DIKE, UZOMA AMOS

PG/MA/PH.D/08/49618

HUMAN SEXUALITY IN THE SONG OF SONGS AND ITS

ETHICAL RELEVANCE TO CONTEMPORARY

IGBO SOCIETY

Ebere Omeje Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name DN : CN = Webmaster’s name O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka OU = Innovation Centre

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF RELIGION AND CULTURAL STUDIES

2

HUMAN SEXUALITY IN THE SONG OF SONGS AND ITS ETHICA L

RELEVANCE TO CONTEMPORARY

IGBO SOCIETY

BY

DIKE, UZOMA AMOS

PG/MA/PH.D/08/49618

DEPARTMENT OF RELIGION AND CULTURAL STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

ENUGU STATE

JULY, 2016.

i

Title page

HUMAN SEXUALITY IN THE SONG OF SONGS AND ITS ETHICA L

RELEVANCE TO CONTEMPORARY

IGBO SOCIETY

BY

DIKE, UZOMA AMOS

PG/MA.PH.D/08/49618

DEPARTMENT OF RELIGION AND CULTURAL STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

ENUGU STATE

JULY, 2016.

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iii

Requirement page

HUMAN SEXUALITY IN THE SONG OF SONGS AND ITS ETHICAL RELEVANCE

TO CONTEMPORARY IGBO SOCIETY

BY

DIKE, UZOMA AMOS

PG/MA.PH.D/08/49618

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF RELIGION AND

CULTURAL STUDIES, FACULTY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES,

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (OLD TESTAMENT) IN RELIGION AND CULTURAL STUDIES

SUPERVISOR: PROF. M. I. OKWUEZE

JULY, 2016

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Approval page

This Doctoral Thesis has been examined and approved for the Department of Religion and

Cultural Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

------------------------------------- --------------------

Prof. M. I. Okwueze Date

Supervisor

------------------------------------ ----------------------

Internal Examiner Date

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Internal Examiner Date

------------------------------------- ------------------------

EXTERNAL EXAMINER Date

------------------------------------- -----------------------

REV. FR. PROF. H. C. ACHINIKE Date

Head of Department

-------------------------------------- ------------------------

PROF. I. A. MADU Date

Dean of Faculty

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Certification page

We hereby certify that Dike, Uzoma Amos (PG/MA.PH.D/08/49618)

has satisfactorily carried out all the corrections on this Thesis as suggested by the External

Examiner

----------------------------------

PROF. M. I. Okwueze

Supervisor

------------------------- --------------------------

Internal Examiner Internal Examiner

-----------------------------

Rev. Fr. Prof. Hilary C Achunike

Head of Department

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Declaration page

Dike, Uzoma Amos, a postgraduate student of the Department of Religion and

Cultural Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka with Registration number

PG/M.A./Ph.D/49618 has satisfactorily completed all the requirements for the course and

Research for the award of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) in Religion.

The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or

full for any other degree or Diploma of this University or any other University.

_______________________ ____________________ Dike, Uzoma Amos Date

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Dedication

This thesis is dedicated

To

The Almighty God and all who have been sexually abused

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Acknowledgement

As a matter of fact, the idea of this thesis would not have seen the light of the day

without God Almighty, our Lord Jesus Christ in the distinguished personality of the Holy

Spirit who gave me the inspiration and guided me in the course of this work. I remain

eternally indebted to God, my maker. My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor and

lecturer – Prof. Malachy Ike Okwueze who has been simply wonderful. He took great

stress in reading every sentence of this work and made meaningful criticisms and

contributions. Even in the choice of the topic of this thesis, he kept saying ‘NO’ to the

subjects I raised earlier until I came up with this topic and he said ‘YES’. So, I owe this

research work to him because he provided the guide that led me this far.

The house of Rev. Prof. Agha U. Agha became my house throughout the course of

this study. Every member of that family accepted me and that made me to always feel at

home each time I came to Nsukka. I must confess that in this house, I witnessed a good

example of a happy and Christian home. I wish to also acknowledge the head of

department Prof. H.C. Achunike and Rev. Prof. E.N. Chiweokwu for their criticisms,

contributions and even sourcing for materials for this work. I am grateful to Prof. C.O.T.

Ugwu, Rev Sis. Dr. Obiora, Dr. Mrs. Echeta, Rev. Dr. Ngele, Dr. Ugwu, Rev. Dr.

Ononogbu, Dr. Mrs. Okoli, Dr. Mrs. N.G. Onah, Dr. Nnadi F.U., Dr. Mrs. Nwoga, Rev. Fr.

Dr. Ezeogu, Rev. Fr. Dr. Ngwoke, Rev. Fr. Dr. Okwosa, Rev. Canon Nweze, Rev. Okwor,

Ukeachusim, Precious, Rev. Eze and others for your contributions. In fact my thanks go to

every staff of the department both academic and non-academic for all your assistance in

one way or the other. May the good Lord bless you all.

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The Presbyterian Church of Nigeria of Nigeria has been very strategic in my

academic pursuit. The then Moderator of the General Assembly, the Very Rev. Dr. Mba

Idika saw my flair for academics and awarded me with the Church’s scholarship for my

first degree during my graduation from Huge Goldie Theological Institution among other

awards. Since then the watchful eye of the Very Rev. Dr. Mba Idika has been on me to see

a great theologian of his dream. He has indeed been a father to me and my family. Worthy

of mention also from the Presbyterian family are: Rev. Eze N. Eze, Elder Mma Agbagha,

Elder Dr. E. Nkang and Elder Mrs. Ayim Ude. These, among others spoke to encourage

me and equally rendered financial support when needed.

I wish to mention the encouragements from my senior colleagues at the

Theological College of Northern Nigeria – Associate Professor Mark Hopkins who was

particularly interested in every stage of this study. He was committed to praying and giving

me necessary support at every point in time. Also to Professors: Timothy Palmer and Andy

Warren for their wonderful support and encouragement to me. Mr. Fraser Jackson (a

Presbyterian from Scotland and the chief Librarian at TCNN) who edited this work is

worth mentioning here. Rev. Dr. E. A. Ituma my senior colleague in the Presbyterian

ministry and also lecturer at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka was very supportive and

encouraging, hence, worthy of acknowledgement. I am grateful to my course-mate and

friend – Paulinus Agbo and Odo Demian. These two have always been there for me any

time I needed their assistance throughout this study.

This acknowledgment list will be incomplete without appreciating my family for

the understanding and support given to me throughout this study. I do not envy the couple

in the Song of Songs because of my husband’s love, understanding, care and commitment

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to me. He has been the best friend I have ever had; my confidant, love and companion. My

children are all wonderful. Gladys was born when I was struggling with my first degree

Thesis and she was a source of strength to me. I gave birth to Queeneth when I was writing

my second degree Thesis and for this Ph.D Thesis, Emmanuel and John were born. None

of them has given me any ground to regret combining having children with my studies.

Mercy my kid-sister has graciously lived with me these years, helping to take care of the

children. They have all made the house a comfortable and relaxing zone for me. So, I owe

them my appreciation, gratitude and love.

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Abstract

Human sexuality includes the sex organs as well as the way one thinks and feels about them and uses them. In Igbo culture, human sexuality is viewed as sacred and not openly discussed. The Song of Songs is one book of the Bible in which human sexuality is given some attention. Previous research has, through allegorical methodology, played down on the reality of human sexuality in the Bible’s Song of Songs. Some recent scholars do not seem to be interested in Song of Songs and its concepts of human sexuality. The aim of the study was to determine the biblical teaching on human sexuality as represented in the Song of Songs and its ethical relevance to contemporary Igbo society. This study adopted the descriptive qualitative design. Data for the study were sourced from the Bible, Hebrew Masoretic Text, Septuagint, Ancient Near Eastern Texts, Bible Dictionaries and Encyclopedias, Concordances and Lexicons, interviews and other extant materials on the subject matter. The Song of Songs from the language and the imagery used presents a sexual love song between two adult lovers in a heterosexual relationship. In unrivalled poetic language, the Song of Songs explores the whole range of sexuality experienced by lovers as they work out their commitment to each other. The Igbo culture has preserved through some traditional practices human sexual values especially in the areas of chastity for the young and married women. These traditional values are quickly eroding away as a result of the influence of western culture in contemporary Igbo society. Thus, the ethics of sexuality enshrined in the Song of Songs is very relevant in strengthening the contemporary Igbo culture and her traditional practices with regards to human sexuality.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page- - - - - - - - - - i

Blank Page - - - - - - - - - ii

Requirement Page - - - - - - - - iii

Approval Page - - - - - - - - - iv

Certification Page - - - - - - - - - v

Declaration - - - - - - - - - vi

Dedication- - - - - - - - - - vii

Acknowledgement- - - - - - - - viii

Abstract- - - - - - - - - - xi

Table of Contents- - - - - - - - - - xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Statement of Problem - - - - - - 1

1.2. Purpose of the Study - - - - - 4

1.3 Research Methodology - - - - - - 5

1.4. Scope and Limitation of Study - - - - - 6

1.5. Significance of the Study - - - - - - 7

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Sex and Sexuality - - - - - - - - 9

2.2. Sexuality and Personal Development - - - - 12

2.3. Scope and Purpose of Sexuality - - - - - - - 16

2.4. Sexuality and Singleness - - - - - - - 22

2.5. Sexual Fantasy and Masturbation - - - - - 31

2.6. Deviant Sexual Practices - - - - - - 35

2.7. The Song of Songs and Human Sexuality - - - - 59

CHAPTER THREE: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO SONG OF SONGS

3.1. Authorship/Date of Song of Song - - - - - 64

3.2. Canonization - - - - - - - - 67

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3.3. Literary Qualities - - - - - - - 69

3.4. The Song of Songs and Intertextual Connection- - - - 74

CHAPTER FOUR: THE SONG OF SONGS AND HISTORY OF INTERPRETATION

4.1. The Song of Songs in Jewish Interpretation - - - - 81

4.2. The Song of Songs in Christian Interpretation - - - 83

4.3. Interpretative Approaches- - - - - - - 91

CHAPTER FIVE: SEXUALITY AND SEXUAL ETHICS IN THE SONG OF SONGS

5.1. Sexual Terminologies in Song of Songs- - - - - 99

5.2. Sexual Imagery in the Song of Songs - - - - 106

5.3. The Song of Songs and Sexual Ethics - - - - 112

5.4 The text in Hebrew - - - - - - - 113

5.5 Textual and Critical Commentary on the Text - - - 114

5.6 Implications of Sexual Ethics in the Song of Song - - - 127

CHAPTER SIX: THE RELEVANCE OF THE SONG OF SONGS TO HUMAN

SEXUALITY IN THE CONTEMPORARY IGBO SOCIETY

6.1 Polygamy - - - - - - - - 130

6.2 Respect for Individual Choice In Marriage - - - - 132

6.3 Need for Sexual Intimacy in Marriage - - - - 133

6.4 Marriage for Procreation - - - - - - 136

6.5 Taboos for Sex within Marriage - - - - - 138

6.6 Chastity among the Youths - - - - - - 139

6.7. Incest in Igbo Culture - - - - - - 144

6.8 Engagement- A Binding Arrangement - - - - 147

6.9 Sex Education: the Need for the Family and Society - - - 149

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CHAPTER SEVEN: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

7.1. Summary of Findings - - - - - - - 156

7.2 Contribution to Knowledge - - - - - - 157

7.3 Recommendations. - - - - - - - 158+

7.4 Suggestions for Further Studies - - - - - - 160

7.5 Conclusion - - - - - - - - - 160

References - - - - - - - - 162

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CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION

1.1. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

In most cultures like the Igbo culture, sex is sacred and talking about it constitutes a

taboo. Nonetheless, everyone (male and female) is a sexual being. McCary (1975, p.149)

asserts that “Exploring and experiencing our own sexuality is part of being human”. Whatever

the external restraints, everyone has an interest in sex, just as all have an interest in food.

Usually when a book about food is read, it is so that a new recipe can be tried out. Most of the

time, when people read about sex, it is with a similar purpose in mind: how to make sex a more

enjoyable experience.

Howe (1991, p. 11) laments that man’s curiosity and interest concerning sexuality is

not always guided and nurtured in a wholesome way. He goes on to say that throughout

childhood and adolescence many parents and guardians teach their children quite comfortably

and naturally about trees, animals, electricity, cooking, and many other aspects of life in the

world. They usually do not, however, teach about sexual matters with similar ease. As a result,

many grow into adulthood with partial and distorted views of human sexuality.

The Churches have not been particularly helpful in this regard. While members are

frequently reminded of what they are not to do, they are seldom shown the positive biblical

teaching about human sexuality. The prevalence of pornography, rape, fornication, adultery,

and incest, even among Christians, attest to the urgent need for specific ethical instruction and

guidance in the realm of human sexuality. These evils exist even among Christians, yet

members seldom, if ever, discuss them in Churches.

Clearly, every religion today has the greatest opportunity for its institution to strengthen

moral quality in sexual relations. It possesses the resources, personnel, and a philosophy of

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sexuality. Yet most religions have failed to present a positive approach to sex. Parents are

finding it difficult to communicate with their children about sexual problems. Studies show

that most young people are reluctant to talk with parents about love, sex and marriage (Duvall

& Hill; 1951, pp. 408-410). Religion comes in here for surely, it has an opportunity and a

responsibility to minister both to parents and to children in this situation.

A constructive response to the problem of sex must take seriously the biblical view of

sexuality, its theological interpretation, and the response of the churches (Barnette; 1952,

p.65). This is necessary since Christianity forms a part of the society, in which there are many

religious beliefs. Fundamentally, every religion has its own view of human sexuality and

should be engaged in finding solutions to the contemporary problems of sexuality. This is ideal

for how one handles his sexuality very often has an impact on other people. It deserves,

therefore to be taken all the more seriously, because it is one of the ways one may enrich others

or destroy them.

Sexuality is insistently portrayed in media of every kind, shamelessly exploited in

advertising, and brazenly celebrated in the clothes people wear – even in pre-teen fashions.

Sexual choices and sexual orientations are defended as legal rights in most nations of the

world.

Moreover, Walton and Andrew (2004, p. 335) have observed that the slogan advertisers

use is ‘Sex sells’ and that ‘power’, in American culture is expressed clearly in the ability to

produce revenue. This is also true of the African culture, for if sex did not have power, it

would not have such a prevalent role in movies and advertising. To economic power, one could

add interpersonal power. Revealing fashions use sexuality to exert power over others in that

they have the ability to stimulate lust. Lust, in turn, is a vice, which weakens the one captured

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by it. Many would object that what they wear is only a reflection of their personal choices

about what looks fashionably attractive or feels comfortable to them. There may be relative

opinions on the idea of revealing clothing, yet, women who profess to be unaware of how

revealing clothing affects men are naïve. Men, on the other hand who claim to be ignorant of

how their clothing draws attention to their bodies are deluding themselves. Sexual power is

wielded both subtly and explicitly in every segment of our society.

Unfortunately, the Christian sub-culture is not succeeding in shielding itself from the

problem or withstanding the onslaught from society. Fowowe (NTA, Sunday 22 January,

2012) testifying of how God delivered him from sexual addiction laments that the Church is

hypocritical about sex since it is not talked about. Substantiating his claim, he narrated how he

became very dedicated to Church activities thinking that this could help him in overcoming his

sexual problems. Instead, he observed that most people were doing it and covering up; he too

learnt to cover up. That people testify of how God delivered them from one problem or the

other and hardly testify of how they were helped out of their sexual problems. He asked: ‘is it

that there are no sexual struggles that this is not talked about?

Fortunately, a sexual (love) song is found in the Bible - the Song of Songs. If the book

of the Bible is read in its literal significance and its lessons laid to heart, this will bring the

solution for the licentiousness of much of modern society; having its ideal concepts of the

nature of love and human relations. The Song provides a wholesome, biblical balance between

the extremes of sexual excess or perversion and an ascetic lifestyle, too often taken as a

Christian view of sex, which denies the essential goodness and rightness of physical love

within the divinely prescribed framework of marriage. As a result therefore, this research work

is focused on the values which the Bible (Song of Solomon) associates with human sexuality.

4

1.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The Christian church world-wide has been flooded with controversy over matters of

sexuality, usually in relation to homosexuality. This study had little to say on the latter issue –

there has already been a flood of books on the issue in recent times – but it has struck the

researcher how much need there is for a wider discussion about sexuality and sexual

behaviour. The primary purpose of this study was to carry out an exegesis on the Song of

Solomon with chapter 4:12-5:1 in focus. This will ultimately lead to a better appreciation of

what the Song of Songs depicts and where it is coming from.

Another reason for the study goes back to the fact that human beings are all sexual

beings. Hence, the work had surveyed some problems associated with human sexuality and

sexual behaviour.

Thirdly, the work examined a healthier valuing of this aspect of what it means to be

human. This will ultimately, contribute to a more and healthy valuing of human sexuality.

Fourthly, the work exploited the place of proper sex education for better dealing and

understanding of human sexuality. For the married (who read this work), it will aid them in

enjoying a warm, mutually satisfying relationship. For the single, it will help them to better

understand their sexuality. In terms of policy, it is aimed at religious leaders and educators who

are responsible for initiating and implementing change. And it is for parents, who are the key

influence in the religious, moral, and sexual education of the person.

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1.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

To achieve the primary objective of this project, both primary and secondary sources

were used in a justified manner. The primary source is the MT-Masoretic Text while secondary

sources include: Septuagint-LXX, ANET-Ancient Near East Texts, Bible Dictionaries and

Encyclopedias, Concordances and Lexicons and other necessary and sufficient materials for

the study. These sources aided the researcher in drawing out the authorial intention of the book

of Song of Songs and how it can be applied in the Igbo context in order to avoid the

superimposition of meanings to the text.

Exegesis which is used in referring to interpretation is very instrumental in studying

any section of the biblical text. This is necessary because there are significant linguistic and

cultural differences between the Bible and its readers today. There are various

methodological approaches to biblical scholarship. The methods which have been used where

necessary to establish the themes of sexuality and ethics in the Song of Songs are: Canonical,

Grammatical-Historical Exegesis and the principles of Syntagmatics and paradigmatic.

Canonical Approach: This method is initiated by B.S. Childs. The focal point of this

approach is its attention on the final form of the biblical text. It further recognizes that a major

literary and theological force was at work in shaping the present form of scripture. This

approach is important because it recognizes the unity and integrity of the text of the scripture.

It further accepts the authority of scriptures. Thus this approach has assited in interpreting the

Song of Songs in the light of other books of the scripture.

Grammatico-Historical Exegesis: This methodology seeks to give detailed analysis of the

text, which agrees with the original language and the original historical situation of the author.

It pays close attention to the grammatical aspect of the language in which it was written,

6

cultural context are also specified which gave rise to the text. Historical and cultural context

are very instrumental in determining the meaning of the text. But if these are not taken

seriously, it gives room for superimposing meaning to the text or one may say what the author

may not have meant. This method was applied to the text under investigation for an accurate

understanding of the concept of human sexuality, as contained in the Song of Songs.

Principles of Syntagmatics and Paradigmatic: The principle of syntagmatics has to do with

words relation by use. It maintains that the meaning of a word is found in its use in a language

system. This implies that to find out the meaning of a word one has to look at other words

within the context, which would serve as a guide to clearly depict what it means. The other

dimension of this approach is the principle of paradigmatic, which simply means study of

sense relations between words or words related by meaning (synonymous, antonyms). This

principle was used in this work especially in the study of sexual terminologies used in the Song

of Songs.

1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The issue under investigation in this study is the abuse of human sexuality in the

contemporary society. Important as sex is, it may become a degrading thing, practiced as an

animal might. Hence, this work primarily concentrated on human sexuality in the Song of

Solomon and other parallel texts that are of prime importance for the study and its ethical

relevance to Igbo society.

Traditional and conventional too, sexual union, as a universal act, is between two

opposite sexes bound together legally to perform such role. Outside of this, it is held to be

abnormal, immoral or unnatural. This research shared the view of other researchers in the

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similar field that homosexuality which is a contemporary phenomenon is a moral issue that is

controversial (Igboin; 2006, p. 354). The struggle which seems unending has been between its

morality and immorality. It is not within the scope of this thesis to delve into this struggle since

the Song of Solomon is more concerned about a heterosexual relationship and assumes there is

nothing like homosexuality. In a related development, paedophilia as a sexual disorder which

is a current anomaly in which adult person’s sexual orientation tilt towards abusing children is

not part of this work. This study therefore is limited to heterosexuality as portrayed in Song of

Solomon as wisdom literature. Other biblical scholars who are interested in human sexuality

are encouraged to join in the debate on homosexuality and paedophilia seeing that they are

sexual issues in the present day Nigerian society.

It is worthy of note that sourcing materials for this work was not easy. This is owing to

the fact that not many commentaries have been written in recent times on Song of Solomon

using the literal interpretation. In addition to this is the fact that Africans do not talk much

about sex, they do not equally write much about it. Hence in surveying the Igbo cultural and

traditional practices, the researcher had to chiefly depend on interviews. These among others

made it difficult to source for data on the Song of Solomon and on the Igbo society. In fact it

was more or less venturing into a virgin field of study. This is here acknowledged as a

limitation; the work would have been much richer if there were many materials to lay hands

on.

1.6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Human sexuality and ethics form a very prominent theme in Old Testament

scholarship. Its teachings show frankness, a remarkable comprehensiveness and an explicit

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celebration of sex, balanced by reserve in language and acknowledgement of strict boundaries

for sexual expression. This study is both an academic and theological enquiry into the concept

of sexuality and sexual ethics in the Song of Songs. It is hoped that it will serve the following

significances:

1. Generally, enquiring minds will find in this work a useful material due to its scholarship.

2. Students of Old Testament especially those specializing in the scholarship of the Song of

Songs will find in this work a valuable resource material.

3. Religious leaders, marriage counselors, parents and educators who are responsible for

initiating and implementing change who read this work will be better informed on human

sexuality and also help both the youth and adults who read it to deal with their sexuality.

4. Above all, it is hoped that this piece will make a contribution in the field of Old

Testament scholarship especially in the study of Song of Songs.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

The primary task of this work is to discuss human sexuality and ethics in Song of

Songs and its implications for the contemporary Nigerian Society. In this chapter, scholarly

literatures related to the subject matter are reviewed. It is interesting to note that sexuality and

sexual ethics have been issues of concern for many writers. Many books and articles have been

written on this subject. The task of the researcher here is to briefly examine the contributions

these authors have made, especially on human sexuality and the problem of sexual pervasions

in the contemporary society. After they have been properly assessed, this will help us to

identify existing gaps in the studies and how to adequately fill such gaps.

The survey has been organized according to the following subject matters:

2.1. SEX AND SEXUALITY:

Mankind is differentiated into two sexes - male and female. In the work of Clark and

Rakestraw (1996, p. 139), three connotations for the use of the word ‘sex’ have been observed.

Accordingly, sex may refer to gender, the realm of our being male or female. It may pertain to

erotic awareness and arousal – the attraction toward and desire for intimacy with another. The

word ‘sex’ is also used to indicate function – activity involving the genital organs – that is

‘having sex’. They also opined that sexual activity within marriage should ideally, involve all

of these aspects. They equally remark that apart from marriage, these three dimensions of sex

are used in the society, either in isolation or in combination.

In Buth’s opinion, the meaning of sex goes beyond the three dimensions mentioned

above. In fact, he states that sex “is not what we do, but what we are” (Buth; 1982, p. 12). He

10

also observes that a better term for sex would be ‘sexuality’, for our being male or female

influences every aspect of our lives. He insists that sexuality encompasses our attitudes, our

strengths and weaknesses, our whole way of looking at life.

Lending weight to Buth’s argument on human sexuality, O’Neil and Donovan (1968, p.

62) state that sexual drives form a major part of every human being’s impulse life and they

exert varying degrees of influence upon most of his thoughts and actions. This goes beyond the

direct, conscious effect of sexuality upon the diverse activities in which man engages.

‘Sexuality’, they argued strongly: “vitally influences and determines fantasies and actions in

many unconscious, indirect ways”. Thus friendship, companionship, aesthetic forms of

emotional expression, attitudes toward achieving objectives or retreating from them, manners

of speech and dress are seen as only a few of the many possible manifestations of sexual

impulses.

These arguments on sex and sexuality could be summarized in the words of Ameiss

and Graver (1988, p. 12) thus, “your sexuality includes your sex organs – as well as the way

you think and feel about them and use them. It takes into account everything you are as male

and female”.

The theologian and ethicist Lewis Smedes suggests three reasons why sexuality should

first and foremost be viewed as a creational good. The first has to do with God’s intention to

make human body-persons. In the creation accounts, Smedes points out:

God is not pictured making a soul and wrapping a body around it. The

soul does not drive the body around like an angel driving an automobile.

The biblical story is not about the creation of a soul that is encumbered

by a body; it is about a body that comes alive to God (1976, p. 26).

11

This implies that humans are intimately part of material and organic creation, all of which God

pronounced ‘good’ as he made it.

The second reason for seeing sexuality as a creational good, lies in the sociability that

is part and parcel of the image of God in man. Smedes argues that “as the Godhead is

intrinsically social, so are the creatures made in God’s image. We cannot become or remain

complete human beings on our own; we need other people at all stages of life” (1976, p. 29).

Even more, in the paradoxical words of Genesis 1:27, “God created humankind in his own

image; in the image of God he created him; male and female created he them”, it could be

observed that one humanity, one unified image of God, but two sexually distinct embodiments.

Van Leeuwen (1990, p. 87) has observed: “not just that human beings need other people in

general; they need a sense of female/male complementariness to be complete and to image

God fully”.

Sexuality as part of God’s image, Smedes continues, “is the human drive toward

intimate communion” (1976, p. 31). Thus, more than a mere physical itch that needs

scratching, it urges humankind “to experience the other, to trust the other, and to be trusted by

(that other person), to enter the other’s life by entering the vital embrace of his or her body”

(32-33).

It may be argued that this urge toward mutual trust and self-disclosure is also present in

friendships and family relationships at their best. But with the urge for sexual intercourse there

comes the added dimension of passion, ecstasy and the throwing-off of restraint. Thus sexual

intimacy involves, at one time, the maximum degree of risk (if it goes badly) and the

maximum promise of communion (if it goes well).

12

This leads to the third reason for seeing sexuality as a positive creation good – namely,

its place within marriage. Sexual intercourse is obviously not the whole meaning of marriage.

Nor do people have to marry to experience good sexual complementariness. Nevertheless,

marriage is not marriage without the desire for sexual intercourse. C.S. Lewis opines that

“sexual attraction is the essential spark that gets the engine of marriage going in the first place,

even though it is a quieter, steadier agapic love that fuels it for the long run” (1952, p. 81).

Christian theologians whether Catholic or Protestants now acknowledge that sexual

activity is not merely God’s ‘reward’ to married people for the pain and inconvenience of

having children. Smedes working from a strong creation theology puts it as follows:

To make reproduction the essence and ultimate goal of sexuality is a

put-down of God’s creation. But the tie between sexual union and

conception of life suggests how deeply the sex act is rooted in humanity.

(Sex and procreation) are the best conceivable combination; but it is not

as though sex is only a tool for procreation and not gift in its own right

(1976, p. 37).

2.2. SEXUALITY AND PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT

As has been observed above, the word ‘sex’ refers primarily to the physical distinction

and differentiation which is universal. Apart from the externals, which differentiate the sexes,

gender roles and functions also help to categorize the sexes. For instance, a young boy in Igbo

culture is raised according to the principle that men are supposed to control the expression of

their emotions in a way that is not expected of women, hence, comments like this is often

heard: “boys do not cry in public.” In the same vein, girl children are brought up in such a way

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that they will be capable of bearing and suckling children. O’Neil and Donovan have traced the

training for adult life as a product of very early sex-role identification in the child. They state

emphatically that the central position of sexuality in the full picture of human moral

development is shown in such a way that:

Central personality functions have a profound influence upon every

human attitude, fantasy and action; these functions, in turn, are greatly

determined by sexual impulses in their early formation and are

constantly modified by general sexuality in their day-to-day interactions

(1968, p. 63).

More so, there is this popular belief that biological differences account for differences

in both the behavior of men and women and the roles they play in society. Contesting this

position, Stoller, a sociologist maintains:

Gender is a term that has psychological and cultural connotation; if the

proper terms for sex are ‘male’ and ‘female’ the corresponding terms of

gender are masculine and feminine, these latter might be quite

independent of (biological) sex (1977, p. 607).

By implication of this statement, there is no necessary association between being a man and

behaving in a masculine way. This means girls may not necessarily be caring and

compassionate and boys may not have to be aggressive and competitive. Akao shares the same

view when he states:

Feminine social roles, such as those of house wives and mothers who

care for their children are not an inevitable product of female biology

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neither does being a man make it inevitable that men must be

breadwinners (2006, p. 19).

He further observes that the fallout from this argument is that it is the culture of a society that

determines the behavior of the sexes within it. Apart from the natural distinction (males with

testes and females with ovaries) the allocation of duties, labour responsibilities in society is

purely the taste of the society. Sex differentiation is, therefore, a product of the environment

and circumstances of life.

This follows that masculinity and femininity mean infinitely more than the differences

in primary sex characteristics. Being ‘man’ or ‘woman’ refers to basic polarities in the very

nature of human beings; they are the basic causes and expressions of the differences and

complementarities which is the very essence of ‘being human’.

Highlighting the importance of sexuality for all human growth, Oraison says:

… it is beyond question that the whole personality, even in its most

developed, its most specifically human – that is to say, spiritual –

manifestations, is impregnated and conditioned by the evaluation and

modalities of its ‘desire to love and be loved’ – each according to his

proper sex. All behaviour, even the highest intellectual behaviour, is

unavoidably coloured by the existential attitude of relation that

establishes the subject – as the man he is or as the woman she is – in

dialogue with the world; is coloured, therefore, in the Freudian sense, by

his sexuality (1963, p. 105).

O’Neil and Donovan (1968, p. 64) also wrote on what they call the ‘self-image’ or

‘self-concept’ as another aspect of the personality that exercises a high degree of control over

15

man’s behaviour. By self-concept, they mean a pattern of memories, perceptions, attitudes,

and so forth that stabilizes the personality by giving it a certain historical continuity and the

consequent ability to act in a more or less consistent fashion.

Henry, in his ‘The Analysis of Fantasy’ argues that:

There are two special features of the personality tendency toward

consistency… These features are: first, a resistance to repeat change, and

second, a tendency to reproduce itself. This first tendency is a direct

reflection of the development of consistency within the personality and

the gradual reduction over time of the ability of the personality to

change. As consistency develops, flexibility decreases. With this

reduced flexibility, an additional feature appears, the tendency to

reaffirm the present consistency (1956, p. 7).

These words from Henry are very relevant to this discussion on personality

development in that a person’s self-concept is the recognition that he is the same person he was

ten years ago (allowing, of course, for maturation and change). He has attitudes toward himself

(some of which may not be objectively substantiated) which largely determine his attitudes

toward other people and things, his goals, values, and fantasy life.

Moreover, O’Neil and Donovan (1967, p. 65) maintain that the child’s self-image

includes, in a very significant way, his attitude toward sexual impulses and their control. If a

child’s early curiosity about his body, his self–exploration and manipulations as well as the

normal exploratory curiosity about the bodies of other children is met with shock, anger or

disgust on the part of the parents, his future attitudes toward sexuality may likely be negative.

Later experiences or even fantasies which contain sexual elements will produce varying

16

degrees of uneasiness, shame, and feelings of guilt. The child’s self-concept will be distorted in

the area of sexual fantasies and feelings generally will be repressive and guilt-laden as a

consequence of that distortion. Hence, growing with an inherent positive/negative sexual

attitude may affect ones sexual behaviour in future.

2.3. SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF SEXUALITY

One of the major and current issues of interest, concern and debate in the contemporary

world is sex and sexuality. Many publications appear yearly on the subject in addition to the

discussion of the subject in the daily newspapers and Television Stations. It should be admitted

here that some of these publications are useful while some are not but only compound the

problem and leave their readers more confused than before. Even the internet, which is now

leading positively in the promotion and dissemination of information, has at the same time

contributed negatively by the display of nude pictures and real live sexual acts. The issue of the

proper expression of human sexuality is a perennial one in every human society. There has

never been a social order that has not reflected upon and prescribed rules and principles for this

powerful and mysterious dimension of personhood.

Sexual ethics looks very different depending on one’s context in life and on one’s

understanding of human nature. An issue underlying many of the questions concerning human

sexuality and appropriate sexual behaviour is the purpose of sex.

With the concept that human sexuality and the ordinance of marriage are often treated

together in the Bible, Clark and Rakestraw (1996:140-42) have observed that the purpose of

sex is related to the purpose of marriage. Purpose in their work is used in two senses. In the

first instance, “purpose connotes the end, goal, and ultimate, long-range intention for creation

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as a whole”. On the contrary however, they argue that if purpose is understood more from the

perspective of God’s immediate plan and desire for couples, focusing not on the creation as a

whole but on individuals, then the primary purpose of marriage may be viewed as

companionship and union.

Hughes (1983, p. 151-153), in his ‘Christian Ethics in Secular Society’ asserts that

since man was created male and female, sexuality belongs to man’s ‘creature-hood’ and is a

factor which is both integral and indispensable in the structure of human society. For him,

there is a one-flesh principle which implies that as sexual partners husband and wife belong to

each other and to no one else. Hughes also maintains very strongly that since sexuality is

designed for procreation, it produces children as the fruit of marital love. Accordingly, it leads

to the phenomenon of the family.

Ogunkunle has observed also that the most important reason for marriage in the

traditional Yoruba society is for procreation. To buttress his point, he cites a common adage in

Yoruba land which states: ‘omo ni iyi, omo ni eye igbeyawo’ which literally means, “children

are the glory and pride of marriage” (2006, p. 57). This understanding is not limited to the

Yorubas but to some other African cultures. In a related development Igbo reiterated the same

on the place of child in marriage though their adage that says: nwa bu ugu ezi n’ulo which

literarily means children are the honour of the family. This explains why some delay in having

children often leads to serious problems which at times lead to divorce in African marriage.

This follows that most biblical scholars are in agreement on the subject of marriage and

sex. For instance, R.K. Bower and G.L. Knapp define marriage as:

That life long and exclusive state in which a man and a woman are

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wholly committed to live with each other in sexual relationship under

conditions normally approved and witnessed to by their social group or

society (1986, p. 261).

This definition clearly shows that marriage involves physical sexual relationship. Tim

Bulkeley also emphasizes this idea when he states:

Sex in marriage, apart from the purpose of procreation, is honourable

and given by God to be enjoyed by husband and wife. Making love

cements two beings together in the partnership. It brings covenant

relationship and the on going co-operation of daily living as effective

agents which build the union (2003, p. 32).

Commenting on Paul’s concept of sexual Union, Hope Amolo upholds that:

The married couples are expected to find fulfillment in sexual relation,

which can close the door against extra marital affairs.… Any act of

sexual starvation in marriage may weaken the marriage and

consequently lead to its total collapse (2006, p.176).

It is a common belief in Africa that sexual intercourse in marriage is mainly for

procreation. Mbiti underscores this point when he wrote: “marriage and procreation in African

communities are a unity: without procreation, marriage is incomplete” (1985, p. 133). This can

also be seen in the refusal of some African women to have sex with their husbands for a long

time after the birth of a child. This refusal is hinged on the fact that the society would scorn

them for getting pregnant when the previous baby is not yet up to the weaning age – between

19

the age of two and three, because in those days sexual intercourse almost always resulted in

pregnancy and child birth.

Moreover, in matters of sex-relationship in the African context, the superiority of man

is upheld against the subordination of the woman. Thus, sex is often viewed as the husband’s

privilege and the wife’s obligation. This suggests why a man can use his wife to entertain a

very close friend who calls on a visit – a common practice in some African cultures as a way of

showing hospitality. In Nigeria for instance, the Tiv tribe of Benue State is popularly known

for this practice. This practice has its moral and ethical implications. The question is, if

pregnancy results from the ‘hospitable act’, who takes responsibility? These in Amolo’s

opinion amount to a negative view of sex. She submits:

The traditional perception in Africa that sex is for the sole purpose of

procreation amounts to a negative view of sex. Gender stereotypes of

submissive females and powerful males … hinder communication and

encourage risky behavior between women and men in different, but

equally dangerous ways (2006, p. 178).

Infidelity/Extramarital Sex

Infidelity is a violation of the commitment to sexual loyalty by one or both members of

a committed romantic relationship. Infidelity can take various forms. In cases of sexual

infidelity, sexual intimacy is diverted away from the committed relationship through sexual

relations with another person(s). Other forms of infidelity include nonsexual physical

relationships, emotional affairs, and liaisons via telephone or the internet. With any kind of

infidelity, intimacy that is typically reserved for the primary relationship is shared with another

person without the partner’s knowledge or consent.

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Extramarital sex or adultery is a specific kind of infidelity in which there is a betrayal

of marital sexual exclusivity. Although most committed relationships include sexual fidelity,

there are ‘open’ relationships (also called ‘swinging’), in which partners agree that they can be

sexually intimate with others, as long as the commitment to the primary relationship remains

intact. In cases of polygamy and polygyny, sexual relations occur with more than one partner

within the framework of committed relationships and with the knowledge of all parties

involved.

In spite of cultural standards forbidding extramarital sexual affairs, actual behaviours

may vary. For example, marital fidelity is expected in the African culture. However, it is

understood that the husband may have extramarital relationships. Likewise, men of financial

stature in the Igbo society in South-eastern Nigeria see themselves as entitled when it comes to

extramarital relationships and they display their girlfriends openly to their peers as a sign of

status. However, their wives are forbidden to engage in extramarital affairs.

Infidelity/extramarital sex usually occur in a relationship context that includes various

factors that make the couple vulnerable. An affair may express the universal human longing for

romance and romanticism in personal life. Most courtships and marriages begin with a

heightened sense of romance and for understandable reasons very few manage to sustain it

with any consistency for any considerable period of time. So an affair may promise to do some

redress for this deprived state of non affairs. Men and women generally engage in extramarital

affairs for different reasons. A desire for emotional connection is often the most important

aspect for women.

Other factors include an unhappy marriage, the need for personal growth and self-

fulfillment, and a desire for sexual fulfillment. In contrast, men report that sexual factors,

21

rather than a need for greater emotional intimacy, are most important. In cases when infidelity

includes both sexual and emotional intimacy, men typically begin with sexual involvement and

move to include emotional, while the opposite is found with women (Wiederman; 1997, p.

167-174).

Moreover, the affair makes it possible for the marriage partner to have a sense of freely

choosing and of being chosen on a day by day basis, by contrast with the trapped feelings he or

she may have within the marital relationship.

Extramarital sex may be an expression of chronic anger or outrage on the part of a man

or woman who feels abused or neglected or simply taken for granted in a chronic way within

the marriage. Such an affair has been described as “a piece of instrumental behaviour, whether

conscious or otherwise, the purpose of which is to punish and seek revenge” (Stahmann &

Hiebert; 1997, p. 58).

Infidelity may be an attempt to sustain a faltering marriage by supplementing the

intimacy or lack of intimacy by companionship from outside. It may be an attempt to heat up a

cold, distant, and empty relationship by one party being aroused somewhere else and then

coming back still hot to generate some spark in the marriage (Whitaker; 1973, p. 43). Or it may

represent an attempt to cope with serious sexual incompatibility or dysfunction, whether for

reasons of physical or psychological disability, by finding an alternative source of fulfillment,

or at least a backup opportunity for release of sexual tension.

An extramarital affair may be an effort to seek reassurance as to a man’s virility,

continuing potency, and capacity to satisfy a woman, or as to a woman’s femininity,

continuing lovability, and capacity to arouse a man (Paul & Paul; 1975, p. 50).

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A couple’s vulnerability may also involve individual and/or relational risk factors. Age,

mental health/illness, physical well-being, self-esteem, attitudes about infidelity, religiosity,

and gender are examples of individual risk factors. For instance, those with mental and/or

emotional health conditions such as depression or anxiety are at a greater risk of having an

affair. In addition, low self-esteem has been correlated with the occurrence of infidelity

(Stahmann & Hiebert; 1977, p. 59). Permissive attitudes toward infidelity increase a couple’s

risk and are more likely to occur in liberally minded individuals with low religiosity,

premarital sexual experience, and premarital sexual permissiveness.

2.4. SEXUALITY AND SINGLENESS

It is one thing to champion the marriage union and its value in developing a context of

trust for sexual bonding. It is another matter to talk about sexual desire and sexual release for

those who are not married, who see no immediate prospect for marriage and who do not think

of themselves as celibates. It is feared that a time is coming when singles will be in the

majority. Foster states: “We are fast approaching the day when single people will be in the

majority” (1985, p. 118). There are, of course, the young who are still anticipating marriage.

Also, there are many who are unwillingly hurled into single life either by the tragic death of a

spouse or divorce. Speaking to those in this situation, Foster suggests that masturbation, even

though it can be abused, may be an appropriate means of releasing sexual tensions in

adolescents and other singles (1985, p. 119).

Goergen (1974, p. 181) has reasoned along this line when he noted that “feelings are

meant to be felt, and sexual feelings are no exception.” He argues that while the single

person’s sexuality is expressed in the need to experience emotional fulfillment, the decision to

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reserve genital sex for marriage is not decision to remain emotionally unfulfilled. Bailey has

added:

Sexual intercourse is an act of the whole self which affects the whole

self; it is a personal encounter between man and woman in which each

does something to the other, for good or for ill, which can never be

obliterated. This remains true even when they are ignorant of the radical

character of their act (1952, p. 53).

This implies that the reasoning behind the biblical prohibition of sexual intercourse for the

unmarried goes beyond the common practical concerns of pregnancy or venereal disease and

the like. Sex outside of marriage is wrong “because it violates the inner reality of the act; it is

wrong because unmarried people thereby engage in a life-uniting act without a life-uniting

intent.… Intercourse signs and seals – and maybe even delivers – a life-union; and life-union

means marriage” (Smedes; 1976, p. 130).

Some scholars have also argued for a reconsideration of the traditional view of single

sexuality. In a 1987 article Karen Lebacqz called for an ethic that would tie the level of sexual

expression to the level of vulnerability in the single’s relationship. She states that “to desire

another, to feel passion, is to be vulnerable, capable of being wounded”. Also, that

vulnerability may be the precondition for both union and procreation: without a willingness to

be vulnerable, to be exposed, to be wounded, there can be no union. This according to Lebacqz

would not rule out sexual intercourse for singles but would establish what she calls

‘appropriate vulnerability’ as the measure by which to assess its rightness or wrongness (1987,

pp. 435-38). This is not an ethic that supports casual sex for singles but there seems a kind of

opening to sex within somewhat more committed relationships.

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An excursion into attitudes to sex from a more African perspective reveals that great

emphasis was given to the virtue of virginity in many African societies. Writing from the

traditional Yoruba society background, Ogunkunle stresses that the Yorubas frown at pre-

marital sex when he states: “it is usually a thing of pride for the bride and members of her

family on the night of wedding if she is found to be a virgin. It is a sign of her faithfulness

while with her parents” (2006, p. 57).

Mbiti elaborated on this when he asserted:

The blood of virginity is the symbol that life has been preserved, that the

spring of life has not already been flowing wastefully, and that both the

girl and her relatives have preserved the sanctity of human reproduction.

Only marriage may share this sacred blood for in so doing it unlocks the

door for members of the family in the loins to come forward and join

both the living and living-dead. Virginity symbolizes purity not only of

the body but also of moral life; and a virgin bride is the greatest glory

and crown to her parents, husband and relatives (1985, p. 141).

Writing from the western background, House, High and David comment on the shifting

attitudes to sex over the years:

Sexual mores have taken a cultural shift over the post 100 years, but the

vestiges of this transition are still with us today… In the past times

couples were guilty if they went to bed before marriage. Now they are

made to feel guilty if they do not (1988, p. 29).

25

These suggest that the liberalization of sexual attitudes bordering on promiscuity is a recent

development.

Kayode has equally submitted that:

The consequence of disobeying the law of chastity before marriage or

observing the same in relation to one’s ritual roles or social placement is

quite clear to all. Africans possess very high moral codes of sexual

conduct which keep them on the right relationship with God and their

fellowmen (1986, p. 53).

From the above contributions, it should be observed that there were traditional

boundaries for sexual expression. It is good to observe here that there are African cultures in

which chastity is either partially maintained or not maintained at all. A survey on this has been

given under the treatment on premarital sex.

Premarital Sex

The prevalence of premarital sex among young people today poses a moral challenge.

The idea seems to be that since ‘everybody does it’ there is probably nothing wrong with it.

Davis reports a survey done by Aaron Hass that reveals that 43% of boys and 31% of girls in

the United States lose their virginity by age 16 (Davis; 1985, p. 52). Davis, however, feels that

this figure seems to be conservative as the percentage may in reality be much higher. Other

studies carried out on premarital intercourse indicate that among males within the age bracket

of 16-25, 60-90% have experienced it, while 20-50% of females in the same age bracket have

participated (Kubo; 1980, p. 48).

This statistical data apparently mirrors the phenomenon in many African countries,

especially Nigeria. Unfortunately, there is no consensus of opinion on the morality of

26

premarital sex and its effect on marriage. For instance, Mair’s work reveals that in Southern

region of Africa, premarital sex-relations are extremely common, though the bulk of the

evidence suggests that young girls enter into them from inclination or cede to importunity

rather than are driven by economic necessity. She also adds that girls that were questioned all

admitted that they had had experience of sexual intercourse, and practically all the married

women who had been in the towns before their marriage said that their husbands had not been

their first lovers (1969, p. 33). The situation is the same among many of the peoples of East

African region where sexual relations are permitted between unmarried persons in defined

circumstances. She observes that free sex relations were permitted among them provided they

did not lead to pregnancy. A man who made a girl pregnant was required to pay for her bride

price (1969, p. 49).

For the West African region, she reports the extremes of severity and tolerance

represented by the Nupe, who prohibit them altogether, and the Korongo and Mesakin of the

Nuba hills with whom premarital license is complete, and chastity and virginity play no part.

Indeed, she cites the people saying of themselves, “we are like animals in matters of sex”

(1969, p. 51).

Among the Hausas, young unmarried boys and girls sleep together with the

connivance of their parents, but full sex relations are not permitted, and parents of the ruling

class forbid their daughters this liberty. With the Ibo and Yako the rule to which major

importance is attached is that a girl should not conceive before her puberty rites; a child so

conceived is cast away (1969, pp. 119-121).

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In these African societies that prohibit premarital sex relations, great emphasis was

given to the virtue of virginity. The stains of virginity were the greatest credit to the family of

the bride. Ejenobo elaborates:

It is a taboo for a girl to indulge in sexual activity before the night of her

being escorted to meet her husband. On that night, the first that the

couple would spend together … a white cloth is used to lay the bed. It is

expected that since that would be the first time the girl would be having

sexual intercourse, the forced penetration of the male organ would lead

to a tear in the hymen or covering of the vagina. This was the perfect test

for the virginity of the bride (2006, p. 227)

Today, however, the ‘sexual revolution’ in the West which allows sexual freedom is

receiving a refrain in African societies. Thus, even in the regions where premarital sexual

relations were prohibited, traditional boundaries of sexual chastity are being removed by the

new morality of sexual freedom.

Perhaps, the point made by Aguilar and Galbes (1991, pp. 76-77) will help illumine the

concept of premarital sex. They have given some reasons why premarital sex seems so

attractive and legitimate to young men and women.

Firstly, if the couple feels they are too young to form a home on account of their age

they may feel free to indulge in premarital sex. The need to satisfy sexual desires is another

argument for premarital sex. The argument is that it is against the call of nature to stifle sexual

desires when it could be given an outlet through premarital intercourse. Moreover, the desire to

establish a test period or trial run, in order to ensure psychological, physical understanding and

28

cohesion within the marriage favours premarital sex. Finally, inability to get married as

planned due to financial constraints may lead couples into premarital sex.

While the arguments often advanced for premarital sex may seem plausible, are they

really worth the hazards associated with such sexual adventures? Kubo maintains:

While our times have seen growing acceptance of premarital pregnancy,

it has not and cannot erase the sense of impropriety and shame and

inconvenience that it beings to most parents, including parents of those

involved. One solution commonly resorted to is abortion. While the

dangers of the operation have diminished it still carries physical risks

and psychological effects, especially the latter (1980, p. 51).

Hazards of Premarital Sex

Davis reports on Kistner’s research which has been estimated that as many as 20

million Americans now suffer from recurrent genital herpes for which no cure has been found.

A striking relationship has been drawn between cervical cancer and promiscuous intercourse.

Kistner’s observation is pertinent: “The younger the woman is at the first intercourse the more

frequently she engages in it and the greater the number of partners, the higher the risk of

contracting cervical cancer” (1985, p. 53).

One may infer that these reports reflect the reality in Nigeria where premarital sex and

promiscuity seem to be the norm for many young people. Other sexually transmitted diseases

that may be contracted through premarital sex include gonorrhea, syphilis and the much-

dreaded HIV/AIDS. It is estimated that about 29 million African now live with the virus and

one-third of those infected are aged between 15-24 years, especially young women (Uduama;

2004, p. 1). Most recently, the Gap Report states;

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Nigeria, together with South Africa and Uganda, account for almost half

of all annual new HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa. Unprotected

heterosexual sex accounts for about 80% of new HIV infections in

Nigeria. Early sexual debut is common in Nigeria, which begins at less

than 15 years old for 15% of Nigerian youth. This is one factor that

increases HIV vulnerability among young people, alongside very low

HIV testing rates – only 17% of young people know their HIV status

(USAIDS, 2016).

On challenges of controlling HIV infection, Gap Report states among others,

Gender inequality is imbedded in Nigerian society and culture. Although

women do have rights to land, the patriarchal society dictates that their

rights are weaker than a man’s. The result is a high fertility rate of six

children per women, due to the pressure on her to give birth to boys who

can inherit and own land. If a woman has a girl first, she is more likely

to have more children, not use contraceptives, have short periods

between pregnancies, and be subjected to polygamy. Each of these

factors increases a woman’s vulnerability to HIV. 1.6 million women are

living with HIV in Nigeria (USAIDS, 2016).

This has probably informed the message of abstinence from National AIDS Control Agency

that is frequently sent to mobile phone users; “to abstain from sex until the right time”. The

‘right time’ of course is marriage. In the same way, the message: “Zip Up: Sex is worth

30

waiting for” could be seen on many billboards, especially near tertiary institutions, across the

nation.

Unfortunately, so many teenage boys and girls engage in premarital sex with the

argument that “I can do whatever I want with my body, so long as it does not hurt anybody”.

Will somebody not be hurt if premarital sex is freely indulged with the specter of HIV/AIDS

shattering the dreams and aspirations of young people and decimating millions?

Apart from causing health hazards to humanity, premarital sex also have implications

for marriage and morality. Going by Mibiti’s assertion that “marriage is the focus of existence

(for African peoples)….” (1985, p. 133), premarital sex therefore, undermines the marriage

institution. It does not only threaten its security, it provides the dung that desecrates the

hallowed place accorded it by a loving God. Van Pelt states that couples that engage in sexual

intercourse before marriage are more likely to break up than those who do not (1982, p. 132).

Adeyemi equally observes that “most relationships that involved sex before marriage

break up before the marriage. Instead of deepening the commitment and cementing the

relationship, premarital sex fragments it” (2005, p. 96). Even if they stick together the feeling

of guilt remains; the couple’s premarital sex experience often rises to haunt them. A reality,

which many choose to ignore, is that premarital sex increases the likelihood of extramarital

sex. There appears to be strong correlation between cases of extramarital sex and premarital

sex. The saying that ‘habits die hard’ is a truism in its application to premarital sex. With

marital infidelity of course, the marriage is bound to hit the rocks.

Research has shown that about one third of all girls who engage in premarital sex end

up pregnant (Van Pelt; 1982, p. 132). In many cases of such pregnancy, abortion is attempted

at the hands of quacks and charlatans. In the process, young, promising lives are sacrificed on

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the altar of expediency. Those who survive it sometimes end up with a damaged womb,

leading to sterility. This could put enormous pressure on marriage, especially in the African

context where marriage and procreation are viewed as a unity. It is therefore obvious that

sexual immorality (premarital and extramarital) not only demoralizes a culture, it destroys

people.

2.5. SEXUAL FANTASY AND MASTURBATION

The impact of fantasy upon behaviour has been the topic of much discussion and

research. One vital question is: to what extent does fantasy provide an outlet for drives, thus

reducing the necessity for overt behavioral response, and to what extent does it mirror or even

add to overt behavioral responses? Or what is the clear distinction between lust and sexual

fantasy?

Smedes (1976, p. 210) has articulated the difference between the two quite well: “when

the sense of excitement conceives a plan to ‘use’ (sic) a person, when attraction turns into

scheme, we have crossed beyond erotic excitement into spiritual adultery”.

O’Neil and Donovan (1968, pp. 86-90) have revealed that it is impossible to define

precisely just what is a normal amount of sexual fantasy. This is owing to the fact that each

individual has a unique combination of life experiences, vividness of imagination, degree of

introspection, and interest in his own mental life. They observed that an excess of sexual

fantasies is indicated when the person consistently seeks them out and pursues them to the

point of actual sexual arousal, or when they become a preoccupation as contrasted with a

diversion.

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They stated further that moral responsibility enters at the point of emotional

preoccupation with a fantasy which in turn produces sexual arousal and tension. The control of

behaviour is dependent upon the decision to suppress a fantasy before it reaches that level of

preoccupation. According to them, the development of this type of conscious, habitual

decision, based on the uniqueness of the person’s arousal level and normal fantasy life,

prevents the damming up of sexual tension that occurs when fantasies are suppressed or

rejected the moment that they appear.

One can assert here that lust is an untamed, inordinate sexual passion to possess, and

this is a very different thing from the usual erotic awareness experienced in sexual fantasy.

Sometimes sexual fantasies signify a longing for intimacy; at other times, they express

attraction toward a beautiful/handsome person. Sexual fantasies can mean many things, and

one must not automatically identify them with lust. This also reveals that there could be

positive and negative functions of fantasy.

On the positive function of fantasy, Clark and Rakestraw maintain that through fantasy,

one is able to hold reality at bay while allowing the imagination to roam freely. Mature people

are able to utilize the imagination without ever losing touch with the real world. We can write

letters, remember the warm kiss many times over, and anticipate love’s tender moments yet to

come. They state emphatically that “in marriage sexual fantasy is vitally important in

awakening sexual expression” (1996, p. 160). On the contrary, they insist that sexual fantasy

can lead to obsession with the sexual. It can easily become a truncated preoccupation with the

physical. It can be a prelude to illicit behavior.

Masturbation is so closely related to the issue of sexual fantasy that it deserves

attention at this juncture. There are differing views on the ethics of masturbation. McCary

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(1978, p. 149), author of ‘Human Sexuality’ has observed that the issue of masturbation is

particularly acute for single people who, out of Christian conviction, have said no to sexual

intercourse outside of marriage. Many important questions surface: Is masturbation a morally

acceptable activity? Or could it be a ‘gift from God’ as some have suggested, helping us avoid

promiscuous sex? What about the sexual fantasies that invariably crowd into the landscape of

masturbation?

Some in the medical profession today regard it as normal and not harmful. Derek

Lewellyn-Jones in his popular ‘Everywoman’ states:

Masturbation is a normal part of sexual development, and does no

physical harm whatsoever, however frequently or infrequently it takes

place. The only harm which may result from masturbation are (sic)

feelings of guilt, occasioned by the Judeo-Christian religious

disapproval of masturbation (1998, p. 56).

One thing that is certainly uncontested is the almost universal experience of

masturbation. McCary has found that about 95 percent of men and between 50 and 90 percent

of women masturbate. He goes on to say that “no other form of sexual activity has been more

frequently discussed, more roundly condemned, and more universally practiced, than

masturbation” (1978, p. 150). This follows that nearly all adolescents masturbate and many

adults masturbate from time to time throughout their lives. Clark and Rakestraw (1996, p.

162) have stated emphatically that masturbation is not physically harmful in any way. They

also noted that while the Bible is silent about masturbation is not because it is not a moral

issue, but it does mean that any biblical help one receives will be indirect rather than direct.

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Three concerns heighten the moral question of masturbation. The first is its connection

with sexual fantasies. Llewellyn-Jones insists that “Most people – both men and women –

fantasize during masturbation…” (1998, p. 57). This implies that masturbation simply does not

occur in an imageless void. And many are deeply distressed by the images that do come,

feeling that they qualify as the lust of the heart that Jesus spoke against (Matt. 5:28).

The second concern relates to masturbation’s tendency to become obsessive. Hulme

(1965, p. 43) opines that masturbation is likely to become a habit when it is used as a way of

escape from the disappointments and deficiencies of life.

The third concern has to do with masturbation’s depersonalization. Sex is an expression

of one’s outreach to others. Masturbation is the reverse of this process; sex is turned in upon

oneself. The loneliness that sex is meant to alleviate remains unalleviated. True sexuality leads

one to a deep personal relationship with another, but masturbation is ‘sex in isolation’ to use

the phrase of Hulme (1965, p. 40).

On the proponent spectrum, Clark and Rakestraw (1996, p. 163) affirm that

masturbation is not inherently wrong or sinful and should be accepted as a normal part of life.

They also warn that sexual desire needs to be controlled. The real ethical question here is how

to control or discipline sexual fantasy/masturbation. Will they dominate every waking

moment, or can they be brought into proper perspective within the far greater matters of love

and human relationship? Granted, it is a fact that everyone likes fantasies because they idealize

life. In these fantasies ideal partner is the paradigm of sexual prowess and never makes

demands. This is precisely why fantasies need discipline because they can separate one from

the real world of human imperfection. Moreover, Agbo states that “It is even easier for drug

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addicts to quit their habits than for someone addicted to masturbation to stop it” (2009, p. 43).

Thus, on grounds of morality and addiction, masturbation should not be encouraged.

2.6. DEVIANT SEXUAL PRACTICES

From the ongoing discussion, it could be asserted that traditional and conventionally

too, sexual union, as a universal act, is between two opposite sexes bound together legally to

perform such role. Anything outside of this is held to be abnormal, immoral or unnatural. In

this section, some of these abnormal practices (especially those common in the contemporary

African society) are surveyed under the sub-topic – deviant sexual practices. They include the

following:

Pornography

Pornography is a slippery subject to define. The 1972 Longford Committee considered

porn to be “that which exploits and dehumanizes sex so that human beings are treated as things

and women in particular as sex objects” (1972, p. 412). These ties in with the Greek word

‘porne’ meaning ‘female captives’ from which the word pornography (literally writing about

porne) derives. Sexual material which degrades, or is violent, abusive or sadistic would be

widely regarded as pornographic.

Bowring defines pornography as “material made with the primary or sole intention that

viewers should masturbate to it” (2005, p. 12). This may be a little simplistic but it can be very

helpful in practice. The intention of the material’s creator is usually clear and it is often

obvious whether the film, book or website has any true artistic or literary merit. The

pornographic industry exists to produce pornography, printed or visual material intended to

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stimulate sexual excitement. There are now opportunities, through the internet, on a scale

never known before to have access to this alluring world.

On the implications of pornography on human sexuality, Arthur reports the research

findings of a psychologist James L. McGaugh at the University of California – Irvine that

suggest memories formed at times of emotional arousal (which could include sexual arousal)

get “locked into the brain” by an adrenal gland hormone, epinephrine, are difficult to erase.

Powerful, sexually arousing memories of experiences from the past keep intruding on the

mind’s memory screen, serving to stimulate and erotically arouse the viewer. If a person

masturbates to these fantasies or images, he or she reinforces the link between sexual arousal

and orgasm, with the particular scene or image repeatedly rehearsed in his mind (Arthur, 2002,

p. 202). This principle explains why pornography becomes addictive and destructive.

Another harmful effect of pornography is addiction. Victor B. Cline is a

psychotherapist specializing in family and marital counseling and sexual addictions. From the

wealth of his experiences and study, he has identified a four-factor syndrome common to

nearly all his clients, especially those with early involvement in pornography. The first change

is the addiction effect. He states:

The porn-consumers got hooked. Once involved in pornographic

materials, they kept coming back for more and still more. The material

seemed to provide a very powerful sexual stimulant or aphrodisiac

effect, followed by sexual release, most often through masturbation. The

pornography provided very exciting and powerful imagery which they

frequently recalled to mind and elaborated on in their fantasies (1996, p.

35).

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An obvious problem from frequent immersion in such a fantasy world is that no real sexual

partner is likely to match the powerful imagery of sexual activity provided by pornography.

Consequent upon addiction is escalation. The addict becomes increasingly preoccupied

with preparations for and viewing pornography and masturbating in the process. It is like drug

addiction. Cline expresses this addiction thus:

Over time there is nearly always an increasing need for more of the

stimulant to get the same initial effect …. Their addiction and escalation

were mainly due to the powerful sexual imagery in their minds,

implanted there by the exposure to pornography (1996, p. 42).

This suggests that pornography diminishes a person’s capacity to love and express affection to

a mate in their intimate relations. Thus in the search for intimacy, “pornography is useless as a

route map. Porn promises the ultimate but can never deliver the truly intimate” (Bowring;

2005, p. 15).

Lack of restraint is another characteristic of pornographic consumption. Cline affirms:

An increasing tendency to act out sexually the behaviours viewed in the

pornography that the porn-consumers had been repeatedly exposed to,

including compulsive promiscuity, exhibitionism, group sex, voyeurism

(peeping), frequenting massage parlors, having sex with minor children,

rape, and inflicting pain on themselves or a partner during sex. This

behaviour frequently grew into a sexual addiction which they found

themselves locked into and unable to change or reverse – no matter what

the negative consequences were in their life (1996, p. 43).

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This is clearly responsible for high rate of sexual abuses, rape teenage pregnancy,

premarital and extramarital sex relations discussed above. A study of adult sex offenders found

that 86 percent of convicted rapists said they were regular users of pornography, with 57

percent admitting direct imitation of previously viewed pornographic scenes while committing

their rapes (Bowring; 2005, p. 14).

Homosexuality/Bisexuality

Homosexuality has been defined as the “persistent preoccupation with erotic

encounters involving members of the same sex, which may or may not be acted out with

another person” (Olson; 1996, p. 3). This definition suggests that homosexuality is an attempt

at deliberate co-operation in sexual fantasies with a person of the same sex. This may consist

of a psychological tendency strong enough to use the person of the same sex to gratify oneself

sexually sometimes involving mutual masturbation or anal intercourse. Homosexuality is the

same things as lesbianism. In lesbianism, a woman is involved in sexual intercourse or

fantasies with another woman.

A recent study has classified bisexuality with homosexuality. In the light of this study,

Igboin cites Sigmund Freud, Alfred Kinsey among others (who are self-described bisexuals –

that is homosexual and heterosexuals simultaneously) who argue that some are naturally

bisexual (2006, p. 341). Some scholars from the psychological profession have argued that

bisexuality is not a distinct sexual orientation. These scholars maintain that to say one is

bisexual is to say that one is ambivalent about one’s sexual orientation. It is: “You’re gay,

straight or lying” (The Punch; 2005, p. 44). By implication, there is no house between

homosexuality and bisexuality. Hence, those who claim to be bisexuals are indeed

homosexuals.

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There is no consensus on the roots of homosexuality. Some haphazard surveys have

tried to surmise the origin of homosexual orientation; however the most controversial one is

that which links homosexuality with genetics. For instance, Dr. Simon LeVay in a study

carried out in 1991 on the brains of 41 cadavers, maintain; “A cluster of neurons in a distinct

section of the brain were generally smaller in homosexual men as compared to the

heterosexual men” (The Punch; 2005, p. 46). Consequently, he hypothesized that these neurons

may be responsible for a person’s sexual orientation either homosexual or heterosexual.

However, Olson upholds that LeVay has “deserted his research” since the portion of the brain

he worked on does not necessarily account for sexual preference. He equally argues that

LeVay’s study also fails to justify the fact that there is no 100 percent in the largeness of the

neurons of the homosexuals over their heterosexual counterparts (1996, p. 5). From the genetic

point of view, it is very important to note Llewellyn-Jones submission that:

There is some evidence that it may be due to a gene which is found on

the X chromosome, although, as yet, the gene has not been identified.

Until this occurs and a large number of people are tested to find out if

they have the gene, the theory must remain speculative (1998, p. 83).

Martin (1997, p. 121) has equally observed that the data on hereditary causes of gay preference

are contradictory but portend some challenges that the Evangelicals have to contend with

should they be true.

Some exploration on psychological causation has attributed homosexual orientation to

early childhood experiences. According to Olson,

When the desire to be emotionally connected with the same sex parent is

cut off, the child’s identity may be marred. This ‘cut off’ emotional

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longing or connection may lead to distrust and anger. Although it may

be hidden, it can resonate on sexual preference towards a same sex

person to reconnect with the missed emotional longing or compensate

for the lost (1996, p. 14).

This implies that an aggressive mother can make a son find solace in his father. This can, as it

is surmised, lead to homosexual orientation. The same is suggested in the case of a hostile

father who may unconsciously drive his daughter to the over-smothering hands of her mother,

which may lead to lesbianism.

Still on the psychological point of view, peer interaction has been viewed as

contributing to homosexual orientation. In this view, when children are constantly rebuked and

rejected by the same-sex parents, such children feel confused and insecure. This low self-

esteem foisted on them by their same-sex parents may follow them in their interactions with

their peers. This may lead to sexual experimentation with the peers of the same-sex.

Commenting on this, Peschke argues that this may not necessarily end up in ‘constitutional

homosexuality’ even though it does not exclude it (1995, p. 455).

For Ratner, the contemporary antipathies in the society can lead to homosexuality. He

insists; “The anti-child, anti-male, anti-female, anti-family and anti-God crusade that goes in

the names of freedom and feminism also gave rise to sharp increases in homosexuality” (1982,

p. 108). In all these, the questions yet to be answered include: does not homosexual orientation

predicate on free will? Is homosexual preference objectionable and therefore immoral?

On the morality grounds for the consideration of homosexuality, two principles are

involved; namely secular and religious (Christian) analysis of sexual ethics. In the first option,

arguments are based purely on secular philosophical strand.

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Starting from the secular point of view, Belliotto argues that there is a fundamental

ethical maxim, which in Kantian philosophy presupposes that it is immoral to use or exploit

another for one’s selfish end. According to this ethical maxim, to ‘thingify’ or ‘commodify’ a

person is morally culpable because each person possesses an intrinsic worth and value that

obligates that we relate to others as person of experience, and as full-fledged human as

ourselves (1982, p. 211). This presupposes that there is no immorality in sexual intercourse as

long as the partner is not treated as an object.

The second stage of the secular sexual ethics states that in voluntary contractual sexual

intercourse which involves reciprocity, no immorality can be found. The final state of this

argument involves two things: the voluntary contractual union which presupposes that the

parties are under moral obligation to carry out the terms of their contract; to break promise and

to deceive are immoral (Belliotto; 1982, p. 211).

Observably, these positions do not appeal to supernatural authority to make them

morally valid or otherwise. It is based on common sense, logical and empirical arguments.

However, Belliotto concludes that he does not advocate unreasonable involvement in sexual

act as it carries psychological harm, which “may be damaging in the long run …. The sexual

contract is one in which our most valuable intangible commodities are at stake” (1982, pp.

211-2). This conclusion suggests that something is at stake in one’s sexual orientation and

disposition; it is therefore possible that one has a choice to make either or not to be involved.

This choice making calls for morality because many things have to be considered.

Leiser (1982, pp. 215-221) is more specific to the discourse on homosexuality. He

attacks the bases on which Christian condemnation of homosexuality are hinged namely: lack

of procreation, unnaturalness and abnormality. He argues in sum that since homosexuality

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occurs, it is natural because an unnatural event, which is preposterous to the physical laws of

nature, cannot occur. And even if it is considered unnatural, he argues further that there is

nothing intrinsically wrong when one goes against nature because the artificial civilization one

enjoys today certainly goes against nature in some significant ways. On the one-dimensional

functionality of sex organs for procreation, Leiser argues that in addition to their ‘primary’

function, they are for pleasure also. As far as they can generate pleasure, the one-dimensional

functionality argument is faulty. On this, he concludes emphatically that homosexuality is not

immoral by stating:

… a man’s sexual organs possess the unique capacity of causing the

generation of another human being, but if a man chooses to use them for

pleasure, or for the expression of love, or some other purpose – so long

as he does not interfere with the rights of some other person – the fact

that his sex organs do have their unique capacities does not constitute a

convincing justification of condemning their other uses as being

perverse, sinful, unnatural, or criminal (1982, p. 220).

If pleasure is the ground satisfaction derivable from homosexuality, then Leiser is

wrong in his position because, according to Aristotle, contemplative activities rather than

pleasure give satisfaction. Epicureanism even defines pleasure with caution. As Epicurus,

himself puts it: “when, therefore, we maintain that pleasure is the end (goal), we do not mean

the pleasures of profligates and those that consist in sensuality” (cited in Barcalow; 1994, p.

69) let alone homosexuality.

From the legal pedestal, it is argued that whatever is legal is moral. By this, it is what

the law says is moral that is moral and whatever it says that is immoral is immoral. Many

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ideologies combine to form this argument. From the Marxian perspective, the ruling people’s

ideas are the ruling ideas (Barcalow; 1994, p. 75). This means that the court’s ruling declares

the morality or otherwise of an act.

On the evolutionary perspective, the survivalist ethics takes precedence. Since nothing

is permanent and is not meant to be, the fluidity and dynamism of things is the determining

factor of their morality. In Rushdoony’s objection to Rousseau’s postulation on the role of the

legislator that: “It would take gods to give men law”, he argues:

If the source of law is the individual, then the individual is the god of the

system…. If our source of law is our court, then the court is our god. If

there is no higher law beyond man, then man is his own god …. When

you choose your authority, you choose your god and when you look for

your law, there is your god (cited in Lutzer; 1993, p. 64).

This ‘legal morality’ has been used to justify abortion, homosexuality, and euthanasia,

among others in the western world. This is equally the premise for the increasing agitation for

unrestrained freedom to do whatever one likes, especially in the west and America.

Lutzer has also traced this moral problem in the West to humanism as an ideology.

Humanism itself is traced to the Renaissance, when a revival in classical studies ushered in a

greater emphasis on man. This gradually led to atheism or secular humanism. Secular

humanism itself has been traced as far back as 400 BC when Protagoras said: “Man is the

measure of all things” (cited in Lutzer; 1993, p. 67). This ideology removes God or deity from

the programme of man. Lutzer puts it this way: “We can discover no divine purpose or

providence for the human species …. No deity will save us; we must save ourselves ….

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Promises of immortal salvation or fear of eternal damnation are both illusionary and harmful”

(1993, p. 16).

With the above notion, morality was severed from religion and the latter was consigned

to private practice. However, the foundations of Europe and America are traced to Christianity.

Mason states it unequivocally in the Times Educational Supplement (2005, p. 5): “The Bible is

part of our cultural heritage and it is difficult to portray the history of modern society without

it”. Most of the founding fathers of America were all Christians. They handed down the

centuries a constitution, which is derived from Christian moral principles.

The homosexual movement has jettisoned the Christian moral principles. On the other

way round, with the movement’s use of media propaganda, agitation for equality, a fight

against discrimination, and feminism among other, much attention has not only been given to

the movement, but it has won victory. In the United States of America for instance,

homosexuality has been legalized.

Coming to the traditional Africans view on homosexuality, Magesa states: “all

aberrations and abnormalities in sexual life, whether consciously willed or not, are seen as

impinging negatively on life and are consequently reprehensible …. Homosexuality is viewed

as such an abnormality, an immoral state of existence” (1997, p. 136). Mbiti says that there are

sexual offences in African societies. Homosexuality is one of such offences, which attracts

capital punishment in some societies though the weight of the punishment has been relaxed in

modern times (1985, p. 145). This presupposes that there is homosexuality in Africa. The root

cannot be immediately deciphered.

Falaiye (2001, pp. 183-5) opines that active homosexuality is found in Africa mainly in

areas dominated by the Europeans and Americans. Such areas include Zimbabwe, Kenya and

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South Africa. He cites an instance in Harare where during book-fair, gay men mostly whites

actively demanded for representation. He states:

What limit the activities of homosexuals are traditional mores and

values…. Homosexuality is seen as an intolerable moral depravity,

which aborts the purpose of sexual pleasure as well as a reproduction of

a human person. As a result of this abortion, the ancestors and God will

definitely punish such a ‘sinner’. (2001, p. 185).

The fear of possible punishment does not sometimes prevent some people from engaging in the

act. Magesa cites instances of occasions when people have engaged in ‘clandestine

homosexual acts’ in order to acquire wealth, power or fame (1997, p. 137).

In recent times, a lot of arguments have been raging for and against the introduction of

sex education in Nigeria. One side of the arguments believes that homosexuality is not

immoral. The draft curriculum on the sex education receives stern objection from the public.

One of such reads:

Perhaps the most morally and culturally objectionable aspect of the

curriculum is its views on what it calls sexual identity and sexual

orientation. The curriculum does not view homosexuality and

bisexuality as perversions but as legitimate ‘sexual orientations’ like

heterosexuality, and even goes ahead to state controversially that all

cultures in Nigeria have a significant chunk of closet gays and lesbians.

The teacher explains why it will be difficult to be openly homosexual or

bisexual in Nigeria (since all cultures have a certain percent who are, but

they keep it a secret, the curriculum states) (Mbiti; 1996, p. 147).

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It is certainly clear from the above survey that homosexuality is a moral issue that is

controversial. The struggle has been between its morality and immorality. From the world

views examined, it is glaring that moral, legal and theological injunctions have been used to

evaluate its immorality; so also have the injunctions used to ‘moralize’ it. Be that as it may, the

background or conventional ethical principle has been that same-sex intercourse is immoral.

Thus, the appeal to legal institutions as a basis for moralizing the act shows clearly that there is

an inherent recognition of the immorality of the act.

Child Sexual Abuse

Child sexual abuse is another disturbing global issue in human sexuality. This has been

defined as: “The involvement of dependent, developmentally immature children and

adolescents in sexual activities with any person older or bigger, which they do not fully

comprehend, and to which they are unable to give an informed consent” (Parkinson; 1997, p.

9). A number of things are to be recognized in this definition. First, sexual abuse may be

committed not only by adults. Sometimes the perpetrators of sexual abuse are teenagers who

take advantage of the vulnerability of much younger children.

Second, the ‘consent’ of the victim is not necessary. For that reason, some people speak

in terms of ‘child sexual assault’ to emphasize the criminality and the non-consensual nature of

the offence. Not all sexual abuse of children is the result of coercion. Often, sexual predators

prey upon needy and vulnerable children who come from difficult home situations and who

crave love and attention. Sex with such children is a form of exploitation. Their consent is not

a mature and informed consent, and it does not provide a defense to criminal charges. An

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example of this is captured in Saturday Mirror of February 2, 2013, where one Baba Segun in

his eighties raped a girl of 14. The report has it that the elderly man had been giving monetary

inducements to the girl long before the incident.

Child sexual abuse takes different forms. Sometimes it is talked about as if all the

victims of child sexual abuse have similar experiences and suffer similar effects. However, this

may not be the case in reality. Parkinson has identified some abusive behaviors to include:

Exposing oneself to a child, engaging in voyeuristic activity, showing

the child pornographic pictures, fondling a child’s genitalia, getting the

child to fondle the adult’s genitalia, oral-genital contact, masturbation,

penetration of a girl’s vagina with a finger or object, vaginal intercourse

and anal intercourse (1997, p. 10).

For some children, the sexual abuse takes place just once, and the molester is an

acquaintance or a stranger. For others, the molestation continues regularly for years and the

perpetrator is a parent or other trusted adult within the family setting. This is known as incest.

For some other children, the sexual abuse is accompanied by violence; for others still, it is

coerced by threats; others are enticed into sexual activity, and may become willing and active

participants in the sexual relationship. For some, the sexual abuse begins before they are of

school age. For others, it begins when they are about nine or ten years old, and for others still

after puberty.

While the sexual abuse of children is not linked solely with a sexual orientation

towards children, Salter opines that “a great many offenders do nonetheless have a primary

sexual attraction to children” (1995, pp. 47-8). This suggests that child sexual abusers are

sexually aroused by images of children. They may use child pornography. They may fantasize

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about sex with children, not only in masturbation as has been mentioned above but even while

having intercourse with an adult.

Questions as to why some people develop a sexual attraction to children are yet to have

answers. Nevertheless, ‘paedophilia’ is a diagnostic term for those who have such tendency,

and it is listed as a paraphilic disorder in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic

and Statistical Manuel of Mental Disorder (1994, pp. 45-8). In this research manual, it is said

that paedophilia “refers to the recurrent, intense sexual urges and arousing fantasies, of at least

six months’ duration, involving sexual activity with a pre-pubescent child”.

Freund and Kuban have given some evidences to the fact that for many paedophiles,

the patterns of interest in children begin in early childhood, and the sexual interests and

tendencies of children who grow up to be paedophiles are different from those who grow up to

have normal heterosexual patterns (1993, pp. 315-24). One theory about the development of

sexual orientation is John Money’s theory of the ‘love map’. Money believes that the love

map usually forms in the first eight years of life. A pedophilic orientation may be the result of

genetic factors or neuro-chemical factors as the brain develops in the womb. Alternatively, it

may be that the development of the love map is affected at a critical stage by what the child

learns, sees and experiences (1990, pp. 445-63).

In working with sexual perpetrators and their victims, David Grimm has found that the

typical child abuser is drawn to children between the ages of eight and twelve years, children

whose bodies have not matured. Grimm states: “the pedophile is looking for a relationship, a

friendship with the child …. It’s as if they were a child themselves. Emotionally, they are quite

immature and they really like that interaction with children” (2002, p. 62).

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This therefore implies that though all ages need protection, special attention needs to be

focused on prepubescent children, because they are likely targets. Even infants can be victims,

as can those in late teens, especially if they have developmental disabilities, or home problems

that leave them starved for affection.

Another of the myths surrounding child sexual abuse is that perpetrators abuse solely

because they were sexually abused themselves as children. This view is supported by Garland

and Dougher’s research; thus wrote:

In some prison populations, the majority of those imprisoned for abusing

children report that they were sexually abused themselves. The most

reliable estimates now are that no more than 30 per cent of perpetrators

of sexual abuse were victims of sexual abuse themselves when they

were children or adolescents (1990, pp. 488-9).

There are many theories about the reasons why victims become offenders. One theory

according to Parkinson “is that offenders are trying to overcome their own victimization by

taking on the powerful role of an offender, rather than the powerless role which they had

experienced as victims” (1997, p. 48). Other explanations, Parkinson states further “concern

the way in which sexual arousal towards children may be ‘transmitted’ by experiences of

victimization” (1997, p. 48).

This may be authenticated by the fact that though boys normally engage in a lot of

sexual exploration, often with each other, male victims of child sexual abuse experience much

more than this. They are introduced to anal and oral sex, as well as sensual genital fondling,

which is generally different to the kinds of experiences that boys have either alone or with their

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peers. Hence, it is possible that boy victims come to associate sexual arousal with child-adult

sexual relations, and so, as adults, find themselves attracted to children.

Another explanation is that childhood sexual experiences, pleasant or unpleasant,

provide the content for early masturbatory fantasies, and so the person becomes conditioned to

sexual arousal in the context of child-adult relations. An example of this is a story told by one

man of being sexually abused first in a Catholic institution and later in a foster-home. This

made him as a teenager to be obsessed with sex and masturbate very frequently. To his horror,

he found himself fantasizing about sex with the priest that was abusing him, even though he

had been terrified of this man and hated the abuse. He also fantasized about sex with his foster-

mother who regularly abused him sexually while her husband was away. Later, as an adult, he

molested his young sister-in-law, his own daughter and an eleven-year-old boy (Anonymous;

1995, p. 52).

From the foregoing, it is true that some perpetrators of child sexual abuse were

themselves sexually abused as children. Yet, there are equally a great many that were not.

Moreover, it is far from inevitable that if someone has been sexually abused as a child, he or

she will grow up to be an abuser. However, it is worthy of note as Parkinson puts it that though

there is some link between being abused and then going to abuse, but it is certainly not destiny

(1997, p. 49). Today, many victims of child sexual abuse have a strong commitment to child

protection as adults.

It should also be noted that whatever the reasons for developing sexual orientation

towards children, the decision to act upon that orientation is a choice which the offender

makes. As with all sexual desires, there is a difference between having feelings and acting on

them. Sexual abuse of children may in many cases be the result of the perpetrator’s desires,

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which he or she finds very hard to control. Hence, having a sexual orientation towards children

can only serve as an explanation, not an excuse.

The Consequences of Child Sexual Abuse

It has been argued that not all victims of child sexual abuse are badly affected by their

experiences. According to Kendall-Tackett, Meyer and Finkelhor, “studies done with children

who have been abused have found that on average about 30 per cent show no symptoms of

distress” (1993:173). This is understandable since the label of ‘child sexual abuse’

encompasses a wide variety of incidents, occurring in a range of different contexts. For

instance, if a teenage girl’s experience of being fondled by a stranger in a bus may be very

distressing, but it may not likely affect her as seriously as long-term abuse by her own father.

However, the apparent lack of long-term effects does not mean that the sexual abuse

was insignificant. As Browne and Finkelhor put it:

Effects seem to be considered less serious if the impact is transient and

disappears in the course of development. However, this tendency to

assess everything in terms of its long-term effects betrays an ‘adult

centric’ bias. Adult traumas such as rape are not assessed ultimately in

terms of whether or not they will have an impact on old age: they are

acknowledged to be painful and alarming events whether their impact

lasts for one year or ten. Similarly, childhood traumas should not be

dismissed because no ‘long-term effects’ can be demonstrated (1986, p.

178-9).

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Parkinson has observed: “children who have been sexually abused often show a

number of signs of low self-esteem, including self-hatred, suicidal depression and a sense of

hopelessness” (1997, p. 114). This effect is particularly evident in the context of sexual abuse

within the family, where the abuser is a father or other care-giver. Of course, for young

children to develop a healthy sense of self-esteem, they need to know that they are loved and

respected as individuals. These children learn self-worth from the fact that others close to them

love them very much and feel they are worthwhile.

The question is what messages does a father give to a child by abusing her sexually?

For the daughter, one of the messages she may hear is that she is not loved for who she is but

for her capacity to provide sexual gratification for her father. And for the father to tell her ‘I

love you’ means only that he wants to use her sexually. Thus, the experiences of abuse can

affect her capacity to accept at face value the words “I love you” from anybody.

This also tells on the child’s sense of separate identity. Parents allow their children,

even from an early age, to be able to say ‘no’, to assert an identity independent of the parents.

This is what therapists and social workers often term an awareness of ‘boundaries’ (Browne

and Finkelhor; 1986, p. 146). In contrast, a child that is abused by a parent is not allowed to

have boundaries. There is no part of her that is private; no zone which she can say for sure is

‘hers’, not even the most private parts of her body. It is that constant violation of self, the lack

of respect for her as a separate individual that can affect her sense of self-worth at a most

fundamental level.

Hand in hand with low self-esteem is traumatic sexualisation. This according to Loftus

and Hoffman “is a process in which a child’s sexuality is shaped in developmentally

inappropriate fashion as a result of the sexual abuse” (1989, p. 101). This is reasonable because

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when an abuser deliberately stimulates a child sexually, the pleasurable feelings of sexual

arousal may be self-reinforcing for the abused. So even though the sexual feelings may be

mixed with negative feelings such as shame and guilt, a part of the abused wants the sexual

relationship to continue.

This sexualisation may take a number of forms. Lindsay and Read discuss the fact that

the child may act out sexual acts of a kind that have been initiated by the perpetrator of abuse

and that go far beyond the normal sexual exploration in which children often engage. Another

indication of sexualisation is compulsive sexual behavior such as grabbing breasts or genitals.

They maintain emphatically that: “studies of sexually abused children show that inappropriate

sexual behavior is the symptom that most distinguishes sexually abused children from non-

abused children” (1994, p. 294).

With the effect of low self-esteem and traumatic sexualisation, a young girl with a

history of sexual abuse may not know any other way to feel loved and worth something except

to share her body. She can easily be taken advantage of, and some such relationships may be

abusive. Since few of these relationships are lasting, she may feel even more worthless as a

result of these transient relationships and successive rejections.

Another consequence of child sexual abuse in childhood is guilt. Some victims feel

guilty because they believe that they are in some way responsible for the abuse. This is what

keeps some children from telling, and also holds them in cruel bondage in later life. This may

arise because she accepted inducements from the abuser to keep the abuse a secret, or because

she did not say no to his touching, or because she allowed things to go so far before beginning

to resist, by which time she felt compromised.

Salter writes:

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If (the boys’) body responds to the abuse, he will find it difficult to resist

the offender’s interpretation of that response: that he wants the abuse to

occur, that he is enjoying it, and that his ‘wanting it’ was the reason it

occurred in the first place. He is unlikely to report the abuse for fear the

offender will tell about his physical responsiveness, possibly even his

orgasms, and therefore his ‘role’ in the abuse (1995, p. 118).

This feeling of guilt about the sexually abused child’s ‘role’ in allowing the abuse to occur can

be profound. They may lead the child to feel utterly bad, and such feelings can become deeply

entrenched aspects of his or her self-identity.

Shame is another very common aspect of the experience of sexual abuse victims.

Bradshaw describes this as ‘toxic shame’. He states: “toxic shame does not call us on to be the

kind of person we ought to be. It condemns us for who we are. It places us in an adversarial

position with ourselves” (1988, p. 10). The feeling of valuelessness and guilt may translate into

a deep sense of shame about one’s whole identity. This may also affect the victims’

relationships as they grow up by making it hard for them to believe that anyone could love

them. Shame can even sap the will to live. It can cripple the heart, robbing the victim of his or

her enjoyment of life.

Another effect of child sexual abuse for the victim can be a deep sense of grief. Victims

grieve over what is lost and can never be replaced. Reasons for this may include: the loss of

innocence, the loss of virginity or the absence of the kind of safe and secure upbringing that

friends have enjoyed. Lindsay and Read narrate a story of one Jane, who was sexually abused

for a number of years by her father. At the age of thirteen, when she was in a therapy session,

she wrote a letter to her father, in which she spoke about her sense of grief. She felt that she

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had lost her father at the time when the abuse began. She had very little memory of her father

behaving as “Daddies should behave with their daughters”, and wished she could have had

‘proper fun’ with her father (1994, p. 294).

Rape

Closely related with child sexual abuse is rape. Rape has been defined as “the crime of

forcefully having sex with someone against the person’s wish” (Chinedu, 2012:3). This

definition captures popular notion of rape even though not comprehensive enough. Achunike

and Kitause (2014:31-32) have observed that rape could even happen ‘without the use of

force’. They argue for an instance in which an adult of any age rage tactfully seduces a child of

a tender age to either marriage or have sex with an enticing gift and the child after collecting

same willingly give in for it with the adult. This form of rape is viewed as “A sex crime carried

out by pathological men who were unable to control their own sexual desires” (Achunike &

Kitause; 2014, p. 6). The case of Senator Sani Yerima aged 59 years which has been forming

news headlines in Nigeria following his marriage with a 13-year-old Egyptian girl is a good

example of rape without force.

In the judgment of two contemporary ‘evolutionary psychologists,’ rape should not be

understood as an act of violence, but instead as “a natural, biological phenomenon that is a

product of the human evolutionary heritage.” As such, rape should be perceived as an example

of evolved ‘mating strategy’ committed by men who are particularly desperate to plant their

seed (Thornhill & Palmer; 2000, p. 23). With these views spread abroad, little wonder that

violence in the realm of sex has become a matter of serious concern in the contemporary

society. Following a statistical presentation by Achunike and Kitause (2014, pp. 33-34), the

prevalent rate of rape cases in Africa and other countries of the world is quite striking.

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Causes and Consequences

One of the causes of rape has been attributed to the fact that every human being is a

sexual being. Obasi captures this when he states:

Mention sex and everybody’s ear is wide open. The subject of sex

receives more attention than any other curricular or extra-curricular

topic in the academic world. It is being discussed and even practiced in

the hidden and in the open places alike. Sex has a propelling force that

stimulates the curiosity and interest of both the youth and the adult.

People of all professions make much haste in quest for the knowledge of

sex, formally or informally (2007, p. 1).

Moreover, psychologists believe that adolescence period is a time of sexual activeness

with sexual drive developing to the highest point (Benwell; 2000, p. 38). This is said to be

motivated by hormonal increase and activity which create an upsurge of sexual interest in the

adolescents. This strong desire for sex in the adolescents propels them to experiment on

anything including rape in order to satisfy their sexual drive.

Secondly, myths about sex in some African cultures have contributed to the growing

incidents of rape. Okoro, in a recent study discovers that it is a common belief among many

ethnic groups in Nigeria that:

Without premarital sexual intercourse, boys are bound to have small

testicles, suffer from pimples, have difficult erection and not be able to

perform better when married. Girls, on the other hand are bound to have

small breasts, experience early menopause, painful menstruation and

painful nipples when breast-feeding their babies (2001, p. 30).

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Since no youth would like to suffer from these difficulties, some do everything possible to

have premarital sex including rape.

Moreover, some HIV infected men held to the superstitious belief that if they have sex

with a virgin, they can be cured of AIDS (Garland; 2003, p. 31). This perhaps lured most

people living with HIV/AIDS to resort to raping innocent (virgin) girls in the society in their

quest for a cure.

There is also the issue of exposure to the western culture of modernization. Thus apart

from reading about sex in novels, books, magazines and newspapers, youths and adolescents

also watch various types of pornographic movies aside from being exposed to sexually

overloaded advertisements in newspapers and the television. It has been said that most parents

also incautiously buy or rent video cassettes, CDs and movies for their children to watch,

which in a way stir up their sexual desires (Achunike and Kitause; 2014, p. 35). Closely related

to this is the fact that some parents allow their wards to spend too much time watching

television where sex is used by most factories to advertise things like toothpaste, drinks and

flashy cars which likely put younger generation under terrific pressure to go into sex (Garland;

2001, p. 32). With this kind of exposure, the youths are perpetually under pressure to

experiment with sex even if it means raping.

Indecent dressing is fast becoming a norm in Nigeria and this has in no small measure

contributed to the rise of rape incidents. While exposure of some parts of the body used to be

common among women and girls as Eze rightly maintains when he states: “it has been

fashionable, particularly among the youthful female folk, to dress half-nakedly that some parts

of their body that are supposed to be ‘hidden’ are exposed to the public” (2011, p. 77). Today,

this type of fashion is particularly rampant and apparently becoming a common mode of

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dressing for the masses, both men and women. The situation is so bad that even some parents

buy clothes for their children with such negative inscriptions as: “I am a sexy girl, hug me

tight, lovely babe-sexy babe, I am 4 u, kiss me fast, touch me, deep kiss, romance me, fuck

me” (Achunike & Kitause; 2014, p. 35). Expectedly, this modern norm of nudity presents a

very strong pull to rapists to carry on their exploits.

The consequences of rape are never very pretty. Rape in Achunike and Kitause’s

opinion “is both a physical as well as spiritual problem”. They state further that “it equally has

physiological, psychological, moral and social consequences on the raped, whether man or

woman” (2014, p. 37). The emotional trauma for the person who has been abused is impossible

to measure. Wasike captures the consequences thus:

In the months following a rape, victims often have symptoms of

depression or traumatic stress. They are more likely to abuse alcohol or

drugs to control their symptoms. Nearly one-third have thoughts of

suicide, and approximately 17 percent actually attempt suicide. Thirty

percent of victims will go on to develop major depressive or post-

traumatic stress disorders in their lifetime, long-time negative effects on

sexuality and inability to form or maintain trusting relationships are

common (1999, p. 49).

Also, rape could have direct effect on the family in many ways. Wasike emphasizes

further that the conception of an unwanted child as a result of rape may create unending

problems such as abortion, abandonment of babies or other forms of child abuse and suicide.

Apart from unwanted pregnancy, the raped victim may contract sexually transmitted diseases

like HIV/AIDS, gonorrhea, and syphilis among others that may permanently damage his/her

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reproductive system, thus rendering him/her sterile or resulting to untimely death (Ferguson,

1998:47). This is equally devastating.

2.7. THE SONG OF SONGS AND HUMAN SEXUALITY

A casual reading of the Song of Songs reveals a frank and uninhibited love song,

showing the path of true love by many a winding path from ardent desire through ecstasy to

blissful fulfillment. Yet this book of the Bible has been much widely read as devotional

allegory, celebrating the mutual love of God and His people. Using the allegorical

interpretation for instance, “Rise up my love, my fair one” was a summons to captive Zion to

return from the Babylonian exile (Orr, 1979, p. 703). This approach in Jastrow’s opinion

“eased the conscience of the pious, who were thus relived of the embarrassment of apologizing

for the presence of apparently secular poetry” (1921, p. 9) in the Bible. Rowley cites examples

of Christian scholars such as Cyril of Alexandria who reinterpreted the Song of Songs

according to their own interests to illustrate the same effect. Thus, “the voice of the turtle”

became the preaching of the Apostles, and the announcements “I have come into my garden”

and “Eat O friends” are given the meaning of the Incarnation and the Lord’s Supper. Cyril

according to Rowley also found that “the bag of myrrh that lies all night between my breasts”

was none other than Christ ensconced between the old and the new scriptures (1965, p. 200-

208). In his remarks to the allegorical interpretation of the Song of Songs, Rowley wisely

states; “That we, for our profit, may rightly find in the images of the Song, as in all experience,

images of things spiritual, does not mean that it was written for this purpose” and again “we

must distinguish between what is devotionally profitable, and what is exegetically sound”

(1965, p. 211).

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Orr reveals his displeasure to the devotional allegorical use of the Song of Songs when

he states; “The devotional use is secondary, and without any explicit warrant from the NT.”

He rightly observes;

The harm caused by treating the Song as a devotional allegory is that it not only uses

The Song to shadow forth God’s love, which is so abundantly declared elsewhere in

story and in psalm; it uses it up entirely, and so misses its intended purpose. There is no

other book of the Bible which is devoted to the subject of married love, and so an

important element of biblical wholeness may be lost (1979, p. 704).

Indeed, the assumption that sexual passion is a result of the fall rather than of creation

goes at least back to Augustine, who dismissed the very idea that there might have been

‘unregulated excitement’ in the Garden of Eden (Smedes; 1976, p. 26). The effect is that the

Song of Songs, which by anyone’s assessment is a very sexy book, was for centuries regarded

by most theologians only as an allegory of Christ’s spiritual love for his church, not as a God-

approved celebration of passion between committed lovers. It may not be totally ruled out in

that the language of sexual love in the Bible often symbolizes God’s stubborn love for Israel.

But it would not be used in such a positive way if sexual love were not originally part of God’s

good creation. Rodney Clapp’s words in this regard are very useful; “Physical love may

symbolize spiritual love, just as a wooden crutch can symbolize dependence on God. But it

must first actually support the crippled man’s weight when he leans on it” (1984, p. 33).

This makes the study of the Song of Song very relevant in the contemporary society; in

that the capacity to delight in physical beauty, to be attracted by members of the opposite sex,

the desire to form secure and intimate relationships, and to express love and affection in

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demonstrably physical ways – these are all a very fundamental part of the common humanity.

Gledhill upholds that the Song:

is an unabashed celebration of these deeply rooted urges. In beautiful

poetic language, the song explores the whole range of emotions

experienced by the two lovers, as they work out their commitment to

each other. From the aching yearnings of separation and the fears of

loss, to the relaxed contentment of togetherness, from coquetry and

flirtation, to the triumphalism of passion; all these are traced out in the

ebb and flow of a growing relationship of mutual love. So we have a

strong biblical affirmation of love, loyalty, beauty and sexuality in all

their variety (1994, p. 11).

It has also been described as a song that from beginning to end extols the beauty of sex

in its ideal form. A story of unquenchable, priceless love, a love that so satisfies our deepest

longings that we turn to no other. Arthur sees in this book, “the very expression of all God

intended when he made us male and female and brought woman to man. A book that cautions

us not to arouse or awaken love until it pleases, lest we mar its intended beauty and unique

intimacy” (2002, p. 21).

Gledhill has wisely observed that the Song is both beautiful and enigmatic, and has

been described as a lock for which the key has been lost. He points out that down the centuries,

the Song has spawned an enormous variety of comment and exposition; many of these are

bizarre, some fanciful, others simply downright unconvincing. This has arisen according to

Gledhill, mainly because of the embarrassment of commentators in “facing the explicit

sexuality of the Song” (1994:11).

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Pope argues that even those who hold lower conceptions of the Song cannot deny its

‘sexuality’ when he states: “The Song of Songs is a poem, or a series of poems, in which love

is exalted. The theme throughout is pure, passionate, sexual, ‘hungry love’. Even the

allegorical approach cannot disguise this” (Pope; 1977, p. 193). He maintains that since the

Christan Churches have always consecrated the union of man and woman in matrimony, and

taught that marriage is a divine ordinance, it is not unfitting that a book which expresses the

spiritual and physical emotions on which matrimony rests should be given a place in the canon

of Scriptures.

The review so far suggests that there have been many works on human sexuality and

sexual ethics. It is also clear that sexuality is a basic human interest. It is also not surprising

that the positive biblical themes about sexuality were ignored or reinterpreted by most scholars

in this field. While some scholars have maintained a ‘no’ to the question of sex outside of

marriage, others have called for a reconsideration of the traditional view of sex within

marriage. They argue for the reconsideration based on the fact that singles have sexual feelings

which need to be felt. As such, there must be a means of sexual release.

The review also reveals that the Song of Songs depicts a strong biblical affirmation of

sexual love, fidelity, beauty and sexuality in all their variety. It is unfortunate that the treasure

God has laid for the Church and the society at large in this book has not been well utilized over

the ages due to the allegorical interpretations of the text. A study of the reception history has

been included in this project to provide the presuppositions underlying such interpretations and

establish a proper approach which will lead to good interpretation and application of the

message of Song of Songs to the contemporary or modern times. This thesis is therefore the

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first of its kind to read and interpret the Song of Songs in its literal sense and relate its ethics of

human sexuality to contemporary Igbo society.

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CHAPTER THREE

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO SONG OF SONGS

The title of the book comes from the phrase in chapter 1, verse 1 of the Hebrew text

which reads: ה׃ים אש יר השיר ש ר לש�מ literally, the title is “the song of songs which is

by/to//of/about Solomon.” The phrase 'The Song of Songs’ is viewed as a superlative

construction like ‘king of kings’ or ‘holy of holies,’ and probably means ‘the greatest of all

songs’ (Falk; 1982, p. 107). In English, the book goes by several names – ‘The Song of

Songs’, ‘The Songs’, ‘Song of Solomon’ or even ‘Best Songs’. The alternative title ‘Canticle’

is derived from the Latin Vulgate ‘canticum canticorum’ (Song of Songs). The title mostly

used by scholars today is ‘Song of Songs’ commonly abbreviated ‘the Song’. It is the title

‘Song of Songs’ that this study adopts.

The Song of Songs is the first of the five festive scrolls called the Megilloth, a

collection which is part of the third division of the Hebrew Bible, the ‘Writings’. It was also

designated in later Judaism to be read as part of the Passover feast, since it was understood to

represent God’s love for Israel. The Songs is placed among the wisdom and poetic books in the

Septuagint and most English translations.

A good way of giving the historical background of the Song of Songs is to begin

discussion on the authorship, date and setting of the book. This is the focus of this chapter.

3.1. AUTHORSHIP AND DATE

The problems of authorship and date of the Song of Songs are closely related. These

are complex issues because the book has some features that appear late and others that are

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early or Solomonic. The inclusive nature of the book’s title – the Song of Solomon further

complicates the matter.

Traditional biblical scholarship has attributed the Song of Songs to King Solomon and

dated around 10th century B.C. because the title associates the book with the name Solomon

and literally reads, הים אש יר השיר ש ’ ר לש�מ The Song of Songs which is to Solomon’. This

phraseology may be understood variously as ‘of/to/for/about Solomon’ as has been noted

above. This implies that either Solomon was the author of the poetry; or it was dedicated to

him; or that it represents Songs composed about him as a primary character in the action. It has

been observed by some recent scholars (Murphy; 1990, p. 3; Hill & Walton; 2000, p. 374;

Snaith; 1993, p. 8) that this traditional claim of Solomonic authorship finds little support in the

work itself. For instance, while Solomon’s name occurs 6 times elsewhere in the book ( 1:5;

3:7, 8, 9, 11; 8:11-12) and other scriptures attest his literary skill (1Kings 4:29-34), these

references assert nothing concerning his authorship of the book. On the contrary, Schwab

(2008, p. 739) has observed that the institution of the harem is critiqued. This calls into

question Solomon’s reputation and casts him in a bad light. Moreover, Solomon is not

presented as an active character anywhere in the book but rather a foil against which the true

characters (the boy and girl) interact and pursue love. These are all indications that he may not

have personally penned any of actual poems of the Songs for Solomon could not have created

the book to undermine his own interests and reputation.

Another set of factors influencing informed opinion on the authorship and date of Song

of Songs are the linguistic features. The presence of Aramaic and other loan words and

structures have been used by some scholars to date the book as post-exilic. H.J. Schonfield

(1959, p. 72) for instance, argues for the Persian period, more precisely between Nehemiah’s

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time and 350 B.C. Following in part linguistic arguments and geographical data (no evidence

for a divided kingdom), he finds in the descriptions of Solomon’s fabulous glory reflections of

“the pomp and circumstances of the Persian empire and the luxurious palaces of the Great

King of Susa and Persepolis” (pp. 75-83). Brenner states further that “the late linguistic

features of the Songs point to a relatively late date of its composition or, at the very least, of its

compilation and editing” (1989, p. 18).

LaSor, David and Frederic (1991, p. 603) disagreeing with Schonfield have observed

that the archaeological witness to Solomon’s splendid reign seems to render Persian influence

unnecessary. So, Hebrew writers familiar with the traditions concerning Israel’s golden age

needed no Persian prototypes. The setting of the book accurately reflects Solomon’s glory, just

as the luxury, wealth, and wisdom of Ecclesiastes carefully records his regal circumstances.

In short, given the uncertainties associated with understanding the superscription and

the unusual nature of the book’s vocabulary and style, very little can be said with confidence

about the authorship and date or social provenance of the Songs. It is thus safer to follow the

line of thought of those who regard the book as an anonymous composition. The weight of

literary, historical and linguistic evidence seems to indicate a northern kingdom provenance

and an early pre-exilic date for the writing. It is difficult to be more precise than this. Rather

than continuing in the endless search, it will be more beneficial for the overall comprehension

of the message and meaning of the love Songs to consider issues relating to the Songs’

acceptance into the canon of the Old Testament Scriptures.

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3:2 CANONIZATION

The Song of Songs is unashamedly sexual, and not apparently ‘religious’ at all. For

instance, a public reading of passages like 7:8-9, מת את קומת�ז י� לאשכלות׃ ר ושד ה לתמ ד

חז ה בתמ אעל רתיאמ היו־נ ה בסנסנ ר א ים׃יח אפ פן ור ות הג כאשכל י�א שד יו וי � כתפוח ‘I said, “I

will climb the palm tree; I will take hold of its fruits. May your breasts be like clusters of

grapes on the vine, the fragrance of your breath like apples, and your mouth like the best wine”

causes a degree of discomfort in most faith settings today. In addition to its erotic language and

themes, the name of God is nowhere mentioned or alluded to (unless if the Yah ending in

בתיהשלה salhebetyah is taken to be a contraction of Yahweh (8:6). The notion of salvation

history or divine law is lacking in the book. So why is the Song of Songs included in the

canon?

The factors leading to the canonization of the Song of Songs remain obscure, in part

because there are few early traditions that discuss the topic, and there is also lack of

information concerning introductory matters. It is often implied that if one could only unravel

the reason for its inclusion into the canon, then, one would have an early witness to how the

text was read and understood. But it may in fact be just the opposite: understanding its

interpretive tradition may lead to reasons for its inclusion. Furthermore, one might also argue

that the manner of reading that gave rise to its canonical status provides a hermeneutical key

for the faith communities that read it today. Hence, the interpretive issues related to the Song

have existed since its inclusion into the canon. The struggle today over whether the Song ought

to be read simply as humanistic love poetry or an allegory is not a new question.

The traditional attribution of the composition of the Song of Songs to King Solomon

may be an important contributing factor. Whether the allusion to Solomon’s writings in Sirach

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47:17, “Your (Solomon’s) songs, proverbs and parables” includes the Song of Songs is

doubtful. Moreover, the remarks of Josephus (c. 100 AD) on the twenty-two justly accredited

books of Jewish scripture is vague concerning the book although it has been argued that out of

these, four are Solomonic “hymns to God and precepts for the conduct for life” (Against Apion

1.8). Unfortunately, these books are never named. The ‘hymns to God’ are most likely the

book of Psalms and the three remaining are Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and one other. Most argue

that Josephus was referring to Song of Songs, but we cannot be sure. Nevertheless, what these

two references may suggest is that the Song of Songs was associated with Solomon early on,

which could in part account for its inclusion. It is not clear how the book was read, whether as

Wisdom literature (and thus a collection of poems/songs extolling human love) or as an

allegory.

Though the canonicity of the Song of Songs has been challenged from time to time,

generally Jewish and Christian writers have regarded it as canonical. The first certain

comments on the book’s canonicity in Jewish tradition appear in the Mishnah and reflect some

continuing debate among first-century sages regarding the full scriptural status of this book as

well as Ecclesiastes. Here the majority of rabbinic opinion declares both works to ‘defile the

hands’; that is, they are deemed canonical. Several quotes attributed to Aqiba are important for

this discussion. In the first, Aqiba disputes about the use of the Song of Songs by singers who

“trill their voices in chanting the Song of Songs in the banquet house and treat it as a sort of

song” (Sanhedrin 12:10). Also the Mishnah records him as saying:

No man ever disputed about the Song of Songs that it does not render

the hands unclean, for all ages are not worth the day on which the Song

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of Songs was given to Israel: for all the Writings are holy, but the Song

of Songs is the Holy of Holies (Yadayim III 5).

This final tradition suggests that there was still some debate in the first century regarding the

canonicity of the Song of Songs. From Aqiba’s perspective, not to include the Song of Songs

in the canon was unthinkable. These quotes provide evidence that a respected rabbi deemed the

Song of Songs worthy of its canonical status and indicate that there was probable broad

acceptance of the book’s inclusion into the canon early, at the latest by AD 100 and likely

much earlier, since Aqiba’s death is dated to AD 135. Further, Aqiba’s outspoken disapproval

of the frivolous public use of the Song of Songs may imply there is an appropriate sacred use.

Thus, some have concluded that the Song of Songs although associated with Solomon and love

poetry, was read symbolically, and it was this reading that led to its inclusion into the canon.

Childs rejects this view. On the contrary he insists that: “The Song entered the canon in

essentially the same role as it had played in Israel’s institutional life…. It celebrated the

mysteries of human love expressed in the marriage festival” (1985, p. 578).

In specifically Christian tradition, the Song of Songs is first mentioned in the so-called

Bryennios list of canonical works, which has been dated to the end of the first century AD

(Audet; 1950, pp. 135-154). Here, as well as in the somewhat later lists of Melito, Bishop of

Sardis, the books attributed to Solomon are listed in the order Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the

Song of Songs.

3.3 LITERARY QUALITIES

A related concern to the issue of canonization of the Song of Songs is why the book

should be included with the Wisdom Literature. Strictly speaking, the Song of Songs should

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not be classified as Wisdom Literature, since its dominant form is love poetry, not instruction

or debate. Murphy argues that because it is connected with Solomon and probably was copied,

preserved, and published by wisdom circles, it can be studied alongside that corpus (1976, p.

837). Moreover, by celebrating the glories of marriage as a gift of the Creator and a norm for

human life, its poets are close kin to the wise men (Childs; 1985, p. 193).

In more specific terms, Falk maintains that the Song is a collection of lyric love poems.

Drawing her definition of lyric from the Greek lura, she states that a lyric “was originally a

poem meant to be sung to musical accompaniment” (1982, p. 71). She buttresses her argument

with the fact that even beyond the time of the composition and compilation, the Song

continued to be orally transmitted by the Jews, who chanted it in the synagogues and homes.

She concludes by stating: “In addition to being ritually chanted, the words of the Song have

been often set to music and continue to be set today, attesting to the Song’s musicality, and

reconfirming its place in Hebrew oral culture” (1982, p. 72). Following this line of thought, the

very title of the book the Song of Songs is revealing. Moreover, the extensive usage of

symbolism places the Song of Songs squarely within the poetry of the Bible. Gordis opines

that “it is the essence of poetry that it employs symbolism to express nuances beyond the

power of exact definition. This is particularly true of love poetry” (1974, p. 37).

Drawing his imagery from nature, the writer compared the Shulamite to a lily; and she

spoke of him as an apple tree ין הבנות׃י ב ן רעית ים כ ין החוח ב כשושנה (2:2). Their love-making

was like the enjoyment of fruit ו בתי ופרידתי ויש חמ ים בצלוין הבנ י ב ן דוד ער כ י הי בעצ וח כתפ

י׃וק לח מת כ (2:3), wine, honey and milk עם־דבש שכר יינ (5:1), and the delights of a garden ן ג

ן חתום׃ול מעי ל נעה ג י כל ול אחת נע (4:12) and a vineyard י לפנ י של כרמ (8:12). She spoke of

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him as a gazelle, quick, agile, handsome in appearance, and strong ו א לצבי י ודמה־ל4ח דוד בר

איל לע ים׃ל הר ים ע פר ה י בשמ

(8:14; 2:9.17). He was attractive and desirable as hennah blossoms י ל ׀ דודי_פרל הכ אשכ

 די׃ ס_יןי ע בכרמ ג (1:14). He called her ‘my dove’ יונת (2:14; 5:2) and likened her eyes to doves

ים׃עינ י� יונ (1:15; 4:1), her hair to a flock of goats עז כע � שער� ד׃ו מה ים שגלשדר ה ר גלע (4:1;

6:5, black and flowing), her teeth to sheep ים שעלרחל דר ה כע י�שנ (4:2; 6:6, white), her

temples to pomegranates ׃� מב רקת לח הרמוןכפ� עד לצמת (4:3; 6:7, red), her breasts to fawns

ים׃ה הרוע י צבי ים תאומ י עפר י� כשנ י שד שנ ים בשושנ (4:5, attractive in form and delightful to

touch; cf. Prov. 5:19), and her lips to honey י� כל פנה שפתות פת תט נ (4:11).

Using symbolism of him, the Shulamite compared his hair to a raven, his eyes to doves,

his lips to lilies and his arms, torso, and legs to precious metals ים תלתל ז קוצותיותם פ ו כ ראש

ב׃ עינ שחר חצותיקי מ ים על־אפ יו כיונ ות כעור חל ים ר את׃ לחיוב ישבב שם ת הב ערוג כ ות על־מל

ר׃ות מים נטפשושנ ים שפתותיוות מרקח מגדל ן שת ש ע יש מעיוים בתרש ב ממלא י זה גליל ידיו ור עב

ים׃ שוקיומעל ים׃ון בחכלבנ הוז מרא ים על־אדני־פ ש מיסד ודי ש עמ פת ספיר ור כארז (5:11-15). In

turn, he said her legs were like jewels, her navel like a goblet, her waist like wheat with lilies,

her breasts like fawns and clusters of fruit, her eyes like pools, and her head like Mount Carmel

ה־תחזוובי ונחזה־ב ובי שית שולמ הש וביובי שש  ים׃ית כמחל ולמ בש � מ מחנ י� ו פעמ מה־יפ ת ה

זג בטנ�ר המ הר אל־יחס ן הס אג שרר� ן׃י אמ ה יד ים מעש ו חלא י� כמי ירכ יב חמוק ים בת־נד בנעל

ים׃ ים סוג ת חט ערמ ות י� ברכן עינ ל הש � כמגד י צביה׃ צואר ים תאמ י עפר י� כשנ י שד שנ ה בשושנ

שק׃ה פנ ון צופ ל הלבנכמגד ים אפ�בת־רב ערון על־ש בחשב י דמ (7:1-5).

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As illustrated above, most of the Song of Songs is stylized conversation between the

lover and beloved, though much may be imagined speech, uttered when the partner was absent.

One of the poetic elements of ancient Hebrew literature which according to Falk (1982, p. 80)

appears only in the Song of Songs is the ‘descriptive songs’. This is an ancient form, well

attested in Babylonian, Egyptian, and modern Arabic (where it is called wasf) literature, where

each lover describes the other’s beauty in highly figurative language. These descriptions (wasf)

salute the partner, while stimulating both to get ready for love (an example is chapter 1:15f,

where each in turn admires the other’s beauty).

There are four wasfs in the Song of Songs, three describing the young lady (4:1-7; 6:4-

7; 7:1-10), and one her spectacular man (5:10-16). Two of the wasfs in Song of Songs are full-

body descriptions (one of the man and one of the woman), and the other two are partial

descriptions that invoke the whole body.

i. Self-descriptive. Only the woman used this form, usually to disclaim modestly the

beauty ascribed to her נאו ה אנישחור ה׃ר כיריעי קד ם כאהל ות ירושל ה בנו ות ש�מ

“dark am I, yet lovely” (1:5) and ים׃ון שושנ לת השרחבצ אני ת העמק “I am a rose of

Sharon, a lily of the valleys” (2:1). Her self-description in 8:10 “I am a wall and

my breasts are like towers. Thus I have become in his eyes like one bringing

contentment” seems to take pride in her virginity and maturity; she had passed her

brothers’ test (8 and 9).

ii. Songs of Admiration. This form differs from the descriptive song in calling

attention to the loved one’s dress or ornamentation (example, jewelry as in 1:9-

11; 4:9-11). Chapter 7:7-9: ים׃מת אהב ומה־נע מה־יפית ענוג מת את קומת�ז ה בת ה ד

חז ה בתמ אעל רתיי� לאשכלות׃ אמ ר ושד לתמ היו־נ ה בסנסנ ר א ות כאשכל י�א שד יו וי

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ים׃ �יח אפ פן ור הג כתפוח “Your stature is like that of the palm, and your breasts

like clusters of fruit. I said, I will climb the palm tree; I will take hold of its

fruit… and your mouth like the best wine”; shows the passion that such

admiration aroused, as the lover longs to possess the one he so admired.

iii. Song of Yearning. The lovers’ ardent desire, especially when apart, is voiced in

such songs of yearning (examples are: 1: 2-4; 2:5-6; 8:1-4, 6-7). The

characteristic form is a wish for lover or a call to love. This form of song is a

reminder that absence can make the heart grow fonder.

iv. Search Narratives. Two times the woman recounts her impassioned searches for

her lover. Unable to sleep, she wanders through the city looking for him – once

with satisfaction (3:1-4), and the other time with frustration (5:2-7). These

narratives show her openness in expressing desire: vigorously and persistently she

takes initiative in love.

v. Game of Love. The second search narrative begins a ‘game’ between the woman

and her friends, the ‘daughters of Jerusalem’ (5:2-6:1). This game is a reminder of

the exclusive, covenantal relationship that the partners enjoyed.

It should be observed here that the impact of the Song of Songs lies in the warmth and

intensity of the sexual love depicted, especially in the rich and graphic imagery. LaSor,

Hubbard and Bush affirm this and further state “these very qualities which are the poem’s

source of strength present problems to western tastes” (1991, p. 605). They maintain that while

the vividly detailed descriptions of the lovers’ bodies and their frankly acknowledged,

passionate desire seem too highly spiced they are not lurid. By implication, the Song of Songs

should not be treated as pornographic literature.

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3.4. INTERTEXTUAL CONNECTIONS: THE SONG OF SONGS WI THIN THE

BIBLICAL CONTEXT

Secularity, a-historical character, lack of national bias, and the theme of sexual love are

features of the Song of Songs. The accumulative weight of these four characteristics makes the

book unique within the literature of the Old Testament. For the reason of this uniqueness, it is

especially important to view the book against the background of other biblical passages and

other literary genres.

Three points have been chosen in this work to demonstrate that in spite of its

unparalleled character, the Song of Songs has strong affinities with diverse biblical traditions.

The first relates to the thematic level (erotic love, intersexual relations, expressions and

manifestations of love relationships) – in prophetic texts. The second is a matter of genre: it

links the poetry of the Song of Songs with biblical Wisdom literature, with which Hebrew

poetry is generically associated.

Thirdly, the story of the Primeval Garden (Gen. 2:4b-3:24) has pronounced affinities

with the Song of Songs, among which are the characteristics of a-history, non-national

approach, and intersexual relationships. Hence a juxtaposition of the two texts is necessary for

the comprehension of each one, and of both. Phyllis Trible has done that in her ‘God and the

Rhetoric of Sexuality’ by viewing the Genesis account as “A love Story Gone Awry’ and the

Song of Song as ‘Love’s Lyrics Redeemed”. She states emphatically:

Genesis 2-3 is the hermeneutical key with which I unlock this garden.

That narrative began with the development of Eros in four episodes: the

forming of the earth creature, the planting of a garden, the making of

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animals, and the creation of sexuality. Alas, however, the fulfillment

proclaimed when is and issa became one flesh disintegrated through

disobedience…. Clearly, Genesis 2-3 offers no return to the garden of

creation. And yet, as scripture interpreting scripture, it provides my clue

to entering another garden of Eros, the Song of Songs.... In other words,

the Song of Songs redeems a love story gone awry (1978, p. 144).

Landy says about the two juxtaposed texts that they are “Two versions of paradise …

The primordial couple in Eden lose their Paradise for the same reasons that the couple in the

Song regain it … Both texts find their complement in the other ….” He then goes on to say

“their opposition conceals a hidden identity ….” (1987, p. 183). This last statement, however,

is less than satisfactory for a feminist reader, who recognizes that in today’s civilization

women are unjustly subordinated to men and advocates a transformation of this social

situation. Appropriately then, one may think of Song of Songs as ‘a commentary on Genesis

2:24 (‘they will become one flesh’) and a manual on the blessing and reward of intimate

married love’ (Kaiser; 1981, p. 108).

Kaiser observes further that the recent attempt of some theologians to find a biblical

opening, if not warrant, for the practice of homosexuality stands in striking disharmony with

the Old Testament’s understanding of the relation of male and female. The theological issue

goes far beyond the citing of occasional texts which condemn the practice (Lev. 20:13). Nor is

the heart of the issue touched by the historicist’s claim that Israel was obsessed with the

propagation of children to assure the nation’s survival. In his views, it rather turns on the

divine structuring of human life in the form of male and female with the potential of greatest

joy or deepest grief (1981, p. 112). The Old Testament continually witnesses to the distortion

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of God’s intention for humanity in heterosexual aberrations (Judg. 20; 11 Sam. 13). Similarly

the Old Testament views homosexuality as a distortion of creation which falls into the shadows

outside the blessing (Lev. 18).

In the prophetic literature, Hosea was the first prophet to use the bold imagery of

heterosexual love for the depiction of the relationship between Yahweh and his people (chs. 1-

3). The relationship between God and his chosen people is formalized by means of a covenant,

and metaphorized in terms of marital love and marital contract (chs. 1-2). Yahweh is the

devoted, loving, dutiful ‘husband’; Northern Israel is the fickle, adulterous ‘wife’; the ‘Baal’ or

‘Baals’ (in the plural!) is/are cited as the ‘woman’s’ illicit ‘lover/s’. Following the heartless

‘woman’s’ behaviour the contractual relationship could not work. A process of divorce,

punishment, isolation, and re-education is to be applied to the ‘woman’-people (2:7-16; 3)

before the legal and loving relationship can be resumed, this time without hindrance from the

reformed ‘adulteress’. This time, everybody will know that love and fertility come from the

true God (2:17-25) and not from illicit ‘lovers’.

The bold description is dialectically inspired by the phenomena the Prophet tries to

fight – Canaanite fertility cults and their celebration of the ‘sacred marriage’ rituals. The story

of the unhappy affair is delivered by a male voice and from a male’s viewpoint. The woman

(people) is described as disloyal and emotionally unstable. The husband (Yahweh) is a loyal,

mature and steadfast lover. Hosea himself is commanded to take a ‘harlot’ for a wife, so that

his personal life serves as a symbol for the allegory of the divine, one-sided male love.

The prophet’s teachings in chapters 1-3 certainly refer to an unhappy love story. Even

without discussing the admittedly interesting question of the mutual influence between Hosea’s

actual life and his prophecies, it is clear that the ‘woman’ gets short-changed. The imagery

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denotes a bitter, unrequited male love. On the surface, then, there is no connection between the

Hosea texts and the Song of Songs apart from the basic subject matter (love). There is certainly

not much similarity between the Hosean vision of marital non-bliss and the reciprocal loving

that permeates the Song of Songs. Thematically, the two texts appear to be diametrically

opposed to each other. However, it can be shown that, genetically and stylistically, they are

related. Both seem to have originated in a common tradition of Hebrew love poetry, of which

the Song of Songs is the most extensive remnant. Some passages of both even appear like two

variations, done from two different viewpoints, of the same text (Kaiser; 1981, p. 120).

Hosea lived in the second half of the eighth century BC. The theme of love first used in

the book of Hosea persisted through the ages. It was taken up by Jeremiah (chap. 2) who later

in the seventh century BC, not long before the destruction of Jerusalem and the first Temple,

deals similarly with the same religious context of pagan worship which constitutes a breaking

of the covenant between Yahweh and Israel. He extends the metaphor to include an implicit

political fickleness and speaks about two equally promiscuous ‘women’ – Israel and Judah

(chap. 3). Once again Yahweh is the loving and long-suffering male, and Israel an animalistic

and lusty female who has to be threatened with exile (Butterworth; 1970, p. 764-5).

Ezekiel, of roughly the same period as Jeremiah’s but living and prophesying in

Babylon, adds his own touch and stronger language to the love imagery. In chapter 16

paternity, another patriarchal aspect, completes the marital picture first drawn in Hosea.

Yahweh is Jerusalem’s adoptive father first, then her loving husband. She betrays him. Her

punishment and re-education will be followed by a new and lasting (marriage) covenant. Once

more, pagan worship is referred to in terms of the ‘woman’s’ ‘harlotry’ and ‘fornication’. In

chapter 23 two sisters/wives are cited, Samaria and Jerusalem, and their ‘adultery’ is as

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political – ‘Assyria’ and ‘Babylon’ are the ‘lovers’ – as it is religious. Here the language is

explicitly sexual and vulgar. Yahweh is a true lover. His ‘women’ are common harlots,

adulteresses whose transgressions are punishable by public shame and death, so that women

everywhere will stay faithful to their husbands (23:48).

Isaiah also uses the love imagery but in a modified form and much gentler language as

could be seen in chapters 50:1; 54 and 62. The people (Zion/Jerusalem) are again a ‘woman’

(wife, mother, and lover). This time, they claim that the husband (Yahweh) has forsaken them.

This time, he promises to reverse the situation and, after the exile, restore the ‘woman’ to her

original status of loved wife (and mother).

It should be observed here that the tradition of the metaphorical and contractual love

relationship between Yahweh and his people remained alive in prophetic expression for

hundreds of years. Brenner (1989, p. 81) opines that this suggests a link between the Song of

Songs and pagan fertility myths on the one hand, and as early proof for the development and

eventual prominence of the Jewish allegorical interpretation of the Song of Songs on the other.

In the allegorization of the Song of Songs the characters are, once again, God the male lover

and Israel the female lover. The love relationship, however, is transformed. In the Song, the

woman is loyal, loving, active, and honest. Read in this sense, the Song is a fitting therapeutic

answer, within the biblical framework, to the harsh patriarchal vision of the heterosexual kind

of love imagined by the prophets.

From the point of view of wisdom and poetic books, the book of Proverbs frequently

admonishes its readers to maintain the highest standard of ethical conduct in relation to the

opposite sex. Negatively this includes avoiding the adulterous, prostitute, and wayward wife

(Pro. 2:16-19; 5:3-14, 20; 6:24, 29, 32-35; 7:4-27; 22:14; 23:27f; 30:20), with her dangerous

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sexual entanglements. Positively this involves enjoying and being faithful to one’s wife, which

is likened to drinking water from one’s own cistern, well, or fountain (5:15-19).

The frequent emphasis in Ecclesiastes on the enjoyment of life also helps prepare the

reader of the Bible for the picture of the delights of marital love in the Song. Ecclesiastes 9:9

encourages the physical enjoyment of marriage (“Enjoy life with your wife, whom you love”),

which is then presented in detail in Song of Songs. This is similar to Proverbs 5:18: “May you

rejoice in the wife of your youth”. The Song consists of a series of love poems which celebrate

the joys of physical love between a man and a woman. “By assigning them to the category of

wisdom the canonical editors do not alter the quality of the Song as poems of human love, but

retain the phenomenon in the world of human experience” Childs states (1985, p. 193). This is

very significant for Song of Songs as wisdom bears witness to a present reality of erotic love in

the world of human experience.

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CHAPTER FOUR

HISTORY OF INTERPRETATION OF THE SONG OF SONGS

The first question that comes to the mind when one reads this book is, “why is a poem

describing the love between a man and a woman in highly erotic language included in the

Bible?” That question has baffled interpreters of Song of Songs throughout the centuries and

still puzzles some readers today.

Some Jewish and Christian scholars solved the problem by deciding that the book

should be interpreted allegorically. It is well known that the dominant traditions of

interpretation, in Judaism and Christianity alike, have understood the Canticles to portray the

relationship between God and the people of God – more specifically, the bond of mutual love

between Israel and her divine Lord in Jewish exegesis or between the Church as bride and

Christ as the bridegroom in Christian exposition. Except for the departures of a few individual

interpreters, these basic views of the book held sway from later antiquity until relatively

modern times and they continue even today to get some support.

There are available detailed surveys of this history of interpretation, many of them

treating expositors in chronological sequence with comments on items of particular interest

(Pope; 1977, pp. 89-229; Murphy; 1990, pp. 11-41). Rather than following the same pattern

here, it seems preferable to offer a representative sounding in major periods of the Song of

Song’s exegetical history. This is to enable the reader to grasp the broad shape of this history

as well as to become acquainted with some of the most outstanding interpreters. Particular

attention will be given to the hermeneutical principles operative in the development of Jewish

and Christian exposition. The course of this history underscores an important lesson: the effect

of theological presuppositions and cultural assumptions on the work of every interpreter, even

a contemporary one who may take pride in a strictly literal and historical-critical approach.

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4.1. JEWISH INTERPRETATION.

The earliest stages in the interpretation of Song of Songs are obscure. Also far from

certain is the common assumption that the ‘history’ of interpretation begins with a firm Jewish

tradition of allegorical or spiritualizing exposition, in which the Song was understood to

celebrate the love between God and Israel.

However, the fact is that very little is known about early Jewish readings of the Song,

apart from the quite literal renderings of it preserved in the Greek and Syriac translations

(Murphy; 1990, p. 12). Moreover, there is lack of reliable evidence to establish when and why

the book was originally included in the corpus of Jewish Bible. The superscription (chap. 1:1)

which the conservatives have used to claim Solomonic authorship is often alleged to explain

the Song’s canonical status. Attribution to Solomon of this work, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes no

doubt bears witness to the royal patronage of biblical wisdom. Audet, according to Murphy

(1990, p. 13) has underscored this point and suggested that it indicates an early literal

interpretation in which the contents of the Song were understood to portray the bond of love

between man and woman. This observation is right because what may have been a literal or

even bawdy interpretation of the Song of Songs, as well as profane usage, was apparently

condemned by Rabbi Aqiba who lived during the later part of the first and early second

century AD. Other traditions also suggest that Aqiba read the Song of Songs symbolically as

love song between Israel and Yahweh (Mishna Ta’anit IV: 8). Although his specific views on

the overall meaning of the Song simply cannot be determined, it seems likely that he favored a

symbolic rather than a literal interpretation.

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While some critics have observed that there was already a potent, well established

metaphor within Jewish traditions from which symbolic interpretation could even more

naturally develop, there is a lack of historical evidence to support this. The metaphorical

references to Israel as ‘lily’, ‘dove’, and ‘bride’, in 2 Esdras 5:24-36 and 7:26 may directly

reflect language of the Song. Nevertheless, this neither suffices to establish a first-century

exegetical tradition among the Jews nor sheds significant light on motives for the Song’s

canonization (Beaton; 2008, P. 762).

The allegorical interpretation is most developed in the Targum on the Song. The

Targum, an Aramaic translation/interpretation of the Song, is dated to the seventh century AD.

But this is the closing date of the work. It may, and many would argue it does, contain ancient

material within it, since the Targum is not simply a translation but also the received

interpretation of the book throughout the ages. It presents a carefully constructed allegory of

Israel’s relationship with Yahweh that moves from the Exodus to the coming of Messiah.

Hence, it is certain that the classical Jewish interpretation of the Song came to be ‘allegorical’,

but scholars are unable to trace the roots of this interpretation with any certainty or even to be

sure that it began in pre-Christian era.

During the medieval period an allegorical reading was dominant throughout most of the

Jewish tradition, the differences occurring in the referents of the terms and phrases within the

Song. However, the Jewish interpretive history did expand beyond this allegorical model

flowing from Midrah Rabbah and Targum. Maimonides (1135-1204), the great rabbi of the

thirteenth century AD, explores a spiritual, individualized interpretation. He did not write a

commentary on the Song, but his elaborate and extraordinary influential philosophical treatise,

‘The Guide of the Perplexed’, suggests that Solomon’s poetry portrayed the yearning of the

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individual human soul or ‘passive intellect’ to reunite with God, who was manifest in the

‘active intellect’ governing the created order (cited in Murphy; 1990, P. 33). This line of

mystical or spiritualizing interpretation was adopted by rabbis that followed him. Another view

that had some prominence was inaugurated by Isaac Abrabanel (1437-1508) found in ‘The

Philosophy of Love’ authored by his eldest son, Judah (1937, PP. 220-225). He understood the

virgin/bride to be personified Wisdom. The impact of the ideas and cultural change of the

Renaissance and Enlightenment would also impact the synagogue and their interpretation of

the Song, but not as radically as that of Christianity. The Jewish model of interpretation was

adopted from the beginning in the early Christian community, and the two communities in

many ways parallel each other throughout history. This is not surprising given the interchange

between the synagogue and church in many regions.

4.2. THE SONG OF SONGS IN CHRISTIAN INTERPRETATION

For a better understanding of how the Song has been received in the Christian

community, a fair appraisal of the history of interpretations is deemed necessary. The survey

will cover the early Christian interpretation, Medieval, Reformation and Modern Christian

Interpretations.

i. Early Christian Interpretation

The meaning which may have been attached to the Song in earliest Christianity is

equally obscure as the early Jewish interpretation. The New Testament and other Christian

writings that predate the third century offer nothing which suffices to establish the beginnings

of a Christian expository tradition for the Song. Although scholars debate whether Jews or

Christians first started the allegorical interpretation, the Song first becomes explicitly visible in

the Christian tradition in the work of Hippolytus, whose commentary on the Song is the

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earliest known (Habtu; 2006, P. 797). Hippolytus lived around AD 200. He read the Song as a

love song between Christ and the Church. Only a fragment of his work is said to have

remained, but enough remains to show how the sensual language was taken to mean something

quite different from the plain and simple sense. Pope observes: “The one introduced into the

chamber(s) in 1:4 was explained as those whom Christ had wedded and brought in to the

Church. The breasts in 4:5 mean the Old and New Covenants. The ‘hill of frankincense’ in 4:6

was the eminence to which those who crucify fleshly desire are exalted” (Pope; 1997, P. 114).

This corporate reading is important, especially in light of the more individualistic reading that

would appear later. Since so little of his work survives, it is difficult to be more comprehensive

in one’s comments; however, Hippolytus’ approach can be said to be broadly salvation-history.

He clearly establishes a symbolic/allegorical reading of the Song very early and lays the

foundation for Origen’s work, which would become the most influential commentary for later

authors.

To the contemporary readers steeped in the ‘plain sense’ of scripture and historical-

critical methodology, allegorical exposition as practiced by patristic and medieval

commentators may appear to be merely arbitrary, amusing, and even dubious. In the particular

case of the Song, it has been supposed that the physical language and explicitly amorous

content were a major embarrassment to early Christian sensitivities and that the device of

allegory, by which Hellenistic authors had reinterpreted earlier Greek mythology, was ready at

hand to provide a solution. Pope gives vivid testimony to this view:

Thus from the early days of the Church, Solomon’s salacious Song,

which at first blush tended to appeal to the pernicious pruriency of men,

women, and children, had to be interpreted in a way that would

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eliminate the evil impulse and transform and spiritualize carnal desire

into praise of virginity and celibacy and sexless passion of the human

soul and/or the Church for God, and of God’s response in kind. This was

accomplished by means of allegorical interpretation in which the same

way that the Greek philosophers had managed to change the lusty gods

of Homer and Hesiod into spiritual ideals. Celibate Christian theologians

were thus able by allegory to unsex the Sublime Song and make it a

hymn of spiritual and mystical love without carnal taint. Canticum

Canticorum thus became the favorite book of ascetics and monastics

who found in it, and in the expansive sermons and commentaries on it,

the means to rise above earthly and fleshly desire to the pure platonic

love of the virgin soul for God (1977, P. 114).

The difficulty with the allegorical interpretation is its subjectivity. The Song offers no

clue to identifying scenes and characters and thus imposing a new meaning on them.

Moreover, some members of this school of thought tend to suggest that human physical love is

an unworthy subject for God’s Word and must be expurgated to leave room for a non-physical

divine love.

Allegory though, should not be condemned entirely for it served a much broader

purpose in patristic and medieval Christianity. Murphy observes:

It facilitated construction and maintenance of a Christian worldview,

providing the intellectual mechanism to effect a synthesis between Old

Testament witnesses to God’s providential love for humankind and what

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was confessed to be the preeminent display of that love in the Christ

event (1990, P. 16).

Hence, in Hippolytus’ treatment of the Song, soteriology is the dominant concern; allegory

supplied a hermeneutical technique which enabled him to read the erotic lyrics attributed to

Solomon as a prophetic vision of the love that united God and the Church through Christ.

Although much more elaborately developed, Origen’s approach to the Song is quite similar.

ii. The Medieval Interpretation

Origen’s commentary and homilies on Song of Songs are perhaps the most crucial for

the medieval period. In this era, the Song was the most loved and commented upon text of all.

There are, for example, over one hundred extant commentaries and homilies on the Song from

the sixth to the fifteenth centuries (Pope; 1977, p. 115). This focused literary output is to a

large extent reliant on the work of Origen. Unfortunately, it has been observed by Murphy

(1976, p. 16) that only a part of Origen’s work on the Song has survived.

One might easily gain the impression from the terse summaries of his work offered by

modern critical commentators that Origen quickly passed over the ‘plain sense’ of the Song

and wielded allegory with a heavy hand to craft an esoteric interpretation which suited his

mystical predilections. His method is more complex than that. The key to understanding

Origen is his methodological prologue to the Song. Careful with literary issues, he affirms the

biblical work as “… a marriage-song which Solomon wrote in the form of a drama….”

(Lawson; 1957, p. 21).

By ‘drama’ he means “… the enacting of a story on the stage, when different characters

are introduced and the whole structure of the narrative consists in their comings and goings

among themselves” (Lawson; 957, p. 22). Yet having proffered such an elaborate dramatic

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reconstruction or ‘historical’ reading of the text, Origen immediately adds a formidable

qualification:

But these things do not seem to me to afford no profit to the reader as far

as the story goes; nor do they maintain any continuous narrative such as

we find in other Scripture stories. It is necessary, therefore, rather to

give them all a spiritual meaning’ (cited in Lawson; 1957, p. 247).

It is thus his concern for both the plain sense of the text and the symbolic readings which shape

the spiritual meaning of the text (Song of Songs) that lays the framework for the subsequent

medieval commentaries. Thus, Origen “opened the door to the notions of the inward spiritual

journey of the individual and the marriage of the soul” (Beaton; 2008, P. 765).

There are few commentators through the medieval period who interpret the Song in a

literal sense. Theodore of Mopsuestia, bishop from 392-428 “epitomized resistance to the

allegorical emphasis of Alexandrian hermeneutics in general and Origen’s exegetical work in

particular” (Murphy; 1990, p. 22). On the other hand, Jerome had great respect for Origen’s

commentary on the Song and adopted the approach in his own work. Gregory the Great did

likewise in his work on the Song, and its popularity reinforced the allegorical reading of the

Song throughout the empire. The Song for Gregory may literally be a collection of erotic love

poems and speeches between two lovers, but it is through this medium that God calls the soul

of the believer to a more passionate embrace of his love (Murphy; 1990, pp. 21-28).

iii. Reformation Interpretation

The Renaissance and the Reformation initiated a shift in how the Song was interpreted.

Luther’s work on the Song, while not thoroughgoing in its execution, is an important marker

for this change in the exegesis of the book. As has been noted earlier, there were already in the

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history of interpretation those who emphasized a more literal reading that viewed it as a piece

of profane literature. But these were marginal voices. Luther rejects, at least in part, the

emphasis upon the individual, a mystical reading, and even the historical notion that it is a

collection of love songs by Solomon for Pharaoh’s daughter. Thus, he states that esoteric

speculations, however erudite, have only distorted the Song, whose fundamental purpose – in

accord with the rest of Scripture – must be to “…instruct us with doctrine useful for life, and

secondly, with consolations” (Luther’s Works; 1972, p. 195). Nor, he continues, is there utility

in the positions of Jewish commentators, who take the Song to portray “the union of God and

the Synagogue.” Or in those of Christian ‘typologists’, who identify the bride as the faithful

human soul seeking to unite with God (Luther’s Works; 1972, p.194).

Instead of following the conventional understanding, Luther intentionally attempts to

chart a new course in interpretation that is historically located. His method is perhaps more

important than his actual position because while Luther’s exposition gives attention to the

literal development and mood of the text, his explanation of the thematic content is

consistently allegorical. Thus God is the male figure throughout the Song and the bride is the

people of Israel. He even lapses on occasion into exposition that relates the ‘bride’ to the

individual human soul. For example, the man’s declaration of the woman’s beauty in 6:4

provokes the comment accredited to Luther that :

… this is a great comfort for our conscience, because it establishes with

certainty that patience pleases God and that He takes delight in the

sacrifice of a contrite, but not of a despairing heart, so that even though

the flesh takes offense and murmurs somewhat, yet the spirit cries out to

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God and would rather remain in perpetual trial and even perish than

withdraw from God into ungodliness’ (Luther’s Works; 1972, p. 243).

Regarding Luther’s inconsistency in his methodology, Beaton remarks:

“Luther may be less than consistent in his application of his hermeneutical model, but his work

does represent a sustained attempt to break from the previous centuries of interpretation”

(2008, p. 766).

Calvin and many of his followers, however, maintained a more traditional ecclesial

reading of the Song. That Calvin held an ecclesiological view of the Song’s significance may

also be inferred from his exposition of Psalm 45 where he states: “… the subject here treated of

is not some obscene or unchaste amours, but that, under what is here said of Solomon as a

type, the holy and divine union of Christ and his Church is described and set forth” (1846, p.

173). Also, on the departure of Castellio Calvin’s young associate, he wrote: “Our principal

dispute concerned the Song of Songs. He considers that it is a lascivious and obscene poem, in

which Solomon has described his shameless love affairs” (cited in Pope; 1977, p. 127).

The first generations of Protestant exposition generally adhered to an ecclesial-

historical reading of the Song, and viewed with suspicion or outright hostility interpretations

that identified the ‘bride’ with either the individual human soul or the Virgin Mary. Hence,

Beaton remarks: “Given the hostility toward Catholicism at this time, it should not be

surprising that Protestant scholars held a similar disdain for a Marian reading of the Song”

(2008, p. 766).

In Roman Catholic circles, the broader scope of medieval Christian interpretation

found continuing support through the sixteenth century and beyond. The well-known Spanish

Carmelite mystics St. Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) and St. John of the Cross (1542-1591)

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continued with the notion of the ‘spiritual marriage’ of the soul with Christ (Murphy, 1990:37-

41). The Marian interpretation also flourished. But alongside these approaches, Pope (1977,

pp. 128-130) notes that there was also an emphasis upon the Hebrew text and philology, and an

engagement with Jewish scholarship on the Song.

iv. Modern Interpretation

The transition to the modern period and the impact of the Enlightenment is well

pronounced in the scholarly literature of the Song. The intellectual energy and curiosity of this

period and its inter-disciplinary engagement has led to many thoughtful analyses of the Song.

It has become, however, one of the lesser studied books of the Bible. This, according to

Murphy.

May be so because major contributors to the contemporary discussion

have held views of the Song’s original meaning that leave little room for

theological development, either in relationship to salvation-historical

traditions usually supposed to be central to ancient Israel’s religious

thought (1990, p. 100).

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries there was a decided move away from

medieval allegorical interpretations to a more historically grounded model after Theodore of

Mopsuestia, Origen and Luther as has been mentioned above. The focus shifted from ecclesial

and individual spirituality to a critical investigation of its origins, language, context and the

potential sources that may have influenced its composition.

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4.3. INTERPRETATIVE APPROACHES

There are several interpretive approaches to the Song in modern scholarship, each with

its own variations. These include:

i. Allegorical Interpretation : Allegory is defined as obvious symbolic representation in

literature, or simply extended metaphor. It says one thing but conveys a deeper or

hidden meaning. This method is the oldest and remains the most popular approach to

the Song in Jewish and Christian traditions – though the book nowhere claims to be an

allegory.

ii. Typological Interpretation : This approach recognizes the historicity of the book

(whether it commemorates Solomon’s marriage to the pharaoh’s daughter or recounts

the king’s wooing of a Shulammite maiden) but subordinates the literal presentation of

Old Testament history to a correspondent New Testament pattern of parallel. The

traditional ‘type-antitype’ fulfillment is read as God’s covenant relationship to Israel by

the Jewish interpreter or Christ’s relationship to the Church as his bride by the

Christian interpreter. Both the typological and the allegorizing methods as applied to

the Song have yielded much the same interpretations. The chief distinction is that the

typological view accepts a historical basis for the setting, while the allegorical does not.

iii. Dramatic Interpretation : The presence of dialogue, soliloquy, and choruses has led

students of literature to treat the Song as a drama. Two forms of dramatic analysis were

prominent in the nineteenth century: the two-character theory by Delitzsch (1877, p.

33) and Driver’s three-character alternative scripts (1972, pp. 438-43).

The dramatic approach is based on the following assumptions: (a) that the Song

is one composition (b) that it is a unified, linear plot (c) that the speakers are cast of

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dramatic personae (d) that the plot unfolds the love story of a single couple. This

method is not without critical objections by scholars (see Gordis; 1974, p. 2-14). For

instance, the various plots suggested, together with their formal division into dramatic

segments, are far from convincing. Also, it is clear that a literary unity of the Song,

unless attributed to an editor/compiler, is impossible for linguistic reasons; hence, a

unified drama is ruled out. In short, the dramatic theory, together with its various

mutations, is finally no more acceptable than the allegorical methods of interpretation.

iv. Cultic Interpretation : It has become popular for scholars in the twentieth century to

regard some portions of the Bible as cult material, adapted and reworked from

neighboring cultures. Accordingly, Song of Songs is interpreted as a composition,

assimilated into Hebrew literature from an external Near Eastern source. An illustration

is the theory usually associated with Meek (1922-1923, p. 9) that the Song of Songs is

derived from liturgical rites of the cult of Tammuz and his consort Ishtar, Babylonian

gods of fertility, processed and adapted to the popular Israelite practice of worshipping

fertility gods, a practice much denounced by various prophets (cf. Ezek. 8:14). Here

too, Solomon and the Shulammite represent the male and female divinities; and the plot

recounts the fertility god’s cyclic death and rebirth, which symbolizes the cycle of

vegetation and fertility in nature and was therefore celebrated in a recurrent annual

festival.

The major difficulty with this is that the extant Song of Songs does not treat

divine love at all but rather treats love that is quite earthly. The liturgical theory

postulates that the sacred elements have been edited out. In the words of Meek (1922-

1923, p. 11), “The transforming influence of later Yahwism has almost completely

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obliterated the elements of the dying and rising god, the sacred marriage, and the place

of the king in the rites.” White argues that “it is difficult to believe that sacred marriage

could have been deeply rooted in Israel to the extent that a part of the ritual could have

achieved inclusion into the Hebrew canon” (1978, p. 24).

According to Snaith,

The Song is unashamedly sexual, and … is also quite free of any

specific references to the fertility cults of Israel’s neighbors. Since no

cultic-mythological significance is apparent, we should acknowledge the

Song’s free and open attitude to human sexuality as opposed to the

sexual religious practices of Canaanite fertility religion. Perhaps the

Song was included in the canon because it was a non-mythological, non-

cultic, non-idolatrous, outright, open celebration of God-given sexual

love (1993, p. 5).

It seems highly questionable that the Jews would have accepted a pagan liturgy, smacking of

idolatry and immorality, without thorough revision in terms of Israel’s distinctive faith.

v. Nuptial Songs: Understanding the book as a wedding cycle assumes the Song is a

collection of nuptial poems similar to the wasf of Arabic wedding ceremonies. The

wedding lasts a ‘royal week’. The bride and groom are treated as king and queen, and

wasfs sung in their honour. The bride herself performs a dance (Brenner; 1989, p. 74).

The series of songs honoring the bride and groom was eventually formalized into a

cycle of recitations that were finally incorporated into the wedding celebration. Brenner

has observed that Jewish sources indeed demonstrate that during the Second Temple

era the bride was praised and addressed in song; the bridegroom was likened to a king;

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both parties wore diadems; and the bride was carried in a palanquin. However, no proof

for the usage of the Song as a comprehensive text for wedding ceremonies can be

adduced from these sources. And again, a literal reading of Song of Songs exudes not

just the theme of marriage but human sexuality as a principal factor in it.

vi. Literal Interpretation : The literal or verbal view takes the Song at face value, that is,

to view Song of Songs as an anthology of profane love lyrics loosely – if often

meaningfully – strung together. The Song takes a romance between two characters,

holds it up and looks at it from various different viewpoints, using the lyric imagery.

The couple’s love is as intense at the beginning as at the end; thus, the poem’s power

lies not in a lofty climax but in the creative and delicate repetitions of the themes of

love. This is illustrated in the following ways: a love longed for when apart על־משכבי

יויו ול י בקשת ה נפש ת שאהב שתי א ות בק בליל א מצאת “All night long on my bed, I looked

for the one my heart loves. I looked for him but did not find him” (3:1) and enjoyed to

the full when together ו בתי ופרידתי ויש חמ ים בצלוין הבנ י ב ן דוד ער כ י הי בעצ וח תפכ

ימת וק לחכ , relished amid the splendor of the palace הו על ין ודגלית הי אל־ב ניהביא י אהב

“Take me away with you – let us hurry. Let the king bring me into his house” (1:4) or

in the serenity of the countryside (7:11ff.), and reserved exclusively for the partner י דוד

יםו הרע י לואנ לי ה בשושנ (2:16; 6:3; 7:10).

According to Brenner (1989, p. 76), since the eighteenth century, this trend has gained

more and more ground. Schwab also observes: “the appropriate method of

interpretation is a literalistic one that highlights the book’s explicit subject matter –

passionate sex – not one that allegorizes this topic away” (2008, p. 742).

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Still emphasizing the literal sense of interpretation, E.J. Young states:

The Song comes to us in this world of sin, where lust and passion are on

every hand, where fierce temptations assails us, and try to turn us aide

from the God-given standard of marriage. And it reminds us, in

particularly beautiful fashion, how pure and noble true love is (cited in

R.W. Orr; 1989, p. 702).

A promising model that now commands the majority opinion among scholars suggests that

the origin of the Song is best explained through parallels with Egyptian love poetry (thirteenth

to eleventh centuries BC). The Song bears striking similarities with the Egyptian love songs,

which are not tied to an experience of the divine but are simply short poems/songs that

celebrate human love and affection. Similarities in language, motifs, metaphors and content

may suggest that the Song derives from this period in history in Israel’s history (Fox, 1985:66).

If this is the case, then the Song is a loose collection of love songs/poetry that extols human

love and probably fits well within the broader category of wisdom literature. They describe the

happiness lovers experience when they are together and the pain when they are apart. Love

lyrics are the linguistic expression of the joy, ecstasy, sadness, and frustration of the experience

of human love. Their language is not staid, ‘bookish language’ but the spontaneous outburst of

lovers, hence the reflection of a truly moving experience.

With this identification, the interpretation of the Song and its role within a community of

faith differs from that conjured by the medieval imagination. The Song now becomes a

beautiful erotic poem that lauds human sexuality between a man and woman within a

monogamous relationship. Some sex therapists go so far as to use it as a handbook of sorts for

helping couples with difficulties in their sexual relationship.

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It is worthy of note here, that shifting views in the history of the interpretation of the Song,

and of the Bible generally, tell the story of new generations becoming aware of the

hermeneutical limitations of their predecessors. Hence it would be foolish to suppose that the

methodology of literal interpretation has resolved, once and for all, the issues of the Song’s

meaning that baffled our pre-critical forebears. The present cultural presuppositions, like

theirs, and the extent of the contemporary exegetical progress, if any, will be scrutinized by the

next generation of faithful interpreters.

An objective control to support the literal school is the love poetry of the ancient Near

East. Although Mesopotamian parallels to the Song are many, the most striking parallels come

from Egypt in a period ranging from the middle of the fourteenth century to the middle of the

twelfth century B.C. This is not to say that Egypt had no love songs before this period, but only

that we possess nothing earlier (Long; 2008, p. 751).

In Long’s explanation, Egyptian love poetry uses ‘sister’ for the beloved and ‘brother’

for the lover. It is the world of painted picture where the lover can appear as king and/or

shepherd. It is the world of nature and its profusion of animals, plants, spices, and exotic

gardens. It is the world where the seeing of the beloved is enough to cure lovesickness and the

hearing of the lover’s voice is pomegranate wine. It is the world of joy and contentment where

the couple can go for a walk in the garden. It is the world of exquisite beauty where the charm

of the beloved makes the heads of all the men turn back to catch a glimpse of her. It is the

world of intimacy where happiness consists in going to the fields of the loved one (2008; p.

752).

The literary genres of Egyptian love poetry are basically the same as those found in the

Song. The descriptive song extols the physical beauty of either beloved or lover. The self-

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description emphasizes one’s charms and gifts when there is a question of a challenge or boast.

The admiration song describes the one admired, often concentrating on the apparel and

adornments, but always expressing the effect on the viewer. It is not surprising that such

genres find a natural setting in the Song. The concerns, needs, and experiences are the same in

both Egypt and Israel. This does not imply that the poems in the Song directly depend on the

Egyptian materials. It simply suggests that there is a common approach to a common topic.

In the light of the Egyptian love poetry and other parallels the Song deals with human

love, with human sexual love, with human sexual erotic love. Unfortunately the connotation of

‘erotic’ is pejorative. However, it has been observed that “for the ancient Greeks eros did not

exclude moral restraint. It was the power which impels one to go beyond oneself. It was the

desire and pursuit of what is good and included both reason and passion” (Cragham; 1979, p.

5). To be sure, eros can express itself in distortions if one locks oneself within a world of

egoism and isolation. However, the Song shows that eros can express itself in a genuinely

human way. That is, by integrating its power in the exercise of genuine love and genuine

freedom. The lover of the Song is not Don Juan – A legendary Spanish great lover, a seducer

of women (Webster’s; 2010 p. 378). On the other hand, eros is that power which he integrates

in a personal yet communitarian relationship with the beloved. Here there is nothing brutal or

repulsive. There is the combination of playfulness and respect for the other partner.

Still on the literary interpretation, one other area of concern for interpreters is related to

the form of the book. Some think that the book is made up of a random collection of love

songs, originally independent and then strung together. This is unlikely, though the book does

not present an obvious story line, but it seems to have a definite plot which is ‘discovered’ as

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one reads the book carefully. The casts include King Solomon, the Shulammite woman, her

brothers and the daughters of Jerusalem.

In the story line, the Shulammite’s brothers were hired by King Solomon to care for his

vineyards, but they put their sister to work with them also (8:11-14). King Solomon disguised

as a shepherd, visited his vineyards, saw the Shulammite, and fell in love with her (1:1-2:7).

She pictures their times together as a rich banquet. The next spring, he came to her and

proposed marriage, and she accepted, but he had to go away for some time promising to come

back. While he was absent, she dreamed about him (3:1-5). Then he returned and revealed that

he was king Solomon. They married and consummated their marriage on their wedding night

(3:6-5:1). A lapse in the relationship follows (5:2-6:3), but the two eventually make up (6:4-

13). A beautiful scene in the king’s bedroom is then described (7:1-10) and further scenes in

the countryside (7:11-8:14). This idea is well represented by J.A. Balchin (1970, P. 619).

To see the Song this way as story with a sequence gives much more meaning than to

see it as a set of isolated love songs. Nevertheless, most current translators/commentators have

identified three main speakers (the Shulammite, King Solomon and the Shepherd), although

not everybody agrees on these identification. However, the disagreements are relatively few

and minor and do not greatly affect interpretation.

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CHAPTER FIVE:

SEXUALITY AND SEXUAL ETHICS IN THE SONG OF SONGS

In ancient Israel everything human came to expression in words: reverence, gratitude,

anger, sorrow, suffering, trust, friendship, commitment/loyalty, hope, wisdom, moral outrage,

and repentance. In the Song of Songs, it is sexual love that finds words – inspired words that

disclose its exquisite charm and beauty as one of God’s choicest gifts. The Old Testament

concept of love includes the relationships of friendship, sex, covenant, loyalty, kindness and

sometimes mercy and pity. This section will consider the etymology (root) of the word ‘love’

in the Old Testament, survey sexual (love) imageries used in the Song and then studies the text

(4:12-5:1) in order to draw sexual ethics from the book.

i אהב ’Ahab ‘love’

A large number of words are used in the Old Testament to express the various aspects of love.

Lexical analysis shows that the main word employed to express the concept of love in the Old

Testament is the root אהב ’ahab with its derivatives ’ohab, ’ahabim, ’ahaba. These words

denote both human and divine love, sometimes with sexual connotations.

The etymology of אהב ’ahab is uncertain. There is no sufficient information as to the

original meaning of this root. Its primary connection with sexual love is suggested but not

proved by the nominal derivatives. For instance, אהב ’ahab is used for ‘carnal love’ in Hosea

8:9 and ’ohab is equally used in Hosea 9:10 for idolatrous love (Good; 1962, p. 165).

However, like the English word, אהב ’ahab is used with reference to persons as well as

things and actions, and there is a most informative religious as well as a profane use. Thus,

אהב ’ahab can signify the natural love of a father for his child (Gen. 22:2), of spouses for each

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other (24:67); it can also mean friendship or the dependence of slaves upon the benevolence of

their master (Ex. 21:5), or even sexual passion (2 Sam. 13:1,4,15). It can also mean love of

one’s neighbour (Lev. 19:18) or of strangers (19:34) and to resolute adherence to righteousness

(Ps. 45:8).

This is to say that this same word and its derivatives are sometimes used to denote

personal relationships which have no connection with sexuality. For instance, parenthood,

blood relationship, friendship and legal partnership are the phases in which the love which is

free of the libido applies.

In its religious usage, the personal and active character of human love is in consonance

with divine love in the Old Testament. God’s love is not the emotional or intellectual

imposition of a favorable viewpoint upon an object of love, but his redeeming acts in human

history. To call it love is to recognize that these acts produce a personal relationship between

man and God. God has commanded man to ‘love’ him (Duet. 6:5), and the Psalms contain

testimonies of obedience to that commandment (116:1; 145:20).

Under the secular usage, Wallis is in strong support of Quell’s assertion “that the

original use of the concept of אהב ’ahab belongs to the realm of sexual love, of physical

desire, of lust and even of sensual pleasure….” (1974, p. 107). In several Old Testament

narratives there are instances of love which is best described as romantic or the love at first

sight or of long intimacy. For example, Isaac is fond of Rebekah (Gen. 24:67), Jacob of Rachel

(Gen. 29:18, 20. 30), Samson of a Philistine woman (Judges 14:16) and of Delilah (Judges

16:4, 15).

The basic motivation to אהב ’ahab is a compelling inner disposition that makes itself

manifest in outward actions on behalf of the one loved. Jonathan’s love for David resulted in

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his helping David to escape Saul’s murderous intentions (1 Sam. 20:17-42). Likewise, Jacob’s

love for Rachel involved him in fourteen year’s service to her father (Gen. 29:30). The most

obvious passages calling for notice are those in which love unambiguously signifies the vital

impulse of the sexes towards one another. With this term, sexuality is often strongly

emphasized, and most strongly by Ezekiel, who uses אהב ‘ahab almost exclusively in the piel

form to denote sexual desire (16:33, 36, 37; 23:5, 9, 22). Hosea and Jeremiah, too, often speak

of love in this sense (Hos. 2:7; 3:1; 4:18; 9:10; Jer. 22:20, 22; 30:14).

Moreover, the most forceful expression of the passion of love, almost hymnal in style,

is to be found in the Song 8:6 “Place me like a seal over your heart, like a seal on your arm; for

your love is as strong as death, its jealousy unyielding as the grave, it burns like blazing fire,

like a mighty flame.”

Both ’ahab and אהבה ’ahaba’ are used about seventeen times in the Song of Songs.

References include: 1:3, 4, 7; 2:5, 7; 3:1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10; 5:8; 7:6; 8:4, 6, 7. Fourteen out of the

seventeen occurrences of ’ahab and אהבה ’ahaba connote sexual love while three references

(1:3,4; 3:10) refer to love in a less intimate sense. This strengthens the fact the Song praises the

rapturous experience of sexual love as a motivating power that is plainly supernatural (Els;

1997, p. 292). This is true for indeed, a man can nearly become sick from insatiable longing of

ahaba’ (2:5; 5:8). Love is stronger than floods, stronger even than death; irresistible and’ אהבה

inevitable (8:6-7).

On account of its all-encompassing and desperately demanding nature such erotic love

is holy, in a sense of ‘taboo’ and should not be awakened and indulged in before the person

involved is capable and mature enough to handle and appreciate it: “Do not arouse or awaken

love until it so desire.” This refrain is interspersed three times in the description of

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heterosexual love in the Song (2:7; 3:5; 8:4). Such love involves the total personality and

amounts to a total sensual-spiritual experience; it is not restricted to mere superficial sexuality.

It is disastrous when one does not control his emotions of love, but in unbridled passion

acts in a manner contrary to genuine love, hence lusting after the one whom he loves and so

transgressing the (Israelite) law of chastity. Ammon, filled with passionate sensual desire,

overpowers his unsuspecting half-sister Tamar as she cares for him with all good intentions

and concern, and after he has disgraced her he drives her away and refuses to marry her (2.

Sam. 13:1-19). David himself was not free from the guilt of a similar sin. His sensual desire for

Bathsheba leads him into adultery and later into the malicious murder of one of his bravest

officers who was deeply devoted to him, the Hittite Uriah, who was married to Bathsheba. The

‘court’ prophet Nathan reproved him severely for this act (2 Sam. 12).

The unique moral character of the Israelite religio-social demands required premarital

chastity and matrimonial fidelity. This is true even in those cases where ’ahab’ functions with

a strongly erotic connotation. It is made abundantly clear in the Old Testament that “love that

is not consciously aware of the importance of behaviour, but strives only to enjoy life without

any self-restraint, must inevitably lead to complications and is to be rejected” (Wallis,

1974:108).

It is worthy of note that Proverbs 5-7 gives a clear and instructive description of the

opposite of genuine love and of unchaste relationships with the prostitute. Such sexual

relations are clearly portrayed as being the opposite of genuine satisfying heterosexual love

(5:16-20); and the very deceitfulness of such an immoral woman’s seemingly attractive offers

is poignantly highlighted when she (ironically) dares to call such illicit sex אהבה ’ahaba, love

(7:18b).

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ii. The second Hebrew term דוד Dod translated variously in English as

‘Beloved’ ‘Love’ ‘Uncle’ ‘Darling’. Of fifty-eight occurrences of דוד dod in the King James

Version thirty-eight are ‘beloved’ (all in the Song except Isa. 5:1). The most frequently epithet

for the man in the Song is the Hebrew ‘dodi’ ‘my beloved’, ‘my lover’. Some 27 times (1:13,

14, 16; 2:3, 8, 9, 10, 16, 17; 4:16; 5:2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 16; 6:2,3; 7:9, 10, 11, 13; 8:14) the girl

addresses the man this way. Another five times the women of Jerusalem pick up the title and

use it of the man, “your beloved” (5:9; 6:1; 8:4). At other times דוד dod is used to connote the

affection they share (1:2, 4; 4:10; 5:1; 7:12).

Outside the Song, דוד dod occurs an additional twenty-one times. In seventeen of these

cases the term is translated ‘uncle’. This concept is attested in the biblical literature, sometimes

specifically of the brother of a parent, and sometimes more generally of any relative or

kinsman (e.g. Num. 36:11; 2 Kiings. 24:17; Am. 6:10). But in the Song, דוד dod is used in a

more private and intimate sense. A modern English equivalent is ‘my darling’ or even ‘my

sweetheart’.

Carr observes that in the early literature of the ancient Near East, dod “was used in an

erotic sense in love poetry and the fertility rituals, occasionally occurring as a euphemism for

the genitals, or as an epithet for some deity” (1984:64). The use of דוד dod in Isaiah 5:1 “I will

sing for the one I love a song about his vineyard: My loved one had a vineyard on a fertile

hillside” maybe an example of this latter idea. The other three occurrences of דוד dod in

Proverbs 7:18, Ezekiel 16:8; 23:17 demand the idea ‘love-making’ in its specific physical

sexual union. This parallels the use of the word in Song 1:2 hence; the Song of Songs

preserves the ancient meaning of dod ‘beloved’ (sexual) partner’, in its application to the man.

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Dod as ‘love’ itself is extolled or described by “your love is more delightful than דוד

wine” (Song 1:2), “how much more pleasing is your love than wine” (4:10), and “There will I

give you my love” (7:12) among others. These references suggest that דוד dod is used in an

erotic sense and it indicates passionate desire as well as the act of love-making as such in a

positive context (Els; 1997, p. 3359). Moreover, it has been strongly suggested that the

imperfect דודים dodim is a plural form with singular meaning and describes all aspects of

sexual love. Dodim is better conveyed by ‘embraces’ or ‘caresses’ (Exum; 2005, p. 91).

Going by this for instance, the Hebrew י4דד dodeka in 1:2 “your love (caresses)” is not

love in the abstract but rather sexual activity, which can include kisses, caresses, and sexual

intercourse. Dodim is also found in Proverbs 7:18 “Come, let let’s drink deep of love till

morning; let’s enjoy ourselves with love!”; and in Ezekiel 16:8, “Later I passed by, and when I

looked at you and saw that you were old enough for love, I spread the corner of my garment

over you….” The context of those verses makes it clear that what is meant is not merely an

emotional feeling but includes every demonstration of love and affection.

The third Hebrew term רעי Ra‘ya ‘companion’ or ‘love’.

One of the man’s favorite forms of address for his bride is ירעית ra‘yati ‘my love’ ‘my

darling’ (in New International Version translation) a derivative from the root ra‘a (associate

with, be a friend of). Ra‘ya occurs only in the Song (1:9, 15; 2:2, 10, 13; 4:1, 7; 5:2; 6:4) and in

Judges 11:37 (where Jephthah’s daughter takes her female companions with her to weep for

her virginity and in Psalm 45:14 a related form is used referring to ‘virgin companions’).

These are all references to a woman’s companions or attendants.

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The masculine form ירע rea’, which the woman uses of the man in 5:16: מתק חכו ים מ

מד וכל םות ירושל י בנה רע וז ה דודיים ז ו מח “…This is my lover, this my friend” is much more

common in the Old Testament and has the basic meaning of ‘friend’ or ‘companion.’

From all the references ahaba and ra’ya are used of human love, as seen in the Song of

Songs. This is not to dismiss the fact that they are also used of divine love. Dod has the sexual

sense of a man being addressed as lover, or behavior. These expressions include both the ideas

of companionship and sexual partner. Some translations like King James Version render ‘my

love’, the New International Version has ‘my darling’, and ‘my dearest’ is used in the New

English Bible. These clearly show that in the Song this is mostly a term of endearment.

In the New Testament, Greek terminologies for love include: Agapao, Phileo and

Storgeo. The usages of these terms may fit into the descriptions for the terminologies for love

in the Song of Songs except for the Hebrew term Dod, depicting sexual love. Dod finds a

fitting description in the Greek Erao verb form of the noun Eros, which is translated as intense

or passionate love, highly sensual and even intoxicating, and describes strong desires ranging

from patriotism to sexual love. Though Erao is not used in the Bible’s New Testament, it was

in was use during the New Testament era (Zodhiates, 1996, p. 1571). It has already been

observed above that even though dod is equally translated as uncle in the Old Testament, this is

never so in the Song of Songs. All These support the fact that the Song of Songs is one book of

the Bible to be solely devoted to human sexual love.

5.2. SEXUAL IMAGERY IN THE SONG OF SONGS

Imagery is used throughout the Scripture but more frequently used in the Song. A

probable reason is that the Song of Songs is about (sexual) love, and it deals with many

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sensitive emotional and physical matters. Figurative conjugate is often the only appropriate and

delicate way of conveying the lovers’ feelings for each other. Thus Song is rich in simile,

metaphor and other artful examples of language. Failure or unwillingness to recognize the

book’s proper poetic quality (i.e. the use of imagery) has led to egregious error in the

interpretation. These imageries are discussed as follow:

i. Nature Imagery

This feature is dominant in the Song, like other collections of pastoral love poetry which

add wooing and courtship to the activities performed by the characters. Nature supplies the

images by which the lovers express their romantic passions. Sub-types include invitation to

love as in 2:10-15, 7:10-13. Here, flowery and fruitful landscape is metaphor for marriage and

a life of mutual love. There is also the emblematic blazon or wasf (catalogue of beautiful

features in praise and comparison to objects in nature) evidenced in 4:1-7; 5:10-16; 6:4-7.

Other examples of nature images include flowers, fountains, gardens, orchards, vineyards and

animals that ornament this passionate love poetry. For instance, ז ות א י כמגדלה ושד י חומ אנ

ת שלוםיו כמוצא יתי בעינ הי “I am a wall, and my breasts are like towers. Thus I have become in

his eyes like one bringing contentment” (8:10). This image of the woman as a wall with breasts

like towers clearly refers simultaneously to her sexual maturity and to her chastity. She kept

herself for her lover, and for this reason was one who brought him peace (שלום), complete

sexual fulfillment.

ii. Courtly Imagery

This is displayed in a royal court with all its wealth and opulence, וצה י4 נרני אחר משכ

ים אהבוךין מישר מי י4ירה דד � נזכ ב ילה ונשמחהיו נג ל� חדר ני המ הביא “…Let the king bring me

into his chambers” (1:4) and ים אפ�בת־רב ערון על־ש ות בחשבי� ברכן עינ ל הש � כמגד אר צו

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שקה פנ ון צופ ל הלבנכמגד י דמ “Your head crowns you like Mount Carmel. Your hair is like

royal tapestry; the king is held captive by its tresses” (7:5). This language has mistakenly led

some to argue that the Song is a story of a royal pair, perhaps Solomon and his Egyptain

Queen, but more recent commentators have identified the term as a title for a bridegroom, thus

making this part of the Song a wedding celebration. This interpretation is much strengthened

by the Calabar wedding custom in which the bride and groom were crowned on a threshing

platform and hailed as king and queen as in the Song. As Snaith writes, “the lovers are called

kings, princes and queens because of the way love makes them feel about each other and about

themselves” (1993, p. 16).

In addition to the royal motif is Chapter 3:6-11:

Who is this coming up from the desert Like a column of smoke, Perfumed with myrrh and incense, Made from all the spices of the merchant? Look! It is Solomon’s carriage, Escorted by sixty warriors, the noblest of Israel, all of them wearing the sword, all experienced in battle, each with his sword at his side, prepared for the terrors of the night, King Solomon made for himself the carriage; He made it of wood from Lebanon. Its posts he made of silver, its base of gold, its seat was upholstered with purple, its interior lovingly inlaid by the daughters of Jerusalem. Come out, you daughters of Zion, and look at King Solomon wearing the crown with which his mother crowned him on the day of his wedding, the day his heart rejoiced.

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In the context of the whole poem, these verses are about the lovers, and only about Solomon

for what he represents, a lover-king par excellence. That Solomon here is a guise or role in

which the woman casts her lover seems to be the most likely sense of these verses, especially

since elsewhere the male lover is figuratively identified as a king. Also, wine and spices in 1:2,

4:10 are images of both court and nature.

iii. Family Imagery

There is little marital imagery in the Song. In fact, there is no reference to husband and

wife, except the expression ‘my sister, my bride’ in 4:8-12; 5:1. This does not imply an

incestuous relationship: “brotherly and sisterly terms of address appear frequently in Egyptian

and Mesopotamian love lyrics, denoting merely closeness of relationship and not the marriage

of siblings’ (Snaith; 1993, p. 65). Having their union consummated in 4:8-5:1, the term ‘sister’

seems here to bear no connotation of an incestuous relationship but stands rather as an

emotionally charged term of affection.

References to mothers of the woman and the man are in support of the relationship (6:9;

8:5). The woman’s home is secure for intimacy thus, י ית אמ אל־ב הביאתיונו עד־ש א ארפ

י ואל־ח דר הורת “… I held him and would not let him go till I had brought him to my mother’s

house, to the room of the one who conceived me”; 4ג יא4 אנה ין מי ני אשק4י תלמד ית אמ אל־ב אב

יקח מעס הר יס רמנ “I would lead you and bring you to my mother’s house…” (3:4; 8:2). Also,

father is no where mentioned. Brothers are seen to take the place of father (8:8-12).

Commenting on this passage, J. H. Stek observes: “In the ancient Near East, brothers often

were guardians of their sisters, especially in matters pertaining to marriage” (1995, p. 1006).

They equally served as obstacle to intimacy.

iv. Sexual Imagery

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The Song is also rich in sexual imagery, much of it very sensuous. Take for example, the

opening lines of the poem (1:2): י־טוב ות פ מנשיק ניישק  ין ישק ים דד יהו כ יהו ות פ מנשיק ניי4 מי

י־טוב  ין ישק ים דד כ י־טוב ות פ מנשיק ניי4 מי  יןים דד יהו כ י4 מי “Let him kiss me with the kisses of

his mouth – for your love is more delightful than wine.” “let him kiss me…”; is sensuous in

itself, but here that particular quality of the language is intensified by the additional words,

“…with the kisses of his mouth.” And this is just the beginning. In what follows there is going

to be a lot of description of the various parts of the male and female body and of the delights of

seeing, touching, tasting, hearing and smelling. As for imagery, love-making is compared here

to the drinking of wine, with its strong connotations of intoxication and physical pleasure, and

again it is but a beginning; more extravagant imagery will follow as the Song unfolds.

In 4:5 יםה הרוע י צבי ים תאומ י עפר י� כשנ י שד שנ ים בשושנ “Your two breasts are like

two fawns, like twin fawns of a gazelle that browse among the lilies.” The image here evokes

the anticipation of touch and gentleness. Again, the man’s description of his woman in 7:7-8:

ענמת אהב ומה־נע מה־יפית ים׃ ז ה בת מת את קומת�וג י� לאשכלותר ושד ה לתמ ד “Your stature is like

that of the palm, and your breasts like clusters of fruit. I said ‘I will climb the palm tree; I will

take hold of its fruit…” is more visual than the first, showing that his romantic intensity is

focused on the woman’s breasts.

Also, 4:12-15 include the following sexual metaphors: ‘garden’ – a place of sensual

delights. (c.f. v. 16; 5:1; 6:2). ‘Enclosed’ ‘sealed’ are metaphors for the beloved virginity or

perhaps for the fact that she keeps herself exclusively for her husband. ‘Spring … fountain’,

sources of refreshment are metaphors for the beloved as a sexual partner as in Pr. 5:15-20. The

female is a flower or flowers, a garden, into which the male lover enters and roams. The

vineyard and orchard symbolize a searching for and reciprocal gratification of mutual sexuality

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and sensual delight. The fragrance and spice-garden which occupy the centre of the Song

(4:12-5:1), encircled as it is by references to eating and drinking (4:11; 5:1a), in Brenner’s

thought “is an obvious symbol for the consummation of sexual love” (1989, p. 53).

v. Euphemism in the Song of Songs

One of the most frequent types of figurative languages in the Song is euphemism. It is a

word or phrase that is used to speak indirectly about a matter that is sensitive or offensive to

some. The word ‘euphemism’ literally means ‘something that sounds good.’ Hence, to refer to

intimate physical sexual matters the Song uses terms and phrases that will not offend the

readers or hearers. An example is in 5:1 אחת אתי לגני ‘I have come into my garden, my sister,

my bride’. ‘Garden’ here is euphemism for the young woman herself and her sexual attraction

instead of a place. The lover claims the beloved as his garden and enjoys all her delights.

Brenner views the ‘polished ivory’ of 5:14 as metaphor for the man’s sexual organ.

Love-making is compared to drinking wine, eating honeycomb and honey (4:16; 5:1). The

lover’s enjoyment of his darling is liken to a gazelle ‘browsing among lilies’(2:16), or her

breasts to ‘twin fawns of a gazelle that browse among the lilies’ (4:5, 12-16), or the beloved

herself to a garden filled with choice fruits inviting the lover to feast (1987; p. 55).

Elsewhere in the Bible there are images as euphemism - the feet for penis or vagina (1

Sam. 24:3) in urinary context and also in Ezekiel 16:25 in sexual context. The verb for sexual

intercourse is not used in the Bible but there are a number of euphemistic metaphors such as:

‘to know’ (c.f. Gen. 4:1, 17, 25; 1 Sam. 1:19); ‘to lie down’ a hint at one of the most common

positions for the sex act (Gen. 19:32; Lev. 18:22; Deut. 28:30). The language which is used to

describe the act of sexual union in the Song ranges across a very broad spectrum. It varies from

the coarse and vulgar use of a four- letter English word for ‘love’, through the vast variety of

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current slang, the cool and clinical descriptions of a medical manual, the beauty of poetic

metaphor and simile. The power of such language to induce desire and stimulate mental

images depends not only on the degree of explicitness conveyed, but on the ability to evoke a

mood or feeling into which we can be drawn. Indeed there is the possibility of a distancing

effect of the more explicit language, which may cause shock or revulsion. On the other hand,

the more oblique metaphors may have a more subtle power of seduction. But the line between

erotic sensual language and beautiful metaphor is sometimes very difficult to discern, for

pornography can so easily masquerade under the guise of high-class literature.

It is obvious that the biblical metaphors are somewhat restrained (knowing, entering,

coming into the garden, eating honey and the honeycomb, drinking wine and milk, gathering

myrrh and spice) and we are drawn comfortably into their orbit without much visual

stimulation. In fact, the Song invites the reader to enter the lovers’ intimate erotic world by

presenting the lovers as aware of and in conversation with an audience. This is a poetic

strategy that makes the relationship between the lovers less private, less closed and thus

facilitates the reader’s entry into the lovers’ seemingly private world of erotic intimacy.

Exum has rightly observed: “By presenting the lovers in the act of looking and

describing what they see, the poet seeks to convey this pleasure concretely to the reader”

(2005, p. 24). Hence, readers follow the lovers’ gazes downward or upward as they enumerate

details about each other’s body that progressively build up a fuller picture. In this way the

Song offers its readers poetic access to the pleasure of looking at and knowing the body. It is

worthy of note here that although the poetry is explicitly erotic in its appreciation of sexual

love, it never becomes pornographic (Murphy; 1990, p. 102). What the poet depicts for us so

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vividly is the emotions of love, not clinical acts of love-making. Every sense is involved,

indeed highlighted, in this rapturous portrait of love’s delights.

The Song also keeps her readers out of the garden of eroticism. It renders our looking

less voyeuristic and our pleasure more aesthetic than erotic, by clothing lovers’ bodies in

metaphors, which never quite gives access to the body being described. The images may be

strongly visual, but they are literary, part of a text not a picture. Metaphor may be

commonplace, but in the hands of the poet it is a sophisticated literary technique for managing

the reader’s gaze.

5.3. SEXUAL ETHICS IN THE SONG OF SONGS

Thus far, it is clear that the main themes of the Song are romantic love, courtship,

beauty, passion and mutual commitment. However, the lovers’ exchanges are not merely

verbal. Not only do they sing each other’s praises, but they also demonstrate their love in

intimate, physical ways. They kiss, fondle, embrace; they spend the night together, they

consummate their love, in full physical union. The girl and boy both express their yearnings for

close bodily intimacy. It is this very explicit sexuality in the Song that has proved a stumbling-

block and a source of embarrassment to many readers and commentators. So how should this

be handled? For a better appreciation of sexual ethics in the Song of Songs, the text 4:12-5:1 is

here studied.

5. 4. THE TEXT IN HEBREW - THE SONG OF SONGS 4:12-5:1

ים׃ ים כפר י מגד ם פר ים ע ס רמונ פרד י�שלח 13ן חתום׃ ול מעי ל נעה ג י כל ול אחת ׀ נע_ןג ים עם־נרד

ים׃ ם כל־ראש ות ע ר ואהלה מ י לבונ ם כל־עצ ון ע וקנמ ם קנה׀ וכרכ _רד נ 14 ר ים בא ן גנ מעי 15י בשמי ל פר ו ויאכ לגנ א דודייו יב ו בשמ י יזליחי גנ ן הפ ואי תימ וב ורי צפוןע16ים מן־לבנון׃ ים ונזל ים חי מ

יו׃ מגד

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5 י י עם־חלב יתי יינ י שת עם־דבש לתי יעריי אכ עם־בשמ יתי מוריאר י כלהאחת אתי לגניב 1

ים׃ו ושכרים שתו רע אכל ו דוד

English Translation (mine):

12: You are a garden locked up, my sister, my bride; A garden locked, a spring sealed. 13: Your watercourses, those of a pleasure garden of pomegranates with choice fruits, With henna and nard, 14: Nard and saffron, Calamus and cinnamon, With every kind of incense tress, With myrrh and aloes and all the finest spices. 15: You are a garden spring, a well of fresh water Flowing streams from Lebanon. 16: Awake, north wind, and come, south wind! Blow upon my garden, That its fragrance may pour forth. Let my lover come to his garden and taste its choice fruits. 5:1: I have come into my garden, my sister, my bride; I have gathered my myrrh with my spice. I have tasted my honeycomb and my honey; I have drunk my wine and my milk. Eat, friends, Drink yourselves drunk on lovemaking!

5.5 TEXTUAL AND CRITICAL COMMENTARY ON THE TEXT 4:12b Garden translated from ןג gan. Some Hebrew manuscripts as well as the Septuagint

have here gan instead of gal and many modern translators like Exum (2005, p. 152) accept

this. Others like Gordis (1974, p. 308) retain the Masoretic Text’s gal taking the word to mean

‘fountain’ hence relating 12b to 12c rather than 12a. Good (1970, pp. 79-102) proposes ‘pool’

on the grounds of Ugaritic gl which can be translated ‘cup’. Pope (1977, p. 488-9) appreciates

this and relates Ugariti gl and Hebrew gulla to various vessels for wine, milk, or honey.

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4:13a The term י�שלח selahayik is obscure and is here translated “your watercourses”. The

Revised Standard Version translates ‘your shoots’ while the New International Version uses

‘your plants’. On the basis of the verbal root slh (to send), the word seems to refer either to

shoots or branches (cf. the noun seluhot in Isa 16:8) or even channels/watercourses. In support

of watercourse or channels, Good cites mishnaic Hebrew from which שלח selah verb form of

the root means ‘water channel’ (1970, p. 94).

4:15c “flowing streams from Lebanon.” ‘Flowing’ is here translated from the term יםונזל

nozelim as a substantive, used synonymously for water, instanced in Exod 15:8; Isa. 44:3. This

is also informed by the New International Version’s translation ‘streaming down from

Lebanon’ among others.

Background to the Text (4:12-5:1)

In order to anchor the Song securely in the social context of ancient Israel, it makes

sense to assume that the lovers are betrothed couple with marriage in view. Scholars of the

Song of Songs, using the literal approach agree that chapters 3: 6-5:1 which pictures the

wedding and the consummation of the marriage represent the climax of the poetry. Now

betrothal in the ancient world was very different from modern concept of engagement.

Betrothal was the point of no return, and the future of the couple was irrevocably sealed. Their

marriage had been arranged; they were isolated individuals who had casually crossed paths and

happened to have fallen in love. Members of their larger family units had brought them

together, and when all the negotiations between the families had been finalized and the bride-

price agreed and paid, then the couple was considered to be officially betrothed. All that

remained was for the wedding to take place and the union to be consummated (3:1-5:1). In

fact, according to the legislation of the book of Deuteronomy, a betrothed man was given

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exemption from military service in order that the possibility of death in battle might not

prevent the consummation of their union (Dt. 20:7, also Dt. 24:5). It was sometimes the case

that the man and the woman had never met before their betrothal (also, the arranged marriage

between Isaac and Rebekah, Gen. 24), and thus the relationship started from cold, as it were.

But romantic love could also blossom even in the more restricted social intercourse of Israelite

society.

So it is not inappropriate to view the Song as the joyous, tentative explorations of love

of the betrothed couple, which started with courtship (1:2-3:5) culminating in their marriage

and full sexual union in 5:1 י עם־דבש לתי יעריי אכ עם־בשמ יתי מוריאר י כלהאחת אתי לגני

ים׃ ו ושכרים שתו רע י אכלי עם־חלב יתי יינ שת י עם־בשמ יתי מוריאר י כלהאחת אתי לגניו דוד

ים׃ו ושכרים שתו רע י אכלי עם־חלב יתי יינ י שת עם־דבש י יערילת אכ ו דוד “I have come in to my

garden, my sister, my bride; I have gathered my myrrh with my spice. I have eaten my

honeycomb and my honey; I have drunk my wine and my milk.” The remainder of the book

describes the celebration of their love as they experience various adventures together (5:2-

8:14).

Although ancient Israel’s culture and the broader scope of scriptural witnesses

understand marriage to be the institutional context in which sexual love is rightly fulfilled,

what the Song itself encourages its readers to appreciate are the emotional experiences of love.

Several key elements merit attention. Beginning from Chapter 3:1-4, the girls yearning for her

lover found expression night after night “… I looked for him, but did not find him” (3:1). This

dramatic tension sharpens the ecstasy of ultimate fulfillment. The girl’s dream of finding her

hearts throb admits no impediment; she states: “… When I found the one my heart loves… I

held him and would not let him go till I had brought him to my mother’s … room” (3:4). This

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shows that there is nothing secret about their love; everything is done with the approval of the

family. Orr opines that the girl delights in taking the same place in the onward march of life as

her mother occupied one generation earlier (1979, p. 709).

The girl’s anticipation is becoming real. The general sense of Chapters 3:6-4:3 is clear.

The girl is carried in procession to the home of the boy’s parents. While the boy is adorned in

his kingly state and being escorted by sixty warriors, the noblest of Israel, the girl is modestly

veiled. At the boy’s home, his mother welcomes the bride, and congratulates her son, by

crowning him (3:11). It is remarkable that it was after this that the girl is addressed as bride for

the first time (4:8). With the wedding now taken place, the man in vivid anticipation of the

consummation of their marriage voiced out the words of verses 6-15 of Chapter 4.

From a form critical point of view, the text (4:12-5:1) is within the section that begins

in 4:1 and can be divided into separate poems: 4:1-7 (the man’s description of the woman’s

physical beauty); v 8 (his invitation to her to come from Lebanon), which serves as a prelude

to vv 9-11 (a song of admiration); 4:12-5:1 (the garden song). These divisions are informed by

the genre and content. The dialogue pattern running through these verses is clear enough to

give them a unity that should be appreciated.

The text introduces properly one of the motifs of the Song of Songs – the garden motif.

The garden theme here is undoubtedly complex. The metaphor fluctuates between garden and

water source, but the major attention is focused on the fruits and exotic perfumes of the garden.

Even the woman is almost forgotten in the full description of the exotic products. This garden

in Murphy’s opinion is ‘unreal.’ His argument is based on the fact that no garden in the ancient

Near East would have nourished such a wide variety of plants and trees; thus agreeing with

Gerleman (1990, pp. 160-1) who describes the garden as ‘utopian, fantasy-garden’ that

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contains the precious aromatic plants of the ancient world. It is equally probable that the terms

are chosen for sound and exotic qualities, rather than for botanical reasons. Gerleman’s

position is relevant; the exotic qualities may suggest a sexual conducive atmosphere.

Garden is common term in the Song of Songs (also in 4:15, 16, 5:1, 6:2, 11) and always

applied to the woman. But in 8:13, she is addressed instead as ים חבר בת בגנ היוש ‘one dwelling

in the gardens’. The Hebrew verb from which the noun גנ gan ‘garden’ is derived has the root

meaning ‘cover, enclose, defend, protect.’ This has led most modern interpreters like Murphy

(1990, p. 161), Exum (2005, p. 175), and Pope (1977, p. 488) among others to the conclusion

that the garden is a sexual image for the woman herself and her sexuality in particular. The

man sees his lover as his private, locked garden for his exclusive pleasure.

ים ים כפר י מגד ם פר ים ע ס רמונ פרד י�ן חתום׃ שלח ול מעי ל נעה ג י כל ול אחת ן נעג .4:12-15

ים׃ נ ים׃ מעי י בש ם כל־ראש ות ע ר ואהלה מ י לבונ ם כל־עצ ון ע וקנמ ם קנה׀ וכרכ _רד עם־נרד ים ן גנ מ

ים מן־לבנוןים ונזל ים חי ר מ בא

You are a garden locked up, my sister, my bride; you are a spring

enclosed, a sealed fountain. Your plants are an orchard of pomegranates

with choice fruits, with henna and nard, nard and saffron, calamus and

cinnamon, with every kind of incense tree, with myrrh and aloes and all

the finest spices. You are a garden fountain, a well of flowing water

streaming from Lebanon.

As a garden of edible delights, the woman symbolizes a garden of erotic love, and

eating and drinking are symbols of sexual intimacy. While a ול אחת ׀ נע_ןג ‘locked garden’

may refer to a woman’s chastity as Pope (1977, p. 488) has observed, Exum (2005, p. 176)

argues that the emphasis should rest more on the man’s exclusive access to his lover and not

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his lover’s chastity. This makes sense in that a locked garden is a secluded garden; an enclosed

garden hedged or walled in to protect it from intruders. And since a garden depends on water,

figure of the sealed spring complements and completes the garden image. Thus, “a garden

locked up” suggests their exclusive relationship. Only the groom has acess to that garden, for

it is closed, rightly so, to all others. The bride herself has done the locking and put up a sign of

no trespass to the world outside. She is likened to a ‘fountain’ from which only the groom may

drink. To the man, she is like a spring that constantly provides an inner vitality of love.

This sexual exclusiveness is well captured in Proverbs 5:15-20:

Drink water from your own cistern, Running water from your own well. Should your springs overflow in the streets, Your streams of water in the public squares? Let them be yours alone, Never to be shared with strangers. May your fountain be blessed, And may you rejoice in the wife of your youth. A loving doe, a graceful deer – May her breasts satisfy you always, May you ever be captivated by her love. Why be captivated, my son, by an adulteress? Why embrace the bosom of another man’s wife?

With this understanding of the ‘locked garden’ and ‘sealed fountain’ as having to do

with the exclusiveness in the relationship between the man and the women, this text certainly

offers no support to those who advocate a polygamous lifestyle. On the contrary, the reference

to the lover wearing his beloved חות שימ 4ם על־לב ני כ “like a seal over your heart, like a seal on

your arm” (8:6) and the exclusive claims of jealousy in the same verse indicate that true

marital joy can only be found where two individuals are exclusively and permanently bonded

to each other in love.

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It is worthy of note that taking the ‘enclosed or locked garden’ to mean the woman’s

chastity (as some commentators have done) is not strange to Old Testament and is in fact the

biblical concept. Looking at the wider biblical context, it is clear that ancient Israel possessed a

very rigid moral code; premarital sexual relationships were prohibited; if, through human

frailty, fornication occurred, the two partners were obliged to get married and the man was

obliged to pay the bride-price to girl’s father; thus: “If a man seduces a virgin who is not

pledged to be married and sleep with her, he must pay the bride-price and she shall be his

wife” (Ex. 22:16). Adultery was considered a more serious sin, as it involved the breaking of a

covenant relationship already established, and adulterers were under the threat of the death

penalty: “If a man commits adultery with another man’s wife – with the wife of his neighbor –

both the adulterer and adulteress must be put to death” (Lv. 20:10).

The law of Moses in Deuteronomy 22:13-21 makes it clear that pre- and extramarital

sex have serious consequences for all parties. In this regulation, both men and women are held

to account for their behavior. If a husband found that his wife was not a virgin at the time of

their marriage, he was entitled to have her stoned to death for having premarital sex and

bringing shame on the community. In case a husband uses such an accusation to get rid of a

wife, the woman’s parents were encouraged to provide proof of her virginity, which would be

a sheet or clothing used on the night of the wedding that was stained with blood.

In the Song of Songs (8:8-9), the brothers protected their sister during her youth.

רזיה לור על יא נצלת ה ואם־ד סף ירת כ יה ט ה על יא נבנ ה ה אם־חומ וח א

“If she is a wall, we will build towers of silver on her. If she is a door, we will enclose her with

panels of cedar”; this verse probably imaginatively expresses the brothers’ determination to

defend their young sister until her proper time for love and marriage come. ‘Wall’ carries the

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sense of seclusion and (in this context) virginity. But ‘door’ carries the sense of free access

which implies lack of sexual restraint.

Her older brothers, in particular, disciplined her and encouraged her to keep her body

only for the one she was to marry. ‘The day she is spoken for’ is the time of marriageable age.

Until that time she has two options: to be either ‘a wall’, resisting all the approaches of false

love, or ‘a door’ allowing any man to pass through her defenses and so losing her virginity

before God’s time. This all ties in with the refrain “do not arouse … love until it so desires.” If

she disciplines herself, her brothers will reward her with adornment. If she lets herself and her

family down, they will be even stronger in their protection and ‘enclose her with panels of

cedar’.

Her positive response to their training is indicated in verse 10 ות י כמגדלה ושד י חומ אנ

ת שלום׃ יו כמוצא יתי בעינ ז הי א “I am a wall, and my breasts are like towers. Thus I have

become to his eyes like one bringing contentment.” She has now reached physical and mental

maturity (my breasts are like towers) and she has remained ‘a wall’ ‘bringing contentment’.

The word contentment is translated from the Hebrew שלום ‘shalom’ which can be translated

‘peace’ or ‘wholeness’. Thus she, by adhering to discipline brings peace to herself, her

husband and family.

Verses 13-14 represent varied expressions of the bride’s beautiful personality. The

garden of her life is attractively laid out with a rich variety of fruit trees and sweet smelling

herbs and shrubs. He moves round the garden, pausing here and there to enjoy each facet of her

magnetic personality. The idea of the fountain extends to “flowing water streaming down from

Lebanon.” This implies that while the fountain remains exclusively to the groom, the brides

love remains increasingly large and expansive. This was beyond the groom’s description.

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Verses 4:16-17 which celebrates the consummation of their love is viewed by many

interpreters as the pivotal passage. Habtu (2006, p. 801) argues that “even the literary structure

of the Song confirms that ….” Carr also remarks:

Everything thus far has been moving towards this consummation. From

this point on, everything moves towards the consolidation and

confirmation of what has been pledged here. The sister/bride now

becomes the “consummated one”, as lover and beloved extend to each

other the fullness of themselves (1984, p. 212).

In response to the bridegroom’s praise and his invitation to come down and join him,

the bride commands the י ל פר ו ויאכ לגנ א דודייו יב ו בשמ יזל ייחי גנ ן הפ ואי תימ וב ורי צפוןע

יו north wind and the south wind to come and blow on my garden and waft its fragrance“ מגד

abroad” (4:16). By this, she invites her lover into her (garden). The word for ‘awake’ in

“awake, north wind…” is the same as that used in the refrain to the daughters of Jerusalem,

“Do not awake love until it so desires”. This is a call to avoid premature awakening. But now

the time is ripe. There is to be no restraint. What has for so long been held back can now with

great abandonment be allowed its full expression. With great eagerness the two lovers come

together. She is freely giving herself to him, with seductive invitation. It may be locked up to

others but it is certainly not locked to her groom. The Shulammite maiden invites her groom to

“come into his garden and taste its choice fruits.” This is clearly an invitation for caressing and

possibly sexual intercourse. There virtually no restriction of any sort. He can pick and choose

whatever fruit he wants; the lot if he so desires. The whole thing for Bulchin, “is an invitation

to complete possession” (1970, p. 624).

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The wording of chapter 5:1 לתי יעריי אכ עם־בשמ יתי מוריאר י כלהאחת אתי לגניב

יםו ושכרים שתו רע י אכלי עם־חלב יתי יינ י שת עם־דבש ו דוד “I have come into my garden, my

sister, my bride; I have gathered my myrrh with my spice. I have eaten my honeycomb and my

honey; I have drunk my wine and my milk” is in affirmation of the lovers’ activity. This

imagery of delightful eating and drinking proclaims the consummation of their marriage in

beautiful language that “fits the holiest of all human relationships” (Kinlaw; 1991, p. 89). Such

delights are celebrated by the wise authors of Proverbs 5:15, 18-19 and contrasted with the

tawdry charms of illicit sex (Prov. 7:18; 9:17). What they are doing is good, wholesome, right

and proper. It is the natural physical consummation of their love. Their abandonment in self-

giving is thoroughly approved and endorsed. There is to be no reserve, no restraint, but a

complete and happy enjoyment of each other in their mutual love. They are to become ‘drunk’

with love-making; they are to be inebriated, on a physical and emotional high. Commenting on

this verse (5:1), Bulchin succinctly remarks;

A whole night has elapsed, the first night of their married life together.

He has accepted her loving and passionate invitation. This is a choice

verse. After their night of love-making, they now lie contentedly in each

others arms (1970, p. 624).

The metaphor of the girl as a garden, watered by an ever flowing spring, indicates that

she is alive, fertile, blossoming in every sense. She herself is the guardian of that fountain, to

give or to refrain from giving as she so chooses. Of course, it is entirely possible that she opens

her garden in order merely to fulfill some immediate gratification. But that is to separate the

physical aspect of humanity from the wholeness of the personalities which enter into any kind

of relationship. When a husband and his wife become one flesh (Gen. 2:24), it is much more

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than a simple physical relationship. The Apostle Paul recognizes that to link one’s members

with those of a prostitute is to become one flesh with her (1 Cor. 6:16). But the sexual act must

never be divorced from the context of a permanent total relationship between a man and his

wife who are irrevocably committed to each other.

The act is but one very small part of the totality of their growing into union together.

For the writer of Ecclesiastes, “There is a time to embrace and a time to refrain” (Eccl. 3:5).

For the unmarried, the time to refrain is when the physical starts dominating the whole

relationship. Things escalate and get out of control, leading to an almost unstoppable desire for

full consummation. The sexual instinct in humans is so strong that it needs to be handled

rigorously. That is why the girl cries to the daughters of Jerusalem not to awake or arouse love

until it pleases (that is, until there is a legitimate pathway for its full consummation). She fears

that she cannot control herself. For once ignited, it is a fire which is difficult to quench. But

within marriage, its passions are allowed to burn and blaze with no restraint.

Furthermore, the text affirms the essential goodness of bodily existence and sexual

relationships against those who may be tempted to denigrate them in the interest of a ‘pure’,

higher form of religion. In the words of Gordis,

Over and beyond its eternal youthfulness and inherent charm, the Song

of Songs, precisely because it is within the canon of Scripture serves to

broaden the horizons of religion. It gives expression, in poetic and hence

deathless terms, to the authentic world-view of Judaism, which denies

any dichotomy between body and soul, between matter and spirit,

because it recognizes them both as twin aspects of the great and

unending miracle called life (1994, p. 44).

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This kind of love – is the very ‘flame of Yah’ (8:6). This is translated from the rather

obscure Hebrew בתיהשלה salhebetyah. It is possible that the Yah ending is a contraction of

Yahweh, the covenant God of Israel, but this is debatable. Yah occurs in the proper names

Isaiah (Yes‘ayah, meaning ‘Yahweh is Salvation’) and Jeremiah (Yirmeyah, meaning ‘Yahweh

is exalted’). So it is possible that the meaning here is that love is a flame of Yahweh. But it

may just express a superlative: as one may say, it is an almighty great flame. There are other

instances of this usage of the divine name as a superlative in the Old Testament. An example is

found in Jeremiah 2:31, the phrase “a land of great darkness” translates the Hebrew for

“darkness of Yah”.

Whatever the resolution of this particular linguistic debate, however, it is beyond

question that the flame of ardent love is the good gift of a beneficent Creator. The Shulammite

maiden and her lover model genuine love that demonstrates its sincerity and fidelity by

strength of character and by flame of passion. Their manner of love for each other exudes

integrity, loyalty, commitment, and faithfulness (4:12-16; 7:11-14; 8:10-12). This brand of

love is ול קנא ה כשאה קש אהב “as strong as death” (8:6).

Equally, and as a corollary of this, it resists any tendency to idealize singleness as, in

itself, a superior state. To rejoice in the wife of one’s youth, to be satisfied by her breasts and

captivated by her love is to walk in the path of the wisdom that is grounded in the fear of

Yahweh. The drive towards one-flesh union with one’s bride or groom is a drive towards

wholeness. The Song affirms powerfully, in its own way, the truth of the divine

pronouncement that it is ‘not good’ for a man to be alone (Gen. 2:18); nor is it good for a

woman. It follows that those who remain single, for the purpose of divine calling, do so as a

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great sacrifice for the kingdom of God. There is no romanticism about singleness in the Old

Testament.

5:1b יםו ושכרים שתו רע אכל ;ו דוד Some commentators have been baffled as to who is

speaking and who is spoken to in the invitation ‘eat, friends, drink yourselves drunk on

caresses!’ The argument is if the drinking and eating refers to the consummation of love

between the bride and the bridegroom, this cannot be shared with anybody else – it is theirs

and theirs alone. The New International Version is quite correct in identifying the speakers as

the friends who have come to witness and participate in their wedding. They are addressing the

bride and the bridegroom. The friends are encouraging them to enjoy the physical

consummation of their love. In fact the Hebrew words יםו ושכרים שתו רע אכל ו דוד translated

“drink yourselves drunk” could easily be translated “be intoxicated with love-making” as

Habtu (2006, p. 801) comments.

The Song’s unapologetic depiction of rapturous, reciprocal love between a man and a

woman does model an important dimension of human existence, an aspect of life that ancient

Israel understood to be divinely instituted and sanctioned. Indeed, we need look no further

than Genesis 1 to find express warrant for this view: the whole of God’s creation is “good …

indeed very good”, specifically including the sexual differentiation of humankind “… male and

female he created them” (Gen. 1:27). In fact, the contention that to some extent the poetry

reviews the heterosexual love relationship through ‘Edenic glasses’ – almost an extended

commentary on Genesis 1-2 – has substantial merit (Landy; 1979, pp. 53-58). The Hebrew

Bible thus provides a coherent framework within which one can interpret the Song as

expressing an ethic of human sexuality.

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Similarly, Christian morality is of an equally high standard; for not only are extra-

marital acts condemned, but the inner thought-life is subject to the moral scrutiny of God “But

I tell you that anyone who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her

in his heart” (Mt. 5:28). So, the Song gives no license to flout the moral codes of God’s

covenant people. Of course, the Song affirms the virtue of chastity in the young lovers (4:12;

6:3; 7:10-13; 8:10), which makes a striking contrast with the self-destructive bent of sexual

mores in many societies historically.

Having said this, it is necessary to recognize one area in which a tension suggests itself

is in the matter of singleness, especially singleness for the sake of the kingdom of heaven

(Matt. 19:12), as exemplified by Jesus himself. But, properly understood, this is simply

recognition that dedication to God involves self-sacrifice, and is part of a broader teaching

about the nature of discipleship. The true disciple must be willing to forgo marriage, home,

loved ones, even life itself if need be, for the sake of the kingdom (Matt. 8:20; Luke 9:24, 58;

14:33). This is no more an idealization of singleness than of homelessness or death. In fact, it

is a strong affirmation of the goodness of marriage, and a recognition of the sacrifice involved

in singleness.

Truly these are complex and sensitive issues. Clearly, singleness is not to be seen as

inferior to marriage in all respects, and single persons should not be viewed as ‘incomplete’ in

any way that calls into question their integrity and dignity as human beings. Nevertheless, the

Song has something important to say in this area, and it must be allowed to make its

contribution to a fully biblical approach to these matters. The New Testament teaching about

singleness as a state which is preferable in certain circumstances (1 Cor. 7), or which may be

embraced voluntarily for the sake of the kingdom of God is to be seen against the background

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of Genesis 1-3. In other words, singleness remains a state that is ‘not good’ in the sense that it

is a state of loneliness in which certain natural created desires are not met. There are

compensations, of course, and important benefits, but particular needs remain unmet, and the

single person has to live with that fact and work through it. It is important to acknowledge this;

otherwise there is a danger of moving into a kind of unreality and denial that are not helpful,

either to single people themselves, or to those who minister to them.

IMPLICATIONS OF SEXUAL ETHICS IN THE SONG OF SONGS

The imageries, euphemism and terminologies used in the Song of Songs are very

romantic and as such belong to sexual love. This understanding of the Song of Songs contrasts

with the long-held view that the Song of Songs is an allegory of the love relations between

God and Israel or Christ and the Church or between Christ and the soul. Instead, the Song of

Songs is clearly pictured as depicting sexual love in all its spontaneity, beauty, power and

exclusiveness, experienced by couples in varied moments of separation and intimacy, anguish

and ecstasy, tension and contentment. Since there is no other book of the Bible that is devoted

to the subject of sexual love, by adopting the allegorical method of interpretation, an important

element of biblical wholeness may be lost.

The intense feelings and vivid sexual images communicated by the lovers in the text

and of course in the entire book – Song of Songs describing the beloved one’s body is an

indication that physical attraction is part of an intimate relationship. This serves as an

invitation by God to married couples to enjoy sexual pleasure. Couples are to do whatever is

necessary for them to have the time, energy, and privacy to enjoy each other sexually, hence

the injunction to delight in the wife of your youth. To avoid taking each other for granted, the

couple of Song of Songs keeps the flame of passion alive by celebrating each other. Each takes

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time and energy to nurture the other partner as special gift with loving words and touches day

in and day out. The fact that true love brings out the best in other people is well expressed;

such improves character. In the final analysis, wedding is celebrated once for life, but getting

married is what is done every day by keeping the flame of passion burning.

It is evident that the Song of Songs is the Bible’s boldest endorsement of sexual and

romantic love. Of course, from the very beginning, God designed sexual union to be a

bounding experience for husbands and wives together in marriage (Gen. 2:24). But the Song of

Songs shows that romance and sexual enjoyment is a critical part of marriage. Hence, “Drink

yourselves drunk on lovemaking!” With God’s blessing indeed, by his design – husbands and

wives have each other to enjoy, exclusively and without shame. Beautiful as sex may be, it can

become a degrading thing by being neglected by some couples as something bad or disgusting.

Its purpose can also be marred when couples seek the pleasure of sex without restraint.

When the Song of Songs talks about sexual relationship, it emphasizes the necessity

that love be kept under control, despite the passion, the longing, and the anticipation; hence the

refrain: “Do not arouse or awaken love until it so desires” (2:7. 3:5, 8:4). The caution applies

to young unmarried sweethearts, those engaged, newly wedded or those married for decades.

Not adhering to the warning can be disastrous; leading to teenage pregnancies, broken

marriages, and sexual immoralities of all sorts. Sexual self- control is a particular manifestation

of the spiritual gift listed in Galatians 5:2ff. Sexual morality is thus an aspect of holiness.

Hence, in this world of sin, where lust and passion are on every hand, where fierce temptations

assail everyone and try to turn one aside from the God-given standard of marriage, the Song of

Songs portrays in particularly beautiful fashion, how pure and noble true love is.

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Worthy of special remarks also is the fact that the couple of the Song of Songs did not

defile the bethrodal/engagement period. Marriage in biblical tradition began with engagement,

which is why a divorce was required in order to break it. The case of Joseph and Mary is a

good example of engagement in Jewish culture. Sexual union did not begin with the

engagement but was reserved for after the wedding. Full consummation could take place only

after the marriage was full solemnized. The passion notwithstanding, the couple of the Song of

Songs laboured to reserve sex for the appointed time as the custom demanded. No wonder they

are blessed; Thus I have become to his eyes like one bringing contentment” (8:10).

CHAPTER SIX

THE ETHICAL RELEVANCE OF SONG OF SOLOMON TO HUMAN S EXUALITY IN CONTEMPORARY IGBO SOCIETY

Within the Igbo societies today – even within the churches – many are confused about

sex and sexual morality. There is a growing movement toward accepting behaviours that were

almost universally considered immoral just a few decades ago. Of course, sexual sin goes back

almost to the beginning of history, but in times past, it was viewed as something shameful,

something to be hidden away.

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It is clear from the literature review that the social context provided in traditional

African societies has many positive elements in discouraging free sex. But the lack of balance

mentioned in the review as a result of the fall still manifests itself in other ways. The societal

control in traditional Igbo cultures can be so strong that the kind of equal and mutual love seen

in the Song which is the basis for a strong and permanent marital relationship, does not have

the right environment in which to blossom. The following are ways in which the Song of

Songs can be relevant to Igbo societies.

6.1 POLYGAMY

One element of African tradition the churches in Africa have long been struggling with

is the issue of polygamy, which makes sense at least from a traditional point of view. The Igbo

culture is not free from this struggle. According to Mma Agbagha, the Igbo people gave titles

that encouraged and strengthened marrying of many wives, such as Olu akia ezi “he who

marries a kitchen line” for the Abibiri community in Old Bende divisionary council (personal

communication, 15th May, 2015). This is with the understanding that in the olden days, a man

builds a house with rooms and parlour and then builds a kitchen line of two and above

depending on the number of wives he has. Arguments for polygamy include continuation of

the family name; agricultural benefits, a solution to the problem of singleness/single parent

motherhood; a way of avoiding sexual immorality for the man among others (O’Donovan;

1996, p. 288-9). But the bad effects of polygamy continue from one generation to another in

spite of the arguments given in favour of it. Helen John Eze of Idembia in Ezza local

Government of Ebonyi state, a nurse by profession narrates how difficult it is to handle cases

of Sexually Transmitted Diseases including HIV/AIDS in the area. This she attributes to

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polygamous life style of men in the area who keep many wives. She emphasizes that such

treatments require that both sexual partners are treated at the same time; but in the case of

many sexual partners it is difficult to get all of them treated at once. The effect is that many

suffer and die from STDs (personal communication, January 5, 2016). The emotional pain,

jealousy and competition among the wives and children of polygamous families clearly

demonstrate the fact that this form of marriage is matter of selfish convenience. There is no

doubt that these vices may equally exist in monogamous homes among the children as in the

case of Cain and Abel, comparatively, it is worst in polygamous homes.

The Song of Solomon praises the goodness of humanity as created male and female and

argues for the propriety and dignity of human affections and sexual expression within the

divinely decreed bounds of a one-man-to-one-woman relationship. This understanding is very

relevant to the contemporary world which has popularized infidelity to the marriage bond, has

televised comedies on the theme of adultery, and has left the impression that sex is where you

find it in the satisfaction of lust. Not so in the Song of Solomon. It speaks of the exclusive love

of two persons, each wrapped up in the other, each pure, each faithful to the other, each

innocent of any involvement with others. So the woman tells her lover that she has reserved the

fruit of love exclusively for him: רח ים נרא לכרמ ימהנשכ צו ר הנ ח הסמד פת פןה הג ה אם פ

�ן את־דד ם את ים ש ונ הרמ י ל “The Mandrakes send out their fragrance, and at our door is every

delicacy, both new and old, that I have stored up for you, my lover” (7:13).

This is not to rule out the polygamous instinct for it does exist. There is no doubt that

those who genuinely love each other “feel the intrusions of a third person to be intolerably

disturbing, that a strong and genuine love – quite apart from any idea of ethical obligation –

does want the loved one wholly and solely for itself” (Barnette; 1952, p. 69). Such love always

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feels: it is with this particular person that I wish to live alone for always. This suggests the fact

that human love itself tends towards monogamy and the desire for exclusive sexual relations

between two persons. Granted, it may be difficult for an average African man to accept a

monogamous family style, Churches and Non Governmental Organizations who understand

the reality of HIV/AIDS and other Sexually Transmitted Diseases should be engaged in

campaigns, creating awareness on the ills of polygamy until it is fully eradicated.

6.2 RESPECT FOR INDIVIDUAL’S CHOICE IN MARRIAGE

Another element of Igbo tradition that may possibly oppose the establishment of strong

and fulfilling marriage relationships is the practice of relatives of the partners arranging their

marriage. Such marriages can be entered into for a number of reasons – for wealth, as payment

for debts, for political reasons, or to secure other types of alliances. This practice differs

according to communities but the end result is the same – marriage is arranged without the

consent of either one or both the couple involved. Kenneth O. Idika of the Anglican Diocese

of Ikwo observes that there are women in Ikwo who just saw themselves as small girls in

another family thinking that they were there to serve as maids only to discover latter that they

were equally brought to the family as wives to men old enough to be their fathers (personal

communication, 6th June, 2015).

Apart from arranged marriages, there was also the practice of marriage by inheritance

whereby a young widow is bounded by the tradition to be inherited by the brother of the

deceased husband to ensure the proper welfare of the family. This is not a pan Igbo culture. In

some Igbo communities where marriage by inheritance is practiced, it is made optional for the

widow to decide which is at least better.

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It should be remarked that in these practices, the most important questions of whether

the man and woman love each other or consent to the union are put aside. Habtu (2006, p. 800)

has rightly observed that the encroachment of modernity has impacted on this practice; but to

what extent will it change for the better? Not unless the Christian churches and the society

shoulder the tremendous responsibility of preparing the young to be the committed and loving

life-partners celebrated in the Song of Songs.

6.3 THE NEED FOR SEXUAL INTIMACY IN MARRIAGE

Marriage in typical Igbo societies was not only a social institution, but a religious one.

In Africa generally and in Igbo culture in particular, marriage was not just the affair of the

couple involved, as in Western culture. It was a community affair. The wife was regarded as

“our wife” in the sense that she had responsibility to the entire community excluding sexual

relations. To the Igbos, sex was more than sexual intercourse. Apart from procreation, it was

the means of sustaining, maintaining and extending the clan and society. Sexual intercourse

took place only within marriage. It legitimized men and women’s engagement in sexual

activity for the production of children. Sexual purity was enforced as the marriage institution

provided the basis for ensuring strict moral standards in the following ways:

a. Adultery

Adultery of a married woman was considered a taboo in Igbo culture. There are several

traditional practices in Igbo cultures that are instituted to prevent married women from

indulging in extra-marital relationships. The practice in Ihechiowa of Arochukwu Local

Government Area is worthy of mention. According to Ole, Sunday, if a woman from this part

of Igbo land indulges in an extra-marital affair, the gods of the land sends a signal to her

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husband mostly through nightmares. This will lead him to discussion with the wife on whether

she is in anywhere having affairs outside her wedlock. Even if the man is ignorant of this

tradition, the terrible nature of the nightmares will force him to share with others and it will be

explained to him. If the woman confesses, she and the man involved will be made to sacrifice a

goat each to appease the gods of the land and free themselves from the wrath of the land

goddess. If more than a man is involved, then the goats will multiple in twos (personal

communication, 8th August, 2015). This practice is common in many Igbo societies though

with some variations.

b. Concubinage

Some Igbo communities endorse the practice of concubinage which is a form of secondary

wife. This is known as uzi in Aro culture. For the Aro people of Abia State, Ole opines that a

widow is culturally permitted to keep a concubine while still living in the late husband’s house

if she does not want to remarry. Traditionally, the man who is her concubine brings wine ‘Ibu

manyi’ to her husband’s kinsmen thereby making the relationship official. This practice in

essence legalizes extra-marital affairs for the married man who can keep as many concubines

as his purse can carry. Incase of pregnancy, the child belongs to the late husband (personal

communication, 8th August, 2015). Chief Eze Nwakpu Egbe, Ozo 1 of Echara Nkwo of Ebonyi

State admit the presence of this tradition in Ikwo land but observes that many people are

withdrawing from this practice today because of awareness in the area of sexually transmitted

diseases (personal communication, 3 August, 2015). It is purely out of place for a married

woman whose husband is still alive to have an extra-marital affair in Igbo culture.

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The positive dimensions of human love portrayed in the Song of Solomon are

important as cues for molding strong male-female relationships in contemporary Igbo society.

The Shulammite maiden and her lover model genuine love that demonstrates its sincerity and

fidelity by strength of character and by flame of passion. Their manner of love for each other

exudes integrity, loyalty, commitment, and faithfulness (4:12-16; 7:11-14; 8:10-12). They

share a love that will never be violated, a covenant never to be broken. This brand of love is

“as strong as death” (8:6). It respects and nurtures the partner of the marriage covenant and

does not break faith (Mal. 2:14-15). This calls for a structural balance in the Igbo custom and

tradition that forbids adultery for married women but promote same for men who can marry

and keep as many wives and concubines they want without any form of cultural restrictions.

Just like the Shulammite maiden, every woman desires to be treated with some kind of

respect in marriage. No sane man will consciously like to share his wife with another man. The

same applies to women. It will therefore not be awkward to assume that an every Igbo women

in the sense of her understanding of her chastity and commitment to love life will need the

same assurance of the Shulammite. Thus,

Place me like a seal over your heart, Like a seal on your arm; For love is as strong as death, Its jealousy unyielding as the grave, It burns like blazing fire, Like a mighty flame. Many waters cannot quench love; Rivers cannot wash it away. If one were to give All the wealth of his house for love, It would be utterly scorned (8:6-7).

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A seal is a sign of ownership that can be seen by anyone. She wants it to be obvious to

all that she is totally owned by him and in no way belongs to any other. The seal was to be in

two places: on his heart (the seat of his affections) and on his arm (the symbol of his physical

strength). He would totally own her, love her and protect her. Observe: “love is … death.

Unyielding … grave. It burns … flame. Many waters … away”. These wisdom statements

characterize marital love as the strongest, most unyielding and invincible force in human

experience.

6.4 MARRIAGE AND PROCREATION

The Igbo people place great value on children and procreation as the major reason for

marriage. That is why before a marriage is contracted in Igbo land, the two families involved

first embark of investigation. Part of the findings include whether the family of the would-be

bride give birth without difficulties (Ubani, 2007, p. 5). In fact, during the traditional marriage

it is customary for the elders to pray that after nine months, the mother of the bride should go

and do “omugho” (that is traditional nursing rite for a newly delivered mother) for the bride.

Mma has observed that lack of procreation can jeopardize the marriage even the families

involved. Barrenness or even giving birth to only female children may compel a man to

contract another marriage. Sometimes in rare cases, barren women arrange for another wife for

their husbands (Personal communication, 15th May, 2015).

However, the Song of Songs indicates that the sexual intimacies shared by a husband

and wife are appropriate in themselves for mutual joy and pleasure and for the growth and

enrichment of the relationship. Whilst in Old Testament times it was of the utmost importance

for a marriage to produce offspring (particularly males) to carry on the name of the father’s

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house just as in Igbo culture, in the Song of Solomon itself there seems to be virtually no

interest in procreation, children and fertility. In ancient Israel, as in many Igbo societies today,

the family, the clan, the tribe was more important than the particular individual. Thus the

individual’s identity is defined by his place in society. Indeed, in the Garden of Eden account

of the creation of man and woman, the emphasis lies squarely on the mutual companionship of

the couple. There is no mention of offspring as the intention or result of the one-flesh

relationship. The complementarities of the pair are complete in the dual relationship alone. It

would appear that in Genesis 1 the issue of fruitfulness is relegated to the status of an extra

blessing/commandment, after the creation of the sexual pair.

Of course, in the Old Testament the gift of children was considered to be one of the

outstanding blessings of God, and it was an essential part in the fulfillment of the promises to

the Patriarchs. So, barrenness and infertility were matters of great individual and social

concern. It is in the light of this theological and communal background that the Old Testament

nearly always describes the sexual act as issuing in conception. But the procreation aspect of

the act is only a by-product of its primary recreational function. It is equally possible that by

concentrating on the recreational value of sex infertile couples who only have sex because of

their curiosity for procreation may be revived of their infertility. Another way of lessening

their curiosity could be by adoption. While the Igbo culture’s provision in case of barrenness is

polygamy, the teachings of Song of Songs are opposed to it and instead, maintain a

monogamous marriage relationship.

6.5 TABOOS FOR SEX WITHIN MARRIAGE

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The Igbos like many other Africans view sex as sacred. In some places in Igbo culture

it was a taboo to have an affair with a pregnant woman after a certain period and while nursing

until the child’s weaning age. Since the Igbo culture abhors immorality in the society,

polygamy according to Chief Eze Nwakpu Egbe, was encouraged for the man who cannot

control his sexual urge to have more wives in order to satisfy his sexual desires. The

prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases has made it very unsafe to keep multiple sexual

partners (personal communication, 3rd August, 2015).

The Song of Solomon is particularly relevant to the Igbo culture since it affirms the

goodness and uprightness of sexual love within the confines of God-ordained marriage (2:3-7,

7:9-12; Prov. 5:15-20; Eccl. 9:9; Mal. 2:14-16). In the Song of Songs is a whole book taken up

with the most detailed appreciation of the physical world and its beauty. It also appreciates a

man and a woman’s love for each other, which is certainly not ‘platonic love’. It is set in the

midst of expressions about the smell of perfume, the singing of birds, the beauty of flowers,

and the physical attributes of each other. With these, the Song emphasizes that there is a basic,

God-ordained wholesomeness to sex, to the use of the couple’s bodies in this manner.

This explains one of the interesting characteristics of sexual pleasure, namely that “in a

really successful partnership sexual pleasure normally continues to increase in both parties

throughout married life” (Comfort; 1988, p. 56). This admission by an atheistic humanist

points to the important fact that there is not only more pleasure obtained by using sex

according to its purpose, but also that, unless this is done, the real depths of pleasure that are

possible in sex are unobtainable. This implies that those who pursue pleasure in sex for its own

sake have sex indiscreetly from partner to partner, by this very action rules out the possibility

of fulfillment. On the other hand, when the use of sex is kept within its purpose of

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monogamous marriage it not only yields pleasure increasingly but, more importantly, it also

achieves personal fellowship, without which no happiness is possible.

It has been noted that God established a physical attraction between the sexes; this is

not wrong. In the marriage relationship as the Song stresses, sex is to have its normal, healthy

role in providing fulfillment and joy for both partners. It is not something to be shunned, but to

be praised. In fact, the contention that to some extent the poetry reviews the heterosexual love

relationship through ‘Edenic glasses’ – almost an extended commentary on Genesis 1-2 – has

substantial merit (Landy; 1979, pp. 53-58).

Important as sex is, it may become a degrading thing, practiced as an animal might.

What makes the Song of Solomon a classic is that it is not about the physical attraction of the

body – although, as the text reveals, this man and this woman greatly appreciate one another’s

physical attributes. Rather it is about sex and pleasure as God intended it. This sex is not

smeared on the streets or in the locker rooms; its purity and sacredness remain untainted by

trash talk.

6.6 CHASTITY AMONG THE YOUTHS

Chastity is a state of being free from all taint of that which is lewd. It suggests

refraining from all acts and thoughts that incite desire not in accordance with one’s virginity or

one’s marriage vows. The Igbo culture had rich traditional practices that encouraged chastity in

the young and married women. The following are some of them:

a. Celebration of virginity

Virginity was highly celebrated in some Igbo communities. For the Awkuzu people of

Anambra State, H.R.H. Chief Chukwubuike Ezeaganama states that after the initial traditional

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marriage ‘Igbankwu imeulo’ the young maiden goes to stay with the family of her groom for a

period of three weeks. This served as what is practiced today as engagement. If she is found to

be a virgin during this period, the marriage arrangement for the main traditional marriage will

continue and it is a thing of great honour and joy for her family. On the other hand, if she is

found not to be a virgin, this was enough to terminate the marriage engagement. At the end of

the three weeks stay at the groom’s place, the bridegroom will go back to her family house for

the main traditional marriage ‘Nnukwu Igbankwu’ or ‘Nnukwu Nmanya’ in which she is

celebrated and send forth ‘idu ulo’ with money and material things like household wares,

house, car among others (personal Communication, 12th August, 2015).

This practice is common in many Igbo societies with little variations. For instance the

people of Old Bende of Abia State uphold the tradition of ibu ulo which comes after the rite of

‘ igbu ewu nso’. The goal of the igbu ewu nso ritual in Joy Uma’s view was to ascertain

whether or not a girl is a virgin and to celebrate her (personal communication, 5th March,

2015). Writing on the need for young girls to keep their virginity, Newman affirms; “Virgins

miss out on V.D., AIDS, premarital pregnancies and abortion” (1997, p. 16). This shows that

in addition to material good and honour given to the girls, she equally receives health goodness

as a prize for maintaining her virginity.

In a discussion with Ifemene, Afuoma, the wife of the Bishop of Anglican Diocess of

Ikwo, she revealed that an Ikwo girl is not expected to have carnal knowledge of any man

before marriage. If she does, she is considered to have committed an abomination against her

father’s house and the man responsible is expected to appease her father’s compound through a

sacrifice known as ‘odakaufu’ (personal communication, 6th July 2015). The unchaste is not

cerebrated at all. In fact, she is no longer considered for as a first wife in many Igbo

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communities. The celebration of chastity in the young woman was therefore a way of

promoting sexual morality in Igbo culture.

The Igbo culture lacks practices or traditions that promoted chastity in the young and

married men. By implication, the male child is brought up according to the Igbo culture to

have no restraint in matters of sexuality. No wander the adage that an African man is a

polygamist.

b. Female Circumcision

Female circumcision, female genital cutting or female genital mutilation; all refer to one

and the same practice of partially or totally removing the external genitals of girls and young

women for non-medical reasons. This is a cultural tradition performed across central Africa, in

the southern Sahara, and in parts of the Middle East. For the Igbo culture, Rosana Egbe, an 87

years old woman from Ozu Abam, Arochukwu Local Government Area of Abia State stated

that the practice preserves a girl or woman’s virginity or restrains sexual desire, thereby

preventing sexual behavior that is considered immoral or inappropriate. She emphasizes,

Those who are circumcised are generally believed to be morally upright.

This is because there is no inordinate desire to engage in random sex

before marriage. And again, when they get married, there is a great

moistening of the vulva after the first sex, making it easy for subsequent

sex. The practice is safe, secured and advisable. It is a spiritual thing that

connects the circumciser, the person involved and the spirit of morality

(Saturday Mirror, 25 July, 2015, p. 37).

However, the World Health Organization (WHO) has stressed that the effects of female

circumcision depending on the procedure can include recurrent infections, chronic pain, cysts,

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inability to get pregnant, complications during childbirth and fatal bleeding. WHO also

observes that this practice constitutes an extreme form of discrimination against women and a

violation to person’s rights to health, security and physical integrity, the right to be freed from

torture and cruel inhuman or degrading treatment and the right to life when the procedure

results to death. (www.theguardian.comm>lifestyle. Seen 23 July, 2015). This position,

however, has been discarded as mere propaganda and lacking merit by traditionalists, who

claim to have practiced it for as long as it has existed. Ohuali Chika, who resides in Enugu,

said she had given away three circumcised daughters in marriage, and none of them was

mutilated, adding that she herself was circumcised, and she is healthy and enjoys sex (Saturday

Mirror, p. 37).

Meanwhile, the practice of female circumcision had been outlawed in many countries

of the world including Nigeria. So while this work is not promoting the practice of female

circumcision, there is need to emphasize the aim of the practice which was to promote sexual

morality in the young girl. This particular concept of chastity in the young girls is quickly

eroding in the Igbo culture. Truly, it is still a shameful thing for a girl to have a child while in

the father’s house, but girls are now exposed to contraceptives to avert unwanted pregnancies.

Promiscuity is another element that is not healthy in maintaining a strong and

permanent relationship in contemporary Igbo society. Chastity is no longer considered a virtue.

On the contrary, it is mocked and held up to ridicule. Those who are “sexually inexperienced”,

both male and female, are either looked down upon with contempt, or else considered to be the

objects of pity. The reaction of contempt arises from either guilt feelings or hostility towards

those who do not conform to their own immoral behaviour. The reaction of pathos arises from

a misplaced sense of what wholeness means; there is the unspoken assumption that lack of

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experience at this sexual level somehow is a disqualification from progress in this postmodern

world; that the chaste or the celibate is somehow incomplete or unfulfilled; that they are

emotional cripples bound by outmoded religious scruples.

The Song of Songs affirms the virtue of chastity in the young lovers. In chapter 2,

while the passion is very high: “strengthen me with raisins, refresh me with apples, for I am

faint with love” (verse 5) yet in all their exuberantly expressed passion for one another, they

are aware that they must be cautious. The Shulammite and her husband-to-be know what

desires wage war in their flesh. Love is not to be awakened until the right time. Listen to this

caution: “Daughters of Jerusalem, I charge you by the gazelles and the does of the field: Do

not arouse or awaken love until it so desires” (verse 7).

There are variations of this phrase repeated in 3:5 and 8:4. Solomon is urging the

daughters of Jerusalem to remain pure, to not awaken love when it cannot be fulfilled. He

admonishes them and today’s readers to be vigilant against any compromise that would taint

their relationship. Love is to be expressed sexually in only one place and that, as has been

established, is in the marriage bed.

There is a similar warning in the chapter that demands notice: “Catch the foxes for us,

the little foxes that are ruining the vineyards, while our vineyards are in blossom” (2:15). Here

the desire is expressed that the lovers be kept safe from whatever (‘foxes’) might mar the

mutual attractiveness. This makes a striking contrast with the self-destructive bent of sexual

mores in many societies historically. Recent studies disclosing the harmful emotional,

psychological, and physical side effects of sexual license within and outside marriage only

confirm the wisdom of biblical teaching.

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6.7 INCEST IN IGBO CULTURE

Incest has been described as sexual relationships between people who are closely

related; examples include: father and daughter, mother and son, sister and brother, aunt/uncle

and niece/cousin and such like relations (Agbo, 2009, p. 61). An average African may

conclude that this kind of sexual relationship is unimaginable. The literature review above

shows that this evil of incest is already a contemporary phenomenon even in Igbo culture.

Even though cases of incest are hardly reported in the whole of Africa, however, Agbo cites

two cases of incest; one at Awka in Anambra state and the other at Enugu in Enugu state. In

Awka, a father raped his own teenage daughter of form one, in Senior Secondary school. At

Enugu, one Odo Richard raped his underage daughter (2009, p. 21). Review of national dailies

reveals that uncles, aunts, brothers, sisters and even grandparents are not left out in this

demonic practice.

These kinds of sexual relationships are considered as taboos in Igbo culture. In fact, the

Igbo tradition makes frantic efforts to ensure that people who are closely related do not marry

each other. This is why before any marriage is contracted according to the local Igbo custom,

the two families involved will engage in investigation. Part of the inquiry is to know if there is

any trace of blood relationship between the two families. The marriage is cancelled once it is

discovered that the two are related. Incest is seen as an abominable act nso ala that is

punishable by the land goddess Ala leading to death, madness, childlessness of either those

involved or family members who fail in their responsibilities to the young couple.

One may possibly dismiss this with a wave of the hand as being superstitious, whereas,

there are living instances of bad omen befalling those who have been engaged in incest

knowingly and unknowingly. Affirming this, Chief Mrs. Mercy Kalu Ibe narrates an incident

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of incest that happened in her home town Abiriba in Ohafia Local Government of Abia State.

According to her, the man is an uncle to the woman. When it was discovered that both of them

were relating with each other sexually, their parents invited them before the village council of

Chiefs and explained to them the abominable nature of their act and encouraged them to desist

from such forthwith. They both objected to the advice of the elders and left their village

(Amanta) to a new layout (ala ndi Oriri) all in Abiriba to settle. Since then, Mercy explained

further, “Even though they have had children, both the man and the woman have been mentally

unstable” (personal communication, February 5, 2016).

In agreement with the fact that incest is greeted with bad omen in Igbo culture, Mrs.

Ngunu of Ameke Abam in Arochukwu Local Government of Abia State narrates two

contemporary instances of incest. In her first narrative, a teenage girl went to live with her

uncle who is a pastor in Lagos, both of them from Ameke Abam. Unfortunately, it was later

discovered that the uncle had put the young girl in a family way. Their family has not taken

decisive efforts to separate them. Today, according to Mrs. Ngunu, that union has produced

three children; and many prominent members of their family have been plagued with

mysterious deaths. Her second narrative concerns an Eze (village head) in one of the

autonomous villages in Abam. The said Eze was having carnal knowledge of his own

biological daughter until she was put in the family way. Discovering what he has done, the Eze

took his daughter for an abortion which claimed the life of the girl. It was also gathered,

according Mrs. Ngunu that the Eze wanted to start the same shameful act with his seconded

daughter but the girl resisted him. As result the Eze immediately refused to sustain his parental

responsibilities to the second daughter. From that point, bad omens characterized his regime

until his death (personal communication, February 16, 2016).

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Worthy of mention also is a similar case at Idima Abam. Chief Okorukwu Kalu Okorie

narrates a story of a couple who was found to share blood relationship and were relating

sexually. The village council of Chiefs invited and advised them to dismiss the idea of

marriage. They objected to the advice of the villagers and left the village to settle in the town.

Chief Okorukwu explained that since then, the couple has not been blessed with an issue.

Worst of it all, is that the woman’s mental health has been very unstable, only getting better

any time she leaves the man (personal communication, February 3, 2016). When asked about

the possible solution to this ailment, Chief. Okorukwu explains that if the couple adheres to the

warning of the village elders, the village will conduct a ritual cleansing which is being handled

by the chief priest for both the man and women to appease the land goddess. Thereafter, they

will marry other people of their choice if they choose to and live normal lives. Understandably

from the Christian perspective, this is going through repentance, confession, forgiveness and

restoration. Mrs. Ngunu has equally observed that the practice of incest may work for people in

other cultures of the world like the Chinese, but not in Igbo culture, she insists (personal

communication, February 16, 2016).

The family imagery in the Song of Songs is very significant in this regard. It re-echoes

the Mosaic Law which set boundaries on sexual expression against incest, promiscuity of any

kind, and sexual perversions (Levi. 18). Paying strict attention to the Mosaic Law therefore,

the brothers of the Shulammite maiden did not abuse their sister sexually. On the contrary, the

brothers of the maiden helped her to achieve her God’s given potential of a chaste life; a

typical example of what families in the Igbo culture that taboos incest should do for their

family members.

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6.8 ENGAGEMENT – A BINDING ARRANGEMENT

Marriage in Igbo culture just as in biblical tradition began with engagement.

Engagement is a common practice in Igbo culture even though with variations in the steps

taken leading to it and the number of months. According to Ani, once both families of the

intending couple have accepted each other and haven given and received list of requirement for

the marriage ceremony, the girl becomes a lawful wife to the man. Such relations cannot be

broken by either of the couple unless through divorce process (2011, p. 43). A prominent

feature of the engagement custom is that it is a period of emotional bonding for the couple. In

this period, the man labours to meet up with the list of marriage requirements from his in-law

while the woman is placed in the fattening room where she is nurtured and well prepared for

motherhood. During engagement, a woman is not expected to move alone; but should always

be accompanied by her maids. The man on his part visits the home of the woman some

evenings in the company of his friends. This way, they get to know each other better and share

their hopes and expectations for the future. Munroe emphasizing the use of the engagement

period states; “Engagement is not a time of idleness and ‘pie-in-the-sky-by-and-by’ dreaming,

but a period of hard work and preparation” (2012, p. 116). Munroe is of the opinion that most

marriages fail because of issues that could have and should have been addressed during the

engagement. Finance, housing, sexual needs and expectations, parenting philosophy,

educational dreams and goals – all of these are potential trouble spots for married couples.

These could be discussed and worked out during engagement in preparation for a healthy

marriage. Though preparation for the wedding usually takes place during the engagement

period, he insists; “Certainly wedding planning needs to take place during that time, but that is

not the primary purpose of the engagement period” (2012, p. 117).

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In some Igbo communities, women undergo circumcision during their fattening period.

Writing about Ngbo people of Ebonyi State, Arigbo states, that the fattening period is the

period a girl who has been circumcised is being taken care of. Those who are already engaged

are specially provided for by their would-be husbands (2006, p. 46). Engaged couples were

committed to one another in a singular and exclusive ways, just as if they were already

married, except that they were not yet free to have sexual relations. Recalling her

youthful days, Chief Mrs. Kalu recounts how urbanization has negatively affected this

cherished custom of engagement. Today many men who want to marry take their women to the

town after the engagement ceremony (ibu manyi) under the disguise of going to measure cloths

only to return for the marriage ceremony with protruding stomach. By this, the period of

engagement is now turned to a period of trying to know if a woman is fruitful or not. Churches

in Igbo land have tried to intervene with the rule of compulsory pregnancy test before church

wedding to no avail. This development may also be as a result of the fact that the Christian

faith preaches monogamy and does not make any official provision in times of barrenness.

Coming from the African culture where marriage cannot be separated from procreation, this

practice is becoming very common. The issue is, if people live within the biblical injunction in

their sexuality, infertility arising from youthful laxity would have been drastically reduced.

Generally in modern culture, engagement is no longer taken as a serious thing. Engaged

couples easily break up by just asking for the ring back in case of the man or giving back the

same. Munroe has rightly observed that this is happening “because many people today,

particularly those of the youngest generations, are afraid of commitment” (2004, p. 98).

The word of God does not change. The message of the Song of Songs is very relevant

to the contemporary Igbo society. The Shulammite maiden and her groom viewed marriage as

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the consummation of their engagement, the climax of all the planning and all the dreams, and

all the thoughts, and all the hopes and aspirations that they has shared with each other. They

both laboured to keep their marriage bed undefiled.

6.9. SEX EDUCATION: THE NEED FOR THE FAMILY AND SO CIETY

The need for proper sex education is one of the significances of the family imagery in

the Song of Songs. Chapter 8:8-10 is a significant paragraph on the theme of keeping the

expression of sex for the right time. This passage tells of a loyal, caring family who saw it a

point of responsibility to protect their sister from misuse of sex. From the girls early years,

before she was physically developed, her older brothers, in particular, disciplined her and

encouraged her to keep her body only for the one she was to marry. Until that time she has the

option of either to be “a wall”, resisting all the approaches of false lovers, or “a door” allowing

any man to pass through her defences, thereby losing her virginity before marriage. This all

ties in with the refrain “do not arouse … love until it so desires.” If she adheres to the training,

her brothers will reward her with adornment but if she lets herself and her family down, they

will be even firmer in their protection and “enclose her with panels of cedar.”

Many of those interviewed are of the opinion that the Igbo culture views sex as sacred

and discussing it a taboo. Boys and girls are left alone to discover the changes in their bodies

by themselves. Even the newly married are not counseled on sexual relations. In fact Chief Eze

Nwakpu Egbe, the Ozo 1 of Echara Ikwo states emphatically that “the villagers see it as an evil

to discuss sex with children”. His Royal Highness, Eze Don Oporozo, the Opia of Umuopia-

Akokwa, affirms the lack of sex education in his tradition also observes that the situation is

changing today among the educated families and elites of the community who are now seeing

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it as a point of duty and responsibility to give their children sex education. It is worthy of note

that even when a cultural practice presents itself as a means of sex education as in the case of

circumcision – a rite of passage, the young people are simply told that this needs to be done

because it makes them unclean and immoral (The Guardian. www.theguardian.comm.lifestyle.

Seen 23 July, 2015). The much an average African woman trying to give her teenage daughter

sex education in Agbo’s observation may be “don’t go closer to men … if you stay closer to

them you become pregnant … you hear?” (2009, p. 19).

It is even more disheartening that many girls start menstruation without a pre-

knowledge of what this is all about and so lack proper information from their mothers on how

to handle their menstrual challenges. Girls who fall victims of this become vulnerable preys in

the hands of the peer groups who see it as an opportunity to feed such innocent victims with all

manners of information which may be destructive. The Song of Songs encourages families to

be actively involved in the sex education their children and introduce them to God’s design for

sex. Every human being including children is interested in the subject of sex; hence children

are particularly encouraged when they hear it from their homes – mom and dad.

As has been discussed above, the role of family training cannot be overemphasized in

contemporary society. From the day a child starts to walk, he seems to attract accidents and

mishaps. He makes foolish choices and gets himself into all sorts of scrapes, difficulties, and

dilemmas. As he gets older he can get himself into worse troubles than skinned knees or

broken arms, and he can damage more than just his body. Wisdom does not come naturally to a

child; on the contrary, “foolishness is bound up in the heart of a child” (Prov. 22:15).

One of the early indications that a child’s childhood attitude toward the opposite sex

had changed was his desire to date. Dating is the acting out of this new attraction. It is one’s

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beginning involvement with the experience of ‘knowing’ that has its fulfillment in the union of

marriage. At work in this attraction is a selective factor. Because of his attraction to certain

individuals, he wants to get close to them, to spend time with them. He wants to talk with them

and listen to them talk to him; to share with them; to get to know them better as individuals.

There is also a sexual context to this attraction. The body wants to ‘get in on the act.’

This should be expected in any view of life which sees the person as a whole. Since the

attraction is normally between the sexes there is the desire for physical contact as well. Thus,

the desire to date is also the desire to touch. The touch is pleasant. This is why it is desired. Yet

it can involve consequences. This is where training comes in for if the power of sex would be

controlled, parents must of necessity impose limits upon the pleasure of sex. Here is where one

runs into conflict. Limits upon pleasure are always protested. Children are particularly

notorious in this respect. If they are having fun, they view it as an outrage if they have to stop

for any reason. When they are interrupted, they protest. This is why they need parents to

impose these limits for them.

When the child grows into adulthood there is at least the hope that he will learn not

only to accept limitations on his desires but also to impose them on himself. Some, however,

seem never to grow out of their childhood resistance to limits.

That sex gives pleasure is not in itself a reason to limit it. This has to come from the

meaning of sex. As has been seen above, sex is not solely biological but expresses the totality

of a person (Buth; 1982, p. 12). When sex is expressed in a relationship, it suggests a

relationship in which the commitment of each to the other is total. This is the understanding of

marriage relationship.

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With so much emphasis on sex and on sexual intercourse as the sina qua non in human

experience, some young people, in a desperate attempt to settle the tension over the pleasure

and the mystery, seek out sexual experience. This is done even with someone they care little

about – so that they can tell themselves and others that they have had it. In this context, sex

relationship loses all of its real significance as one suffers a loss of identity to group pressure.

Adeyemi (2005, p. 20) has rightly emphasized that sexual promiscuity is an indication of want

of character.

Apart from the peer pressure, as has been noted before, sex provides pleasure, and

whenever this is experienced, it seems unnatural to limit it. Pleasure can completely occupy the

present moment of a child, crowding out thoughts about the past and the future. This is why a

child needs supervision. Even though the child fights this supervision when it interferes with

his pleasure, the supervision gives him security.

Moreover, the Federal Government of Nigeria’s effort in the introduction of sex

education in schools should be well appreciated. With the epidemic of HIV/AIDS in

Nigeria especially among young people aged 15-29, the federal government through the

National Reproductive Health, HIV & AIDS Prevention and Care Project through the National

Youth Service Corp has launched a project known as ‘Peer Educator’. This project “provides

comprehensive information and life skills training to secondary school peer educators and their

peers in and out of school through a cascade of peer education….” (Unicef, iii). The motive is

direct: “The survival and development of future leaders in Nigeria is precarious unless drastic

efforts are directed at ensuring young people have access to comprehensive and accurate

knowledge of reproductive health, HIV prevention and life skills” (Unicef, ii). The project

according to Uzuegbunam, the National Coordinator of the HIV/AIDS Unit “has successfully

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provided comprehensive and accurate information to young people in a systematic manner

over the past nine years” (Unicef, ii)

The question is how has the information so far gotten by the young people been able to

control this epidemic? Officials in Britain reported that all their efforts at sex education have

not increased the use of condoms or decreased the number of abortions. Rather, they believe

that teaching children and teens about sex has resulted in increased sexual activity (Comfort;

1988, p. 91). On the part of the young people, a grandmother states: “One of my grandsons told

me that the sex education curriculum introduced him and his classmates to things they had

never thought about or been curious about” (Arthur; 2002, p. 58).

Levin’s observations in Langa (Southern Africa) suggests that the widespread

European idea that sex instruction must lead to immorality has here been taken over by

Africans. She records that some parents object to the teaching of hygiene in schools – which

does not include sex instruction – on the ground that it corrupts their children (Levin; 1947, p.

29).

In response to this, Akingbade states: “there is no evidence that relevant sex education

has any bad effect on a child’s character and morals” (2008, p. 404). She stresses further:

“Appropriate sex education does not promote promiscuity. Rather, it is because of low socio-

economical condition, low-self esteem, sinful habits from parents or mentors and

misinformation about sex” (2008, p. 405).

It is therefore disturbing that the curriculum for sex education in public schools does

not insist on abstinence but encourages ‘safe sex’ by the use of contraceptives for those who

cannot abstain. By implication, the expression of sex is unlimited as long as one feels protected

from pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections. LaHaye (1976, p. 57) has observed that

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the public school has rendered itself incompetent in the field of sex education by making two

fallacious assumptions: insisting on teaching sex education without moral safe-guards; while

assuming that sex education will naturally produce sexual happiness. This concept has

promoted promiscuity before and after marriage, which in turn has made venereal disease one

of the nation’s greatest health problems for persons under twenty-four years of age.

Sexual ignorance, however, is not the alternative. Appropriate sex education whether at

school, in the Church or at home should be able to expose children to the good of human

sexuality and the dangers of using sex outside of marriage. Certainly they need to be taught the

high cost of promiscuity and the dangers of venereal diseases. They should be taught how to

draw the line on their sexual expressions. If a Child is well informed on his/her sexuality and

the dangers of abuse, he/she should be able to detect when a touch from somebody is unhealthy

and should be able to raise alarm or even discuss that with his/her parents or whoever gives the

training in this respect. This way, sexual abuse of children will be greatly minimized.

Nevertheless, whether or not they receive sex education, most young persons are

neither ignorant of sex nor uninterested in it; nor would it be possible to preserve chastity on

the basis of ignorance in the present world. On the other hand, true sex education involves

providing adequate information about the beauty and horror of sex and maintaining discipline

too. Of course, to discipline is to instill the right kind of attitude in one. It is not enough to set

rules but to instruct and impress the right actions.

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CHAPTER SEVEN

SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

7.1. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

i. The research found that the best method of interpreting the Song of Solomon is the literal

interpretation. The language and imageries used strongly support the view of the book as a

sexual love poem between two adult lovers in a heterosexual relationship. As a collection of

lyric love poems, the Song of Solomon in unrivalled poetic language explores the whole range

of sexuality experienced by lovers as they work out their commitment to each other. The study

also reveals that the allegorical interpretation which views the Song of Songs as a portrait of

God’s love for Israel and or Christ love for the Church has been popular. This approach is very

subjective and plays down on human sexual love.

ii. The study also found that the Igbo culture has preserved through some traditional practices

human sexual values especially in the areas of chastity for the young and married women.

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Unfortunately, these traditional values are quickly eroding away as a result of the influence of

postmodern culture in contemporary Igbo society.

iii. The work revealed that the Song of Solomon provides a wholesome, biblical balance

between the extremes of sexual excess or perversion and an ascetic lifestyle, too often taken as

a Christian view of sexuality.

iv. Above all, by emphasizing the areas of strength and weaknesses of human sexuality in Igbo

customs and traditions, the research found that the ethics of human sexuality enshrined in the

Song of Solomon is very relevant in strengthening the contemporary Igbo culture and her

traditional practices with regards to human sexuality.

7.2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE

The research had made significant inroads into existing knowledge in the following

dimensions:

1. Thus far, nearly all the studies on the Song of Songs have adopted the allegorical

method. One of the fundamental contributions of this work to knowledge is its strict

literal approach and interpretation of the Song of Songs. As the only book of the Bible

which is devoted to the subject of human sexual love, the literal approach pictures the

authorial intention of the Song of Songs as cues to human love and covenants of

faithfulness which are the basis of every human society.

2. Subsequent to the excavation made on the Song of Solomon in this thesis, the goodness

of humanity created male and female is established and the propriety and dignity of

human affections and sexual expression within the divinely decreed bounds of a one-

man-to-one-woman marital relationship are argued for.

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3. The trend in contemporary Igbo society is that of sexual promiscuity; chastity is no

longer considered a virtue. On the contrary, it is mocked and held up to ridicule. Those

who are considered ‘sexually inexperienced’, both male and female, are either looked

down upon with contempt, or else considered to be the objects of pity. This thesis has

reiterated the orthodox truth by affirming that chastity within the confine of a sound

family bond is should be maintained as matter of necessity.

4. Another outstanding contribution made from the thesis is that the Song of Solomon

could be a valuable document in engaging the family and human society in a credible

sex education that is meant to restore the dignity of humankind in any given society.

This thesis is vital to correction of the sexual misnomer practiced by Western Europe

which had spilled over to other parts of the globe.

5. Above all, this work is theological and scholarly as such enquiring minds will find in it

a useful material due to its scholarship. Particularly, students of Old Testament

especially those specializing in the scholarship of the Song of Songs will find in this

work a valuable resource material.

7.3. RECOMMENDATIONS

The Song of Songs no doubt affirms, nourishes and enriches the category of joyful,

rapturous, sexual love. It has the power to restore something of tenderness and freshness to the

marriage relationship. Yes, that is what the Song of Songs is about, in its literal sense and

theologically relevant meaning. We may rejoice that Scripture includes such an explicit view

among its varied witnesses to divine providence. Below are some recommendations on the use

of Song of Songs:

158

1. ‘Historical allegories’ read Song of Songs as if it were about the love between God and

Israel (or Christ and the Church); ‘philosophical/mystical allegories’ read the book as being

about the communion between God and the individual soul. Even in the modern times the

allegorical method persists. The allegorizing of the book is simply inconsistent with good

hermeneutical principles. To do so is to distort its meaning. Hence, the poem should be

allowed to speak for itself; that is its literal significance.

2. The idea that sex is evil is very often connected with a religious point of view. In

overcoming such perverted religious ideas, it is important to give an adequate religious

foundation to a healthy view of sex. The Song provides the religious teacher with excellent

material with which to teach the biblical views of romance, sex and marriage. Some people are

against anything in the pulpit that deals with sex, while others wonder where they can get the

hope that they desperately need. Wise is the pastor and teacher who can keep the right balance.

3. In the contemporary Igbo society, the institution of marriage and marital fidelity are

being attacked from all sides and sexual promiscuity – whether pre- or extramarital – is being

put on a pedestal. The Song of Solomon offers to the one engaged in premarital counseling a

wonderful religious source for presenting the sexual aspect of marriage as a thing of beauty

and enjoyment. Also, in dispelling wrong conceptions of sex, or in helping to rekindle the

romance of a marriage, this poem can frequently be used by the parish minister in dealing with

troubled marriages.

4. In the face of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, which is decimating the African continent and

much of the world, the best solution offered by the present sex education in Nigerian schools is

the use of condoms for what is called ‘safe sex’. This instead of solving the problem of sexual

promiscuity only promotes it. True sex education involves simply teaching what is right and

159

what is wrong about human sexuality and the consequences of one’s actions. The Song of

Solomon can be very useful in this respect. Abstinence is the answer for the unmarried and

faithfulness for the married.

5. Polygamy seems to be natural with the African concept of marriage. The same is

applicable in Igbo culture. The reality of HIV/AIDS and other STDs makes it clear that the

teaching of the Song of Songs on monogamy should be embraced. To this end, Churches, the

Government and non-governmental organizations should be engaged in campaigns creating

awareness on the ills of polygamy until monogamy is fully embraced.

6. Parents should be actively involved in the sex education of their children. They do not

need to be experts to do this. Instead, they should simply answer their children’s sex related

questions properly and genuinely, supplying relevant information according to their level of

exposure and maturity. This is not possible without developing a positive attitude to sex, good

communication and being friends with their children. This can go a long way in solving the

problems of child sexual abuse and even rape which happen within the family setting. Also,

parents should be vigilant about signs of child abuse. This will help in redeeming the child

early from the consequences of child sexual abuse.

7.4 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES

There are aspects of Sexuality in the Judeo- Christian Holy Scriptures that are beckoning for

research interest. These are:

1. Homosexuality and the current trend of gay relationships from a biblical perspective

2. Paedophilia as a sexual disorder which is an anomaly in which an adult person’s sexual

orientation tilt towards abusing children.

7.5 CONCLUSION

160

There is no doubt that the contemporary world – Churches inclusive, many are

confused and undecided on sex and sexual morality. Sexual behaviours that were considered

immoral few decades ago are gaining almost universal acceptance. The result is the wide

spread reports of sexual abuses; rape, incest, adultery/fornication, homosexuality and bestiality

among others. The Igbo society is not left out.

From the thesis of this study, it is no longer surprising that a book as sensuous as the

Song of Songs is in the canon of the Scripture. The Bible is a real book about real people who

knew full well what the world needs – true appreciation of human sexuality. God himself who

created the man – male and female is not ignorant of this need. In the pages of the Song of

Songs therefore, is hidden the very expression of all God intended when he created man. Being

aware of the power of romantic love, the Song of Songs cautions that love should not be

awaken or aroused before its proper time less its intended beauty and unique intimacy be

marred.

In concluding the study of this superlative book – the Song of Songs, it is good to re-

emphasize that human sexuality is God-given and beautiful when practiced within the

parameters God has ordained – that is, within the context of a committed and loving

relationship between a husband and a wife. The Song of Solomon does not approve sexual

promiscuity, but affirms the pure joy of divinely instituted marital love.

It has been one of the objectives of this study to bring to awareness the power of sex

and sexuality, and of the inability of lust to constrain itself, and to seek out ways to overcome

its dangers. In surveying human sexuality and sexual orientation from the perspective of the

Song of Solomon, it is obvious that training can help the child or adults towards sexual

restraints. Such is the part of wisdom. The government has come up with sex education and set

161

up rules on sexual behaviours, and there may be good reason to follow that route. But can this

lead to wisdom? Behaviour can be legislated and regulated, but wisdom is not gained through

such methods. Rather, wisdom is gained through right instructions with good discipline.

It is therefore the firm conclusion of this thesis that if this book (Song of Solomon) was

read and taught in its literal genre and its lessons laid to heart today, there would be fewer

unhappy marriages contracted purely from lust of money or of body. The remedy for the

licentiousness of much of contemporary Igbo society can be found only in such ideal concepts

of the nature of love and human relations as this book enshrines.

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Unpublished Materials

Ani, F.O. (2011). A Christian Marriage Counseling: a prerequisite to effective marriage. A Thesis presented to Methodist Theological Institution: Umuahia.

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Oral Interview

Agbagha, M. (2015). An Elder of The Presbyterian Church of Nigeria, oral interview on May 15.

Egbe, E. N. (2015). His Royal Highness, Ozo I of Echara Ikwo, oral interview on August 3.

Eze, H. J. (2016). An elder of the Presbyterian Church of Nigeria and a Chief Nurse, oral interview January 5.

Ezeaganama, C. ( 2015). His Royal Highness, Eze Awkuzu in Oyi L.G.A. of Anambra, oral interview on August 12.

Ibe, M. K. (2016). A titled chief of Abiriba in Ohafia L.G.A. oral interview on February 5.

Idika, K. O. (2015). Clergy, Church of Nigeria, Anglican Communion, Ikwo Dioceses, oral interview on June 6.

Ihemene, A. (2015). Wife of the Anglican Bishop of Ikwo Dioceses, oral interview on July 6.

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Ngunu, H. (2016). A former Vice Chairman Arochukwu L.G.A. and PDP Women Wing Leader, oral interview on February 16.

Okorie, O. K. (2016). An Eze in council, Idima Abam, oral interview on February 3.

Ole, S. (2015). Clergy, The Presbyterian Church of Nigeria, oral interview on August 8.

Oporozo, D. (2015). His Royal Highness, the Opia of Umuopia in Akokwa, oral interview on August 12.