DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 031 435By-Frymier, Jack R., Ed.A Workshop in the Analysis of Teaching; Interaction Analysis, Norwerbal Communication, Microteaching,Simulation.

Ohio State Univ., Columbus. School of Education.Spons Agency- Amehcan Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, Washington, D.C.

Pub Date Dec 68Note-51p.Available from-THEORY INTO PRACTICE, 249 Arps Hall, 1945 North High Street, Columbus, Ohio 43210($1.50)

Journal Cit -Theory into Practice; v7 n5 Dec 1968EDRS Price MF-$0.25 HC-$2.65Descriptors-Classroom Communication, Classroom Observation Techniques, *Interaction Process Analysis,*Microteaching, Models, *Nonverbal Communication, *Simulation, *Teacher Education, Teacher Supervision,Training Techniques

Articles is this issue represent the substantive content of a series of 25workshops sponsored by the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education(AACTE). The four marr articles discuss innovative models based on four approachesfor improving teacher performance; (1) "Interaction Analysis" by Edmund J. Amidon,San Francisco State College; (2) "Nonverbal Communication" by Charles M. Galloway,The Ohio State University; (3) "Microteaching" by Dwight W. Allen and Arthur S. Eve,University of Massachusetts; and (4) "Simulation" by Donald R. Cruickshank, TheUniversity of Tennessee. With the description of each model are the concepts,vocabulary, data, and the instrumental acts necessary for understanding. Each modelis followed by an article written by teacher educators who have used the model in aneducational setting: Douglas L. Minnis and Kenneth Shrable, University of California;Sue S. Lail, University of Kentucky; David B. Young, University of Maryland, Dorothy A.Young, Johns Hopkins University; Clennon Rowell, Florida State University. The finalarticle by Asahel D. Woodruff, University of Utah, presents "The Rationale" on whichthe AACTE workshops were focused--a model of learning which allowed forparticipant involvement and freedom and provided a context to present the utihzationof media and new technology. (JS)

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markshop in the Analysis of Teaching

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157 This IssueWalter J. Mars

159 Interaction AnalysisEdmund J. Amidon

168 The Model in UseDouglas L. Minnis and Kenneth Shrable

172 Nonverbal CommunicationCharles M. Galloway

176 The Model in UseSue S. Lail

181 MicroteachingDwight W. Allen and Arthur S. Eve

186 The Model in UseDavid B. Young and Dorothy A. Young

190 SimulationDonald R. Cruickshank

194 The Model in UseGlennon Rowell

197 The RationaleAsahel D. Woodruff

203 Index to Volume VII

JACK R. FRYMIER, editorCHARLES M. GALLOWAY, associate editor

GRACE VAN AM, associate editor

SUSAN L CALHOUN, editorial assistant

JILL GINSBURG, editorial assistant

Volume VII umber 5, December 1963

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talk, gesture, skills, realities . . .

This Issue

We no longer suffer in education from a lackof creative and innovative approaches to ourproblems in teacher education.

We can see in the work of such research anddevelopment centers as the University of Pitts-burgh the development of programs which in-dividualize instruction for every elementaryschool child. In Georgia, thousands of teachersare being upgraded through the use of televisionin a statewide inservice education program ofthe University of Georgia.

Many schools like the University of Connecti-cut, Fordham University, and Temple Universityhave researched and experimented with newmethods for teaching disadvantaged youth andnew programs for preparing teachers to worksuccessfully with children in the inner city.

These programs and many others like themare dependent upon the active involvement ofteachers. Without it, new programs and newapproaches to old problems stand little chanceof success.

At the heart of any innovative effort is thepreparation of preservice teachers and the re-training of those already in professional service.Numerous examples of new and innovative ap-proaches to the preservice and inservice educa-tion of teachers can be identified that underscorethe realization of the teacher's critical role. Inmany inservice and preservice efforts for teacherimprovement, educators are implementing tech-niques of both verbal and nonverbal observationand analysis, as well as systems of controlled

practice aimed at specific aspects of teaching orfocused on the needs of pupils and environ-mental and social factors.

In the following pages in articles by EdmundJ. Amidon, Charles M. Galloway, Dwight W.Allen, and Donald R. Cruickshank, four innova-tive models based upon these approaches forimproving teacher performance are discussedmicroteaching, interaction analysis, nonverbalcommunication, and simulation. With the de-scription of each model are the concepts, vocab-ulary, data, and the instrumental acts necessaryfor understanding. Each model is followed by anarticle written by a teacher educator who hasactually used the model in an educational setting.

These four particular approaches were pre-sented together in recent months in a series oftwenty-five workshops to more than a thousandteacher educators throughout the country underthe sponsorship of the American Association ofColleges for Teacher Education.

In such attempts to disseminate the results ofresearch in educational conferences, meetings,conventions, workshops, and seminars ( and forthat matter, in the classroom ), we too oftenignore or do real violence to what we know abouthow learning takes place. We tend to talk aboutour material and talk at our intended audiencethe effect has been to provide considerable in-formation about but really little knowledge ofa subject. The result has been a lack of sufficientunderstanding to make intelligent decisions con-cerning implementation.

157

A dissemination project that has participantlearning as a major goal requires conditions thatmake behavioral development possible to avoidsuch pitfalls. Thus, the AACTE workshop wasdesigned to allow real or simulated demonstra-tion in a manner consistent with an accepted ap-proach to learning. The Woodruff cyberneticcycle of behavior model was adopted as therationale. This theory which served as the work-ing model for the workshop is largely that dis-cussed in the final article by Asahel D. Woodruff.

In the following pages, THEORY INTO PRACTICEpresents the substantive content of this work-shop. However, since the workshop involved amaximum amount of interaction between pre-sentors and participants, our attempt in this issueis like constructing a three dimensional figureon a two dimensional plane. Much is left to yourinterpretation. The missing dimension is yourinvolvement. This is vital, for in the finalanalysis, the responsibility for whether any pro-gress is made at all through such efforts as the

158

workshop or such innovations as interactionanalysis, nonverbal communication, microteach-ing, or simulation remains with an individualteacher, supervisor, or teacher educatorwithyou. If you believe that to help students andteachers better understand the what and why ofteaching behavior is a critical and essentialactivity in teacher improvement, these pagescan help.

The innovative components which are dis-,cussed are systems and techniques that focus onthe realities of the teaching situation and thatprovide workable approaches to teacher improve-ment. They are based on what all teachers havein commonfor all teachers, regardless of levelor subject, talk, gesture, need certain skills, andneed to be sensitive to the realities of the class-room.

Walter J. Mars, Guest EditorAssociate Secretary

American Association ofColleges for Teacher Education

talk .

To help students and teacher `)be more self-analytical and macprecise in stating their instructionalobjectives many teacher trainingprograms and inservice efforts areusing techniques such as interactionanalysis. Such a system allows theindividual teacher to understandmore clearly the degrees and kindsof influences he exercises in theclassroom through the activity inwhich he is most often engagedtalking.

Interaction Analysis

Interaction Analysis is a system for describingand analyzing teacher-pupil verbal interaction.Although this particular approach has been usedfor classroom research for nearly twenty years,its use has become widespread only during thelast four years. It has found its way into manydifferent kinds of educational programsbothresearch and developmental. Basically, Interac-tion Analysis has been used to help quantifyteacher verbal behavior. The system can also beused to study the relationship between teachingstyle and pupil achievement.

A recent application of Interaction Analysishas been in teacher education. It has proven use-ful in educational psychology and educationcourses as a tool for analyzing U. acher behavior.Research on teacher-pupil interaction patternshas also provided the basis for education or edu-cational psychology courses concerned with theteacher's role and behavior in the classroom. Itis also a valuable tool in courses concerned withobservation skills. The greatest use of InteractionAnalysis has probably been in student teachingor teaching internships. In such activities, thetool is used for several basic purposes: (1) de-veloping skill in observation of teaching; ( 2 )providing a tool for the analysis of teaching; ( 3 )providing a tool for feedback about one's teach-ing; ( 4 ) setting a framework for practicing andlearning specific teaching skills; and ; ) pro-

Editor's Note: Dr. Amidon is Professor of Educa-tional Psychology and Psychology at Temple Uni-versity. He is on leave for the current academic year.

Edmund J. AmidonVisiting ProfessorSan Francisco State College

viding a framework for conceptualizing anddeveloping various teaching styles. Inserviceteacher education projects employing InteractionAnalysis are also geared toward these objectives.

Projects testing Interaction AI alysis in teachereducation have demonstrated that the use ofInteraction Analysis as a teacher training toolresults in specific changes in teacher behaviorteachers have usually become more acceptingand less critical. Their classes are also character-ized by a greater number of student initiatedcomments.

In Interaction Analysis observation, all teacherstatements are classified as either indirect ordirect. This classification gives central attentionto the amount of freedom granted the studentby the teacher. Therefore, in a given situation,a teacher has a choice. He can be direct, mini-mizing the freedom of the student to respond,or he can be indirect, maximizing such freedom.His choice, conscious or unconscious, dependsupon many factors, among which are his per-ceptions of the classroom interaction and thegoals of the particular learning situation.

To make total classroom behavior or inter-action meaningful, Interaction Analysis alsoprovides for the categorizing of student talk.A third major section, that of silence or con-fusion, is included to account for the time spent

159

Summary of Categories for Interaction Analysis

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1. ACCEPTS FEELING: accepts andclarifies the feeling tone of the students ina nonthreatening manner. Feelings maybe positive or negative. Predicting or re-calling feelings is included.

2. PRAISES OR ENCOURAGES:praises or encourages student action orbehavior. Jokes that release tension, butnot at the expense of another individual;nodding head, or saying "urn hm?" or "goon" are included.

3. ACCEPTS OR USES IDEAS OFSTUDENTS: clarifies, builds, or developsideas suggested by a student. As teacherbrings more of his own ideas into play,shift to Category 5.

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4. ASKS WIESTIONS: asks a ques-tion about contt. fit or procedure with theintent that a student answer.

5. LECTURING: gives facts or opin-ions about content or procedures; ex-presses his own ideas; asks rhetoricalquestions.

6. GIVING DIRECTIONS: directions,.commands, or orders with which a stu-dent is expected to comply.

7. CRITICIZING OR JUSTIFYINGAUTHORITY : statements intended tochange student behavior from nonaccept-able to acceptable pattern; bawlins some-one out; stating why the teacher is doingwhat he is doing; extreme self-reference.

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8. STUDENT TALKRESPONSE:talk by students in response to teacher.Teacher initiates the contact or solicitsstudent statement.

9. STUDENT TALKINITIATION:talk by students, which they initiate. If"calling on" student is only to indicatewho may talk next, observer must decidewhether student wanted to talk. If hedid, use this category.

10. SILENCE OR CONFUSION: paus-es, short periods of silence, and periodsof confusion in which communication can-not be understood by observer.

160

in behavior other than that which can be classi-fied as either teacher or student talk.

All statements in the classroom, then, arecategorked into one of three major sections:(1 ) teacher talk, ( 2 ) student talk, and ( 3)silence, confusion, or anything other thanteacher or student talk.

The larger sections of teacher and studentverbal behavior are subdivided to make thetotal pattern of teacher-pupil interaction moremeaningful. The two subdivisions for teacherverbal behavior, indirect and direct teachertalk, are further divided into categories: (1)accepting feeling, ( 2 ) praising or encouraging,( 3 ) accepting ideas, and ( 4 ) asking questions.Direct influence is divided into three categories:( 5 ) lecturing, ( 6 ) giving directions, an 1. ( )

criticizing oe justifying authority. Student talkis divided intc only two categories: ( 8 ) respond-ing to teacher, and ( 9 ) initiating talk. All aremutually exclusive; yet together, are totally in-clusive rf, all verbal interaction occurring in theclassroom. A description of these categories isdescribed in the summary on this page.

There is no scale implied by the numbers.Each number is classificatory; it designates aparticular kind of communication event. Towrite these numbers down during observationis to enumeratenot to judge a position on ascale.

Interaction Analysis, originally used as a re-search tool, is employed by a trained observerto collect reliable data regarding classroom be-havior as a part of a research project.

The system is especially meaningful as aninservice training device for teachers. It maybe employed by a teacher either as he observessomeone else teach or as he categorizes a taperecording of his own classroom behavior. Ineither case, the method is the same.

Every three seconds the observer writes downthe category number of the interaction he hasjust observed. He records these numbers insequence in a column, usually about twentynumbers per minute; thus, at the end of a periodof time, he Will have several long columns ofnumbers. It is important to keep the tempo assteady as possible, but even more crucial is tobe accurate. The observer may also make mar-ginal notes from time to time to explain class-room happenings as analysis is developed.

The observer stops classifying whenever class-room activity is changed so that observing isinappropriate, when, for example, there are

various groups working around the classroomor when children are working in workbooks ordoing silent reading. He usually draws a lineunder the recorded numbers, makes a note ofthe new activity, and resumes categorizing whenthe total class discussion continues. The ob-server always identifies the kind of class activityhe is observingthe reading group in the ele-mentary school is obviously different from aninformal discussion period, a review of subjectmatter, a period of supervised seat work,teacher-directed discussion, introduction of newmaterial, or evaluation of a completed unit. Suchdiverse activities may be expected to showdifferent types of teacher-pupil interaction, evenwhen guided by the same teacher. A shift tonew activity should also be noted.

A thorough knowledge of the categories andmuch practice to achieve accuracy are basic tothe use of this technique for analyzing teacher-pupil interaction.

There is a method of recording the sequenceof classroom events so that certain facts becomereadily apparent. This consists of entering thesequence of numbers into a 10-row by 10-columntable, called a matrix ( see Table 1 ). The gen-eralized sequence of the teacher-pupil inter-action can be examined readily in this matrix.How an observer would classify and record inthe matrix what occurs in a classroom is illus-trated in the following example.

A fifth-grade teacher is beginning a socialstudies lesson. The observer has been sitting inthe classroom for several minutes and has begunto get some idea of the general climate. Theteacher begins, "Boys and girls, please openyour social studies books to page 5." ( Observerclassifies this as a 6, followed by a 10 becauseof the period of silence and confusion as thechildren try to find the page. )

Then, the teacher says, "Jimmy, we are wait-ing for you. Will you please turn your book topage 5?" ( Observer records a 7 and a 6. )

"I know now," continues the teacher, "thatsome of us had a little difficulty with, and werea little disturbed by, the study of this chapteryesterday; I think that today we are going tofind it more exciting and interesting." ( Observerrecords two l's, reacting to feeling. )

"Now, has anyone had a chance to think aboutwhat we discussed yesterday?" ( Observer re-cords a 4 for a question. )

A student answers, "I thought about it, and itseems to me that the reason we are in so much

trouble in Southeast Asia is that we reallyhaven't had a chance to understand the ways ofthe people who live there." ( Observer recordsthree 9's. )

The teacher responds by saying, "Good, I amglad that you suggested that, John. Now let mesee if I understand your idea completely. Youhave suggested that if we had known the peoplebetter in Southeast Asia, we might not be in thetrouble we are in today." ( This is classified as a2, followed by two 3's. )

The observer has now classified the followingsequence of numbers in this fashion ( the use ofa 10 at the beginning and end of the sequence isexplained in the discussion that follows ):

4th pair

1st pair

3rd pair

Tabulations are now made in the matrix torepresent pairs of numbers. Notice in the abovelisting that the numbers have been marked offin pairsthe first pair is 10-6; the second is 6-10,etc The particular cell in which tabulation ofthe pair of numbers is made is determined byusing the first number in the pair tc, indicatethe row and second number in the pair for thecolumn. Thus, 10-6 would be shown by a tallyin the cell formed by row 10 and column 6. Thesecond pair, 6-10, would be shown in the cellformed by row 6 and column 10. The third pair,10-7, is entered into the cell, row 10 and column7. Each pair of numbers overlaps with theprevious pair, and each number, except the firstand the last, is used twice. This is the reasonthat a 10 is entered as the first number and thelast number in the record. This number ischosen because it is convenient to assume thateach record began and ended with silence. Thisprocedure also permits the total of each columnto equal the total of the corresponding row.

Checking the tabulations in the matrix foraccuracy is easily done by noting that thereshould be one less tally in the matrix than thereare numbers entered in the original observationrecord ( N-1 ). In this example, there are 15

161

numbers and the total number of tallies in thematrix is 14. This tabulation is shown in Table 1.

First

TABLE 1Sample Interaction Matrix

Second

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 1

2

3 1

5

6 1

7 1

8

9 1 2

10 1 1

trotal 2 1 2 1 0 2 1 0 3 2

cir

MatrixTotal

14

Ordinarily a separate matrix is made for eachspecific lesson or major activity. If the observeris categorizing forty minutes of arithmetic andtwenty minutes of social studies, he makes onematrix for the arithmetic and another for thesocial studies. If a secondary teacher has athirty-minute discussion period, followed by atwenty-minute period of more structured lec-ture in another area, then the observer usuallymakes two separate matrices. Matrices are moremeaningful when they represent a single typeof activity or work.

After the observer tabulates a matrix, he thenhas to describe the classroom interaction. Thereare several ways of doing this, but he begins byreporting the different kinds of statements interms of percentages. The first step is computingthe percentage of tallies in each column to de-termine the proportion of the total interactionin the observed classroom situation found ineach category. This is done by dividing each ofthe column totals, 1 through 10, by the totalnumber of tallies in the matrix. A similar pro-cedure is used to determine the percentage oftotal teacher talk in each category. This is doneby dividing the total of each category, 1 through7, by the sum of these seven categories. For ex-ample in Table 2 the teacher had 105 tallies162

in columns 1-7. If 10 of these tallies are in col-umn 3, then 1') is divided by 105, and the amountof teacher talk that falls into category 3 is ap-proximately 91/2 per cent of the total amount ofteacher talk. The pattern of interaction that theteacher has used with the class is now evident.

The total percentage of teacher talk that isof prime importance in interpreting the matrixis found by dividing the total number of talliesin columns 1 through 7 by the total number oftallies in the matrix. There are 150 tallies in amatrix, 105 of which are in columns 1-7 (Table2 ). This teacher talked 70 per cent of the totalobservation time.

To find the percentage of student talk, thetotal number of tallies in columns 8 and 9 isdivided by the total number of tallies in thematrix. Assuming that columns 8 and 9 con-tained 42 tallies, the students talked 28 per centof the time. A total of three tallies in column 10,when divided by 150, shows that 2 per cent of thetime was spent in silence or confusion.

Next the observer focuses on the relative num-ber of indirect and direct teacher statements.The total number of tallies in columns 1, 2, 3,and 4 is divided by the total number of talliesin columns 5, 6, and 7, plus the total in columns1, 2, 3, and 4, to find the I/D ratio or the ratio

First

TABLE 2A Typical Illustration

Second

1 2 3 4 5 ( 7 11 9 10

1 1 1 1

4 1 2

'4111/ 1 0 1 2

1 14 5

5 1 48 0

4

7 4 1

8 2 2 5 II 4 11

9 1 1 9110 1 2

Total3 7 10 20 55 5 5 30 12 .

(,;.. 2 41,.:1 61/.', 131:. 361", 3;4:2 :M;:' 20 8 2

MatrixTotal

150

TEACHER TALK STUDENT TALK

Columns 1-7 i'f,7 105 Columns 8-9 L-.]105 -;- 150 L] 10 42 -:- 150 Li 28'.;

Indirect (1-4) Direct (1-4) plus (5-7) t7_, IlD Ratio40

40 -:= 40 plus 65 .38105

Indirect (1-3) -:- Direct (1-3) plus (0-7) Revised I/D Ratio20

20 20 plus 10 .6730

of indirect to direct teacher statements. An I/Dratio of .5 means that for every indirect state-ment there was one direct statement; ,f,,n I/Dratio of .67 meaua that for every Lwo iudirectstatements there was only one direct statement,etc.

A revised I/D ratio is used to find the kind ofemphasis given to motivation and control in aparticular classroom. The number of tallies incolumns 1, 2, and 3 is divided by the numberof tallies in columns 1, 2, 3, plus those in 6 and7, to find this revised ratio. Categories 1, 2, 3, 6,and 7 are more concerned with motivation andcontrol in the classroom and less concerned withthe actual presentation of subject matter. Thisratio eliminates the effects of categories 4 and 5,lecture and asking questions, and gives informa-tion about whether the teacher is direct or in-direct in his approach.

The matrix is a convenient device for analyz-ing the summarized teacher-pupil interactiondata. By studying the matrix, the observer willbe able to identify those cells in which he hasheavy buildups of tallies, as well as those inwhich there are no tallies.

TABLE 3Matrix A

Content Cross

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Matrix A, Table 3, illustrates two of the mostcommon teacher. verbal behaviors. This lessonis based on content and the teacher is engagedin both presenting and soliciting information.The steady state cells (5-5, 44) reveal that boththe lecture and questions are at times extended.An examination of each of the transition cellsin rows and columns 4 and 5 indicates the verbalbehaviors that precede and follow each instanceof lecture or questions. The type of student talk(narrow vs. broad; factual vs. divergent) may re-veal something about the cognitive level of the

questions asked by the ti.iacher (4-8, 4-9). Ques-tions may include or foP- the presentation ofinformation (4-5, 5-4).

Following are some of the questions answeredby analysis of this section of the matrix:

1. What types of questions (examine the 4-8and 4-9 cells) does the teacher ask?

2. Are the questions long or short (examinethe 4-4 cell)?

3. What verbal behaviors follow the questions(examine row 4)?

4 Is the lecture long or short (examine the5-5 cell)?

5. Is the lecture interspersed with student in-itiated talk (examine the 5-9 cell)?

6. Is the lecture followed by teacher questions(examine 5 4 cell)?

Table 4, Matrix B, shows cells referred to asthe "steady state cells." Only when the behaviorremains in a single category for six seconds orlonger will thcre be tallies in these cells. If, forexample, there is a tally in the 4-4 cell it meansthat a question was fairly long (at least 6 sec-onds). These 10 cells are the only cells that iden-tify continuous talk in a category; all others aretransitional, representing movement from onecategory to another.

A comparison of these 10 diagonal cells withthe transition cells gives an idea about the pace

TABLE 4Matrix 13

lteady State Cells

1

9 3 or 6 10 T

2 _3

7_8

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of interaction in the classroom. Heavy loadingin the diagonal cells indicates slower paceheavy loading in the transition cells indicates aquick pace.

Matrix C illustrates the teacher verbal be-haviors preceding the pupil verbal behaviors.Analysis of the fourteen cells in columns 8 and9, rows 1 through 7, indicates those teacherstatements likely to produce student talk andwhether this student talk is responsive or in-itiatory. Since student talk invariably followsquestions or directions, heavy loadings in other

163

than 4-8, 4-9, 6-8, and 6-9 cells may indicateatypical classroom interaction patterns. For ex-ample, a large number of tallies in the 5-9 cellmight indicate that the teacher's lecture wasinterspersed with students' questions or com-ments. Heavy concentration in the 5-9 and 7-9cells might indicate student resistance to the lec-ture or the teacher's control. On the other hand,tallies in the 2-9 and 3-9 cells might indicate adiscussion in which the students willingly par-ticipated or offered their own ideas.

Matrix D illustrates the various teacher verbalbehaviors following the various pupil verbal be-haviors. Analysis of the cells in rows 8 and 9,columns 1 through 7, indicates those teacherstatements which follow student talk. A compari-son of cells 8-1, 8-2, 8-3, 8-4, 9-1, 9-2, 9-3, 9-4 with8-5, 8-6, 8-7, 9-5, 9-6, 9-7 determines whether ateacher is indirect or direct in his reactions tostudent talk. Comparison between rows 8 and 9reveals whether a teacher reacts differently toresponsive t1-an to initiatory student talk.

TABLE 5Matrix C

Student alk Following Teacher Talk

1 3 4 6 7 9 I 101

5

7

910

TABLE 6Matrix D

Teacher Reaction to Student Talk

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10

123456789

10

Matrix E represents the teacher's emphasison using student ideas, extending and amplify-ing student statements, accepting and enlargingupon student feelings, and giving long state-ments of praise. It also includes transition fromone of the three categories to another. A highfrequency in cells indicated in Table 7 showsthe extent that the teacher extends (in time) in-direct influence.

Table 8 indicates the teacher's emphasis oncriticism and giving lengthy direction or mov-ing from one to the other. In general, tabulationsin this area suggest extended direct influence bythe teacher and a heavy focus on the use ofauthority. One pattern often observed shows ateacher giving a direction that is not followed.Criticism ensues, and the teacher repeats thedirection or gives a new direction. If it is notfollowed, the teacher again criticizes. Behaviorshown in the pattern 6-6, 6-7, 7-6, 7-7 oftenindicates discipline problems or student rejectionof teacher influence. High frequencies in the 6-6cell alone do not necessarily reflect on discipline.

TABLE 7Matrix E

Extended Indirect Influence

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 T123456789

10T

TABLE 8Matrix F

Extended Direct Influence

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 T123456789

10T

-11

The interaction matrix can be used most ef-fectively as a diagnostic and planning device.The teacher, student teacher, or teaching internfirst learns to recognize and code examples ofthe behavioral categories in classroom verbalinteraction. He then learns to construct and tointerpret an interaction matrix.

The next step consists of planning his ownbehavioral strategy for a particular lesson. Thisis done by taking a blank matrix and sketchingin the cells those behaviors he intends to utilize.After teaching the lesson, the supervisor andteacher, using the matrix as a focus, analyze thelesson. It is important to tape record the lessonso that various segments can be rechecked. Thefollowing indicates the important steps in thissupervisory process.

Statement of Objectives. The supervisor asksthe teacher to state those teaching behaviorshe intends to use in his lesson (in terms of anInteraction Analysis matrix). This "statement ofobjectives" identifies the behaviors in terms ofcategory codes and corresponds to the matrixestablished by the teacher as his teaching strate-gy. However, the actual interaction matrix mayvary from the proposed strategy if the teacherdecides it is necessary to modify this plan onceteaching has begun.

Data Collection. The second step is to collectInteraction Analysis data by coding the teacher-pupil behaviors and tape recording the lesson.

Analysis. The third step consists of comparingthe proposed strategy for teaching the lessonwith the data collected during fhe actual instruc-tion. An example might show how this is accom-'shed.

In Step 1 the teacher has stated his objectiveto ask broad questions (divergent or evaluativecategory 4) so that the students will have achance to state their opinions, feelings, and ideas(category 9). Reactions will be statements thatacknowledge, clarify, and/or summarize thesestudent contributions (category 3). The teacheralso intended to allow the students to talk anequal amount of time ( ratio of 1-7 ). The matrix

8-9in Table 9 illustrates this teacher's proposedteaching strategy. It is labeled "ideal," for itrepresents his behavioral ideals or intentions fora particular lesson.

The first step is to identify on the matrix thepattern the teacher has planned: ( 1 ) a broadquestion (divergent or evaluative) followed bystudent idea, feeling, or opinion (this would indi-cate the 4-9 cell); (2) student comments would

TABLE 9Ideal Matrix

(Proposed Strategy)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 T1 02 7 73 1 14 12 1 13 X 1 275 2 12 1 1 1 176 3 2 57 6 1 3 108 7 1 3 2 4 2 199 X X 0

10 3 3 1 2 5 14T 0 7 1 27 17 5 10 19 0 14 100

be fairly long, at least 6 seconds (9-9 cell); (3)comments would be followed by acknowledging,clarifying, or summarizing remarks by theteacher (9-3 cell); and (4) the clarifying andsummarizing statements would be fairly long, atleast six seconds (the 3-3 cell).

Cells indicating the teacher's intended patternare shown with X's in the matrix.

The next step is to identify the actual inter-action pattern produced in the matrix. Theteaching pattern analysis procedure for this par-ticular lesson is as follows:

1. Identify (circle) the largest interaction cellin the matrix. This is the first move in the pat-tern (4-8 cell). An interaction cell is one that isidentified at the intersection of two differentcategories. There are 90 interaction cells. Theyinclude all cells in the matrix except the tentransition cells 1-1, 2-2, 3-3, 4-4, 5-5, 6-6, 7-7, 8-8,9-9, and 10-10.

2. Use the second number in move 1, 8, to lo-cate a row and circle the largest interaction cellin that row (8-2). This cell is the second move.

3. Use the second number in the cell identifiedas move two and locate the corresponding row(2). Circle the largest interaction cell in this row(2-4). This cell is the third move.

4. Follow this procedure and identify thelargest interaction cell in the row correspondingto the second number in the cell in the thirdmove. This is cell 4-8 and completes the patternbecause 4-8 was the first move in the pattern.Then draw arrows to attach these cells circled insteps 1, 2, 3, and 4. The arrows and circles indi-cate the lesson teaching pattern. Because the 4-4cell is (1) as large as the smallest cell in thepattern, and (2) includes a category that occursin the pattern, it is joined to the pattern with abroken line. This is considered an extension tothe pattern; that is, the basic interaction patternis 4-8-2-4, but the 4's are longer than a single

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tally so the actual series of numbers most fre-quently ocr.urring is 4-4-8-2-4.

The X's in the matrix identify a pattern, in-cluding the extension, of 4-9-9-3-3-4. The plannedprogram represented by the X's is different fromthe pattern taught, so analysis supports the con-clusion that the teacher did not achieve histeaching objectives.

Feedback. The feedback step should help theteacher determine why he did not achieve histeaching objectives. The teacher might want toplay the audio tape of his lesson or to study thematrix carefully, using the various areas of thematrix ( see Tables 3 and 8 ). After clarifyingthe specific skills needed to accomplish his teach-ing objectives, the teacher will practice them.

Practice. The teacher needs to practice bothquestioning and accepting, clarifying, and sum-marizing student ideas. At this point, a SkillDevelopment in Teaching model may be used todevelop these two skills. As follows, this programemploys a microteaching model with the appli-cation of Interaction Analysis for stating objec-tives, collecting data, and giving feedback to theteacher.

Five steps are involved: (1) selecting the ap-propriate objectives, ( 2 ) the skill session, (3)data collection, (4) feedback, (5) practice orreteach.

1. Stating Objectives. The teacher selects thespecific skill he needs to practice on the basis ofthe diagnosis just described in the supervisorymodel. He uses the Expanded Interaction Analy-sis categories ( see Table 10 ) to operationalizethe specific skills he will practice. In the examplein this paper, he has two skills to work on: ques-tions and acceptance, acknowledgment, clarify-ing and summarizing student ideas. Because ofthe need to get intensive practice with a skill,the teacher would therefore practice one skill ata time; the first would probably use questioningas an example.

2. Skill Session. The teacher teaches a micro-lesson that includes the following specifications:

(1) A simple content objective that can beachieved in about five minutes and that wouldalso be appropriate to asking different types ofquestions.

(2) Five students to participate in the skillsessions. This number may vary but should be nogreater than ten. The students can be childrenor other teachers playing student roles.

(3 ) Two each of the four types of questions:Ffactual, Cconvergent, Ddivergent, Eevaluative questions.

(4) If (3 ) is not accomplished, the micro-teaching will be repeated.166

TABLE 10The Expanded Interaction Analysis Categories

1. Acceptance of Student FeelingsaAcknowledgmentrecognizes a student's

feelingcClarificationrelates expressed feeling to

probable causerReferencecompares expressed feelings to

feelings of others or the teacher2. Praise of Student Contribution

WWithout criteriano reason for praise isgiven

PPublic criteriacriteria for praise is givenand represents publicly accepted reason

pPrivate criteriacriteria given as teacher'sown feelings or value

3. Acceptance of Student IdeasaAcknowledgmentfirst recognizes the stu-

dent's idea by mentioning name of student.cClarification--rephrases or restates ideadSummarizationenumerates or organizes

ideas of several students4. Questions

fFactualasks for fact or specific informa-tion

cConvergentasks student to solve problemwith specific information

dDivergentasks student to predict or specu-late

eEvaluativeasks student to express opin-ion, feeling, or judgment

5. LectureFFactualgives facts or informationMMotivationgives enthusiasm or interest to

topic0Orientation--gives overview of materialPPersonalgives teacher's opinion about sub-

ject being discussed6. Giving Directions

CCognitiveintended to direct student on anintellectual task

dManagerialintended to direct physical ac-tivity related to managerial task

7. CriticismWWithout criteriano reason for criticism is

givenPPublic criteriacriteria for the criticism is

given and represents a publicly acceptedreason

pPrivate criteriacriteria given as teacher'sown feelings or value

8. Student Talk ResponsefFactualfactual answer usually in response

to 4Fc--Convergentconvergent answer usually in

response to 4C9. Student Talk Situation

dDivergentdivergent answer usually fol-lows a 4d

eEvaluativeevaluative answer usually fol-lows a 4C

iInitiationstudent makes statement withoutbeing asked a question

10. Silence or Confusion10Ten Conventionused to indicate a change

in student speakersSilencepause of three seconds of silence

Confusionperiods when no single speakercan be identified

3. Data Collection. A basic source of data col-lection is the supervisor's recording using theExpanded Interaction Analysis categories. Inthe instance of the skill session on questions, thesupervisor would use the basic Interaction A-nalysis categories 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 10, as wellas using subdivisions of 4f, c, d, and e and 8f, c,9d, e, and i. This is because the teaching objec-tives for the skill session are concerned withquestions and how children respond to questions.

In addition to the Interaction Analysis data,other sources of data are available, such as videoand audio tape recorders. Usually audio tape re-corders are available and can be used to verifyInteraction Analysis data. The video tape re-corder is particularly important for analysis ofnonverbal behavior. It is also useful to collect thereactions of the students to teacher behavior. Inthe example used here, specific questions wouldbe similar to the following:1. Did the teacher ask for student opinions?

Yes Not NoSure

2. Did the teacher ask questions that gave you achance to do original thinking?

Yes Not NoSure

Another important source of data is the super-visor who should make note of anything that willhelp in the feedback session following the micro-teaching.

4. Feedback. The focus of the feedback sessionis on the comparison of the session objectivewith the data collected during the session. Therole of the supervisor is to focus the discussionon the data collected, not to evaluate the teach-er's effect except in terms of the objective for thesession. The advantages of this kind of feedbacksession are that the supervisor doesn't need totell a teacher he has failed. If the data show that

the teacher has not met the objectives, the teach-er can tell himself he has failed. In many cases,by listening and watching a tape replay, theteacher will gain further insight into teaching.

5. Practice. The last step in the program isreteach the lesson, if the teacher is not success-ful. If, for example, the teacher is unable to askdivergent questions, then the skill session wouldbe concerned only with that type of question.

The program described here seems to havea number of advantages. First, the use ofcategories makes teaching objectives easily de-finable. Specific teaching skills are defined ascategories that both teachers and supervisors canunderstand. Second, using categories with opera-tionally agreed upon definitions improves com-munication by providing a common language forsupervisors to use when discussing teaching.Third, the observation of the supervisor is morereliable than in the case of unstructured obser-vation. Fourth, the teacher's observational skillis increased so that he has a new tool for learn-ing; and, fifth, because the supervisor no longerneeds to evaluate the teaching session, the rela-tionship between teacher and supervisor shouldbe improved.

Educators often find it difficult to determinewhat "teaching principles" to emphasize inteacher education. Without a firm empirical re-search base, this is a serious problem. Theassumption underlying this program statesthat teachers should (1) be able to plan a teach-ing strategy and carry it out, and (2) have abroad range of teaching skills. Many educatorsexpress a point of view consistent with theseassumptions; that is, teacher education shouldhelp teachers to become more flexible in theiruse of teaching strategies.

The Model in Use (Interaction Analysis)

Interaction Analysis has perhaps had itswidest application in education so far as a re-search tool and teacher training device. How-ever, Interaction Analysis is also an effectivetechnique in inservice education to improve thequality of both teacher supervision and class-room teaching.

An illustration of this is a staff developmentprogram now in its second year with principalsin the Richmond Unified School District, anurban district in Northern California. The firstyear, in an intensive ten-week training periodconducted by a team from the University ofCalifornia, Davis, the principals learned to useInteraction Analysis as a means to enhance theirskills in instructional leadership. They are utiliz-ing this training to set up a staff developmentprogram using Interaction Analysis with teach-ers in their own schools.

The principals participated in activities thefirst year aimed at learning to use InteractionAnalysis with sufficient skill to assist teachersin objectively describing their interaction pat..terns vith students. Outcomes were focused onthe creation of an open, nonthreatening environ-ment in principal/staff relationships in whichteachers are encouraged to take risks, praisedfor attempting to learn new behavior patterns,encouraged rather than criticized for experi-mental failures, supported in their attempts atself-evaluation and self-analysis of classroom be-havior, and given the opportunity for privacyin monitoring their interactions with students.168

Douglas L. MinnisHead of Teacher EducationUniversity of California, DavisKenneth ShrableAssistant Professor of EducationUniversity of California, Davis

In the course of their training, the principalsgained personal insights into the use of Inter-action Analysis by self-analysis of interactionwith students through a period of full-timeteaching. They also worked directly with teach-ers on efforts to change their supervisory pos-ture from one of criticism of classroom teachersto one of responsiveness to teachers' questionsabout instruction.

The first two weeks of the project served asan instructional period for the project princi-pals. At the beginning of this phase, they weretrained to use Interaction Analysis for classify-ing and analyzing the verbal behavior of teach-ers and pupils. Following this instruction, theyreceived training in the classification and analy-sis of teacher questioning strategies, using amethod developed by the authors. The princi-pals also took field trips to observe new de-velopments in teaching both within and outsidethe district. At the close of this two-weekperiod, they spent some time in reviewing theclassification system used in Interaction Analy-sis and in pract*Ping matrix interpretation underthe guidance o, the university team.

At the end of the two-week instructionalphase, the administrators entered a teachingphase and worked as full-time classroom teach-ers for four weeks, but in schools other thanones in which they regularly served as prin-cipals. Each principal chose the level and sub-ject he wished to teach and assumed the com-plete responsibilities of the classroom teacher.

Following this experience, principals spentfour weeks in a supervisory role, working fulltime with their staff on improving classroominstruction. Although they returned to theirown schools for the supervision phase, an "in-tern principal" continued to serve as adminis-trator to take care of the usual duties of theprincipal. The goal of this supervision phasewas to lay the groundwork for staff develop-ment programs with teachers in their schools.

The principals were trained in groups of tento twelve, and they were relieved of all ad-ministrative responsibilities during the trainingperiod. All sixty principals in the district willeventually be included in such a program.

Research with Interaction Analysis has shownthat change in teacher behavior can be facili-tated through understanding of and skill in theuse of this instrument. The university team andthe directors of the staff development projectwere concerned with implementing previouslytested procedures with Interaction Analysis.Thus, the initial training effort was directed atmastery of the classification system using thetraining manual developed by Amidon andFlanders. The trainees practiced with audiotapes until they had acquired sufficient skillin classifying classroom talk, entering the tallieson the matrix, and doing preliminary matrixinterpretation.

During this period of training, project par-ticipants visited classrooms to observe and tapeteachers who volunteered material for Inter-action Analysis. This permitted the project prin.cipals to use Interaction Analysis in a settingwhere they had direct contact with and coulddiscuss the teacher's objectives for the lessonand reactions to the class hour. The taped ma-terial provided further training in classificationof teacher-pupil behavior and preparation ofmatrices for interpretation of interaction pat-terns of teaching strategies. The second part ofthe training by the university team dealt withteacher questioning strategies, including a con-sideration of different types of questions andstudent responses and a system for analyzingand classifying type and level of teacher-studenttalk.

The teaching phase provided the principalsan opportunity to implement new proceduresand teaching strategies developed in the "in-structional phase." Lessons were planned totry out various teaching patterns, and the in-teraction process was recorded on tape for corn-

parison with the actual classroom behavior.Various lessons were recorded for further analy-sis with the university training team.

In the third phase of the training followingtheir teaching experience, the principals ana-lyzed audio tapes of their own lessons, whichthey had previously tallied and entered onmatrices. This additional practice provided theopportunity to improve rater reliability and toclarify difficulties encountered in using Inter-action Analysis in the field experience.

Another aspect of training in this phase dealtwith the participants' feelings about the use ofrecording equipment and Interaction Analysis.On the basis of their own experience, the prin-cipals were able to anticipate some of the feel-in gs their teachers might have when theyintroduce Interaction Analysis into their awnschools. Handling possible negative evaluationswas important in these discussions.

In the supervisory phase of the project, theprincipals were concerned with strategies forimplementing new procedures with their staffs.To develop a nonthreatening environmentwhich encouraged teacher self-analysis, it wassuggested that project principals work primarilywith volunteers from the teaching staff duringthe four-week supervisory period. In actualpractice, the principals usually met with theirteaching staffs and explained the nature of theprogram in which they had been participatingand illustrated with tapes their own use ofInteraction Analysis and the analysis of ques-tioning strategies. In numerous instances, par-ticipants worked a great deal of their timedirectly with interested teachers in the class-room. Teachers were encouraged to acquireskill in (1) identifying patterns of teacherinfluence on students, ( 2 ) analyzing teacherpatterns of behavior in light of goals set for alesson, ( 3 ) planning alternative patterns ofbehavior to replace those not achieving goals,( 4 ) differentiating narrow and broad questions,and (5) identifying levels of thinking requiredin answering different questions.

The university team suggested certain strate-gies for implementing Interaction Analysis andother procedures at the classroom level. Oneapproach was to stress the self-help feature ofInteraction Analysis, and particularly its use inproviding teachers with objective, systematicfeedback on classroom verbal interaction.

Since the project principals had used thesystem in their own teaching, they were aware

169

of possible misconceptions about the use ofInteraction Analysis, and they saw the need toconsider the purpose of a lesson in evaluatingthe nature of the teacher-pupil interaction pat-tern. They were also aware of the tendency tothink of certain interaction patterns as value-laden. Unless behavior is carefully related togoals, it is difficult to avoid the negative con-notation of Interaction Analysis patterns suchas direct or indirect teacher influence. Evencertain categories such as giving directions orcriticizing student behavior can be negativelyperceived by a teacher who is not aware of theempirical, classificatory nature of the categories.

As a guideline for use, it was suggested thata teacher use this technique of self-evaluationin privacy and maintain control over its use.This suggestion became a clearly stated policythat the teacher has the right to erase tapedmaterial when finished using it. Such privacyis considered necessary in building confidencein the administrative process of assisting teach-ers in professional growthit substantiates theadministrator's desire to maintain the integrityand autonomy of his staff. According to thispoint of view, if teachers have confidence inthe administrator's concern for their profes-sional integrity, the principal would then beable to offer help in instructional supervisionin an atmosphere of growth and trust.

As one strategy for implementing InteractionAnalysis in supervision, the university team in-troduced the concept of Interaction Analysisas a "microlanguage," which was found to beuseful on their campus in communicating aboutteaching acts. Viewed as microlanguage, theten categories of Interaction Analysis are ofparticular value in communicating about class-room behavior because they may be used todescribed all verbal behavior in the classroom.The concept of Interaction Analysis as a micro-language is also enhanced by the one hundredcells of the matrix, each of which also has aspecific meaning. Teaching behaviors can bedescribed and learned by teachers without re-sorting to technical, professional jargon, andthe simplicity of the language makes learningof new behaviors much simpler and more exact.

The use of the microlanguage is illustratedin the discussion of "teaching patterns" whichwas presented to the project principals. Themost persistent behaviors used by a teacherin a lesson are defined as a "teaching pattern,"and these can be gleaned from a matrix. Alesson in which the major teacher behavior isasking questions and making positive evalua-tions of student answers can be described inmicrolanguage as a 4.8-2 pattern-4 ( teacher170

question ), 8 ( response from the student wherethe answer is highly predictable ), and 2( teacher praise ). Project principals were in-troduced to a number of these common patternsand practiced identifying teaching strategiesusing tapes of their own classroom interactions.

The usefulness of teaching pattern analysisin answering classroom instructional problemswas stressed. Some of the "teaching patterns"are useful for achieving particular classroomgoals. For example, a common pattern foundin research is the 4-8-3 interaction sequence inwhich the teacher asks a question ( 4), obtainsthe expected response from the student ( 8 ),and accepts the answer without evaluation ( 3 ).The 4-8-3 pattern produces certain consistentbehaviors when used in any subject area. Sincethere is no evaluative statement by the teacher,the child who fears criticism is generally morewilling to participate.

More complex patterns were also introducedand discussed. For example, a lesson may beginwith a 4-8-3 pattern, followed by a 4-9-3 se-quence in which the teacher is asking a ques-tion, the student is giving a response, and theteacher is accepting the response without evalua-tion. The "9" response indicates that the ques-tion cues the student to give a less predictableanswer or to supply his own ideas. As thelesson progresses, the teacher may be inter-ested in having the students develop and evalu-ate their own ideas. This implies a 9-10-9 pat-tern, a student response followed by anotherstudent response without a teacher comment.This pattern could be a lesson in which theteacher Anted by asking data-type questionsand then asked students to use this data in mak-ing predictions. Here, the teacher intended thatthe 4-9-3 pattern evolve into a 9-10-9 patternshift from a teacher directed discussion toone allowing the children to evaluate their ownideas.

Illustrations of teaching patterns and practicein identifying them demonstrated how a teacherwho has a clearly stated lesson purpose can useInteraction Analysis to evaluate its effectivenesswithout the presence of a supervisor. A similarapproach was used in analyzing questioningstrategies.

Two groups of project principals took partin the staff development program during thefirst year. Their reactions have shown the needfor certain revisions. After the first group com-pleted the ten-week training phase, it was de-

cided that the district staff should present theinitial exposure to Interaction Analysis andthus make better use of the university staffby allowing them to concentrate on interpreta-tion and application.

Problems of advance scheduling are signifi-cant in considering such a project in a schooldistrict. An unexpected lag in implementingcertain procedures developed because specialprograms and schedules for si,aff that werealready established prohibited the project prin-cipals from initiating new procedures such astraining in Interaction Analysis during the firstyear.

A major theme in any staff development pro-gram is the trained personnel in a district. Tobe most effective, this group must have theopportunity to train others, and the universitytraining team recommended that they: (1)train the teachers who were released fromclassroom duties during the project in the useof Interaction Analysis, questioning skills,teaching patterns, and microteaching; ( 2 ) pro-vide seminars for the administrative interns,with an orientation to the skills learned in the

project and in administrative procedures; and( 3 ) replace the university training team as soonas possible to make the best possible use ofresources for staff development. Teaching themthe cluster of skills would increase their feel-ings of competence and understanding of thecentral concepts of the project.

Those who participated in the project havegenerally had positive feelings. However, someof the classroom teachers who were temporarilyreplaced by the administrators consider theirassignment to substitute duty a negative ex-perience. The district's plan to include an in-service education program recommended bythe university should help to correct this prob.lem. These inservice programs would free teach-ers from substitute duties for four days duringthe four-week period. Also, the time spent insubstitute teaching would be used to collectaudio-tapes for their analysis as a part of theirtraining in teaching patterns.

The project is now in its second year. Evalua-tion of the inservice program initiated by theproject principals in their own schools will beundertaken during this year.

ReferencesAmidon, Edmund J., and Flanders, Ned A. The

Role of the Teacher in the Classroom. Minneapolis:Amidon and Associates, 1963.

Amidon, Edmund J., and Flanders, Ned A. ThaRole of the Teacher in the ( lassroom. Revised Edi-tion. Minneapolis: Amidon and Associates, 1967.

Amidon, Edmund J., and Hough, John B., editors.Interactimi Analysis: Theory, Research and Appli-cation. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-WesleyPublishing Co., 1967.

Amidon, Edmund J., and Hunter, Elizabeth. "In-teraction Analysis: Recent Developments," in Inter-action Analysis: Theory, Research and Application,Edmund J. Amidon and John B. Hough, editors.Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley PublishingCo., 1967, pp. 388 91.

Furst, Norma. "The Effects of Training in Inter-action Analysis on the Behavior of Student Teachersin Secondary Schools," in Interaction Analysis:Theory, Researeh and Application, Edmund J. Ami-don and John B. Hough, editors. Reading, Massa-

chusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1967, pp.315-28.

IIough, John B., and Ober, Richard. "The Effectof Training in Interaction Analysis on the VerbalTeaching Behavior of Pre-service Teachers," inInteraction Analysis: Theory, I?eseareh and Applica-tion, Edmund J. Arnidon and John B. Ilough, editors.Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley PublishingCo., 1967, pp. 329-45.

Minnis, Douglas L., and Shrable, Kenneth. "Cog-nitive Levels Analysis Training Manual," Univer-sity of California, Davis, 1968 (Mimeographed).

Moskowitz, Gertrude. "The Attitudes and Teach-ing Patterns of Cooperating Teachers ana StudentTeachers Trained in Interaction Analysis," in Inter-action Analysis: Theory, Research and Application,Edmund J. Amidon and John B. Hough, editors.Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley PublishingCo., 1967, pp. 271-82.

Shrable, Kenneth, and Minnis, Douglas. "Interact-ing in the Interrogative," Journal of Teacher Edu-cation, Summer 1969 (in press).

tip71

gesture . . .

Another characteristic of allteachers, regardless of where orwhat they teach, is that they sendand receive messages withoutsaying or hearing a word. Theyengage in nonverbal communication.Using a model for analysis ofnonverbal behavior provides anobjective way of looking at andclassifying this nebulous butcritical component of teaching.

Nonverbal CommunicationMany teachers rely upon words and verbalisms

to convey meaning during instruction. They be-lieve that teaching is telling. They readily acceptthe notion that to be instructive is to be verbal,or, that to be verbal is to be instructive. Theyview words as the very miracles of learning."How many times will I have to explain this?""Haven't I explained that a hundred times al-ready?" "Were you listening when I told youthat?" "Alright, everybody pay attentionI amonly going to say this one more time." Althoughthese statements by teachers do not characterizeteaching, they do portray a reliance on the powerof words.

Teachers constantly check on the fidelity ofstudent verbal remarks by reading their non-verbal cues, but they miss the fact that by inter-preting and inferring from these nonverbalexpressions, pupils obtain the full impact ofteacher motivations and. feelings. It is muchmore "fun" to think that enlightenment is onewaythat teachers are free to observe and readthe behaviors of students with an open license.But the real point is that teachers convey infor-mation to students through nonverbal behavior,and this is what it is they overlook.

Words and verbalisms may be the preferredsymbols of coming to know, but they do not rep-resent the only means of knowing. Nonverbal172

Charles GallowayAssociate ProfessorCollege of EducationThe Ohio State University

cues and clues represent elegant signs for con-veying and receiving information, for actions dospeak as loud as wordsperhaps, louder.

To recognize that hew we say something is asimportant as what we say is difficult to graspbecause little conscious thought is given to theprocess of providing information through non-verbal action. We are usually unaware of ourown awareness.

Immediately understanding another and hav-ing the other understand us is commonly re-ferred to as empathy. In fact, most of us believethat the most personal and valid kinds of infor-mation can be discovered this way. Yet, werarely attribute our understanding to the influ-ence of nonverbal communication. It is by react-ing to the nonverbal cues of othersto theirfacial expressions, movements, postures, man-nerisms, vocal tones, gestures, energy changes,etc.that we pick up information which we usein deciding what to do next and in determiningwhat our role needs to be. All of this expressiveactivity seems so natural and spontaneous to usthat we overlook the fact that we influence andare influenced by others through nonverbalaction.

Nonverbal cues may also be calculatingly man-aged to achieve a desired effect, to effect animpression, or to convey an attitude. The femalesof our culture have long since learned the sig-nificance of exchanging mutual glances withmales. This is perhaps the most efficient andquickest way for two parties to convey imme-

1

diate attraction for each other. You do not en-gage in a warm mutual glance with another ifyou are disinterested. Females understand theconsequences of mutual glances so well that theyare capable of looking around, through, and by amale to avoid his gaze and to avoid attention.They do this without drawing attention to them-selves. It seems natural. Yet, the motive foraction may be intentionally conceived and theexpression deliberately managed.

We engineer expressions to convince othershow we wish to be viewed. Such is the case whenwe take a driver's test to obtain a license, go tochurch, or listen to an instructor in a classroom.We may begin by deliberately engineering ourperformance to convince an observer of the real-ness of our participation, but there is a verygood chance that we too begin to believe thatour performance is authentic.

Whether nonverbal cues are spontaneouslyexpressed or deliberately managed, either con-dition influences perceptions. While it is oftendifficult to detect the difference between the twokinds of cue-giving, nonverbal information facili-tates efforts to understand others and to beunderstood. Whether a person deliberatelychooses to react to nonverbal cues or whether heunconsciously does so, tLe crucial conclusion isthat expressive cues influence perceptions. Bothteachers and students take the expressive stateof the other as symptomatic of inner feelingsand attitudes. These cues are not taken at facevalue, but inferences are made from them todetermine what to believe. Sometimes studentswill respond to a precise expression and knowthat a teacher is angry and hostile or sad anddepressed. Teachers often read the facial ex-pressions of a student to discover whether he iselated or unhappy.

In a psychological sense, teacher-pupil con-tacts are distinguished by spontaneity and imme-diate response. Therefore, nonverbal reactionsare especially prominent for the formation ofattitudes since they stem from unwitting re-sponses. Not only are teachers quite likely to beunaware of their own behavior, but they canunwittingly reveal feelings to students that arenot in their own best interests. Teachers must beon the alert to discover these possibilities afterthey occur, for the probability of preventingtheir occurrence is quite difficult. To increase anawareness of the psychological consequences ofwhat is ordinarily out-of-awareness is a step inthe right direction. Attitudinal displays andemotional reactions are not peculiar to class-rooms, but the need to be open to the meaningof their appearance is greater than imagined.

In any classroom the ex 'hange of messagesthat are nonverbal in character often plays amore significant role in student learning thanthe formal teaching which takes place. Through-out a teaching day, there are many occurrenceswhich have an impact on the course and direc-tion of classroom activity and which shape thecontextual meaning derived from a situation.These are nonverbal phenomer a that involve theuse of the body, use of space, and even use oftime. Not only do they minimize verbal mes-sages, but they become the real focus of atten-tionthe idea that lingers long after the eventhas passed. Why this should be so is most diffi-cult to determine, but the character and influ-ence of these events speak for themselves.

Use of Space. Classrooms are usually dividedinto territories where a teacher and studentsoccupy space. Some arrangements are tradi-tional, with the teacher's desk at the front of theroom and students seated in rows. Other ar-rangements of desks and furniture are moreimaginative. A change in a spatial arrangementinfluences the potential meaning of a learningcontext.

Teacher Travel. Where and when a teacherchooses to travel in a classroom signifies mean-ing. Some teachers move around their desks asif they were isles of security. They rarely ven-ture into the territories of student residenceunless they wish to check or monitor seatwork.To move forward or away from students sigisifiesrelationships.

Use of Time. How teachers use their time indi-cates the value and importance they place onsomething. Spending little time on a topic orpassing by it can indicate no interest or knowl-edge about the topic. Teachers do not ordinarilyrecognize the meanings of their use of time, butstudents can frequently relate what a teacher'spreferences are and what the teacher dislikes.

Control Maneuvers. Teachers engage in vari-ous nonverbal tactics to control the behaviorof students. These silent expressions serve assingular events to remind students of teacherexpectations. For example, a teacher often indi-cates inability to hear due to a classroom noise,places finger to lips, stands with hands on hipsand stares in silence, scans room to see who isnot working, records in grade book while stu-dent reports, or raises brow or uses eyes to gainattention.

The acts of a teacher suggest a reflection ofthe teacher's self. By interpreting and inferringfrom nonverbal cues, pupils attempt to obtain a

173

fuller understanding of the teacher. Since pupilsassume that these cues are more consonant withthe actual feelings and thoughts of a teacher,pupils who detect contradictions between verbaland nonverbal behavior will accept the non-verbal as more valid. Therefore, what a teachersays makes little difference if it is incongruentwith what he does. When there is an incongru-ency between the verbal and nonverbal, studentsare troubled by the dilemma, and they seethrough to the teacher's real self.

Communication theorists vary considerably intheir views of human interaction, and models ofthe process can be needlessly abstract. Explana-tions range from the Shannon-Weaver model,which describes electronic communication, tothe Ruesch-Bateson description which includesanything to which persons can assign meaning.However, the four major ingredients that re-searchers agree are common to human commu-nication are: ( 1) sender, ( 2 ) message, ( 3 )channel, and (4) receiver.

A sender of communication has ideas, inter-ests, information, needs, and sentiments whichhe attempts to encode in the form of messages.Given a sender who sends messages, a channelis necessary. The channel is the carrier of mes-sages, the medium, or the vehicular means fortransmitting messages. The communication chan-nels are the verbal and the nonverbal skillspossessed by the sender and the sensory skillspossessed by the receiver. Once the message isdecoded by the receiver, it has reached a desti-nation which can be considered the response,interpretation, or meaning the receiver assignsto the message. If the receiver answers, thecommunication cycle begins anew.

The teacher's nonverbal behavior constitutesa model that represents six din ensions of non-verbal activity on a continuum ranging fromencouraging to restricting communication, asfollows:

TEACHER COMMUNICATIONEncouragingRestrictingCongruityIncongruityResponsiveUnresponsivePositiveNegative AffectivityAttentiveInattentiveFacilitatingUnreceptiveSupportiveDisapproving

CongruityIncongruity. This dimension re-fers to the congruity or incongruity that existsbetween the voice, gesture, and actions of the174

teacher and the verbal content communicated bythe teacher. Congruity occurs when the teacher'sverbal message is supported and reinforced bynonverbal behaviors to the extent that there isconsonance between verbal intent and nonverbalreferents. A mixed message or incongruity ex-ists when there is a discrepancy or contradictionbetween the verbal message and nonverbalinformation.

ResponsiveUnresponsive. A responsive actrelates to modifications in the teacher's behavioras a result of feedback. Verbal feedback occurswhen the teacher hears himself talking, butnonverbal feedback is based on the reactionsand responses of pupils to the teacher. A re-sponsive act occurs when the teacher alters thepace or direction of a lesson as a result of adetection of misunderstanding or feelings bypupils. Operating on the basis of pupil behaviorthe teacher uses feedback data to "feedforward"with changed information. Unresponsive acts arean ignoring of or an insensitivity to the behavior-al responses of pupils.

PositiveNegative Affectivity. Positive non-verbal expressions convey warm feelings, highregard, cheerful enthusiasm, displays of liking,and acceptance. Negative nonverbal expressionsconvey aloofness, coldness, low regard, indiffer-ence, or display of rejection.

AttentiveInattentive. Nonverbal expressionsmay imply a willingness to listen with patienceand interest to pupil talk. By paying attention,the teacher exhibits an interest in pupils. Bybeing inattentive or disinterested, the teacherinhibits the flow of communication from pupils,and neither sustains nor encourages sharing in-formation or expressing ideas.

FacilitatingUnreceptive. The teacher is fa-cilitating when acting to perform a functionwhich helps a pupil, usually in response to adetection of pupil needs, urgencies, or problems.This may be in response to a pupil request or anurturant act. An unreceptive act openly ignoresa pupil when a response would ordinarily beexpected, may ignore a question or request, ormay be tangential response.

SupportiveDisapproving. Expressions sup-portive of pupil behavior or pupil interactionsmanifest approval, indicate being stronglypleased, exhibit encouragement, or connoteenjoyment or praise. Disapproving expressionsconvey dissatisfaction, discouragement, dispar-agement, or punishment. The expression may beone of frowning, scowling, or threateningglances.

Viewing a teacher's nonverbal communicationas an encouraging to restricting continuum hasthe advantage of being related to the communi-cation process and of being indicative of subse-quent interpersonal relationships between ateacher and pupils. The model is also useful inregarding the potential influence and conse-quence of a teacher's nonverbal behavior withpupils. This conceptualization reflects a processpoint of view: an action system of nonverbalbehaviors that exists in dynamic relationship tothe continuing influence of the teacher andpupil in interaction.

A requirement of communication in the class-room is that the symbols a teacher chooses fromhis repertoire must satisfy his own peculiarrequirements and meaning and must evoke asimilar meaning in the pupil. Communication issuccessful when the teacher and pupil agree onthe interpretation that should be put on the mes-sage. Perfect communication is rarely achieved,however, because words are at best mediatingsymbols between the expressed intent of aninner state of being and the achieved effectthey elicit.

Because we can hear ourselves when we talk,adjustments can be made in the intent of ourverbal speech. If something uttered verballydoes not sound appropriate, it can be restatedwe can correct our messages to others. Oral com-munication permits this marvelous facility forreceiving instantaneous feedback of what has

been said. Teachers have in fact often suggestedthat they were not precisely sure of what theythought until they heard themselves speak. Ourwords become data not only for others but forourselves, and we can capitalize on our utter-ances as sort of a feedback-loop to determine ifour words meet our test of intent and meaning.

Feedback data from our expression of non-verbal cues are not, however, so easily available;the process is different. We cannot see ourselveswhen we behave. If we lived in a "world of mir-rors" perhaps nonverbal cues could be as easilymanipulated as verbal behavior, but this is notthe case. We have to rely on the reactions andresponses of others in order to comprehend ournonverbal effect in a situation. In the classroom,attending to the responses of students is themajor source of information. Teachers differmarkedly in the1r ability to be sensitive to thebehavior of youLgsters toward them and to useit as feedback data.

VIIIIThe prospect of training teachers to become

more knowledgeable of nonverbal cues is in theprocess of greater development. For the present,it must be stressed that a greater openness tothe occurrence of nonverbal events and expres-sions, plus a greater awareness of student behav-ior, is the major key. The feedback-loop for thenonverbal is necessarily contingent in great parton the reflective mirror of .tudent reaction andresponse.

ReferencesBernstein, Basil. "Social Structure, Language, and

Learning," Educational Research, June 1961, 8, 16376.

Blumer, Herbert. "Social Attitudes and Nonsym-bolic Interaction," Journal of Educational Sociology,May 1936, 9, 515-23.

Darwin, Charles. The Expression of Emotions inMan and Animals. New York: Philosophical Library,1955.

Davidson, Helen H., and Lang, Gerhard. "Chil-dren's Perceptions of Teachers' Feelings TowardThem Related to Self-Pcrception, School Achieve-ment, and Behavior," Journal of Experimental Edu-cation, December 1960, 29, 107-18.

Davitz, Joel R., et al. The Communication of Emo-tional Meaning. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.

Efron, David. Gest ire and Environment. NewYork: King's Crown Press, 1941.

Galloway, Charles M. "An Exploratory Study ofObservational Procedures for Determining TeacherNonverbal Communication," doctoral dissertation,University of Florida, 1962.

Galloway, Charles NI. "Teacher Nonverbal Com-

munication," Educational Leadership, October 1966,24, 56-63.

Coffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self inEveryday Life. New York: Doubleday and Co., 1959.

Hall, Edward T, The Silent Language. New York:Doubleday and Co., 1059.

Halpin, Andrew W. "Muted Language," SchoolReview, Spring 1960, 68, 85-104.

Labarre, Watson. "The Cultural Basis of Emo-tions and Gestures," Journal of Personality, Sep-tember 1947, 16, 49-68.

Ruesch, Jurgen. "Nonverbal Language and Ther-apY," Psychiatry, November 1956, 18, 323-30.

Ruesch, Jurgen, and Bateson, Gregory. Communi-cation; The Social Matrix of Psychiatry. New York:W. W. Norton and Co., 1961.

Ruesch, Jurgen, and Kees, Weldon. NonverbalCommunication. Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress, 1956.

Shannon, Claude, and Weaver Warren. TheMathematical Theory of Communwatwn. Urbana,Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1949.

Torrance, E. Paul. "Teacher Attitude and PupilPerception," Journal of Teacher Education, March1960, 11, 97-119.

175

The Model in Use (Nonverbal Communication)

If teachers are to become more effective inthe classroom, they need to become attentive notonly to what they are communicating but also tohow they are communicating. They need to knowthe significance of their nonverbal behavior.

Although nonverbal behavior often reflectstheir real feelings and attitudes, most teachersare not aware of what they are communicatingnonverbally. They teach with little knowledge oftheir personal attitudes and how these colorteaching behavior through nonverbal behavior.Delving into the world of the nonverbal is aninteresting experience. In the beginning, onlythe very obvious can be perceived. However, assensitivity to this form of communication in-creases, things that were only vague feelingscome into sharper focus.

At the University of Kentucky, systematicobservation of nonverbal as well as verbal be-haviors has become an important tool to evaluatestudents' performance in two teacher prepara-tion programs, the Teacher Corps and the Pro-spective Teacher Fellowship Program. Bothprograms prepare elementary teachers to workin schools serving disadvantaged childrenthrough an oncampus preservice period of gradu-ate studies combined with field experience. Aninternship follows in which the University staffcontinues to work closely with the students.

The close, intensive work between staff andstudents offers a rare opportunity to systemati-cally evaluate the progress in achieving the goalsof the two programs to prepare skilled teachers176

Sue S. LailResearch Director, Teacher CorpsCollege of EducationUniversity of Kentucky

who understand the needs of the disadvantagedyoungster and who want to teach him.

During the first year of the programs,evaluation of teaching performance was limitedto rating scales, anecdotal reports, and the like.While these were helpful in many ways, theywere also frustrating to use because there wastoo much opportunity for subjective opinionto enter. More objective instruments wereneeded to collect reliable data for aivlysis, andtwo were selected: Flanders' System of Inter-action Analysis and Galloway's Analysis of Non-verbal Communication. Flanders' System pro-vides information on what is said, and Gallo-way's Analysis deals with how things are said;they are used in combination.

Galloway has developed two categories fornonverbal communication to further describeeach category of the Flanders' System of VerbalInteraction. With the exception of Flanders'first category which doesn't need extension orqualification, there is one nonverbal categoryfor use when the verbal encourages interactionand one nonverbal category for use when theverbal restricts interaction. This system doesnot attempt to cover all of the kinds of non-verbal communication given by the teacher, butit does give very useful information in severalimportant areas.

Summary of Categories for Interaction Analysis Using Nonverbal Categories

Verbal' (Flanders) Nonverbal (Galloway)

W1-4

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-0'0"

1. ACCEPTSFEELING

2. PRAISES ORENCOURAGES

3. ACCEPTS ORUSES IDEAS OFSTUDENT

4. ASKSQUESTIONS

Encouraging Restricting1.

2.CONGRUENT : nonverbalcues reinforce and furtherclarify the credibility of averbal message.

3. IMPLEMENT: implementa-tion occurs when the teach-er actually uses student'sidea either by discussing it,reflecting on it, or turningit to the class for considera-tion.

4. PERSONAL: face-to-faceconfrontation,

11.

12. INCONGRUENT: contra-diction occurs between ver-bal and nonverbal cues.

13. PERFUNCTORY: perfunc-tory use occurs when theteacher merely recognizes oracknowledges student's ideaby automatically repeatingor restating it.

14. IMPERSONAL: avoidanceof verbal interchange inwhich mutual glances areexchanged.

a)e.)0

<1.)

001-1

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A

5. LECTURES

6. GIVESDIRECTIONS

7. CRITICISMS ORJUSTIFIEDAUTHORITY

5. RESPONSIVE: change inteacher's pace or directionof talk in response to stu-dent behavior, i.e., bored,disinterested, or inattentive.

6. INVOLVE: students are in-volved in a clarification ormaintenance of learningtasks.

7. FIRM : criticisms whichevaluate a situation clean-ly and crisply and clarifyexpectations for the situa-tion.

15. UNRESPONSIVE: inabil-ity or unwillingness to alterthe pace or direction of lec-ture disregarding pupil cues.

16. DISMISS: teacher dismir -IFJ

or controls student behavior.

17. HARSH: criticisms whichare hostile, severe, and oftendenote aggressive or defen-sive behavior.

W1-4

-tE-1

E-1

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8. STUDENT TALK-RESPONSE

9. STUDENT TALK-INITIATION

8. & 9. RECEPTIVE: involvesattitude of listening and in-terest, facial involvement,and eye contact,

18. & 19. INATTENTIVE: in-volves a lack of attendingeye contact and teachertravel or movement.

10. SILENCE ORCONFUSION

10. COMFORT: silences char-acterized by times of reflec-tion, thought, or work,

20. DISTRESS: instances ofembarrassment or tension-filled moments, usually re-flecting disorganization anddisorientation.

1 For a complete and detailed discussion of the verbal categories in this summary, see the article in thisissue by Edmund J. Amidon on "Interaction Analysis and Teacher Education," pp. 159-67.

001r

177

The combined verbal and nonverbal systemis relatively easy to learn. For the person whoknows the Flanders System there are no newnumbers to learn. One simply writes down thenumber of the verbal category and, if it is non-verbally encouraging, it is left as is. If it isnonverbally restrictive, a 1 is added in frontof the number. Thus, if the teacher gives praise( which is a verbal 2 ) but it is restrictive, heis given a 12. A summary of the combined sys-tem is presented on the opposite page. The useof the combined verbal and nonverbal systemmakes the resulting analysis more complex buteasier to understand.

Categories 2 and 12 indicate whether thepraise or encouragement by the teacher is be-lievable or not. It is surprising how much of itis notmany teachers seem to use the word"good" almost as a punctuation mark. It is pos-sible to individually "praise" thirty pupils infive minutes using this kind of "praise." Whetherthe pupils actually feel praised is a moot point.

Categories 3 and 13 indicate whether the teach-er really accepts and implements a student'sidea. It is rather discouraging to find that fewteachers appear to be able to really work withthe ideas presented by pupils. A word or two ofperfunctory acknowledgement is often all thatis given.

Categories 4 and 14 indicate the way in whichthe teacher asks questions. Asking a questionis a direct method for inviting pupil interaction.However, when delivered in an impersonal way,a question may actually discourage interactionif it is asked in the manner of a drill sergeantbarking orders or in a manner indicating com-plete boredom.

Categories 5 and 15 indicate whether thepupil:, are really attentive as information orteacher opinions are given. It is not uncommonto see a lecture start off well but continue to thepoint that the pupils lose interest. The teacherwho is sensitive to the situation will do some-thing to remedy it immediately. If nothing isdone and the teacher continues to lecture in thesame way, the pupils may show restlessness orboredom; discipline problems may easily developif the lecture goes beyond this point. However,one may find extended teacher lectures that areinterspersed with extended pupil talk becausethe presentation is so interesting that pupils getexcited and interrupt them.

Categories 6 and 16 indicate whether direc-tions that are given invite pupil interaction ordiscourage it. Often the teacher will give direc-tions at the end of a lesson for further work tobe done by the pupil as independent study. Afterallowing time to make sure that the directions178

are understood, the teacher may then choose touse directions which indicate to the pupil thatthe interaction for that particular activity isconcluded and that he is expected to work onhis own.

Categories 7 and 17 indicate whether criti-cisms are firm or harsh. Done in a firm kindlymanner, they can promote further class inter-action. Done in a harsh manner, they may dis-courage further interaction of a constructivenature.

Categories 8 and 18 and 9 and 19 indicatenot only the kind of student response but alsothe teacher's response to it. The receptive teach-er listens when the pupil is talking. He looksat the pupil and his face shows his attentiveness.The inattentive teacher does not evidence in-volvement when the pupil is speaking.

Categories 10 and 20 indicate silence or con-fusion and whether the pupils are showing com-fort or distress. Silence can mean that everyoneis thinking or working, or it can be full of ten-sion. Confusion may mean that several groupsof people are talking at the same time, or it canbe chaos. The addition of the nonverbal to thiscategory makes it much more useful in analyzingactual classroom activity.

The use of the nonverbal analysis along withverbal analysis enables persons working withteachers, interns, and student teachers to havefar more information to utilize. For the purposesof analysis in Flanders' System, the ID ratio isdetermined; this refers to the ratio between in-direct teacher talk and direct teacher talk. Thetotal of the tallies in columns 1, 2, 3, and 4 isdivided by the total of the tallies in columns 5,6, and 7. Thus, an ID ratio of 1.25 would indicatethat for every direct statement there are 1.25indirect statements. The total of the tallies incolumns 1, 2, 3, and 4 may also be divided bythe total of the tallies in columns 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,and 7 to show what percentage of the total teach-er talk was indirect. The revised ID ratio is de-veloped in the same way omitting columns 4 and5; it is made to determine the kind of emphasisgiven to motivation and control, whether it isindirect or direct. Pattern analysis refers to theprincipal ways in which the verbal interactiontakes placeit is usually initiated by the teach-er, followed by a student response, followed byone or more teacher responses.

Analysis of nonverbal communication may bedone in several ways, but two types seem to beespecially helpful. A percentage of restricting

communication for the total classroom time canbe obtained by dividing the number of restrict-ing tallies by the total number of tallies. Thiscan also be done to find the percentage of re-stricting tallies for each verbal categny.

The combination of matrix analysis, patternanalysis, and nonverbal analysis gives a good pic-ture of the teacher's behavior. Discussion of thedata helps the teacher to become aware of be-havior and to learn to choose the teaching pat-terns appropriate to specific goals in variouslessons. Several examples are given below toillustrate implications for data analysis.

Teacher A. Teacher A works with a fourthgrade group in a ghetto school. Her ID ratio is2.23, indicating that she spends 69 per cent ofher time using indirect methods of teaching. Herrevised T.D ratio is 2.63, indicating that she usesan indirect approach to motivation and control72 per cent of the time. Her teaching pattern isquestion-answer-praise. Sixteen per cent of thisteacher's total behavior is restricting, with all ofthis type of behavior occurring in the praise andacceptance-of-ideas categories.

In another lesson teaching a different subjectthis teacher also has the same question-answer-praise pattern, but this time her ID ratio is 1.40.In this instance, she is using indirect methods58 per cent of the time. Her revised ID ratiois .86, which indicates an indirect approach tomotivation and control 46 per cent of the time.Of the total classroom time, 10 per cent is re-stricting-70 per cent of this behavior occurringin the praise category.

Teacher A is a teacher who uses indirectmethods in a rather mechanical way. Insofar asher verbal behavior goes, she is in a dismal rut.While she is trying to give pupils a sense ofaccomplishment, she is not succeeding. Thisteacher needs to learn to ask questions of abroader nature and to handle student responsesin a different manner.

Teacher B. Teacher B also works with a groupof fourth graders in a ghetto school, but he isquite different. His ID ratio is 1.84, iadicatingthat he spends 65 per cent of his time usingindirect methods of teaching. His revised IDratio is .73, indicating that he uses an indirectapproach to motivation and control 42 per centof the time. His teaching pattern is question-answer-praise. A look at nonverbal behavior in-dicates that most of this praise is incongruentnot convincing. Eleven per cent of this teacher'stotal behavior is restricting, with most of thatfalling into the praise category.

In another teaching situation, his ID ratio was.94, indicating indirect methods were used 48

per cent of the time. A revised ID ratio of .41reveals that he uses an indirect approach tomotivation and control 29 per cent of the time.Restricting behavior is only 6 per cent of thetime, and all of it is in the praise category. Themost discouraging element of this lesson is themajor pattern of verbal behavior. It is question-answer-criticism!

Teacher B obviously needs some help in im-proving his teaching techniques. He is bound byan inflexible mode of behavior. His major meth-od is to ask a narrow question, followed by astudent's answer, followed by either criticism orunconvincing praise, depending on the factualcorrectness of the answer. Very few studentsvolunteer ideas and opinions because he seldomseeks them.

Without the use of the nonverbal analysis,certain aspects of this behavior would be puz-zling and incomplete. The verbal analysis indi-cates two rather different patterns, question-answer-praise in one lesson and question-answer-criticism in the other. However, the praise wasperfunctory and the criticism was not harsh,so that the two lessons were not so differentafter all. One wonders if a lesson where so muchcriticism is given might not be restricting, nomatter how kindly the criticism is given.

Teacher C. Teacher C is working with a smallgroup of first graders who live in a ghetto area.Her ID ratio shows that she uses direct methodsof teaching 57 per cent of the time. Her revisedID ratio which indicates that she uses directmethods 81 per cent of the time in her approachto motivation and control. Teacher C's non-verbal analysis indicates that she is restrictingless than 1 per cent of the time. According tofurther analysis of the verbal data, this teacheruses acceptance of feeling 3 per cent of the totalclassroom time; this is far more time than isordinarily used in the classroom for clarificationof students' emotions. Her major pattern isquestion-answer, and her minor pattern is direc-tion giving-silence-information giving.

In another lesson, this same teacher has anID ratio, vhich indicates that she uses indirectmethods 75 per cent of the time. Her revised IDratio indicates that she uses an indirect approachto motivation and control 63 per cent of thetime. She uses restricting nonverbal behavior1 per cent of the time, almost all of which fallsinto acceptance of ideas and praise. Six per centof the total classroom time is spent in acceptanceof feeling. The major verbal pattern is a simplequestion-answer-question.

What conclusions do these data indicate aboutTeacher C? First, she is quite flexible in her

179

teaching methodsshe is able to choose a pat-tern of behavior to meet the needs of the par-ticular situation. Second, she is able to encourageinteraction in both direct and indirect ways.Third, she is unusually sensitive to children'sfeelings. How can Teacher C be helped to im-prove her teaching methods? Greater efforttoward giving genuine praise and more use ofpupils' idoas would make this teacher even moreeffective than she already seems to be.

Analyses such as these indicate that there areconsiderable differences in the ways in whichteachers say things. In the evaluation of studentinterns in the University of Kentucky programs,the differences in praise and acceptance of ideashave proven to be the most significant withstudent interns, and this has provided the meansfor frank discussion of ways in which one canrespond to pupils. The verbal analysis has helpedthem see the need to develop greater flexibilityin question-asking so that pupils will be en-couraged to think at different levels, but thenonverbal analysis has helped them see the needfor developing better ways of responding tostudents' ideas to encourage them to think fur-ther. The interns are also looking for opportuni-

11=110.111111.,

ties to give more genuine praise that can reallyhelp the pupil to feel good about himself.

Although there have not been as many indi-cations of restricting behavior within the othercatlgories, still even a few may be quite impor-tant. This is particularly true for harsh criticismbecause even one such criticism can leave some-one feeling crushed or humiliated. Furthermore,any indication of behavior of this type mightmean that more of such behavior may go onwhen systematic observation is not being made.

Use of the nonverbal categories for the verballecture category is especially helpful in aidingthe intern to become sensitive to the pupils'attentions and interests. Noticing when thepupils become inattentive and restless and thendoing something constructive to remedy the situ-ation can help to avert many discipline problems.

Through helping student interns to developgreater awareness of their teaching behavior inboth the verbal and nonverbal categories, theywill be able to become more encouraging andmore flexible teachers. Our research is builtupon this hypothesis. The interns are beingvideo taped twice each semester for two se-mesters. They have the opportunity to see thesetapes and discuss the analyses with a staff mem-ber. Results both in analysis and discussion ofthe tapes indicate that growth toward moreeffective teaching behavior is being made.

ReferencesAmidon, Edmund J., and Amidon, Peggy. Teach-

ing Pattern Analysis Manual. Minneapolis: Asso-ciation for Productive Teaching, Inc., 1967.

Amidon, Edmund J., and Flanders, Ned A. TheRole of the Teacher in the Classroom, Revised Edi-tion. Minneapolis: Association for Productive Teach-ing, Inc., 1967, 102 pp.

.Amidon, Edmund J., and Hough, John B., editors.Interaction Analysis: Theory, Research and Applica-tion. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Pub-lishing Co., 1967, 402 pp.

Galloway, Charles M. "Nonverbal Communica-tion," Instructor, April 1968, 77, 37-42.

180

Galloway, Charles M. "Teacher Nonverbal Com-munication," Educational Leadership, October 1966,24, 55-63.

Galloway, Charles M. "A Model of Teacher Non-verbal Communication." Columbus, Ohio: Ohio StateUniversity, 1967 (Mimeographed).

Galloway, Charles M., and French, Russ. "A De-scription of Teacher Behavior: Verbal and Non-verbal." Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University,1968 (Mimeographed).

Strom, Robert D., and Galloway, Charles M. "ARationale for Teacher Change in ElementarySchools." Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University,1967 (Mimeographed).

tip

skills .

Many institutions are using themicroteaching model to raise thelevel of the teachers coepetenciesto develop teaching skil:.Microteaching is a system ofcontrolled practice that makes itpossible to focus on specificteaching behaviors and to practiceteaching under controlled conditions.Competence in one skill isdeveloped before proceeding toanother skill.

MicroteachingMicroteaching is a scaled down teaching en-

counter. In microteaching, however, the com-plexities of the normal teaching encounter havebeen reduced and the level of feedback to theteacher has been greatly increased. Further-more, the objectives of a given microteachinglesson are neither inadvertent, as is often thecase with traditional practice teaching, nor arethe appraisals of the experience purely subjec-tive and arbitrary.

From a purely descriptive point of view, micro-teaching is quite simple. Its basic elements area teacher, the microclass (usually four or fivepupils), a short lesson of five to twenty minutes,and predetermined objectives which have beenstated for the particular microteaching occasion.These seemingly limtted parameters can be ap-plied to purposes ra iging from training, to diag-nostic evaluation, to experiment with innovation.

The advantages of flexibility offered by micro-teaching are matched and indeed at some pointsderived from concomitant advantages in econ-omy. If the objectives that are dealt with in themicroteaching setting were attempted within thetraditional teacher-training environment, the re-quired educational resources would make suchan experience prohibitively expensive.

In creating a microteaching setting, five essen-tial conditions are combined:

I. Actual teaching takes place, even though theteacher and students are brought together spe-cifically for practice.

2. The complexity of the normal teaching situ-

Dwight W. AllenDean, School of EducationUniversity of Massachusetts

Arthur W. EveAssociate ProfessorSchool of EducationUniversity of Massachusetts

ation, including the number of students, thescope of the presentation, and the length of classtime, are deliberately reduced.

3. The focus of teacher training is reducedin order to accomplish a specific task, such asthe practice of instructional skills or techniquesof teaching, the mastery of specific curriculummaterials, or the, demonstration of a particularteaching methodology.

4. A high degree of control over such diverseelements as time, the use of students, and themethods of feedback and supervision is struc-tured into the training situation.

5. The typical feedback dimension in teachingis greatly expanded through an immediate fol-low-up critique utilizing sources such as thetrainee's own analysis, students reactions, andvideo tape, with the assistance of a polleague ora supervisor. Generally, the evaluation focuseson one particular aspect of the teacher trainee'sperformance, and an attempt is made immedi-ately to translate the suggested improvementsinto actual practice during a second microteach-ing session shortly after the critique conference.

Microteaching has evolved as one part of anexperimental teacher-education program sup-ported by the Kettering and Ford foundationsover the past several years. This program in-cluded research which identified specific teach-

181

ing behaviors that can be isolated as observableskills as well as the development and testing ofappraisal instruments that measured attainmentof these skills. Microteaching itself was a by-product of this research, and continuing attemptsare being made to identify new teaching skillsand discover further experimental applicationsfor microteaching.

During the past seven years, both the impactof microteaching and the evaluation instrumentsdeveloped for assessing teacher trainee progresshave been validated. For example, during oneperiod of experimentation, teacher interns train-ing ten hours per week in the microteachingclinic demonstrated a higher level of teachingcompetence at the end of eight weeks than dida similar group receiving separate instructionsand experiences as teaching aides for an aver-age of 20 to 25 hours per week.

In the six teaching skills subjected to experi-mental treatment within the microteaching set-ting, there were positive changes in intern per-formance. Teacher candidates in the microteach-ing clinic recorded a high acceptance of themicroteaching technique and credited it withgreatly increasing their perceptions of weak-nesses and strengths in their own teaching per-formances. Significantly, performance in themicroteaching situation accurately predicted sub-sequent success in classroom teaching.

When the defects of traditional teacher-train-ing programs are considered, the economy ofmicroteaching as a method of teacher trainingbecomes more than apparent. In traditional pro-grams, the teacher trainee must travel far andat too frequent intervals to get practice teachingexperience, usually under spotty supervisionwith no student feedback. Microteaching offersthe advantages of both the controlled laboratoryenvironment and the reality of bona fide teach-ing. It is not a substitute for practice in teach-ing (for example, problems of discipline andclassroom control cannot at present be dealtwith in microteaching settings) but, certainly, itsupplies some impressive alternatives such asclose supervision, manageable objectives estab-lished according to individual training needs andprogress, continuous diagnostic feedback, unpre-cedented opportunity for self-evaluation, im-mediate guidance in areas of demonstrated de-ficiency, and an opportunity to repeat a lessonconveniently as often as desirable.

Microteaching has many unique contributionsit can make to education. First, the use of a1 82

microteaching setting can provide both begin-ning and experienced teachers with a safe prac-tice environment for the development of com-petencies in the techniques and skills of theprofession. Practice is an essential prerequisitefor many learning activities; a significant portionof the typical teaching day is made up of activ-ities that are learned and can be improved uponthrough practice. However, virtually all of theactual practice which occurs under the tradi-tional preservice and inservice structure consistsof on-the-job practice.

On-the-job practice in a normal classroom set-ting has severe limihtions: (1) students arethere to be taught, not practiced on, (2) practiceof a specific skill or technique must fit well with-in a longer lesson specified for that particularday, and (3) there is only limited opportunityto receive feedback on the skill which is prac-ticed. Teachers can utilize the practice settingof microteaching not only for skill training butalso to try out new curriculum materials andinstructional techniques.

As an instrument which focuses on specificteaching skills, the second major advantage ofmicroteaching is its potential use as a meansof providing improvement in the teacher's class-room performance. In the past, one of the majorbarriers to improvement has been the vaguenessand mystique surrounding the teaching act. Thefact that there is an artistic quality in an ex-cellent teacher's performance does not precludethe need for a more precise way of describingand improving specific aspects of the teachingact. Teaching has been analyzed into varioustypes of activities (for example: explaining,questioning, demonstrating), and the behaviorsinvolved in certain teaching skills can be iso-lated and made the focus of training. After anindividual teacher has identified a teaching activ-ity or cluster of activities for improvement,microteaching provides a practice environment.By eliminating irrelevant concerns and provid-ing immediate feedback from several sources,the microteaching setting allows the teacher toconcentrate and thus make great progress inacquiring improved teaching proficiency in avery short period of time.

A third major contribution of microteachingis the development of a wide variety of readilyavailable instructional skills models. Althoughthere are many model teachers within the schoolsetting, their influence on other teachers isdiminished by their relative isolation withintheir classrooms and by the difficulty that a neo-phyte teacher has in separating an excellentteacher's performance into smaller, more digest-ible parts. A combination of video tapes focus.

ing on a model teacher's performance in theclassroom and a series of specifically designedmicroteaching video tapes demonstrating his in-dividual technical skills would serve as excellentmodels for the beginning teacher.

Opportunities for new approaches to super-vision is a fourth area in which microteachingcontributes unique relevance. In schools today,no one really knows what teacher supervisionhas accomplished. Teachers are evaluated byprincipals during randomly selected class periodsfollowed months later by other observationsthat usually involve entirely different circum-stances--different instructional settings, differ-ent lessons, and perhaps even different classes,different grade levels, or different subject areas.Teachers have no real basis for perceiving, letalone changing, ineffective teaching patterns.

A microteaching clinic can provide a lessthreatening setting for supervision than tradi-tional approaches to evaluation. Although mostteache:s are rather sensitive about having super-visors observe them in their classrooms, a micro-teaching clinic is considered neutral territorythe emphasis is on instructional help for theteacher. Whatever the specific goals of the micro-teaching lesson, both the teacher and the super-visor have a clear picture of those goals aheadof time. As a result, the critique period follow-ing the microlesson enables both the teacher andthe supervisor to talk realistically about growthwithin the narrow range of mutual concern.Microteaching supervision tends to be highlyspecific, and the teacher can immediately applya supervisor's suggestion in a reteach session.Microteaching could be applied to obtain con-sistent and constructive supervision and to trainsupervisors in helping teachers to improve theirclassroom performance.

A fifth use of a microteaching clinic withina school system is to test new instructional ma-terials and techniques before their introductionto the classroom. Even the most experiencedteacher can make serious misjudgments aboutthe student experience or maturity required tolearn a given set of materials or to function ef-fectively under a new organizational structure.The microteaching clinic would provide an op-portunity for quick judgments of student re-ceptivity toward new curricular materials or in-structional techniques. Teachers would also havethe opportunity to gain mastery over materialsbefore actual tryout in the classroom. To facili-tate transition from self-contained classrooms toteam teaching settings, microteaching providesopportunities for fledgling teaching teams todevelop new materials and to test new modes ofpresentation while the other team members eval-

uate them. In the process, microteaching canserve as a catalytic element for bringing teach-ers together to discuss professional issues inlight of a shared experience. It can be used asan effective neutral ground upon which to bringdiverse elements within a faculty together tofocus on the teaching-learning process.

From its inception as a simple device for thetraining of secondary school teachers in a fewselected teaching skills, microteaching has grownto the point where multiple specific applicationsare being made at all levels of education, fromthe elementary school to the university. Pre-service as well as inservice microteaching clin-ics and workshops have been established in manyuniversities and public school systems through-out the country. Microteaching techniques andresearch have also been implemented with in-creasing frequency in new and different waysoutside of teacher training, as in medical edu-cation.

There are numerous examples of usage withinthe field of education. At the University of Mas-sachusetts, the regular preservice microteachingclinic is supplemented by an intensive summerworkshop to train school personnel who canthen return to their systems and establish micro-teaching clinics and practices on a local basis.At the University of Illinois, Arye Perlbergutilized microteaching in the preparation of vo-cational education personnel and in the refine-ment of teaching skills among university pro-fessors.1 At the University of Maryland, DavidB. Young has used microteaching in teacher edu-cation centers to (1) train center faculty mem-bers to work with student teachers within thecenters, and (2) to develop the teaching skills ofstudent teachers. Young and his associates havealso used microteaching and selected self-analy-sis techniques at Johns Hopkins University toindividualize preservice training and internshipsfor prospective teachers.2

The use of microteaching to train Peace Corpsvolunteers is an excellent example of its flex-ibility with unique teacher-training objectives.The microteaching clinic was adapted specificallyto the preparation of the Peace Corps volunteersfor the Philippines and has since become a

1 Arye Perlberg, Professor of Education at Tech-nion Institute in Haifa, Israel, was a Visiting Re-search Professor at the University of Illinois duringthe 1967-68 academic year.

2 For a detailed discussion of the work performedby Young and his associates, see pp. 186-89 of thisissue of Theory Into Practice.

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model for other Peace Corps training programs.Objectives for the Philippine Peace Corps clinicwere (1) to equip the volunteers with teachingskills directly related to English as a secondlanguage, (2) to acquaint them with special ma-terials for teaching English as a second language,and (3) to provide a reality test during whichthe volunteers could decide if they really wantedto become elementary school teachers in thePhilippines for the next two years. Since themicroclasses were made up of Philippine stu-dents who had been in the United States lessthan six months, the microteaching sessions weremuch more directly related to the reality to be'faced by the Peace Corps volunteers than wouldhave been possible in a regular classroom situa-tion.

An example of how microteaching conceptsand techniques have been utilized in counselingand guidance has been provided by Allen Ivey.He and his associates3 developed the concept ofmicrocounseling, which is a video method oftraining counselors in the basic skills of counsel-ing. Microcounseling training procedures focuson these skills: attending behavior, reflection offeeling, and summarization of feeling.

Microteaching techniques and principles havebeen used with some effectiveness in the areaof medical education. Hilliard Jason, director ofthe Office of Medical Education Research andDevelopment in the College of Human Medi-cine at Michigan State University, has utilizedmicroteaching techniques in assisting medicalstudents to acquire the skills of relating to pa-tients. He is developing a series of process skillsutilizing patient simulation, video taped patient-doctor relationships, immediate video playback,and supervisor-doctor critique and analysis.

Additional areas exist, both within and out-side of educPtion, where microteaching tech-niques and principles appear to be useful. Forexample, microteaching could be useful withineducation for preemployment prediction as aframework for selection or rating of experiencedteachers seeking employment within a schooldistrict. This concept could also be extended toinclude the evaluation of current employees forpossible promotion; however, it would be neces-sary to indicate clearly to teachers those occa-sions when their microteaching sessions wouldbe utilized as the basis for evaluating theircompetency.

Microteaching principles and techniques mightbe effectively applied in the training of admin.

3 The original research was conducted while Iveywas the Director of the Counseling Center at Colo-rado State University. He is currently at the 'Uni-versity of Massachusetts.184

istrators to improve presentation skills, particu-larly in the area of administrator-parent com-munications. Such prior practice, combined withan effective supervisory critique of the admin-istrator's micro-presentation, might result in asignificant improvement in the administrator'sability to communicate with his community andmight also result in an increase in the numberof bond issues which are subsequently approved.

Another example of the possible applicationof microteaching is the training of personnelsuch as secretaries or receptionists. They mightbe trained in specific interpersonal relationsskills to become more effective in dealing withthe public. Teacher aides who would be workingprimarily with students (e.g., in open labora-tories, resource centers, or cafeteria duty) couldalso receive such training.

Potential areas outside of education would in-clude those service areas where information isobtained by a specialist from individual clientsor from groups of clients such as social workers,psychiatrists, and police officers. Inservice teach-ers in diverse preparation institutions (hospitals,police academies, the military, and schools pre-paring social workers) could increase their com-petence through the use of microteaching proce-dures. Microteaching can also help to train peo-ple in the techniques of oratory and debate.Law school students could practice the skills ofset induction, closure, and probing questionsbefore a small audience. High school students,politicians, and ministers could improve speak-ing skills in a microteaching setting in whichthey could practice specific speaking skills on asmall audience.

The normal classroom setting contains somany variables that precise research is virtuallyprecluded. A major attraction of the microteach-ing format is that it simplifies the teaching actand provides an opportunity for real experi-mental control and manipulation of variables.

As a teacher training technique, microteachingis in its infancy, and many issues related to itsmost effective use have not as yet been resolved.There is no convincing research evidence re-garding the optimal number of students formicroteaching sesskins. It would be useful to ex-amine the impact of student characteristics uponthe success or failure of the teacher trainingsession and the impact of a variety of differenttiming and sequencing arrangements within themicroteaching setting. Finally, how to increasethe effectiveness of the self-confrontation cri-

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tique and the feedback that it supplies in train-ing teachers to acquire specific teaching skillsmust be determined. The important point hereis that microteaching as a teacher training tech-nique should proceed in light of a careful in-vestigation of the contributions of each of itscomponents.

The microteaching situation suggests that asecond major category for research experimenta-tion might focus upon the process of learningitself. Some of the learning situations whichmight be investigated relate to the use of modelsin the training of specific teaching skills. Asnoted in Allen and Ryan,1 the key issues whichmight be examined are as follows. ( 1) Is a modelof a skill a more efficient aid to learning if itcontains the positive and negative instances ofthe skill or if it contains only the positive in-stances? (2) To what extent does extreme exag-geration of teaching techniques in a model addto or detract from its usefulness in a trainingsituation? (3) Is transfer of the skill to the realclassroom by the teacher trainee improved bythe use of models in several different contextualsituations (e.g., one in a microteaching situa-tion, one in a regular classroom, and one in alarge group lecture hall)? (4) Are modelingprocedures more effective in producing learningif they contain segments which show the modelbeing reinforced for performing the desiredskill?

The supervisory sessions within microteach-ing also provide an opportunity for investi-gating some basic learning phenomena related toself-confrontation situations. Examples of thekinds of issues involved are: (1) the effective-ness of various schedules of reinforcement intraining particular skills; (2) the effectivenessof different verbal and nonverbal reinforcersin training particular skills; (3) the relativetraining effectiveness of pointing out positiveand/or negative instances of a training use ofa particular skill in a self-confrontation situa-tion, (4) the effects of training on different at-titudinal sets and expectancy on the part of asupervisor; and (5) the investigation of super-visory techniques and cueing devices which caneventually eliminate the role of the supervisorand can make the trainee himself an adequatecritic of his own teaching behavior.

A third major category of microteaching re-search would focus on the .interactions betweenstudents and teachers. Teacher trainers must be-

4 Allen, Dwight W..nd Ryan, Kevin. Micro.teaching. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-WesleyPublishing Co. (in press).

gin to face the problems of determining therelationships between teacher performance andstudent performance so that they can buildempirically based justification for the objectivesof their training programs. Video tapes on whichthe students and the teacher are recorded simul-taneously will make it possible to do this. Inaddition to observing the immediate effect uponstudent behavior of a particular teaching skill,appropriate achievement measures could begiven to the microclass students to determinethe long range impact of the teaching skill uponstudent learning. As researchers begin to gatherevidence in this area, we can begin to utilizeteacher training programs where the skills, at-titudes, and understandings required by pro-spective teachers are supported by the empiricalevidence of their efficacy in producing learning.

Microteaching can and should be used as aresearch tool to investigate which training strate-gif s are most effective for teacher trainees withdifferent backgrounds and aptitudes. At the sametime, it can be used as a training strategy to giveindividual teachers the kind of teaching mostsuited to their particular abilities. Such researchinto alternate training routes should provideeducators with a means of approaching the prob-lem of individualizing instruction within teachereducation. There is a strong probability thatteachers who are prepared in such an individual-ized program will subsequently be much moreable to develop and implement individualizedinstructional approaches with their students.

While the four specific microteaching researchcategories which have been discussed are onlythose areas which today appear to he most fruit-ful, the most promising thing about microteach-ing as a research device is the extent to which itis open to new implementation and as yet un-conceived experimental issues.

Microteaching stands today as one of fewexperimental techniques which by its very struc-ture encourages a combination of theory andpractice, research and training, innovation andimplementation. The phenomenal growth anddiversity of microteaching should not obscurethe fact that the technique is still in its infancy.The ultimate potential of this most promisingtool for both research and training depends en-tirely upon our imagination and our ingenuityin developing and testing new ways of applyingmicroteaching principles and techniques to theproblems of education.

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It

The IVIodel in Use (Microteaching)

In teacher training programs on campuses andin schools alike, microteaching is coming into itsown. It is being used successfully in a widevariety of settings as a major teacher trainingtechnique in both preservice and inservice pro-grams. Descriptions in this article of exemplaryprograms in which microteaching is an integralpart illustrate the many purposes it can serve.

At the University of Maryland microteachingis a major techniqut, in a program that focuseson continuous educational personnel develop-ment. It is conducted in a unique teacher educa-tion center, a cooperative effort of the universityand several public schools that are geographi-cally contiguous. Although it is coordinated bya full-time joint appointee, University personnelassume major responsibility for training centerpersonnel for significant roles in the inductionof student teachers into full-time professionalteaching.

One of the major problems in attemptingto establish microteaching as a major componentis a shortage of trained personnel to conductmicroteaching sequences. A second problem isthe availability of pupils. To bring them to thecampus often presents a major logistical ob-stacle. The University of Maryland has overcomemany such problems in the teacher educationcenter.186

David B. YoungAssistant ProfessorSecondary EducationUniversity of Maryland

Dorothy A. YoungMicroteaching I nstructorDepartment of EducationThe John Hopkins University

The major focus of work at the center isanalysis and modification of teaching behavior.The instructional sequence is organized to pre-pare teachers to use Flanders' interaction analy-sis, Galloway's nonverbal continuum, and othersystems for analyzing teaching including micro-teaching, video tape feedback, and simulation tomodify behavior. A major portion of the instruc-tion is "learning by doing" as center teachersuse the systems with student teachers.

Microteaching is being incorporated into theprogram at three points: junior year experi-ences, prestudent teaching in methods courses,and concurrent with student teaching. Thejunior year experience consists of an observationto complement course work in psychology andhuman development and seminars with coordi-nators in teacher education centers. During theseseminars, student teachers learn to use one ortwo basic teaching behaviors in a microteachingsequence. Prior to full-scale teaching, studentteachers in several pilot projects are engaged inmicroteaching as a part of the "methods"courses. Following discussion of the relationshipof a given dimension of teacher behavior tolearning, student teachers identify specific teach-ing behaviors within that dimension and practicethem in a microteaching sequence. For example,if the dimension of teaching behavior is flevelop-ing alternative teacher responses to a pupil'squestions and responses to questions comments,and challenges, the following teaching behaviorswould constitute the performance criteria:

1. Given a student question, comment, orchallenge, the teacher can respond with: ( a )praise accompanied with criteria for the praise;( b ) a clarification question; ( c ) a counter-example; ( d ) reproof with criteria; ( e ) accept-ance of feeling of student; or ( f ) statementsusing or building upon the student contribution.

2. When the teacher responds to a pupil, hediscriminates in choosing responses "a" to "f"by weighing: ( a ) student nonverbal communi-cation of anxiety; ( b ) student level of thinking;and ( c ) student statement of fact or opinion.

3. Given a student comment, the teacher cansummarize the student's comment accurately.

4. After a pupil's response, the teacher canwithhold verbal comment.

5. While a pupil responds, the teacher canestablish and maintain eye contact.

6. After a pupil's response, the teacher candiscriminate between, select, and administer re-inforcement for correct answers.

7. Given a pupil's response, the teacher may:( a ) probe the pupil for additional responses:( b ) solicit a counterproposal or opinion; ( c )nonverbally reinforce the answer or act of re-sponding by writing the response on the chalk-board, smiling at the pupil, gesturing or noddingapproval, approaching pupil, or physically con-tacting pupil; ( d ) solicit peer reinforcement ofpupil's response; or ( e ) redirect the question toother pupils.

Microteaching sessions are conducted in thecenter using students from study halls or re-lated content classes. Sessions may also be con-ducted after school with volunteer pupils.Students assigned to the material centers operatethe video tape units. Three types of conferenceshave been usedsupervisor, supervisor andpeer, and peer alone. In each, the conferencefocuses on developing and using the specifiedbehavior. In addition to viewing and discussingthe teacher'G performance, a video taped modelmay also be shown. The effectiveness of differentconference strategies is currently being investi-gated.

During the student teaching experience in thecenter, supervising teachers conduct microteach-ing sessions for student teachers who are experi-encing difficulty with certain teaching behaviorsor seeking to experiment or refine a particularteaching strategy.

At Johns Hopkins University, microteachingwith video tape feedback is used to teach internssystems for self-analysis of teaching behavior.

Stressing such verbal and nonverbal classroominteraction provides continuous and individuallyprescribed training modules for the acquisitionof teaching behaviors as well as graduated ex-periences prior to classroom teaching.

A microteaching clinic is conducted during theacademic year preceding internship. Initially,each intern prepares and teaches a five-minutediagnostic lesson to four pupils. This perform-ance is coded and analyzed using Hough's Ob-servation System and/or Medley and Mitzel'sObservation Scale and Record. Based on thisanalysis and inventory, a series of four micro-teaching training modules are prescribed foracquisition of the selected behaviors. In each,the number of times the intern reteaches is notpredetermined but depends on his success. Fol-lowing this series of four, the intern againteaches a "diagnostic" lesson, and another seriesof microteaching training modules are pre-scribed and conducted.

Microteaching sessions are held in private andpublic schools near the college campus. This notonly alleviates the problem of obtaining pupilsfor the microclasses but interns become morefamiliar with the school environment. Prior toengaging in microteaching sequences, oncampussemjnars are held to study the relationship of thedesignated teaching behaviors to pupil learningand to develop performance criteria. Constructedmodels of the behavior provide a basis for de-veloping the performance criteria and alsobecome an integral part of the supervisor con-ference in the microteaching session.

Subsequent to these individualized sequences,each intern teaches a twenty-minute lesson toten students to be analyzed by his peers andretaught to a different group of pupils. The in-tern's next graduated experience is studentteaching during the summer between the aca-fiemic year and the internship. Microteaching se-quences are arranged to provide the intern theopportunity to acquire additional teaching be-haviors and/or to practice those behaviors withwhich he is experiencing difficulty.

Follow-up video tape feedback is also an in-tegral part of the internship. This process ap-plies some of the same basic principles. Aportable video recording unit is used periodi-cally to record the intern's classroom perform-ance in order to analyze it, and a specific teach-ing behavior is selected for practice in a subse-quent class period. This performance is alsorecorded and a confirmation conference held.The follow-up recording and analysis are madeof the same or a similar lesson but in a differentclass.

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Besides use over a period of time in such ex-tensive projects as the University of Marylandand Johns Hopkins University programs, micro-teaching has been incorporated effectively in avariety of short-term workshops and clinics.Several brief examples of use in such abbrevi-ated settings follow.

Inservice Workshops. In Hinesville, Georgia,elementary teachers participated in a four-dayworkshop on teaching physical education, whichfocused on the intensive study of the "content"of physical education. Instructors, representingthe President's Council on Physical Fitness andthe American Association for Health, PhysicalEducation, and Recreation, demonstrated and ledthe teachers in various "learning by doing" in-structional units in physical fitness activities,sports fundamentals, rhythmic movement, games,and posture exercises. In addition, specific teach-ing behaviors were identified for teaching thevarious units. Concurrent with these instruc-tional sessions, other teachers were microteach-ing.

Four teaching stations were arranged, eachequipped with a portable video tape recorder.All of the teachers paired and rotated a teacher/supervisor role.

Each teacher taught a lesson of his own choos-ing and then selected a teaching behavior topractice and analyze during the ensuing con-ference and to reteach. Each taught in twomicroteaching sequences.

Inservice Days. In Howard County, Maryland,forty new teachers participated in a microteach-ing teach-reteach sequence during a one-dayworkshop. Four teaching stations with videotapes were arranged. Each teacher selected atopic and taught and retaught a group of fourstudents. The teacher then selected a dimensionof teaching behavior and constructed specificcriteria to use in analysis of his performanceduring the intervening critique. Selection ofparticipants in the critique was at the teacher'soption, and sonic chose a colleague and others asupervisor.

Training Leadership Teams. For a three-weekconference sponsored by the National ScienceFoundation at the University of Maryland, micro-teaching was an integral part of a NationalLeadership Training Conference for teachers,suPervisors, and university professors for theEarth Sciences Curriculum Project. The train-ing program consisted of instruction on earthscience, human factor analysis (a form of sen-sitivity training), and analysis and modification188

of teaching behavior. Each was conducted con-currently throughout the three weeks.

Each team developed a set of performancecriteria (specific f,)aching behaviors) for differ-ent aspects of the investigative approach, andeach team member (teacher, supervisor, pro-fessor ) prepared and taught a five-minute lessonon some segment of earth science to five juniorhigh students. They rotated the roles of videorecorder operator, supervisor, and teacher. Eachlesson was retaught to a different group of pupilsfollowing a conference which focused on theanalysis of the performance using the specificcriteria previously identified.

Although video tape recording is used in mostof the programs described here, it is not requi-site to conducting microteaching sessions, How-ever, video tape feedback adds a potentiallypowerful dimension. Acheson and Olivero reportthat a conference with video tape feedback, com-pared with a conference without it, is significant-ly more effective in modifying a teacher's be-havior. When a supervisor and teacher discussa lesson, many times they do not share the samemental or visual-auditory frame of reference.Not only do they typically have somewhat dif-fering attitudes about the content but they alsosee and hear different things. This lack of a com-mon frame Of reference complicates an alreadydifficult task. However, video tape makes it pos-sible to obtain a simple and objective record sothat a supervisor and teacher can see, hear, andanalyze the same phenomena.

The teacher may also want a respected col-league to help him analyze his performance.This has not been practiced extensively becauseit has not been feasible. Most teachers are teach-ing at the same time; however, with microteach-ing and a video recording, the two can sit downand view a lesson together. Besides giving thema common frame of reference, the importantparts of the tape can be replayed as often asdesired. There is great power for improvementin this type of vivid feedback and focused cri-tique, and the very fact that colleagues are sit-ting down and discussing teaching together isof definite value to both.

Video tape recording provides the supervisorthe means to provide discrimination training.As the video tape progresses, he can reinforcethe teacher for each instance of the behavior bystopping the tape and telling the teachers, "Youdid that well, let's watch it again." He then re-plays that portion. Or, if the supervisor has noted

in advance when he wants to reinforce theteacher, he can stop the tape and say, "Now,watch how well you respond to this student."Also, without stopping the tape, the supervisorcan reward the teacher as the lesson progresses.

Another technique is to have the teacher con-trast a variety of his behavior instances and re-flect on their effectiveness, considering suchthings as the effect on pupils. The supervisormight also stop the tape following a given situa-tion which is a cue for a teacher response andask the teacher, "What could you do here?" Thesupervisor may want to prompt the teacher'sresponse and/or suggest alternative behavior.

One of the most promising training modes isto present a model to the teacher during theconference in the microteaching sequence. Twobasic kinds of modeling have been developedperceptual and symbolic.

A perceptual model refers to a video tapedteaching episode which exaggerates a specificteaching behavior. It is a constructed teaching-learning situation in a microteaching format. Toprepare such a model, a teacher selects a topicand assembles a fifteen-minute lesson lendingitself to the teaching skill to be modeled. Thelesson is taught and retaught several times todifferent groups of pupils (normally four to fivein number). On each occasion, as many distract-ing stimuli (behaviors other than the one de-sired) as possible are eliminated. The final mod-eled performance is usually five to seven min-utes in length.

A symbolic model is a detailed written descrip-tion of a specific teaching behavior to beacquired by the teacher and includes examplesof the behavior and a rationale for its use.

Studies investigating the relative effectivenessof perceptual and symbolic modeling reveal thatteachers and interns viewing a perceptual modelincorporate more of the modeled teaching be-havior into subsequent teaching than whenstudying a symbolic model. But, a combinationof the two modeling modes is more effectivethan either alone.

Both the perceptual and symbolic models haveserved as a basic format for modeling studies inteacher education. Research on imitation learn-ing (modeling) in fields other than teacher edu-cation has indicated that it is an effective meansof accelerating the learning process. In teachereducation, modeling has been demonstrated asan effective training variable in modifying ateacher's behavior in a microteaching sequence.

As an instrument which focuses on specificteaching skills, microteaching has many advan-tages. As these examples have shown, micro-teaching provides both the experienced and nov-ice teacher the opportunity to analyze and mod-ify teaching behavior with or without the as-sistance of a colleague or supervisor. For theexperienced teacher, it offers the opportunity toacquire and practice new teaching skills and torefine existing ones. For the novice participatingin this approach, it can eliminate much of thetrauma, discouragement, and failure often ac-companying a sudden immersion into the com-plexities of teaching.

Ref erer.esAllen, Dwight W., and Ryan, Kevin A. PA New

Face for Supervision," Stanford University, 1965(Mimeographed).

Allen, Dwight W., and Young, David B. "Video-tape Techniques at Stanford University," Tele-vision and Related Media in Teacher Education.Baltimore : Multi-State Teacher Education Project,August 1967.

Allen, Dwight W., and others. "A Comparison ofDifferent Modeling Procedures in the Acquisitionof a Teaching Skill," paper presented at the annualmeeting of the American Educational Research Asso-ciation, February 1967.

Bush, Robert N., and Allen, Dwight W. "Micro-Teaching, Controlled Practice in the Training ofTeachers," Stanford University, 1964 (Mimeo-graphed).

McDonald, Frederick J.; Allen, Dwight W.; andOrme, Michael J. "The Effects of Self-Feedbackand Reinforcement on the Acquisition of a Teach-ing Skill," paper presented at the annual meetingof the American Education Research Association,February 1966.

Orme, Michael J. "The Effects of Modeling andFeedback Variables on the Acquisition of a ComplexTeaching Strategy," doctoral dissertation, StanfordUniversity, 1966.

White, Frances Joyce. "Observational Learningof Indirect Verbal Behavior Through the Mediumof Audio-Tapes," doctoral dissertation, Universityof Maryland, 1968.

Wodtke, Kenneth H., kaid Brown, Bobby R. "SocialLearning and Imitation," Review of EducationalResearch, December 1967, 37, 514-38.

Young, David B. "Try Micro-Teaching with Video-tape Feedback," Tennessee Teacher, April 1968,35, 7, 9, and 10.

Young, David B. "The Effectiveness of Self In-struction in Teacher Education Using Modellingand Video-Tape Feedback," paper read at the an-nual meeting of the American Educational ResearchAssociation, 1968.

Young, David B. "The Analysis and Modificationof Teaching Behavior Using Micro-Teaching andVideotape Feedback," paper presented at the Na-tional Association of Secondary School Principals'convention, 1968.

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realities . . .

Simulation is another techniquefor practice which is being widelyaccepted. This technique introducesthe teacher to the realities of theclassroom in a controlled fashionand allows him to practice specificbehaviors in a variety of realisticsituations. An approach to simulationpresented in this issue is theTeaching Problems Laboratory,which is an instrument to enhancesensitivity to the needs of pupilsand to the environment and socialfactors affecting the school and itsfunctions.

SimulationThe imbalance and gap between indirect and

direct experiences in teacher preparation pro-grams is reflected in the often discussed di-chotomy between theory and practice. Studentsand classroom teachers note that what they learnin the college classroom doesn't seem to apply inreal-life school settingsthat the two worlds arenot in harmony. As early as 1904, Dewey wasconcerned with the need to relate theory to prac-tice:

. . we may . . use practice work as an instru-ment in making real and vital theoretical in-struction; the knowledge of subject-matter andof principles of education. This is the laboratorypoint of view. . . . Practice work thus . . . [gives]the student a better hold upon the educationalsignificance of the subject-matter he is acquir-ing. . .

More recently LaGrone stated:The professional component of a program ofteacher education for the last twenty-five orthirty years has taken for granted that the teach-er education student will put together the talkabout education and his teaching. The recentresearch in teaching and work in theory indi-cates that this is an extremely difficult task andthat an assumption of this magnitude is morelikely to be false than true.2

1 Dewey, John. "The Relation of Theory to Prac-tice in Education," The Relation of Theory to Prac-tice in the Education of Teachers, National Societyfor the Scientific Study of Education, Third YeaT-book. Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1904,13. 9.

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Donald R. CruickshankAssistant DeanCollege of EducationUniversity of Tennessee

Utilizing newer media and adapting an oldtraining techniquesimulationit is possiblefor teacher educators to provide life-like learn-ing situations in which theory and practice arejoined. For example, a phenomenon such as"student behavior" may be recreated, observed,and then analyzed in terms of a variety of con-structs which have been presented previously tostudents in theory classes. Among other phe-nomena, a simulated classroom setting providesopportunity to study teaching behavior, curricu-lum, social relationships, values, and individualdifferences. Further, the devised experiences,unlike individual case studies, can be placed ina realistic setting and systematized in such away that one may participate as a hypotheticalteacher in a long range, in-depth controlled ex-perience which is both intellectually and psy-chologically engaging.

Many definitions exist for the term simula-tion, and the technique has been employed atseveral levels of sophistication. Herein, theterm will refer to the creation of realistic ex-periences to be played out by participants inorder to provide them with life-like problem-

2 LaGrone, Herbert. A Proposal for the Revisionof the Pre-Service Professional Program of TeacherEducation. Washington, D. C. : American Associa-tion of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1964, p. 63.

solving experiences related to their present orfuture work.

Simulations which have been created as train-ing devices are well known. War games, whichhave been expanded and refined since they werefirst introduced in Ancient Greece, are one ofthe best examples of this technique. The best-known individualized simulator is the LinkFlight trainer developed during World War II;today Eastern Airlines employs a simulatedBoeing 727 jet for pilot training. The businesssector has made a sizeable investment in simu-lator training. The American Management Asso-ciation has developed and refined a "Top Man-agement Decision Making Game," while HarvardUniversity has created a "Harbits Company"wherein future corporation vice presidents prac-tice "constructive failure." In education, simula-tion seems to have been employed successfullyfirst in programs of driver training.3

Guetzkow has produced simulation materialsfor teaching basic concepts of balance of power,collective security, military aggression, isola-tionism, sovereignty, and international lawamong others.4 Using similar materials at Law-rence, Kansas, Cherryholmes involved collegepreparatory students in a six-week simulationgame in international relations. Three studentswere assigned to each nation, occupying posi-tions of Central Decision Maker, Chief Diplo-mat, and Military Advisor.3

In the late 1950's, the University Council forEducational Administration in its Developmentfor Criteria Study simulated the administrativeposition in the public elementary school.° Pre-sented through films, filmstrips, tape recordings,and printed material, the simulation materialsintroduced each participant to Jefferson Town-ship and the Whitman Elementary School. Fol-lowing orientation, each participant assumes therole of "Marion Smith," principal, and engages f.nproblem-solving activities involving administra-tion and leadership. Kersh built a simulationlaboratory at Oregon College of Education inwhich attempts were made to shape studentteaching behavior using film clips and a feed-back procedure.7

3 Richards, William T. "Simulation: What Is Itand What Does It Offer?" Wisconsin Journal ofEducation, April 1964, 96, 12.

Guetzkow, Harold, editor. Simulation in SocialScience: :r)caelings. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,1962.

Cherryholmes, Cleo. "Developments in Simula-tion of International Relations in High SchoolTeaching," Phi Delta Kappan, January 1965, 46,227-31.

o Hemp h ill, John, et al. Administrative Perfor-mance and Personality. New York : Teachers Col-lege, Columbia University, 1962.

Other applications of simulation are develop-ing rapidly in the fields of counselor training,teaching of reading, student teaching, preparingteachers to work in desegregated schools, pre-paring teachers to work in inner cities, teacherselection, and professional negotiations.

One effort which employs media to simulate ateaching environment is the Teaching ProblemsLaboratory.8 Revised from an original studydone by Broadbent and Cruickshank,0 the lab-oratory creates the "Longacre ElementarySchool" in which participants assume the roleof "Pat Taylor," a new fifth-grade teacher, andpractice solving 31 critical teaching problemspresented on film through role play and in writ-ten incidents.

Among other things, the laboratory experi-ence is designed to permit participants to ( 1 )assume the role of a new teacher, ( 2 ) haveaccess to and use of related, appropriate pro-fessional information and materials and unfet-tered opportunities to solve critical problems ofbeginning teachers, ( 3 ) have exposure to avariety of potential solutions to particular prob-lems, and ( 4 ) consider possible consequencesof their problem-solving behavior.

The Teaching Problems Laboratory experiencebegins as Pat Taylor is introduced to the townof Madison and its school system in a filmstripnarrated by "Dr. Raymond Black," Superinten-dent of Schools. In the next filmstrip, "FrankJones," the Longacre School principal, providesPat with a detailed orientation to the schoolattendance district, the faculty, and the pro-gram. At the conclusion of the orientation ses-sion, Pat is given materials normally providedfor a new staff member at Longacre including afaculty handbook of rules and regulations, acurriculum handbook, and cumulative recordcards for 31 children. Sociograms and samplesof children's work are provided. From this timeon, each participant in effect becomes Pat Taylor.

Engagement occurs initially when Pat en-counters "Jack Brogan," a constantly disrupt-ing child, in a filmed classroom incident. Patencounters 31 incidents, all representative ofproblems identified by teachers in service, from"having a distaste for grading papers" to "get-

7 Kersh, Bert Y. "The Classroom Simulator,"Journal of Teacher Education, March 1962, 13, 10910.

Cruickshank, Donald R.; Broadbent, Frank W.;and Bubb, Roy. Teaching Problems Laboratory. Chi-cago: Science Research Associates, 1967.

Cruickshank, Donald R., and Broadbent, FrankW. The Simulation and Analysis of Problems ofBeginning Teachers. University of Tennessee andState University College at Brockport, New York :U. S. Office of Education Cooperative ResearchProject 5-0798, October 1968.

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ting parents to take an interest in their chil-dren's behavior."10 Ten of the incidents are pre-sented in films, while the rest are encounteredthrough role playing, written incidents, or com-binations thereof.

After encountering each teaching problem,Pat Taylor responds on an Incident ResponseSheet which requires him or her to (1) identifythe problem, (2) identify forces and factors af-fecting the problem environment, (3) locatepertinent information, (4) project alternativecourses of action available, (5) select a "mostdesirable" course of action, and (6) communi-cate and implement a decision. Participants thenmove into small groups to project their solu-tions for reaction. Finally, a large group sessionfurther explores the proble:.1.

There are no "correct" answers in this simu-lated experience. Rather, each participant is en-couraged to "stretch" his teaching behavior byemploying alternative solutions to classroomproblems.

The simulated laboratory experiences requireparticipants to construct a classroom test, holdparent conferences, prepare and teach meaning-ful lessons, locate instructional materials, de-velop a reading program, solve student behaviorincidents, learn to use children's cumulativerecords, consider motivational techniques, pre-pare behavioral objectives for learning, analyzeand use results of sociograms, provide for indi-vidual differences in learning, and so forth.

Results from two field tests conducted withundergraduates provide data in support of simu-lation techniques. Participants who underwentsimulator training in place of the first two fullweeks of student teaching reported that it was(1) very enjoyable, (2) realistic, (3) very help-ful, (4) much more meaningful than college lec-tures, and (5) would be more valuable to themthan the two weeks of student teaching they hadmissed.

Students also noted that (1) they felt involvedin the devised situations, (2) the small group dis-cussions were very helpful in aiding them todevelop their own concepts of teaching, (3) thesi xialation experiences were very helpful indeveloping methods of coping with classroomproblems, and (4) they would recommend simu-lation training to their friends.

Experimental data was collected during fieldtests to determine whether or not exposure tosimulated critical teaching problems and subse-quent decision-making had an observable effecton a trainee's student teaching behavior. Theresearchers concluded that:

1" A complete list of the thirty-one problems isfound in Appendix A.192

simulation training when tested under the moststringent conditions was an unqualified successas a teaching device that motivates and involvesstudents and that, although simulation was on/ypartially successful in changing the studentteachers' behavior, it was at least as effective asan equal amount of student teaching. Changesin the materials, placement in the program andin the role of the instructor promise to increasethe overall effectiveness of this set of simulationmaterials in future trials.,1

In addition to providing a setting in whichtheory may be applied to practice, the TeachingProblems Laboratory and similar programs mayserve to:

1. Provide intensive, focused opportunities tostudy and to analyze critical teaching problemswhich may not occur durin student teaching orother preservice activities.

2. Increase student interest in the profession-al education sequence.

3. Provide opportunities for unfettered prob-lem-solving free of censure and failure.

4. Shorten the required student teaching orinternship requirement.

5. "Open" teaching behavior.6. Reduce teacher failure and turnover.7. Aid in teacher recruitment and selection

as a situational test.8. Orient beginning teachers.9. Provide guided inservice experiences for

teachers experiencing difficulty.10. Permit classroom teachers to analyze their

own classroom behavior.11. Substitute for student teaching or intern-

ship settings when they are not available.12. Stimulate research regarding teaching

problem-solving behavior or the prediction ofteaching behavior from behavior in a simulatedsetting.

Cunningham summarized the state-of-the-artof simulation, stating:

My personal view of simulation is that it is themost promising single innovation . . . that wehave available today. Much, indeed most, of itspotential remains to be activated; we have on/ybegun to invent appropriate means for its us-age.12

11 Cruickshank, Donald R., and Broadbent, FrankW. "An Investigation to Determine Effects of Simu-lation Training on Student Teaching Behavior," p.12 (In press) .

12 Cunningham, Luvern L., "Simulation and thePreparation of Educational Administrators," a pa-per presented at the UCEA International Inter-visitation Conference, University of Michigan, Octo-ber 1966, p. 27.

Simulation is surrounded by significant and asyet unanswered questions. All too often, facevalidity is considered sufficient (as with studentteaching). Simulation systems need careful eval-uation to determine whether or not they shouldbe employed ( do they result in greater measur-able growth than employing traditional learningdevices? ) and where they should be employed( should simulation training be an entering ex-perience, pre-student teaching, pre-first yearteaching, or other? ). Hopefully, researchers andpractitioners and program developers will worktogether to provide answers to these essentialquestions.

Another line of inquiry to be pursued is, howwell do learners transfer what they have learnedduring simulation training to real classroomteaching? Answers to this question will enablethe profession to determine whether or not be-havior revealed during simulation can be used asa predictor. Evidence of this nature could be

extremely important for purposes of individual-izing instruction, retention and promotion, andteacher recruitment and selection.

Developers of new simulation models shouldalso strive to provide normative data regardingprobable pupil reaction to a variety of teacherbehaviors expressed under a variety of classroomconditions. Determination of such probabilitieswould enable simulation models to program con-sequences for a variety of teacher behaviorsand to make simulation training highly indi-vidualized.

It seems clear that simulation materials shouldtake their place alongside the many other meansthat college teachers, school principals, andsupervisors use to present the real world ofteaching to both preservice and inservice teach-ers. There can be no serious opposition to theconcept of simulation: the real issue is whetheror not such experiences may be used effectivelyto shift the behavior of the user and therebyimprove teaching.

Appendix AList of Critical Teaching Problems and Methods of Presentation*

1. Handling the constantly disrupting child (film).2. Getting students to do homework (written,

role play may be used incidentally).3. Not knowing how to evaluate teaching ob-

jectives (written).4. Handling children's aggressive behavior to-

ward one another (film).5. Finding films and filmstrips related to the area

being studied (written).6. Finding appropriate reading materials for read-

ers one or more years below grade level (written).7. Differentiating instruction among the slow,

average, and gifted children in class (written roleplay may be used raicidentally).

8. Students not motivated to work on class as-signments (film).

9. Having a distaste for grading papers (written).10. Not knowing what to do with students who

finish work early (film).11. Having students see relationship between un-

desirable behavior and its consequences (written).12. Involving many of the children in group dis-

cussions (film).13. Discussing with parents their children's un-

satisfactory achievement (written incident and roleplay).

* Identified in Cooperative Research Project 5-0798, Donald R. Cruickshank and Frank W. Broad-bent, The Simulation and Analysis of Problems ofBeginning Teachers. University of Tennessee andState University College at Brockport, New York(In Press).

14. Relating a complex subject meaningfully tochildren (written).

15. Unhappy with classroom clerical work (film).16. Integrating the isolated disliked child (writ-

ten).17. Having trouble interpreting children's true

capabilities to parents (written incident and roleplay).

18. Having children do independent work quietly(film).

19. Telling parents that their children have seri-ous problems (written incident and role play).

20. Providing appropriate work for the classwhile at the same time working with a small groupor individual child (film).

21. Helping a student with a destructive homesituation (written, role play may be used incident-ally).

22. Needing help in selecting instructional ma-terials (written).

23. Involving pupils in self-evaluation (written).24. Being impatient with my students (film).25. Not knowing how to deal with a child's read-

ing problem (film).26. Lacking enthusiasm for a subject (written) .

27. Getting parents to take an interest in theirchildren's srhonl and classwork (written).

28. FeeNng uncomfortable about giving failinggrades (written and role play).

29. Feeling nervous when supervised (written).30. Being able to prepare valid classroom tests

(written).31. Being unable to contact a parent (written).

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The Model in Use (simulation)

In an effort to bring the job of the elementaryschool teacher into proper focus, several mem-bers of the Department of Elementary Educationat Florida State University have recently initi-ated the use of the Teathing Problems Labora-t or y.1 The Laboratory provides simulated.:xperiences for elementary majors in the majorwork areas of an elementary school teacher in-volved with a class of 31 fifth graders. Simulatedexperiences are provided through the use offilms, filmstrips, phonograph records, cumulativerecord folders, written teaching problems, androle playing cards.

Laboratory participants are given numerousopportunities to become acquainted with theirclass and to tackle problems that occur whilethey are working with these children. They teachdaily lessons, plan curriculum, conduct parentconferences, study children, and gather teachingmaterials.

Various parts of the Laboratory are used withseveral classes, but during one recent quarterthe entire program was used with one class. Theproblems discussed in this article refer to theimplementation of simulated teaching as experi-enced in the use of the Laboratory with thisclass. However, it is highly possible that the

1 The Teaching Problems Laboratory was devel-oped by Donald R. Cruickshank of the Universityof Tennessee and Prank W. Broadbent and Roy I,.Bubb of the State University College at Brockport,New York. It is published by Science Research Asso-ciates, Inc.194

Glennon RowellAssistant ProfessorElementary EducationFlorida State UniversityTallahassee

same problems would exist in the implementa-tion of other simulated teaching programstheyinvolved these major questions:

1. How much of an introduction should bemade prior to the beginning of a simulated teach-ing incident?

2. How does one provide for maximum inter-action of participants in simulated teaching?

3. How can the simulation director preventstudents from making irrational, opinionatedanalyses about teaching incidents?

4. What kinds of follow-up activities shouldbe provided for simulated teaching situations?

5. In what way can the simulation directordistinguish between the most effective simulationactivities and those that are merely of greatestinterest to the participants?

6. What problem must be faced regarding theselection of materials in simulated teachingprograms?

7. How can record-keeping in simulated in-struction be constructive and not be viewed bythe participants as busy work?

8. What is the best way of making final evalu-ation of the students' progress in a course wheresimulated teaching is the basic teaching strat-egy?

1. It is neither practical nor desirable to ex-pect students enrolled in any class to have had

identical experience and training; but in classeswhere simulation is the primary teaching strat-egy, enrollment should be controlled for thepurpose of avoiding extreme variations in thebackground of the participants. This became evi-dent in difficulties that developed in relationshipto the introduction of the simulated incidents.Here, the greatest concern was the question ofwhether or not the teaching incidents should bediscussed prior to the simulation experience. Animproper introduction might minimize the ef-fectiveness of the simulated elementary schoolclassroom environment, or too much of an intro-duction before the simulation of a teaching situ-ation could block areas that should be exploredby the participants.

Certain simulated teaching incidents projectedconcepts less familiar to some participants thanto others. An example of this occurred withevaluation of a social studies unit. Some of theunit objectives were written in behavioral terms,and their identification was crucial to the evalu-ation of the unit. Since a few students were notfamiliar with behavioral objectives, it was de-batable whether or not they should be discussedbefore the session on evaluating unit outcomes.The same question was raised when sociogramswere first used to learn more about a child whowas introduced in a film. It was obvious thatparticipants familiar with sociograms wouldmake better use of them and that the otherstudents in the program would need some workin this area. Providing additional backgroundexperience for participants in the program waspartially solved by pointing out resource ma-terials on the topic in question. Some partici-pants were able to develop additional back-ground on the topic by independent reading.

Another consideration involving introductionsto simulated incidents was the likelihood of aproblem which might occur unexpectedly in ateacher's daily work. As teachers work withchildren, unanticipated problems often occur,and teacher trainees can profit from simulatedsituations which demonstrate the unexpected. Itwas important not to upset experiences of thiskind in the simulated activity.

The problem of introducing the simulatedteaching episodes in the program was resolvedby a decision to handle each on an individualbasis. As each simulated episode was scheduledif it appeared that any introduction whatsoeverwould decrease the effectiveness of the simula-tion experience, no introduction was given.

2. Role playing situations in the TeachingProblems Laboratory are well designed, butsome participants were reluctant to assume the

roles. In order to provide effective interactionin role playing, it was necessary to stress con-tinually that the students were not on exhibitthey were not to be evaluated on how well theyplayed a part. Rather, the role playing episodeswere designed to help prospective teachersidentify and solve problems similar to those theycould expect as beginning teachers. More effec-tive interaction was also reached through carefulgrouping of the participants in role playingsituations. When it was recognized that certainstudents did not interact as freely as they shouldwith some students, an attempt was made to findmore effective grouping patterns.

3. When the program was frst begun, somestudents attempted to reach decisions beforethey made a thorough analysis of the simulatedactivity. All pertinent information was not ap-plied to solving the problems when they wereidentified. In some cases, the participants wouldoffer solutions to the immediate problem andwould not consider the causes of the problem.

To stimulate more thorough analyses, it wasnecessary to refrain from "yes" and "no" com-ments when discussing soluticns proposed by thestudents. Instead, an attempt was made to focuson other circumstances that might have a bear-ing on the problem. As the participants becamemore experienced in simulation, their analysesbecame more thorough and reflected more ra-tional thinking.

4. It was sometimes apparent that many of theparticipants needed a better understanding ofbasic principles discovered during a simulatedexperience. Since some students did not needadditional study, it was necessary to differentiatefollow-up assignments to hclp each participantincrease his understanding of the teaching prob-lem. This was done by identifying, after eachsimulated incident, some of the professional ma-terials on the various topics. As much as pos-sible, both theoretical and practical reading ma-terials were identified. Students were then en-couraged to discuss these readings in class.

In the follow-up phase of a simulated teachingepisode, one problem which had to be faced wasthe handling of a child who constantly disruptedother children in the classroom. After viewing afilm which presented this situation, participantswere to suggest solutions to the problem. Listen-ing to some of the suggestions of participantsworking in small groups revealed that some ofthem needed to learn more about the immediatesteps to take in correcting the disturbing child.Those participants who understood how to han-dle such disturbances could benefit from aninvestigation of the possible reasons for the

195

problem, w1ile other participants needed tolearn how to cope with the immediate situationbefore moving to the examination of causes.

5. Although the participants in the simulatedprogram showed a high interest in the entireprogram, some activities were favored more thanothers. Role playing and film viewing wereusually the best-liked activities. In evaluatingthese techniques, it was necessary to remainalert to the objectives for each simulated inci-dent and to measure the extent to which partici-pants progressed toward these objectives. Attimes it was difficult to distinguish between ex-tremely positive attitudes toward a certain pro-cedure followed in simulation and the degreeto which students progressed.

6. This same problem existed in the use ofcertain materials. It was important to differenti-at between the materials that were merely likedby the students and those that really helpedidentify teaching problems, although these classi-fications were not necessarily exclusive.

7. Another problem was the recording of theincidents. In simulated teaching, record-keepingis necessary as problems are introduced, ana-lyzed, and solved. Using materials such as anindividual participant record book could becomean end in itself rather than the means to an end.There was continuous stress on the importanceof keeping a systematic record on each teachingincident. Participants were encouraged to com-pare problems and solutions that were related inorder to give unity to the various simulatedactivities and to emphasize that written accounts

196

were kept for the purpose of analyzing and solv-ing teaching problems rather than for courseexamination.

8. Since the simulated program constituted auniversity class for which credit was to be given,there was a need to make an evaluation of eachstudent's progress. Throughout the program, ithad been stressed that the participants shouldanalyze each incident and, in so doing, identifyspecific and basic principles that would apply toeach teaching situation. The course evaluationwas based on an understanding and applicationof these basic principles. Examinations were con.structed in such a way that students had to reada teaching incident similar to those that hadbeen simulated and then use these basic princi-ples to interpret the related incident.

Although these problems were present in aparticular simulated teaching program, theTeaching Problems Laboratory, they could con-ceivably exist in any simulated program. Theyare challenging problems, but they can besolved. If they are not handled correctly, theycan prevent the effective implementation ofsimulation.

Simulation is an extremely valuable teachingstrategy. The reality with which teaching prob-lems are presented and student motivation tostudy these problems are intense when thisstrategy is used. Greater use of simulation inteacher education programs is long overdue.

tip

learning .. .

In the workshop setting in whichthey were presented by AACTE,the discussion and demonstration ofinteraction analysis, nonverbalcommunication, microteaching, andsimulation were aimed at makingit possible for workshop participantsto be able to make a decision aboutthe feasibility of any one or all ofthese approaches in their individualteacher education programs. Withthis goal in view, the presentationand the workshop itself were focusedon an accepted model of learningdeveloped by Asahel D. Woodruff.This rationale allowed for participantfreedom and provided a context topresent the utilization of mediaand new technology in a visible andrational manner.

The RationaleThe old saying that experience is the best

teacher is founded on an obvious fact. Regard-less of a person's formal educational status, hisdaily behavior is largely shaped and acquiredoutside of classes. This includes such real andpractical behavior patterns as one's sales abil-ities, his clinical diagnostic skills, his knowledgeof a neighborhood, his competence in teachingor in managing, and so on. These axe the be-havior patterns that literally govern our lives,and they are acquired in the very situationsin which they operate.

These people have done their learning in thenatural way in which learning occurs when it isnot affected by a school. Most of it was donewithout the use of verbal instruction. Most ofit carne to them in the form of natural situationsinstead of books. This offers us a most valuablekey to the problem if we will pay attention toit. While verbal instruction, books, and othermedia can be very valuable aids to learning, theycan also become serious barriers to it.

Learning of all kinds begins with direct per-sonal perception of something in life. When aperson is having his first significant experiencewith any fact or truth, .it should not be a second-hand experience such as lecture, or any otherform of verbal teaching. It should be a direct"seeing" of the actual referent itself. There isno possible substitute for' the mental imageswe acquire through our senses. Once we getthem, we can begin to discuss them and sortthem out, but they have to be there first.

Asahel D. WoodruffProfessorBureau of Educational ResearchUniversity of Utah

Teachers often resort to "talking to" or "tell-ing" a class, instead of literally "showing" themthe subject. For this reason, much of our teach-ing is relatively ineffective. It is extremely im-portant for the teacher to understand just howa person gets his actual personal knowledge ofthe things in his world.

Human learning and the role of media in thatprocess are two phenomena that become mostmeaningful when they are seen in relationshipto a larger context.

This context may be viewed as a theater ofaction in which five principal components canbe identified: one, a person; two, the person'senvironment; three, the interaction between theperson and his environment, which is composedof objects and the events in which they engage;four, the consequences which result from thoseevents and interactions; and five, the person'sperception of and reaction to the consequences,particularly those that impinge directly uponhim. The fifth component can be the recognitionof a satisfying state of affairs for the personand perseveration along the same line of be-havior ( homeostasis ), or the recognition of anonsatisfying or annoying state of affairs and achange in the person ( adaptation or learning ).A simple model is shown in Figure 1.

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Figure IA Person inhis Theaterof Behavior

The theater of action just described exists inits most potent form outside of the school; never-theless, those five component parts are the basisof all aspects of the formal instructional pro-gram of the school.

The person is obviously the student. Theenvironment is the subject matter. The inter-action is the learning (or often the nonlearning)process, with the teaching process underlying it.The consequence is equivalent to the informa-tion contained in the subject matter. The stu-dent's perception of the significance of that in-formation, if indeed he does perceive it, is equiv-alent to the perception of the consequence° ofan event. If and when the consequence is suchthat it results in an adaptive change in the per-son, it is the physical embodiment of an objec-tive. This begins with some form of personalcontact with actual objects, events, or circum-stances in life. Contacts occur through the sen-sory organs, and the process by which the sensestransmit meaning to the brain is known as per-ception. From these constantly occurring actsof perception we formulate our concepts whichgive us our understanding of life.

Media are the sense-perceivable forms of the198

environment with which the person interacts, orrepresentations of those forms sufficiently realto produce the same sense-perception by the per-son that the real environment would producewere it present. Unfortunately, this parallel ismore potential than real in the schools. The sec-ond, third, fourth, and fifth components are fre-quently so artificial or so abstract that they donot carry over into the out-of-school behavi)r ofthe student. Their replication in the school failsto the extent that verbal materials are used inthe school in place of appropriate media.

The problem in education is to achieve anequivalent level and perception of reality inplace of the stifling overwash of verbalism thatcrowds it out and reduces learning to the storingand repeating of verbal infcrmation. The need isto reproduce in the schools the.potent conditionsthat produce learning outside of school and tosee how media participate in maintaining thoseconditions.

Learning has often been defined as the pro-cess by which behavior is changed. Learning

has also been recognized as something whichhappens only when the person is active. That is,behavior changes only when it is going on. There-fore, experience is recognized as the vehicle forlearning. There is nothing mysterious aboutlearning. It is not actually a separate form of be-havior or a process in and of itself. It is notsomething the person does. All we can meanwhen we say a person has learned is that whilehe was doing something, while he was behavingin one of the regular forms of behavior, hechanged. The change is found in an alterationin the way he behaves.

That is, a given pattern of response which hasbecome more or less stabilized in a person maybe changed as a result of the consequences thatfollow its performance. Such changes occur onlyas a direct result of a response instance, neverin the absence of the response. Moreover, onlythe specific response that pccurs is altered, and'le alteration is always intimately tied to themsequences that follow the instance. This is

as true of the higher and more complicatedforms of behavior ( thinking and so on ) as of thesimpler responses to stimuli.

In a literal sense there is no such thing aslearning per se. There is only behaving. Theconcept of learning is an abstraction, an imagi-native construct to enable us to talk about thefact that behavior often changes vs it goes on.Our task is, therefore, one of describing humanbehavioral responses to the stimulation thatcomes from environment.

0.W

The simplest and most accurate way to de-scribe the central element of behavior is interms of the biological concept of a man-environ-ment interaction; Figure 1 is a good portrayalof that concept. An organism engages as longas it lives in a running game with its environ-ment, with the organism trying to shape theenvironment as it would like it to be and theenvironment trying to shape the organism so itfits better. If the organism wins, then a changeoccurs in some element of the environment andthe organism maintains its structure. For ex-ample, a bird catches a worm and eats it. Thebird merely satisfies a need through a homeo-static operation, which brings it back to the stateof affairs which existed before the need aroseand a stimulus triggered a response. If the en-vironment wins, then a change occurs in theorganism. For example, the bird fails to catchthe worm and has to alter its response until itsucceeds. This is an adaptive operation in which

the bird achieves its satisfaction only at theexpense of a behavioral change. Adaptation oc-curs through several mechanisms and such formsas genotypic changes, phenotypic changes, socialchanges, and psychic changes. Psychic changes,with special ,:eference to behavior patterns, areof concern here.

Regardless of the form involved, there arecertain constant conditions that are essentialfor change in behavior or, in f 'iv case, for learn-ing. They are as follows:

1. A person is engaged in a real piece ofwant-serving behavior.

2. The behavior occurs in a real environmentalsetting and involves a direct man-environmentinteraction.

3. The response inescapably results in conse-quences which are in some way relevant to thewant which gave rise to the response.

4. The man perceives the consequences andwhat he perceives, whether accurately or inac-curately, is lodged within him in a way thatmodifies the internal variables that govern hisbehavior.

To comprehend these conditions, it is helpfulto visualize two cybernetic loops in each inter-action, one between the man and the environ-ment and one within the man. The cycle betweenthe man and the environment includes a stimu-lus from the environment, which is screenedthrough the person's antecedent psychologicalstates; an identifying and choosing responseleading to an overt operation of some kind onthe environment in an attempt to alter it or useit in some way; the conseTtence of the attempt,which takes the form of an alteration in theenvironment; and the person's perception of theconsequence, which may also function as thestimulus for another response.

The other cycle within the man includes theperception 'of a scimulus situation; the intakeof what is perceived and its storage in the brain;the ensuing selection of a response to the stimu-lus situation; the execution of the response; theimpact of the response on the environment; theperson's perception of his own responsc and ofthe consequeLces; and the impact of what is per-ceived on the person's mediating variables.

Obviously, the two loops overlap extensively;the first emphasizes the person's impact on theenvironment, and the second emphasizes theenvironment's impact on the person.

As a consequence of the perceived conse-quences, the person's existing psychologicalstates may be altered, so that subsequent re-sponses are different. This is the basic mechan-ism of learning, whether it be in or out ofschoolthe heart of it is the man-environment

199

interaction. The interaction exists only when anintimate and direct communication occurs be-tween the person and the environment. Whenthat direct contact is broken, learning is pre-vented. It is apparent that media serve in thecritical function of linking the man and his en-vironment. Thus, media (in real or simulatedform) are essential to any form of behavior and,consequently, to learning also.

An intake requirement is clearly indicated ina person's traffic with his environment, and itis that the environment "get inside" the person,so to speak. There must be perception or, inother words, the registering of meaningful sen-sory impressions, which the person can thenturn into conceptual understandings of hisworld. His conceptual understandings, or con-cepts, are then capable of serving as his reper-toire of possible responses to the environment.They enable him to identify what he faces at anygiven moment, to predict the possible outcomesof various responses that are open to him, andto elect a response which appears to lead to con-sequences Which will be most satisfying to himin that situation.

The distinction between perception and con-ception can be made by a relatively uncompli-cated differentiation, as follows. Perception isthe direct sensory reception of real phenomenathat are external to the nervous system andactually present at the moment. The term per-cept is commonly used to refer to the mentalrecord of a single, directly sensed, concrete, spe-cific object or event. A single percept can be avery limited, briefly caught recording of someexternal referent such as a pencil lying on atable. This single phenomenon constitutes oneobject, and it is so recorded. Or it can be a fair-ly extensive recording of an event that may havecontinued over a period of time such as a carapproaching a house, turning in the driveway,and entering the garage. This specific phenome-non constitutes one event, and it is recorded andcan be recalled as a complete event.

The term percept should not be limited to one"bit" of meaningful sensory input such as aflash of yellowness, or straightness, or smooth-ness. It may include these, but it is more helpfulto let it stand for a range of phenomena fromsuch "bits" up to one complete referent whichjs perceived. It is confusing to refer to an eventwhich is that extensive as a concept, on theassumption that it is made up of a long seriesof perceptual "bits"the term "concept" or an200

equivalent term has to serve a larger aspect ofthinking.

Conception is the recall of stored percepts andtheir assembly into patterns conceived by theindividual in his effort to comprehend what hehas perceived. Recall may be activated by anystimulus element that was observed in the per-ceptual experience or by any word or sign theindividual has associated with the stored per-cept. Thus verbal communication can stimulaterecall and thinking about percepts already storedin the brain, but it cannot provide perceptualinput.

From what has been described, it follows thata logistic function must take place every timea perception occurs. The environment must"speak" to the person, and the person must"understand" what the environment is saying tohimthis is basically a nonverbal process. Thecommunication is channeled through the per-son's many sensory organs and the afferentnerves that connect them with the brain. Thisenvironment-to-person communication process isthe domain of media. It is therefore logical tospeak of media as a "sensory language" throughwhich the environment speaks to the person.The "language" consists of the properties ofreferents such as dimensions, color, substance,odor, appearance, motion, and so on.

This intimate sensory input is the crucial linkbetween the person and his world. It functionscritically in two phases of the man-environmentinteraction. One s the long and continuing taskof "taking in" the environment, of getting toknow it, mastering it conceptually. The other isthe continually recurring task of identifyinganew each of those stimulus situations whichrequire some kind of adjustive response fromthe person.

There is a superficial similarity between per-ception and the verbal communication processwhich can and often does lead to trouble forstudents. It arises from the fact that we use oureyes to read words and our ears to hear words.This is frequently mistaken for perception, cinceboth the eyes and ears function prominently inthe perceptual process.

The contrast between sensory intake andverbal communication may be made visible bynoting their functional natures. Sensory intakeor perception consists of a serse organ acting onan actual object or event the environment,resulting in the sensory recognitiori of an"image" (visual, auditory, olfactory, etc.) of

some kind and putting some kind of registrationof that image irt:-: the storage system. Words arevirtually powerless to do this.

In contrast, verbal communication occurswhen a verbal symbol, wrAten or spoken and inthe absence of an actual object or event in theenvironment, succeeds in provoking recall of oneor more past sensory contacts. This is not thesame as the original input process. It can occuronly after the input process has occurred, and itis a playback process. These are noninterchange-able processes. Each is necessary for its owncontribution: the sensory process to provide thecontent to the brain and the verbal or symbolicprocess to stimulate its recall and its organiza-tion into forms enabling the person to cope withhis environment.

When this division of roles is violated inschool by using verbal communication as a sub-stitute for perception, students are forced intomemorization of the verbal material communi-cated to them in place of perception and conceptformation of the referents of those verbal ma-terials. Media are the tools of perception.

Media are most significant with reference toimages, portrayals, and perception. Language ismost significant with reference to symbols orsigns, description, recall, and interpretation.

Signs or symbols stand for imagesthey arenot the images themselves. Description is a ver-bal allusion to what has been portrayedit isnot a portrayal itself. Recall and repetition are averbal report of what has been perceivedtheyare not the same as perception itself. Conse-quently, language in any of its forms is asecondary level of response to what has beenperceived through the senses by means of media.This is a critical distinction between two comple-mentary but distinctly different and noninter-changeable processes of learningperceptionand concept formation.

It is the failure to observe this distinction thathas forced students to the memorization of sym-bolic material without adequate conceptualunderstanding of the referents or the actual phe-nomena to wh?lch those verbal materials refer.Emphasis on this distinction does not imply thatall instruction at all levels has to begin withactual sense perception; but it does mean thatverbal instructional processes will not be effec-tive in developing understanding unless the stu-dents bring with them the sensory inputs fromprevious perceptual experiences.

It is possible, of course, to use the physical

forms of media to project or otherwise conveyverbal content to students, but this is a misuseof the media and is only a mechanical substitutefor the use of the voice or a book. It does notresult in perception by students. Media are use-ful primarily to portray, not to tell. To portraymeans literally "to make a picture or portraitof, to depict, to delineate, to describe graphically,to picture on the stage." This is to make theenvironment sensorily available to the learner.

To describe means literally "to tell or writeabout; give a detailed account of, to picture inwords." This does not make the environmentsensorily available to the learner. It is at best away to stimulate him to recall percepts, if he hasthem, and to think about them.

The sensory language mode is needed whenwe wish to speak to the perceptual senses, andthis mode requires the use of images, portrayal,and sense-perceivable phenomena. We need thesymbolic language mode when we wish to evokeoral communication of concepts in the memoryor storage areas or to evoke recall of storedpercepts and guide the learner as he organizesthem into concepts. Media serve best to portrayobjects and events for perception. They are notused at their best for transmitting words as asubstitute for the use of the vocal chords.

Turning now from the out-of-school pattern ofbehavior and change, we face the task of repli-cating in the school the essential conditions forbehavioral change that are so widely present outof school. The teaching process, if it is to beeffective in changing behavior, will be a delib-erate staging of a man-environment interaction,engineered to result in selected changes in thebehavior of the student. The requirements areapproximately as follows.

The teacher sets up the interaction theater.The stage setting consists of real components ofthe environment relevant to the target behavior.Those components are provided by means of avariety of media. The student and the mediathen become the parties in the critical inter-action. The teacher stays out of the interactionbut directs it so that it achieves its intendedpurpose.

As long as the student's attention is on ameaningful task and on the environmental com-ponents involved in that task, we have an effec-tive man-environment interaction. If the teacherdistracts the student from those real or mediatedcomponents, the man-environment interaction isbroken. The contact can be maintained if the

201

teacher uses verbal communication primarily todirect the student's attention to his task, to thematerials of the task, and to his own responsesto the task.

When verbal instruction is restricted to guid-ing attention as distinguished from attemptingto substitute for perceptioL, it can be eaucativeat all phases of the learning cycle. As the studentis perceiving real referents or mediated refer-ents, the teacher needs to direct the student'satteW. n toward those aspects of the referent heshould be perceiving. Then, as the studentbegins to try to interpret what he has just seen,the teacher's verbal behavior should stimulatehim to find possible interpretations. Again, asthe student makes decisions and as he carriesout his adjustive acts, the teacher should stimu-late him to recall whatever is relevant.

Such attention guiding is also important at thefeedback stage. A student should be helped tointerpret the feedback so that it results in con-

202

structive conceptual change and does not resultin misintepretation or in damage to the student'sself-concept. In this way, verbal stimulation isnot something that is imposed on the student'scognitive cycleit facilitates the student's ownprocesses rather than attempting to substitutefor them. The student, under the teacher's stimu-lation is doing his own perception, thinking,decision-making, and trying.

The contact between the student and hisenvironment is broken when the teacher useslanguage or even nonverbal communication chan-nels in a way that draws the student's attentionfrom the task-setting to the teacher. This is thecase when the teacher becomes a dispenser ofverbal information or tries in any way to substi-tute his own descriptive activities for the real ormediated comp ments of an environmental task-setting. To summarize, teaching is not telling. Itis setting an interaction stage and directing--itis creating environment with media.

tip

Index to

ArticlesAllen, Dwight W., and Eve, Arthur S. Micro-

teaching, 181-85.Alexander, William M. The Middle School Movement,

114-17.Arnidon, Edmund J. Interaction Analysis, 159-67.Anonymous. Pressures That Drove Me to a Psychia-

trist's Couch, 1-3.Anonymous. What Is Myself ?, 43-45.Atkins, Neil P. Rethinking Education in the Middle,

118-49.The Beatnik: Up-, Down-, and Off-. Jules H.

Masserman, 38-42.Berry, Stephen D., and Miller, Charles L Where Do

We Go From Here?, 149-51.Brandes, Norman S. The Significance of Emotional

Disorder in the Teacher, 6-9.Cass, James. Politics and Education in the Sunshine

State-The Florida Story, 89-95.Change in the Developing World. Jack Frankel, 136-

37.Collective Negotiations and the Principalship. Lu-

vern L. Cunningham, 62-70.Compton, Mary F. The Middle School: Alternative

to the Status Quo, 108-110.Corwin, Ronald G. Teacher Militancy in the United

States: Reflections on Its Sources and Prospects,96-102.

Crisis on the Campus. Ralph E. Van Atta, 34-37.Cruickshank, Donald R. Simulation, 190-93.Cunningham, Luvern L. Collective Negotiations and

the Principalship, 62-70.Dahl, Richard K., and Russell, Robert M. Moral

Pressures on College Students, 30-33.Eichhorn, Donald H. Middle School Organization :

a New Dimension, 111-13.Eve, Arthur S., and Allen, Dwight W. Microteaching,

181-85.Faculty Power in the Community College. Richard

J. Frankie and Ray A. Howe, 83-88.Frankel, Jack. Change in the Developing World,

136-37.Frankie, Richard J., and Howe, Ray A. Faculty

Power in the Community College, 83-88.Frymier, Jack R. Teacher Power, Negotiations, and

the Roads Ahead-An Editorial, 103-104.Frymier, Jack R. The Need for an Optimal View of

Pressures, 4-5.Fr3rmier, Jack R. This Issue, 49-50.Galloway, Charles M. Nonverbal Communication,

172-75.Gittell, Marilyn. Teacher Power and Its Implications

for Urban Education, 80-82.Havighurst, Robert J. The Middle School Child in

Contemporary Society, 120-22.Heinich, Robert. Mediated Instruction : an Alterna-

tive to Classroom Instruction, 146-48.Horvat, John J. The Nature of Teacher Power and

Teacher Attitudes Toward Certain Aspects ofThis Power, 51-56.

Howe, Ray A., and Frankie, Richard J. FacultyPower in the Community College, 83-88.

Howell, Wayne K. Technology and the Human Need,152-55.

Howell, Wayne K. This Issue, 134-35.Interaction Analysis. Edmund J. Amidon,Johnson, Ted, and Otero, Hector. The School and

Technology, 138-41.Lail, Sue S. The Model in Use (Nonverbal Communi-

cation), 176-80.

Volume VII

Leles, Sam. Teacher Power-What's It All About?.57-61.

Like It Is-Pressures in a Ghetto School. GraceVan Atta, 17-22.

Link, Frances R. Pressures on Youth : Suburbia, 23--25.

Mars, Walter J. This Issue, 157-58.Masserman, Jules H. The Beatnik: Up-, Down-,

and Off-, 38-42.Mediated Instruction: an Alternative to Classroom

Instruction. Robert Heinich, 146-48.Meeting of the Minds. G. Murlin Welch, 26-29.Microteaching. Dwight W. Allen and Arthur S. Eve,

181-85.The Middle School: Alternative to the Status Quo.

Mary F. Compton, 108-110.The Middle School Child in Contemporary Society.

Robert J. Havighurst, 120-22.The Middle School Movement. William M. Alexander,

114-17.Middle School Organization: a New Dimension. Don-

ald H. Eichhorn, 111-13.Miller, Charles I., and Berry, Stephen D. Where Do

We Go From Here?, 149-51.Minnis, Douglas L., and arable, Kenneth. The

Model in Use (Interaction Analysis), 168-71.The Model in Use (Interaction Analysis). Douglas

L. Minnis and Kenneth Shrable, 168-71.The Model in Use (Microteaching) . David 3. Young

and Dorothy A. Young, 186-89.The Model in Use (Nonverbal Communication). Sue

S. Lail, 176-80.The Model in Use (Simulation). Glennon Rowell,

194-96.Moral Pressures on College Students. Richard K.

Dahl and Robert M. Russell, 30-33.The Nature of Teacher Power and Teacher Attitudes

Toward Certain Aspects of This Power. John J.Horvat, 51-56.

The Need for an Optimal View of Pressures. JackR. Frymier, 4-5.

Nonverbal Communication. Charles M. Galloway,172-75.

Otero, Hector, and Johnson, Ted. The School andTechnology, 138-41.

Politics and Education in the Sunshine State-TheFlorida Story. James Cass, 89-95.

Pressures on Young Children. Bernard Spodek,14-16.

Pressures on Youth: Suburbia. Frances R. Link,23-25.

Pressures That Drove Me to a Psychiatrist's Couch.Anonymous, 1-3.

Radvak, Betty Jean. The Teacher and Technology,142-45.

The Rationale. Asahel D. Woodruff, 197-202.Reese, Frederick R. School Age Suicide and the Edu-

cational Environment, 10-13.Rethinking Education in the Middle. Neil P. Atkins,

118-19.Rowell, Glennon. The Model in Use (Simulation),

194-96.Russell, Robert M., and Dahl, Richard K. Yoral

Pressures on College Students, 30-33.School Age Suicide and the Educational Environ-

ment. Frederick R. Reese, 10-13.The School and Technology. Ted Johnson and Hector

Otero, 138-41.Shafer, Harold T. Teacher Power and the Middle-

man in Education, 71-75.203

Shrable, Kenneth and Minnis, Douglas L. The Modelin Use (Interaction Analysis), 168-71.

The Significance of Emotional Disorder in theTeacher. Norman S. Brandes, 6-9.

Simulation. Donald R. Cruickshank, 190-93.Southworth, Horton C. Teacher Education for the

Middle School: A Framework, 123-28.Spodek, Bernard. Pressures on Young Children, 14-

16.The Teacher and Technology. Betty Jean Radvak,

142-45.Teacher Education for the Middle School: a Frame-

work. Horton C. Southworth, 123-28.Teacher Militancy in the United States: Reflections

on Its Sources and Prospects. Ronald G. Corwin,96-102.

Teacher Power and Its Implications for UrbanEducation. Marilyn GitteIl, 80-82.

Teacher Power and the Middleman in Education.Harold T. Shafer, 71-75.

Teacher Power as Viewed by the School Board andthe Superintendent. C. Taylor Whittier, 76-79.

Teacher Power, Negotiations, and the Roads Ahead-An Editorial. Jack R. Frymier, 103-104.

Teacher Power-What's It All About? Sam Leles,57-61.

Techonology and the Human Need. Wayne K.Howell, 152-55.

This Issue, Walter J. Mars, 157-58.This Issue, Emmett L. Williams, 105-107.This Issue, Jack R. Frymier, 49-50.This Issue, Wayne K. Howell, 134-35.Van Atta, Grace. Like It Is-Pressures in a Ghetto

School, 17-22.Van Atta, Ralph E. Crisis on the Campus, 34-37.Welch, G. Murlin. Meeting of the Minds, 26-29.What Is Myself?. Anonymous, 43-45.Where Do We Go From Here?. Stephen D. Berry and

Charles I. Miller, 149-51.Whittier, C. Taylor. Teacher Power as Viewed by

the School Board and the Superintendent, 76-79.Williams, Emmett L. This Issue, 105-107.Woodruff, Asahel D. The Rationale, 197-202.Young, David B., and Young, Dorothy A. The Model

in Use (Microteaching), 186-89.Young, Dorothy A., and Young, David B. The Model

in Use (Microteaching), 186-89.

Book ReviewsAlexander, William M.; Williams, Emmett L.;

Compton, Mary; Hines, Vynce A.; and Prescott,Dan. The Emergent Middle School. Reviewed byAlexander M. Gottesman, 129-30.

The American Middle School; An OrganizationalAnalysis. Samuel H. Popper. Reviewed by Alex-ander M. Gottesman, 131.

Association for Childhood Education International.The Transitional Years-The Middle School Port-folio. Reviewed by Alexander M. Gottesman, 131.

Children Under Pressure. Ronald C. Doll and RobertS. Fleming, editors. Reviewed by James E. Kerber,47-48.

Compton, Mary; Alexander, William M.; Williams,Emmett L.; Hines, Vynce A.; and Prescott, Dan.The Emergent Middle School. Reviewed by Alex-ander M. Gottesman, 129-30.

204

The Conspiracy Against Childhood. Eda J. LeShan.Reviewed by Charles M. Galloway, 46.

Doll, Ronald C., and Fleming, Robert S., editors.Children Under Pressure. Reviewed by James E.Kerber, 47-48.

Eichhorn, Donald H. The Middle School. Revie-,,Tedby Alexander M. Gottesman, 130.

The Emergent Middle School. William M. Alexander ;Emmett L. Williams; Mary Compton; Vynce A.Hines; and Dan Prescott. Reviewed by AlexanderM. Gottesman, 129-30.

Fleming, Robert S., and Doll, Ronald C., editors.Children Under Pressure. Reviewed by James E.Kerber, 47-48.

Galloway, Charles M., reviewer, The ConspiracyAgainst Childhood, Eda J. LeShan, 46.

Gottesman, Alexander M., reviewer. The AmericanMiddle School; An Organizational Analysis, Sam-uel H. Popper, 131.

Gottesman, Alexander M., reviewer. The EmergentMiddle School, William M. Alexander; Emmett L.Williams; Mary Compton; Vynce A. Hines; andDan Prescott, 129-30.

Gottesman, Alexander M., reviewer. The MiddleSchool, Donald H. Eichhorn, 130.

Gottesman, Alexander M., reviewer. Perspectives onThe Middle School, Ann M. Grooms, 130.

Gottesman, Alexander M., reviewer. Teaching inMiddle Schools, Alvin W. Howard, 131.

Gottesman, Alexander M., reviewer. The TransitionalYears-The Middle School Portfolio, Associationfor Childhood Education International, 131.

Grooms, Ann M. Perspectives on The Middle School.Reviewed by Alexander M. Gottesman, 130.

Hines, Vynce A.; Alexander, William M.; Williams,Emmett L.; Compton, Mary; and Prescott, Dan.The Emergent Middle School. Reviewed by Alex-ander M. Gottesman, 129-30.

Howard, Alvin W. Teaching in Middle Schools. Re-viewed by Alexander M. Gottesman, 131.

Kerber, James E., reviewer. Children Under Pres-sure, Ronald C. Doll and Robert S. Fleming,editors, 47-48.

LeShan, Eda J. The Conspiracy Against Childhood.Reviewed by Charles M. Galloway, 46.

The Middle School. Donald H. Eichhorn. Reviewedby Alexander M. Gottesman, 130.

Perspectives on The Middle School. Ann M. Grooms.Reviewed by Alexander M. Gottesman, 130.

Popper, Samuel H. The American Middle School; AnOrganizational Analysis. Reviewed bv AlexanderM. Gottesman, 131.

Prescott, Dan; Alexander, William M.; Williams,Emmett L.; Compton, Mary; and Hines, VynceA. The Emergent Middle School. Reviewed byAlexander M. Gottesman, 129-30.

Teaching in Middle Schools. Alvin W. Howard. Re-viewed by Alexander M. Gottesman, 131.

The Transitional Years- The Middle School Port-folio. Association for Childhood Education Inter-national. Reviewed by Alexander M. Gottesman,131.

Williams, Emmett L.; Alexander, William M.;Compton, Mary; Hines, Vynee A.; and Prescott,Dan. The Emergent Middle School. Reviewed byAlexander M. Gottesman, 129-30.

tiInsightsIn the next issue, Theory Into Practice departsfrom its thematic approach to present"Insights," an issue on education in general.This issue includes articles on change,educational leadership, school organization,Bruner, discovery modes, the contemporarycommunity, and learning and life.

Authors contributing to the issue areAndrew Halpin, University of Georgia;Harvey Goldman, The University of Wisconsin,Milwaukee; Douglas R. Pierce, University ofCalifornia, Berkeley; Gordon D. Lawrence,George Peabody College for Teachers; GretaMorine, California State College, Hayward;Donald Bourgeois, Governor's Office ofHuman Resources, Illinois; and Jack R.Frymier, The Ohio State University.

Each year TIP receives many excellentmanuscripts that must be reluctantly returnedto authors only because they do not fit thethemes of issues that are planned. The issueon "Insights" is our solution to this dilemmamost of the articles in it were selected fromamong the most thoughtful and provocativeunsolicited manuscripts we have received inrecent months. All are of general interest andimportance in education.