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International Journal for theAdvancement of Counselling ISSN 0165-0653 Int J Adv CounsellingDOI 10.1007/s10447-012-9153-9

Dynamics of Acculturation, Enculturation,and Ethnic Identity: Influenceof Psychocultural Constructs onConscientiousness and Expectations ofHigher Education Among LatinosMiguel Ángel Cano, Linda G. Castillo,Matthew J. Davis, Araceli López-Arenas,Juana Vaquero, Keisha V. Thompson &Isaac M. Saldivar

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ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Dynamics of Acculturation, Enculturation, and EthnicIdentity: Influence of Psychocultural Constructson Conscientiousness and Expectations of HigherEducation Among Latinos

Miguel Ángel Cano & Linda G. Castillo &

Matthew J. Davis & Araceli López-Arenas &Juana Vaquero & Keisha V. Thompson &

Isaac M. Saldivar

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012

Abstract This study investigated the influence of psychocultural variables (e.g., accultura-tion, enculturation, ethnic identity) and personality characteristics in relation to educationalexpectations among 345 Latino middle school students in the U.S. Results from a path modelindicate that 24.4 % of the variance of educational expectations was accounted for by allpredictor variables included in the model. Age, acculturation, and conscientiousness hadstatistically significant direct effects on educational expectations. Findings also show thatelements of ethnic identity and conscientiousness mediated the association from acculturationand enculturation to educational expectations. Implications of the findings for counselors areaddressed.

Keywords Latino students . Acculturation . Ethnic identity . Personality . Educationalexpectations

Introduction

Latino students, the largest non-dominant ethnic group in U.S. public schools (Woolley et al.2009), are at risk for academic underachievement and school dropout (Valencia and Johnson2006). According to the U.S. Department of Education (2011b), Latinos represented the

Int J Adv CounsellingDOI 10.1007/s10447-012-9153-9

This study was partially supported by a grant from the U.S. Department of Education obtained by the secondauthor (PR P334A080190).

M. Á. Cano (*)Department of Health Disparities Research - Unit 1440, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson CancerCenter, PO Box 301402, Houston, TX 77230-1402, USAe-mail: mcano1@mdanderson.org

L. G. Castillo :M. J. Davis : A. López-Arenas : J. Vaquero : K. V. Thompson : I. M. SaldivarTexas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

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highest proportion among all ethnic groups (17.6 %) who dropped out of high school.Accentuating the educational disparities, Latinos have a low rate of college enrollment(12.5 %) and the lowest overall educational attainment of all ethnic groups in the UnitedStates (Bohon et al. 2006; U.S. Department of Education 2011a). In order to understand theeducational disparities of Latinos, scholars have turned to examining educational expect-ations of this population.

Distinct from educational aspirations, educational expectations measure a student’s desireto attain a particular level of education in addition to assessing the likelihood he or she willachieve that level (Goyette 2008). Both Goyette (2008) and Rumbaut (2005) contend thateducational expectations are better predictors of educational attainment than aspirations.Rumbaut (2005) further posits that expectations are more constant with past behavior andperformance; thus, they serve as a better predictor of future outcomes.

Research on the decision to enroll in postsecondary education has primarily focused onindividuals’ decision-making processes based on the financial costs of attending college andthe potential financial benefits of obtaining a college degree (Perna 2000). Yet, recentresearch demonstrates that there is value in investigating the influence of psychoculturalfactors, such as acculturation and enculturation on Latino students’ decision to apply tocollege (Castillo et al. 2010). Thus, to better address educational disparities among Latinos,it is essential to develop an understanding of the association between psychocultural factorsand educational expectations, and the mechanisms that may mediate their relationship.

It has been suggested that middle-class, Euro-American culture is the norm in U.S.schools (Hill 2009). Organizational culture and school curricula endorse this notion byminimizing the values of non-Euro-American cultures (Hill and Torres 2010). Even attemptsto embrace multiculturalism are often implemented by using Euro-American culture as thepoint of reference (Giroux 1981). In view of this, conventional thought would suggest thatassimilation to Euro-American culture and emphasis on English proficiency would yieldgreater academic achievement. However, research shows that recent immigrants performbetter academically than second and third generation U.S.-born Latinos (Hill and Torres2010).

The examination of acculturation and enculturation in education research among Latinosmay help disentangle the effect of generation status on academic outcomes, includingeducational expectations (Castillo et al. 2010). Acculturation, as defined in this study, is aprocess encompassing changes in attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, and values that results whenan individual from one culture comes in contact with a new culture (Williams and Berry1991). Enculturation is a process of socialization (or re-socialization) into and maintenanceof the heritage culture norms (Kim and Abreu 2001).

The study of acculturation in relation to Latino middle school students and their educa-tional expectations is limited. Most research examining acculturation and education outcomeshas focused on college-aged students. Recently, a study with Mexican American high schoolstudents examined the influence of acculturation and enculturation on the decision to enroll incollege (Castillo et al. 2010). Results indicated that acculturation was a statistically signifi-cant predictor of students’ decision to apply to college, whereas enculturation was not.Similarly, another study found that a positive association between acculturation and academicgrades was mediated by acculturative stress and self-esteem (Schwartz et al. 2007). However,that study did not examine the potential direct or indirect effects of enculturation on academicgrades.

Prior research has shown that both acculturation and enculturation influence ethnicidentity and that ethnic identity changes as a function of the acculturation process (Collieret al. 2007; Cuéllar et al. 1997). As such, a point of interest was to examine the relationship

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of acculturation and enculturation with elements of ethnic identity. Ethnic identity is adynamic construct that develops through a process of exploration and commitment (Phinneyand Ong 2007), influencing an individual’s perceptions, cognitions, affect, and behaviors(Cuéllar and González 2000; Phinney 1996). Exploration is the active effort of gainingknowledge and learning about the history, practices and beliefs of one’s ethnic group. Ethnicidentity exploration, common among adolescents, accelerates during middle school anddecelerates in high school (Ponterotto and Park-Taylor 2007). Commitment encompassesthe positive feelings of belonging to one’s ethnic group (Phinney 1992). Achieving a strongethnic identity develops by engaging in exploration and developing a clear understandingand commitment to the heritage culture (Phinney 1989).

Research indicates that among some adolescent ethnic minority groups, ethnic identityplays a more significant role in college enrollment than GPA (Chavous et al. 2003).However, there is disagreement as to why and how ethnic identity is associated withacademic outcomes. For instance, in their study with adolescents of Mexican descent,Fuligni et al. (2005) found a positive relationship between ethnic identity and positiveacademic attitudes. Conversely, Guzmán et al. (2005) did not find an association betweenethnic identity and positive academic attitudes in their sample of Mexican American highschool students. A potential cause of the contradictory results may stem from differentconceptualizations and measurement of ethnic identity. For example, Fuligni et al.’s study(2005) did not account for ethnic identity exploration or a construct analogous to it.

To gain a better understanding of how and why certain psychocultural constructs influenceeducational outcomes, scholars have called for research to examine indirect effects (Schwartzet al. 2007). Schwartz et al. contend that indirect effects of psychocultural variables such asacculturation and enculturation are often neglected in research and that there is a tendency tofocus on direct effects. Consequently, the mechanisms by which psychocultural variables areassociated with education outcomes may be lost. In response to this deficiency, we tested ifelements of ethnic identity and a conscientious personality mediated the associated fromacculturation and enculturation to educational expectations.

The potential mediating role of personality traits may shed some light on the relationshipbetween psychocultural constructs and educational expectations, given that personality traitshave consistently shown to have a significant relationship in regard to academic performance(Poropat 2009), particularly the conscientiousness personality trait (Chamorro-Premuzic andFurnham 2003; Conard 2006; Poropat 2009; Trapmann et al. 2007; Wolfe and Johnson1995). Conscientiousness is a socially guided impulse control that is conducive to anindividual’s task and goal-oriented behaviors (Benet-Martínez and John 1998). Further,conscientious individuals are characterized as ambitious, resilient, dependable, and with awill to achieve, which has often been associated with positive academic performance(Poropat 2009).

Poropat’s meta-analysis of over 80 studies found that conscientiousness was the strongestpredictor of academic performance across primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of educa-tion. As such, Poropat suggested that researchers consider the role of conscientiousness inacademic settings. In their review of the literature, Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham (2003)suggested that conscientiousness had a positive association with academic performancebecause it is closely related to motivation, a factor also associated with better performance.

Unfortunately, in a thorough search of the literature, we could not find empirical studiesthat investigated the relationship between psychocultural constructs, conscientiousness, andeducational expectations of Latino students. In part, the lack of research in this area maystem from the misconception that personality traits are chiefly influenced by biologicalfactors (Costa and McCrae 2002). However, a synthesis of existing research suggests that

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personality traits are also influenced by historical, cultural, and environmental factors, whichare believed to promote changes in personality traits (Costa and McCrae 2002). For instance,social psychology research on gender differences in personality traits suggests that variancemay be the product of cultural variation in gender socialization (Costa et al. 2001).Furthermore, research has shown that identity (one’s self concept) both directs and becomes apart of personality through the exploration and commitment processes in identity development(Ozer and Benet-Martínez 2006). Exploration has been described as an adaptive process due toits positive association with the conscientiousness personality trait. As development occursacross the lifespan, transitions take place in personality traits. In light of this, we conceptualizeconscientiousness as a construct that is susceptible to the influence of psychocultural constructsand thus merits inclusion in the present study as a potential mediator.

Given the limited research on the influence of psychocultural factors and person-ality characteristics on Latino educational expectations, we hypothesized (i) thatacculturation and enculturation would both have a positive association with the twoelements of ethnic identity (i.e., exploration and commitment), (ii) stronger ethnicidentity exploration and commitment would have a positive association with consci-entiousness and, in-turn, conscientiousness would be related to higher educationalexpectations, and (iii) higher levels of acculturation would be predictive of highereducational expectations, while higher levels of enculturation would be predictive oflower educational expectations. In both instances it was expected that the directeffects of acculturation and enculturation would be mediated by the elements ofethnic identity and conscientiousness.

Method

Participants

Data for this study were taken from a 2008 annual evaluation of a ‘Gaining EarlyAwareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Program’ (GEAR UP), a federally fundedprogram designed to prepare low-income students to succeed in higher education. Datawere collected from participants at the implementation of the program. All participantswere considered low-income as defined by eligibility for free or reduced-price mealsunder the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National School Lunch Program. A total of1,035 surveys were distributed at four middle schools in a rural county within the TexasUrban Triangle. Of the surveys distributed, 345 students (female0186, male0158) self-identified as Hispanic, Mexican, and Latino/a. Participants’ ages ranged from 12 to15 years (M012.72, SD0 .672).

Measures

Educational Expectations

Students’ educational expectations were evaluated using a one-item question. Students wereasked, “What is the highest level of education you expect to obtain?” The response range forthis item included, “High School or less,” “Some College but less than a 4-year degree,” or“a 4-year College degree.” The latter two responses were combined to create a dichotomousdistinction between students who had no expectation to attend college (0) and those who hadan expectation to attend (1).

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Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure-Revised (MEIM-R; Phinney and Ong 2007)

TheMEIM-R is a 6-item scale that assesses for two elements of ethnic identity: exploration andcommitment. The exploration subscale measures the degree to which an individual seeksinformation and experiences relevant to his or her ethnic group, while commitment evaluatesthe attachment to and personal investment in the group. Participants responded on a Likert-typescale ranging from1 (Strongly disagree) to 4 (Strongly agree) on items such as, “I have spenttime trying to find out more about my ethnic group, such as its history, traditions, and customs,”and “I have a strong sense of belonging to my own ethnic group.” In this study, alphacoefficients for both MEIM Commitment and MEIM Exploration were 0.71.

Brief Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans-II (Brief ARSMA-II; Bauman 2005)

Acculturation and enculturation were measured using the Brief ARSMA-II, a Likert-typeinstrument used with children and adolescents composed of two subscales, (i) Anglo-Oriented Scale (AOS) and (ii) Mexican-Oriented Scale (MOS), each consisting of six items.Both subscales predominately measure behavioral aspects (e.g., language preference) ofacculturation and enculturation. The AOS was used to measure acculturation and the MOSwas utilized to measure enculturation. Responses ranged from 1 (Not at all) to 5 (Almostalways). Sample items include, “I enjoy Spanish language TV.” and “I write letters inEnglish.” In this study, alpha coefficients for MOS and AOS were 0.91 and 0.75,respectively.

The Conscientiousness Subscale of the Big Five Inventory–Adolescents (BFI-A; Johnand Srivastava 1999)

Conscientiousness was measured using the Conscientiousness Subscale of the BFI-A,involving 9-items. Responses ranged from 4 (Strongly Agree) to 1 (Strongly Disagree).The subscale is a measurement of the individual’s impulse control, which facilitates task-and goal-directed behavior. Sample items include, “I see myself as someone who completesall my work.” and “I see myself as someone who can be somewhat careless.” In this study,the alpha coefficient for conscientiousness was 0.75.

Data Analyses

Scale scores for acculturation, enculturation, ethnic identity commitment, ethnic identityexploration, and conscientiousness were computed using SPSS 17.0. A path model was thenused to test the hypothesized relationships among variables because this method utilizes aconfirmatory (i.e., hypothesis testing) approach (Byrne 2001) and facilitates testing formediation effects. The path model was tested using Mplus 5.2 with weighted least squaresmean and variance adjusted (WLSMV) estimation.

Analyzing data via path model assumes that the multivariate distribution has a normaldistribution. Violation of this assumption may yield inaccurate results (Weston et al. 2008).Therefore, data were checked for homoscedasticity, normality, linearity, outliers, and multi-collinearity. To evaluate the homoscedasticity, linearity, and normality, studentized residualswere plotted against the values of the predicted dependent variable (Tabachnick and Fidell1996; Venter and Maxwell 2000). The residual scatter plot exhibited a concentration ofresiduals in the center of the plot and a normal distribution of residuals trailing offsymmetrically from the center forming a rectangular shape.

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Further, Curran and colleagues (1996) recommend checking skewness and kurtosis toevaluate normality before performing structural equation modeling or path analyses. Allvariables had skewness and kurtosis values within acceptable ranges to proceed withanalyses. Thus, no violation of these assumptions was detected. Using a p0 .001 criterionfor Mahalanbois distance and a 5 % trimmed mean, no multivariate or univariate outlierswere detected (Tabachnick and Fidell 1996). Finally, to assess multicollinearity, bivariatecorrelations were conducted to identify relationships with a coefficient value of 0.85 orhigher. Results indicate none of the bivariate correlations met or exceeded the recommendedlimit.

The model was evaluated using four model fit indices (Hu and Bentler 1995; Kline 2005):(a) chi-square test of model fit (χ2)>.05, (b) comparative fit index (CFI)>.90, (c) Tucker-LewisIndex (TLI)>.90, (d) and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) <.08. TheRMSEA was used as measures of absolute fit, while CFI and TLI measured incremental fit(Hu and Bentler 1995).

Results

Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations and correlations for all variables used in theanalyses. A frequency analysis shows that 86.4 % of students expected to continue with theireducation post high school and 13 % did not. Educational expectations were found to havestatistically significant correlations with conscientiousness (r0.17, p0 .01), ethnic identityexploration (r0.11, p0 .05), acculturation (r022, p0 .01) and age (r0−.18, p001). Results ofan independent samples t-test indicated that there were no statistically significant differencesin educational expectations related to gender; thus male and female participants wereincluded in the same path model.

Relationships among predictor variables and educational expectations were examinedusing the path model shown in Fig. 1. Model fit and evaluation indices suggest the pathmodel had good fit. Chi-square test of model fit was not statistically significant, suggestingthat the model did fit the data, χ2 (N0345, df05)06.54, p>.05. The CFI, TLI, and RMSEA(0.99, 0.97, and 0.03, respectively) all indicated more than adequate model fit. As such, itwas determined that path coefficients could be interpreted appropriately.

All direct and indirect effects are shown in Table 2. The following direct effects werestatistically significant. Results indicated that higher scores of enculturation were associatedwith higher scores of ethnic identity commitment and ethnic identity exploration (β0 .26,

Table 1 Intercorrelations, means, and standard deviations for observed variables (n0345)

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 M SD

1. Educational Expectations – −.18** .17** .07 .11** .22** −.09 – –

2. Age – −.18** −.03 .10 −.16** .06 12.72 .67

3. Conscientiousness – .28** .32** .10 .10 30.35 4.18

4. Ethnic Identity Commitment – .58** .06 .23** 7.12 1.59

5. Ethnic Identity Exploration – .05 .20** 6.58 1.59

6. Acculturation – −.26** 18.70 4.09

7. Enculturation – 13.53 6.98

*p<.05. **p<.01

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p<.001 and β0 .23, p<.001, respectively). A similar but less powerful association was foundwith acculturation in relation to ethnic identity commitment and ethnic identity exploration(β0 .14, p<.01 and β0 .13, p<.05, respectively).

Conscientiousness scores were higher among individuals with higher scores of ethnicidentity commitment and ethnic identity exploration (β0 .13, p<.05 and β0 .26, p<.001,respectively). Further, the following predictors had statistically significant effects on educa-tional expectations. Higher scores of conscientiousness and acculturation were associatedwith higher educational expectations (β0 .31, p<.001 and β0 .21, p<.05, respectively).Conversely, older participants were more likely to have lower educational expectations(β0−.26, p<.01).

Table 2 Path coefficient estimates of path models (n0345)

Standardized estimates

Direct effect

Acculturation → Ethnic identity exploration .13*

Acculturation → Ethnic identity commitment .14**

Acculturation → Educational expectations .21**

Enculturation → Ethnic identity exploration .23***

Enculturation → Ethnic identity commitment .26***

Enculturation → Educational expectations −.09Ethnic identity exploration → Conscientiousness .26***

Ethnic identity commitment → Conscientiousness .13**

Conscientiousness → Educational expectation .31***

Age → Educational expectation −.26**Total indirect effect

Acculturation → Educational expectations .02*

Enculturation → Educational expectations .03**

Covariance path

Ethnic identity exploration ↔ Ethnic identity commitment .55***

*p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001

.26***

Ethnic Identity Commitment

Ethnic Identity Exploration

Educational Expectations

Age

Acculturation

Enculturation

.31*** -.26**

.13**

.26***

.23***

.03**

.21**

.02*

.13*

-.09

.14**

Conscientiousness .55***

Fig. 1 Tested path model of the effects among acculturation, enculturation, ethnic identity exploration, ethnicidentity commitment, conscientiousness, and educational expectations. Note. Standardized direct and indirectpath coefficients. Dotted line indicates indirect effects. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001

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Regarding the indirect effects of acculturation and enculturation, the following was found.The indirect effect of enculturation on educational expectations was mediated by two distinctpaths—enculturation →ethnic identity commitment →conscientiousness →educationalexpectations—and—enculturation→ethnic identity exploration→conscientiousness→educa-tional expectations. Collectively, the indirect effect of these paths was (β0 .03, p<.01). Theindirect effect of acculturation on educational expectations was only mediated by the followingpath—acculturation →ethnic identity exploration →conscientiousness →educational expect-ations. This indirect effect was (β0 .02, p<.05). In all, the direct and indirect effects of thepredictors accounted for 12.1 % of conscientiousness and 24.4 % of the variance in educationalexpectations (R20 .12 and .24, respectively).

Results support the hypothesis that (i) acculturation and enculturation were positivelyassociated with constructs of ethnic identity, (ii) greater commitment to and exploration ofethnic identity were positively associated with conscientiousness, and, in-turn, conscien-tiousness was predictive of greater educational expectations, and (iii) higher levels ofacculturation were predicative of higher educational expectations, while higher levels ofenculturation were predictive of lower educational expectations. However, the direct effectbetween enculturation and educational expectations was not statistically significant.

While the effects from acculturation and enculturation were mediated by the elements ofethnic identity and conscientiousness, the mediation analyses yielded an unexpected finding.The indirect effect from enculturation to educational expectations was positively associated;an inverse relationship of the direct path.

Discussion

These findings highlight three key relationships. First, acculturation and enculturation holdstatistically significant predictive value on constructs of ethnic identity, confirming thenotion that ethnic identity is a function of the acculturation process. Second, data analysessupport Schwartz et al.’s (2007) recommendation to examine the indirect effects of accul-turation and enculturation. In this study, not only did the statistical significance of the directand indirect effect of enculturation vary, but the direction of the path coefficients differed aswell. Third, the results extend prior literature by demonstrating that stronger ethnic identitypromotes conscientiousness, and consequently may lead to higher educational expectations.These findings parallel prior research that suggests ethnic identity is positively associatedwith motivation, generating greater academic achievement (Fuligni et al. 2005).

From a counseling standpoint, these findings afford counselors another approach toaddress premature academic attrition among Latino students. Given the influence of ethnicidentity on educational expectations, counselors need to identify students who displaynegative feelings towards their ethnic group, and determine if this poses an adverse effectto their psychological or educational adjustment (Holcomb-McCoy 2005). Counselorsworking in schools should lead the way in creating an environment that facilitates ethnicidentity exploration where students are encouraged to learn and gain knowledge about theirethnic group’s history and cultural beliefs. Furthermore, counselors can also developinterventions that work to promote a feeling of belongingness in one’s ethnic group.

One approach that facilitates this process is having individual discussions with studentson topics such as racism and ethnic identity. These discussions should be placed in thecontext of peer relations, family relations, and academic achievement (Zayas 2001). Anotherapproach is developing groups that promote dialogue and exploration of ethnic identity.Sentence stems, such as “Being Hispanic in this school means.…” are recommended for use

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in such groups, but may also be helpful with individuals (Holcomb-McCoy andMoore-Thomas2001; Noam 1999). Other activities might include role-playing scenarios on matters of ethnicidentity or group membership. Counselors may also support the exploration process byencouraging students to seek out information about their family heritage and immigration tothe U.S., if applicable (Holcomb-McCoy 2005). Lastly, counselors are encouraged to reviewand draw on Holcomb-McCoy’s (2005) paper outlining recommendations on ethnic identitydevelopment for middle school counselors.

Lastly, changes in course curricula may facilitate ethnic identity exploration. Coursecontent and classroom activities that present aspects of Latino culture and encourage furtherexamination of ethnic culture may help foster interest in ethnic issues and ethnic identity.This is a timely issue, in view of, for example, recent legislative changes in Arizona thathave moved to remove ethnic-based courses from middle school and high school curricula.

Though these findings may be informative to those working toward remedying educa-tional disparities, it is important to recognize the limitations of the study. First, the samplewas predominantly of Mexican heritage and exclusively composed of middle school stu-dents in Texas. As such, generalizability is a concern and findings may not apply to othernationalities/heritage, students not enrolled in middle school, or in other States. Second,future studies should examine the strength of ethnic identification and family ethnic social-ization (Fuligni et al. 2005; Supple et al. 2006), two constructs that are pertinent to theformation and self-awareness of ethnic identity. Third, studies replicating or extending thesefindings should assess students’ perceptions of educational utility and value of academicsuccess (Fuligni et al. 2005). Lastly, educational expectations were measured with a singleitem, raising some concern about the reliability of this outcome measure. Thus, futurestudies should consider using well-validated measures of educational expectations that havebeen found to be reliable for this age population.

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