it easy for clarification

through the use of vernacular. In his findings, Phan (2008, p. 79) noted that the use of

vernacular in instructional and conversational dialogues between teachers and students

was more frequent in class learning. This enable students’ endeavor to seek help and

clarification. Often when students do not understand because of language difficulty, the

Banaban teachers explain to students in vernacular and students understand more

clearly.

In terms of qualifications, there are ten degree holders, out of which five have Bachelor

of Education, three have Bachelor of Science, and two have a degree in Bachelor of

Arts. Eight teachers have Diploma in Education. In order to increase the number of

qualified teachers, the Ministry of Education established training centres, for example

Fiji College of Advanced Education and the Lautoka Teachers’ College. Maebuta (2008)

stated that with the increase in the number of CHSs, Governments have attempted to

provide trained teachers, equipment and curriculum support materials.

In addition to the qualified teachers, there are also teachers who are recruited from the

community. These teachers possess local and dancing skills. They teach students the

Banaban culture. Local crafts like weaving are taught to girls, while boys are taught

canoe construction. The four teachers are appointed by the Board of Governor to take up

the jobs. Hare (1991, p. 154) pointed out that those presently teaching in the rural and

small schools are from rural and attended rural schools. These local teachers are paid by

the RCL. Through teaching students their own culture, the school is able to preserve its

identity amongst Fiji multicultural society.

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The non-teaching staffs include the bursar, receptionist, typist, watchman, handyman,

and a librarian. Their terms and conditions are decided by the RCL (Field notes, 2007).

There are eight employees of RHS directly paid by the RCL. These include one

receptionist and a typist, 2 local culture teachers (male and a female), one local craft

teachers, watchman, handyman, cleaner, and a librarian. Their terms and conditions are

decided by the RCL (ibid).

2.5.7 Teaching and Learning

Technology enhanced learning and teaching initiatives involving telephones, computer

modems and other links of radio and ducts can reduce costs of time and travel and

accommodation whilst opening up learning and teaching opportunities not previously

possible in isolated communities (Robson, 1993, p. 77). In 2006 RHS had incorporated

computer education. It has provided a separate computer room. Students have enjoyed

and shown enthusiasm in this newly introduced subject.

Photo 2.2, on page 62, shows that students have interests in learning computer at school.

It is the responsibility of IT teachers is to ensure that new students are taught and guided

in their learning in computing science.

Financing of school educational programs are sought from four main sources namely

schools fees, school grants, fund raising and external aids. This is the same in many

PICs. Maebuta’s (2008) case study of the Solomon Islands has similar sources of

funding for financing school educational programs, including school fees, school and

fund raising. However, he points out that most of the Honiara CHS parents were low

income earners who could not afford to pay the school fees resulting in many schools

depending on grants to fund their operational costs.

The quality of learning and teaching at RHS depends mainly on many factors, for

example, the revenue that the school receives for its operation; availability of well

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qualified teachers and the community assistance to the school. Initially RHS receive

$10,000 per annum from the RCL for its operational costs. Unfortunately, this came to

an end in 2004. In addition, it also receives grants from the Fiji MOE and external aid

from overseas countries, like Britain, Canada, and Europe. The revenue received is used

to purchase textbooks, library books, stationeries, erect classrooms, laboratories, and pay

for its operational costs in terms of fuel, transportation, telephone bills and salary of

casual workers. Computers are donated from Australia. Textbooks are donated by the

NZ Government (Field notes, 2007).

Maebuta (2008) asserts that school textbooks are one of the core components in the

teaching and learning process. However, 90% of the teachers at RHS and students alike

have claimed that they did not have enough relevant textbooks to aid both their teaching

and learning.

The library is an integral part of teaching and learning process (Maebuta, 2008, p. 100).

The school has a small and well managed library and a competent and experienced

librarian. However, the librarian reports that after the RCL grant of $10,000 ceased, they

were not able to purchase more relevant library books for students. She states that rarely

students are making use of the library. She believes that reading would contribute much

to the learning process of students at RHS and students’ English marks in rural schools

could be improved through the provision of relevant and quality library books (Field

notes, 2007). This finds support in Torrance (2006, p. 832) claiming that reading is a

strategy designed to raise standards.

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Photograph 2.2: Students Concentrating on Computer Learning (Field notes, 2007)

Laboratories for senior and junior students were erected to enhance and promote science

subjects at RHS. However, lack of apparatus and appropriate equipments for safety are

the main problems identified by the Science teachers and students. A similar situation is

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found in the Solomon Island where there were specialized classrooms but were faced

with the problem of lack of equipments and tools (Maebuta, 2008).

RCL provides financial assistance to the Form 7 students at RHS to assist them in their

learning process and enable them to access to further education. It pays two-thirds of

students’ school fees, while parents pay one-third. According to Robson (1993), the cost

of education and training in rural setting are higher than in metropolitan setting and

donated assistance demonstrate awareness of the need for cost reduction. Low cost

program for rural students can be a start of education pathways for many people.

2.6 Summary

In this chapter Ocean Island also known as Banaban is a traditional homeland for the

Banabans. The Banabans are deemed diasporic minority community displaced from

their homeland due in part to the economic globalization. They were forcefully led into

migration to other parts of the Pacific during World War II as victims of environmental

effects of phosphate mining operated by the BPC (British Phosphate Commission)

represented by Britain, Australia and New Zealand, compounded by a brutal military

treatment by the Japanese soldiers.

They settled the island of Rabi in Fiji on the 15th

December, 1945. The British

Government bought Rabi as a second homeland and a hope for the future Banaban

generations. Rabi is perceived by many Banabans as a source of enriching education and

wealth in terms of social, economic and political advancement among the many diverse

cultural backgrounds in Fiji.

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Education is a hope for the Banabans and for this, it has increasingly gained importance

in the national agenda of Fiji Government, Kiribati Government and the RCL, and now

consumes a portion of the Governments’ budget. This is evident in the establishment of

pre-schools, primary schools, and a secondary school – RHS.

The next chapter examines the literature and the theoretical framing of the study.

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CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMINGS

3.0 Introduction

The previous chapter discussed the historical movement of the Banabans from Banaba in

Kiribati to Rabi in Fiji. The Banaban diaspora was the result of the Japanese invasion

and the mining activities on Banaba. The chapter also outlined the historical background

of the establishment of RHS and its impact on the education of this minority group in

Fiji.

As already mentioned the purpose of this study is to explore the educational issues,

challenges and opportunities of a displaced population in the Banaban diaspora.

Therefore, this chapter firstly focuses on the concept of diaspora and education, related

challenges and issues, access and equity in relation to better educational opportunities,

or quality education and parental participation. The second section considers the

conceptual framework relating to the education of the minority group with the

exogenous (international) and endogenous (local) literature. Finally, the chapter

concludes with theoretical framing of the study considering Feminist Standpoint and

Post-colonialism theories in relation to the three notions of ‘voice’, ‘hybridity’, and

‘other’, and how these are used to inform and frame the study.

3.1 Concept of “Diaspora”

“Diaspora”, according to the Oxford English Dictionary (2002), is an Ancient Greek

term, originally meant “sowing or scattering of seeds” and it describes any ethnic group

that is dispersed throughout the world or are forced to leave their traditional homeland.

This definition finds support in the World English Dictionary (2007) which maintains

that diaspora refers to a scattering of language, culture, or people: a dispersion of a

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people, language, or culture that was formerly concentrated in one place. For example,

the African diaspora which refers to the movement of Africans and their descendants to

places throughout the world – predominantly to America, Europe, the Middle East and

other corners of the globe (Klein, 2008).

Lever-Tracey (2008) discussed the Chinese diaspora in detail beginning with a

comprehensive explanation of the concept of diaspora. In congruent with the Oxford

Dictionary (2002), she also defined diaspora as ‘widespread scattering of seed’.

However, unlike Klein (2008) who referred to diaspora as a term used for coerced

movements in various slave trades and ‘voluntary migration’ from the African context,

Lever-Tracey referred to diasporic Chinese as those traders who suffered periodic

persecutions and expulsions. According to her, in most diasporic Chinese communities,

one of the central and continuing attributes of business is a persistence of family control

over entrepreneurial decision-making (Lever-Tracey, 2008, p. 517).

3.1.1 Reasons for “Diaspora”

There are a number of reasons for the movement of peoples from their traditional

homelands. The literature notes that dispersal of the Africans was due to slavery and

emigration. Consequently, some communities created by descendants of Black African

slaves in Europe and Asia have survived to the modern day but in most cases Africans

intermarried with non-Africans and their descendants blended into the local population

(Klein, 2008).

Another reason is related to economic globalisation and military repression. Obi (2007)

describes how the oil Multi National Corporations (MNCs) pushed out the Ogoni people

from the oil operation area in the Nigeri’s oil-rich Niger Delta. The Ogoni, victims of

environmental conflict and compounded by brutal military dictatorship, searched for

another life outside of Nigeria’s boarders. Similarly, Shennan (2006) highlights that the

Banabans were displaced from their homeland due to phosphate mining, which left the

island unfit for growing and gathering food. Furthermore, Sigrah and King (2001) noted

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that the Banabans were also forced to leave their homeland due to the Japanese invasion

of the island during World War II. The displacement of the Banabans to Fiji exposed

them to social changes, for example, intermarriages, and more importantly, access to

more educational opportunities.

Other reasons for Diaspora identified by Chongarova (2007) were due to people fleeing

ethnically directed persecution, oppression or genocide, conflict and massacre. Other

reasons are related to natural disasters. During the 20th

Century, large numbers of people

were moved or displaced elsewhere due to governments’ actions, whilst other diaspora is

a consequence of political decision (Belghazi, 2007; Obi, 2007).

3.2 Education of the Diasporic Populations

Education is a very important element in any society. Its importance to a displaced

population is no exception. However, most writers on education and of Diaspora study,

(for example, Tsolidis, 2001; Va’a, 2004; Shanti, 2004 and Lee (2003), point out that

migrants from other countries are absorbed into host countries and are introduced into

new educational systems. Lee (2003) highlights a Pan Ethnicity model which asserts that

a real educational change typically results in a restructure of a traditional way of life.

The findings of the above studies discuss little of diaspora and education, but

concentrate more on the migration models. However, Kaea (1999) and Va’a (2004)

differ in their findings. They assert the challenge, which is inherent in theorizing about

migration, that refugee problem and that usually people make a decision to migrate to

obtain higher form of education.

Throughout the world, diaspora communities have established social support services

centres for themselves. Diaspora Community Services (2007), for instance, reports that

the diaspora community in Haiti have established these centres, to provide educational,

health and medical services as an opportunity to promote quality services in a poverty-

stricken area of Haiti. Through these centres, education of most women in diaspora

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communities has increased dramatically. Ajanaku and Ajanaku (1998) point out that

those most African women of the diaspora became primary teachers, and a new concept

of ethnicity was developed as a strategy for responsibility and accountability through

community education.

Furthermore, Lindley (2005) stated that there were two common ways in which diaspora

influences education. She argued that remittances and institutional donations were

common ways of influencing education. Through remittances to family members, the

family income increased which means that they were better able to afford the direct and

indirect costs of education. Direct costs of education included fees, educational

materials, and transport. Indirect costs of education were the opportunity costs of the

student not working, inside or outside the home. Donations on the other hand, included

emigrants and business peoples’ financing for improvements and development in many

communities. Similarly, Clammer (2002) highlighted that in China a massive remittance

industry was created for the purpose of transmitting back to China a proportion of the

Chinese migrants’ earnings.

3.3 Issues, Challenges and Opportunities of Education in Rural and Developing

Countries

Most studies reviewed, examine the educational challenges that students face in

developing countries. The World Bank (1999) pointed out that potential contributors of

households were limited by their income to support their children. The results were

underinvestment in education and untapped willingness of household to pay for

education. Although, the study was conducted in other developing countries, it has an

apparent connection to this study. This is especially so as Tavola (2000) stated, in Fiji,

financial support for some students by their parents was poor. The argument put forward

by Tavola (2000) clearly addressed the question of how these students and their families

prioritised issues, other than education. Williams (2000) noted that in many Fijian

families, education was ranked a low priority in comparison to the church and the land.

Many Fijian families gave a great deal of time, effort, money and commitment to the

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work and responsibility of the church but not as much to the education and welfare of

their children. Suffice, to say, unfortunately, the Banabans are no exception.

There are a number of reasons to highlight this conundrum and its effects on students’

performance. For example, financial support for students is usually diverted to social

commitments. Parents delay the payments of school fees and other school requirements.

Consequently students are discouraged and eventually drop out early from school. In

addition, during the Pacific Island Conference on “Evolving Issues in the Pacific:

Educational Challenges for the twenty-first century” held in Guam in 1993, it was

revealed that the shortage of educational facilities at the secondary school and tertiary

level has placed pressure upon rural areas which are unable to meet the aspiration of

young people (Bastolaer, 1993).

Phelps and Prock (1993) stated that in rural Australia, at risk students were those denied

of equal opportunity. They claimed that an at-risk student was typified by identification

with one or more of the very broad categories: (1) ranking in the bottom two-fifths of

their class; (2) over-age for their grade; (3) student selection of certain targeted

curricula; (4) excessive absenteeism and (5) exhibition of behaviour unacceptable in the

classroom setting. According to the Save the Children Fund (2006), even though there

were many obstacles to education in impoverished communities, it mobilized

commitment to education and strengthened the capacities of children, parents,

communities and governments to develop, own, and sustain their education programs

(Save the Children Fund, 2006).

It was argued by the World Bank (1999), that if local facilities cannot meet private

demand, students from developing countries would migrate to study abroad at their own

expenses. Based on these findings, it is important that future research examines the role

of local government in facilitating education in the rural setting in developing countries

and how it affects the performance of teachers and students. This research, therefore,

could be used as a useful tool for policy makers.

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Another issue that is of relevance to this study is education for lifelong learning. Scott

(1993) believed that one the most important objectives of education was to prepare a

person to cope with life as that person makes their way through life. He claimed that the

job of the school and the educational system was to educate the student for lifelong

learning. This finds support in Save the Children Fund (2006), which reported that it was

the central task of the many administrators and State officials to increase opportunities

for lifelong education and workforce training for minority groups.

Educating girls in rural settings is another important issue for this study. UNESCO

(2006) reported that due to the unequal socio-economic gender construct in most African

societies, the scale of disadvantages was tipped against girls and women. The report

claimed that the factors behind the gender inequalities include negative cultural values,

attitudes and practices that foster teenage pregnancy, early marriage, sexual harassment,

excessive domestic chores and the disregard of the importance of girls’ education. These

practices were detrimental to girls’ education. The report reflected some of the practices

that are evident and central to this study.

3.3.1 Access and Equity Issues for Rural Populations and Minority Groups

UNESCO (2006) stated that as a nation become more economically developed, certain

minority population tend to become increasingly marginalized if not provided with

special attention. In terms of education there was a need to increase access to education

and improve the ethnic minorities. According to UNESCO (2006), it was reported that

there were country run programmes for the underserved or ethnic rural groups. In

Malaysia for example, rural Sabah and Sarawak regions had benefited from the use of

helicopters as a means of transportation to serve the ethnic minorities. Similarly, in

Philippines scholarship support programs were provided for the children of the fisher

folk and small farmers. This finds support in the Access and Equity Millennium Report

(2000) highlighting the access and equity programmes developed in South Carolina to

achieve equity for all students in terms of minority enrolment and recruitment in higher

institutions (Access and Equity Millennium, 2000).

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Dorovolomo (2008, p.21) argued that lack of opportunity to learn (OTL) or access to

quality education was not a new issue in rural development. He stressed that this had

been often consistently neglected. However, to overcome this problem of negligence, the

Australian Flexible Learning framework (2007, p.1) advocated that technology could

and was making a difference, enabling more and more people access education and

training regardless of age, location or background. Likewise, at the Asian Regional

Workshop held in 2004 in Bangkok, participants from Cambodia, China, Vietnam,

Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Mongolia, and Thailand

expressed their support for improving education of the rural people through

improvements in relevance, access, quality and equity (UNESCO, 2006).

The UNESCO (2006) also revealed that in addressing the issue of access, participants

from various countries reported a positive trend towards starting education early,

through pre-school programming (ibid: p. 56). Improvements in equity as stated by the

participants were successful when done through targeted policies for improvement. In

addition, Thailand’s specific curricula for Karen hill-tribe communities served as an

example. It was noted that the promotion of non-formal education and basic adult

education was underscored as essential in bridging the equity gap.

Furthermore, Carr and Klassen (1997) outlined six areas in which racial minority

teachers could contribute positively to equity in education. These included enhancing

cultural compatibility, demystifying the hidden curriculum, developing positive attitudes

towards persons from a variety of backgrounds, expressing lived experiences,

connecting with students, and connecting with communities. Teachers of racial minority

groups therefore played a crucial role in the education of minority groups.

Equitable access to education for most minority groups was constrained by many

factors. Studies have (Stokes, et al, 1999; UNESCO, 2003; Australian Flexible

Framework, 2007) agreed to state that equitable access to education was constrained and

limited by factors associated with distance and population density. Spohr (2002) noted

that in many societies closing local schools may disproportionately affected girls and

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minorities by creating distance and language barriers, respectively. Similarly, Lakin and

Gasperni (2003) argued that rural children in low-income countries generally have less

opportunity to attend and complete primary school than do children in better served

urban areas. They further noted the consequence of children who left school at 9 or less

with only two or three years of schooling. They stated that they had very limited ‘basic

education’ and were prone to losing their literacy and numeracy skills. This present

study indicates would argue that comparable consequences are possible in the South

Pacific region. This might be possible due to inadequate infrastructure, learning

materials, and walking long distance to schools, which may discourage children to

attend school in rural areas. It is important to note at this juncture, however, that

although Pacific Island states are developing countries, they may share similar problems

that exist in rural areas in other developed countries.

Furthermore, in a local study in Fiji, Chand (2005) noted that there was a limited access

to educational services in a village he had reported on. However, through the Village

Improvement Scheme (VIS) provided by Government, villagers have mobilized

themselves into training, capacity building and economic acceleration. Through VIS it

was highly likely, that rural and remote areas would improve living standard, while

education was also accessible to rural and remote students. This finds support in the

study conducted by Robson (1993), which stated that the Office of Rural Affairs aims to

‘facilitate the development, co-ordination and promotion of initiatives which equitably

meet the priority needs of Victorians in rural areas, particularly whose needs are

greatest’. He maintained that every means considered for improving delivery of rural

education and training, addressed the issue of access and it has now begun to work for

the less affluent, the minority groups and the rural people.

However, in terms of equality and accessibility, Sharma (2008) highlighted that the

implementation of ICT remained problematic in PICs specifically in establishing good

infrastructure for ICT. In spite of these existing challenges, he also identified ways of

solving these common problems. Some of which included developing and implementing

ICT policy in education, developing ICT leadership at all levels in the education system,

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and seeking financial and resource support from donors, governments and local

communities. These possible solutions contend with Whelan (2007) who recommended

ways to improving accessibility of ICT in rural and remote areas of the South Pacific

region.

3.3.2 Parental Role in Rural Education

The duty of parents in playing a leading role in the education of their children is

important. It is crucial to the performance of children as highlighted in a number of

studies, including those of Mo and Singh (2008) and Kurian (1986). Mo and Singh

(2008) suggested that the family was an important influence in academic achievement.

Kurian (1986) on the other hand highlighted the importance of assimilation and

acculturation, values, parental support, self-esteem, poverty and concepts of knowledge

as influencing factors in achievements. Although Kurian’s report may seem

comparatively dated, there is credence to indicate that the argument put forward

concerning parental involvement in children are still relevant and true today, as they

were then.

Parents’ role also contributes significantly to teaching. UNESCO (2006) in its report

stated that one positive feature of teaching was the involvement of parents and the

community in the provision of facilities. However, the provision of facilities could only

reflect the wealth or poverty of such communities. It maintained that if inequities were

to be addressed, the government has to come up with an equity policy.

Similarly, in a recent study in the local context, Nandlal (2002) argued that parents’

participation positively impact student success. She believed that the success of students

must be rewarded and celebrated. Such positive reinforcement is necessary to draw

greater parental support. Based on Nandlal’s findings, it may be important that future

research examines the role of parents in schools and how they affect the students’

performance. The qualitative study by Nandlal is designed to provide an addition to

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understanding numerous important implications for educational policy makers and

practitioners to both the school and system levels.

The analysis of the Report of the Fiji Education Commission/Panel (2000) suggested

that not much work has been done on parental participation in schools. This report is of

particular interest in that it provides limited support of Sharma’s and Meghnath’s (1996)

and Nandlal’s (2002) parental participation study findings.

A substantive contribution to the literature related to this research is also provided by the

United Nations Development Programme, which includes the attempt to reduce

inequalities of access to education based on income. Parents and communities face high

costs of education, even though it is ‘fee-free’ in a few Pacific island countries (UNDP,

1999), including Fiji.

Consequently, children from poorer families often drop out of school earlier or do not

attend at all. Phelps and Prock (1993) concurred with this premise. They reported that

most girls, for instance, drop out of school because there was little support from home,

in particular from mothers. In the case of Fiji; the Government pays tuition costs for all

children up to the first year of secondary school and provides a per capita grant to

schools to assist with teacher salaries and equipment. It was, however, the responsibility

of parents to pay fees for admission, examination, building funds and various other

purposes (Report of the Fiji Islands Education Commission/Panel, 2000). (UNDP, 1999)

argued that parents were to be prepared to cater for transportation; school uniforms

textbooks, school excursions and fund-raising activities. It noted that realistically, the

costs could be prohibitive for low-income families.

Furthermore parents’ involvement is considered very important in the education of the

minority students in secondary schools. According to Cazden (1992), there was much

rhetoric today about the virtues of parents’ involvement in the education of their

children. In particular, he argued that parents’ involvement is critical in second language

learning and school success.

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3.4 Rural Education: Potential Opportunities

UNESCO (2003, p. 20) highlighted that FAO and UNESCO launch, in 2002, a new

flagship within Education for All (EFA) initiative with a focus on Education for rural

people. The flagship was significant in its call for collaborative action to increase the co-

ordination of efforts targeting the educational needs of the rural people. Its main aim was

to ensure that committed members work separately or together to promote and facilitate

quality basic education for rural people. UNESCO (2003) noted that with equity in

educational opportunity now a key policy objective, it argued that disparities in test

results that favour urban areas could incite compensatory investment in rural schooling.

Research studies have found that there were limited educational opportunities inherent in

poor rural populations (Phelps and Prock, 1991; Robson, 1993; Williams 2000).

However, Robson (1993) suggested strategies that would improve the delivery of Rural

Education and Training. He regarded education in rural areas as a social justice. He

argued that in rural Victoria, in helping to provide opportunities for rural people, it was

imperative that the rural people themselves have a say in policies that were directly

communicated with the Rural Affairs Committees of Cabinet.

Furthermore, a report by the World Bank (2005) argued that secondary education was

the highway between primary schooling, tertiary education and the labour market. It

advocated that providing quality secondary education young people not only opened up

more opportunities and aspiration; it could also build tolerance and trust among a group

of people whose informed citizenship was crucial to the formation and maintenance of

cohesive, open societies. It postulated that, in addition to, fostering the qualities of

engaged citizenship in today’s young generation, secondary education could reduce the

likelihood that youngsters could engage in risky or asocial behaviours. It asserted that

this effect has important benefits to society.

Similarly, a more recent study by UNESCO (2006), it was maintained that rural

education, in particular secondary education, could act as a bottleneck, constricting the

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expansion of educational attainment and opportunity – or it could open pathways for

students’ advancement. This is evidenced in the World Bank Report (2005) which

maintains that access to good secondary education entails having a system in which

students have real opportunities to play meaningful roles in the enterprise of their own

education.

In a report of the Fiji Islands Education Commission, Williams (2000) emphasized that

it was important that all children attend school. She highlighted that providing equal

educational opportunities to all Fijians was of paramount importance for their future, and

this would mean that at the primary and secondary levels, free and compulsory

education needed to be legislated and enforced. Blackmore (2006, p. 220) noted

likewise, that the New Zealand Government emphasized strong equity provision

targeting women, Maoris, people of various ethnicity, and other minorities. In addition,

schools were expected to include specific equity goals for equal educational and

employment opportunity.

3.5 Education of the Minority Group

This section is divided up into three parts, specifically in relation to education of the

minority groups and factors affecting the Minority Groups: (i) language policies for

minority groups; (ii) challenges faced by the minority groups and (iii) opportunities for

the minority groups.

Another relevant issue in this literature review is the education of a minority group,

which is the focus of this research project. Education of a minority group is a very

important issue in most advanced countries in the world. Nearly all the countries in the

world have minorities within their populations (Tollefson, 2001; Corson, 1996).

In this study the minority group refers to what Corson describes as minority social

group, which depends more on matters of class, occupation and level of income.

Minority cultural groups usually possess or identify with a language which is not the

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majority language of the society, and which reflects a very different culture. This is

related to ethnicity and racial origin, (Corson, 1996). The definition is equally important

to the education of the minority groups in various aspects in terms of social, economical

and political challenges and opportunities.

The UN Working Group (2006), UNESCO (1999) advocated that dominant groups

ought to have a better understanding about the culture, customs, language and history of

minority communities, which in turn leads to the recommendation that an inter-cultural

and human rights education curricular and programs, be developed. The UN Working

Group (2006), however, takes it further to highlight equality, social justice and fair

representation, and has called for minority rights protection and promotion which are

increasingly perceived as conflict prevention measures.

Furthermore, UNESCO (1999) argued that civic education must address broad questions

of peace and mutual respect that reflect the minority community’s needs, rather than

serving to assimilate minorities into the norms and values of the majority. It argues

further that minority learning systems often build on local wisdom rather than book-

based knowledge. Learning systems were inextricably linked to livelihood systems and

were passed from one generation to the next. They were organic in that they took place

within the community, by the community and were closely linked to a community’s

daily activities.

Songs and music as well as other aspects of the culture of minorities often play an

important role in motivating minorities to learn about themselves, their environment and

the social and political context in which they exist. Accordingly, UNESCO (1999)

postulated that adult learning systems should therefore acknowledge such informal

learning systems for promoting minority cultures and identity.

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3.5.1 Factors Affecting the Education of the Minority Students

Sims (2006) identified cultural dynamics and teacher preparation to be two factors that

affect the educational opportunities of minority students. He argued that academic

failure of minority children is the result of lack of cultural knowledge, non-acceptance,

and ill-preparation of the educators of minority students. Culturally, students were

deprived because their learning experiences have been limited when compared to the

dominant culture experiences.

According to Sims (2006), if learning was to incur any additional learning experiences,

it could expand and elaborate their own cultural experiences, not start new and

independent patterns. Educators then could use those experiences to create an

individualized strategy for the student who was struggling (Darling-Hammond & Ifill-

Lynch, 2006 cited in Sims, 2006).

Additionally, the attitude of teachers is another contributing factor to schools that cannot

produce academically achieving minority students. Educators believed that some

minority students suffer from an inescapable cultural deficit. Carr and Klassen (1997)

supported Sims (2006) arguing that teachers have the power to make some children ‘feel

invisible and insignificant and that their differences were irrelevant’ through the choice

of education materials and teaching style.

Teachers also have their own preference. The availability of qualified teachers may

prefer urban postings rather than rural. UNESCO (2006) reported that qualified teachers

express their concerns about the quality of accommodation, classroom facilities, school

resources, access to leisure activities and less access to health care in rural settings. It

stated that teachers saw rural areas as offering fewer opportunities for professional

development.

Another area that may affect a child’s education is provision of lunches by parents.

School meal is one area that is often neglected by parents when they send their children

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to schools. This is often related to poverty and level of income of parents of minority

group. According to Griffin and Baker (2008), school meals provision has seriously

declined over recent decades. Tavola (2000) supported in stating that children from low-

income families perform poorly due to low levels of nutrition and failure to take lunch to

school (Tavola, 2000, p.264). Poor diet may have a flow-on effect on the child’s health

that may have negative consequences on the child’s classroom performance.

It was claimed by the Save the Children Fund (2006), that in Vietnam, it was particularly

true that 95% ethnic minority children drop out of school at an early age for reasons that

were common in the Asian countries. These reasons included parents with low incomes,

high hidden costs of education, and many families lived far from the nearest school,

making the journey there almost impossible (Save the Children Fund, 2006; Tavola,

2000). Similarly in the Pacific region, The Report of the Fiji Islands Education

Commission/Panel (2000) maintained and revealed that in the Banaban community,

students were often absent for a number of reasons which may relate to inability to

afford text-books, uniforms, certain fees required by the school or simply because

families retained children at home to assist in home chores.

Furthermore, Carr and Klassen (1997) pointed out that poor management or

administration may result in the low educational outcomes or under-performance of

some groups in schools. This assertion is reflected in Chapman (2002) who argued that

in Asian countries, as secondary education became the sector of rapid growth, there was

a new window of demand for administrators at this level. There was a need to develop

clear criteria for the selection of these administrators by the Ministries, lest those

positions went to candidates with the greatest seniority in the system rather than those

best qualified. Many senior teachers have indeed been promoted through their seniority

in the school system without having an appropriate qualification. This calls for adequate

supply of well-trained administrators for schools.

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3.5.2 Language Policies for Minority Education

Corson (1993) argued that three groups who seem most affected by unfair language

policy practices in education were women and girls, minority cultural groups and

minority social groups. He confirms that reforms are urgently needed in the approaches

that schools and school systems everywhere adopt when treating matters of language

use. It was taken for granted that language policies and practices in education often

oppressed those of little power. McGroarty (2002) contended that in order to promote

support for pedagogical language policies that include bilingual education in the United

States, three political developments are crucial.

First, language minority communities must develop a strong electoral presence. Second,

voters from such communities must mobilize around language-in-education issues. A

third point of possible leverage depends on the ability of the professional educators,

researchers and policymakers who advocated bilingual instruction to articulate goals and

accomplishments accurately and persuasively for fellow educators and for various public

constituencies (McGroarty, 2002, p. 31).

McGroarty (2002) and UNESCO (1999) further argued that the education of children

from disadvantaged groups was affected by the use of English as the official and only

language used in the United States. The use of English influences the life of language

minority children, their families, and educators working with them.

Corson (1993) in examining minority groups in North America classified minority

language policies in education into six stages: the first stage (Learning Deficit) saw

minority groups as simply lacking the majority language (UNESCO, 1999; Hill, 1993);

stage two (Socially-Linked Learning Deficit) saw a minority group’s deficit as being

linked to family status (Hill, 1993); stage three (Learning Deficit from Social/Cultural

Differences) which linked a minority group’s deficit to disparities in esteem between the

group’s culture and the majority culture; stage 4 (Learning Deficit from Mother Tongue

Deprivation) saw the premature loss of the minority tongue inhibiting transition to

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learning the majority tongue; stage 5, (Private Language Maintenance) saw the minority

group’s language threatened with extinction if it was not supported; and stage 6

(Language Equality) saw the minority and majority languages as having equal rights in

society, with special support available for the less viable language (Corson, 1993, p. 2-

3).

Policy responses include recognizing a minority language as an official language,

providing separate educational institutions for language groups, offering opportunities

for all children to learn both languages, and extending further support beyond

educational systems. This marks a demarcation between the Corson (1993) and the

Macgroaty (2002) typology.

Language policies of minority groups according to McGroarty (2002) maintained the

political involvement of the minority group so as to influence policies. They maintained

that it was important to find a variety of ways to report, repeat, and represent the

achievement of sound bilingual education programs and other programs serving

language minority.

Pennycock (2002) supported Corson (1993) stating that mother tongue or vernacular

education was necessarily preferable to education of other languages. He argued that the

model for understanding the relationship between language policy and broader political

concern (McGroarty, 2002) needed to move away from an understanding of language

policy and the imposition of denial of a particular language.

Furthermore, Wiley’s (2002) historical analysis concluded that although the rights of the

minority children to maintain their home language remains protected in principle,

language restriction movements in the US have severely narrowed the ability of federal

policies to support minority languages and programs. Kamanda (2002) supports this

view, stating that in Sierra Leone, the 1991 National Constitution and the New

Education Policy emphasize basic education and the teaching of Sierra Leonean

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languages, both as media of instruction during the first three years of primary schooling

and subjects of study from Junior Secondary School upwards.

Skuttnab-Kangas cited in Wiley (2002, p.20) put forward her own proposal for a

declaration of children’s linguistic human rights based on the following three premises:

(1) Every child should have the right to identify positively with her original mother

tongue(s) and have her identification accepted and respected by others. (2) Every child

should have the right to learn the mother tongue(s) fully. (3) Every child should have the

right to choose when she wants to use the mother tongue(s) in all official situations.

Despite what Skuttnab-Kangas proposed, gaining support for children’s linguistic

human rights and translating it into school policy was a major challenge. Secondly,

creating educational policies for a child to learn in his or her mother tongue was

complicated by the fact that majority of the world’s estimated 6,000 to 7,000 languages

were not used in schools and that many were not used as languages of literacy. And

lastly, language rights were frequently ignored in the formulation of educational policies

(Wiley, 2002).

In contrast, Cazden (1992) in his report identified that teacher qualification and parent

involvement were two factors that were critically important in minority language

children’s second language learning and schools success. The result of Ramirez report as

described by Cazden (1992) stated that qualified teachers were considerably bilingual

than their non-Hispanic, majority language colleagues. Sims (2006) concurs that

assigning more homework and close monitoring of homework was an indication of the

teacher’s higher expectations for their language minority students’ academic success.

Cazden (1992) concluded that teachers in the three types of programs studied were very

different. The three types of programs were structured English immersion strategy;

early-exit (Primary) and late-exit (Secondary) bilingual education. All three programs

have the same instructional goals and the acquisition of English language skills so that

the language-minority child could succeed in an English-only mainstream classroom.

The above result is comparable to the Pacific regional teaching, especially where

minority groups use English or French as a medium of instruction. Minority language

students are passive in responding to answer or contribute in classroom. The reasons for

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passive responses might include: students are not confident because the language is their

second language; secondly, they fear to contribute due to poor expression of the

language of instruction, or the thought of being ridiculed by fellow classmates or

belittled by an uncaring instructor.

3.5.3 Challenges faced by the Minority Groups

There are numerous challenges that are likely to be encountered by the minority groups

in education. In America, among the challenges identified by American Council on

Education, et al., (2006), included expanding college access to low-income and

minority students, keeping college affordable, improving learning by utilizing new

knowledge and instructional techniques, preparing secondary students for higher

education, increasing accountability for education outcomes, internationalizing the

student experience and increasing opportunities for lifelong education and workforce

training. These challenges primarily affected undergraduate education.

One of the challenges facing the immigrant children (Hill, 1993) who were considered to

be minority groups in large urban areas was poverty. According to Hill (1993), poverty

was a frequent commonality as well, as many of the recent immigrants have come

seeking greater economic opportunities in large urban centers such as Los Angeles,

Miami and San Francisco (Hill, 1993, p. 49-50). Additionally, he also identified

emotional stress, exhaustion, illness, and separation from their family could greatly

impede the education of minority students.

UNDP (1999) revealed that in Fiji, low incomes and other aspects of poverty were

principal reasons why children failed to complete school. There were also correlations

between dropouts and poverty. For example, Save the Children Fund (2006) identified

some children of low-income households that were pressured to earn some form of

income, usually through menial employment in the informal sector, or to mind siblings

while adults worked. Often students in this category may have little opportunity to catch

up or acquire the skills that could provide them a secure livelihood.

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In the Pacific context, these challenges were evident amongst the economically

disadvantaged in Fiji, especially those who experienced life with extended families and

leaving their villages to settle with relatives in urban areas and semi-urban areas

(Tavola, 2000, p. 264). Children who left school early may still have opportunities for a

good livelihood if they live in rural areas and have access to land. But a growing

proportion did not. Particularly in town, curtailed education was known to contribute to

unemployment, poverty and crime (UNDP, 1999).

Despite decades of efforts to improving education and development for rural people,

especially the poor; the broad picture remained as follows: firstly, those who lived in

rural communities have low-capita incomes and high rates of poverty (UNDP, 1999, p.

265). Most made their income from small-scale agriculture and forms of self-

employment, and many needed the assistance of their children in sustaining their

households. Based on this evidence, it is highly likely that this scenario of household

chores e.g. house cleaning, gardening, baby sitting a younger sibling can be mirrored by

the challenges encountered in the education of the Banaban children. It was noted in the

Report of the Fiji Islands Commission/Panel (2000), that because of the generally low

income of parents of Rabi, financial support to schools was weak (ibid, p. 230).

Secondly, women are unschooled and unable to access information for development.

Third world children were not in school (UNESCO, 2003, p. 13-14). Dropout rates from

rural primary and secondary remained unacceptably high. Large proportions of dropout

had not mastered basic skills sufficiently for daily use and further development. Lastly,

children and adolescents were in forms of child labor that may lead to large proportion

of them becoming illiterate adults (ibid, p. 13- 14). Consequently, it was evident that in

the Pacific region, for example, in Fiji, there was a 91% of female literacy compared to

94% male literacy (Report of the Fiji Island Commission, 2000).

Another distinguishing feature that most rural secondary schools experience is the

dependency on Aid. Fairbairn (1997) highlighted the fact that Pacific island nations

were heavily dependent on foreign aid for capital and technical inputs required for

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national development and, in particular, education. Fairbairn (1997) argued that many

developing countries initially perceived foreign aid as a panacea for the social,

economic and political evils, which had played them for generation. He maintained

that universal literacy through formal education was considered to represent the most

potent tool for overcoming these evils: the implicit assumption being that the

development would follow automatically from formal education. Hence, the

overriding concern of the developing countries was to seek the means to develop their

educational systems. Foreign aid was believed to be, in many cases, the major source

of funds for this purpose particularly at higher levels.

Others challenges identified in the literature included marketing the school and managing

the school budget (Dean, 2003; Wohlstetter, & Briggs, 1994), managing the school and

designing unique approaches to address existing challenges (Dean, 2003; Mohrman &

Wohlstetter, 1993) and newly appointed graduates were often assigned teaching

responsibility rather than administrative positions (Lal, 2007).

However, Lal (2007) pointed out those school leaders in Fiji with 15 to 20 years old

qualification found it difficult and impossible to manage changes in education in the 21st

Century. He argued that it was not the children’s indiscipline, which gave stresses to

leaders; it was their obsolete qualification, which was irrelevant with the educational

challenges and demand of the 21st Century. Today, leaders are beleaguered and

disoriented when faced with new challenges, some of which are beyond their

comprehension while others too alien in nature to resolve and tackle.

Educational challenges would include curriculum and resource challenges. UNESCO

(2006) revealed that most countries have national curricula and this prescribed

curriculum was almost the same for both urban and rural schools. It further argued that

the curricula consist of a list of minimal learning competencies stated in terms of

behavioral objectives. These minimum competencies were specifically designed for

regular school situations which restricts multi-grade teacher who found it difficult to

make the content meaningful to rural pupils.

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In another related study Lipinski (1991) argued that the problem regarding resources in

rural education was more involved in the diversity that exists among rural settings

making its application which was found difficult. He emphasized that what worked ever

so effectively in one rural school may flop beyond belief in another. However, resources

could serve to provide a skeleton upon which each locale could build a program tailored

to that area’s unique needs. Lipnski (1991) also stated that dissemination of information

was another challenge to rural schools due to isolation.

In addition, UNESCO (2006) reported that the design, reproduction and distribution of

large quantities of self-study materials to support individuals, peer and small-group

learning was essential. It argued that teaching required the establishment of mechanisms

for regular supervision, monitoring and support at regional/district and

teacher/classroom level. However, this required support structures to be in place, and a

definition of minimum standards and benchmarks against which pupil’s learning

achievement and teacher deployment systems is to be assessed.

3.5.4 Opportunities for the Minority Groups

There are numerous opportunities for minority groups in areas of educational

institutions. In the US, for instance, minority students were given opportunities in the

Medical Schools (Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), 2005). Some of

the opportunities included academic support programs, enrichment programs, student

financial assistance and educational partnerships.

According to the AAMC (2005) statement on Medical Education of Minority Group

students, if the progress achieved in providing access for more minorities to pursue

careers in medicine was to continue, educational institutions, the federal government,

and philanthropic organizations must reaffirm their commitment to the education of the

under-represented minorities for careers in medicine as a national goal (ibid: 2005). In

addition, the AAMC and its constituent members were directing an earnest effort toward

the goal of increasing opportunities for the underrepresented minorities who wish to

pursue careers in medical service, teaching and research. Support funds were to be

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expanded from local, state and federal levels. It was encouraged that the Liaison

Committee of the Medical Education must have representatives from minority group

members who had experience and knowledge in the education of minority group

students (ibid: 2005). Tavola (2000) and the Report of the Fiji Islands Education

Commission/Panel (2000) recommended that the Ministry of Education work towards

making minority languages examinable at secondary level to give them an enhanced

status. This would be a unique opportunity for the minority group to maintain their

identity through the study and sustenance of indigenous language.

However, Tavola (2000) maintained that all the minority communities stressed a

wish for better access to tertiary education for their people. This was clearly

demonstrated in the improvement of the rural teachers and schools. RHS was no

exception.

The education of minority groups could be expanded by an increased allocation

of scholarships. Spohr (2002) pointed out that the role of government and

international community must provide scholarship and other support to ensure

that the poor, women and other disadvantaged groups have access to ‘post-basic

levels of education’. She further suggested that rural education should be a

particular priority for government and donors and ensuring education quality

tend to be much greater in rural communities. Foreign Aid is essential to the

development of secondary schools in Fiji, of which RHS benefited from.

Most studies reviewed have examined that developed countries played important roles in

providing foreign aid to education in developing countries. In recent studies (e.g World

Education Forum, 2000 and Takao, 2004) have similar findings as they all pointed out

that Japan, New Zealand, Asian Development and Australia have poured substantial

amount of foreign aid in the Pacific region to upgrade and improve education for pre-

school, primary, secondary schools and tertiary institutions. These aids played an

important role in providing assistance to most educational institutions in rural secondary

schools, who may have encountered financial hardship.

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In many countries, the curriculum ignores or rejects the experience of minority

communities. Although this could be most obvious in a history curriculum or in the

choice of language of instruction, it could also be detected in other parts of the

curriculum, such as civil education, geography, nutrition and literature (UNESCO,

1999).

This had a twofold effect. Firstly, minorities felt that their identity, culture, language,

history and their entire sense of belonging in that country was being undermined.

Members of minority communities could become less motivated, failed to attend classes

and failed to learn. This is supported by Katz (1970), although his book may be

apparently outdated, his contribution was worth noting. He argued that the

disadvantaged pupil lacked motivation because he did not possess the one essential tool

of academic learning, hence was overwhelmed by the difficulty of the tasks that were

put before him. The child lacked the ability to use language as a device for acquiring and

processing the kind of information that was transmitted in the classroom. Education that

undermined identity in such ways was rarely ultimately effective, efficient or a good use

of resources.

Secondly, members of the majority community missed an important opportunity through

education to learn about members of other communities. Such opportunities could, if

appropriately designed and carried out, help to remove barriers of ignorance and

misunderstanding between different communities (UNESCO, 1999; Sims, 2006).

Berryman (2000) took this discussion a step further and argued that there were factors

that created differences in learning opportunities. The key findings included factors such

as unequal financing, residential location (rural and urban), parental education, minority

status and family poverty. Significantly, this finding establishes the precedence of

questioning whether comparable factors would also be found in the Pacific region. It

might be possibly comparable to find similar findings in the Pacific region. As people in

the Pacific are part of the global village, they are, to some extent, facing the same

educational problems.

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In addressing the problem of dissemination of information or school resources, Lipinski

(1991) suggested that information sources headquarters must be located in a politically

useful and large community with education offices established to disseminate

information materials. Through this system, he argued that faster delivery would provide

better services for the dissemination of information to isolated schools. This is solely

needed in Fiji’s context with respect to isolation and distance of its outlying islands.

3.6 Theoretical Framework of the Study

In this section, the two theories that have been used to inform and frame the study are

feminist standpoint and post colonialism theories. The first section outlines the Feminist

standpoint theory; the second looks at the Post-colonialism theory and finally how the

individual theories by way of the notions of ‘voice’, ‘other’ and ’hybridity’ have

informed and framed the study.

3.6.1 Feminist Standpoint Theory and Voice of the Marginalized Groups

Maria (2002) posited that the principle of feminist standpoint theory asserted that the

structure of society was based on the individual’s status in the socio-political system.

She argued that this individual status was determined by those in positions of power

within the social hierarchy, in particular, of men and the non-disabled majority.

Similarly, the study by Martin, et al (1995) noted that the Socialist and the Marxist

feminists argued that educational systems operated on a competitive/capitalistic basis,

which marginalized some groups of people, especially the economic lower class and

minorities, and often silenced women.

In a more recent study by Addams (2007), it gave voice to standpoints of the

marginalized in society. She had given an oppressed group their own voice through

educational courses, for example English language courses, and social clubs that

promoted political and social debate. This postulation is in agreement with the work of

Grasswich and Anderson (2002) who contend that feminist standpoint derives from the

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Marxist position that the socially oppressed class could access knowledge unavailable to

the socially privileged, particularly knowledge of social relations. They further

postulated that as feminist standpoint theory had developed, it had focused more on the

political nature of the standpoint, and attempted to attend to the diversity of women by

incorporating the standpoints of other marginalized groups. These views seem true for

the minority people in this research study.

Furthermore, Lye (2003) stated that standpoint theory was a powerful theory which

could be used to discuss the position of any marginalized group, and which laid the basis

for epistemology – a study of both what and how people know, for an improved

understanding and communication among groups, and for social action.

In support of this view, Harding (2004), one of the better known advocates of feminist

standpoint theory, argued that standpoint epistemology increased objectivity as it

acknowledged the importance of the social and historical context of the particular

knowers. Further, she argued that maximizing objectivity was a good point from which

to start knowledge projects and this allowed and empowered oppressed groups to value

their experiences (Harding, 2004, p.2-3).

She further claimed that from the perspective of marginalized lives, the dominant claims

could be regarded as ethnocentric, only members of powerful groups in society could

imagine that their standards for knowledge claims and the claims resulting from those

standards apply to all rational creatures in all times (ibid).

3.6.2 Post Colonialism Theory and the Notion of “Voice”

Post-colonialism refers to a set of theories in philosophy, film and literature that grapple

with the legacy of colonial rule. It deals with the reading and writing of literature written

in previously or currently colonized countries, or literature written on colonization or on

colonized peoples (Lye, 1998).

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There is obviously a possibility to invoke notions of ‘voice’ for the colonized in this

theory because colonized peoples have responded to write about their own indigenous

histories and their own legacy. It was evident from the findings of Nabobo-Baba (2006,

p. 125) on the study of her own people, that the “Vugalei speak with authority about

their worldviews, their knowledge and epistemology: it is the hearing of their voices that

may be tenuous”. She argued that it was important to ensure that the various voices of

indigenous Fijians were seen and heard in their proper cultural contexts. This finds

support in Battiste (2000) cited in Nabobo-Baba (2006) stating that it was important to

hear the silenced voices of once-colonized peoples so that we may discover new

perspectives on knowledge.

This study finds congruence of thought to the above findings where the Banabans would

speak out about the educational opportunities and related issues, and challenges in their

own cultural context. They may have been heard and whose views are interpreted by

foreign researchers, however, through this study they would continue to be heard by one

of their own, as they share their experiences with the researcher, who would offer a

balanced interpretation from their own standpoint.

The Post colonialist theory has impacted communities of indigenous peoples by

producing a process of indigenous decolonization. In this study the indigenous minority

population has contributed knowledge through their own perspectives of their own

educational challenges and opportunities. Nabobo-Baba (2003) supported this view in

stating that the voices of indigenous peoples were important as they gave us alternative

perspectives on knowledge, epistemology, and their associated ontology and views of

cosmology.

In addition, during the Multidisciplinary Conference on “Theoretical Challenges and

Pragmatic Issues” held in Toronto in 2002, it was noted that “post-colonialism” loosely

designated a set of theoretical approaches which focus on the direct effects and

aftermaths of colonization. On the one hand, “post-colonial” may refer to the status of a

land that was no longer colonized and had regained its political independence. On the

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other hand, “post-colonialism” may designate, and denounce, the new forms of

economic and cultural oppression that had succeeded “neo-colonialism”

(Multidisciplinary Conference, 2002).

First developed in the 1980s, colonialism had found itself in the company of many

studies, for instance women’s and cultural to mention a few. Ghandi (1998) claimed that

the new fields of study have endeavored to foreground the exclusions and elisions,

which confirmed the privileges and authority of canonical knowledge systems and

second, to recover those marginalized, knowledge, which have been occluded and

silenced by the entrenched humanist curriculum.

A very interesting element of post colonialism that was highlighted by Phillips (1999)

was Bhabha’s contribution to the migrants’ voices. He stated that the extent of the

problem may be glimpsed when Bhabha “gives way” to the polyphony of migrants

voices, “the vox populi…wandering peoples who would not be contained within the

Heim of the national culture and its unisonant discourse, but are themselves the marks of

shifting boundary that alienates the frontiers of modern nation” (Phillips, 1999, p. 75).

Another area that might be of significant to this study is the accessibility that Soudien

(2004) contemplated in attempting to find solutions to ‘where does one begin to look for

sublimated or marginalized voice and what constitutes sublimated voice? There were a

number of options that were considered to move forward with this task. He made the

following points lucid in submitting that an initial attempt was made to access

sublimated voice by looking at the experiences of females, particularly the experience of

early withdrawal from school. The assumption was that non-Western (and even possibly

anti-Western) discourses would be most evident in social attitudes with regard to the

education of the female child’ (Soudien, 2004, p.33).

Arguably, although Soudien (2004) exemplify South Africa, it might be possible that to

some extent it could be related to the Pacific context especially in relation to a large

number of female students leaving school early. However, UNESCO (2003) studies

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showed that illiterate girls marry as early as 11 years of age. For this reason, women

could not be heard in books. Nabobo-Baba (2003) argued that indigenous Fijians do not

always speak in the books. Consequently, they may not be read, as their knowledge had

not made their way, readily, into books or the international literature on indigenous

epistemology. However, she stated that the matter of speaking was as important as the

ability of “the other” to hear indigenous voices as well as “their silences”. In this

instance, the case study under research was better facilitated and structured through post

colonialism theory, via the notion of “voice”.

3.6.3 Post Colonialism and the Notion of “Hybridity”

Hybridity has its roots in the Latin term hybrida which is used to classify the offspring

of a tame sow and a wild boar. It is maintained that hybridity is in its most basic sense

means the blending of the inherited Vugalei traditions of knowledge and epistemology

and the new influences on these that have come through numerous culture contacts

(Nabobo-Baba, 2005). This definition is mostly related to Siegel (2006) definition of

hybridity. He stated that hybridity was an important concept in post-colonial theory,

referring to the integration (or mingling) of cultural signs and practices from the

colonizing and the colonized cultures. The assimilation and adaptation of cultural

practices, the cross-fertilization of cultures, could be seen as positive, enriching, and

dynamic, as well as oppressive (ibid, p. 6).

According to Bakrania (2008, p. 535) hybridity was taken up in the offspring of humans

of different races – races assumed to be different species. He asserts that hybridity was

deployed by postcolonial theorists to describe the cultural forms that emerged from

colonial encounters. Hybridity has been most recently adopted by social scientists –

particularly those interested in migration, diasporac, transnationalism, and globalization.

She maintained that scholars interested in these aspects have used the term to describe

the identity of a mixed race or cultural origin or influence (such as migrants), the

cultural production of ‘brid’ persons (that is music, language, style), and/or process of

cultural mixing that shape identity formation and cultural production.

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Further, Unaisi-Nabobo (2003) stated that the Fijian with a hybridized post-colonial

culture was a hybridized person and she suggested that Fijians today could be best

described in these terms in the sense that distinctive aspects of Fijian culture have

survived, ‘even in the most potent oppression of imperialism’. The Banabans in this

instance have undergone many socio-economic and political changes and experiences.

They had survived imperialism’s “worst” agencies (ibid, p.64), such as schooling,

missionaries, modernization, globalization and industrialization. The term “worst” is not

used in this context as a negative connotation.

3.6.4 Post Colonialism and the Notion of “Other”

“Othering” is a key concept in Post colonialism and it is assumed that those who are

different from oneself are inferior. This assumption is most closely linked to the work of

Frances Henry. Henry (2004) argued that the notions of the “Other”, the role of

“difference” and “othering” and their representation in terms of whiteness and blackness

were the focus of contemporary theories of racism. She further asserted that the birth of

these notions came into being during the European expansion in the 16th to 19th Century,

when colonizers came into contact with the “native” population seeking to exploit the

primary products such sugar, rubber and the like. Native population were regarded as

“people color” and were defined as inferior human beings, primarily because of their

different cultural practices as well as their not being “White”.

In terms of education of the displaced population under study, Nabobo-Baba (2005)

posited that the school was an agency of “othering”. She argued that when indigenous

children did not see themselves in the text, in the curriculum and in the overall ethos of

the school, they were reminded of the fact that their cultural knowledge was not valued

hence excluded (ibid: p. 60). Jung (2007) supports her argument declaring that like

transversality, globalization attempts to make connections in the face of difference.

Eurocentric universality tends to reify if not erase the non-European “other” who

becomes a second class citizen in the vertical hierarchy of the globe: European on the

top and non-European at the bottom. Eurocentric universalism builds an unbridgeable

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gulf between Europe and non-Europe. This is further exacerbated by the propensity of

postcolonial analysts who favor detailed examination of colonial, imperial, and Western

texts to the exclusion of those of subalterns and colonial “Others” (Feldman, (2007, p.

242).

Nabobo-Baba (2003) contended that the Pacific, Fiji included, had also undergone major

phases of representation as “the other” by the West and non-Pacific “Accident”. She

further argued that such global agendas were very often engendered through

international aid in education where education content, epistemology, and pedagogy

were prescribed and driven by the donor agency (ibid, p. 59). She claimed that

educational aid was like oxygen because it was readily available and not only it was tied

aid and increasingly decided by the global donors, but it promoted sustained dependence

on others. This is an important point in the researcher’s study of the Banaban people

who are continually victims of such notion of ‘othering’. It is evident in the research

study that the indigenous Banbans in Fiji could not advance in education without the

assistance of foreign aid.

3.7 Summary

The literature discussed the conceptual basis of diaspora. Then, it went on to expound on

the education of the displaced population, highlighting the related issues, challenges,

opportunities, access and equity, and parental participation. The chapter also discussed

the education of the minority groups. It specifically explored the factors that affect the

education, with emphasis on the language policies, and the educational challenges, and

opportunities for the minority group.

Finally, the literature discussed feminist standpoint and postcolonial theories and how

these two theories were used via the notion of “voice”, “hybridity”, and “other”, to

inform and frame the study. The works of writers such as Martin et al (1995), Fludernik

(1998), Ghandi (1998), Lye (1998, 2003), Phillips (1999), Grasswich and Anderson

(2002), Maria (2002), Nabobo-Baba (2006), Harding (2004), Soudien (2004), Henry

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(2004), Addams (2007), Feldman (2007), and Jung (2007), were of particular significant

in this regard.

The next chapter presents the research methodology utilized in the study.

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CHAPTER 4

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.0 INTRODUCTION

The previous chapter not only presents an overview of the relevant work on the topic,

but also includes a critical evaluation of the works. It discusses issues in relation to

educational opportunities, challenges and theories – in current literature. It also includes

critical appraisal of current related research and knowledge.

This chapter is divided into two parts. Part I discusses a qualitative research design that

guided this study and justifies the selection of a case-study approach as methodology

employed in the fieldwork. Part II specifically looks at the post-field study detailing the

research process on the ground.

4.1 Methodology Part I: Qualitative Research Design – Case-

Study Approach

4.1.1 A Qualitative Approach to Research

This study falls in the category of non-experimental designs that offers a detailed

descriptive analysis (McCartney, 2007). Qualitative approaches can be generalized to

theory only. However, the selection of the appropriate qualitative research methodology

depends on the type of data needed for this study. Qualitative and descriptive data are

needed from the perspective of research informants and the context in which the study

evolved. For this reason, the topic finds support in the qualitative case-study research

approach.

This perspective allows the investigator to understand the underlying patterns of

behavior and meanings of a culture (DePoy and Gitlin, 1998) and events as they unfold

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and as the research informants explain them. Furthermore, the perspective allows the

researcher to describe and report how the researcher gains access to the cultural setting.

The philosophical underpinnings of a qualitative research approach, direct us to key

features that characterize this kind of research. This research study considers the eight

characteristics of a qualitative research that Maykut and Morehouse (1994) outlines in

figurer 4.1. The elements in the research design and processes are interwoven and the

development of one informs and transforms another. Figure 4.1 illustrates these features

and highlights its interconnectedness, and provides a framework for designing and

implementing a qualitative research study.

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Figure 4.1 Characteristics of Qualitative Research

(Source: Maykut and Morehouse, 1994: 48)

Once a broad research question has been identified, there are two approaches to the

design of case study research, with appropriateness depending on the circumstances. In

the first approach, precise questions are posed at the outset of the research and data

collection and analysis are directed towards answering them. These studies

are typically

constructed to allow comparisons to be drawn. The comparison may be between

different approaches to implementation,

or a comparison between sites where an

intervention is taking place and where normal practice prevails (Keen and Packwood,

1995). The second approach is more open and in effect starts by asking broad questions

Emergent design

Focus of Inquiry

Early and ongoing

Inductive

Data analysis

Emphasis on human-

as-instrument

Purpose sample

Qualitative methods

of data collection

natural settings

Research outcomes

presented using a

Case study approach

suggests

Explored through

Yield data for

Indicates need to refine

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such as what is happening here? What are the important features and relationships that

explain the impact of this intervention? These questions are then refined and become

more specific in the course of fieldwork and a parallel process of data analysis (ibid).

Consistent with ethnographic perspective, qualitative case-study was employed for this

study.

4.2 Case Study as Methodology

Hamel (1998) claims that case study is still one of the most common forms of qualitative

research. In this research study, case study design was used given the theoretical

approaches discussed in the preceding chapters. Creswell (1998) defined case study as

developing an in-depth analysis of a single case or multiple cases. Case studies

investigate real-life in their natural settings. The goal is to practice sound research while

capturing both a phenomenon (the real life event) and its context (the natural setting),

(David, 2006: xxvii).

Furthermore, a case study considered as a bounded and integrated system, relies on

specificities more so than generalities; process of learning; and product of the learning

(Stake, 1994). According to Stake (1994), qualitative case study is highly personal

research which includes the personal perspectives of the researcher and participants

within the interpretation.

Interviews or other qualitative methods within a case study design were used to explore

and document educational challenges and opportunities of the Banban people, after

being displaced from their homeland, Ocean Island, and now become part of Fiji.

Qualitatively, a single case is studied in depth, by participant observation supported by

semi-structured and structured interviews. Case study methods involve the collection of

very extensive data in order to produce an in-depth understanding of the entity being

studied (Borg and Gall, 1989: 402).

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Keen and Packwood (1995) noted that the case studies using qualitative methods are

most valuable when the question being posed requires an investigation of a real life

intervention in detail, where the focus is on how and why the intervention succeeds or

fails, where the general context will influence the outcome and where researchers asking

questions will have no control over events. They argued that the experimental

approaches are simply not appropriate because the resultant number of variables will be

far greater than can be controlled.

Leedy and Ormrod (2005) described the data collection method in a case study and

include the researcher collecting extensive data on the individuals, programs and events

on which the investigation is focused. The researcher conducts the research and stays

with the people who are being studied for an extended period of time and interacts with

them regularly. During the research, the researcher records every detail about context

surrounding the case, information about the physical environment and any historical,

economic and social factors that have influenced the situation (ibid: 135). After

collecting and recording, the report is prepared and the case presented.

Siegle (1990) argued that the process of qualitative research is inductive in that the

researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypothesis and theories from details. The

researcher attempts to build theories from this research study after the fieldwork. In this

research study, the purpose sampling (Maykut and Morehouse, 1994) is used to select

the people the researcher studies. Subjects are selected because of who they are and what

they know rather than by chance (Siegle, 1990).

The principal method adopted for data collection in this study was done through

participant observation; supplemented by structured and unstructured interviews, life

history interview and ‘talanoa’ or informal discussions and story telling. Documentary

study on the Banaban education was conducted using available records at RHS.

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4.3 Methods

Data collecting methods used were field notes, participant observation, interview,

“talanoa”, and document analysis.

4.3.1 Field notes

Field notes refer to naturalistic recordings written by the researcher (DePoy and Gitlin,

1998). They have two basic components. First are recordings of events, observations and

occurrences. Secondly, recordings of the investigators own impressions of events,

personal feelings, hunches and expectations (ibid). These components were evident in

the actual research field notes recorded. The field notes are descriptive and reflective. In

addition, field notes provided the researcher with a more holistic view of the school,

stakeholders and the Banaban community. During the research, responses to

questionnaires were transcribed and translated. These data were later color coded and

analyzed.

Furthermore, Beach (2005) examined the nature of field notes using the well-known

division into field notes of inscription, transcription and description. The collected data

were field-notes as inscription (Beach, 2005:3). They were textual events seen or heard

in the field. Transcription field-notes were concerned with ‘recording’ the inscriptions of

meaning others have. When making inscription field-notes, researchers privileged their

own interpretative conventions and become singular observer, recorder, and authors of

the events.

Lastly, field-notes were descriptions which involved note-taking when the researcher

tried to take an objective neutral position and restricted writing to simply describing the

number of people at an event (ibid). The three types of field-notes were utilized to

varying extent during the research.

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4.3.2 Participant Observation

Participant Observation was described as the process of immersing the researcher in the

study of people he/she is not too different from. It was done covertly, with the researcher

never revealing his or her true identity. If the researcher had already known the group,

then the researcher needed to imagine that she was not part of the group and should see

things in a fresh light. However, if the researcher knew nothing about the group, then

he/she needed to become a “convert” and really get committed and involved (De Poy

and Gitlin, 1998).

According to Leedy and Ormrod (2005) the researcher collected extensive data on the

individuals, program or events on which the investigation was focused. These data were

often observations, interviews, documents (e.g. newspaper articles), past records, and

audiovisual materials. In many instances, the researcher spent an extended period of

time on site (Burns, 1997) and interacted regularly with the people who were being

studied.

The researcher also recorded details about the context surrounding the case, including

information about the physical environment and any historical, economic, and social

factors that have bearing on the situation (Leedy and Ormrod, 2005: 135).

There were focus groups selected from RHS for example, students, teachers, and parents

from the villages. Pole and Morrison (2003) highlighted that the researchers using case

study chose to use focus groups in order to explore specific sets of issues in educational

settings. Focus groups were useful in examining “how knowledge, and more

importantly, ideas, both developed and operated within a given cultural context”

(Kitzinger, 1994 cited in Pole and Morrison, 2003:39).

Similarly, the method employed in the research study was what (Keirnan, and Kantner,

2003) described as observing people in their everyday situations (homes, workplaces,

schools) to learn their normal or natural behavior. Through field research, usability

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practitioners could develop an in-depth understanding of users by observing users

performing their real activities in their own environments (ibid).

Bernard (2001) described participant observation fieldwork as the foundation of cultural

anthropology. It involved getting close to people and making them feel comfortable with

the researcher’s presence so that the researcher could observe and record information

about their lives.

As a member of this community, I was a participant and an observer at RHS. As an

educator investigating this secondary school institution, there was a need to make a very

familiar or “normal” setting unfamiliar (Pole and Morrison, 2003). Secondly, this

requirement persisted even when the researcher worked in a setting that had similar

general features to those with which the researcher was familiar, for example,

classrooms in another school.

Thirdly, while much participant observation was overt, there were times when it was less

obvious to the research informants that the researcher had stepped and remained outside

his or her role as “educator” in the setting being explored. In this sense, according to

Pole and Morrison (2003) the researcher using the case study approach could take on

more covert characteristics, and this delicate interpenetration of roles remained a key

aspect of the balancing act between observation that precluded “interference” in the

action being observed, and the maintenance of relations that required both ethically

informed consent and the need to maintain distance from informants.

DePoy and Gitlin (1998) stated that participant observation was based on the assumption

that an important way of learning the way people lived in their environment was to

participate in their daily activities and personally experience and observed what

transpires. In participant observation, the investigator remained “introspective” and

examined “self” in the situation. As an insider, or an outsider, he or she observed the

action (ibid: 220).

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4.3.3 Interviews

The researcher chose to use interviews as a method of data collection because it gives

informants the opportunity to check what is meant by a question; allowing for long and

complex responses; flexibility – making possible changes in the order of questioning, the

questions asked and the topics discussed; probing – follow-up questioning seeking

clarification or further explanation; and in-depth inquiry (Hannan, 2007). There were

two categories of interviewees on the islands. Firstly, at RHS, the Principal, teachers and

students were interviewed through semi-structured interviews and structured interviews

through self-administered key questions (Bernard, 2003). The second category is the

parents and the community members.

In this research, a limited number of informants were chosen. These informants were

selected to provide the best insights, and who represent the full range of experience and

opinion (ibid). The informants include the Principal, HOD’s of the Language

Department, Social Science Department, Science Department, and Maths/Pysics

Department, and Physical Education, Music, Art and Craft Department; five teachers;

school librarian; typist; the school bursar; 10 parents from each village; Chairman of the

Parents Teachers and Friends Association (PTFA); five students from Forms 3, 4, 5, 6

and 7; 5 drop-outs; 5 RHS ex-students; 5 retired RHS employees; and 2 retired

Councilors, and one current Councilor.

In this case a follow up visit to the individual homes was conducted later. Semi-

structured interviews were tape recorded, if they were approved by the informants.

Teachers and students were interviewed in relation to language difficulty at school. In

addition students were also interviewed on issues like lunches, transport problems,

reasons for truancy and attitude of teachers. Themes identified in the literature review

chapter are highlighted in the interview questions.

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For the historical development, administration, school results, and other relevant

information about the school, and various school documents were accessed. The

documents were: daily attendance record books and daily attendance registers of both

teachers and students, official correspondences between the school and the Ministry of

Education, examination records – school records, department reports and

correspondence between the staff and Principal and vice versa.

Teachers, students and parents were interviewed about their goals and tasks while they

were surrounded by their own artifacts, in the context of their normal behavior (Keirnan

and Kantner, 2003). In this study, parents were interviewed about their roles as parents

in supporting their children’s education. Secondly, they were expected to describe the

challenges and opportunities in providing education for their children. In addition,

parents were interviewed about their financial capabilities in supporting their children’s

education.

Data collection was also conducted through semi-structured interviews and recording of

information through the use of tape recorders. Using a tape recorder in all structured

and semi-structured interviews was an advantage; however, it was not used where

people specifically asked not to (Bernard, 2001:220). Semi-structured interviewing was

based on the use of an interview guideline.

Furthermore, life history interview was employed in this study as one face to face data

collection method. According to Pole and Morrison (2003), this method provides

opportunities for detailed understandings of individuals, usually in terms of constructed

narratives of events, episodes and contexts that underpinned “lives” within and beyond

education.

Life history interview in this study allowed the researcher to involve the retired teachers

and those students who had dropped out of school at the early age. These groups of

people were those who were not included in the other data collection methods.

Participants were requested to tell a whole story about their educational experience when

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they first arrived from Ocean Island, and when they started their secondary education in

Rabi.

4.3.4 “Talanoa”

‘Talanoa’ was another way of collecting data used in this research study. ‘Talanoa’,

according to Likuseniua (1994) and Nabobo (2003), is a Fijian term which refers to an

informal discussions and story telling when passing information from one person to

another. This is common in my village setting and it is a very effective way of collecting

data especially from a group of women and men who enjoy ‘talanoa’ sessions. All

‘talanoa’ sessions conducted in vernacular were later translated when the data was

analyzed. Translation was conducted to capture both actual and implied meaning, so as

to ensure accurate recording of data.

The researcher visited the women interest group and whilst with them, she selected two

women and involved them in telling their story about their experiences in educating their

children. The researcher was able to attend occasions such as birthday parties, weddings,

and funeral gatherings and took advantage of the ‘talanoa’ sessions, especially with old

ladies or parents of high school students. This also took place in Suva, especially with

those whose children attended RHS.

However, in Rabi the researcher sat with men during grog sessions and listened to their

conversations. The grog session centers were identified and had the consent of those

involved in that location, to be with them. She was able to explain to some in advance

the reason for being with them in the grog session. The ’talanoa’ session occupied early

part of the grog session to allow them to participate more openly and freely, before most

got drunk and were not able to contribute effectively.

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4.3.5 Document Analysis

Borthwick, (2008) stated that qualitative research methods include a variety of forms of

data collection, ranging from participant observation and in-depth interviews to the

analysis of written documents. For this research, study of written documents such as

punishment book, attendance register, and teachers’ period book, religious records,

letters and other written records of the school were undertaken. Some of these

documents gave some insights of some of the challenges that students faced while at

school.

At the very beginning of the research, the researcher had sought permission from the

Principal to have access to the important documents. The Principal approved and gave

her access to whatever documents that were needed during the research. This was

consistent with what Patton (2002) in stating that at the very beginning of the

organizational fieldwork, access to potentially important documents and records should

be negotiated. The ideal situation would include access to all kinds of documents. These

kinds of documents provided the evaluator with information about many things that

cannot be observed (Patton, 2002). Documents revealed things that took place before the

evaluation began. Hodder (2000) cited in Patton (2002) stated that learning to use, study

and understand documents and files is part of the repertoire of skills needed for

qualitative inquiry.

4.3.6 Data Analysis approach

Data analysis for this study followed the steps that were outlined by Creswell (2003) and

DePoy and Gitlin (1998). Firstly, the specific facts about the case study were arranged in

chronological order. Secondly, data were categorized into meaningful groups using color

coding. For this research study, challenges or problems were identified and ways of

addressing them by the minority group under study were noted.

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All data were analyzed. Case study data analysis generally involved an iterative,

spiraling or cyclical process that proceeded from more general to more specific

observations (Creswell, 1998). According to Creswell (1998), data analysis began

informally during interviews or observations and continued during transcription, when

recurring themes, patterns, and categories became evident. The researcher analyzed the

written records using the coding of data and the identification of salient points or

structures.

Coding schemes (DePoy and Gitlin, 1998) were used in the early days of data collection

to ensure to develop a more specific focus or more relevant questions, in relation to the

themes reviewed.

Story telling gave a lot of information, however, in data analysis the researcher needed

to make connections among the stories: for example, asking questions such as: “What

was being illuminated?”, “How did the stories connect?”, “What themes and patterns

gave shape to the researcher’s data?” Coding assisted me to answer these questions.

After most data were collected preliminary analysis evolved (DePoy and Giltin (1998), a

lot of time was devoted to analytic coding. Although coding scheme of sorts had been

developed, the researcher focused on classifying and categorizing. Coding was a

progressive process of sorting and defining those scraps of collected data during the

research work (ibid: 1998).

Wiersma (2000) explained coding as a process of organizing data and obtaining data

reduction. Coding enabled the researcher to see what she had in the data. First, the main

themes were selected from the literature review in chapter 3. Next, they were assigned

and labeled with small colored strips of papers. This was done to ensure different themes

were differentiated from one another. Then, the findings were revisited and verified to

identify corresponding interview and questionnaire responses and relevant information

to the color coded themes.

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4.3.7 Triangulation

Case studies often used triangulation to ensure the validity of findings. In triangulation

all data items were corroborated from at least one other source and normally by another

method of data collection (Keen and Patwood, 1995). Triangulation was an integral part

of the field work and the final analysis. DePoy and Gitlin (1998) described triangulation

as using more than one strategy to collect information that bears on the same

phenomenon.

This was the common technique used by qualitative researchers to increase the accuracy

of information and enhance credibility. In triangulation the investigator collected

information from different sources to derive and validate a particular finding by

examining whether different sources provided convergent information. It was a basic

aspect of data gathering that also shaped the action process of data analysis.

Triangulation, through comparison of different sources enabled the researcher to develop

a more comprehensive analytical understanding of the phenomenon of interest.

Therefore, triangulation assisted in the verification and validation of qualitative analysis

and finally checked out the consistency of the different data sources within the same

method (DePoy and Gitlin, 1998).

The use of triangulation in this research study enabled the researcher to keep her

subjectivity under control since she was an “insider” researcher. According to Stake

(2006), the researcher operated on two levels: firstly, becoming an insider while

remaining an outsider; and secondly, the researcher must avoid “going native” while

conducting the research.

In addition, there was a need for a high degree of internal validity in ethnographic

research. Participant observation provided the “opportunity for continual data analysis

and comparison to refine constructs, to ensure the match between scientific categories

and participant reality”. Participant observations are real as they are conducted in

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natural settings and real life compared to continued laboratory set ups (Goetz and Le

Compte, 1984, p. 221).

4.4 Ethical Issues

4.4.1 Protection form Harm

Ormrod and Leedy (2005) pointed out that the researcher should ensure that the research

participants were protected from harm when they participated in the research.

Participants were not subjected from unusual stress, embarrassment or loss of self-

esteem or being exposed to undue physical or psychological harm. In this research

study, research participants were given the choice to participate or not.

4.4.2 Informed Consent

Research Participants were informed about the nature of the study to be conducted

(Ormrod and Leedy, 2005, p. 101). They were also told of the publications of findings

involved in the research. They were informed of potential consequences for participating

and were asked to give their informed consent before participating in the event (Pole and

Morrison, 2003).

Firstly, for the first few days on the island the potential research participants of the

community were consulted about the research and told of the scheduled visit. In

particular, parents of students of RHS in all the four villages. One advantage of the

research in this community was that there was no particular difficulty in following local

protocol. So it was easy to visit those that were selected, at random, to be interviewed or

to fill in questionnaires in the four villages.

At RHS, the consent from the Ministry of Education allowed the researcher to see the

Principal, teachers and students as participants. It also enabled the researcher to access

the appropriate school documents.

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4.5 Confidentiality

In this research study, when questionnaires were prepared names were optional to be

filled in by the participants for confidentiality purposes. When participants were

interviewed, they were given the liberty whether to include their names or not. It was

important that the researcher kept the nature and quality of participants’ performance

strictly confidential.

Leedy and Ormrod (2005) suggested that the researcher gave each participant a code

number and then label any written documents with that number rather than with the

person’s name. For this study, all participants’ names were given a code number. More

importantly, confidentiality and anonymity were observed in the final reporting of the

results and discussing the findings in the appropriate chapter.

4.6 Permission

A letter was sent to the Ministry of Education to obtain permission to visit RHS to

conduct the research work. The Principal of the same school was consulted and was

informed about the objectives of the research work prior to the visit to the school. This

was to ensure procedural measures were followed to avoid any disappointment in

carrying out the research study.

The Chairman of RCL was also sent a letter for permission to have access to research in

the office. Unfortunately, members of the RCL resolved to deny accessibility by the

researcher. However, they allowed the researcher only to interview or distribute

questionnaires to individual Councilors, more preferably filling questionnaires.

Parents and members of the community were consulted when the actual research was

undertaken. It was envisaged that the parents and members of the community selected

would be co-operative in this regard and they were.

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4.7 Methodology Part II: In the Field – Community and Researcher

Experiences Documented

The second part of this chapter specifically looked at the experience during field work

discussing the process that actually encountered during the research study. In order to

collect qualitative data, Patton (2002) suggested that fieldwork was the central activity

of qualitative inquiry. He argued that getting close to the people and circumstances

enabled the investigator to capture what was happening. During the research at RHS and

the community, the researcher enjoyed a broad array of research experience that was

reflected by Patton (2002) in stating that going into the field means having direct and

personal contact with people under study in their own environments – getting close to

the people and situation being studied to personally understand the realities and minutiae

of daily life (Patton 2002, p 48).

In addition, Patton (2002) summarized the following fieldwork guidelines which were

most appropriate in this research study:

• Design the fieldwork to be clear about the role of the observer

(degree of participation)

• Be descriptive in taking field notes. Strive for thick, deep and

rich description

• Stay open. Gather a variety of information from different

perspectives.

• Cross-validate and triangulate by gathering different kinds of

data: observation,

• Interviews, artifacts, documents, recordings and photographs.

• Use quotations; represent people in their own terms. Capture

participants’ views of their experiences in their own words.

• Select key informants wisely and use them carefully

• Be aware of and strategic about the different states of

fieldwork

• Build trust and rapport at the entry stage

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• Attend to relationships throughout fieldwork and the ways in

which they change over the course of the fieldwork

• Stay alert and disciplined during the more routine, middle

phase of fieldwork

• Focus on pulling together a useful synthesis as fieldwork

draws to a close.

• In evaluations and action research, provide formative

feedback as part of the verification process of fieldwork.

• Be as involved as possible in experiencing the setting as fully

as is appropriate and manageable while maintaining an

analytical perspective grounded in the purpose of the

fieldwork.

• Be disciplined and conscientious in taking detailed field notes

• Be reflective and reflexive. Include in your field notes and

reports your won experiences, thoughts, and feelings.

(Patton 2002, p. 331)

DePoy and Gitlin (1998) provided a supportive approach which involved “asking”. They

stated that “asking” in the form of interviewing as a method of data collection was

another essential strategy that was used in most types of naturalistic inquiry. Often

asking information from key informants was the first primary data-collection strategy in

phenomena, ethnography and grounded theory approach.

4.8 Research Process

During the research, it was the responsibility of the researcher to keep personal notes

and diary like comments (Patton, 2002) and insights that provided a context from which

to view and understand field notes at various stages of fieldwork. DePoy and Gitlin

(1998) noted that in most forms of naturalistic inquiry the investigator is an integral part

of the entire research process. It is through the investigator and his or her interaction

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with informants on the field that knowledge emerges and develops (De Poy and Gitlin

1998, p. 244)

On the first day of the researcher’s study at school, she was fortunate to have been

warmly welcomed by the Principal and members of the staff. Patton (2000) emphasized

that entry into the field involved two separate parts: 1) negotiation with gate keepers,

who ever they may be, about the nature of the fieldwork to be done and 2) actual

physical entry into the field setting to begin collecting data.

However, Patton (2000) stated that investigators could either be accepted or denied

entry. He noted that where the field researcher expected cooperation, gaining entry was

largely a matter of establishing trust and rapport. At the other end of the continuum were

those research settings where considerable resistance even hostility was expected in

which case gaining entry became the matter of infiltrating the setting. And sometimes

entry was denied.

While at school, the researcher identified the key informants, shown in Table 4.1 below.

There was a need to create a code for differentiating key informants during the research

study. This was appropriate especially in cases of Principal and Parents, so for this

reason PR stands for Principal and PA stands for Parents.

Each informant was given a code, and their answers were also coded with the different

coloured strips of paper, each colour representing a response to one of the research

questions asked. For example, in the case of (TRt), TR stands for the teacher; t is the

first letter the respondent’s name. This process was done to all respondents.

In the case of the Participant Observation (PO) data, each record was dated as well as

given a description of the data collection context. Each data from the Participant

Observation was then coded, for example (PO1). PO referred to Participant Observation,

1 stands for an item. Each item was then coded with a colour which generally

represented the main research questions asked. For example, blue was the colour code

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for question one, yellow for question two, green for question three and so forth. Each

coloured strip of paper was attached to the data. Later, all the responses of the same

colour coding were then extracted and written out together under the same heading.

From this point the main themes and sub-themes were pulled out and put together.

During the analysis of the data all PO data was then assembled with those of the same

thematic nature from the interview data.

Table 4.1: Coding the Informants

CODE INFORMANTS DATA PRESENTED IN

THE RECORD

DATA COLLECTING

METHOD

PR Principal Interviews Formal and Informal

Discussions

TR Teachers Interviews Formal and Informal

Discussions

PA Parents Interviews, Participant

Observation

Formal and Informal

Discussions

ST Students Interviews Formal and Informal

Discussions

EX Ex-Students Interviews Formal and Informal

Discussions

DR Drop-Outs Interviews, Participant

Observation

Formal and Informal

Discussions

CR

Councilors

Interviews,

Formal and Informal

Discussions

EM Employees Interviews Formal and Informal

Discussions

FO Focus Groups Participant Observation

‘Talanoa”

Informal discussions, note

taking

(Source: Field notes, 2007)

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Patton, (2002) stated that one of the mainstays of much fieldwork was the use of key

informants as sources information about what the observer had not experienced, as well

as sources of explanation for events the observer has actually witnessed. Key informants

according to Patton (2002), referred to people who were particularly knowledgeable

about the inquiry setting and articulate about their knowledge – people whose insights

could prove particularly useful in helping an observer understand what was happening

and why.

4.9 Data Input

Data collection was done by way of Participant Observation, in-depth interviews, and

“talanoa” (story telling) and tape recording, focus groups and document analysis.

Emerging themes (DePoy and Gitlin, 1998) were identified while on the field. These

new themes constitute a very important component of this research study.

4.10 Participant Observation

As a participant observer at RHS, and in the community, the researcher sat amongst the

people and was noting everything that was relevant to the research study. The following

meetings of which participation observation as a strategy to collect information

included:

• school assembly every Wednesdays

• Form 4 Teachers, Students and Parents’ meeting

• graduation ceremony for young farmers who constitute RHS drop-outs and

• Parents Teachers and Friends Association Meetings.

The researcher had been invited by the Principal to the school assembly to listen to

issues announced during the assembly to the students. Most of these issues involved

challenges that faced the students at the school. The school assembly was scheduled

every Wednesdays and the researcher made every attempt to attend this important event

for the school because the challenges each week were being announced. The researcher

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gathered that almost the same problems were repeated by students every week. The

possible solution for many of these challenges was punishing the students.

Secondly, on Friday the second week of my visit, the researcher was invited by the Vice

Principal to attend the meeting for Form 4 teachers, students and parents meeting. The

purpose of the meeting was to highlight the problems that encountered by both the

current Form 4 students and the teachers that might likely affect the pass rate for 2007

FJC.

4.10.1 Form 4 Teachers, Students and Parents meeting

Photo 4:1 on page 137 shows the Principal (standing) who chairs the meeting with

students sitting on the floor and the parents and teachers on the chairs. The teachers are

on the left of the photo. As a participant observer, the researcher took note of relevant

information.

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Photograph 4.1: Form 4 Teachers and Parents Meeting (Source: Field notes, 2007)

4.10.2 Graduation Ceremony for Young Farmers

The researcher was also invited to the Graduation Program for Mobile Youth Training

(MYT) by which relevant information was gathered for the research study. Information

was collected from the Guest speaker’s speech and the Methodist Church minister who

were invited to give informative talks to the graduating students or young farmers. These

young farmers were all drop-outs from RHS. They had stayed in the village for a very

long time. Photo 4.2, below shows the graduates with their trainer during the graduation

ceremony.

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Photograph 4.2: RHS Ex-Scholars with their Trainer (Source: Field notes, 2007)

The PTFA meeting was held on Saturday on the second week of my visit to school. The

researcher was also informed of the time and she made an attempt to attend it. The

meeting took place in the morning. There were a number of parents from the four

villages that attended the meeting. Some parents showed a very good support to this

meeting. A number of issues were raised in relations to challenges that the students

faced. This was a very good source of information especially those issues that were not

mentioned from other methods of collecting data.

4.10.3 Parents, Teachers and Friends Association (PTFA) Meeting

On page 140, Table 4.2 shows an example of participant observation: PTF Meeting.

Two days before the day of the PTFA meeting was called the students were given each

newsletter to take home so that parents were informed of the meeting. The meeting was

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scheduled on the Saturday; this was when teachers and working parents were free to

attend the meeting.

The Secretary of the PTFA arranged free transportation with the RCL for parents,

teachers and friends to attend the meeting. However, despite this arrangement some

parents, teachers and friends did not attend the meeting.

Table 4.2: PTFA Meeting

The meeting was to start at about 9am.

But due to the lack of the quorum the

meeting was rescheduled at about 11am.

The other members of the PTFA had to

wait for some teachers and parents to

ensure a quorum. There were a lot of

complaints especially by those who were

able to arrive on time. Eventully, at about

11am the meeting began with a short

prayer from the Principal who was

humbly requested to open the meeting

with a prayer.

The PTFA Chairman was then asked to

give his short address of the meeting and

the purpose of the meeting. The

Chairman read a very long report to the

parents who patiently listened to the

problems students were involved in

school. The chairman informed parents

of their children’s behavior towards

teachers which were very disrespectful,

and also mentioned a number of school

rules that were not followed by students.

Students had broken a lot of school rules

(i) Some parents did not

come on time making

excuses that transport was

delayed, while some said that

they had house chores to

complete before coming to

the meeting. I noticed that

there were three men and the

rest constitute all women.

(ii) Women during the

meeting dominated the

discussions.

(iii) Not all teachers were

present as well

(iv) Problems in relation to

attending school were

mentioned and possible

solutions were identified.

(v) Problems in relation to

stealing lunches were

addressed and teachers

reported that some students

do not take lunches to school;

this resulted in stealing the

(i) Parents and

teachers were asked if

the PTFA has been

assisting them in

solving the challenges

encountered by them

and students.

(ii) Principal was also

asked if this meeting

is significant to

improving his

administration and

improving student’s

performance

(iii) Students were

also asked if the

meeting had any

effect on their

academic performance

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that led to suspension of some students,

while others were expelled. The Principal

then delivered his address to the parents

highlighting the challenges that teachers

and students faced in school. Some of

which were mainly caused by students.

The meeting went on for two hours and

at the end of the meeting, refreshments

prepared by PTFA were served to

everybody.

lunches of some students.


4.11 In-depth Interview

This is another data collection method that was used to collect data for this research

study. Patton (2002) mentioned three basic approaches to collecting qualitative data

through open-ended interviews. These included - the informal conversational interview,

the general interview guide approach, and the standardized open-ended interview.

The three approaches to the design of the interview differ in the extent to which

interview questions were determined and standardized by the interviewer. The informal

conversational interview relied entirely on the spontaneous generation of questions in

the natural flow of an interaction, often as part of ongoing participant observation field

work. The persons being talked with did not realize they were being interviewed,

(Patton, 2002). This was not used as an approach to collecting data during this

fieldwork.

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Secondly, the general interview guide approach involved outlining a set of issues that

were explored with each respondent before the interview. The guide served as a

checklist during the interview to make sure that all relevant topics were covered, (ibid, p.

342). This approach was used to some extent during the research fieldwork. The

questions were prepared as interview guide to collect data from interviewees.

Lastly, the standardized open-ended interview consisted of a set of questions carefully

worded and arranged with the intention of taking each respondent through the same

sequence and asking each the same questions with essentially the same words.

Flexibility in probing was more or less limited; depending on the nature of the interview

and the skills of the interviewees (ibid, p. 342).This was the approach that was used

during the fieldwork. The research questions which had been earlier mentioned had been

outlined and well worded in order to obtain relevant data.

The key informants mentioned earlier, included: Principal, teachers, Heads of

Departments, students, parents, RHS drop-outs, RHS ext-students, retired RHS

employees and Councilors. When selecting the interviewees, Rubin and Rubin (1995)

stated that all the people that you interview should satisfy three requirements. They

should be knowledgeable about the cultural arena or the situation or experience being

studied; they should be willing to talk; and when people in the arena have different

perspectives, the interviewees should represent the range of points of view (ibid: 1995,

p. 18)

Interviewing was not an easy task. This was consistent with Schostak (2006) who stated

that “an interview was, in a sense, addressed towards something that one may want to

call ‘the truth’, ‘an honest account’, ‘the reality’, and ‘the hidden’. Finding the key to

that address was not at all easy, yet it appeared in unexpected ways”. The first

interviewee was a parent. When the researcher first set her questions to ask her, she said

that she did not know what to say. So the researcher told her to answer the questions

asked. She was very nervous and told the researcher that whatever she said might be

wrong and that her child might be victimized at school. The researcher assured her that

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whatever she said and contributed would be very confidential. She was happy and she

responded happily.

However, the researcher was fortunate that many interviewees were confident and

provided information that was needed and relevant to the research study. The Principal,

teachers, students, educated parents, Councilors, Heads of Department; RHS drop-outs

willingly answered questions confidently. As the researcher conducted the interviews,

she noted new emerging themes from the interviewees. This was consistent with Rubin

and Rubin (1995) who argued that “as you continue the research, you want to find out

other interviewees who could provide insights on more specific themes that emerge from

the interviews.

There were many interview transcripts by students at various forms. These are included

in Table 4.3 below. Table 4.3 shows a sample of an interview transcript by a Form 3

student.

Table 4.3: A Sample of an Interview Transcript by a Form 3 Student

Interview Transcript

1. What are the problems that you face when attending RHS with the following

people:

PR: He is a very strict person and always wants the children to obey school rules.

V/P: Sometimes she is very strict and scolded you wherever you make a lot of noise

Prefects: They sometimes are not doing their part like not very strict to their students.

Teachers:

English: she is not very strict

Maths: Sometimes she did not explain well so we do not know what to write on the

exercise we were given.

Accounting: She always writes the names of those who spoke in vernacular to put them

down for detention.

Home Economics: She always wants us to work on time. Everything must be

completed.

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Agricultural Science: She always punish us whenever we don’t complete our work

Social Science: Sometime she send us outside to complete our task

Basic Science: A very strict teacher and always put us down for detention when we

don’t do not complete our notes.

2. Are there any possible solutions to your problems? If yes, which problems were

solved and how?

The teachers were ok except the mathematics teacher who needs to explain well, so that

we all know what to do. In addition the prefects must be strict with the students so that

students can also follow the rules.

3. Do you attend school everyday?

Yes sometimes I did not attend school when I was sick

4. Do you take lunch to school everyday?

Yes because my home is far away from the school, so I have to take my lunch with me.

5. Do you go to school on time?

Sometimes not, when there is a transport problem so we have to walk from home to

school.

6. How do you go to school?

By truck

7. Is there any problem with the means of transportation in No.6?

Yes it breaks down so we have walk and reach home in the dark or arrive at school late.

8. Do your parents assist fully support in your school work?

Yes, they support me with my uniform, pay fees, and other kinds of things that I want

for my school work.

9. Do you enjoy attending RHS?

Yes because the school supports all the text books, the building fund was very cheap

amounting to only $20 per annum. Students do not have to pay bus fares, to travel to

school.

10. What things do you think should be added to RHS?

Things that I wish to be added to RHS included: water tanks, more desks and benches

and textbooks.

11. What do you dislike about RHS?

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Drop-outs students

12. What do you like about RHS?

Everything is free

13. Do you wish to have the lessons taught in your mother tongue?

Yes so that we can know our mother tongue and also our culture.

14. Do you find it difficult to understand English?

Sometimes it is difficult for me to understand big English words but it is challenging for

me to speak in English so that I can improve my English.


4.12 “Talanoa” (Story telling)

This was another way of collecting information from the focus groups especially sitting

amongst the grog drinkers and extracting their thoughts about the challenges and

opportunities that exist at RHS.

According to Nabobo-Baba (2006), “talanoa” as a way of learning was typical of the

Vulgalei people. Story-telling was the main way of informal means of passing on

information in the villages. Grog sessions were the most effective means of exchanging

“talanoa”. This was one focus group that was also visited to note some of their thoughts

on RHS.

Secondly, the researcher sat amongst the ladies during their church meeting and also

managed to gather information from mothers who willingly assisted in telling me about

the problems. While they were talking about the various issues in relation to the school

they were able to mention in their conversation some of the challenges involved in

providing decent education for their children.

Table 4.4 below shows the “talanoa” guidelines that were used in the fieldwork and the

responses of the participants. The “talanoa” session outlined below, for instance, was

between one of the mothers and the researcher.

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Table 4.4: Responses to “Talanoa” Interview Questions (An example of one session)

‘Talanoa’ Guidelines

‘Talanoa’ is another way of collecting data, which is often used by local

researchers. It will also be used in this research study. “Talanoa”, according to

Likuseniuwa (1994) and Nabobo (2003), is a Fijian term which refers to an informal

discussions and story telling when passing information from one to another. This is very

much common in my village setting in Rabi and it is a very effective way of collecting

data especially from a group of women and men who enjoy “talanoa” discussions.

1. What do you understand by these terms: challenges, opportunities, and

possibilities? (Tera otam n taeka aikai: kanganga, itera ni buobuoki, and anga ni

borikan kanganga)

• Kanganga boni itera ni karawawata. (Challenges are problems).

• Reken te tai ae kakawaki. (A good chance).

• Itera ni buobuoki aika borikan te kanganga (Solutions to problems).

2. What are the advantages of having RHS as the secondary school on the island?

(Tera raoiroin te reirei ae te kauarinan ae RHS iaon Rabi?)

• Karikirakeaki inanon te rabakau ma te atatai ao te konabwai. (It enabled the

generation to have wisdom and knowledge and the capability to tackle this

world.)

• E buoka abara ni karikirakea. It assists the development of our land.)

• E buokia ara roro ni rikirake ni katuraoia nakon katean ao tararuan aia utu. (It

helps our youth of today to get prepared to enable them to develop their

individual family units.)

• E kabebetea tibangara ni kaitara aron karekean te mane ibukin kanakoia nakon

tabo aika raroa. (It will assist us to save much to send our children to other areas

for tertiary education.)

3. What are some of the factors that my affect the education of Banaban students as

a minority group in Fiji? (Kanga tera tabeua baai aika ana kona n riki ba totokoan

te waki n reirei irouia ataei n Banaban ngkae a karako aika koraki iaon Biti?)

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• Tei nanonano. Te koraki ae karako – akona na ki bati ni mannanoaki irouia

reeti nako.(The minority are often ignored and given less privileges by other

ethnic groups especially the dominant ones.)

• Aia buotoko kaaro. Akea aia boutoko kaaro. (For some students there is no

parental support to financially support them to higher institutions.)

• Akea nanoia ataei nakon te reirei. Atei gnkana aki kan reirei ao a boni karukaki

naba. (Some students lack interest in education and in most cases they quit

school early and they were never encouraged to return to school but were left on

their own and had drop-out of school early.)

4. Are there supports from other organizations that you know may contribute to

the education of the Banaban students at RHS? (Iai anga ni boutoko ae kam ataia

are a reke ba buokaia ataei te reirei Rabi nte kauarinan I RHS?)

• Ara Kauntira. (Our Councilors.)

• Te Multi-Ethnic Scholarship

• Te Kiribati Government Sponsorship

5. What are some of the things that the following authorities should offer to the

secondary students in Rabi as minority groups?

i) Government of Fiji

ii) Rabi Council of Leaders

iii) Government of Kiribati

(Tera baai tabeua aika kona n anga baia ni buobuoki atu aika inano ibukia ataein

aika karako n ai aroia ataein te reirei iaon Rabi?)

i) Tautaeka ni Biti

ii) Te Kauntira iaon Rabi

iii) Tautaeka ni Kiribati

• Bokin reirei, ao bwai n te science lab ibukia ataei ake uarereke ao akea aikawai.

(Textbooks and the equipments for the science labs – Junior and Senior

Laboratory.)

6. Is there any educational assistance to the secondary students on Rabi Island?

(Iai nako taiani buobuoki nakoia ataei te reirei nte kaua rinan ae koa tai?)

• E nang korakora aia ibuobuoki naba iruwa aika imatang man aba nako tao n

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taian Kaibuke – anga reirei ao bain tangira boki ni wareware, bain takakaro.

(There had been some financial assistance from tourist boats that visit the island.

Sometimes, the tourists donated sports equipment to the primary and secondary

alike.)

7. Can you identify some barriers so far on the island that will not allow the

secondary school students to go for further studies? (Kangan tera taiani kanganga

ae ko ataia iaon Rabi ae kona n riki ba tukan kababakan ana reirei tetei n

tekauarinan?)

• Bon akea ana kataraoi te kaaro ibukin ana reirei natin nakon te Form 6 ao 7.

(There is no financially preparation for parents for their children once they reach

Form 6 or 7.

• Akea aia adviser ataei ae ena angania te taeka ni kaunga, ao kona nora ana

kakanganga te tei. (There is no counseling to students to help and encourage

them to work hard in school. If this is done then individual counselors can

understand the students more.)

8. Do you think that mother tongue should be continued at RHS?

Can explain why why/why not? (Tera am iango ibukin te taetae ngkana

tia boni kabonga ara taetae nte RHS? Kabarabara buki

bukin tera?)

• A na bon riai n taetae ni matang ba boni buokaia natira n te reirei ngkai ao tai

aika na roko.(English should be used as medium of communication because it

will assist our children today and for the future.

9. What should be done to improve RHS as a secondary school for a minority

population in Fiji? (Tera ae ena riai ni karaoaki ba ena karaoiroaki RHS ngkai te

rerei ibukia te botan aomata ae karako iaon Biti?)

• Ena bobonga raoi te boarding. Ba ana tiku ataei nte reirei. (The school should

be well furnished as a boarding school, so that students will be in an environment

conducive to learning.)

• Te taura teiti – ba ena teimatoa raoiroin uran te iti ibukin te kamatebwai.(The

supply of electricity should be maintained so that students are able to study at

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night.)

• Te bao – e na riai n reke te car ae bubura ke te bati ae ena iti bukia ataei ke Ena

riai n reke ana ka ate reirei ibukin biriakinakin te makuri ibukia ataei. (The

school should provide its own truck or car so that it will only be used for

students.)

10. What type of teachers do you think the Ministry should send to teach at RHS?

(Antai tia reirei ae ana riai n tia reirei i RHS?)

• Kain abara ana bon tia reireinia ara taei koina ba bon atai aron kateia ara

ataei.(The Banabans should be selected to teach the Banaban student because

they understand them more.)

• Ao e raoiroi naba tabeman man reeti nako ibukin te taetae ni matang.(It is good

too to hire teachers of other races so that our students would be able to speak

English.)

11. Are you a former student at RHS? (Nkoe temanna ataein te rerei rimoa i

RHS?) Tiaki. Man au taratara ao atia ni manga kateaki tabeua auti n reirei. The

building has been extended and we are happy about it. No, but as a parent I have seen

some changes to the building.

12. What the changes that you have seen that has been done to the school ever since

you left RHS? Tera te nangan bitaki nakon the RHS ngke ko kitanna?) Erawata te

tabo n reirei aika kateaki. (A lot of building has been constructed.)

13. What were some problems you experienced as a student at RHS? (Tera am

kanganga ngke ataein te rerei ngkoe i RHS?)E nang kanganga te bao. (Transport is a

problem)


4.13 Instruments

The instruments used during this research study in the field included the tape recorder,

and the digital camera. These instruments were carefully used especially when the

informants refused to have their voice recorded or even refused to have their photo

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taken. The researcher had to comply with the informants because if she did not then she

would have not got the relevant information.

During the fieldwork, one of the informants upon seeing the tape recorder being taken

out of the bag, asked if the researcher was going to record her interview. The researcher

told her that it would be better because whatever the researcher may exclude would be

recorded. But she told the researcher that she did not agree with the idea of having her

interview to be recorded. So the researcher had to put the tape recorder back into the

bag. The other informants like teachers, were willing and accepted the idea of having to

be recorded since they were rushing through the interview to attend their classes. So this

was one area that the tape recorder was used.

During “talanoa” grog session tape recording was also used. The informants at the grog

session agreed that the conversation was to be recorded. Tape recording was also used

during the meeting like PTFA and the Form 4 teachers, students and parents meeting.

4.14 Summary

The case study as a qualitative research was used for this research study. It employed

various methods such, as field notes, participant observation, interview and “talanoa”,

to mention a few.

There were ethical issues that were considered while conducting the study, for example

protection from harm.

The second part of the methodology, the researcher discussed her experience at RHS and

within the community while conducting the field work, in relation to the various

methods employed.

The next chapter presents and discusses the research findings on RHS. The discussion is

centered on major issues, challenges, developments, and trends at RHS.

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CHAPTER 5

RABI HIGH SCHOOL: ISSUES, CHALLENGES, MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS,

AND TRENDS IN RELATION TO ACCESS TO BETTER EDUCATIONAL

OPPORTUNITIES AND PROVISION FOR BANABANS

5.0 Introduction

In the last chapter the methodology of the study was discussed. Case study as a

methodology was explored and articulated in terms of how it informed the study

methodologically. Further, the methods or tools of the study were discussed followed by

the pre-field work which specifically outlines the process before a discussion into the

research and the theoretical perspective were done. The chapter wraps with a discussion

of process that the researcher encountered in the fieldwork.

Chapter 5 and 6 present and discuss the results of the study. Chapter 5 specifically

presents and discusses the findings on the relevant issues relating to better educational

opportunities and provisions, challenges, major developments and trends that are evident

at RHS.

Chapter 5 addresses three of the five research questions of the thesis outlined in Chapter

1. These are:

1.3.1 a) What is the historical background of RHS - its establishment, major

issues, developments, and trends what is its role in providing better

educational opportunities for the Banaban?

1.3.2 What are some of the major challenges of education on Rabi, as

experienced by the Principal, teachers, parents and students at RHS?

Which challenges are related specifically to Banaban diaspora?

1.3.3 How can these challenges affect the educational development of the

students at RHS?

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The historical background of RHS has been detailed in chapter 2 of this thesis.

5.1 Issues

The study identified several issues pertaining to the education of the Banaban students at

RHS. The issues examined in this study grow out of and are intensified by educational

development (Baba, et al, 1992; Bacchus, 2000); school-community relationship

(Sharma, 2002; Nandlal, 2002); and poor rural economies (Fafchamps, 2003). This

section discusses issues related to education, culture, social, economic, assessment and

politics.

5.1.1 Educational issues

The study identifies several educational issues that affect schooling in Rabi. These

include administration, staff, ministry of education, and curriculum in the teaching and

learning pedagogy.

(a) Administration

The first identified issue regarding the administration is the transition in administration.

It is evident that there was no proper official handover from the previous Principal to the

current one. The Principal explains that:

There was no official handover from the previous Principal. Secondly,

the financial situations of the school was discouraging and meeting

teachers’ and students’ were a daily challenge. Thirdly, parents’ attitude

towards the school is one with “suspicious” that of “support” I had to

change that over time. And, lastly, building anything and establishing

innovations was not easy (PR, 2007).

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According to a Ministry of Education source, regulations on official handover is

appropriate to take place if the there is a change over in the administration of any school.

Proper procedures are to be followed to ensure the efficiency in the administration and

management of schools (Bacchus, 2000).

Another issue pertaining to school administration is to do with the newly introduced

school administrative policy on discipline, in particular, regarding the expulsion of

students guilty of drinking alcohol, grog, or smoking during off-school hours – weekend

and holidays. These have substantially become a great concern to both students and

parents, and the community at large. An overwhelming 98% of the parents, and all

students interviewed expressed their dissatisfaction with the existing policy. One of the

parents interviewed stated:

Ngkai e a kabaneaki natiu man te reirei ibukin te mangingi itinanikun

aoan te reirei. Ao ai bon akea te reirei ae nnang kona ni kareireia iai.

Kioina ngke e a bon aki tau au kautaumane ibukin kanakoana nakon

reirei riki tabeua. Ao ngkai ena manga taninga te teirake nte ririki ae bou.

(PAa,). [Now that my son is expelled due to consuming alcohol during

the holidays, I cannot find a school that is affordable for me to send him

to continue his studies. He has to wait for the New Year to start all over

again].

In contrast, the key policy of Education for All (EFA) and the Millennium Development

Goals (MDGs) is to improve access to, and quality of, education for rural people

(UNESCO, 2006). It is envisaged that monitoring progress for rural people requires that

adequate indicators be in place. The monitoring systems established in the context of the

national Education for All plans need to be adjusted in order to reflect the specific

conditions of rural areas and the progress made in education for rural people (ibid, p.

14).

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(a) Staff

The quality of teachers in terms of education and training must be regarded as of

foremost importance in the development of meaningful learning. The academic and

professional qualifications of teachers are also important indicators of quality (Baba, et

al, 1992).

The study found that most teachers at RHS were qualified and had attained degrees from

the University of the South Pacific. 90% of the teachers have received their teacher

training from various tertiary institutions such as the USP, FCAE, FIT and Corpus

Christi. However, there is a need to ensure that the professional development of these

teachers is sustained in terms of teaching and learning pedagogy one that is designed

specifically for rural teachers. In so doing the MOE has a duty to conduct more

workshops for these teachers who are isolated from the main centers. Unfortunately, the

teachers admitted that workshops are rarely held for their professional development.

According to one of the Heads of Department, she stated that:

In 2006 the man sent for moderation on mathematics examinations did

not conduct any professional development for exam classes (teachers)”

He did a lot of writing but lacked professional advice. He concentrated on

Form 4 a lot” (TRtw).

Dorovolomo (2008) in his study, on ‘Rural Education Matters: Access to Opportunities

to Learn in Physical Education and School Sports in Rural Solomons Islands Schools’,

divulged similar findings where remote teachers in Choiseul noted the lack of

workshops or conferences for teachers to continually be engaged in and developed

professionally.

Another issue identified in the research study relates to the system of leadership or

principalship (Hansford & Ehrich, 2006). The new RHS Principal stresses that the

teachers are used to the system of leadership by his predecessor, where time is not

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strictly adhered to. It was observed that most teachers were often late to their classes at

the beginning of the change of periods, and most teachers were late to attend their

classes after lunch. For this reason, the teachers often took more time into the next

teacher’s class when the duration of their own class was over. This often discouraged

and angered the teacher coming for the next class. Talking about this issue one of the

teachers, admitted that “I have to wait outside the classroom for this same teacher to

complete writing her notes on the board” (TRt). On the need to improve such teacher

conduct, Cates (2001) highlighted the need to improve teachers’ classroom management,

emphasizing the need for more training in this area.

(b) Ministry of Education

The MOE plays a vital role in the provision of education services to all primary and

secondary schools throughout the country. However, it is evident from the study that

MOE personnel have not frequently visited the remote rural schools such as RHS.

Earlier on, Bacchus (2000) had pointed out that one of the reasons for education officers

(EOs) being unable to visit remote schools regularly was to do with inadequate transport

facilities, including irregular shipping services to the small outer islands where schools

are located. Furthermore, these officers lack the resources, and in some cases, the

competence to effectively perform these aspects of their professional roles (ibid, p.369).

Additionally, the 2000 Fiji Education Commission report also noted that most of the

Heads of Department (HOD’s) were not confirmed, but had been holding the HOD

positions for three or more years, without being paid for the positions. Most teachers

who have held these positions expressed their concerns over the issue and had to wait in

anticipation for their confirmation for the post. It is not only fair to pay the teachers for

services rendered, but it is also important that teachers are paid so as to provide an

incentive to put in greater effort into their work for the sake of students’ learning. The

Principal stated at the time of the research, that only one teacher was confirmed while

the others were on a waiting list: “I’m still waiting for the confirmation of two HODs by

the MOE” (PR). This perhaps suggests that some workable solutions need to be put in

place by the Ministry of Education which needs to take a proactive approach, to warrant

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a fair treatment of the teachers. Bacchus (2000) noted that teachers, head-teachers,

principals and members of the school management have often criticized the MOE for its

bureaucratic approach and its delay in dealing with issues such as this, among others,

possibly.

(c) Curriculum

Muralidhar (1992) had argued that the lack of materials, equipment, teaching and other

resources for learning are not supportive of the existing science curricula. Science

teachers are found to work under severe institutional constraints, with pressures from

extra teaching loads, high expectations of pass rates, the need for syllabus coverage with

tight schedules, and lack of equipments, all of which get in the way of effective

teaching. This finds support in Sharma (2001) who stated that much of what was being

taught was irrelevant to local needs and desires. The majority of student participants in

Form 5, 6 and 7 science classes said that: “During our laboratory classes we hardly have

the chemicals and apparatus we need to use in physics, biology and chemistry” (STs).

The three kinds of issues identified by Thaman (1992) that commonly face curriculum

developers are related to students, teachers and the curriculum. She argues that students

often find it difficult to understand different and complex kinds of social relationships to

which they are socialized from early age. She asserts that many children find it difficult

to learn basic concepts in Mathematics and Science. Since teachers do not play a part in

curriculum development; they do not have the necessary skills to carry out their tasks.

Although, Thaman supports Muralidhar and Sharma, she argues persuasively for a more

culture-sensitive curriculum for the schools of the South Pacific and suggests an active

participation in the development by teachers and community members (Thaman, 1992;

Sharma, 2001; Thomas, 2003). They argued that the current curriculum excludes the

views of the minority teachers and members of the community. The study found that the

teachers at the school and members of the community do not participate in the

development of the curriculum. One of the teachers said: “Curriculum development is

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entirely the responsibility of the Curriculum Development Unit. Our responsibility is to

implement the curriculum in the classroom” (TRo).

5.1.2 Cultural issues

The study also identifies relevant cultural issues that impact on the education of this

minority group. The Banabans are amongst the many minority groups that constitute

Fiji’s multicultural population (Tavola, 2000). The cultural issue identified in the study

is the use of vernacular to be taught alongside English which is the language of

instruction in schools in Fiji. Vernacular was taught at RHS a few years back.

Unfortunately, it is no longer a part of students’ learning. In their study of the Chinese

immigrants, McKay and Wong (1996) found that many Chinese students maintained

their identity with a strong linguistic base.

Surprisingly, the majority of students and parents interviewed agreed that English is to

be used as a language of instruction and that they agreed with the enforcement of

English speaking at school throughout school hours. This finding is supported by earlier

research in Southern Sudan involving the use of English in schools as a language of

instruction. The students in the said study agreed that they follow the version of the East

African curriculum in their asylum country, in which mastering English language would

enable them to proceed to secondary or higher educational institutions (Sommers, 2005).

Findings from the focus groups interviews with parents showed similar findings that

English should be strictly used by teachers so as to prepare their children for higher

institutions elsewhere in Fiji. According to one uneducated parent interviewed for this

study, she said: “A bon riai ntaetae ni matang ataei ma tia reirei bwa ana buokaki natira

ngkana a nako n reirei n tabo ake a rietata” (FOr). “English should be used by both

students and teachers so as to help our children when they attend higher institutions”.

However, there is also a problem with the use of English as a language of instruction.

Glaringly, some students find it difficult to understand certain concepts while teachers

explain concepts in class using English (Thaman, 1992). The study reveals that 98% of

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students at RHS had never been to schools outside Rabi. They began their primary

education in Rabi and directly attend secondary school at RHS. One of the fifth form

students interviewed said:

I began my primary school in Buakonikai Primary School and had never

been to a school outside Rabi. I attended RHS after passing Fiji

Intermediate Examination and found English to be the most difficult

subject. (STk).

As such, indigenous Banaban teachers resort to explain in vernacular to ensure that

learning of certain concepts is done well, except for non-Banaban teachers. Similarly,

some research studies (for example, Sommers, 2005; Phan, 2008) have found that the

use of vernacular by teachers was significant to clarify and explain concepts to students

in classroom learning.

According to Taufe’ulungaki (2003), vernacular is taught as a subject both at the

primary and secondary and has become an official language of instruction alongside

English as teachers code-switch between the two languages in an attempt to elucidate

new or complex concepts and ideas. A Form teacher said: “I had to switch to vernacular

when students do not do their activity in class because they could not understand the

explanation of certain concepts in English” (TRt). Thomas (2003) points that in terms of

the ability of persons to speak more than one language, culture is an ever changing

reciprocal process involving sets of durable social interaction, which can be reproduced,

but which are also capable of being recreated, adopted and adapted in both time and

space. Thomas argues further that dynamism in culture comes from sustained cultural

contact between people of different peoples of different ethnicity, religion, gender,

tradition, and the day-to-day use of the one or more languages within and across the

population (ibid).

In the context of classroom learning, where students learn other aspects of culture and

interact with other ethnic groups, there is a tendency for students to change their attitude

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towards certain values and belief of their own culture. It is evident from the study that

students were observed to have changed in their ways to some extent, for example the

way they speak, the different hair styles that boys were wearing. A sixth form male

student was interviewed for having to leave a long plait neatly tied on the top of his

head. He said: “My father told me that I can have my haircut and keep it short but I

should not cut this portion on the top of my head because it has not been cut since I was

born” (STj). As Kings (1999) cited in Thomas (2003, p. 79) pointed out, there are

cultural processes that accept influences from outside reinforcing both the conservatism

and dynamic nature of a culture or cultures.

In view of maintaining cultural identity through the use of minority language in schools

for the Banaban students, Tavola (2000) suggests the idea of obtaining materials in the

relevant language, if co-operative relationship is to be established with the Ministry of

Education in Kiribati. This finds support in Thomas (2003) who stated that while

cultural diversity has begun to be addressed as an issue in curriculum planning in

Western countries, the need to equip students of immigrant groups, displaced persons,

discriminated minorities, to survive in the ever-competitive market place has

understandably become the priority. She argues that where societies have a

responsibility for providing opportunities for cultural diversity during the schooling

years for minority groups, it is important that the schools are encouraged and given

support to ensure that children from these groups are not alienated. She suggests that

immigrant families are in close contact with school life. Furthermore, Thomas suggests

that it is the realization that a balance needs to be attained between the needs of students

to exist successfully in a rapidly changing world, while at the same time maintaining

their cultural identity. The study found that the provision of culture classes for all

students of Form 3, 4, 5, and 6 at RHS is consistent with what Thomas suggests.

5.1.3 Social issues

There are several social issues identified in this study which include parental

participation, child labor, church commitments, and the education of girls.

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Research shows that parental participation is extremely vital in the educational

development of students (Lang, 2000; Tavola, 2000; Sharma, 2002). Parental

participation refers to the willingness and strong desire of parents to ensure the school

runs well and a constructive appreciation of the school’s mission in educating children.

It also refers to regular conduct of meetings and programmed activities for parents who

report to school (Rivera, 2000). One of the parents had said, for example that:

It is very important to attend all school programs in which parents are

requested to attend. For me, I must make sure that I attend the parents’

day, Parents, Teachers and Friends Association, so that I know how my

child performed in school…and to give support whatever the school will

do for the benefit of our children. (PTr).

Additionally, community support is vital to the school (Shaefer, 1992; Bacchus, 2000;

UNESCO, 2006). With regards to Parental support, 60% of the parents interviewed

stated that: ‘We support the school in fundraising activities, building the laboratory, and

the classrooms’ (PRs). In a similar situation, Sommers (2005) stated that in the case of

building the school, in northern Bahr el Ghazal in Sudan, the communities contribute

their scarce labor and resources to building schools and supporting teachers.

Secondly, the issue of child labor has been addressed by UNESCO (2003) that in many

developing countries many parents need the assistance of their children in sustaining

their households. A third form student interviewed for being absent on several

occasions, said that: ‘When my mother is sick or she has village commitments, I would

stay home to baby sit my 2 year old sister and to help mother’ (ST). Despite efforts to

ensure that students do not miss school, it may be difficult to encourage them to attend

school due to the above reason. Williams (2000) had also stated that a child failed to

attend school because of family, social or cultural commitments. UNDP (1999) reports

that in many Pacific Island countries (PICs), child labor is not perceived to be a major

issue in the region. But it is evident from the number of children out of school, which

many children work, often in the community and at home or at menial paid jobs.

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About 60% of parents interviewed admit one of the important things that they needed to

fulfill was their church obligations, for example fund raising for church has taken up

much of their earnings even those in most cases their children were without exercise

books, pens, pencils and school bags. One of the parents interviewed said: “Ti riai nna

anganga nakon te aro, bwa aonga ni kakabaiaki natira” (PRn). [We must give more to

the church so that our children will receive more blessings.”] As stated in the Report of

the Fiji Islands Education commission/Panel, Williams (2000) affirms that many Fijian

families give a great deal of time, effort, money and commitment to the work and

responsibility of the church and not as much to the school and the educational welfare of

their children (ibid, p.192).

Another important finding of the study is the issue about the education of the young

Banaban girls who have decided to end their formal education as early as Form 3. Many

of these girls are either victims of rape or early marriages and have stayed in the village

for many years. A female ex-student interviewed said: “I left school at Form 3 level in

1998, because I was pregnant. I married an uneducated village boy” (EXr). Scott (1993)

found similar problems in the education of girls in rural Australia. She identified that the

first problem that needed to be tackled is the parental attitude problem. She argued that

parents must ensure their daughters enjoy equal opportunity for fulfillment along with

their brothers. The right policies, resources and community support have to be put in

place, ensuring that rural children do not have a raw deal when it comes to educational

opportunities and provision (UNESCO, 2003 cited in Dorovolomo, 2008).

Land is a key and an important asset in the development of any school in any given

location. It provides a foundation for the functioning of non-market institutions such as

local government, social networks educational institutions (UNESCO, 2006). Given this

importance, schools dealing with land have evolved over long periods, and land policies

will invariably be affected by its major developments. Policy advice that is oblivious of

the complexity of these issues or social repercussions of policy intervention in this area

can lead to unintended negative consequences. The study found that the expansion of the

RHS had resulted in the resettlement of landowners and slum communities who then

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demand for unanticipated substantive compensation for resettlement. Landowners

interviewed stated: “Te Kauntira e kaboi mwin arokara ake a bane ni koutaki bwa ena

kabonganaki te tano. Te maiti ni mane e reke mani maitin aroka ake a koutaki. Ti wairki

maitin arokara te nii, te tabioka, ao taororo ao tia angan te Kauntira...” (FOm). [“The

RCL compensated us for the number of crops uprooted. We had to count all the

coconuts trees, cassava plants and dalo. We submit these to the Rabi Council for

compensation.”] Similarly a study by UNESCO (2006) found landowners and slum

communities in Bangkok, were resettled by Government which worked out a

compensation deal whereby, for an agreed sum of money or even alternative piece of

land, was possible to persuade the slum community to vacate the piece of land.

5.1.4 Related Economic Issues

The economic issues pertaining to this study include resource inputs such as educational

resources, financial issues, foreign aid, and level of parental income. These resources are

crucial to improve quality of education that impacts the Banaban students at RHS. These

issues are discussed here in some depth.

(a) Resources

The study identified various teaching resources that are significant to students’

achievement at the school. These include textbooks, reading materials supplied by the

school library, lab equipments, and computers. However, 80% of teachers interviewed

mentioned that there are inadequate numbers of textbooks, lab equipments, chemicals

and computers available in the school. For instance, one of the teachers commented:

During the years I have been teaching in Rabi, there is lack of textbooks

and most of the recommended texts are not always there. However, some

of those that are available are outdated. (TRo).

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Similar situations were discovered by the Fiji Education Commission Report of 2000

stating that most rural schools in Fiji were under-resourced (Bacchus, et. al, 2000).

Furthermore, study by Shaeffer (1992) showed similar findings and concluded that rural

schools in most developing countries namely Thailand, Philippines and Indonesia lack

teaching resources.

On the same issue but at the level of University a solution is provided by Teaero (2003)

who emphasized that the use of community resources in University teaching is

significant. He highlights the opportunities created through the engagement of

community experts who are themselves active practitioners of their own crafts with the

university faculty staff and students. He suggests that these contribute to a fertile ground

for the re-construction of contemporary Pasifika reality and imaginary and paved the

way for re-claiming the more important aspects of our identities and artistic heritage.

The work of Teaero can be related to the study of rural school like RHS in light of the

lack of resources. Schools may seek the community resource people on various aspects

of the curriculum, in particular to indigenous knowledge, skills and experiences. This is

consistent with UNESCO (2003) maintaining that there are various forms of indigenous,

traditional learning provided by families and by communal groups. Teaero argues that

these forms of learning often play an important role in rural communities and help shape

people’s understanding of their social and natural environment (ibid, p. 93).

The availability of finance at the school was identified to be the most problematic. The

Principal for example states that:

The school is struggling in getting funding from outside and also from

fundraising to ensure that the school projects targeted are accomplished.

However the school is fortunate to have been assisted by the Ministry of

Education. (PR).

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This is consistent with Bacchus (2000) who reported that the Fiji Ministry of Education

has tried to allocate funds to schools on a fairly equitable basis to schools that do not

have capital resources to fund internal school projects.

Another issue of common concern to the Banaban community is the payment of other

fees. Although education is fee-free in Fiji (UNDP, 1999), parents and students still have

to pay fees for building funds, school uniforms, textbooks, school excursions and fund-

raising activities. The study found that for low income-income or unemployed parents

with several children, the costs can be prohibitive. This finds support in a report by

UNDP (1999) which outlines that similar situations are evident in some South Pacific

island states, especially in small rural communities.

Furthermore, low incomes and other aspects of poverty were principal reasons why

children failed to complete school and or to advance to higher level of education. Some

children of low-income households were pressured to stay home and fulfill other social

obligations. These findings are consistent with the recent survey in Fiji by Save the

Children Fund conducted in the South Pacific region (UNDP, 1999). It states that there

are various connections between dropouts and poverty and some children of low-income

households were pressured to earn some form of income, usually through menial

employment in the informal sector or to mind siblings while adults worked. These are

evident in the study findings.

5.1.5 Political issues

Politics and power are part and parcel of all types organizations, of which educational

institutions are no exception. They are central to schools and its existence and impact on

student academic development cannot be ignored (see for instance, Sharma & Meghnath

1996; Tavola, 2000; Bush, 2003). According to Bush (2003) political models in schools

and other educational institutions are often described as ‘micro-politics’. Micro-politics

are important examples of political models. He argues that education is a more overtly

contested terrain for communities, governments, teachers, parents and administrators.

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Schools have become more overtly political arenas in this context. School Principals,

teachers, government, parents and community members engage themselves in political

activities and use power in pursuit of their individual interest (Sharma and Meghnath,

1996). It is evident from the study that the position of the Executive Director of RCL as

manager of RHS since its inception implicit in the policy of the RCL is a clear indication

of power exertion in this minority community. The Chairman of the PTFA stated:

It is in the best interest of the Board of Governors and the Stakeholders of

the RHS that the position of the manager of RHS is given to a well

educated parent to assist the Principal. On several occasions I have

witnessed that the Principal has been doing the work of the current

manager. For example, the Principal wrote project proposals, and the

manager signed them. (PAs).

In addition, the cliques of teachers are formed and their task is mainly to identify

common interests and the strategies that could be employed to achieve them. In another

case in point, the study found that two subject teachers reject the promotion of students

to the next form because they had failed their subjects with low marks. They ignored

students’ high performance in other subjects that enabled these students to proceed to

Form Six. Consequently, they standardized students’ high marks and this led to the

failure of some students who had to repeat the same form. A student who had spent three

consecutive years in Form 5 said: ‘I was victimized to repeat for the third time because I

had failed mathematics and history” (STm). While engaging in micro-politics teachers

should take great precaution and realize the magnitude of their involvement on the

educational development of students and the importance of giving students fair

treatment.

It is vital that the MOE should clarify with Principals, whether it has a policy regarding

the matter of continuous repeats in the same form or how to deal with teachers who

could be guilty of this.

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5.1.6 Assessment

Students at RHS prioritize their efforts towards achieving an academic award. It is

evident that students would not put in so much effort for term one and term two

assessments. Consequently, students show poor results. But for the final annual

examination, there is considerably improvement in most students’ performance. This is

due to the attainment of rewards during the Annual Prize Giving Ceremony which is a

big occasion for the school on the island. It is a norm on the island that whole

community looks forward to witness the award of prizes to successful students. Dunn, et

al (2004) argues that if an assessment task counts for nothing, why would a student think

necessary to do the work? Students are competitive in the final exams. A student said:

I hardly study in the first term and second term assessments, but for the

third term assessment, I really study hard so that I can get a prize and

make my parents proud. I did this in primary school and it works. (STo).

Tavola (2000) argues that the system of assessment in Fiji whereby one or two year’s

work is assessed in two or three hours is unjust and not educationally sound. She

suggests increasing the proportion of school-based assessment. This, according to

Tavola would require intensive, regular and stringent monitoring by the Ministry of

Education.

The introduction of Internal Assessment for Form 3 and 4 has improved the performance

of students. It is found that in the past few students have failed Fiji Junior, but since the

introduction of Internal Assessment (IA) in 2005, results show that 100% have

successfully passed Fiji Junior. According to most teachers, students scored well in their

Tasks. This has greatly helped students in their performance in Fiji Junior. However, the

major problem for IA is the numerous tasks that need to be completed by students. Koya

(2008) argues that to improve IA experience in Fiji, it is best to reduce the number of IA

tasks for students.

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The best type of assessment that students enjoy most answering is the use of multiple

choice questions by teachers. A huge majority of 90% of students interviewed stated that

answering these questions is easy because “we do not need to think hard to answer them.

If they are so hard, all we do is to circle any letter without thinking. Rote learning by

students is more encouraged through the use of multiple-choice assessment. They are not

useful for assessing higher-order skills (Dunn et al 2004; Pierce & O’Malley 1992).

They argue that multiple-choice tests are not authentic because they do not represent

activities students typically perform in classrooms and reflect current theories of

learning and cognition and are based on abilities students actually need for future

success. In addition standardized tests cannot be used to closely monitor students’

progress in the school curriculum throughout the year since they are only administered

two or three times in a year (Pierce & O’Malley, 1992, p. 1).

5.2 Challenges

Challenges are inexorable in any school environment, and RHS is vulnerable to these

challenges. The study found that there are a number of challenges, for example, socio-

economic, cultural, political and educational, that the school faces in its effort to provide

a high quality of secondary education to the Banabans students in Rabi. This section

discusses the challenges that face the Principal, teachers, parents and students.

5.2.1 Administration

The Principal and his team face a number of challenges identified in the study. Among

the most significant are the financial problems, students’ behavior, attitude of parents

and the remoteness of the school. There are many school capital projects that need

financial support in order to accomplish them. This results in having some school

projects to wait for quite a long time to be completed. For example, building of the semi-

dormitory was not completed as expected because of lack of funding. The challenge for

the Administration is therefore how to simultaneously finance these projects and at the

same time improve the quality of education under conditions of sever financial austerity.

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Similarly in Southern Sudan, Sommers (2005, p. 106) noted that the difficulties that

agencies and communities face are due in no small part to a truly compelling lack of

funding to support schools. This consistent shortfall has, unfortunately, contributed to

often challenging relationships and what appeared to be regular misunderstanding and

frustrations.

Secondly, the school had to finance its own operation with its limited income. In most

cases fees are not paid on time which exacerbates the poor financial position of the

school. In addition, the remoteness of the school and shortage of funds makes it very

expensive to take such machines for repair. For example, it would have to wait for

weeks before they could be repaired. The cost of repair conducted in the urban centers

such as Savusavu, Labasa or Suva, involves a lot of transportation costs, in addition to

the cost of the repair itself. Participants explained that: ‘Repairs are done in Savusavu,

and if it cannot be repaired then it is taken to Suva’ (BUt). The study found that most

computers had not been repaired and left idle in store rooms.

Another area that the Administration found to be challenging is student attitude and the

ever pervasive issue of child delinquency. Students continue to commit the same offence

even after being punished. They bring to school tobacco, tattoo machines, cosmetics,

and matches. They ridicule teachers and infringe simple school rules, for example,

frequently coming late to school. Few students are involved in eating other students’

lunches, whilst others engage themselves in stealing pens, calculators, books and

textbooks. The most pressing challenge is students making a lot of noise during school

hours.

Some students lack parental support. While some parents care much about their

children’s education, others think it is the sole responsibility of the school to look after

their children. LaBahn (1995) argues that it may be possible the parents do not have a

great deal of interest in the school or his child’s education. The parents may not feel that

that education is important. The study found that a few parents would not at all attend

parents’ day, but rely on others to collect their children’s report. The school

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Administration and the teachers are not able to meet parents and discuss the performance

of a few problematic students. LaBahn (1995) asserts that parents’ involvement actually

declines as students grow older, and claims that it is less in secondary schools than in

primary schools.

The remoteness of the school put the Administration in a situation where they face high

transportation and communication costs and this adds to the difficulties which the school

faces in communicating with the Ministry of Education, for urgent matters. In addition,

means of communication and bad weather conditions will hinder Ministry’s

administering and monitoring services especially in the more remote districts (Bacchus,

2000).

Finally, one or two Heads of Departments (HOD’s) lack confidence in leading their

departments. They rarely called meetings even if they are encouraged by the

Administration. This occurs in a department in which the senior teachers like the

Principal, Vice Principal are members and the junior staff was the Head of Department.

Lack of confidence may contribute to the inefficiency of the Administration to

accomplish its reports on time. Members of the concerned department said that: ‘The

meeting in our department is rarely called by, our junior staff member who is our HOD,

even if he is encouraged he still is reluctant (PRa). The problem of lack of confident by

this HOS’s would certainly pose as a hindrance to the success of students at RHS in this

particular department.

5.2.2 Teachers

One of the difficulties teachers face in providing quality education to the students is the

lack of required textbooks for teaching. There are books available for the classes; but

there are inadequate copies to cater for the whole class. This pose a challenge to teachers

in trying teach abstract concepts to students who lack the reference materials. A teacher

mentioned that:

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Although we have textbooks we do not have enough copies for the whole

class. In my class three to four students had to share the same textbooks.

So I ensure that two or three books are allocated to students in the same

village” (TRa).

Similarly, Maebuta (2008) in his study on the quality of learning in Solomon Island

urban community high School states, “…lack of books and science laboratories, if any at

all, lacked even the basic necessary equipment for science learning…”(p.102).

Most teachers lack the drive for professional development. Bacchus (2000) states that

even though most teachers in Fiji have a basic professional qualification, the teaching

strategies they use often need to be updated. Based on the finding of the Report of the

Fiji Island Commission/Panel (2000), it suggests that teachers need to move away from

their dependence on the ‘knowledge transmission’ mode of instruction commonly used,

and to adopt more effective instructional strategies. For this reason, they need to acquire

the professional competence that allows them to process and apply knowledge in ways

that increase students’ understanding and ability to discuss subject matters, enabling

them to draw their conclusions and advance their reasons for their views (Bacchus,

2000, p. 54).

In addition, the study found that teachers are faced with the difficulty of providing extra

photocopied resources to students to enhance their knowledge on the topic, and had to

resort to using blackboard and vanguard sheets to supplement their teaching. The

problem with this improvisation is that it is time consuming. This is due in part to

unreliable supply of electricity, and photocopying is carried out in Savusavu, the nearest

urban centre. Bacchus, et al, (2000) states that much of the present rural school

equipment, especially computers and photocopying machines on which teachers are

increasingly dependent for their work need electricity to function. Due to lack of

unreliable of electricity, teachers often have to go to larger centres to get their notes and

test papers typed and photocopied. He also states that in rural schools that do not have

access to electricity rely heavily on blackboard and ‘vanguard’ sheets to assist them in

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imparting knowledge to their students. Similarly, in a study of a Solomon secondary

school, Maebuta (2008) stated that teachers resorted to chalk and talk because of a lack

of materials and equipment, like muti-media or data projection.

Furthermore, non-Banaban Form teachers have noted that it was very difficult to discuss

the performance of students to parents during parents’ day using English. Most parents

are illiterate and it is difficult to communicate to teachers in English. One of the teachers

interviewed said:

Language barrier has always been experienced during parents’ day.

During the last parents’ day, four students told me their mothers could

not understand English. They said their mothers came to collect their

school reports. For this reason I could not discuss the performance of

their children with them. (TRa).

Teachers commented that the parents showed a lack of concern for their children.

Students are not given reading space at home and English is not spoken. It has resulted

in poor English expressions by many students in class. When it comes to class

discussion, these students do not speak. An English teacher said:

Parents are so traditional when it comes to language. English is hardly

encouraged in the homes. One parent has stated that English is for the

school only not in her house. Reading library books at home is frowned

upon. Story books are associated with laziness!” (TRt).

Tiko (2008) noted that parents should continue to show support for their children as this

benefit the children in their learning. Margeretts (2002) cited in Tiko (2008) raised the

issue that parents needed to be involved in activities such as induction programs and

orientation visits to school.

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Another challenge that teachers face is the delay in the processing of appointment letters

by the Ministry of Education. In the study, 40% of teachers had stated that: “The only

problem with the Ministry is that the processing of our appointment letters takes so long.

We have to call them regarding our pay” (TRs).

Students’ attitude towards their studies is another challenge to teachers. Teachers during

the Form 4 parents and teachers meeting had expressed great concerns regarding the

attitudes of students towards their studies. One of teachers stated that: “Many students

did not do their homework, while some students were not attentive in class”.

5.2.3 Students

Some students at RHS performed poorly, academically. This is due to a large part on

absenteeism. 60% of students stated that one of the reasons of not attending school is the

breakdown of transportation. The students had to walk long distance, approximately

3km from the two villages, which are very far from the secondary school. According to

some students, they stated that: We would park somewhere in the bush and wait until the

school ends in the afternoon and then walk back home, pretending that we went to

school” (ST). This finding is supported by an earlier work by Bacchus (2000) who was

part of Education Commission to undertake a comprehensive review of Fiji’s education

systems. He found that in rural areas students’ residence are far off from their school and

had to walk long distances.

Another problem students faced is related to how knowledge or type of content is taught.

Students are taught abstract knowledge. They are taught from a curriculum prepared by

the Ministry of Education to be implemented by teachers. One of the students for

example said that: “Sometimes we just don’t understand what the teacher is saying, but

we just tried our best”. (ST). Similar problems were noted by Coxon (2000) in stating

that similar problems are faced by primary students, that students are not fulfilling their

potential because of the inadequate physical facilities, an overcrowded and inflexible

curriculum. He argues that this pedagogy limits rather than enhances students’ learning

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and the domination by an examination system requiring not much more than the recall of

abstract knowledge.

Furthermore, Bacchus (2000) argues that the factors that affect the children’s

performance include their place of residence, the socio-economic status and attitude to

education of their parents, their ethnicity and culture, as well as the quality of teachers

and the facilities available in schools, including school accommodation. He states that

children in rural schools are often most affected by poor school conditions and limited

instructional facilities. He adds that some rural schools are in a deplorable condition not

conducive to the development of a supportive educational environment (ibid, p. 56).

Economic circumstances in many rural communities limit their capacity to adequately

fund and maintain school facilities and resources that may deny students access to

quality education.

5.2.4 Parents

Most parents face financial difficulties in supporting the educational development of

their children. A parent said:

Tiaki makuri ni kabotai, ao ebon nang kanganga iroura kaboan aia bwai

natira nte Primary ao nte Secondary. (PAk). [We are not employed and it

is very difficulty to purchase our children’s’ demand in the Primary and

Schools].

Similarly, Williams (2000) pointed out that many Fijian parents, particularly those in the

rural areas, do not earn regular income to enable them to provide financial assistance for

the school or to raise sufficient funds to assist in the purchase of books, school resources

and/or to build a library or laboratory. Many cannot meet the heavy levies that are

imposed on them for textbooks, sport equipment and building projects. In spite of the

rural-urban migration, the great majority of the poor are still rural. Average income

levels remain lower in the countryside than in cities and a larger share of the population

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is living below poverty line (Atchoarena and Sedel, 2003 p.39). Poverty line refers to a

minimum income level which a person is officially considered to lack adequate

subsistence (Maxwell, 1999).

Parents are not able to cater for their children’s lunch to school. Few reasons were

discussed, for example, few parents state they could not cook lunch in time for the first

and last transport to school. A parent said: “Ngkana e korakora te karau ao emaimai te

aia ao e kanganga kuka ao aki mwai kanaia natira imain te kabanea n bao” (PAt).

“During rainy weather, cooking takes longer due to wet firewood. For this reason,

lunches cannot be cooked in time for the last transport”.

Secondly, in the mornings few stated that root crops are not ready in time to be cooked

for school lunches. Consequently, students are asked to attend school and food is readily

available upon their return from school in the afternoon. A participant said: Although it

is hard for us to accept this, we are relieved that our children agree when we face this

difficulty (PAn).

Furthermore, parents interviewed stated that they had wanted to help their children at

home with their educational activities but were not able to due to lack of know-how and

very little knowledge of what is being taught to their children. A parent mentioned that:

The level of education nowadays is incomparable with what we received

twenty years ago. They are more advanced in their learning, and we can

not do much in helping them. We cannot understand English well” (PRt).

LaBahn (1995) noted, likewise, that parents may be illiterate and unable to speak

English. This may also lead to poor communication between Banaban parents and non-

Banaban teachers.

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5.3 Effects of Major Challenges on the Educational Development of RHS

Students

This section specifically focuses on the effects of the challenges experienced by the

administrative team, teachers, students and parents at RHS on the educational

development of RHS students. Some of these effects have been discussed in earlier parts

of this chapter. The section is divided up into positive and negative effects.

5.3.1 Positive Effects

The Administration team was able to discipline students through detention. Detention

was applied to many students who have infringed school rules, for example coming late

to school. Through detention students have improved in coming to school on time. One

of the students said: “I had enough of being punished especially pulling sensitive grass

which is very painful at times. So now I never come late to school”.

The challenge that teachers attempted to upgrade their qualification in engaging

themselves in taking courses with USP through Distant Flexible Learning have a

positive impact on the development of students. Teachers acquiring extra knowledge

would benefit students.

In addition, one of the challenges that students face is the policy of compulsory English

speaking in school. This policy has a positive impact on the student educational

development. The study found that many students have improved their communication

skills through the use of English speaking at school. Most of them were able to speak

English to tourists confidently. One of the students said:

One day the tourists visited the school and the senior students were told

to take them around the school compound. I chose one of the girls and we

went around the compound speaking confidently to the girl.

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The challenge that the parents encountered also had a positive impact on the student

educational development. Many parents have experienced hardship in an attempt to

educate their children. They have faced many challenges like cutting copra, fishing,

selling grog and engaging themselves in making local handicrafts, in particular mothers.

For many unemployed parents, these are the sources of income that sustains their

children’s education. A parent interviewed stated that:

Ti a boni kainano ma tikeiaki bwa ana reke kabaiaia natira. Natiu e nora

kainanora ao ea bon babati naba ana ukeuke ni karokoa e Form 7. [We

went through hard times, but we endured so that our child can succeed

later in life. Our daughter saw the hard times we went through, and she

had been passing her exams until now she is in Form 7] (PRr, 2007).

5.3.2 Negative Effects

The study found that the Administration expulsion policy of suspending students when

they are caught drinking alcohol, grog or smoking outside school hours had resulted in

students dropping out of school. A drop-out student interviewed stated that “I was so

discouraged to go back to after I was suspended for one whole year”.

The frequent absence of teachers from school had a negative impact on students’ subject

coverage. One of the third form students said:

The teacher will always get sick sometimes and absent. Because of this

we have many extra classes after school and during the weekend.

Sometimes we don’t attend her classes in the weekend. And we are

behind in the syllabus coverage. I wish I had not taken this subject.

(STm, 2007).

One of the main challenges that face students is stealing of stationeries from other

students, including pens, pencils, rulers and calculators. One of the students stated:

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My parents would punish me for not keeping my school things from

being stolen. I was really discouraged and sometimes I hide in the bushes

and not attend school, but pretend that I attended school”. (STr, 2007).

The study identified few parents who had consumed grog during the week days and

consequently, lunches are not prepared for students. One fifth form student stated:

It is really discouraging going to school without lunches. Many times my

mum and dad would still be asleep when the first transport had left and

my lunch is not even prepared. At times I played the role of a parent

preparing the lunches for my young brothers and this really affect my

performance in school. (STt, 2007).

Secondly, the frequent breakdown of transportation on the island placed many students

at a disadvantage. Students had to walk long distance and missing morning classes.

5.4 Challenges that are related to Banaban Diaspora?

There are many challenges that have been identified by the study. For this study, the

challenges that are related to Banaban Diaspora are mostly associated with parents. This

is in terms of social challenges, economic challenges and political challenges that have

been discussed earlier in parts of Chapter 1, Chapter 2 and this chapter. These challenges

have been passed down from generation to generation since the Banabans settled in Fiji

in 1945.

However, the study had also identified many potential possibilities that have addressed

these challenges. These possibilities are discussed in Chapter 6 of this thesis. Fiji

Government, Kiribati Government, RCL and Foreign Aid have played a vital role in

planning strategies to address these challenges.

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5.5 Major Developments

The research study found that there was substantial development that the school had

undergone since its establishment.

Since the establishment of RHS, the school management with the support of the

Ministry of Education, RCL, and Parents, Teachers and Friends Association (Pillay &

Murugiah, 1991) continues to plan, expand and improve the school to meet the growing

population of the Banaban people in Fiji. In order to meet this demand, Davis and

Ellison (1999) suggest that development plans whether short-term or long-term; they are

central and fundamental aspect of leadership and management in schools. They affirm

that while schools are successful in short-term operational planning, the longer-term

‘strategic’ and ‘future’ perspective still need developing.

The school Administration begins its focus on the construction of new buildings to

ensure that new Forms have classrooms. The focus on building is referred to as strategic

as defined by Davis and Ellison (1999). They argue that this is not the end of planning.

They claim that schools need to be aware of longer-term and often global trends that will

impact on the fundamental nature of learning and schools. For schools to understand

these factors, they need to use future thinking as a new model of planning in order to

build a “future prospect” in the school.

Schools have second dimension to school planning: the set of key processes that

underpin the planning structure. One of these is the vision of the school. For RHS, the

planning process helps to build its vision. The vision is:

To develop quality learners who will be able to work and achieve

together with the Banaban and Fijian Community. Its mission is: ‘To

enhance the students of RHS to become viable life long learners who can

create the future for themselves, their families and for the Banabans in

Fiji” (Field notes).

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According to Davis & Ellison (1999), practice schools adopt different strategies for

building the vision depending on the circumstances. Second to vision is the building

budgetary and evaluation processes which are important in the planning process. The

RHS team considers this a vital key element in planning to develop RHS.

Furthermore, paramount in successful planning and implementation is working with

governors, staff, parents and the community. In the case of school projects at RHS, for

example the construction of senior science laboratory and classrooms, the labor is

provided free by parents from the four villages – Buakonikai, Tabiang, Uma and

Tabwewa. In a report by UNESCO (2003), the involvement of parents in schools was

noted. Some parents participated in school construction, and program development.

Baba, et al (1992) noted that the cost of education through community and parental

participation is huge.

Furthermore, teachers expressed that:

during the period of the second administration team (i.e with the present

team) we have another classroom constructed for the Form Seven, from

the Cyclone rehabilitation fund. A dormitory was constructed last with

the financial assistance of MOE and European Union.

At the time of the research study, the dormitory was in the process of being completed.

The purpose of building is to be a semi-dormitory to accommodate those students who

are in Form 4, 6 and 7 and are sitting external examinations.

5.6 Trends

This section discusses at trends in school enrolments, student performance and non-

formal education.

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5.6.1 School Enrolments

There has been a gradual increase in the enrolments of students at RHS, since its

inception in 1984. The study found that with the increase in population, there is also an

increase of intake and enrolment of student passes from primary school on the island. In

addition, it is also noted that Banaban students who failed in urban school came back to

Rabi to repeat. Few intakes from neighboring islands were also noted. For example Kioa

Island contributes to the student population increase at the school. In addition, relatives

and children of staff of other ethnic groups also add to the student population. Tavola

(2000, p.20) reports that secondary enrolment by ethnicity and gender has increased,

most specifically Form 3, 4, 5 and 6.

The study noted that there were also some students who had gone to other schools after

successfully passing Form 4. Most of these students are sent to urban schools for a more

competitive educational environment. Similarly, UNESCO (2003) reported in most

Asian rural schools the significant trend has been the considerable shift of the rural

students to urban schools.

5.6.2 Student Performance

External or public examinations are a significant feature in Fiji’s education system.

Currently, RHS conducts 3 levels of school:

• Form 4 (Year 10 of schooling): Fiji Junior Certificate, FJC

• Form 6 (Year 12 of schooling): Fiji School Leaving Certificate, FSLC

• Form 7 Year 13 of schooling): Fiji Form Seven Examination, FSFE

(Sadler, 2000, p. 368)

Generally, there has been a steady increase in student passes in both internal and

external exams, in spite of very few failures. Students who successfully passed Fiji

School Leaving Certificate (FSLC), enrolled in Form 7 in Savusavu, Labasa, Suva and

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Lautoka and continued into tertiary education from the urban schools. Students passing

Forms 3, 4, 5 continues to the next level at the school.

However, in 2006, Form 7 was established at RHS. Form 6 passes continued into Form

7. Students who successfully passed Form 7 continued to tertiary education at USP, FIT,

FCA, FSN, FCAE and LTC. The majority of students attend FIT. All students applied to

either Kiribati Government or Multi-Ethnic Affairs in Fiji to attend these tertiary

institutions. 90% of these applicants were successful in obtaining sponsorship to

continue tertiary education at various tertiary institutions.

5.6.3 Adult Education

UNESCO (2006) reports that high adult illiteracy rate and proportion of out-of school

children is significant, and in order to cater for both of these, most of the countries have

launched adult and non-formal education basic programs. The main target of these

programs includes students who had left school and those who had not enrolled in

schools. These programs were successfully conducted in Ethiopia, South Africa and

Uganda.

The study found that the dropout either stayed in the village or drifted to urban Labasa,

Suva, Nadi and Lautoka in search of paid or casual employment. Those who stayed in

the village in particular, boys were absorbed into adult education (UNESCO, 2006). The

Ministry of Youth initiated this training program to assist unemployed educated youth

farmers in the village around Fiji. Fuzeng (2002) noted that there is an increase in the

majority of farmers receiving basic education. Based on this, adult education in rural

areas can play a very important role in the growth of agriculture. In relation to this adult

education of farmers, the study found that there were sixteen RHS drop-outs graduated

from Youth Mobile Training conducted in Rabi.

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5.7 Summary

This chapter presents and discusses the results of the research study. First, it highlights

the many issues at RHS that may affect the learning process and teaching pedagogy of

the students and teachers, respectively. There are few issues that are becoming pressing

concerns to the parents and students alike, for example, expulsion from school. Another

issue of concern is the retention of students in the same for three consecutive years. This,

among other things, has led student to dropouts for fear of being seen as inferior to their

peers who had been promoted to higher forms, and embarrassment to fellow colleagues

and family members.

Challenges that face the administration, teachers, students and parents were also put

forward and discussed. However, the most prominent challenge was the financial

problems the school faced. Other challenges, for example, are the need for more

workshop and training programs for teachers. Student challenges include, for example,

frequent breakdown of transportation, forcing students to walk very long distance to

school. Parents also experience pressing challenges in terms of income to meet the

increasing demand for textbooks, uniforms, and fees.

Major developments and trends characterize RHS. Major development at RHS, in

particular, the construction of more staff quarter, semi-dormitories and building more

classrooms can only be made possible through borrowing more funds to fulfill the

objectives of the school. Borrowing would mean incurring more burdens for parents in

repaying debt plus interest.

Lastly, there has been a fluctuation in the enrolment of students at the school. This may

due in part to parents who had preferred to send their children to urban schools.

Secondly, this could be attributed to the expulsion of students; early dropout because

parents are not able to pay school fees; early marriage and pregnancy of young girls.

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Chapter 6 discusses the changes that may attempt to address the issues and challenges in

this chapter. Further, it identifies and explains the educational opportunities and policies

by Kiribati, Fiji Governments and RCL that may assist and enhance the education of

Banaban students at RHS.

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CHAPTER 6

RABI HIGH SCHOOL: CHANGES AND OPPORTUNITIES - ROLES OF THE

FIJI GOVERNMENT; KIRIBATI GOVERNMENT; AND RABI COUNCIL OF

LEADERS

6.0 Introduction

Chapter 5 begins with the presentation and discussion of the findings of the research

study. It begins with the issues and challenges that were found to be of great concern to

the Principal, teachers, students and parents. Secondly, it also discusses major

developments and trends that characterize the school in an attempt to improve the

quality of education for the Banaban students.

Chapter 6 continues the discussion of the result in relation to the changes, opportunities,

and roles of the three governing bodies that attempt to address the issues and challenges,

and aimed at improved and better quality of education at RHS.

This chapter addresses the last two research questions highlighted earlier in Chapter 1,

Section 1.3. These are:

1.3.4 What are some of the changes and opportunities that affect teaching and

learning?

1.3.5 What roles do these respective government and agencies play in

providing better educational opportunities to the Banabans: Fiji

Government, Government of Kiribati and the RCL.

6.1 Changes

This section identifies changes that are possible to the school system that may bring

about a positive impact on students’ learning. These include changes to school,

leadership, and improvement at RHS. Servais (2003) contend that leaders should portray

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transformational leadership role that is collaborative, fosters teacher empowerment, and

encourages change. He argues that change does not appear to be threatening or imposed

by outsiders but rather change is seen as collaborative choices between the school

members and the Principal. He further states that change is not an event but rather a

continuous process for collectively achieving the goals of the school. He maintains that

the Principal demonstrates the facilitative role of leadership, with relationships that

welcome shared leadership to achieve the mission of the school and student

achievement.

The Principal demonstrates these qualities at RHS in an attempt to bring about changes

to the school.

6.1.1 Rabi High School

The notion of change begins in the Pacific societies, when colonialism interrupted the

development of meaning and unique educational systems that exited in these societies,

replacing them with formal European style educational institutions (Thaman, 2002) in

which teachers play vital roles. This section is designed to contextualize the work of

secondary school teachers in a world remarkable not only for the ways in which it is

changing, but for the pace and intensity of those changes (Smith, et al, 2003). The study

found that some teachers, in particular the indigenous Banaban teachers have spent so

many years teaching at the school and experienced working under different leadership.

Change in leadership brought different changes to the school system. Participants stated

that:

There was the restructuring of school policy; and reshuffle of few

teachers’ teaching subjects; timetabling of classes also changed; teachers

were more monitored in their attendance and punctuality. Teachers were

specialized more into their subject area” (TRk).

It is evident that some changes have positive impact on the students’ progress. Students’

external results have improved tremendously.

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The world today is different from what has been experienced by those who live before

us. Each generation is aware that it has undergone through various changes. Yet these

changes to our political, social, economic, technological and knowledge structures are

developing from time to time. Globalization is upon us and no country can ever be free

of it (Smith, et al, 2003; Taylor, et al, 1997; Nabobo, 2001). Nabobo (2001) maintains

that globalization affects the work of teachers. If there is a reduction in the financial

assistance of the Government, then teachers engage themselves in fundraising, which

impact their teaching negatively. 40% of the teachers interviewed said:

In the past, fundraising activities takes much of our time after work and

during the weekends; we would engage ourselves in organizing activities

to reach the targeted amount. It is really a tiring thing to do. But we have

no choice because money is needed for the school projects. (TRr).

Smith et al, (2003) states that the work of schools and teachers at the beginning of the

twenty-first century will involve the provision of stability and growth for adolescents in

the midst of social and cultural transition, in a time of enormous social, political,

economic, technological and cultural change. Teachers however, need to be proactive

and ensure that despite social inequalities and disadvantage, students are provided with

the opportunity to successfully gain the credentials that education has to offer. At

secondary schools teachers must be able to assist students to address these issues as well

as provide students with opportunities to learn, to integrate technology into their lives,

and to become adequately prepared for participation in the adult world (ibid: p. 62). This

is especially relevant for groups most subject to marginalization such as the Banaban

students from non-English speaking backgrounds who may be socially and economically

disadvantaged (Tavola, 2000). A computer teacher interviewed said:

I am trying my best to teach the students basic computing skills with the

available PCs in school. The students are showing interests in this new

subject, but only the science students are enrolled due to inadequate

number of PCs. (TRo).

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The study sketches major development in social, economic, and technological changes at

the school. It also notes that change is occurring in every sphere of the school. For

example, it is evident from the research study through observation that the school had

undergone many changes: students wearing badges, the compulsory policy on speaking

of English within the school compound; difference in color of uniforms for Form 7

different from the rest of the school; increase in the numbers of buildings and

installation of new computers in school. The majority of senior and junior students

stated that: “Speaking English in school has helped improve self confidence in us. We

are now able to speak to tourists and other non-Banaban people who visited our school”

(FOs).

As reported by the Fiji Education Commission/Panel (2000), information and

communication information technologies (ITC) is seen as crucial to the development of

education in Fiji. Its potential is not only to provide great opportunities and improve

student achievement, but also to create new types of jobs and employment opportunities

for students (Williams, 2000). However, the exponential growth of media and ICT,

especially the computer has become a major source of information and an educational

determinant, at times explicitly more often implicitly Delors (1999).

Another change at the school that is noteworthy by the research study is the recent

introduction of ICT into Form 5 syllabus. Many students showed much enthusiasm in

learning computing. A fifth form student interviewed said: “I enjoy computing class

because it does not make me sleepy. I would operated the key board and watch what I

type on the computer” (STk). However, due to the limited number of computers at the

school and qualified IT teachers, only science students are given the opportunity to seize

computer studies. This study identified the urgent need of the school to expand in this

crucial area of study as it is seen as a valuable investment (Williams, 2000). It would,

therefore, the immediate priority of the stakeholders, to ensure collaboratively that this

newly introduced computer education is financially supported and sustained to ensure

that other interested students are given the same opportunity at RHS. The Assistant

Principal stated that: “This is one of the school projects and the school management has

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considered a number of external aids to request for financial assistance in order to

purchase more computers” (PRb).

The study finding indicates successful schools and classrooms do not just happen. RHS

has been a successful school, because teachers showed commitment to their

responsibilities. They translated relevant program into productive and achievement-

oriented classroom practice sensitive to individual needs. One of the parents interviewed

said: “I admired these teachers because they are so committed in their responsibility in

preparing our children for their external exams. They would conduct morning, afternoon

and evening classes” (PAt). Smith, et al, (2003) posits that teachers during their

teaching career are engaged in teaching of the adult of the future. He claims that this has

been the case but the future is becoming unimaginable as the rate of change and its

consequences burgeon exponentially.

Secondary schools are not immune to change (Taylor, et al 1997) and RHS is no

exception. However, changes only occur if there are currently no barriers to it. Barriers

are likely to exist between departments, between teachers and administration, and

between parents and the school. It is important that stakeholders of the school develop

healthy relationships to allow change to take place to foster better teaching and learning

pedagogy and enhance quality education for students at the school. The majority of

teachers stated that:

The parents are very supportive when it comes to implementing changes

at the school. For instance, when the badge was first introduced, parents

were informed to purchase badges from the school and to ensure that

their children wear their badges to school. In the first of inspection, 90%

of the students were wearing the badges to school” (TRs).

The finding of the study is important in this regard because it explores changes

experienced by the school at large which impact students’ lifelong learning.

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Dunn, et al (2004) noted that lifelong learning abilities are considered to be a key quality

of successful students, of which secondary students are not excluded. They claim that

lifelong learning has appeared repeatedly in education circles and government reports

since the 1970s, as a response to rapid social, economic and technological changes in

Western society. However, Thaman (2002) strongly argues that the four pillars of

lifelong learning articulated in the Delores Report, reflect and represent ideas that are

part and parcel of almost all Pacific vernacular/indigenous traditions of education, as she

defined as worthwhile learning. The notion of four pillars of learning outlined in the

Delors Report are “learning to know; learning to do; learning to be and learning to live

together” (Delors, 1998).

6.1.2 Leadership

The study found that the Principal at the time of research was observed to be a

transformational leader. It is learned from the interviews of some parents and teachers

who stated that:

There has been a successful improvement in Form 4 results to 100% pass

in 2005, after certain disciplinary rules were imposed by the Principal.

These rules have assisted students in changing their attitudes towards

their academic work. Since the establishment of the school, it has not

achieved a 100% pass in Fiji Junior Certificate Examination” (PRs &

TRs).

In his book, Changing towards Excellence (2003) John Rowling concentrates on

understanding change. He discusses the processes that the leaders need to embark upon

to ensure that transformation is embedded in their organization. He argues that those in

leaderships are increasingly aware that leaders do make the difference and many aspire

after an understanding of what it takes to be the person whose impact on the school is

positive and transformational.

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It is also evident from the study that collaboration also characterizes RHS. Heads of

Department had their own individual responsibilities for members of their departments.

The Administration team, together with the Heads of Departments meets to plan

collaboratively. The Vice Principal said:

The Heads of Department have contributed positively to the smooth

running of the school. They have worked diligently in their various

departments to ensure teachers carry out their responsibilities” (PRv).

This finds support in Rowling (2003, p. 11) in stating within a school transformational

change happens as a consequence of the actions of the many parts. The transformational

leader works on developing pride, involvement and heart for the organization so for

them it is one for all and all for one. Through this collaboration the team is able to

produce positive outcome in some students’ achievement in external exams. According

to participants, they stated that “few students have been successful in obtaining

scholarships to USP and FIT, while other students have gone to schools in Labasa and

Suva” (TRs).

The RCL plays a vital role in initiating transformational change to RHS. According to

one participant interviewed for this study, he stated that the RCL was successful in

negotiating with the Ministry of Education to replace the outgoing Principal with a new

Principal for the better improvement at the school. The participant said:

It is high time the Principal is replaced. She had been at the school for so

long and it seems that there had never been any improvements to

students’ result. It is in the best of the students that she is replaced. (CRt).

RCL was successful, and the Principal was changed after more than a decade. Similarly,

Rowling (2003) states that it seems an obvious corollary to make leadership, and its

improvement, the focus of concentration for a government whose ambition is to initiate

successful change in its schools and to introduce transformational change.

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Consequently, the new Principal continued to implement changes he saw fit for the

school, in particular the construction of more classrooms. According to the teacher

interviewed, he noted:

“During the time of the first administration team, there were two new

classrooms constructed for form sixes from the Canadian Aid Fund. The

new Principal continued to negotiate for more foreign aids to build one

more classroom and a semi-dormitory” (TRk).

Leaders need to seek financial assistance in order to meet their objectives in expanding

the school for the sake of enhancing teaching and learning. Foreign aids are absolutely

prominent in the upgrading of rural schools and RHS is no exception. Baba, et al (1992),

for example states that the South Pacific small island states rely heavily upon aid money

from donor countries for the development of education. This is an important aspect of

education input in small island states of the Pacific region because of the very high level

of aid received. They state that in many South Pacific countries the cost of education is

mostly borne by the national government.

The study also noted the target plans by various departments to be achieved at the end of

the year. The school focuses on students’ progress and the raising of their achievement.

This has become the key objective of the school. Like any other school, the Principal,

with the assistance of the staff and students have worked out strategies to achieving

these objectives. It is evident that various departments had set their targets for the

various internal and external examinations. For example, the Language department has a

target of 100% pass in Form 4 English. The teachers in the Language department stated:

“The internal and external English results for all forms has gradually improved after

setting our targets before the final and external examinations” (TRt). These target plans

are similar to what Davies and Ellison (1999, p. 120) describe as operational target-

setting framework. They argue that an operational target plan is a means of facilitating

and driving through change in the school. They state that it acts as a guide for those

charged with the responsibility for carrying out the developments that are designed to

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allow the targets to be achieved. With a clear framework, staff can be supported to

manage the changes by planning and prioritizing their own work. One Head of

Department interviewed stated:

The use of workbook and lesson plans had helped teachers in my

department to improve effectiveness and efficiency in their classroom

organization. For this reason, last year they have improved both their

internal and external results. (TRt).

With the change of Leadership, a number of scheduled study programs were planned by

the Heads of Departments in order to achieve the departments’ target. For example,

morning study time from 7am to 8am before the first teaching period begins. Secondly,

another is scheduled in the afternoon from 4pm to 5pm. Students do have a break and

then will have to be back at 7pm to 9pm for a well supervised evening study class. The

teachers supervise classes. It was noted that these programs were fully supported by

some parents, as they would send their children on time to school. This was made easier

for students to attend these programs since they occupy temporary camps around the

school compound. A parent interviewed said:

I had to leave other responsibilities and erect this camp for the sake of my

child’s education. This is the only chance for me to sacrifice my time and

resources to my child who is in Form 7” (PAe).

Sharma (2002) pointed out that community related activities represented a complex set

of interactions. This influence covered parental support for the educational process

within the school and the safe environment within which children can develop.

6.1.3 Improvement at RHS

Improvement to education is possible when challenges are addressed and solutions are

provided. These challenges may be reduced through improving teachers’ contribution to

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their teaching profession. Bacchus (2000) states that school improvement efforts should

focus on raising the professional competence of teachers, and their commitment to their

teaching role. This requires efforts to strengthen their realization that teaching is not

simply a technical task aimed essentially at raising their test scores, which is a problem

in a Fiji wide classroom. Few teachers engage themselves in distance and flexible

learning with the University of the South Pacific to ensure they continue their

educational development (Field notes, 2007). One of the teachers had completed his

required units in his field of study and therefore was awarded a scholarship to study

further at the University of the South Pacific. One of the teachers said:

I engaged myself in studying through Extension taking the required

courses in Agricultural studies. After completing the 200 level courses, I

applied and was granted scholarship from Fijian Affairs Board (FAB) to

study for my degree at Alafua campus in 2008. (TRo).

Secondly, it is also important to note that the environment has also improved

substantially, with study spaces made available around the school compound for

students. The study observed that a cluster of several umbrella huts were build to

accommodate students during their study periods. At times students would utilize these

facilities while waiting for their transportation or when they arrive early in the morning

before school begins. A seventh for student said:

This is the best study place when waiting for the bus. It is windy and I

hardly sleep when I study. I prefer using these study facilities than

continue to sit to study in the classroom” (STe).

Tavola (2000) states that it is the responsibility of the school management to ensure, that

they maintain the school and its equipment and provide students with the environment

conducive to learning.

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Thirdly, students’ performance is improved through the conduct of tests before the final

internal and external examinations. The study found that most students showed

improvement after a series of tests conducted and through this performance of students

are monitored at the school level (Field notes, 2007). This finds support in Cowans and

Jones, (1999, p. 163) stating that “term assessment” were used to monitor individual

progress in attainment and effort on agreed whole school criteria; detect

underperformance; to act as a discussion document for academic counseling; and to

assist in the monitoring of placements within the ability bands.

It is also important to note that improvement of secondary schools is related to the roles

of the Principals. Sharma (2002) argues that the role of Principals in school-based

management is subject to the greatest degree of change. And it is through this change

that might bring about changes to improvement to secondary schools. It states that in

order to build a learning community in which all students acquire the full range of

knowledge and skills necessary for their future, the Principal as an instructional leader is

vital. In this context, an instructional leader needs to be able motivate teachers and

improve teaching practices. These tasks require a great deal of knowledge about the

details of the curriculum, teaching methods, and student learning. In this capacity, the

Principal needs to be a resource provider, instructional resource, and communicator and

to have a visible presence (Teaero, 1997). Participants interviewed state that: “The

Principal has always been present at school events, and has always been accessible - that

is, always seen as having time for everyone” (FOp).

6.2 Opportunities

There are several possibilities that are identified by the study at RHS. For the purpose of

this study, I have categorized these possibilities into internal and external. Internal are

those opportunities that are evident within the school system. The external possibilities

are those that are provided by stakeholders outside the school.

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6.2.1 Internal Opportunities

There are numerous opportunities for students at RHS. The most obvious one is the

establishment of the school itself. This increases children’s access to secondary

education opportunities to Learn (OTL) (Dorovolomo, 2008). This is one major desire of

this minority group of people to maintain and promote a national identity and culture

through education. UNDP (1999) has identified that in most PICs the priority has been

to increase the proportion of children who attend school. It reports that the progress has

been in this respect and in extending education through to late adolescence. In Papua

New Guinea, for example, school enrolment in primary and secondary has increased

tremendously since mid-1980s (ibid, p. 40).

Secondly, equality and equity of access for boys and girls was also evident. The study

shows that proportion of girls and boys attending school has become more equivalent,

compared from what has been experienced in the past three decades. One of the Parents

interviewed, said: “Tao bon wanibwi te katebubua maitia ataeinaine aika a kareireiakaki

ntai aikaii. Tiaki aroia ngkoa aine aika atutuku bwa tani makuri nte mweng”(PRr)..

[Approximately, 80% of the girls are now sent to school, compared to very few of them

attending the kept at home to do domestic chores and were not sent to school”] (PRt).

Equal opportunities were given to both boys and girls at the school. Girls were engaged

in technical drawing classes, whilst a combination of equal number of boys and girls are

enrolled in the science and arts subjects in all forms. A third form student interviewed

said: “I am the only girl in the technical drawing class and I enjoy taking the subject”

(STn). Since, the establishment of the school, there were no girls interested in taking up

technical drawing. Generally, in the PICs efforts are being made to increase equality of

access, especially to reduce differences in the numbers of boys and girls at school and

equalize opportunities for rural and urban children (UNDP, 1999). It reports that in some

countries like Tonga and Fiji, girls have outnumbered boys in senior classes. While in

PNG, the gender gap has narrowed. The study found that this is reflected at RHS.

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The third opportunity identified by the study is the availability of the many programs

designed by the school to ensure that other skills are developed apart from the standard

academic program, for example in religion and sports. The compulsory programs

identified include: religious education every Friday morning and sports every Friday

afternoon. Local religious leaders are participants in adult literacy classes (UNESCO

2003). Sports have been found to be a potential source of employment for Pacific

islanders, besides its recreational value (UNDP (1999). It argues that improving

educational opportunities entails more than simply increasing access to classes. In

addition, education program need to support and advance the cultural values and

aspirations of Pacific island people; help build social capital by encouraging wider

community participation in local and national development; better foster gender equity

and other of social equality; and build national cohesion and identity (ibid, p. 36).

Fourthly, the research study also found that Internet has been connected to the school.

This offers opportunity to the staff and the students alike. According to the participant

interviewed she said: “There is very limited use of the internet and is strictly confined to

the staff only, considering the cost involved in maintaining the newly introduced

technology” (TRt). Most recent research studies have found that Internet has radical

potential to reduce the remoteness of island schools and provide people new ways to

participate in learning (UNDPP, 1999; Christopher, 2004; Bitter & Legacy, 2008;

Sharma, 2008). However, the major barriers in terms of high costs and restricted access

to this technology must first be overcome. For a small community school such as RHS,

considering it being rural and remote, it is expensive to sustain and maintain such a

luxury.

Most importantly, the study identified that parents do not pay any transportation cost of

getting their children to school. Students on the island were provided with free

transportation to school, in addition to very low school fees. A parent interviewed said:

“I am happy that my child is attending Form 7 and the fees are reasonable and

affordable” (PAm). It is found that parents pay as low as $20 per annum for the past

decade. This fee just recently increased to $50 per annum. Given this low cost in

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education, parents whose children attended urban schools had to return to RHS either to

repeat or continue to the next level. Parents allowed their children to attend RHS,

because of the low cost. This finding is supported by earlier research Péano (1998) who

conducted research in Botswana. He states that when the new Government took over, it

abolished schools fees in 1994. Consequently, there was a substantial increase in

enrolment.

The study also notes the reading program known as Drop Everything And Read (DEAR)

Program that is scheduled every morning from 8am to 8.30am. This is an opportune time

for students to drop everything and read (DEAR) only English books, newspaper or

library books. The aim of this program is to improve the English language for students.

A form teacher said:

When this program was first introduced only a few of the students in my

class were reading. The rest of the students were not keen readers and

they used the time for talking and doing homework. These students are

identified and given detention after school. After punishing them they

forced themselves to read their story books” (TRb).

The program has assisted students improve their writing skills, especially in writing

composition. In their concluding remarks, Elkin, et al (2003) state that readers talk about

the solitary pleasure of reading but also recognize that reading brings social

opportunities, those of belonging to a community of readers, whether formally,

informally or virtually and globally. They maintain that technology can support and

enhance reading and reading opportunities but never be a total substitute.

The introduction of Internal Assessment (IA) to Form 3 and 4 offers the opportunity to

students to engage them in a research work away from classroom work. Although IA

may have its weaknesses, Koya (2008) found that it was a good change from rote

learning and encourages critical (Dunn, et al, 2004) and independent thinking.

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Furthermore, the study documents other programs, for example, Educational or

Excursion tours, which provide other opportunities to students. According to Form 5

students interviewed, they shared that: “We are taken on excursions either to Suva or

Labasa depends on the decision of the Administration and teachers. We visit tertiary

institutions for example, FIT and USP” (FOs). It is important to note that these trips

inspired students to aspire to higher level education and also the trip exposed job

opportunities upon completion of tertiary education.

Another notable opportunity for the students at RHS is provision of career classes. The

career classes are prepared mainly for senior students. For these classes, teachers

identify job opportunities for students as a guide for their future. Career classes offer the

opportunities to students to advance to higher institutions and also think of their future

jobs. This indicates that students ought to be prepared for their future. The World Bank

(2005) argues that in order to prepare graduates for active participation in the labor

market, secondary education must contribute to enhancing their skills and knowledge so

they are better equipped to accomplish particular tasks and are able to absorb, use and

adapt new technical knowledge to respond to changing job requirements. This simply

means that secondary education should provide individuals with knowledge, skills, and

attitudes so that they can maintain a competitive edge.

6.2.2 External opportunities

This section discusses the contributions of organizations that create opportunities to the

students at RHS.

External funding such as foreign aid, for example Canadian aid, Euro, British aid, and

grants from the Ministry of Education are used to expand the school facilities. RHS is

fortunate to have received this aid to reduce the financial burden on its educational

planning and management. One of the Banaban teachers said:

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I had been teaching at RHS from the time when it was a Junior Secondary

School. And RHS is fortunate to receive foreign aid since its

establishment. Foreign aid has played a vital role in the development of

the school” (TRb).

Bray (1991) posits that external aid is among the instruments, which maintain

dependence, reducing the need for self-reliance. He states that small countries can secure

substantial aid. The challenge he argues that planners are to ensure that aid is put to good

use. It is evident that aid at the school is well utilized for the purpose of upgrading the

school so that more educational opportunity is provided for the students. The World

Bank (2005) states that financing secondary education expansion and quality

improvement is one dimension of the enabling environment.

The study notes the donation of library books from NZ Government, and from NGO, for

example church, in particular the Church of Jesus Christ for Latter Day Saints (LDS).

These donations have contributed more books to the school library. These contributions

have directly benefited students in terms of availability of more reading books. This is

consistent with Williams (2000) who asserted that the per capita grant for secondary

schools is intended for the purchase of resources, administration expenses, and utilities,

in particular the increased provision for textbooks, library books, and other resources for

Fijian schools. However, instead of the school purchasing the books, donations have

substituted this purchase.

Like other students throughout Fiji, RHS students have the opportunity to attend

Institutions like the FIT, USP, Computing schools, New Zealand Pacific Training Centre

(NZPTC), Sagam Institute of Technology (SIT), FCA, FSM and FSN. Students are

enrolled in these institutions after successfully completed either Form 6 or Form 7. A

student at USP interviewed said: “I was so lucky to have received a Fiji MEA

scholarship to study Accounting and Economics at the USP” (EXo).

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The research study reveals that scholarships are now made available to students at RHS.

Scholarships available include Multi-ethnic, Fijian Affairs Board (FAB), Public Service

Commission (PSC), NZAID and AUSAID. All the scholarships are available to all

Banaban students, except for the Fijian Affairs Board. However, Banaban students with

either maternal or paternal Fijian relations have access to the FAB scholarships. A

female ex-RHS student interviewed stated: “I was awarded a Fiji MEA scholarship to

study Economics at FIT” (EXk).

Table 6.1 on page 217 shows the number of Banaban students who were awarded

scholarships from the Ministry of Provincial Development and Multi-Ethnic Affairs

(MEA). Out of the 1236 awards, the awards to the Banaban students stand at 39 (Vaniqi,

2008:69).

Table 6.1: MEA Scholarship Awards

INSTITUTION NUMBER OF BANABAN STUDENTS

USP 18

FIT 16

FCA 1

SIT 4

TOTAL 39

Amongst the awardees, 24 RHS students were given scholarships by the Ministry of

Provincial Development and Multi-Ethnic Affairs.

Table 6.2 below shows the number of students from RHS with MEA scholarships and

the choice of the institutions of which they are accepted.

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Table 6.2: RHS MEA Awardees and Choice of Institutions - 2008

INSTITUTIONS NUMBER OF RHS STUDENTS

FIT 12

USP 7

SIT 4

FCA 1

TOTAL 24

Since the Multi-Ethnic affairs scholarships made available to the Banaban students,

there has been a substantial increase in the number of RHS students applying for these

scholarships to ensure they continue to higher tertiary institutions for further educations.

6.3 Role of Governments

The World Bank (2005) highlighted that the two twin challenges of governance in

secondary education are managing expansion and quality improvement. These include

the expansion of its coverage (in particular to those excluded because of poverty,

ethnicity, gender, and disability), and improvement of its quality and relevance. It argues

that governance refers to the ‘machinery’ of government-that is what the Ministry of

Education and education offices do, which involves the rational process of planning and

evaluating outcomes as were the exercise of power by these authorities.

In parallel, an increasing amount of work was being conducted by Bray (1991) on the

processes of educational planning in small states. One of which is the work of Ministry

of Education in the South Pacific region. He highlights the role of international aid for

small states, pointing out that in general small states receive high per capital allocations

of foreign aid, noting that aid can be of great assistance but can also create serious

distortions.

There is a general agreement that governance in any educational system functions from

two perspectives, namely the macro and the micro dimensions. First, from the macro

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perspective, which relates to the institutions and mechanisms used to steer the system

(World Bank, 2005). Similarly, Bray (1991) states that at micro level, multi-faceted

ministries, group education with such closely related functions as culture, sports, youth

and community affairs, and when carefully managed, multi-functional grouping permit

more efficient use of personnel and promotes linkages between sectors.

Secondly, the micro dimension involves personnel who are not in the Ministry. Such

personnel include principals and teachers, who help for example, in curriculum

development and teacher appraisal. In support of this, the World Bank (2005) focuses on

the secondary school as an organization and the main organizational characteristics of

effective secondary schools.

6.3.1 Role of Fiji Government

Although Rabi Island has its own semi-autonomous administration under the Banaban

Settlement and Banaban Lands Acts, RHS is part and parcel of the Fiji Education system

and thus no different from any other ethnic group in Fiji (Tavola, 2000). It follows the

Fiji curriculum is subject to any educational changes that the Ministry of Education may

implement. Like any other school in Fiji, RHS is fully governed by the Ministry of

Education. For this purpose, the study examines in detail role of the Ministry of

Education in secondary education.

Education has been one of the major priorities for successive Fiji Government. The

Ministry of Education introduced tuition-free education and the remission of fees in the

remaining years of secondary school (Tavola, 2000). The Fiji Government pays tuition

costs for all children up to the first years of secondary school and provides a per capita

grant to schools to assist with teacher salary and equipment UNDP (1999). In terms of

financing education, Bacchus (2000) highlights that the Fiji Government has been

making every effort to ensure that there is equity of distribution of educational resources

among all ethnic groups in the country.

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For example, it ensures that the Fijian population, especially in the rural areas, is given

preferential treatment in the allocation of funds. This includes scholarships, money for

the construction of and repairs of rural school buildings. Secondly, it ensures equitable

distribution of financial resources education to the poorer section of the population.

Bacchus (2000) emphasizes that the Ministry of Education should, in co-operation with

other government departments and NGOs, develop a system to ensure that the children

of the poor do not lose their opportunities for schooling. This would require the

provision of extra funds that could be administered by one or more of the recognized

NGOs working in this area, such as Save the Children Fund (ibid, p. 452).

Central policymaking and administration have been a dominant governing paradigm

during periods of education expansion. Tavola (2000) reports plans against excessive

expansion of secondary schools, especially those of poor quality. The expansion of

junior secondary school policy, which allowed for the establishment of schools offering

Forms 1 to 4 in rural areas, was seen as a way of delivering secondary education to as

many children as possible. This policy has initially allowed the establishment of Rabi

Junior Secondary School (RJSS). However, in the 1970s the new issue of secondary

schools wishing to add senior forms in particular, Form 5 and 6 emerged. Historically,

RJSS included Form 5 and 6 in early 1980s and early 1990s, eventually becoming RHS.

Although, the Government tried to restrict the growth of Form 7, the community was

grateful for Government to have granted RHS Form 7, in 2006.

The Ministry of Education and the school management have significantly played its

roles from which schools in Fiji have greatly benefited. RHS also shared these benefits

in terms of provision of resources, in-service training for teachers, and funding

(Bacchus, et al, 2000; Bacchus, 2000; and Tavola, 2000). Tavola (2000) describes the

State-Community Partnership as one of the distinguishing features of education in Fiji.

She states the roles of the Ministry of Education as follows:

• Overall administration of and policy-making for the education system

• Registering and monitoring schools and providing advisory services

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• Paying for tuition for the first ten years of schooling

• Defining and designing curriculum and producing related materials

• Setting and overseeing external examinations

• Training, licensing and employing teachers

• Providing grants for building and other purposes

(Tavola, 2000, p. 24)

These roles are similar to Ministries of Education to some extent in other South Pacific

island states revealed by case studies in Kiribati (Bakeea, 1991), and the Solomon

islands (Ramo, 1991).

Another role of the Ministry of Education is setting curricula and examinations at all

levels of primary and secondary education. Teaching materials up to Form 4 are

provided for different subjects, either free or at minimal cost. The production of these

materials is the responsibility of the Education Resource Center/Book Production Unit,

which comes under the Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) (Tavola, 2000). The CDU

organizes in-service training courses and workshops for teachers for their professional

development. The study notes the teachers at RHS also participate in these course and

workshops. Similar system is cited in the case study of Gyana by Paul, et al (1991) in

which they state that teacher training program, in-service training of two year’s duration

for primary teachers; and three years for secondary teachers; in-service program are

supplemented by on-the-job training via workshops and seminars sponsored by the

support units of the Ministry of Education.

In addition, the World Bank (1999) pointed out that the shift from large government

bureaucracies charged with the provision of services and toward smaller administrative

bodies that are responsible for developing the capacity of schools. Similarly in Fiji,

schools are managed by controlling authorities. For example, Tavola (2000) stated that

committees and religious organizations own most secondary schools, while the

Government controls a larger number of secondary schools. However, the Government

is responsible for providing assistance in the form of offering basic training courses for

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teachers and advisory visits. Although all pre-schools in Fiji are run by community

organizations, the Government’s main responsibility is to ensure payment of rural pre-

school teachers’ salaries and equipment (ibid, p. 27). The existing pre-schools in Rabi

come under this category.

6.3.2 The Role of the School management

The school management has played a vital role in the management of schools in Fiji.

The operation of the school management is guided by the requirements of the 1978 Fiji

Education Act and the constitution of each school (Tavola, 2000). Under this Act and

various constitutions, they are expected to support and assist schools in their educational

delivery. Their primary responsibility is to ensure the smooth and efficient functioning

of financial and physical resources, as well as to determine development directions in

relation to these resources.

Levin and Belfield (2006) assert that higher quality education rests on the belief that

private owners and managers of schools will be more efficient than government

ownership and management. They argue that public schools may have excessive rules,

or rules applied to all schools regardless of circumstance, and they may be run

‘democratically’ making them fraught with conflicts and compromises to appease the

demands of special interest groups which have little connection to students’ educational

needs (Chubb and Moe, 1999 cited in Levin and Belfield, 2006, p. 634).

Further, the controlling authorities or private ownership include: Committee, Religious

Organizations, and Cultural organization, Government, Private, Fijian Affairs Board,

Rabi Council and Rotuma Council. Table 6.3 shows the controlling authorities of

secondary schools in Fiji.

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Table 6.3 Controlling Authorities: Secondary Schools in Fiji, 1999

CONTROLLING AUTHORITY NUMBER PER CENT OF TOTAL

COMMITTEE 73 47.4

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATION 54 35.1

CULTURAL ORGANIZATION 11 7.1

GOVERNMENT 12 7.8

PRIVATE 1 0.6

FIJIAN AFFAIRS BOARD 1 0.6

RABI COUNCIL 1 0.6

ROTUMA COUNCIL 1 0.6

T O T A L 154 100.0

(Source: Tavola, 2000, p. 28)

Lastly, (Tavola, 2000) states the main role of the controlling authorities is to submit

audited financial report to the Ministry of Education on annual basis. She reports that the

purpose of this is to ensure that application for further funding could be released.

However, she states that this poses difficulty in rural remote areas due to unavailability

of qualified accounts. Consequently, in reality, this requirement is often overlooked.

Similar situation is found by the research study evident at RHS. The Bursar interviewed

said: “When I started work in 2006, I found that there were no consistency in the

financial records of the school” (BUk).

6.3.3 Role of the Rabi Council of Leaders

RCL plays a leading role in RHS, in terms of its establishment, finance, payment of its

own staff, and initiating programs that caters for the dropouts of secondary education,

and its existing education policy.

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(a) School Establishment

The study finds that the RCL, in collaboration with the Ministry of Education and the

British Government was able to establish the secondary school for the Banaban students

on Rabi. According to one of the retired Councilor interviewed, he states that: “It is the

responsibility of the RCL to look for the suitable site for building the secondary school

on the island and seek financial assistance from various Governments” (CRb).

For RHS, the RCL is responsible for ensuring that financial support is provided to the

school to purchase textbooks, maintain school building, pays its employees at RHS.

These employees include a typist, bursar, librarian cleaner, a watchman, and culture and

handicraft teachers. The Vice Principal states that: “the RCL pays its own employee

apart from the permanent civil servants and temporary civil servants who are paid by the

Ministry of Education” (PRv). This finds support in Tavola (2000) stating that the RCL

pays staff to teach Banaban language and culture in all schools on the island, from

kindergarten to high school.

(b) Program: Mobile Training National Youth Service (MTNYS)

Another role of the RCL is coordinating programs, which are initiated by the Fiji

Government to cater for youths who are dropouts. The dropouts, or early school leaving,

rate is also a cause for concern (Tavola, 2000).

This service is a youth program that targeted the dropouts from secondary school.

During the research study, it is evident that most participants are the dropouts from

RHS. The Divisional Youth Officer Northern in conjunction with the Youth officer of

the RCL coordinates this program. It calls for unqualified secondary school leavers and

required no age limit. It charges no fees and allows anyone to be a participant. The RCL,

however, had to select two dropout youths from the four villages to be trained.

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The main aim of the service is to educate the youth and ensure that they engage

themselves in more economic oriented activities. These youths are trained on new

agricultural techniques. They are supplied with agricultural tools by the Government of

Fiji. These tools (cane knifes, spades, files), and gumboots are given free to all the youth

participants. The youth are given the opportunity to train for six weeks.

Other youths are selected and sent to Naleba in Labasa to learn the art of farming,

carpentry and poultry. At Naleba, these youths are trained for three months. At the end

of these three months they graduate and are awarded certificates. RHS drop-outs, mostly

male youth get the opportunity to be trained in the mobile National Youth Scheme

organized by the Division Youth Officer, Northern (Field notes, 2007).

Rabi Councilor Tebaia Tawita during the time of the research was responsible for

coordinating this training programme. He said:

This youth training program is available to the boys. However, the

opportunity for female dropouts will also be introduced. These include

sewing, cooking and vegetable gardening. (CRt).

The programme enables the youth, male and female alike an opportunity to be able to

engage themselves in self-sustaining activities that are income generating and will assist

them to live independently. Photo 6.1 on page 228 shows the Fijian youth officer, the

Rabi Councilor and the two trainees during one of the gardening sessions.

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Photo 6.1: RCL Cr. Tebaia Tawita with the Youth Officer and the two Trainees of MTNYS

Moreover, (UNESCO, 2002) highlights several group findings in relation to community

engagement in local development in rural areas specifying its important, promotion and

the need for training. In addition, it also identifies constrains to successful community

involvement in case studies projects involving participation (Komives, et al, 2007);

Australian Flexible Learning Framework, 2007). It suggests that projects and programs

on small scale provide necessary experience to instill confidence and ensure viability.

The Director for Youth, Northern addressed the participants and said:

The skills that you acquired through this training enable you to be good

and better farmers and you may be able to generate income and become

self-sufficient. You are now important assets to the Banaban community

at large” (DIa).

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The study is linked when compared to the local indigenous rural project implemented in

Tutu (Education for Rural Development, 1984). School leavers in Tutu were recruited to

participate in the projects.

(c) RCL Education Policy

Education of the Banaban students is one of the major concerns of the RCL. In ensuring

that students at RHS are supported, it has existing educational policies that will sustain

the educational development of the Banaban students. First, RCL provides free

transportation to all students from pre-school to secondary school, so that all students

have access to school. Council of Rotuma implemented similar policies (Tavola, 2000).

Transportation and information would be required support services to provide access to

those who are less advantaged (Levin and Belfield, 2006).

Secondly, to ensure that students have access and equity to education for the Banaban

students at the secondary school level, the RCL kept the fees charged to an affordable

minimum. Parents initially paid $20 per annum for over a decade, before it recently

impose a $50 per annum in 2006. The study finds that the fees covered students’

building fund, sports (Williams and Taylor, 2000), library and medical fees. In an

interview with one of the RCL’s employees, she said:

Since the school does not receive anymore financial assistance from the

RCL as was the case, fees have now increased to $50 per annum in light

of the increase in the school expenditure. (EMm).

Third, the RCL has recently diverted its funds from sponsoring students into the USP to

students currently in Form 7 at RHS.

The RCL diverts its funding towards assisting Form 7 due to the

availability of scholarship from the Multi-Ethnic Affairs and the Kiribati

Government. This will assist unemployed parents so that their children

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have to access Form 7 having the opportunity to enter any tertiary

institution” (CRt).

The study found that parents were to pay one-third of the total school fees while the

other two-thirds is paid by the RCL. Williams (2000) highlights that in case of

inadequacy of grants to schools, it is important to consider the assistance to provide

scholarships to Form 7 students.

6.3.4 Role of the Kiribati Government

Baakea (1991) highlights the unique responsibilities of Kiribati Ministry of Education in

providing quality education to its population. Life in Kiribati (2007) notes that senior

secondary education in Kiribati to improve curriculum and strengthen teacher

qualification and skills, increase opportunities for teachers to obtain higher

qualifications, and expand the in-service training programs (Ramo, 1991; Paul, et al,

1991; Molefi & MacLeod, 2003).

Recently, the Government has extended its role in providing financial assistance to the

Banaban students in Rabi. It is evident from the study that the Kiribati Government

granted assistance to the Banabans students in Fiji, since 2006. It provides scholarships

to students to attend the USP, only. However, the study notes that Kiribati Government

scholarship is extended to students at RHS in 2007. Two students were awarded

scholarships to study at USP. A RCL commented:

The Kiribati Government Scholarship was first introduced in 2006. There

were many Form 7 students applying for this scholarship. In addition,

RHS school leavers also applied. It is the responsibility of the RCL to

send these applications to Kiribati Government in Kiribati. In Kiribati,

the selection of candidates is done. The Kiribati Ministry of Education

sent the names of the successful applicants to the RCL office in Suva.

(EMm).

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Furthermore, the Kiribati Government accommodated RHS students whose parents have

migrated to Kiribati. These students were also awarded scholarships. For example, a

former RHS student who was awarded NZAID scholarship to undertake LLB at USP,

states that:

I continue my secondary education at King George V and Elaine

Binacchi School (KGV and EBS). I was fortunate to have obtained this

scholarship after applying for it. (EXe, 2007).

On the basis of Fiji’s multicultural community, the fragility of some languages, as well

as the unique nature of education provision, Tavola (2000) reports and recommends that

in the case of Rabi and Kioa linkages with the Ministries of Education in Kiribati and

Tuvalu be established, in order to obtain curriculum materials. However, nothing has

been done and it might be impossible in the case of Rabi since vernacular is no longer

part of the syllabus at RHS.

6.4 Summary

In this chapter, changes identified at RHS are found to have positive impact on the

students’ performance. However, changes brought by globalization may negatively

affect teachers’ teaching. The school has undergone social, economic, and technological

changes, which may be of good benefit to students.

Changes to leadership within the school have prompted those in position to implement

programs, which are beneficial to students. Improvement at RHS is brought about by

changes in attitude of teachers who have engaged themselves in distance and flexible

learning.

The internal and external opportunities could be advantageous to RHS when challenges

could be addressed. Generally, governments have played significant roles in the

management of any school. For RHS, the Fiji and Kiribati Government have contributed

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substantially to the education of the Banaban students. Alongside these two

Governments, RCL provides financial, moral, and educational support to the Banaban

students.

The next chapter summarizes the thesis, elucidates the conclusions and discusses a

number of implications of the study.

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CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

7.0 Introduction

The study had aimed to document the historical background of the RHS, explore

challenges and issues, and identify opportunities for education for the Banabans.

Secondly, it documents how the diaspora affect the development of schooling at RHS

from the perspective of a number of stakeholders: the Principal, teachers, parents and

students. Thirdly, the thesis also outlines the roles of the Governments of Fiji, Kiribati

and the RCL, in terms of how they assisted the school to fulfill its objectives in relation

to its development and students learning.

The previous chapter, however, specifically presents and discusses changes and

opportunities that could address the challenges and issues that positively impact student

learning at the RHS, and outlines various government roles that significantly contribute

effectively to the school. This chapter provides the summary of the thesis and re-

examine the main findings which are documented from the research study and draws

appropriate implications of the study for theory, policy, finance, curriculum

development and for further research. The chapter ends with a summary.

7.1 Summary of the Thesis

This section presents the summary for chapter one to chapter six. Chapter One

introduces and provides the background on education of this study. Education, according

to Namekawa (2008), is a core element for any development of a nation in terms of

human resource development and economic prosperity. It is indeed regarded as a

powerful tool in taking a nation beyond its horizon of educational development.

Education, for the Banabans is an important aspect of their societal, economical,

political and cultural development. For this reason it is imperative for the Banaban

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leaders to have established RHS for the Banaban students on Rabi Island, for without it

Rabi and its people may not benefit from.

The aims, objectives, significance, the nature of investigation and assumptions are also

described in Chapter One. These have helped in the direction of the writing of the thesis.

In addition, the chapter describes the limitations the researcher encountered while

conducting the fieldwork.

As a Banaban student and a researcher, my interest had taken me into the field as both

“insider” and “outsider”. I am an insider for reasons of having a Banaban birthright; I

speak the language, and have had a chance to stay with the people, and had experienced

the type of lifestyle currently facing the Banabans today. As an outsider, I am a scholar

from the University of the South Pacific conducting a research study on the education of

this minority population in Fiji. The research study is of interest to me because, although

there had been written literature on the displaced group of people (Teaiwa, 1999; Sigrah

& King, 2001), it seems that there is no detail work and focus on their education.

Chapter Two outlines the historical movement of the Banaban people from Ocean Island

to Rabi Island in Fiji. It begins with the discussion of the geographical location of Ocean

Island, and then outlining the history and the political involvement, and the evolution of

education of the Banaban people in Fiji.

The chapter explains the reasons for the Banaban diaspora and discusses the

geographical location of Rabi and how the Banaban people have adapted themselves to

their new homeland. The role of RCL as the sole administrator on the island is also

described. Education was the priority to the RCL. Consequently, pre-schools, primary

schools and a secondary school were established to ensure that Banaban students have

access to education and opportunities to learn. In terms of rural secondary education,

RHS is established to provide formal education from Form 3 to Form 7.

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RHS is a community owned school, administered by Board of Governors. The Board of

Governors consists of the Principal and the nine members of the RCL, including the

Executive Director who is the manager of the school. RHS consists of qualified teachers

who are permanent and temporary civil servants, and RCL employees. The Ministry of

Education provides curriculum materials; training programs and run workshops for

teachers. The source of finance of the school is from school grants from the Ministry of

Education, schools fees, fund raising and foreign aid. The school has a library and two

laboratories for junior and senior classes.

Chapter Three examines the literature and the theoretical framework of the study. It

begins with the review of the literature on the concept of the diaspora, focusing on the

education of the diasporic population, in relation to the challenges and issues of

education in developing countries. The literature revealed that access and equity for rural

population and minority groups is limited by factors associated with distance, population

density, and low income. In addition, documentary evidence indicated that in the South

Pacific region equitable access is constrained by inadequate infrastructure, learning

materials and poor transportation with children having to walk very long distance, to

attend school. However, the literature also provides solutions to such problems, for

example, in Fiji the so called Village Improvement Scheme provided by Government to

mobilize villagers into training, capacity building and economic acceleration. This

improves living standards and assists students of rural and remote areas, access

education and improved delivery of rural education.

Further, the literature highlighted the importance of parental participation in the

development of the child’s education. Parental involvement may contribute positively to

the child’s performance. It is suggested that the success of students must be rewarded

and celebrated. The literature outlined numerous potential opportunities for the young

generation for further education. The introduction of ICT in school enhanced students’

learning process, while the improved quality of vocational education and training would

enhance the base of relevant knowledge and skills.

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Chapter Three concluded with the discussion of the theoretical framework of the study. I

reviewed the literature on the two theories namely, feminist standpoint and post

colonialism theories. It is asserted that the principle of feminist standpoint theory is

based on the individual’s status in the socio-political system, while post-colonialism

refers to a set of theories in philosophy, film and literature that grapple with the legacy

of colonial rule. Finally, the literature explained how the two theories by way of notions

of “voice”, “other”, and “hybridity” have informed and framed the study.

The research methodology is discussed in Chapter Four. Chapter Four begins with

outlining the features of qualitative research to this study. It highlights the

interconnectedness of the features providing the framework for designing and

implementing qualitative research study. Case study was employed as a methodology

for the study and the qualitative methods within a case study design are used in the

collection of the data. These methods include field notes, participation observation,

interview, “talanoa” and documentary analysis. These methods were fully utilized in

the collection of all available data during the fieldwork.

Field notes were collected and transcribed while on the field. Through participant

observation, I collected data from Parents’ and Teachers’ meetings, school assemblies,

and graduation ceremonies. I conducted an in-depth interview with the Principal, HOD’s

teachers, students, parents, ex-students, parents of ex-students in Rabi and Suva. For

‘Talanoa’ or story telling, I spent time with the women at church meetings, around the

grog bowl, and during Parents’ Day. The ‘talanoa’ guidelines were used to collect data.

I also took pictures of the school and related school. The use of these methods while on

the field has given me a wealth of experience in conducting research work.

Chapter Five begins with the presentation and discussion of the findings of the study. It

specifically presents the findings on the relevant issues, challenges, major developments,

trends and changes that are evident at RHS. This chapter addresses the first three of

research questions, in relation to the historical background of RHS its establishment,

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major issues, development and trends. Secondly, it identifies the challenges of education

experienced by the Principal, teachers, students and parents at RHS.

Chapter Six continues to present and discuss the remaining findings of the research

study. It addresses the remaining research questions in relation to changes, opportunities,

and roles of the Fiji Government, Kiribati Government and the RCL. This chapter

describes changes in leadership, school, improvement in school and their impact on

student learning. It is argued that change is a continuous process for collectively

achieving the goals of the school. Global changes have affected teachers’ work at

school. The study noted the changes that happened in the school.

The chapter also identified internal opportunities which were evident within the school,

while the external opportunities were identified in the study such as foreign aid and

donations of books from NGOs, to mention a few. The roles of Government were also

noted to be extremely vital in the development of the RHS. The chapter describes the

contributions of the Fiji Government, Kiribati Government and the RCL. The two

Governments and the local administration have contributed substantially to the

development of the school and the education of Banaban students at RHS.

7.2 Key Findings of the Study

The findings of the study are discussed in Chapters Five and Six. The findings are within

the parameter of the questions prepared for this thesis. These questions are stated in

Chapter One and Chapter Four of the thesis, and are used as guidelines during the

fieldwork. For this section, the research questions and the data collected are discussed.

Question 1.3.1: “What is the historical background of the RHS – its establishment,

developments, and trends?” Data were gathered through the interviews. Data collected

from these methods were adequate. However, data gathered were hard to piece together

because some data were not accurately conveyed by the respondents. The respondents

included retired Rabi Councilor members, Banaban elders, teachers and parents who

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were part of the decision making for the establishment of RHS. The problems,

encountered when analyzing the data for this section, were conflicting dates of

establishment of the school, as given by respondents. After careful consideration, the

date that was eventually agreed upon was the date given by the majority of the

respondents, which was then verified with the school records. The study found that the

school was established in 1984 as discussed in Chapter 2 of the thesis. The reason for

establishing RHS was to ensure that the Banaban students who could not access

education in urban setting are given equal opportunity in the rural setting. In addition,

the establishment of the school faced many challenges in its initial stage of development,

for example, the major problem identified by the study was the land issue. Furthermore,

the study found that as years went by, RHS underwent many developments and trends

that were subject to many challenges.

Question 1.3.2: “What are some of the major challenges of education on Rabi, as

experienced by the Principal, teachers, parents and students at RHS? Which of these

challenges are related specifically to Banaban diaspora?” The sources of these data

were from the following respondents: Principal, HOD’s, teachers, parents, students,

RHS drop-outs, selected parents of ex-students in Suva, and selected ex-students in

various tertiary institutions in Suva. These were administered through semi-structured

interviews. Those respondents expressed their views and responded well to the

interviewer. Many parents interviewed highlighted similar sentiments as the one

highlighted below:

“Ti taetae mate teaki maku ngkana ti kaekai titiraki ae ko titiraki nira. Ti bon aki maku

kioina bwa tetianai rongorongo bon temanna raora ae ota n ara taetae ni kawai” (PAt).

“We feel comfortable when we are interviewed by a local researcher and we are able to

express ourselves well in vernacular. We fear nothing, because we know that the

researcher can understand the language we speak”.

During the research, respondents shared many challenges. The study identified financial

constraints to be the most common challenge to the parents, and to the school. Most

studies reported that the potential contributors of households are limited by their income

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to support their children as earlier identified by the literature. It is evident that in the

Banaban community on Rabi, some parents do not regard education to be the family

priority. English speaking at school was most difficult to many students at school.

Inadequate teaching resources at the school were the pressing challenges to all teachers.

In addition, the research study identified few respondents who came to Fiji during the

period of displacement in 1945. During the interview, they shared their experiences

since 1945. The study found that people who were displaced in other parts of the world

also shared similar experiences. The societal, economical, cultural and political

challenges were mostly related to the Banaban diaspora. Many of the elders spoke of

their desire to return to their motherland. Others felt that the loss of language was the

direct result of displacement. Their diasporic experience has contributed so much to this

loss and felt that there may be difficulties of language revitalization.

Question 1.3.3: “How do these challenges affect the educational development of the

students at RHS?” The interview questions in relation to this question were mostly

directed to the Principal, teachers, parents and students. Data collection was conducted

through the administration of semi-structured interviews. Data were transcribed,

analyzed and color coded to ensure that the relevant data were used in the final report.

The study found the challenges facing the administration, teachers, students and parents

had both negative and positive impact on students’ performance. For example, the

unreliable means of transportation on the island had resulted in many students walking

to school or not attending school, hence arriving late to school or missing classes. On

the other hand, the policy of compulsory English speaking in school had helped many

students improve their communications skills.

In the early years of establishment, the school lacked qualified and skilled teachers. In

this instance, students’ learning was affected.

Question 1.3.4: “What are some of the changes and opportunities that affect teaching

and learning? Respondents were interviewed. These respondents as earlier mentioned

include: the Principal, Heads of Schools, teachers, parents, and Rabi Councilors for

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collection of data. Like previous research questions, responses from respondents were

very positive and they expressed their views openly.

The research study found that there were many changes and opportunities that were

utilized for the educational improvement of the Banaban students. For example, the

introduction of computing classes exposed students to new technology. It was earlier

noted in the study, that technology can and is making a difference, enabling more and

more people access education training regardless of age, location or background. It was

emphasized that it is important that all children attend school. Other studies, for example

Williams (2000) highlighted that equal educational opportunities to all students is of

paramount importance for their future. She also suggested that at the primary and

secondary levels, free and compulsory education could be legislated and enforced.

In addition, the study also identified potential opportunities that could be utilized in the

future for educational advancement, for example, the possibility of future franchise with

tertiary institution such as the Fiji Institute of Technology to open a vocational section at

the school.

Question 1.3.5: “What roles do these respective governments and agencies play in

providing better educational opportunities to the Banabans: Fiji Government,

Government of Kiribati and the RCL?” The study revealed that the Fiji, Kiribati

Governments and RCL provided scholarships to RHS students to undertake studies at

USP and FIT. However, the RCL ceased the provision of scholarships to the students in

2006. The RCL believed that the Fiji and Kiribati Governments have provided

substantial number of scholarship opportunities to the RHS students. However, the study

found that the RCL only assisted Form 7 parents in subsidizing their children’s school

fees. RCL paid two-thirds of the tuition fees while parents paid one-third.

The existing relevant literature and the study findings identified many issues that may

affect students’ equitable accessibility to education in the rural setting. One issue that is

of great concern to both students and parents is the school’s policy of expulsion, in

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particular, expulsion of those students who breached the school rules during the school

holidays. This policy has become a pressing issue to few parents whose children are

victims.

Furthermore, Leithwood and Aitken (1995) defined equity as a concept that involves

standards of fairness and natural justice and it focuses on students’ access to knowledge

(skills and attitudes). They assert that for many students, dropping out of school is the

final step in a long process of gradual disengagement and reduced participation in the

formal curriculum of the school, as well as in the school’s co-curriculum and more

informal social life.

This study is in congruent with the relevant literature that all schools are vulnerable to

many challenges, whether it is socio-economical, cultural, political or financial. From

the study and literature, it seems that financial problem is the most common challenge to

all rural schools, of which RHS is not exception. Péano, for instance, (1998) states that

population growth and educational development explain why education systems need

more funds. He argues that the increase demand for funds relates to the growing number

of students and teachers, and improvement of learning conditions. He suggests that

international solidarity is vital to enable those countries experiencing the greatest

difficulties, in connection with both demographic pressures and economic transition, to

resolve the present and future problems of educational finance. He advocates that

international aid maybe catalytic in certain educational development projects where

other funding is hard to obtain or is insufficient. In the case of the Pacific Island

Countries (PICs), UNDP (1999) noted that funding for education is under pressure,

especially as Governments act to reduce their level of spending.

The study also discloses that there were many changes brought to the RHS, since its

establishment. These changes were observed to be providing more opportunities to

students. First, changes to the school administration, has brought about improvement in

teaching and learning for both teachers and students alike. The study noted that students

had greatly improved their academic achievement, in particular their communication

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skills. Similar studies had been carried out by Datnow, et al (2006), in a district school in

which the role of district in instructional improvement which has been redefined because

of changes in federal, state and community context. They stated that the school, through

the reform, had improved classroom teaching and student learning.

In addition, the study also reveals the many opportunities available to students at the

school. These include free transportation, financial assistance to Form 7 students, low

fees, Internet access and introduction of ICT in school. The study noted that students

expressed keen interest in ICT, especially the use of computers. But due to high costs

involved, only science students were given the first priority to enrol in the subject.

Williams (2000) stated that rural and geographically isolated students are the most likely

to take advantage of this new system of delivery of education. The World Bank (2005)

reported that ICT offers high-quality education that is centered on student learning and

geared towards relevant skills in demand in the knowledge economy. However, the cost

involved is relatively high.

7.3 Implications of the Study

As the result of the study, many issues, challenges, and opportunities have emerged that

warrant further discussion, analysis and research. The implications, however, is

discussed based on the focus of the study. First, is the issue of what Phillips (1991)

referred to as “migrants voices”, while Soudiun (2004) referred to it as a “marginalized

voice”. The study also raises the notions of “othering” and “hybridity” that have

significant implications for theory. Secondly, is to draw implications of dependence on

foreign aid for further school development, one of the many challenges facing the

school. Further, the evidence of expulsion of students has a clear implication for

educational policy. Following this is the implications for curriculum, focusing on the

need for change and opportunities in relation to teacher education, pedagogy, and

community participation. The few written literature on the Banaban education has

implications for more research on many other aspects of the Banaban community, which

may further other’s understanding of the Banabans, and most importantly for Banabans,

a deeper understanding of themselves.

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7.3.1 Implications for Theory

The three post-colonial notions of “voice”, “othering”, and “hybridity” have

implications for the diasporic population who have established themselves as

community of minorities in a multicultural nation like Fiji. The “voice” of the minorities

is often marginalized in the educational systems as Martin, et al (1995) had stated.

However, Addams (2007) in her own experience with the oppressed, had given the

oppressed the privilege for education. The “voice” of her people amongst the many

Fijian peoples, Nabobo-Baba (2005) in a study of her own people, states that: “the

Vugalei have spoken from their indigenous standpoints, from their positions of comfort,

familiarity and power”.

In this study, the voice of the Banaban immigrants in Fiji had been heard and gave some

space to some extent. Tavola (2000) stated that community and religious organizations

feature prominently among key education stakeholders, providing education for all

ethnic groups in Fiji.

The notion of “othering” is significant in this study, reflecting on the history of

Banabans and of the reasons for being displaced from their former homeland. Colonizers

came to the Pacific having the intention to exploit the primary product (Henry, 2004).

During the colonization period, Europeans came with the notion of being superior in

color and regard the native population as “other”. “Other” is inferior. The post-colonial

framing of this study demonstrate the possibility of having the native population as

superior in their countries regarding the West as “other”, for reasons that indigenous

epistemology is included in schools, universities, through “imagined spaces” in

education of indigenous students where the whole experience strengthens their culture

and knowledge (Nabobo-Baba, 2005). This is true of RHS.

The concept of “hybridity” is an important aspect of post-colonial theory (Siege, 2006).

It is referred to as mixture and has become a useful tool in racial mixing. In this study it

is also noted that even though many students are now part of many cultural groups in

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Fiji, they are still being taught their Banaban culture at the school. “Hybridity” has

empowered this group of people. They have integrated their culture with others in the

education system to resist the oppressive impact of “hybridity” and consider it as

positive, enriching and dynamic (Siege, 2006). This is consistent with Nabobo-Baba

(2005) in stating that “hybridity” can be an effective site for resistance for indigenous

groups.

7.3.2 Implications for Finance

Most development projects at RHS carried out by the Board of Governors and

Management would imply an increase in the school budgets. The Administration at RHS

may need to get in more foreign aid or the Ministry of Education to fund the school

projects. However, if these funds may not be available in time, the school may have to

pressure parents and the community to find alternative means of funding, like

fundraising. This is a pressing concern to parents and stakeholders. Alternatives sources

of financing may need to be found if developments and expansions are to continue

(Nabobo, 1996).

The notion of Education for All (UNESCO, 2006) at the secondary school level is

possible for all Banaban students. It is possible for many reasons. The introduction of

tuition-free policy by the Fiji Government (Tavola, 2000); the low fees offered and free

transportation by the school Board, would enable access to education by the Banaban

students.

An increase in school enrollment would mean more demand on the expansion of

classrooms; increase demand for textbooks and recruitment of more qualified teachers.

In addition, the introduction of ICT at RHS may incur more financial burden on the

Administration and the Board of Governors to increase funding for the school. In

financing education in Fiji, Bacchus (2000) recommends that schools be given more

flexibility to set the fees that they charge. While the Ministry retains the right to approve

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fee increases, it should not restrict schools, which make application such increases,

subject to the following conditions:

• A clear indication of the kind of programs and equipment, which will be funded

by the increase in fees, must be given. The schools should also be expected to

show evidence that extra funds are being used for the approved purpose.

• The majority of parents whose children are attending he school must approve the

fee increases and

• The school must provide a subsidy for students whose parents are unable to pay

the increases in fees.

(Bacchus, 2000, p. 463)

7.3.3 Implications for Educational Policy

Meeting the basic learning needs of rural people in developing countries is clearly a

major challenge to achieving the UNESCO policy of “Education for All” (UNESCO,

2006). The policy means that the school system should provide equal opportunities for

all children to develop their potential (Gouwe & Macleod, 2003). This could be possibly

being achieved through in-service training programs and staff development of teachers.

However, the study conducted at RHS found that the school lacked this program. This

implies that there is a need for more staff development.

Staff development activities according to Gouwe and Macleod (2003) could enhance

‘ownership’ if properly planned and involving a high level of staff participation. This

will in turn promote collegiality and a collaborative culture. Regular in-service training

and development opportunities at school level must allow for sharing of ideas

experiences and the promotion of reflection on action. With the provision of such

support the teacher is more likely to display creativity, initiative and enthusiasm in his or

work that has a direct impact on teaching and learning, leading to school improvement.

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However, through the study, it was identified that the RHS went through possibilities of

improvement, under the new leadership. Consequently, there was a great improvement

in students’ performance. The empowerment of teachers is essential if they are to have

the capacity to deal with situations of complex change, conceptualize such changes and

meet their obligations in terms of their accountability for implementation in the

classroom. It should be realized that in the case of RHS, among other things, the full

commitments of teachers to collaborate with the management is of paramount

importance. Maika and Frier (2003) argue that teacher support is a crucial issue.

Further, the school policy of expulsion of student caught drinking during the holidays is

unfair. It is important that the relevant policy makers at the Ministry of Education re-

look at this problem. The continuity of the expulsion policy would mean more dropouts

from school. This would lead to more uneducated youths leading to an increase number

of unemployed members of society resulting in more social problems. Tavola (2000)

states that people who are deprived of education are often disadvantaged throughout

their lives. They are caught in the “vicious cycle of poverty”. Those involved have poor

education, which leads to lack of skills; poor jobs; lack of money; poor diet, housing,

services and health. Therefore, this calls for alternatives penalties rather than excluding

students from schooling. Unless this is addressed, more dropouts would continue to

exert more social problems in Rabi.

In terms of parental involvement, the study shows that if parents can be involved in their

children’s work, children are likely to achieve more. This implies that teachers should

try to find possible ways of involving parents. From, this study, it is evident that there

are different types of parental involvement. Tito and Hookey (2003) identified similar

parental types of involvements. These include making sure that the child goes to school

regularly and in proper school uniform; checking the child’s work; helping the child

with homework; and attending all meetings and school programs.

The findings also suggest that parents’ historical lack of educational opportunity may

hinder their participation in their children’s learning to some extent, but need not do so

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completely. It has been found that even if parents are not educated, they can play a

significant role in their children’s education. Tito and Hookey (2003) suggest that things

like open days have been cited as ways of involving even those parents who are not

educated. The other area where even those parents who are not educated can be involved

is in homework. Parents may take on a supervisory role, ensuring that children have

done homework. However, if they cannot help with their children’s activity due to

difficulty of subject matter, they could ask someone else to help.

In light of the need for further education at tertiary by students, more scholarship

opportunities must be provided. This implies that Fiji Government and Kiribati

Governments must sustain and increase the provision of scholarships to the minority

population.

7.3.4 Implications for Curriculum Development

There are reasons for curriculum to be changed as Cheong Cheng (1994) cited in Gouwe

and Macleod (2003) states that curriculum change aims to maximize the effectiveness of

teaching and learning through change planned content, activities and arrangement for

educational processes. Gouwe abd Macleod (2003) assume that a “dynamic curriculum

change approach is more suitable, since it includes in its course the development of

teachers competence”. Mathuba and Macleod (2003) argue that curriculum development

cannot happen without teacher development. The study identified the following areas,

which significantly need Curriculum Development, change: Epistemology, Pedagogy

and Community Participation.

(a) Pedagogy

Teachers need to modify their teaching practices and move away from relying on the

chalk and board method of teaching and students to be discouraged from rote learning.

Teachers were observed to have adopted a method of teaching, which is teacher-

centered. In other words, students were spoon feed. Students were observed to be

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passive learners and resort to rote learning (Coxon, 2000). Gouwe and Macleod (2003)

claim that students learn much through active participation in the teaching process. This

implies that partnership should between teachers and students must be made possible in

the school. They should be regarded as partners and that teachers may regard students as

recipients of knowledge in teaching/learning processes. It should be realized that

students can contribute constructively towards effective teaching /learning process.

Furthermore, there is evidence that local teachers were employed by the RCL at the

school to teach students culture, local crafts such as canoe construction (for boys) and

weaving (for girls), and traditional dancing (for both boys and girls). Most of these

cultures have stores of knowledge and understandings, belief and values developed for

so many years and are passed from generation to generation in languages that were

relevant for society and meaningful to learners, Thaman (2002). This implies that the

present curriculum should employ a cultural sensitive curriculum and pedagogy as

suggested by Thaman (1991).

(b) Community Participation

The finding of the study indicates that there is generally lack of community participation

in education at RHS, except for the very few committed parents. This finds support in

Bacchus (2000) stating that in some areas, particularly in rural areas, parents do not

show enough interest and are not actively involved in the schools their children attend.

This implies that more emphasis should be placed on the development of stronger

school/community relations, focusing on enhancing community participation in school

affairs, including school management.

In her study, Koya (2002) argues that there must be an increased collaboration and

stakeholder based decision-making process employed by the school. This is to ensure

that any new proposed school-based curriculum changes received the support of the

parents. Further, schools can also utilize local knowledge and expertise to support

curriculum, particularly in relation to cultural, recreational, sporting and social and

activities.

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7.3.5 Implications for Future Research

As mentioned earlier, there is lack of information on the education of the Banabans, it

implies that there is a need for more written literature to enable more information on

other aspects of Banaban education. This thesis addresses only the historical background

of RHS, challenges, issues, changes and opportunities in the secondary school context

for the Banaban people. The implication for further study is required at the pre-school

level, primary level and the tertiary education. Banaban students at tertiary level and

those undertaking studies should be encouraged by RCL to undertake research in these

areas. Nabobo-Baba (2006) advocates the need for documenting clan, tribe and national

history is an imperative for indigenous researchers.

Further, the study also indicates that very few indigenous researchers have written on the

Banaban people. It is important that indigenous Banaban scholars venture to write and

document aspects of their own Banaban people, history, and culture. Indigenous

researchers are more able to understand the language of instruction when they conduct

the research with their own people. This not ensures that all levels of education for the

Banabans is being researched and documented, but it also serves as a record of immense

cultural and cultural value for the Banaban people.

Lastly, further research on Banaban education not only contribute more to the resource-

based information but also would ensure practical suggestions that may be useful to

stakeholders and policy makers.

7.4 Conclusion

The establishment of RHS on Rabi Island is a great opportunity to the Banaban students

who are in the remote rural part of Fiji. The study has highlighted particular difficulties,

which schools isolated by remoteness, encounter in terms of resources, issues

concerning parents, infrastructure, finance, standard of living, the language barrier and

the problem of the centralized curriculum affecting ethnic minority students.

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Despite the many challenges and issues that exist inside and outside the school, the study

identified many opportunities that enable students to advance learning.

Leadership changes, commitment of teachers, various trends, school developments and

improvements are opportunities for the provision of better and quality education for the

diasporic population in Fiji. The introduction of ICT in school is another area that gives

students greater opportunities to participate in learning new technology in Fiji.

While the study deals primarily with challenges, opportunities and changes in secondary

education (and more explicitly in RHS) that seem relevant to continuing education, it is

immediately apparent that changes relative to the function secondary education plays in

the learning experience of students are as important as specific changes within the

secondary sector itself.

The roles of Fiji Government, Kiribati Government and the RCL have contributed

substantially to the educational development of the Banaban students at RHS. The

provision of tuition-free, school grants, finance to support school developments and

projects, training programs for teachers and curriculum and Multi-Ethnic Affairs

Scholarship, the Fiji Government has equally allowed opportunities to learn for the

Banaban students on Rabi.

The recent newly introduced financial assistance in terms of sponsorship to the

University of the South Pacific by the Kiribati Government has created more educational

opportunities for the students at the tertiary level. The RCL policy of financial assistance

to Form 7 has provided more incentives and opportunities for students at lower forms for

continuity in secondary education. Through this financial assistance, parents are

encouraged to play greater role in supporting their children successfully complete

secondary education.

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Lastly, this research study may be utilized as identifying another possibility or a way

forward for more research work on the education of the Banaban people not only in Fiji

but also in places where the Banabans live in the world today.

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URL:http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/cook_islands/rappor

t_1.htm

Yin, R.K. (2003). Case Study Research Design and methods. (3rd

ed.) London. Sage

Publication

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5. RHS is regarded as a secondary school for a minority group in Fiji. In your

opinion what must be done and best given to this group of students in order to

achieve quality education?

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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APPENDIX V (A)

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS – FORMS 3 AND 4

1. What are challenges (problems) that you face at RHS with:

Principal:_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

V/Principal________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Prefects__________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

TEACHERS:

English___________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Maths____________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Accounting_______________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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Economics________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Home

Economics________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Technical

Drawing__________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Agricultural

Science___________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Basic Science

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

2. Are there solutions to your problems? If Yes_____No______

If yes, what are the solutions used to solve the problems with:

Principal:_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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V/Principal________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Prefects__________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

3. Do you attend school everyday? Yes_________ No__________

If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

4. Do you take lunch to school everyday? Yes_______ No ________

If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

5. Do you go to school on time? Yes_____ No______

If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

7. Is there any problem with the means of transportation in No. 6?

Yes____No_____

If yes, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

8. Do your parents fully support your school work? Yes_____ No_______

If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

9. Do you enjoy attending RHS?Yes____No____

If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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11. Do you wish to have the lessons taught in your mother tongue? Yes___ No____

Explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

12. Do you find it difficult to understand English? Yes ____No____

Explain

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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APPENDIX V (B)

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR SENIOR STUDENTS – FORMS 5, 6, AND 7

(ARTS)

Name (optional) ____________________________________

Village ______________________________________

Gender (Female/Male):_________________Age: __________Form 5, 6 or 7 (ARTS)


Principal:_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

V/Principal________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Prefects__________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

TEACHERS:

English___________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Maths____________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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Accounting_______________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Economics________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

History___________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Geography________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Agricultural

Science___________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________



Principal:_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

V/Principal________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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Prefects__________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


Yes____No_____

If yes, explain.

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_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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11. Do you wish to have the lessons taught in your mother tongue? Yes___ No

Explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


Explain

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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APPENDIX VI (C)

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR SENIOR STUDENTS – FORMS 5, 6, AND 7

SCIENCE

Name (optional) ____________________________________

Village ___________________________________________

Gender (Female/Male):_________________Age: __________Form 5, 6 or 7(Science)


Principal:_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

V/Principal________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Prefects__________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

TEACHERS:

English___________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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Maths____________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Physics___________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Chemistry________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Biology__________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Information

Technology_______________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Agricultural

Science___________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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Principal:_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

V/Principal________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Prefects__________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


Yes____No_____

If yes, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


If no, explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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11. Do you wish to have the lessons taught in your mother tongue? Yes___ No____

Explain.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________


Explain

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

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