Dr. Dawson Final Research Project-6

Running head: THE WELL-BEING OF ADOLESCENTS 1

Adolescent Experience a Better Quality of Life Living In a Single

Father Home

Troy University Tampa Bay Site

Christine Edwards

Irene Pantelis

Madelene Roserie

THE WELL-BEING OF ADOLESCENTS

Abstract

Family structures immensely impact the well-being of all

adolescents. Studies have been conducted measuring the mental,

physical, educational, social, and recreational well-being of

adolescents living in single parent homes versus adolescents in

dual parent homes; however, very few studies attempt to measure

the well-being of adolescents living in single mother homes

versus single father homes. This research proposal attempts to

measure the well being of adolescents living in single father

homes using an index of the WHOQOL-100 targeting adolescents ages

11 to 14. The study will focus on the adolescents’ well being in

terms of their mental and physical health, educational progress,

leisure and recreational experience, social development, and the

safety of their environment.

Keywords: single-mother home, single-father home,

adolescents, quality of life

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Introduction

There are many adolescents today, who are raised in diverse

family structures, due to the high divorce rates and increasing

amounts of nonmarital births. These family structures vary

significantly in the particular aspect of how much social and

financial means that are offered to adolescent for their

psychological development and well-being (Bronte-Tinkew, Scott, &

Lilja, 2010). Few children and adolescents live with their

single-fathers after divorce compared to single-mothers

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(Garfield, Isacco, & Rogers, 2008). Single-parents can be

defined, as one of the parents is not available to be responsible

to nurture or rear the child, so the full workload for two

people, is now being taken care of by only a single individual

(Amofa, 2013). The trend for single-fathers having sole

custodial rights and the responsibility for rearing adolescents

is rising across the country. According to the U.S. Census Bureau

(2013), single-fathers make up for approximately 17.8% of all,

single-family households, in the United States. The percentage

of adolescents between the ages 12-14 years of age living in

single fathers homes in 2011 were 14.8% and rose to 15.9% in

2012. The percentage of adolescents living in single mother

homes in 2011 was 85.2% and dropped to 84.1% in 2012. Most

researchers over the years have conducted studies on single-

mothers, but little observation has concentrated on single-

fathers (Bronnimann, 2008). Ultimately, with the rise in single

fathers raising adolescents, it is important to find out how

specific parenting style and involvement that can affect the

adolescent’s psychological development and well-being.

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There are three styles of parenting authoritative,

authoritarian and permissive. An authoritative parent most

likely will mold adolescents into a more socially competent,

dependable and independent person. In authoritarian homes

adolescents may have aggressive behaviors if rebellious, and

dependent behaviors if submissive. An adolescent that comes from

a permissive parenting household may have trouble with self-

control and appears selfish, which can affect appropriate

development of social relationships (Kopko, 2007). Single-

fathers and single-mothers are inclined to have different

parenting styles. Single-fathers are more likely to use an

authoritative parenting style, whereas the single mother is more

apt to take the permissive style. The single-father takes the

authoritative role because they tend to be more structured and

strict. Single-mothers use passive parenting because they are

more nurturing and sensitive to the emotions of the adolescent.

Single-parents separate parenting styles can present an

opportunity for the adolescent to manipulate the adult because

the youth can see that his or her parents do not see eye-to-eye

and they will use that to their advantage (Karura, 2000).

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When the family structure is limited or broken it can have

an effect on adolescents and their ability to function normally

and/or achieve academically (Amofa, 2013). Therefore, it is

vital to try and continue quality of life for the adolescent.

Quality of life is the general well-being of an adolescent, which

include, but not limited to physical and mental health,

education, recreation and leisure time, social acceptance and

safety.

Mental Health

Household structure can have a profound influence on

children’s capabilities and life paths. In this portion of the

paper, the author will examine physical and mental health

pointers in which have never been studied before among these

particular subpopulations. Psychological distress comprises the

depression, concerns, and mental symptoms linked to different

mood swings. Depression and anxiety are associated with each

other, which can affect everyone in the family to some degree.

The parent’s income, the quality of parenting and home

environment, family stress, and maternal mental well-being are

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the different types of methods that are directly or indirectly

influenced by the well-being of adolescents based on family

structure (Langton & Berger, 2011). Studies have shown in most

family structure, adolescents conduct problems dropped and

achievement scores improved; however, with a slightly higher

increased in behavior problems for adolescents living in only

social-father families (Megunson & Berger, 2009). When there is

a relationship break-up there are different levels of parental

and child conflict, which leads to the reduction of quality time

of life for the adolescents (Doherty & Craft, 2011). A study has

shown that single-fathers tend to have mental health or

substance-related difficulties, which consist of having irregular

drinking, illegal drug use and depression. Not recognizing the

importance of this issue could have some effect on adolescents

living with single-fathers mentally (Wade el al., 2011). In a

meta-study, they found that adolescents who came from a divorced

family experienced greater level of behavioral, psychological and

mental developmental impairment than children whose parents are

still together (Roustit el al., 011). According to Bramlett and

Blumberg (2007) results, children living in a single-father

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family home did well mentally and physically while children

living in a single mother had poorer health based on the 2003

National Survey. A recent study was conducted and results

suggested the atmosphere of the family and what took place in the

home matters more than who was typically in the family (Phillips,

2012). Another study’s finding suggested adolescents that are

living with only their custodial father had the poorer outcome

with adolescents physical, behavior and emotional well-being to

those living only with their custodial mothers (Langton & Berger,

2011).

According to Megunson & Berger (2009), parental mental

state is extremely significant and has a huge effect on

adolescents’ well-being; which can diminish single parents from

providing their children optimistic quality of life and adversely

influence children’s cognitive development and behavior. Studies

reported depression and psychological problems were displayed in

single mother more than mothers who were married and fathers tend

to have a major constructive impact on mother’s health and

child’s well-being when the fathers are involved (Walfogel el

al., 2010). Studies have revealed adolescents gender differences

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correlated between family support and depression among girls than

boys (Levin & Currie, 2010). There are two important key

elements of parenting quality, which includes sensitivity and

responsiveness. Responsiveness within a father and child

relationship enables adolescents’ to strive more in a positive

direction, in life and additionally, giving fathers the

opportunities to develop and understand themselves in a

distinctive way. The father-child relationship exhibits the

significance of understanding the experience of responsive,

relational and interactional activities with their children that

develop the nature of one’s self in interaction with another

(Ashbourne el al., 2011). Men in general remained connected with

particular phases of their past life that their identity of being

a divorce or single father is usually tangled to the relationship

they once had with mother and children prior to separation, which

has hindered them to rebuild a new identity (Harper & Fine,

2006).

Studies have increased of lesbians who do not approve in

living with another male. However, a study showed children who

lived in a fatherless environment experience more interaction

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with their mother than their peers from father existing homes.

Additionally, adolescents in father lacking homes displayed more

feminine, but no less manly characteristics of gender role

behavior (Golombok & Badger, 2010). Studies used alternative

comparison to determine there is no such evidence that

adolescents’ living with single fathers has a better quality of

life than their counterpart’s single mothers. Researchers

suggested if children are raised by gay or lesbian parents should

experience those same predictions as single mothers and single

fathers (Dufur el al., 2010). Parenting styles are different for

single fathers’ verses single mothers’ due to them having

different expectations throughout their life. Single father

parenting style is usually based on their life perception of

family development in which both current and prior experiences

and their interactions and relationships with their family

members, contributes to current conditions and roles they will

present to their children (Bronte-Tinkew el al., 2010).

Physical Health

In this section of the study, there are few studies of

family structure that focuses solely on physical health.

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Conversely, adolescents living in other family types besides

intact families tend to measure worse range of health.

Adolescents face social, psychological and physical challenges

every day and with the increase of social distresses for better

care and assessment within health care there should be more

research addressing children’s quality of life and health related

limitations (Petersson el al., 2013). Family structure and

adolescent health are vital to their main developmental milestone

of physical activity, physical abilities, and limitations that

can substantially affect health-related quality of life (Langton

& Berger, 2011). According to Carr & Springer (2010), recent

studies indicate that family processes and dynamics can affect

the health of adolescents. Research proposed that single-parent

families and social-parent families are at higher risk of

economic disadvantage, which is associated to physical health

development, education and leisure spending that contribute to

the child’s well-being than intact families. Prior research has

concluded that single father family homes are less likely to

suffer financially than single mother family household (Bronte-

Tinkew el al., 2010). According to Waldfoge el al. (2010),

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studies have shown children who were born to single parents and

single-mothers who were not married during the time of birth.

Most single mothers had a tendency to smoke cigarettes and use

illicit drugs during pregnancy, which are linked with low birth

weight and other physical health issues. In addition, single-

mothers who were able to receive financial support from their

child’s father were less likely to have physical complications

and facilitated optimal health outcome from the child’s mother.

Another study that was measured suggested adolescents living in a

single-mother family had a low overall health than in an intact

family and in father-only families (Langton & Berger, 2011).

Single-mothers who had children unwed would usually lean towards

living in a three-generation family household for financial

support (Pilkauskas, 2012). According to Parish el al. (2012),

in today’s society, the average net worth of dual couples with

adolescents is almost 10 times greater than that of all single

custodial parents and 16 times higher than single custodial

mothers.

Bernier & Miljkovitch (2009) states, fathers are involved in

play and exploratory activities while mothers, on the other hand,

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are especially involved in caregiving and providing emotional

security to their children. Past studies have observed

repetitively that custodial fathers desire playful and exciting

interactions with their offspring; however, custodial mothers

prefer to provide comforting and relaxing activities with their

children. There has been a consistent research finding in which

has been demonstrated that more girls than boys were unable to

converse to their father about issues they were experiencing. On

the other hand, boys and girls felt similarly comfortable talking

to their mother about their issues. Parent-child communication

with each other about all different aspects of life is an

important interpersonal relationship especially appropriate for

female adolescents dealing with early pregnancy (Luk el al.,

2010).

According to Foster el al. (2007), the majority of

adolescent smoking is based on the family environment parental

behavior. A recent study predicted that each family situation

that related with adolescent smoking tends to be greater when

adolescents were exposed to cigarette smoking or conflicts they

were receiving within the home. However, if the adolescents

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received warmth and nurturing from their custodial parent, it

would decrease the likelihood that children will smoke.

Researchers are in the process of exploring how biological

father’s multi-partner fertility may harm his child’s physical

and mental indirectly through reduced involvement in an

adolescent’s day-to-day life. According to Humensky (2010), low

parental education and household revenue result in higher smoking

and depression among adolescents, which can later lead to the use

of marijuana and cocaine, and binge drinking in early adulthood.

A recent Drug Use Survey was conducted on adolescents who were

around the age of 12-19; the study found that, with some college,

the adolescents were less likely to participate in illegal drug

use and/or risky drinking. Furthermore, parents whose parents

have higher income found that adolescents will spend more money

on illegal drugs; therefore, have higher chances of substance

use. When adolescents do not receive the adequate amount of

nurturing support from both custodial parents their physical

health can deteriorate. When physical health deteriorates it can

cause sleep issues, poor cardiovascular health, and elevated

blood pressure in which all these problems carries long-term

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consequences for mortality possibilities (Carr & Springer, 2010).

When a child is suffering from some of the chronic conditions it

tends to restrict the child development and quality of life.

Their perspective in life is to live a normal life similar to

their peers and these differences become more significant in

adolescent years (Petersson el al., 2013).

Education

The well-being of adolescents in single father homes versus

single mother homes is also measured in their academic

performance. In the past, numerous studies have been conducted

that have measured the outcomes of academic achievement in single

parent homes compared to dual parent homes and have included

single fathers and single mothers. Research has shown that

adolescent living in single-family homes suffers more when it

comes to most variables related to educations achievements than

those from dual family homes (Garg, Melanson, & Levin, 2007). As

well, youths in single-parent homes have a negative attitude

toward schoolwork, and their parent have lower educational

expectations for them. In addition, many of these findings have

encompassed single-father headed homes living with a stepparent

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or a live-in girlfriend; however, very few studies have broken

this category into two subcategories: single-mother headed homes

without a live-in significant other and single-father headed

homes without a live-in significant other. A significant number

of studies have shown that an adolescent’s problematic behaviors

are affected by family structures. Adolescents residing in

single parent homes have a higher risk factor of developing

behavioral problems (Hoffman, 2006). Researchers asked teachers

to assess adolescent’s behaviors. The results revealed that

adolescent that lived in single-father homes behaved worse in a

classroom setting then those raised in a single-mother home

(Grabmeier, 1998). Strain theories predict that the added

stress in the adolescents’ lives due to divorce and remarriage

may also contribute to the problematic behaviors, which interfere

with their academic progress. Furthermore, single-parent

families and non-parental households have a higher risk of having

adolescent who start smoking and participate in unsafe behaviors

than those adolescents that live in dual-family homes (Razaz-

Rahmati, Sayed, & Chizimuzo, 2011). Consequently, behavior

problems outside and inside the classroom also affect the

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adolescent’s academic achievement. Many variables in this

complex population that attribute to the educational well-being

of adolescents are being explored as the dynamic of the family

structure changes continuously. There has been a rise in the USA

of single-father families, increasing 67%, since 1990. (Sang Min,

Kushner, & Seong Ho, 2007). This increase has also sparked a

need for more research in this area. Incidentally, the attention

of the researchers is focused on the following criteria: the

educational and socioeconomic background of a single parent, the

gender of the single parent, and the parenting style of the

single parent.

Researchers found that families that had medium to high

income and educational experience held closer related

expectations and beliefs of the performance of their adolescents

than those of parents of low-income (Davis-Kean, 2005). Educated

parents from higher socioeconomic backgrounds set higher

standards for their children, and the children were capable of

attaining those goals. In households with lower socioeconomic

status, they found that the parents’ beliefs exceeded their

children’s capabilities. However, the mother’s level of

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education was also a main factor in the educational achievement

of her children. Davis-Kean cited “Halle et al. (1997) also

found that children’s succeeding achievement in math and reading

and that have continuing academic achievement was related to the

higher education and expectations of the single- mother (Davis-

Kean, 2005). According to Amofa (2013) father usually provide

the essential tool needed for adolescents to succeed academically

and mothers provide help provide supplements to the father’s

tools. Moreover, studies have shown that a family’s

socioeconomic status (SES) has an immense impact the child’s

academic performance on standardized tests. Adolescent that are

living in single-parent homes with low socioeconomic status

perform inferior on executive function tests compared to

adolescent that live in two-parent families with similar

socioeconomic status (Sarsour, Sheridan, Jutte, Nuru-Jeter,

Hinshaw, & Boyce, 2011). Therefore, socioeconomic status and the

parents’ educational background impact the adolescent’s academic

success.

Some studies have extended the research to measure the

academic success of adolescents living with their same sex

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parents. In 1997, Powell and Downey that set out to examine the

impact of children living with their same-sex parent conducted a

study. Due to the drastic increase in divorce and custody cases

of the late 1980s and through the 1990s, Powell and Downey

examined the well-being of adolescents living with their same-sex

parent. They focused on the socioemotional, academic, and

personality variables that impact adolescents. Powell and Downey

especially wanted to explore the well-being of adolescents that

had recently entered single-parent homes. Ultimately, several

limitations tainted the results of their study. However; years

later, Sang Min, Kushner, & Seong Ho re-examined the same-sex

hypothesis and found that there were no verifications to support

the statement that the sex of the parent would play an important

role in the adolescents’ academic success. Surprisingly, they

found “the daughters living with single fathers fare better than

any other group on academic achievement” (Sang Min, Kushner, &

Seong Ho, 2007). Additionally, there was no substantial variance

in the academic achievement of boys living with their fathers

only and boys living with their mothers only. Several factors

were considered to explain this outcome; however, the overall the

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study concluded “the focus for fathers is more task-oriented or

concrete, whereas with the mothers the focus may be more

holistic, friendly, and accepting” (Sang Min, Kushner, & Seong

Ho, 2007). Overall, the findings from the study conducted by

Powell and Downey are still used as a springboard for newer

research specifically due to the increasing rate of single father

families.

Lastly, several studies have attempted to examine the

parenting styles of single mothers versus single father.

Researchers have found those students that have excelled in

primary and secondary schools have had a strong parent-child

relationship (Turley, Desmond, & Bruch, 2010). Despite the

limitations that single parent families may face, parental

involvement is imperative for the adolescent to achieve academic

success. Studies have found that gender is associated with some

of the academic success attributed to single father households.

Studies found that single-mother promote verbal skills over

mathematical skills, while single-fathers promoted mathematical

skills over verbal skills to the adolescents (Grabmeier, 1998).

Single fathers are more successful in advancing the development

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of an adolescent’s cognitive skills, but single-mothers are

successful in nurturing the development of the adolescent’s

interpersonal skills (DeBell, 2008). The impact of the mother and

her influence on the adolescent’s interpersonal skills is a key

component to accurately assess the academic success of the

adolescent living in a single parent household. Some researchers

have argued that the effects of living in single-parent homes

will not affect the adolescent until they reach adulthood

(Grabmeier, 1998). Studies have found that adolescents with

better grades was linked to the fathers relationship with the

adolescent and what quality time was spent and how comfortable

the child felt going to the father. (King, & Sobolewski, 2006).

Overall, despite the success stories from the population of

adolescent girls living with single fathers, substantial evidence

has not been provided in order to conclude that the academic

well-being of adolescents living with single mothers has been

compromised. Furthermore, the well-being of adolescents living

with single parents in terms of recreation and leisure also poses

a question for researchers in the single mother versus the single

father arena.

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Leisure and Recreation

One of the behavioral characteristics that have been related

to a healthy family functioning is family leisure involvement

(Zambriskie & Freeman, 2004). Since the United States has

experienced a drastic increase in single-family homes, the

recreational well-being of the adolescents in those homes should

all be measured in order to address the needs of that population.

Studies examining the family leisure among single parent homes

are difficult to find. Adolescents living in single parent homes

are at greater risk of participating in risky behaviors. Their

parents are overwhelmed with the sole responsibility of providing

the family with food and shelter that they have little time or

money for the extras. Unfortunately, these adolescents often are

without the experience of core leisure. As cited by Hornberger,

Zambriskie, & Freeman, Kelly (1999), core leisure is defined as

the “ongoing, stable, and easily accessible leisure that most

people engage in throughout their life” (2007). Core family

leisure includes activities that families engage in on a normal

basis and are usually done at home. Some examples of core family

leisure activities are as follows: playing board games, baseball,

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softball, going for a walk, day trip in the car, cooking, or just

eating supper together. (Hornberger, Zambriskie, & Freeman,

2009). Adolescents are often the ones responsible for their

younger siblings and assume many of the parental roles, which

include cooking dinner, but do not include eating dinner as a

family. One study conducted by Hutchinson et al, (2007) found

that normal everyday event such as hanging out, playing games,

watching television, or just eating supper together can mean

caring, comfort, stability and a feeling of belonging to the

family (Hornberger, Zambriskie, & Freeman, 2009). Since

nonresident fathers usually spend weekends with their children,

their time together tends to be recreational and leisurely. On

the one hand, activities such as movie watching and playing

sports may not be interconnected to the well-being of the

adolescent (Hawkins, Amato, & King, 2007). On the other hand,

activities that are related solely to school and religion,

although they contribute to the well-being of the child, will

eventually become boring and tedious. Nonresident fathers

struggle to find a combination of both leisure activities and

activities related to school and religion. The combination will

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contribute to the child’s overall well-being and not lose its

luster. Single-fathers who participate in an equal mix of leisure

and influential activities demonstrate that the adolescent is a

significant part of their life (King & Sololewski, 2006).

Overall, the well-being of an adolescent is not only measure

in the amount of recreation and leisure time they spend with

their single or nonresident parents, but also the quality of

leisure and recreational activities in which they engage and

enjoy as a family. Single moms and dads face these challenges on

a daily basis and work hard to establish a balanced mixed of core

leisure and recreation for their family so that their social

skills will also cultivate.

Social

It is not a secret that adolescents undergo numerous

developmental changes including emotional, biological, cognitive

and social transformations on their journey to becoming an adult

(Kopko, 2007). For single-fathers and single-mothers that are

raising adolescents, their principal goal is to nurture and guide

their youth into becoming adults who can live self-sufficiently.

An adolescents’ well-being in single-father household compared to

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single-mother household can be measured in their social conduct.

Numerous studies have been conducted on social conduct of

adolescent who lives in dual family households compared to

divorced family households. These studies have incorporated a

full range of parent gender and parent housing including single-

father homes and single-mother homes. Studies have shown that

adolescents that demonstrate adjustment problems including

conduct problems, depression and low educational achievement are

at an increased risk living in divorced family homes than intact

family (Ulveseter, Breivik, & Thuen, 2010). Research also shows

that post-divorce housing arrangements are diverse among

adolescents, and the adolescent living arrangements fluctuate

between the single-mothers and the single fathers. This

inconsistency in living arrangement can affect the adolescent

social conduct because there is little, if no stability compared

to that of an intact family. Studies show that single parents are

less traditional in their parenting styles compared to that of a

dual-family (Hawkins, Amato, & King, 2006). According to Ernst

(2013) research, shows that the potential conduct of adolescents

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is influenced more by overall parenting style than particular

behaviors used.

A parent’s lack of parental monitoring can affect

adolescent’s social behaviors. According to Breivik, Olweus, &

Endresen (2009), single-fathers lack parental monitoring compared

to single-mothers. However, single-father spend more time

participating in the adolescent’s leisure activities, reading and

conversing with the youth, and assist with homework significantly

more than intact biological fathers and stepfathers (Bronte-

Tinkew, Scott, & Lilja, 2010). A definition of parental

monitoring is “parents’ knowledge of their adolescent’s location,

acquaintances, and activities” (Bowman, Prelow, & Weaver, 2007).

Many researchers have discovered that a mother’s involvements in

monitoring are linked with improved social skills among

adolescents. Teenagers find it easier to talk about their

problems with their mothers than their fathers. According to

Doherty & Craft (2011), most adolescents have a closer

relationship to the mother’s post divorce than they do to the

father. Adolescents living in single father households are at a

higher risk for developing antisocial behaviors compared to their

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counterparts in single-mother households (Jablonska & Lindberg,

2007).

A parent’s involvement can affect adolescent’s self-esteem,

which can lead to behavioral problems. The ratio of parenting has

decreased over the years and the majority of the daily

responsibilities of an adolescent are that of mothers, and

fathers mostly are participate mainly in the adolescent’s

recreational activities (Dufur et al, 2011). The adolescent’s

self-esteem can be a contributing factor to social problems (Cale

& Lilienfeld, 2006). Research shows that children, who live with

the absence of a father, demonstrate behavioral, cognitive and

sexual identity problems as they reach adolescents and adulthood.

Absent fathers have a negative effect on adolescents’ self-

concepts (Hendricks, et.al, 2005). Studies have also shown the

influence of single-fathers on the self-esteem of adolescents

could be negligible when equally matched with single-mother (Luo,

Wang, & Gao, 2012). According to Jablonska, & Lindberg, (2007),

adolescents who live in single-father homes are more apt to have

problems related to social and behavioral areas compared to

single-mother homes. However, children living in single-mother

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homes have poor social skills and have little, if no friends

compared an adolescent living in a single-father home. Some

researchers have found that adolescents living with single-

fathers have more psychosocial problems than adolescents living

in their counterpart, in single-mothers homes.

Safety

The health of an adolescent living in single-father home

compared to single-mother home is also measured in their safety.

Over the past decades, researchers have conducted several studies

that measure the effect of safety in single parent homes compared

to dual-family homes. Research has shown that being

transitioned between different living arrangements can be harmful

to an adolescent’s safety. Transitioning between different

living arrangements has the potential of contributing to juvenile

delinquency in adolescents, which can be detrimental to their

safety. Various criminological studies have found a link between

crime and family structures, with adolescents from single-family

homes more apt to participating in delinquent activities than

adolescents from dual family homes (Schroeder, Osgood, & Oghia,

2010). Juvenile crime is more significant in single-father homes

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than in their counterparts, in single-mother homes. According to

Demuth and Brown (2004), single-father homes have a significantly

higher rate of juvenile delinquency than single-mother homes.

Teenagers from single-family homes have a higher rate of

delinquency, due to lack of parental control and parent-child

relationships (Demuth &Brown, 2004). Adolescents who

demonstrated violent behaviors at school were 11 times more apt

to living in a single-father home than a single mother home

(Goldfarb, Tarver, & Sen, 2014). Disruptive and violent behaviors

are detrimental to an adolescent’s well-being, but many children

are dying everyday because of inconsistencies in the single-

family homes.

The leading cause of death among 15-24 year age group is

deadly accidents, homicide, and suicide. Research shows that

adolescents living in single parent homes are twice as likely to

commit suicide compared to a dual family home (Kirchheimer,

2013). Research shows that most teens attempt and commit suicide

because they are depressed about disruption in family and

financial problems in the homes. Depressive symptoms in

adolescents have been shown to be associated with family

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financial burdens (Pu, Nicole, & Yiing-Jenq, 2011). Depressive

symptoms among adolescents in single-family homes can be caused

by family environment, and instability (Carr & Springer, 2010).

Family burdens are more prevalent in single-mother homes than in

single father homes because the father typically was the primary

source of income before the separation. According to Bronte-

Tinkew, Scott, & Lilja (2010), single-custodial-fathers are less

likely to be underprivileged and be in low labor forces compared

to that of single-custodial-mothers. After the dissolution of

marriage the single-mother struggles to find a career because she

lacks educational qualifications and has low occupational skills.

While, single-fathers have the occupational skills to secure

jobs, to take care, of his family, many single mothers depend on

the welfare or low labor paying jobs (Fleischmann, Bertolote,

Belfer, & Beautrais, 2005). Single-mothers are more prone to

having lower earnings, lower educational achievements, and a

greater dependency on welfare system than do single-fathers

(Hendricks, et. al., 2005). Financial pressures can lead to

suicidal thoughts for youths through its impact on parental

behaviors (Pu, Nicole, & Yiing-Jenq, 2011). According to Demuth

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&Brown (2004), the key ingredients that a father must provide to

promote well-being an adolescent are financial contributions and

visitation. Parental behaviors in a single parent homes can lead

an adolescent to use and abuse drugs and alcohol, which can be

detrimental to an adolescent well-being.

Drugs and alcohol can be particularly unsafe for teens due

to the increased in overdoses every year that result in death

(Center of Disease and Control. 2014). Teens that live in

single-parent homes are at greater risk of trying illicit drug

and alcohol. Adolescents who live in single-father will be more

likely to used illicit drugs and have alcohol problems compared

to adolescents living in a single-mother home (Demuth &Brown,

2004). Fathers’ absence can negatively predispose an adolescent

to drug and alcohol abuse. Adolescent girls who have their

fathers involved in their lives are less apt to get involved in

using drug and alcohol (Hendricks, et. al, 2005). The best

scenario, according to Daugherty & Craft (2011), is to have the

single-mother and the single-father working together as one to

create an environment that is providing the highest quality of

life for the adolescent.

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Participants

Participants are recruited from Joseph L. Carwise Middle

School, which is a public middle school in north Pinellas County

consisting of diverse family structures and ethnic backgrounds in

the middle socioeconomic class. The participants of this study

are adolescent boys and girls in the age range of 11 to 14 who

are living in single parent homes. Also, participating is their

single mothers who are also caregivers.

Research design

The Quasi-experimental design group consists of two groups

with one independent variable, custodial gender parent homes.

The one group measures the well-being of adolescent boys and

girls living in single father homes. The other group measures

the well-being of adolescent boys and girls living in single

mother homes.

The assessment will be conducted in a static comparison

control group meaning that the administration will only occur

once for this study. Additionally, this is an ordinal,

nonparametric assessment using a Likert scale with five options

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ranging from zero to five for each of the questions being asked.

The WHOQOL-100 is specifically designed to measure the

individual’s perception of the quality of their life on a Likert

scale.

Instrument

The WHOQOL-100 was simultaneously created in 15 different

countries. The purpose of the assessment is to measure the

quality of life of individuals in terms of their physical,

mental, and social well-being. It was created by professionals

in health related fields, individuals suffering from various

diseases, and well individuals in different cultures in an

attempt to measure the well-being of individuals suffering from

various diseases (WHOQOL-100, 1998). The assessment contains one

hundred questions consisting of 24 facets that are divided into

six domains asking various questions about the individual’s

perception of their position in life over the course of the past

two weeks (WHOQOL-100, 1998). The WHOQOL-BREF was also developed

in a brief 26 question format that was test in field studies

using the WHOQOL-100. A new index of the WHOQOL-100 targeting

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adolescents ranging in the ages of 11 to 14 has been developed

from the WHOQOL-100 for the purpose of this study.

Validity and Reliability

The WHOQOL-100 has been shown to display good discriminant

validity, content validity and test-retest reliability. Domain

scores produced by the WHOQOL-100 have been shown to correlate at

around 0.9 (WHOQOL-100, 1998). However, since a new index of the

assessment has been created to target specifically the

adolescents between the ages of 11 and 14, the validity and

reliability of the index has not been calculated or measured.

Procedures

Specific procedures are established to recruit volunteers

for this study and determine the group in which each adolescent

volunteer belongs. Letters are sent out explaining the study to

eligible participants at the school ranging in ages of 11 to 14

who live in single parent homes. Attached to the eligibility

letter (Appendix 1) are a consent form, (Appendix 2) and a

demographic data collection sheet (Appendix 3) asking the

participants’ name, gender, age, and whether they live with their

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single mother or single father. The completed data sheet and

consent form must be returned to the school. All data sheets and

consent forms must be collected and recorded on a spreadsheet

prior to the initial stage of the study.

As the groups are being established a meeting is arranged

with the participants, to explain the reasons for the study and

to inform them that they can withdraw from the study at any time

at their own discord.

Collection of the data and compilation of the quota sampling

of 35 for both gender custodial parents begins. Single-mothers

will most likely reach the quota first, so the administration of

the assessment will be delayed until the quota for single-fathers

is met. The student researchers have decided to use 35 as their

sample population in case some of the population of single-

mothers dropped out during the transition time, waiting for the

collection of population of adolescents from custodial single-

fathers.

After the all the proper consent forms and demographic forms

from the participants are collected and compiled, they will be

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administered the new index developed from the WHOQOL-100

targeting adolescents between the ages of 11-14. The results from

the assessment will be carefully compiled and calculated. The

validity and reliability of the assessment is taken into account

and the null is either accepted or rejected according to the

results.

Proposed Data Analysis

The Mann Whitney U consists of two samples of each case to test

whether the groups are drawn from the same population. In this

study, Mann Whitney U is an ordinal nonparametric test, which is

used to compare the differences between two independent variable

levels (single-fathers versus single mothers) and has one

dependent variable (adolescents between the ages of 11 and 14).

Mann Whitney u was used to determine whether adolescents’

experienced a better quality of life living in a single father

home than a single mother home. The adolescents’ quality of life

was measured on an ordinal scale based on their overall well

being.

Implications

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If the null is accepted, then the hypothesis is rejected

because of single-mothers generally have lower income and lack

occupational skills. In addition, the maturation of the

participants and their social interactions may affect their

performance on the WHOQOL-100. Lastly, adolescents living with

single-mothers tend to live in lower socioeconomic environments

and communities, which affect their behaviors and willingness to

participate in the study.

If the null is rejected, then the hypothesis is accepted

because adolescents living with single-fathers experience a

lifestyle with higher income, better educational background, and

higher socioeconomic status. In addition, single-fathers’

parenting styles positively impact the adolescent’s academic

performance.

Limitations

In order to accept the null, the student researchers would

have to expand their research to a higher sample population using

all adolescents enrolled in public schools in the state of

Florida.

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In addition, the student researchers will retest the eligible

participants in order to accommodate for any physical or mental

disruptions during the course of the testing. Furthermore, the

student researchers will conduct background screenings for any

sexual, physical, and mental abuse, and neglect that the

participants may have within their history. Also, they should

review the participants’ behavior history for any problematic

behaviors or cognitive disabilities that may impact or inhibit

the study. Lastly, the study must account for any participants

not eating a well-balanced meal and having sufficient sleep prior

to their participation in the study.

Discussion

Some studies have shown that girls living with a single

father fare better academically than other adolescents, even

those in dual parent homes and single mother homes; yet, other

studies have shown that adolescent living with their fathers are

more likely to develop antisocial behaviors. Overall, too many

variables impact the adolescents’ perception of their quality of

life, which adversely impact the validity and reliability of this

research proposal. Nonetheless, the well-being of adolescents

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living with their single-fathers needs to be measured in order to

ensure that their needs are met.

Troy University- Tampa Bay Site

Research Study

Dear Parents:

Over the past two decades the trend across the country for single fathers having primary custody of their children has risen to 17% of all single family homes. However, very few studies have been conductedto measure the well-being of those children compared to their counterparts living in single mother homes or dual parent homes. A team of student researchers from Troy University Tampa Bay has randomly selected Joseph L. Carwise Middle School students to participate in a voluntary research study. The student researchers would like to collect a quota sample from the students here at Carwisethat are living in single parent homes and administer an index developed from the WHOQOL-100 test that measures the quality of life for adolescents ages 11-14. The WHOQOL-100 is a cross-cultural assessment that measures the individual’s perception of their quality life on a scale of one to five. It is comprised of 100 questions; however, the index that will be administered to your adolescent contains only the questions that are applicable to an adolescent’s life. All of the information will be confidential and destroyed at the conclusion of the study.

If you agree to allow your adolescent to participate in this study, please complete and return the Parent Consent Form and Demographics Sheet to your student’s grade level counselor. Please be aware that

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your student’s grade will not be affected by their participation in the study. The study is purely on a volunteer basis and you may withdraw at any time.

If you have any questions, please feel free to contact your grade level counselor at (727) 724-1442.

Thank you for your participation.

Christine Edwards

Irene Pantelis

Madelene Rosarie

Troy University-Tampa Bay Site

Student Researchers

Troy University

Research Study

Parental Consent Form

Dear Parent or Guardian:

Research students from Troy University are conducting a study as part of their graduate work. This study involves working in the school or agency where your child is served. If you have questions about the reason you are receiving this request, please contact the counselor atyour child’s school.

Christine Edwards, Irene Pantelis, and Madelene Rosarie, (research students from Troy University-Tampa bay Site) would like to work with your son/daughter, a student at Joseph L. Carwise Middle School.

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Research students are required to distribute a questionnaire as part of the study requirements. The student researcher’s supervisor, Dr. Gregory Dawson, will review the research data collected with your child’s demographic information. All data collected will be destroyed at the completion of your child’s involvement in the study. If at any time you wish to speak with your child’s student counselor, please call the school and leave a message.

If you are interested and willing to have your child participate, please sign the form where indicated.

Thank you.

Parent’s Name:___________________________________________________________________

Address: ________________________________________________________________________

City: __________________________________ State:______________ Zip Code:_______________

Telephone: Home__________________________ Work___________________________________

Parent’s Signature:_________________________________________________________________

Date:____________________________________________________________________________

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Troy University

Research Study

Demographic Data Sheet

Student’s First Name: ______________________________________________________________

Gender: Male Female

Student’s age: _____________________________________________________________________

Student’s ethnicity: Caucasian (White) African American (Black)

American Indian Hispanic or Latino

Asian Other

Gender Custodial Parent: Male Female

Thank you for your participation in this study.

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Student Researchers

Troy University-Tampa Bay Site

Demographic Data Collection Sheet (Single Mother Homes)

First Name Gender Age Ethnicity Family Structure1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21.22.23.24.25.26.27.28.29.30.

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31.32.33.34.35.

Demographic Data Collection Sheet (Single Father Homes)

First Name Gender Age Ethnicity Family Structure1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21.22.23.24.25.26.27.28.29.30.31.32.

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33.34.35.

WHOQOL-100 Adolescent Index

Do you get the kind of support from your father that you need?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

Do you get the kind of support from your mother that you need?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

To what extent doyou feel that your mental health is affected by your father’s involvement?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

To what extent doyou feel that your mental health is affected by your mother’s involvement?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

To what extent doyou feel that your physical health is affected by your father’s involvement?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

Not at Not much Moderatel A great Completely

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To what extent doyou feel that your physical health is affected by your mother’s involvement?

all1

2 y3

deal4

5

To what extent doyou feel that your education isaffected by your father’s involvement?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

To what extent doyou feel that your education isaffected by your mother’s involvement?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

To what extent doyou feel that your leisure and recreation are affected by your father’s involvement?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

To what extent doyou feel that your recreation and leisure are affected by your mother’s involvement?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

How safe do you feel in your father’s environment?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

Not atall

Not much2

Moderately

A greatdeal

Completely5

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How safe do you feel in your mother’s environment?

1 3 4

The following questions ask about how much you have experienced certain things in the last two weeks.

How well are you able to concentrate in your father’s environment?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

How well are you able to concentrate in your mother’s environment?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

Do you have enough energy for everydaylife?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

Are you able to accept your bodily appearance?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

How satisfied are you with your ability to perform your daily living activities?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

How satisfied are you with yourself?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

How often do you have negative feelingssuch as blue mood, despair, anxiety, depression?

Not atall1

Not much2

Moderately3

A greatdeal4

Completely5

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Did someone help you to fill out this form? ..............................................................................................................How long did it take to fill this form out? .................................................................................................................Do you have any comments about the assessment?.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

THANK YOU FOR YOUR HELP

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Dr. Dawson Final Research Project-6

Documents

Transcript of Dr. Dawson Final Research Project-6