DICT IONARY

GRE EK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES .

ABR IDG E D FROM T HE LARG E R D ICT IONARY.

BYWILLIAM §MITH, LL.D.,

mm: orm mmouu xu or“can: u p mount u nqm'nn,

”u p

u p nm owor.”

WI T H C ORR E CT I ONS AND I M PR OV E M E N T S,

BY CHAR LE S AN T HON, LL .D

PROPE SCOR 0? “ I nu n Al l) u m: LANG UAG E S IN COLOMBIA COLLE G E , HEW-YORK ,

BI OT OR OI‘ T R I cu m -sci on.

a}

N E W - Y O R K

HAR P E R dz B R OTHE R S, P U B L I S H ER S,8 2 C L I F F S T R E E T.

1 8 4 6.

Entered, according to Act ofCongress, inthe year 1846, by

Hu m:Gr. Bum ” ,

Inthe Clerk’s Ofioe of the SouthernDistrict ofNew-York.

PRE FACE .

T H E present work 18 designed to supply a want that has beenlongfelt bymost persons engaged inclassical tuition. H itherto we haveh ad no work in the E nglish language which ex hibited, ina formadapted to the use of youngpupils, the results of the labours ofmodernscholars in the various subjects included under the general termof

G reek and Roman Antiquities. T he “Dictionary of G reek andR omanAntiquities 1s intended for the more advanced student, andcontains,moreover, informationona vast variety of subjects , which isnot required by those who

,

are commencing their classical studies. It

has therefore been supposed, that an Abridgment‘

of that workillustrating the G reek and Romanwriters u sually read in the lowerclasses of our public schools, and omitting all such mat ters as are of

no use to the young student,might prove anacceptable addi tionto our

school-literature . Infact, the Abridgment was undertaken at the

suggestionof the head -master of one of our great public schools, andno pains have been spared to adapt it to the class of persons for

whomit ismore especially intended. Concisenessand cleamess have

beenchiefly studied ; all discussions on doubtfii l and controverted

subjects have beenomitted ; and such of the articles as are susceptible of it have been illustrated by woodcuts from ancient worksof art.

T hough this work has been drawnup chiefly for the use of the

lower forms inourpublic schools, thewants of another class ofpersons

have also been consulted. I t is believed that the work will be foundto be

.

of no small assistance to those who have not studied the G reekand Romanwriters, but who frequently need information onmany

points connected with G reek and RomanAntiquities. Care has beentakennot to presume too much onthe knowledge of the reader; andit is therefore hoped, that most of the articles may be read withadvantage and profit by persons who are unacquainted with the plassi

calwriters .

IV PRE FACE .

It should be borne inmind, that this work does not profess to giveanabri dged account of all the subjects which are comprised inthe

larger work. Onmany matters, such as those relating to Jurispru

dence , and several departments of Art, the reader must refer for

informationto the otherD ictionary. Onmany subjects likewise , whichare contained m this Abridgment , only the most important facts are

stated ; those who desire more detailed information, and an account

of the conflicting views held by modernscholars oncertainpoints,must

.

consult the original work. Insuch cases the present work willserve as a convenient introductionto the other, and will enable the

student to use the latter wi th more advantage and profit than he

would otherwise have been able to do. I t has been considered

unnecessary to give in this Abridgment references to ancient and

modernwriters, as they are not required by the class of persons for’whose use the book is designed , and they are to be found in the

WILLIAM SMITH .

London,May 20th, 1845.

PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.

T HE E ditor believes that he is rendering a very acceptable service

to the young student, in presenting himwith a corrected and improved editionof the present work, both onaccount of the aid which

i t will afford himinhis classical reading, and because the informationcontained init will be found to be farmore accurate and worthy of

reliance than that given inany similar work ever published 1n this

country . In preparing this volume for the press, errors in the

London editionhave been corrected, many important articles have

beenadded, and the amount of illustrations has beenverymateriallyenlarged. T he G reek Index , also, which abounded inerrors, has

b eencarefully revised and augmented.

Col.can.m. 1340.

SCHOOL-DICT IONARY

G RE E K AND ROMAN ANT IQ U IT I E S.

denoted primaril y a

desc ription , and was

e followmg significa

l . A table, or side -board , chiefly used forthe display of gold and silver cups , and otherkinds .of va luable and ornamental utensils.

T he use of abaci was first introduced at

Rome fromAsia Minor after the victories ofOn. Man lius Vulso, s . c. 187, and their introductionwas regarded as one of themarks ofthe growing luxury of the age.

2. A draught- boa rd or chess-board.

3. A board used b mathematicians fordrawing diagrams an by arithmeticians forthe pu rposes of calcu lation.

4. Inarchitectu re , the flat square stonewhich constituted the highest member of acolumn, being placed immediatel y under thearchitrave.

gin-ol efin!) were the parts ABROG A

'

T IO.

of the victim‘

whic wire offered to the gods ABS OLU T IO.

insacrifice. T he word is derived fromabh

gere, in imitation of the Greek (mole cw,

which is used ina similar manner. ese

arts were also cal led Porricia , Pmegmina,row ta .

£SACR1FIC IUMJ

ABOLL a cloak chiefly worn by soldiers ,and thus opposed to the toga, the ga rb of

ca.

Enoch ] T he abol lawas used b

ythe

ower c sea at Rome , and consequent y bythe philoso hers who afl

'

ected severity ofmanners an life .

2 ACCURAT IO.

ACA'

T IU M (dx drtov , a diminutive of (inaa smal l vesse l or boa t u sed by the

Greeks, which appears to have been the

same as the Roman scapha . T heAcetic werealso sails ada ted for fast sa iling.

ACORNS S . l . A public officer,who attended onsevera l of the Romanmagistrates.

He anciently preceded the consul who hadnot the fasces ,which custom, after being longdisused , was restored by Ju lius Cazsar inhisfirst consulship. Accensi also attended onthegovernors of provinces. 2 . T he accensiwerea lso a class of soldiers inthe Roman army ,who were enl isted after the ful l number ofthe legion had been completed , inorder tosupply any vacancies thatmight occur inthelegion . They were taken , according to thecensus of Servius Tu l lius, fromthe fifth classof citizens, and were placed inbattle intherear of the arm behind the t riarii.ACCLAMA P10 was the publ ic expression

of approbation or disap robation, pleasure or

disp ensure.by loud acc amations . Onmanyoecasions, there appear to have been certainforms of acclamatlons always used by the

Romans ;as, for instance, at marriages, I oHymanH cc, or T alascio at triumphs,Io T riump e at the conclusion of plays, thelast actor called outPlaud ite to the spectators;orators were usual ly praised by such expres$008 as Bane c:pracclare, Belle ct festive, .Non

poles!melius dcc.

ACCU 'BITA , the name of couches whichwere used inthe time ofthe Roman emperors,instead of the tricl inium, for reclinin on atmeals . T hemattresses and featherobe s were

mans. Even inthe time of the early Romanemperors, ch ildren infami lies of the

highest rank used to sit together,while theirfathers and elders reclined oncouches at the

able to the severity and purityto si t, more especial ly

ifmany pew s were prem t. But, onthe

AClNACE S .

other hand,we find cases ofwomen reclinin

where therewas conceived to be nothing bofiior indelicate intheir posture . S uch 18 thecase inthe following woodcut, which seems

Accubatio , Act ofReclining.

intended to represent a scene ofmatrimonialfelicity . T he husband and wife recline on asofa ;their two sons are infront of them;and several females and a boy are performing a piece ofmusic for the entertainment of

themarried pair.For anaccount of the disposition of the

couches , and of the place which each guestoccupied ina Greek and Roman entertainment , see S vu rosrnnand T ni cu nwn.

ACCU SA’

T OR ,ACCU S A

’

T IO. [Juns x ]ACE RRA the

incense -box or censer usedmsacrifices .

Acem, Income -Box .

T he acerrawas al so a smal lmoveable al tarplaced before the dead, on which pe rfumeswere burnt . T he use of the accerrae at funeral s was forbiddenby a law of the TwelveTables as anunnecessary expense.

A’CIES . E x sncrros .

ACI’NAC 8 (drivers; a Persian sword

,

ACROSTOLIUM. ACTIO.

whence Horace speaks of theMedanaa‘

nam.

‘T ha acinaceswas a short and straightwea n,and thus differed fromthe Romancica ,w

‘

chwas cu rved . I t was worn on the ri ht side ofthe whe reas the Greeks an Romans

their swords suspended on the leftside. formof the acinaces with themode

by the following

Leia-cos, PersianSword .

AG LIS , a kind ofdart wi th a leathemthongattached to it. [Ang strom]

‘ACROA’MA (dx poaua), which properl ymeans ant heard , was the name givento a concert of p ayers on difl

‘

erentmusical instrumenta, and also to aninterlude performedduring the exhibition of the ublic games.T he word is also applied to t e actors andmusicians who were employed to amusegues ts during anentertainment , and is sometimes used to designate the anagnostae.

[Aru ox os'rs s

]z'

ACRO'

POL S (dx porrol rg) . In almost allG reek ci ties, which were usual ly built upona hill , rock , or some natural elevation, therewas a castle or a citadel , erected uponthehighest of the rock or hil l , to which thename Acropolis , higher or upper city was

$22. Thuswe read ofanacropol is atAthens,th, ~Argos, Messene, and many other

places. T he Capitoliurnat Rome answeredthe same purpose as the acropolis in the

G reek-cities ;and of the same k ind were thetower ofAgathoc les at Utica, and that ofAntonia at Jerusalem.

ACROSTOL’IUM the ex

of the M 6105. 6 0762105; promoted

from head of the prow, and its ex tremi ty

(dx poerél cov).whichwas frequentlymade inthe shape of ananimal or a he lmet, dtc., apars to have been sometimes covered wi thrass , and to have served as a weaponofoffence a inst the enemy’s vesse ls.ACR E

'

RIUM'

fiesthe ex tremity of anything, a was app

'

ed bythe Greeks to the extremities of the prow ofa vesse l (dx poarél tov), which were usual lytakenfroma conquered vessel as a mark ofvictory : the act of doing so was ca lleddx po ptég

tv.

AO A 10RNA (proceed ings of the day)was a kind of gazet te ornewspa rpublisheddaily at Rome , under the ant onty of the

government. i t contained anaccount of the

proceedings of the public assemblies of theaw courts, of the punishment of offenders,and a l ist of births, marriages, deaths, &c.

T he proceedings of the ublic assemblies andthe law cou rts, were b means ofreporters (caviar-ii). T he p ings of thesenate (acts smatus) were not ublished til lthe time of Jul ius Ce sar, but t s customwasprohibited by Augustus. Anaccount of theproceedings of the senatewas sti l l preserved ,thoughnot published, and some sena tor seemsto have beenchosenby the em ror to compile the account. T he Acta

'

urna, whichwere also ca l led Acta Ad a Actsurbane , and by the simp ename 0 Acta, werefrequently consul ted and appea led to by laterhistorians.AOTA SENATUS . [Ao

-

u Dwa in.)A

’

CT IA a festival ce lebrated everythree years at ActiuminE irus, with wrestling, horse - racing, and sea. hts, inhonou r ofApol lo. There was a cele rated temple ofA 110 at Actium. After the defeat ofAntonyJ

o

Actium, Augustus enlarged the temple,and instituted games to be celebrated everyfive years incommemorationofhis victory.A'CTIO,

is defined by a Romanjurist to bethe right of pursuing by Judicialmeans whatis aman’s due.

T he old actions of the Romanlawwerecal led Iegis actims or leg itimae, either becauseth were expressly

provided for by the lawsof(

Ks -Twe lve T ab es, or because they werestrictl adapted to the words of the laws, andtheregre couldnotbe varied . But these formsofaction ually fel l into disuse , inconseuence the excessive nicety uired, andt e failure consequen t onthe shg test errorinthe pleadings and they

'

were even tua l lyabolished by the iLex Aebutia, and twoLogosJuliae except ina few cases.Inthe old Romanconsti tution, the knowl

edge of the lawwas most closelyconnected

with the institutes andcom ofreligion

4 ACTIO. ACT IO.

and was accordingl y inthe hands of the patricians alone, whose aid their

_

clients wereobliged to ask inall their lega l dis utes. App.

Claudius Caecus, perhaps one the earliestwriters onlaw. drewup the various forms ofactions , probably for his ownuse and that ofhis friends : the manuscri t was stolen orcopied by his scribe Cn. F

,

avi us,who made

it public ;and thus, according to the story,the lebians became acquainted with thoselegalforms which hitherto had beenthe ex eadimoniwnpremium, or facm the su re ty,clusive pro rty of the patricians. After the var

,was said spenders the plaintiff, when

aboli tiono the old legal actions , a sui twas satisfied with the surety,was said vadan'

ream,prosecuted inthe fol lowingmanner to let himgo onhis sureties, or to have sureAnactionwas commenced by the plaintiff ties fromhim. Whenthe defendant p romi sed

summoning thedefendant to apmrbefore the to appear injars on“

the day named , Wi thoutpraetor or other tratewho

‘

ctio: giving an surety , this was called eadimom'

umthis processwas led in vacatio; and, ac purwn. nsome cases, recuperatores [ Junx x ]cording to ths laws of the welve T ables ,was were named , who, incase of the defendantinefl

‘

ect a dragging of the defendant before the making defau lt , condemned himinthe sumofpraetor, if he refused to go quietl y ;and al mone named inthe vadimonium.

thou h this rude proceed in was somewhat If t a defendant appeared onthe day ap~

modihed inlater times,we inthe time of ointed, hewas said sadimom‘

umsisters if heHorace that if the defendant would not go not ap r

, hewas said eadimoniiundesequietly, the plaintiff cal led uponany b stander ridase;an the praetor ave to the plaintifi

'

to witness, and dragged the defe t into the bonorumpossessio. goth parties, onthecourt. T he partiesmight settle their dis ute day appointed, were summoned by a crierontheir we to the cou rt , or the defe ant

Yucca), whenthe plaintiffmade his c laimor

might be ed by a vindex . T he vindex must emand, which was very bried expressed,not be confounded wi th the vades. This set and ma be considered as corr sponding to

tlement of disputes on the way was called our dec arationat law.

transactio invia , and serves to explaina pas T he defendantmight either deny the p lain.

38 8 InS t» Matthew, V 25 tifl’s c laim or hemight reply to it by;

p lea,enbefore the praetor, the parti es were a septic. If he simp y denied the °

ntifl"ssaid jug

-e agate

.

T he plaintifl'

thenprayed for claim, the cause was at issue, an a judexanact ion, and if the praetor al lowed it “I?“ might be demanded . T he forms of theweepactionem), he thendeclared what action e in tie

,al so, were contained inthe praetor

’s edict,tended to bring against the defendant which or, uponhearing the facts, the praetor adapthe called edcrc scrim Thismight be done e dthe plea to the case.

inwri ting. or orall y, Orby the plainti ff tak ing T he plaintiffmight reply to the defendant

’sthe defennut to the album[Ai.aux ,and show a septic. T he plaintifi

’s answer was ca l led

ing himwhich actionhe intend to rely on. r hcai io. If the defendant answered the re

As theformulae onthe albumcomprehended , pantie, his answer was called duplicaria andor were supp

osed to comprehend, everyegos the artiesmight go onto the triplieari

'

o andsibleform9 actionthat could be requi

.

by plican‘

o‘

, and evenfurther, if thema t te rsa pla inti ff, it was presumed that he cou ld find inquestionwere such that they cou ld notamong all the formulae some one which was otherwise be brough t to anissue.

adapted to 1118 03863;mid heW813, accordingly, A rsonmight maintainor defend an ac

eu posed to be Wi thout excuse if he didnot tionif his cognitor or procurator, or, as wee pains to se lect the prOper formu lae. If shoul sa by his attorney. T he laintifl

'

he toolt the wrong one, or if he c laimedmore and defe ant used a ce rtain form wordsthanh is due, he lost his cause (cause cadcbat); inappointing a cognitor, and it would appearbut the

Ejraetor

o

someti‘

mes gave h imleave to that the appointmentwasmade inthe p resamend a c laimor inleatw. It Wi l l be ob ence of both parties. T he cognitor neededse rved that as the formu lae were sonumerous not to be present, and his pointment was

and comprehensive, the 111t had onl y to complete whenby his “wa

ge had signifiedse lect the formulae whic he su

gposed to be his assent.

suitable to his case , and it woul requi re no When the cause was brou ht to anissufarther variation than the insertionof the a judex or judicesmight be mended of the

e

:names of the parties and of the thing c laimed , praetor,whonamed or appointed a judex , and

ACUS .

d e liv ered to himthe formu la, which contained male head . This fashionhas beencontinued

l ong in to the state.

AC ORS onthe stagEe. [li terate ]

ACT UA'

RIAE NA S ,transport-vesse ls,seemto have beenbuil t ina lighter style thanthe ordinary shi

p’se

of burden, fromwhicha lso differed in ing always furnishedoa rs , whereas the others were chieflypelled b sai ls .

A CT A'

Rll, short-hand writers, whodown the speeches inthe senate and the public assembli es . Inthe debate inthe Romansenate uponthe punishment of those whohad beenconcerned inthe conspiracy ofCati line ,

we find the firstmentionof short- handw ri te rs, whowere em loyed by Cicero to takedown the speech of ato.

ACTUS,a Romanmeasure of length , al so

ca l led actus quadrants , was equal to half a

jugerum, or square Romanfeet. T he

actusminim , or si was 120 feet long,and four broad , therefore ual to 480square Romanfeet. Actus was used tos ignif a bridle way.

AC 8 flcl ovtg.badly), a need le,a in.li’ins weremadenot onl y ofmetal, but al soof wood , bone, and ivory. They were usedfor the same purposes as with us, and al so ind ressing the hair. T hemode of platting thehair

,and then fastening it with a pinornee

dio, is showninthe annz

ex ed figu re of a fe

a

ADONIA .

to our owntimes by the females of Ital y.

Lens, Pinused to fastsnthe Bair.

5

ADDICT I. [Ns x i ]ADFINE S . [Arrmasj

rADLE CT I, or ALLEC 1, those personsunder the empire who were admitted to thep rivi leges and honours of the praetorship,

fiuaestorship, aedileship, and other public oices

,withou t having any duties to perform.

T he senators called adlecn', seemto have beenthe same as the conscripti.ADM ISS IONA’LES , chamberlains at the

imperia l court, who introduced persons to thepresence of the emperor. They were dividedinto four classes ; the chief officer of eachclass was called prox imal: admissiommt ; andthe pres im

’

were under themagma admisswmam. Their duty was called 0 admissiam'

s . They were usual ly n.ADOLE S CE NS , was applied inthe R0manlaw to a personfromthe end of histwelfth or fou rteenth to the end of his twenty -fifth year, during which period a personwas al so called aduum. T he word adolescens, however, is frequently used ina lessstrict sense inthe Lati n writers inreferringto a personmuch older thanthe abovementioned aADO

’ IA ( Adi-M a ),a festival celebrated inhonour of A hrodite (Venus) and Adams inmost ofthe racismcities . I t lasted two days,andwas ce lebrated h womenex clusively. Onthe first da they rou ht into the st reetsstatues of donis , whio were laid out as

corpses ;and they observed all the rites cus

tomary at funera l s, beating themsel ves andu ttering lamentstions. T he second day wasspent inmerriment and feasting; because

6 ADOPT IO.

Adonis was allowed to return to life, andspend half the year with Aphrod ite (Venus).ADO

'

PT IO,adoption . l . Gu am—Adop

tion was cal led by the Athenians rig-not erg,

or sometimes simply irolnarg, or 06mg. he

adoptive father was said nowieflar, slgrrozci00m, or sometimes i raretv and the father ormother (for amother after the death of herhusband cou ld consent to hersonbeing ado t

ed) was said émrorclv the son was said it

vrorstefia t with reference to the famil y whichhe left ; and slworrtofiar w ith reference tothe fami l y in to which hewas received. T he

son, whenadopted, was called nor res, alg

rromréc, or Oar inappositionto t e egi ti

mate son born 0 the y of the father, whowas cal ledM an

y.

Amanmight a opt a son either inhis lifetime or by his testament , provided he had nomale offspring, and was of soundmind. Hemight al so , by testament, name a person totake his property , in case his son or sonsshou ld die under age.

On ly Athenian ci tizens could be adopted ;but females could be adopted (by testamentat least) as wel l asmales.T he adopted chi ld was transferred fromhis

ownfami ly and demus into those of the adoptive father ; he inherited his property, andmaintained the sacra of his adoptive father.It wasnotnece forhimto take his newfather’s name

,but a was registered as his

soninthe register of his phratria ¢parptx bv

ypapparelov). Subsequent ly to t s, it wasnecessary to enter himinthe register of theadoptive father's demus (Anfzapx rx bv ypqu,sarslov), wi thout which registrationi t appears that he did not possess the ful l rightsof citizenship as amember of hisnewdemus.2. Ronnie—T he Roman re lationof parent

and child arose eitherfroma lawfu lmarriageor fromadoption. Adopn

'

o was the genera lname which comprehended the two species.adoptio and adrogati

’

o ; and as the adopted

perstenpassed f

gomhis ownfamilia

ségto that

0 t a persona o ting, adopuo‘

cau a cop i'

o

ti: diminu tio,and

)

the lowest of the threekinds . [Caron] Adoption, in its specificsense, was the ceremony by which a personwhowas inthe power of his arent (inpotatatcpar

-

salient), whether chil or grandchild,male or female,was transferred to the or

of the person adopting him. I t was ted

under the anthem ofamagistrate (magistratus) , the praetor, or instance, at Rome, or agovernor (presses), in the provinces . T heperson to be adoptedwas smenci ated [MarvCIPAT IO] by his natura l father be era the competent authority, and surrendered to the adeptive fatherby the legalformcalled injurcmm.

ADULT E RlUM.

Whenapersonwasnot inthe power ofhisparent (m juris ), the ceremony of adaptionwas cal led adrogalio. Originall it couldonl be affec ted at Rome, and ony by a voteof t e populus l populim arinate) inthe comitia curiata ( legs cur

-iota) ;the reasonof thisbeing that the caput or status of a Romancitizencouldnot , accordin to the laws oftheTwelve Tables , be efi

'

ec except by a voteof the popu lus inthe comitia curiata . Clodius

,the enemy ofC icero,was adm ted into

a plebian family, inorder to qualify imselftobe e lected a tribune of the labs. Femalescould not be adopted b rogatio. Underthe emperors it became t e practice to effectthe adrogatio by animperial rescri pt .T he effect of adoptionwas to create the

Lega

l» relationof father and son,d

ust as if theopted sonwere bo rnof the load of the

adoptive father inlawfu lmarriage. T he adopted child was entitled to thename and sac raprivate of the adopting parent. A person, onpassingfromone gens into another,and takinthename ofhisnewfamil ia genera l ly retthename ofhis old gens also, with the addition to it of the terminationemu . ThusAemilius, the sonof L. Aemilius Paullus

,

uponbeing adopted P. Corne lius Scipio,assumed the name 0 P. Cornelius Sc ip ioAemilianus, and C . Octavius, afterward s theemperor Au stus, u

pon being adopted by the

testament 0 his unc e the dictator, assumedthename ofC . Julius Caesar Octavianus.

ADORA’

T IO («pogx iiwzor adorationwas paid to the ode inthe ollowingmanner i—T he indi ual stretched out his righthand to the statue of the god whomhe wishedto honour, then kissed his hand and waved itto the statue. T he adoratio differed fromtheerotic or prayers , eu plications, which wereoffered Wi th the folded together. _

T headoration to the Roman em rors wasborrowed cmthe Easternmoda o adoration,and consisted in rostrationontheand kissing the set and knees of e emperor.

ADROG A‘T IO. [Anor'rrosa]

ADULT E’

Rt f, adultery. l . G asnx .

Among the Athenians, if a man caughtanothermaninthe act ofcriminal inte rcourse(,uoix rla )with his wife, hemight kil l himwithimpunity ; and the lawwas al so the samewith res t to a concubine (wal l ow). Hemight a so inflict other punishment ontheoffender. It appears that therewasnoadultery,unless amarriedwomanwas concerned. T hehusbandmight, if be pleased , take a sumofmoney fromthe adul terer, byway of compensation, and detainhimtil l he found suretiesfor the payment. T he husband might also

ABUNA'

N . AEDILES. 7

prosecute the adul terer inthe action cal led at difl'

erent times. Inthe time of Lysine andi d o If the act of adul tery was

go

mzemaggc

hfiband could no longercohabi twith his wife, under pain of losing his privileges of a citizen(drmia T he adul teresswas excluded evenfromt use temples whichforeignwomenand slaves were al lowed toenter ; and if she was seen there, an onemight t reat her as he pleased , provided e did

not ki l l her ormu ti late her.2. ROMAN. T he word adulteriumproperly

signifies, inthe Roman law, the offence comwitted by aman’s having sexual intercoursewith anotherman’s Wife . S lum (cal led bythe Greeks odopd ) signifies the li ke offencewith a widow or vi rgin .

In the time of Augustus a lawwas enacted(probably about a. c. entit led Les Julia dcadulten

'

i'

s coercendt‘

s , which seems to have contained specia l pena l provisions against adultery ;and it is also not improbable, that by theold lawor custom, if the adultererwascaughtinthe fact, hewas at themore of the injuredhusband , and that the husba might punishwith death his adul terous wife.

not inflict the punishment of death oneitherparty ;and inthose instances under the emrors inwhich death was inflicted, it mustconsidered as anextraord inary punishment,

and beyond the provisions of the Ju lianlaw.

T he Julian law permitted the father (bothado tive and natural) to ki l l the adulterer andad terees incertaincases, as to which therewere severa l nice distinctions establi shed b

ythe law. If the wife was divorced foradutery , the husband was entitled to retain partof the dowry.By a consti tu tion of the Emperor Constan

tine, the offence inthe adul tererwas madecapital .

°ADVERSA’RIA,a note-book , memoran

dum-book , posting- book , inwhich the Romansenteredmemoranda of any importance, especially ofmoney received and ex pended ,whichwere afterwards transcribed , usual l y everymonth , ii i to a kind of ledger. ( T abulaeJoanie,codes:at " 6!

ADV E SA’R US . [ACT ORJADU’NATI (“driver

-

or) , were persons supported by the Athenian state,who, onaccoun tof infirmity or bodily defects , wereunable toobtain a l ivelihood. T he sumwhich theyreceived fromthe state appears to have varied

Aristotle, one obolus a daywas given;but itappears to have been afterwards increased totwo oboli . T he bounty was restricted to persons whose property was under threeminae ;and the examination of those who were ent i tled to i t be longed to the senate of the FiveHundred. Pisist ratus is said to have beenthe fi rst to introduce a law for the maintenance of those pe rsons who had beenmutilated inwar.

O

ADVOCA'

T U S , seems original! to havesignified any person,who gave an erhis aidinany atfai ror business , as a witness for ihstance ;orfor the purpose of aid in and proteeting h imintak ing possession o a piece ofproperty. Itwas also used to express a personwho inany way gave his advi ce and aid toanother inthe management of a cause ;butthe word did not signify the orator or tronoswhomade the speech inthe time Cicero.

Under the emperors it signified a personwhoinany way assisted inthe conduct of a cause,(1was some times equivalent to orator. T hevocate

’s fee was then cal led Honorari

’

um.

A’DYTUM . [T E MPLU x JAEDES . [Douus ;Tanners ]AEDI

'

LES T he name ofthese functionaries is said to be derived fromtheir hay ing the care of the temple (cedar) ofCeres. T he aediles were original l y two innumber ; they were elected fromthe plebs

,

and the insti tutionof the office dates fromthe same time as that of the tribunes of theplebs, n. c . 494. Their duties at first seemto have beenmere lyministerial ;they werethe assistants of the tribunes insuchmattersas the tribunes entrusted to them, amongwhich are enumerated the hearing of causesof sma l ler importance . At anearly riodafter their insti tution (a. o. wefin themappointed the has era of the senatus-consulta ,which the cousu 3 had hitherto arbitrarilysuppressed or al tered. They were also thekeepers of the plebiscite. Other functionswere gradually entrusted to them, and it isnot always easy to distinguish their dutiesfromsome of those which belong to the censors . They had the general superin tendenceof buildings, both sacred and rivate ;underthis powerthey provided for e support andrepai r of temples, curiae, &c.

, and took carethat private buildin

,which were ina ruinous

state were repairedby the owners or pulleddown. T he care of the streets and pavements , with the clean

l

s

i

i

opjgand draining of the

city, belon to the i les and, of course,the care 0

“

the cloacae. They had the officeof distributing cornamong the plebs, but thi sdistributionof cornatRome 'mustnot be con~

8 AEDILES . AEDILES .

founded with the duty of purchasing or procuring it fromforeign parts , which was performed by the consuls, quaes tors ,and praetors,and sometimes by anextraordinarymagistrate,as the praefectus annonae.

T he aediles had to see that the publ ic landswere not improperly used , .aud that the pastu re grounds of the state were not t respassedon;and they had war to punish by fine anyunlawfu l act in t is respect. They had a

encral superintendence over buying and selg, and, as a consec

Luence

,the supervision

of the markets , of t ings exposed to sale,such as slaves, and ofwei hts andmeasures ;from this part of their uty is derived the

name under which the aedi les arementionedby the Greek writers (dyepavopm). I t wastheir business to see that nonewdeities orreligious rites were introduced into the city ,to look after the observance of religious ceremonies, and the celebrat ion of the ancientfeasts and festivals. T he genera l superintendence of police comprehended the du

tiyof

preserving order, regard to decency, an the

inspectionof the baths and houses of entertainment. T he aediles had various officersunder them, as praecones, scribae, and via

T he AE DILBB Cuauas s, who were al sotwo innumber, were original l y chosen on lyfromthe patricians, afterwards alternatelyfromthe patricians and the plebs, and at lastindifi

'

erently fromboth. T he office of curuleaediles was institu ted 365, and, according to Li on the occasion of the plebeianaediles re usin to consent to ce lebrate theLudi Max imi or the space of fou r days instead of three ; upon which a senatus -consultumwas passed, by which two aedi leswere to be chosen fromthe patricians. Fromthis time four aedi les , two plebe ian and twocurule, were annual ly elected. T he distinctive honours of the curu le aed iles were , thesel la curulis, fromwhence their title is derived, the tOga praetexta, precedence inspeaking inthe senate, and the us imaginis. T he

curu le aedi les only had } e edicendi , orthe ri ght of promu lgati ng ed icts ; but theru les comprised intheiredi cts served for theguidance of all the aed i les . T he edicts of

the cu ru le aedi les were founded ontheir euthority as superintendents

'

of the markets,

and of buying and se ll ing in.

h ers]. Ao

cordingly. thei r edicts hadmainy, or perhapssolely , reference to the rules as to buying andse l l ing, and contracts for bargain and sale .

T he persons both of the plebeianand curuleaediles were sacrosancti.I t seems that after the appointment of the

curule aedi les,the functions formerly ex er

cised by the plebeianaedi les were exercised ,with some few exceptions, by all the aedilesindifi

'

erently .,Within five days after being

elected , or entering onoffice, they were re.

quired to determine b lot, or by agreementamong themse lves , w at parts of the cityeach shou ld take imdat his superintendence ;and each aedile alone had the care of lookingafter the paving and cleansing of the streets ,and othermatters, itmay be presumed , of thesame l ocal character withinhis district. T heother duties of theoffice seemto have beenexercised by themjointly.

In the superin tendence of the publ ic festival s or solemnities there was a further distinction between t e two sets of aediles.Many of these festivals, such as those ofFlora and Ceres, were superintended byeither set of aedi les indifl

‘

erently ; but the.

plebeian games were under the superintenence of the plebeian aediles, who had an

al lowance ofmoney for that purpose ; andthe fines levied on the pecuari i , and others,seemto have beenappropriated to theseamong other public purposes. T he celebration of the Ludi Magni or Romani, of theLudi Scenici, or dramatic representations,and the Ludi Megalesii, belonged spec iallyto the curu le aediles , and it was onsuch occasions that they oftenincurred a

prodigious

expense

,with a view of pleasing t e people,

an secu ring their votes infuture electi ons.This extravagant expenditure of the aedi lesarose after the close of the second Punic war,and increased with the Opportunities whichindividuals had of enriching themse lves afterthe Roman arms were carried into Greece,Africa, and Spain. Even the prodigality ofthe empe rors hardl surpassed that of i ndividual curule sedi es under the re

public ;

such as C. Ju l ius Caesar, the dictator, Corh el ius Lentulus S pintber, and, above all, M .

Aemilius S caurus, whose expenditure wasnot limited to bare show

,but comprehended

objects of publ ic utility, as the reparationofwal ls, dock-yards

,ports , and aqueducts.

Ina. c . 45 , Julius Caesar caused two curu leaedi les and four plebeian aedi les to be e lected ;and thenceforward , at least so long as theoffice of aedile was of any irn rtauce, sixaediles were annual ly e lected . he twonewplebeian aediles were called Cereales , andtheir duty was to look after a sup ly of corn .

Though their officemaynot have onof anygreat importance after the institution of a

raefectus annonae by Augustus, there is nodoubt that itexisted forseveral centuries, and

at least as late as the time of the emperorGordian.

T he aediles belonged to the c lass of the

AEDILES .

min' ores magistratus. T he plebeianaediles

we re origins ly chosenat the comitia centuria ta , bu t afterwards at the comitia tribute,in wh i ch comitia the curule aediles alsowe re chosen.

“

It appears that until the lexannali s was passed (a. c. 180) a Roman citiz enmight be a candidate forany ollies afterc omp le ting his twent s eventh year. Thislaw fix ed the e atw

‘

ch each officemightbe enj oyed , an it seems that the age fixedfor the aedi leship was thirt - seven .

T he aed iles existed oner the emperors ;bu t th e ir were were gradual ly diminished ,and th e ir unctions exercised by new officersc reated by the emperors. After the batt le ofAct ium,

Augustus appointed a Praefectusu rbi , who exercised the general police,whichhad fo rmerly beenone of the duties of the

aed i les . Au stus al so took fromthe aediles,or e xe rci himself, the ofiice of superintendin the re l i

'

ous rites, and the bani shingfrom s cit 0 all foreignceremonials ;hea lso assum the anerintendence of the temp le s , and thusmay said to have destroyedthe aedileship by depriving it of its old ando ri ginal function . T he last recorded instanceof the splendours of the aed ileship is the administration of Agrippa, who volunteered totake the s ilica, and repaired all the publicbu i l d ings and all the roads at his

pense, withou t drawing anything fromthe

treasu ry. T he aedileship had, however, lostits t rue character before this time. Agrippa

T he Aegis as were by Athens (Minerva).

AEGIS .

had al ready beenconsu l before he acceptedthe office of aedi le, and hismunificent ex peno

diture inthis nominal office was the close ofthe splendour of the aedi leship. Augustusa ointed the curule aediles special! to the

0 ca of putting out fires , and plac a bodyof600 slaves at their command but the

Erne

fecti vigilumafterwards performed this uty.

T he retained,under the early emperors

,a

kin of pol ice, for the purpose of re ressi ngOpenlicentiousness and diso rder. T e colonine, and the municipia of the later peri od ,had al so their aed iles, whose numbers andfunctions varied indifi

'

erent places. Theyseem,

however, as to theirpowers and duties ,

to have resembled the aedi es ofwere chosenannuall

ly.

AE DI'

T U I. AE I'T UN I, AE DI'

T IMIcal led by the G reeks vewmipor, (dx opoz , andnoidx opot), were persons who took care of

the temles, attended to the cleaning of them,

dtc. T ey appear to have lived inthe tern~ples, ornear them, and to have acted as c icaroni to those pe rsons who wished to see

them. Subsequent ly among the G reeks, themenial services connected with thi s officewere left to slaves, and the persons cal ledneocort

‘ becamepries tl y offi cers of high rank ,

who had the c ief superintendence of temples, their treasures, and the sacred ri tes ch

A rskin.

y

10 AERA.

According to ancient mthology, the aegiswornby Jupiterwas thehi e ofthe goat Arnaltheia, which had suckled himinhis infancy.

Homer always represents it as part of thearmo ur of Jupiter, whomonth is account hedistinguishes by the epi thet egarstg

(alytox He, however, asserts, t t i twasborrowgd on different occasions, both byApol lo and M inerva.

T he aegis was connected Wi th the shieldof Jupiter, either serving as a coverin over i t,or as a be lt by which itwas suspened fromthe right shou lder. Homer accord ingly usesthe word to denote not on] the goat -shin,which itmoped signifi but also the

shie ld to w‘

c it longed .

T he aegis was adorned ina style correspondin to the might and ma esty of the

father ofthe gods. Inthe mid le of i t wasfixed the appa lling Gorgon

’s head , and i ts

border was surrounded with golden tassel s(wag

er), each of which was worth a hecatomT he aegis is usual ly seenonthe statues. ofMinerva

, inwhich it is a sort of scarf fa l lingobliquely over the right shou lder, so as to

pass round the body under the left arm. T heserpents of the Gorgon

’s head are transferredto the border of the skin. (S ee the left-handfigure inthe cut.) T he later poets and ar

tists represent the aegis as a breast late ccv

ered wi thmetal inthe formof so es. (S eethe ri ht-hand figu re.)AH E AT O

’

RE S , were those who blewuponwind instruments inthe Romanfi

zz;

namely, the buccinalores , comict'm , and

cines . They were al so employed inthe pub110 games.AEOLIP’YLE (dtél ov mixer) were, se

cording to the descriptionof Vitruvius, hollow vesse lsmade of brass , which {were usedinexplainin

gthe ori in. &c. of the w inds.

These vesse s, which a very sma l l orifice,were fil led with water and placed onthe fire,by which, of course, steamwas created .

AERA, a point of time fromwhich subseuent or receding years may be counted.

he Gree 8 had no commonaera ti ll a comparatively late period.

T he Athenians reckoned their years hy‘the

flame oft

l‘i

figdhieféar

hoc

zi onofeach y

gzr,whgnce

ewas 0 or ymas a v m!»w y) ; the Lmedwmpgiiians b ohe of thee

pore, and the Ar

iives

ogthe c ief priestess

o Juno who held er cc for l ife.

T he following aeras were adapted inlatertimes the aera of the T rajanwar

which was firstmade use of by PJtthence—2. the O lympic aera

,which . began

a. o. 776.—3. the Philippic or Alexandrian

AERARIUM.

aera, wh ich begana. 0. 323—4. the aera ofthe Seleucidae, which beganinthe au tumnof s . 0. 312—5. the aeras ofAntioch, of whichthere were three, but the one inmos t commonuse beganinNovember, 3 . c . 49.

T he Romans reckoned their years fromthefoundationof the city (ab urbe condita ) , inthetime of Augustus and subsequent ly ; bu t inearl ier times the years were reckoned b y thenames of the consu ls. We also find t ra ces ofanaera fromthe banishment of the kings ;and of another fromthe taking of the ci t y bythe Gauls . T he date of the founda tion ofRome is givend ifferent ly by different au th ors.That which is most commonly foll owed isthe one given by Varro, whichcorrespond s tos . c. 753. I tmust be observed , that 753 1 . v . c .

is the first year before, and 754 A. U . c. thefirst ear after the Christianaerau T o findout t e year a. 0. corresponding to the y earA. u. c., subtract the year a . u. c. from754thus, 605 A. U . c.= l49a. c . To find out theyear A. D., corresponding to the year A . u. c.,

subtract 753 fromthe year A . u. c. , thu s, 767A. U . A. D.

AE RA'

RII, those citizens of Rome whodidnot enjoy the rfac t franchise

, i. 0. thosewho cones ond to the isoteles and M imi atAthens. he name is a regu lar adjec t iveformed froman (bronze), and its appli cationto this pa rticular class is due to the circumstance that, as the aerarii were protec ted bythe state without bein

gbound tomilita ry ser

vice, they naturall y ha to pay the anmilitan,

which was thus original ly a charge onthem.

T he persons who constituted this c lass we reeither the inhabitants of other towns whichhad a relationof isopolity with Rome (the ia

ruins, or chants and the descendants ofreedmen. T he decemvirs enrolled in thetribes allwho were aerarians at that timeand whenthe tribes comprised the wholena e

tion, the degradationofa citizen to the rankof anaeran

’

an(which was ca lled aerariumfame; refer-

re aliqueminaerm-ios ; or intubule:Cam'

twnreferri jybm),might be practised inthe case of apatri cianas wel l as of a plebeian.Hence, aerarians came to be used as a termof rep

roach. Respecting the Tribuni Aerarii,see arsonos.

AE RA'

RIUM,the public treasury atRome.

After the banishment of the kings, the templeof Saturnwas used as the place for keepingthe pubhc t reasure, and it continued to be so

ti l l the later times of the empire. Besidesthe publ ic money

,the standards of the le

gions were deposi ted inthe aerarium, andal so all decrees of the senate were enteredthere inbooks kept for the urpose.

0

T he aerariumwas divid into two parts :

AES.

th e commontreasu ry, inwhich we re depositedth e regu lar taxes, and which was made use

of to meet the ordinary expenditure of the

s tate ;and the sacred t reasury (acmriumsanctum,

aanctius), which was never touched ex

cep t incases of ex treme peri l . T he twentie th part of the value of every slavewhowasenfranchised, and some part of the plunder ofcon uered nations , were deposited inthe as

treasury. Augustus established a sepa ra te t reasury under the name of acnm’

ummilitm , to provide for the

pay and support of

the a rmy ;and he imp several newtaxesfo r that purpose.

T he aerarium, the ublic treasury,must bed is tinguished fromt efirm , the treasury ofth e emperors .

EFTSCUBJ

T he charge 0 the treasu was original l yent rusted to thequaestors their assistants ,th e t ribuni aerarii ;but ina. o. 49, whennonecators were elected , itwas transferred to

t e aedi les, inwhose care it appears to havebeenti l l a. c. 28, whenAugustus gave i t toth e praetors , or those who had been praetors .V a rious chan weremade by the early empe rors, as to t a charge of the aerarium,

but

i t was eventuall y entrusted to omeara, cal ledraefects, who appear to have held thei rs oflice

or two cars .

AER S CAT O’

RE S , were vagrants whoob tained their living by fortune te l ling andbegging. They were called by the G reeksd yi iprat.ABS al x ég), properl y sigmfies a com

pound 0 copper and tin, corresponding towhat we cal l bronz e. I t is incorrect to transla te it brass, which is a combinationof copper and zinc , since all the specimens of ancient objec ts , formed of the materia l cal ledaes, are found upon analysis to containnot rue .

T he employmen t of sea was very generalamong the anc ients ;money , vases, and utensil s of all sorts, being made of it. Al l themost anc ient coins inRome and the old Italian states weremade ofass, and hence inoney ingenera l was cal led by thisname. Forthe same reasonwe have canalimum,meanin debt, and aera inthe lural , pay to thesoldiers. T he Romans b no other comageexcept bronze or copper (m ), till a . c. 269,five years before the first Punic war, whensi lver was first coined ;gold was not cornedtill sixt - two years after silver.T he rat courage ofsea is usuall y attributed

to Servius Tul lius,who is said to have stamped themoneywith the image of cattle pews),whence it is ca l led pecunia. Acco g tosome accounts, itwas coined fromthe commencement ofthe city, andwe knowthat the

AES UXORIUM. l l

old ltalianstatespossessed a bronz e or c

per coinage fromt e ear liest times.op

T he first carnage was the as [As], whichoriginall y was a pound wei ht ;but as incourse of time the weight 0 the as was re

ducednot onl inRome,but inthe other I ta l

ianstates, an this reductionof weight wasnot uniforminthe different states, it becameusual inall bargains to pay the asses according to their weight, and not according to theirnominal value. T he ac: racewas not the oldheavy coins as distinguis ed fromthe lightermodern but it signified anynumber of coppercoms reckoned according to the old sty le, byweight. There was , therefore, no occasionfor the state to suppress the circulationofthe old cepper coins , since inall bargainsthe

.

asses were not reckoned by tale, but by“

right

(1: t 6g) uronze or copper a x was very lit e

used by the Greeks formoney inear ly times.Silver was original l y the universa l cu rrency

,

and copper a pears to have beenseldomcoined til l after t e time ofAlexander the Great.T he cop r coinwas cal led Chateau: (x almeg). he smal lest si l ver coinat Athenswas the quarter-obol , and the chaleons wasthe half of that , or the eighth of anobol . Inlate r times, the obo l was coined of copper aswell as silver.AES ClRCUMFORA’NE UM, money

borrowed fromthe Romanbankers (argmtarii) , who had shops inporticoes round theforum.

O

AE S EQ UESTRE , the sum of moneygivenby the Romanstate for the purchase ofthe knight

’s horse. This sumamounted toasses.

AES HORDE A’

RIUM, or HORDIA'

RIUM, the sumof money paid yearl y forthe keep of a kni ht’s horse ;inother words,a knight’s pay. is sum

,which amounted to

2000 asses foreach horse, was charged uponthe rich widows and orphans , onthe principle that, ina mil itary state, the womenandchildren ought to contribu te largel for thosewho fought inbeha lf of theman the commonwealth.

AES MiLlT A’

RE . Asmara]AES MANUA’

RIU was themoney woninplaying with dice,minibus oollectum. M a

mu was the throw inthe game. All whothrew certainnumbers were obl iged to putdowna piece ofmoney ;and whoever threwthe Venus (the h ighest throw) wonthe wholesum, which was cal led themmanuarium.

AES U XO’

RIUM, was a taxpaid by

rpc

rsons who l ived as bachelors. t was rst

imposed by the censors ina. c. 403. Variouspenalties were imposed by Augustus upon

12 AG AS O.

those who lived ina state of celibacy, andadvantages granted to those who were married and had chi ldren. [Lax JULIA ar PAPIAPerenn

ialAK SY NE’TES a personwho was sometimes invested wit unl imi tedpower inthe Greek states. His power partook in some degree of

‘

the nature both of

kingly and tyrannical authority since hewasappointed legal l y , and did not usurp the government, but at the same time wasnot boundb any laws inhis public administration .

The office wasnot hereditary,norwas it heldfor life ;but it on l y continued for a l imitedtime

,or till some object was accon

fiplished .

Thuswe read that the inhabitants'

of ytileneappointed Pittacus aesymnetes, inorder toprevent the returnof Alcaeus and the otherexiles. Dionsius compares it with the dictatorship of me. Insome states, such as

Cyme and Chalcedon, itwas the tit le borneby the re§

ularma'

strates.AFFI’ E S , AF

ADFI’

NIT AS . Affines are the cognati [CooNAT I] of husband and wife, the cognati ofthehusband becoming the affines of the w ife, andthe cognati of the wife the afiines of the husband. T he father of a husband is the somo fthe husband’s wife, and the father of a w ifeis the saw of the wife’s husband . T he termz ooms expresses the same afiinit with respectto the husband’s andwife

'

smot ers. A son’swife ism us , or daughter-ni o law to the son’s

parents ;a wife’s husband is germ, or son- inaw to the wife’s parents.Thus the am , avid—pater, mater—of the

wife became by themarriage respectively thesoccrma us , ocrus or roomsmagna—socer,

accrue—f)?thgf

h'

usbarid, who becomes withres ct to themseveral ly progener and garter.

ln ike manner the corresponding ancestorsof the husband respective l y assume the samenames with respect to the son’s wife, whobecomes with respect to thempronurus andname. T he sonand daughter of a husbandor wife born of a prior marriage are cal ledprivignus and privigna , with respect to theirstep-father or step -mother ;and with respectto such chi ldrenthe ste -father and step-mother are several ly cal le oilricus and noverca.

T he husband’s brother becomes levir with respect to the wife, and his sister becomes glos(the G reek ydl u gi'

. Marriage was unlawfu lamong persons w 0 had become such amnesas abovementioned .

AGALMA(dyalpa), is a gene ralname fora statue or image to represent a god .

AG A’

S O,.a groom

,whose business it was

to take care of the horses. T heword is al soused for a dri ver of beasts of binder and is

AGER PUBLICUS .

sometimes applied to a slavewho had to performthe lowestmenia l duties.AG AT HOE RG I ( Ayafloepyot In time

ofwar the kings of Sparta had a

g-g u ard

of three hund red of thenoblest of the pa rtanyouths ofwhomthe five e ldes t re

tired every ear, and were employed fo r oneyear under t ename ofAgathoergi, inmiss ionsto foreignstates.

AGE’MA(dyflpa from thename of achosenbod of troops inthe Macedonianarmy. usual consisting of horsemen.

AG ER P fiBLlCU S,the ublic land , was

the land be longing to the omans ta te . Itwas a recognised principle among the I ta l iannations that the territory ofa conquered people be longed to the conquerors. Accord ing l y,the Romans were constantly acquiring freshterri tory b the conquesto f the surrou nd ingpeople. he land thus acquiredwas u su allydisposed ofinthe fol lowingway. 1 .T he landwhichwas under cul tivat ionwas eit he r distributed among colonists, who were sent tooccupy it, or itwas sold, or itwas let out tofarm. 2. T he land which was thenout ofcu ltivation , and which , owing to war, wasfar the greater part ,might be occup iedany of the Romancitizens onthe paymenta port ion of the yearly produce ;a tenth ofthe rodnos of arable land and a fifth of thep uce of the land plantedwith the vine , theolive , and other valuable t rees. 3. T he landwhich had reviously served as the commonpasture la of the conquered state, or was

suitable for the purpose, continued to be usedas pasture land for the use of the Romanc itiz ens, who had, however, to pay a certa insumofmoney for the cattle whi ch they tu rned uponthe land.

T he occupationof the public land li euof above under the second head was a waysexpressed by the words ponessio andpossidcre,

an the ocen ier of the land was cal led the

possessor. T e land continued to be the property of the state;and accordingly we mus tdistinguish between the terms possessio,whichmere l y indicated the use or enjoymen tof the land, and domim

‘

wn, which‘

ex pressedownership, and was applied to p rivate land ,

of which amanhad the absolute ownership .

T he right of occupying the public land belonged onl y to citizens, and consequently onl yto the patricians original l y, as they were thestate.

“

T he p lebeians were onl subjects,and consequent ly hadno right to the propertyof the state ;but it is probable that they werepermi tted to feed their cattle on the publicpasture lands. Evenwhen the plebeians he.

came a selparate estate by the consti tutionof

S ervrus ullius, they stil l obtained no right

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14 AG ORANOMI.

peop le appear to have hadno right of speaking or voting inthese assemblies, but merel yto have been ca l led together to hear what hadMenal ready agreed upon inthe council ofthenobles, and to express their feelings as a

body. T he council of the nobles is calledBoulémovh '

; andThoo'

cus (060m).and sometimes even a .

Among the Athenians, the proper namefor the assembly of the people was E cclesi’a(éx x lnota

’

lzil

and among the Dorians Haifa

(ditto). e termA re was confined at

at thens to the assemb '

es of the phylae andem.

T hename Agorawas earl transferred fromthe assembly itse lf to the

pace inwhich the

assembly was held ;and t as it came to be

used for themarket-place, where. oods of alldesc riptions were bought and sol T he ex

pressionagora plethousa (dyapd al rig

ovq a),‘fnllmarket,”was used to signify t a tunefrommorning to noon, that is, from aboutnine to twelve o’clock.

AG ORA'

NOMI dyopavdyoi ), publ ic functionaries inmost 0 the Grecianstates

,whose

duties corres nded inmany respects withthose of the oman aedi les. At Athens theirnumber was ten, five for the city, and five

AGROTERAS . THUS IA.

{pr

lthe Peiraeeus, and they were chosen

y ot.

T he principal duty of the Agoranomi was ,as thei rname imports, to inspect themarke t,and to see that all .the laws respecting itsregulation were prOperl observed. Theyhad the inspection ofall t

'

ngs that were soldinthe market, with the exceptionof co rn,

was subject to the jurisdictionofofficers, cal led S itophylaces (arrowARIAN LAWS . [As snPusmcus

Lax .

AéRAU ’

LIA (dypafil ta), was a festivalcelebrated by the Athenians inhonou r ofAgraulos, the daughter of Cec s. I t wasperhaps connected with the so am oath ,

which all Athenians, when.

the arri ved atmanhood (M71 or), were oblig to take inthe temple of graulos, that they wou ld fight

{or their country, and always observe itsaws.

AGRIMENSO’RES , or land su rveyors,”a college established

.

under the Romanemperors. Like the risconsults, they hadre lar schoo ls, were aid handsomesa arias by the state. Their usiness was tomeasure unassigned lands for the state

, andordinary lands for the proprietors, and to fixandmaintainboundaries. Their writings onthe sub

'

act of their art'

were very numerous ;andwe ve still scientific treatises onthe lawof boundaries, such as those by Frontinus andHyginus.AGRIO’NIA ptévra), a festival which

was celebrated at homenus, inBoeotia, inhonour of Bacchus, snmamed Agrionius. Ahumanbeing used original] to be sacrificedat this festival , but this sac os seems to havebeenavoided in later times. One instance ,however, occu rred inthe days of Plutarch.

AGRO '

NOM I (dypovéyoc) , the country opol ice, robably inAttica , whose duties corresponed inmost res ts to those ofthe astynomi inthe city, an who appear to havep

er

formed nearly the same duties as the by ori( ill egal).

A RO‘

T ERAS TRU’SIA ('Ayporépa¢

Ovola), a festival celebrated every year atAthens inhonour of Diana

,surnamed Agro

tera (fromdypa , the chase). I t was solemniz ed onthe sixth of themonth ofBoedromion,and consisted ina sacrificeof500goats , whichcontinued to be offered inthe time ofXeno

phon. Its ori

'

nis thus related z—Whentheersians inva ed Attica, the Atheniansmade

a vow to sacrifice toArtemis (Diana) Agroteraasmany oats as there shou ld be enemies slainat Marat on. But whenthe number of ease

mies slainwas so great that anequalnumber

ALAUDA.

ofgoats cou ld not be found at once, the Atheni ans decreed that 500 should be sacrificedeve car.

A S MNE'

T ES (alovpmjmg) , anindividual whowas sometimes invested w ithnalimited power by the Greek states . His power,according to Aristotle, partook insome degreeof the nature both of kingly and tyrannicalauthority , since hewas appointed legal ly , anddid not usurp the government ,but at the sametime was not bound by any laws inhis publicadministration. T he office wasnot hered itary , nor was it held for life, but it on ly con tinued for a certain time, or unti l some partienlarobjectwas accomplished. Dionysius compares it with the dictato rship of the Romans .

ALABASTER or ALABASTRUM , a vessel or pot used for containin perfumes, orrather ointments, made of t at species of

marble whichmineralogists cal l andwhich is usual l y designated by t e name ofalabaster. When varieties of colour occur inthe same stone, and are dispo inbands orhorizontal strata, it is oftencal led on x ala

baster ;and when dispersed irregu lar y as ifinc louds, it is distinguished as agate alabaster. T he termseems to have been employedto denote vessels appropriated to these uses,even when theywerenotmade of themateria lfromwhich it is supposed they original ly re

ceived their name. Theocritus thus speaksof golden alabastra. These vessels were of

a tapering shape, and very oftenhad a longnarrow neck, whi chwas sea led so that whenMa the sister of Lazarus , i s said by St.Mar to break the alabaster box of ointmentfor the pu ose of. anointing our Saviou r, itappea rs pro ble that she only broke the ex

tremit of the neck , which was thus closed .

AL ALA’

RII. T he troo of the al liesinthe Romanarmy were cal l Alan

’

i ,because

they were usual ly stationed on.

the two wings(aloe and each of these two divisions of thealli troops was cal led anAla . T he alariiconsisted both ofhorse and foot soldiers, andwere commanded by praefecti, inthe samemanner as the legions were commanded byt ribuni. T he caval ry of the al lies was calledsquire: olari

‘

i‘

, to distinguish themfromthe

caval of the legions (eq uiles leg ionarii) , andthe in ntrywas ca l led cohorts: clerics, to distinguish themfrom the cohorts: legionari

'

ae.

Under the empire the word Ala was appliedto a regiment of caval ry, which usual ly consisted of500men.

ALAUDA, the name of a legion whichCaesar levied inCisalpine Gaul , and organizod at his own expense during his Gallicwars. He afterwardsme the Romancitizenship to the soldiers of t legion. T he soldiers

ALIPTAE. 15

themselves were also c Aloadae,whence

Ci cero speaks of the legio Alasdaramand ofAlasdae ceien

’

que velm . T he legionwascal led Alaada or lark.” fromthe formof thecrests which the so ldiers wore on theirhe lmets.ALBUM , a tablet of anymaterial onwhich

the praetor’s edicts, and the ru les relatin toactions and interdicts, were written. hetablet was put ina nblic place, inorder thatall theworldmight venotice ofits contents.According to some authorities, the albumwassocalled, because it was either awhi tematerial, or amaterial whitened , and of cou rse thewri ting would be a didarent colour. According to other authorities, it was so cal led because thewritingwas inwhite lette rs.Probably the word albumorigina llymeant

any tablet containing anything ofa public na»

ture. We know that itwas, incourse of time,used to signify a list ofany public body thuswefind albmjttdicuutmrthe body out ofwhichjudices were to be chosen [Jonax ], and album“a

rmor l ist of senalt‘ors .

f, gamin , or ying at a game o

chance of any kind . Hence also, d octor, a

gamester, a gambler. Pla ing with tall, or

team“ ,was general ly unerstood , becau

this was by far the most commongame ofchance among the Romans.Gamingwas forbiddenby the Romanlaw

both during the times of the republic anunder the emperors, butwas tolerated inthemonth of December at the Saturna lia, whichwas a period of nera l re laxation;and oldmenwere al low to amuse themselves inthismanne r at all times.ALlP

’

l‘

AE amon the Greeks,were persons who anointed the

‘

es of theathletas preparato to their entering the pa.

laestra. T he chic object of this ano intingwas to c lose the pores of the body, inorderto preventmuch persp iration and the weakness consequent thereon. The athlete wasagain anointed after the contest, inorder torestore the tone of the strainedmuscles. Hethen bathed , and had the dust, sweat , and oilscraped 06 his body, bymeans of an instrument similar to the strigil of the Romans, andcal led “len

gth (orl s lg).and afterwards .rys

tra’

orpa T he'

ptae took advantage ofthe nowled they necessari ly acqu i red oftlfie state of t musc les of the athletes , and

t ongenera l strength or weakness of bodyto advise them as to their exercises andmode of l ife. They were thus a kind ofmedical trainers .Among the Romans, the aliptae were slaves

who scrubbed and anointed their masters inthe baths. They, too, like the G reek aliptae,

16 AMBITUS . AMBITUS.

appear to have attended to theirmasters’constitutiou and mode of l ife. They were alsocal led unions. T he used intheir operationsa kind of scra

per cal ed strigil, towels (lis ted ),

a cruise of oi (gutter), which was usual ly ofhorn, a bottle (anipulla) , and a small vesselcal led lenticula .

ALLIES of the Romans. [S oon]ALTARS . [Ans ]A LTA‘RE . Ame ]ALU'TA. l;nos es ]ALYT AE Alfira

rg,persons whose busi

ness itwas to keep 0 or inthe publi c games.,They received their orders fromanalytarcliesd fi vrdp who was himselfunder the directionmile a othetae or hellanodicae.

AMANU E N is , or Al) MANUM S E RVUS , a slave, or freedman, whose office i t

was to write letters and other things underhismaster’s direction.T he amanuenses must not be confounded

with another sort of slaves,also called admama»:serv i, who were always kept ready to beemployed inan bus

'mess.

AMARY'

N HIA,or AMARY’

S IA ( Anaprivflmor a festiva l of Artemis(Diana) Amarynthia orAmarysi a, celebratedas it seems

,originally at Amarynthus inE u

boea, with extraordinary splendour, but al sosolemnized inseveral places inAttica, such asAthmone .

AMBARVA’LIA. [AlumnaeBanana ]AMBASSADORS . Lacu na ]A’MBITUS , which

'

terally signifies a

going about,” cannot, perba s, bemorenearly

expressed thanby ourwo canvassing . Afterthe plebs had formed a distinct class at Romeand whenthe whole body of the citizens hadbecome ve greatly increased ,we frequentlyread, inthe manwriters , ofthe great effortswhich itwas necessary forcandidates tomakeinorder to secure the votes of the citizens.At Rome, as inevery community into whichthe element of popular election enters , solicitationof votes , and open or secret influenceand bribery

,were among themeans by which

a candidate secured his election to the officesofstate. T he fol lowing are the principa l termsoccurring inthe Roman writers inrelationtothe canvassing for the public ofiices - A candidatewas cal led petitor and his opponentwith reference to himcom

'

tor. A candidate

(candidazus was s o call fromhis ap caringinpublic p ces, such as the fora and ammsMartius, before his fellow citizens, in a

whitened toga, On such occasions the candidatowas attended by his friends (deduclom),or fol lowed by the poorer citizens sectatorea),who cou ld inno other manner a ow theirgood wi l l or give their assistance. T he word

assidm'

tas expressed both the continual pres.

ence of the candidate at Rome and his continual solicitations: T he candidate, ingoinghis rounds or taking h is walk , was aecompanied by a nomenclalor, who gave him thenames of such persons as hemight ineet ;thecandidateWas thus enabled to address themby theirname, anindi rect compliment, whichcouldnot fai l to be general ly gratifying to theelectors. T he candidate accompanied his address with a shake of the hand prm atio).T he termbeniguitas com rebend generallyanykind of treating, as s ows, feasts, doc.

he ambitu s,which was the object of sev

eral penal enactments, taken as a genericterm, comprehended the two a ies,—ambitunand largitiom (bribery). alitas andberdgm

‘

las are Opposed by Cicero, as thingsallowable, to ambitus and largitio, as thingsillegal. Money was paid for votes ; and inorder to insure secrecy and secu re the elector,persons cal led interprets: were » emloyed tomake the bargain, ssquestres to hol the moneytil l itwas to be paid , and divwom

'

to dis~tri ute it. T he offence of ambituswas amatterwhich belonged to the judicia publica , andthe enactments against i t were numerous.One of the earliest, thoughnot the earliest ofall

, the Lex Cornelia Baebia (s . c . 181) wasspecia l ly directed against largiriones . T heLox Corne lia Fulvia B. c. 159) punished theoffence with exi le. he Lex Acilia Cal urnia (B. c 67) imposed a fine onthe oils

'

u

part Wi th exclusion fromthe senate and apub

'

c omoce. T he Lex Tul lia (s, c;inthe consu lship ofCicero , inaddition

to the penalty of theAcilianlaw, inflicted tenyears’ ex siliumon the ofiender;and, amongother things, forbade a personto exhibit gladiatorial shows (gladiators: dare) withinanytwo ears inwhich he was a candidate, unless ewas required to do so

,ona fixed day,

by a testator’s will. Two years afte rwards,

the box Aufidiawas passed,by which, amongother things, itwas provided that, if a candi

date romised (pronounces)money to a tribe,and id not ay it, he shou ld be unpunished ;but, if he di pay the money, he should further pa ” to each tribe (annual ly 1) 3000sesterces as on as he lived. This enactment occasioned t e witticisms of Cicero

,who said

that Clodius observed this law by anticition;forhe promised, but didn

lofltup

ay . heLex Licinia (B. c . 58 was spec

“

y directedagainst the offence o sodd itium, or the wholesale bribery of a tribe by gifts and treating ;and another lex , passed (a. c . when Pornpay was sole consul, had for its object the establishment of a speedier cou rse of proceeding ontrial s for ambitus . Al l these enact

AMENT UM. AMPHICT YONE S . 17

meri ts fai led in complete ly accomplishing twist , inconnectionwi th this subject. T hethei r objec t. That which no law cou ld sup amentumwas cal led ancuIcMyx el q) inGreek,press, so 102?

as.

the old popu lar forms re and the verb évayx vl do was used inreferencetamed

.

any their pristine vigour, was ac to the fastening of the thong to the spea r orcomp l ished by the imperial usu rpation. Cae~ javelin.

set , when dictator. nominated half the candi Inthe annexed figure the amentumseemsdates for public offices , exce

pt the candidates to be attached to the spear at the centre of

for the consu lship, and noti ed his p leasu re gravity, a little above theto the tribes by a civi l circu lar ;the populuschose the other ha lf: and Tiberius transferred the elections fromthe comi tia to the senate, by which tlie offence of ambitus, initspro r sense , entirel y disappeared.

he t rials forambitus werenumerous inthetime of the republic. T he oration of Ciceroindefence of L. Muren

'

a, who was chargld

with ambitus, and that indefence ofPlancius , who was charged with ”delirium,

are both extant.AMBRO 'S IA (dpfipoala), the food of the

gods, which conferred upon them eternal

you th and immortality, and was brought toapita r by pigeons. It was also used bythe gods for anointin their body and hai r;whence we read of t e ambrosia l locks ofJupiter.AMBUBAIAE (probably fromthe Syriac.

abub, cubeb, a ipe), Eastern dancing girls,

who frequen chi efly the circus at Rome ,and obtai ned thei r living by prosti tution andlascivious son and dances.AMBU

’

RB UM , a sacrificewhichwas performed at Rome for the purificationof theci ty.

AM ICTUS. T he verb amia nis commonlyopposed to induere, the former being appliedto the putting on of the outer garment, the

album, h am, ortoga (lad

-N ov, paper) ;theter, to the putting onof the inner garment,

the tunic (x i i -div). In consequence of thi sdistinction

,the verba l nouns amictus and ia

datus , evenwithout any farther denominationof the dress being added indicate respectivelythe outer and inner clot ing.

InGreek amicire is e ressed by framewo

00m, dynéx soflct, ém él l eofiat, nepzfidband induere by évdi

'

wsw. Hencecame dye érrt

'mnfira , and émflol awv,

nept'

Bl rma ,an mptfié a tov. anouter gar

ment, a cloak , a shawl ;and évdvua , aninnergarment a tunic , a shirt.AME IQT UM , a laethemthong tied to the

of the spear, to assist inthrowin it.We arenot informed howthe amentuma dadto the effect of throwing the lance ;perhapsit was by giving it rotation ;and hence a

greate r degree of steadiness and directness inits flight, as inthe case o f a bal l shot froma

rifle gun. Th is suppos itionaccounts for thefrequent use of the verb torqusrc, to whirl or

B2

AMMA (M afia Greekmeasure of length ,e

ggs] to fortymix er; (cubits) , or sixtyt);that is, twenty yards 8 . 1 inches E ng

lish. It was used inmeasuring land.

AMPHI'CTYONES Institutions called amphictyonic appear to haveex isted inGreece from tinie immernorial.They seemto have been original ly associations of neighbouring tribes, formed for theregulationofmutual intercourse and the protectionof a commontemple or sanctuary. atwhich the representatives of the difi

'

erentmember's .met, both to transact business andto ce lebrate rel igious rites and es . Oneof these associat ions was ofmuc greater importance thanall the rest, andwas cal led byway of eminence, the AmphictyonicLeague on

18 AMPHICT YONE S .

Council ( Apartments ). It difi'

ered fromoth

er simi lar associations inhaving two p lacesofmeeting, the sanctuaries of two divinities ;which were the temple of Demeter Ceres), inavillage ofAnthela,near T hermOpy ae ,wherethe deputies met inautumn ; and that of

Apo l lo, at Delphi , where they assembled inspring. Its connexionwith the latter lacenot only contributed to its dignity, but a so toits permanence.

Its earl y history is involved inobscurity.Most of the ancients suppose it to have beenfounded byAmphict on, the son of Deucalionand Pyrrha, fromw omthey imagined thatit derived its name :but this opinionis destitu te of all foundation , and arose fromtheancients assigning the establishment of theirinstitutions to some mythical hero. Therecanbe little doubt as to the true etymology ofthe word. Itwas original ly written dyqbtsrtovsg and consequentl y signified those thatdwelt around some particular locality. Itsinstitution, however, i s clearly of remote antiquity. Itwas originall y composed oftwelvetribes (not cities or states, itmust be observed),each ofwhich tribes conta ined various independent cities or states. We learn fromAeschines that, ina. c. 343, elevenof these

‘

tribeswere as fol lows T he Thessa lians

,Boeotians

(not Thebans only), Dorians, Ionians, Perrhaebians, Mag i stes, Locrians, Oetaeans orOenianians, Phthiots or Achaeans ofPhthia,Malians , and Phocians ;other lists leave us

indoubt whether the remaining tribe werethe D010pes or Del hians ;but as the Delphisua cou ld hardly called a dist inct tribe,their nobles appearing to have

' beenDorians,it seems probable that the D010 s were ori

ginally members, and afterwa s sup lantedy the Delphians. All the states he ongingto each of these t ribes were ona footing of

perfect equality. Thus Sparta enjoyed no advantages over Boriumand Cytinium, twosmall towns inDoris : and AthenspanIonic

33, was on a par with Eretria inE uboea,Priene inAsia Minor, two other Ionic

c i ties.T he ordinary council was called Pgo

laea

(mi l d la), fromitsmeeting inthe neigh ur

hood of Pylae (Thermopylae) , but the samenamewas given to the session at Delphi aswel l as to that at Thermo ylae. T he councilwas composed of two c asses of representatives, .one cal led Pylagorae (Hvlqyépatg

,

and the otherHimmnemom (‘

Iepoq poveg

Athens sent three Pylagorae an one His .

romnemon ofwhomthe former were electedapparentl foreach session, and the latter bylot proba ly fora longer period. Respectingthe relative duties of the Pylagorae and Hie

name of the latter implies that they had a

more immediate connexionwi th the temp le.

We are ually inthe dark respecti ng thenumbers w o sat inthe counci l and its modeof proceeding. I t would seemthat all thedeputies had seats inthe counci l , and tookpart inits deliberations ;but if it be t rue, asems fromAeschi nes, that each of thet had only two votes

,it is clear that all

the deputies cou ldnot have voted.

Inaddi tionto the ordinary counci l , therewas anccclcsia (emanate), or genera l assembly, includin not onl y the classes abovementioned, but so those who had joined inthesacrifices, and were consul ting the god. I twas convened onextraordinary occasi ons bythe chai rman of the counci l .Of the duties of the Am

plmhictyonsnothing

will give us a clearer view t the oath theytook, which was as follows They wou lddestroyno ci ty of the Amphictyons, nor cutoff their streams inwaror peace ;and if anyshou ld do so, theywouldmarch against h im,

and destroy his Cities ;and should any pi llagethe{loperty of the

god, or be privy to or p lan

anyt'

ng against w atwas inhis temple (atDelphi). they would take vengeance onh im

wi hand and foot, and voice, and all theirmight.” Fromthis oathwe see tha t themainduty ofthe deputies was the preservationofthe rights and

'

ty of the temple of Del phi.We know, too, t t after itwas burnt down(a. c. they contracted with the Alcmaeonidae for the rebuilding.

- Histo moreover

, teaches that if the council p need any

palpable effects, it was fromtheir interest inhi ;and though i t kept up a standing re.

co ofwhat ought to have beenthe international lawof Greece, it sometimes acquiescedin, and at other times was a party to, themost iniquitous acts . Of this the case ofCrissa is aninstance. This town lay ontheGu lf of Corinth, near De lphi, and wasmuchfrequented by pilgrims fromthe Wes t. T heCrissaeans were charged by the Delphianswith undue exactions fromthese strangers .

T he counci l was against them, as

guilty ofa

wrong a at the god. T hewar asted tenyears , at the suggestionof Solon, thewaters of the Pleistus were tu rned off, thenisoned , and turned ag

aininto the city. T heieged drank their fi and Crissawas soon

razed to the ground ;and thus, if itwere anAmphictyonic city ,was a so lemnoath doublyviolated. I ts territory—the rich Cirrhaeanplain—was consecrated to the god , and curses imrees ted upon whomsoever shouldti l l or well

'

in it. Thus ended the FirstSacred War (a. inwhich the Athe

AMPHICT YONE S .

geance.

T he second, or PhocianWar

was the most important , inwhich the Am

phictyons were concerned ;and inthis thehebans availed themselves of the sanction

of the counci l to take vengeance on their enemies , the Phoeians . To do this however,itwasnecessary to call inPhili of

}Macedon,

“

Eho readi l

lly proclarmed

’ mpath

the clia

lgipion

0 A o , as it 0

pened a way to own

ambizibn. T he hocianswere subduedand the council decreed that all their

of his su bjects as Hellenes.T he T hird S scredWararose fromthe Am

M phictyons assumed the character of natroual representatives as of old,whenthey setaprica uponthe head ofEphia ltes, forhis tree.

sonto Greece at Thermo Inc.

I t has beensufficient ly s ownthat theArnphictyons themselves did not observe theoaths they took ;and that they did notmuchallev iate the horrors ofwar, or enforce whatthey had swornto do , is proved bymany iastances . Thus , for instance, M cenae wasdestroyed b Argos (a. c . T espiae andPlataea b babes, and Thebes herself awe tfromthe of the earth by Alex ander,wiout the Amphmons raising one word inposition. Ind a fewyears before the Pooponnesianwar, the council was a assive

spectator ofwhat Thucydides cal ls a S e

credWar (6 tspdcndl spog), whenthe Lacedaemonians made anexpeditionto Del hi ,and put the temme into the hands of the l

the Athenians , after their departure,restoring it to the Phocians. T he council israre ly mentioned after the time of Phi lip.

We are told,that Augustus wished his new

city, N icopolis i .n. to be enrolled amongthemembers. ausanias, inthe second century of our era, mentions it assti l l existing,but deprived of all powerand influence.

AMPHIT HE AT RUM.

AMPHIDRO’M IA (’

A W e aponidpowv a family fea

pt

'

iéal of the Athenians, at which thenewly- born child was ihtroduced into the family, and received itsname. T he friends and re lations of the pa.

rents were invited to the festival of the aimphidromia,c

'

l thwhi

r

c

a

lllwas

p

lg‘erlgdinthis evening,

an ey gene y ap wit presents.house was decorated onthe outside wi thbranches whenthe child was a boy, orgarilands ofwoolmh

‘e Clhfle

d was a

an a repastwas ort guests .child was carri round the fire by the

nurse , and thus, as it were, presented to thegods of the house and to the family, and atthe same time received its name, to whichthe guests were witnesses. T he carrying ofthe chi ld round the hearth was the principalpart of the solemnity, fromwhich its namewas derived.

AMPHIT HEA’

T RIIM, anamhitheatre,was a place forthe exhibi tionof pu is showsof combatants and wi ld beasts, enti rely surrounded by seats for the spectators ;whereas, inthose for dramatic performances, theseatswere arranged ina semici rc le facing thestage. An amphitheatre is therefore free

quently described as a double theatre, con~muzg

of two such semicircles, or halves,join together, the spaces al lotted to theirorchestras becoming the inner inclosure, orarea, termed the arena: T he form, however,of the ancient amphitheatreswasnot a circle,but invariably anellipse.Gladiatorial shows and combats of wi ld

beasts (W W ) were first exhibited intheforumand the circus and it appears that theancient customwas sti ll preservedfill thetime of Julius Caesar. T he first bu i lding inthe formof anamphitheatre is said to havebeenerected by M . Scribonius Curio, one ofCaesar‘s“issue;but the account which is

'

venof t bui lding sounds rather fabulous.t is said to have consisted of two woodentheatresmade to revolve onpivots, insuch amanner that they cou ld, by means of windlasses and machinery , be turned round faceto face, so as to formone build ing. S oonafter Caesar himself erected a rea l amhitheatre inthe Campus Marnus,made 0 wood ;to which building thename of mphitluatnunwas for the first time given.T he first stone am

upehi theatrewas bui l t by

S tatilius T aurus, in Campus Martius, atthe desire of Augustus. T hiswas the on lystone amphitheatre at Rome ti ll the t ime ofVespasian. One was commenced by Caligula,

‘

butwas not continued by)Claudius. T he

one erected by Nero inthe ampus Martiuswas only s teinporary bui lding,made ofwood.

20

T he amphitheatre of. S tatilius Tauruswasbu rnt inthe fire ofRome inthe time ofNero ;and hence, as anew one was needed , Vespesiancommenced thece lebratedAmphitheatrumFlaviqnum inthe middle of the cit in.

theval le betweenthe Caelian, the equihuaand t e Velia, onthe spot originall occupiedby the lake or large end attac to Nero

’spalace. Vespasian d not kvs to firmh i t.

I t was dedicated by Titus ina.n. 80, butwasnot complete ly fini shed ti l l the reign

.

of Domitian. This immense edifice, which is evenyet comparatively entire, covered about fiveacres of ground. andwas capable

.

of contaming about spectators. It i s called atthe resent day the Colosseem.

Tllie interior of anamphi theatre was dm

ded into three pa rts, the arena, ium, andgradusu T he clear openspace int e centre ofthe amphitheatre was cal led the arena because it was covered Wi th sand, or sawdustto prevent the gladiators freni sl ip andto absorb the blood. T he size of e arenawasnot always the same inproportionto thesize of the amphitheatre;but its average proportion was one third of the shorter diameterofthe bui lding.

0

T he arena was surrounded by a wall di stin iehed by thename of podiim al thoughsutfii

‘

appellation, perhaps, rather.belongs to

mere ly t e upper part of i t, forming the parapet, or balcony, before the first or lowermostseats, nearest to the arena. T he arenatherefore, was no more thananopen ovalcourt , su rrounded by a wall abou t eighteenfeet high,measuring fromthe ground to thetop of the para t ;a he ht considered necessary , ino er to re r the spectatorsrfectly secure fromthe attacks of Wi ldasts. There were four principal entrances

leading into the arena ; two at the ends of

each axis or diameter of it, towhich as.

manypassages led directly from the ex teripr of

the building;besides secondary ones, intervenin between them, and communicatingwith t e corridors beneath the seats onthepodium.

T hewall or enclosu re of the arena is supposed to have been faced Wi th .

marble,moreor less sumptuous ;besides

.

which , there appears to have been, insome instances at least,a sort of network atfix ed to the tsp of the podium,

consisting of raili ng, or rather opentrellis-work ofmetal . As a

.

farther defence,ditches, called euripi, sometimes surroundedthe arena.

T he termpodiumwas also a plied to theiately aboveterrace, or gallery itself, imm

the arena ,whi cho

was nowider thanto be ca

pable of containing two, orat themost three

AMPHIT HE AT RUM.

ranges ofmovable seats, or chairs.as being by far the best situation fordistinctl yviewing the sports inthe arena, and al somo recommodiously accessible thanthe seats higherup,was the

'

place set apart for senators andother rsons of distinction, such as the ambass are of foreign parts ;and it was here,also

,that the emperor himse lf used to sit, in

anelevated place, called suggestus or cubicalum

, and likewise the person~who exhibited

the games ona place elevated like a pu lpit o rtribunal (cditari: a-ibuml).Above the podiumwere the adult, or sea ts

of the other spectators, whic were dividedintoM iriam

, or stories. T hefirst aluminum ,

consisting offourteenrows of stone ormarbleseats,was appropriated to the equestrianorder. T he seats appropriated to the senatorsand equites were covered with cushions,whichwere first used inthe time of Caligula.

Then, after aninterva l or space, termed a

praccr'

nctio, and forming a continued landingplace fromthe several staircases init, succeeded the second maenianum,

where werethe seats cal led for the third classof spectators, or t e populus. Behind thiswas the second praecinctio, bounded by a

rather high wal l ;above which was the thirdmaenianum, where there were onl y woodenbenches for the pullan

'

, or commonpeople.

T he nex t and las t division, namely , that inthe highest part of the bui lding, consisted ofa colonnade, or gallery, where fema les wereal lowed to witness the spectac les of the emphitheatre, some ofwhich were al so occupied by the p ati . Eachmaenianumwasnot only divided fromthe other by thecinctio, but was intersected at interva s byspaces for passages left betweenthe seats,called scalar, or scalaria ;and the rtionbetween two such passages was “ iii-ii m us

,

because the space gradually widened like a

wed fromthe podiumto the top of thebut T he entra nces to the seats fromthe outer portices were cal led vamitoria. Atthe very summit was thenarrow platformforthemenwho had to attend to the solarium, orawning. by which the building was coveredas a defence the sunand rain . T hevelariumappears usually to have beenmadeofwood, butmore costlymateria ls were sometimes employed.

T he first of the followin cuts represents alongi tudinal section of the

‘

lavianamt heatre, and the second, which is on a largerscale, a part of the above section, includingthe exterior wall , and the seats included between that and the arena. I t wil l serve toconveyanidea of the leading formand general dispositionof the interior.

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22 AMPLIAT IO.

was let into a stand or'

stuck inthe ground,so that the vesse l stood upright : several emphorae have been found inthis position inthece l lars at Pompeii. Amphorae were common]ymade ofearthenware. Homermentionsamphorae of gold and stone, and the E t.ians had themof brass ; lass vesse ls 0 thisformhave been found at ompeii.T hemost common use ofthe amphora, both

among the Greeks and the Romans, was forkee ing wine. T he cork was covered wi thpitc orgypsum, and (among theR omans) onthe outside the title of the wine was ainted ,the date of the vintage being mark by thenames of the consu ls theninomce or,whenthe jars were of glass, li tt le tickets

iridimoria ’

tea s es) were suspended fromthem,

'

catingthese partic

node offilling Ampliom fromaW'ino Cu t.

T he Greek amphoreus and the Romanemphorawere al so names offixedmeasures. T he

amphoreus, which was also cal led metretes

$srpnrr7c), and cadus x ddog), was equal toree Roman urnae llons

, pints,imperialmeasure. T he omenamphorawastwo- thirds of the amphoreus, and was equalto 2 u rnae= 8 congi i= to 5 gal lons,pints ;its sol id content was exactl y a Romancubic foot .

ant and the cause were

ANACRISIS.

AMPYX (dun-v5, d w x rfip , Lat.frontalea frontal , a broad ban or p late ofmetal

,whic

lad ies of rank were above the forehead as partof the head dress. T he fronta l of a horsewasca l led by the same name. T he annexed cutexhibits the frontal on the head of Pegasus,incontrast with the corresponding ornamentas shown on the heads of two females.

Ampyces, lfrontlets.AMPULLA (Mkodo flouflol togmbott le,

usual lymade among t e Romans, either Ofglass or earthenware, rarely ofmore valuablematerials. T he dealer inbottles was calledan arias .

MULE ’

T UM (mplmrrov , s epta/ma, eul axnfiptov), anamulet .Th is word inArabic (hamelet)means that

which is suspended . It was probably broughtb Arabianmerchants, together with the articles to which it was ap l ied, when they wereimported into Europe mmthe East .An amu letwas any object— a stone, a plant,

anartificial production, or a piece of wri ting—which was sus ended from the neck , ortied to any part 0 the body

,for the purpom

ofwarding ofl'

calami ties and securing advanstages of any k ind. Faith inthe v irt ues damulets was almost un iversa l inthe eh eimworld , so that the whole art ofmedicine consisted ina very considerable degree of directions for their application .

ANACE IA or a feetivel of the Dioscuri orAnactes (

‘

Avax refl as

they were cal led at Athens. These hem,

however, received themost distinguished honours ia the Do rian and Achaeanstates, whereitmay be supposed that eve town celebrateda festival intheir honour, t ough not underthename ofAnaceia.

ANA'

CRISIS dvdx pwrg). anexamination,was used to s

'

ily the pleadings preparatoryto a tria l at At ens, the object of which was

ANCILE. ANCORA. 23

to d e termine, general ly , if the actionwoul dli e . T he magistrates were said dvax plvewr izv dlxmror rob c

'

wruiix ovc, and the partiesfiv a x plvecrdat. he process consisted intherod u c tionof proofs, ofwhich there werefive'

nd s :— l . the laws ; 2. Written documents ;3 . te s timoniesofwitnesses present (,uaprvplat)o r affidavits ofabsent witnesses (éx paprvpia t)4 . d e positions of slaves extorted by the rack ;5 . th e oa th of the parties. Al l these proofswere committed to writing, and placed inabo x secu red by a seal (év og) til l they wereprod uced at the ,trial .If the evidence produced at the anacrisis

wa s so clear and convincing that there cou ldno t remain any doubt , the magistrate cou ldd ec i de the uestionwithout send ing the causeto be t ried fore the dicasts : this was ca l led

cou rte.

F or anaccount of the anacris tz or examination,

which each archon underwent previouslyto e ntering on office, see Aacnox .

ANAGNOSTES , slaves, whose duty it-wa s to read or repeat passages frombooksdu ring anentertainment, and al so at other

ANAT OCISMU S . [Pes os ]ANCHOR. [ANCORA .

EIANCI’LE, the sacred 8 ield carried by the

found , according toName ;and, as no

Latin nam essentia l

Ancilia carried by Balii.humanhand had brought it there, itwas con s inew by itse lfmeant to set sail, (2w be

c luded that it had been sent fromheaven. At ing understood .

“

the same time, the hamspices declared that T he anchorusual ly lay onthe deck ,andwas

the Romanstate wou ld endure so longas th eshield remained inRome. To secu re i ts preservationinthe city, Numa ordered elevenother shields, exactly like it, to be made bythe armourer, Mamurius Veturius, and twelvepriests ofMars G radivus were appoinwd underthe denominationof Salii, whose ofiice itwasto preserve the twelve ancil ia. They werekept inthe temple of that divinity

,on the

Pa atinemount,and were taken fromit on ly

once\a ear

,on the ca lends of March . T he

feast o the god was then observed duringseveral days ; when the Sal ii carried theirshields about the city, singing songs inpraiseofMars, Numa, and Mamurius Veturius, andat the same time erforming a d ance , whichprobably insome egres resembled ourmorrisdances , and inwhich they struck the shie ldswith rods

,so as to keep time with their voices ,

and with themovements of their dance. T hepreceding cu t shows one of these rods

, as

represented on the tomb of a ponnfes saliva, orchiefof the Salii.A’

NCORA (dyx vpa), ananchor.T he anchorused by the ancients was forthemostpartmade ofiron , and its formresembledthat of themodern anchor.two extremities i l lust rates the W mores and

Virgil . Indeed , the Greek and

24 ANNULUS .

attached to a

Gullsy v ith ths Cable towhich ths Anchov io attsched pu singthrough tbs Oculus inthe Prowl.

Inthe heroic times ofGreece wefind largestones , cal led d iva! (sleepers), used insteadof anchors.

ANDABATA. G u nri ron.

ANDROLE PS A or ANDR LE PS’

ION(dvdpoilmpta or évdp t ov ), the right ofreprisals. a customrecognized by the intemstional lawof the Greeks, that,when a citizenof one state had ki lled a citizen of another,and the countrymen of the former wou ld notsurrender himto the relatives ofthe deceased ,it should be lawful to seize upon three, andnotmore, of the countrymen of the offender,and keep themas hostages till satisfactionwas afforded, or the homicide givenup.

ANG U S T ICLA’VU . [Cu vus ]ANNO’NA fromm us

,like pomona from

penguin). l . T e produce ofthe earincorn,

frui t, wine, &c., and hence, 2. revisions ingeneral , es cially the corn,which, inthe late ryears of t 8 re ublic, was col lected inthestorehouses of t e state, and sold to the poorata cheap rate intimesofscarcity ;andwhich,unde

lr the empert

li rs, was distributed to the

map e gratuitous or given as paywards. 3. T he pii ce of provisions . 4. Asoldier’s allowance ofprovisions for atime. It is used also inthe plural for yearlyormontl

gidistributions of pay incorn , dtc.

A'

NN US (dalrrriittog) , a ring.

It is probable that the customof wearingrings was introduced into Greece from43m,where it appears to have been almost universal. They were worn not merel as

.

ornaments, but as articles for use, as t e rmg always served as a sea l . A seal was cal ledsphmgh (capo lg), and hence thisname wasgivento the niig itself, and also to the gemor stone for a ring inwhich figures were en

ANQ UIS IT IO.

graved. Rings inGreece weremostly wornon the fourth finger tfr cog).At Rome, thecustomo wearing rings was he

lieved to have been introduced by the Sabines,whoweredescribed intheearly legends aswearing golden rings with precious stones of greatbeauty. But whenever introduced at Rome,it is certain that they were at first always at,iron ;that the were des tined for the samepu as in reece, namely, to be used as

and that every free Romanhad a rightto use such a ring. This ironrin

gwas worn

downto the last period of the repu lie by su chmenas loved the simplicity of the good oldtimes. » 1nthe course of time, however , itbecame customary for all the senators

,chief

magistrates, and at last for the uites also,

to wear a go lden seal - ring. T he rig t ofwearing a gold ring,whichwas subsequent ly ca l ledthe jus annuli curd , or the jus anmdorum, remained for several centunes at Rome theexclusive privilege of senators

, magistrates,and equites,whi le all other persons continuedto wear iron ones.Du ring the empire the right of granting the

annulus aureus belonged to the emperors , andsome of themwere not ve scrupulous inconferrin this privilege. e emperors S everus an Aurelian conferred the right ofwearing

goldenrings uponall Roman sol

diers :an Justinianat length al lowed all thecitizens of the empire, whether ingenui orlibertini, to wear such rin5 .

During the republic, the early times ofthe empire, the JU S annuli seems to havemadea personingenuus ( if hewas a l ibertos), andto have raised himto the rank of eques, provided he had the requisite equestrian census ,and itwas probably never granted to any onewho didnot possess this census. Thosewholost their property, or were found guilty of acriminal offence, lost the jus annu l i .T he signs engraved upon rings were very

various : theywere portrai ts of ancestors or offriends , subjects connected wi thmythology ;and inmany cases a personhad engravedupon his seal symbol ical al lusion to the rea lormythical history of his famil

y]. T he part

of the ring which contained t e gemwascal led

1pals

Wit the increasing love of luxury andshow, the Romans, as wel l as the Greeks,covered theirfingers with rin8 . Some persons al so wore rings of imm erate siz e, andothers used different rings for summer andwinter.ANNUS . CALE NDAR IUMJANQ U lS I lO, signified, incriminal t rials

at Rome, the investigationof the facts of thecase with reference to the penal ty that was

ANTAE.

the cut, inwhich A A are the an tae. T he

temple inand:was one of the simplest k ind.

It had inTrout antae attached to the wal ls

betweenthe antae , two columns supportingtmetchitrave. T he following is a spec imenof the temple inantic, together with a plan of

Antefix M iamu u riotsndi tho cou tructionareprmntmgof the Sbip

pe it:

T he two im rfect

among those ouad aby Carloni. (Roma,

ANTEFIXA.

ANT E AMBULO’

NE S , slaves who wereaccustomed to go before their masters , inorder tomakeway for themthrough the crowd.

T he termanteambulones Was al so givento theclients ,who were accustomed to walk beforetheir pat roni , when the latter appea red inpubl ic .

ANTECESSO'RES , cal led al so ANTECURSO’RES

,horse - soldiers, who were ac

customed to precede anarmy onmarch, inorde r to choose a suitable place for the camp,and tomake the necessa ry provisions for thearmy. They do not appear to have beenmerely

r

scouts , l ike the spmdatora .

AN E FlXA,te rra-cottas,which exhibited

various ornamental des igns , and were uwd inarchitecture to cover the frieze (sophw ) ofthe entablature.

These terra -cottas do not appear to havebeen used among the Greeks, but were probably Etruscan lnthei r originand were thencetaken for the decoration of Romanbuildings.T he name antqfix a is evident ly derived fm

the circumstance that they were fix ed beforethe buildings which they adorned . Ca the

censor,complained that the Romans 0 his

time began to despise ornaments of this descript ion , and to prefer the marble frieaesofAthens and Corinth. T he rising tes ts whichCato deplored may account for the superiorbeauty of the anlefix a preserved inthe Bri tsh Museum,

which were discovered atRome.

ANTENNA.

ANTENNA, ( its a , x épog) , thgdyard of a

ship. T he shi s o the ancients h a singlemast inthe die , and a square sail, to rai seand sup ii which a transverse pole, or yardmums was extended a c ross themast,not

thisfrogd

t

zi e top.

220 the twc

;ex tremitfies of

y cor-mm, £ 6 a ropes wa s)

were at tached, whicgo

pagz‘

ed over the top ofthemast , and thus supported the yard : theseropes were cal led ceruchr

'

. Sometimes theyard had two

,and at other times {ourceruchi ,

the annexed cut.

Antenm, Yard of s Ship.was

0 oi D 8 regimen4: 7aut; ofchi ont o s some,mmlamps, and a,

we here select two gems, both ofwhich show

ANTLIA.

the velata antenna, butwith the sail reefed inthe one, and inthe other expanded and ewoilenwith the wind .

ANT E PILA’

NI. [E x s scrrus ]ANT E S IG NA’

NIQ?

ar to have beenbody of tr00ps, select ii;the defence of thestandard (sigman), before which they wa sstationed . They were not light troops , assome have supposed , and they were

grobably

selected for this duty on occount of t eirbravery and ex rience inwar.

ANT I’

D S IS (r'

zvrldoat inits literal andgenera lmeaning, anexchange,”was , inthelanguage of the Attic courts , peculiarly ap

»

plied to proceed ings under a lawwhich a saidto have originated with Solon. By this, ac itizen nominated to performa leitur

'

a, suchas a trierarchy or choregia, or to ran alumthe prope rty - tax payers , ina class disprOportioned to his means, was empowered to cal lupon any qualified ersonnot so charmd to

take the office in is or submit to a

complete exchange of prope rty , the charge a;question of course attaching to the first party ,

if the ex chane werefinally efl'

ected . For theproceedings t e courts wereopened at a stemtime every year by the magistra tes that hadofficial cognizance of the particular subject ;such as the strategi incases oftrie rarchy andrating to the property- taxes, and the arcminthemof chore

‘

a.

ANT IG RAPH (rivrtypa originallysignififi the writing put inby t e defendant,his plea ” inall causes whether publ ic orprivate , inanswer to the indictment or billetthe o It is , however, also applim

’lto t e bi ll or indictment of the plaintifi

'

oraccuser.

APATURIA.

o r fo rc ing pump. Criminals were condemnedto th e (mumor tread -mil l .ANT YX (évrvf) , the rimor border of any

t h ing , especial l y of a shie ld or chariot . T he

rimof the large round shie ld of the ancientG reeks

,was thinner than the part which it

e n c l osed but on the other hand , the antyxof a chariot must have been thicker thanthe body to which it gave bath form ands t re n th.

In rout of the chariot the ant 1 was oftenra ised abbve the bod into the armof a cur

v ature,which serve the purpose of a hook

to hang the reins upon .

But, as every citizenwas amember of a phratria the festival extended over the whole nationwho assembled ‘

accordin to phratriac.

u amcrus . 27

Am mm by the St lh.

APHRACT U S (demu re; wadal so ne vi:W , a ship which hagno deck,butwas merel covered with planks inthe

The festival las ted three aye. T he third front and biner part , as is represenwd tn

daywas themost important ;for onthat daychi ldrenborninthat yea r, inthe fami lies ofthe

eghratriae

,or such as were not yet regi s

ter were takenby their fathers. or intheirabsence by their representatives x éptor) , before the assembled members of t e phratria.

For eve chi ld a sheep or a goat was sacrificed. he father, or he who supplied hisplace , was obliged to establish by oath thatthe child was the 03’s ring of free- bornparents , and c itizens ofAt ens. Afterthe victimwas sacrificed , the phratores gave their votes ,which they took from the al tar of JupiterPhratrius. Whenthemajority voted againstthe reception, the causemight be tried beforeone of the courts of Athens ;and if the c laimsof the child were found unob

'

ectionable, itsname , as well as that of the ather, was err

tered into the regi ster of the phratria, andthose who had wished to street the ex clum’onof the child were liable to be punished .

APE RT A NAV I S . Arnnao 'wsjAPEX , a cap worn y the flamines andsa l ii at Rome. The essential part of theapex , to which alone the name

(prope

rlybe

longed, was a pointed piece 0 olive-wood,the base of wh ich was su rrounded with a

lock of wool . This was wornonthe to of

the head , and was held there either by ets

only, or , as wasmore commonly the case , bythe aid of a cap which fitwd the head, and

twasdfso fas tened bymeans of two strings oran

28 APLUSTRE . APOS TOLE U S .

the following cut. T he ships which haddec were called caraphracti tx ardepox rot).anracks or strata . At the time of the T ro

janwar the Gweh ships had no decks, butwere onl wavered over m the prow andstem,

which covering Homer call s the heme

APHRODI 'S IA(“Mirna ,werecelebrated inhonour Aph

‘

té (Venus), ina great number oftowns inGreece, but partiealat ly - ih the is land of Cy rue. Her momancient temple was at Pap os. No bloodysacrifices were allowed to be offered to her,

cationof such progenyto the state.

APOLLINA’R S UDI. [LUDI Artemis

stern, onwhich'

ttwas we commonly APOS T OLE U S (drroaroh tivthe Bath;

observe ano rnament resembling .a ~circular of a public officer at Athens. here wereshield ;this was cal led domdeiov or domdt tenmagistrates of this name and their du tyany. I t is seenonthe two aplustria here was to see that the chi were properly equiprepteeented , pad and provided by th

a

ose who were bound

Aplustrc.

APODE CT AE (drrodéxmr) ,at Athens , who were introduthenes inthe(nwl ax pé

‘

ra t

one for eachlect all thethemamongministrationAPOG RA

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ARA.

During the times of the republic, the censors and aediles had the su perintendence ofthe aquaeducts ;but under the empe rors particular officers were ap ointed for that purpose

,under the title 0 curators: or praefectt

'

30 AQUAE DUCTU S .

enacted , that infuture no magistrate shouldbe made fromwhom there shou ld be no a

peal . Onthis Li remarks, that the le swerenowprotect by the provocatio a thetribuniciumaux ilium; this latter termhas reference to the appellatio properly so called.The complete phrase to expres s thewomen»

tio is provocarc ad and.the phrase

which expresses t e appellati o is appellare

ad a c.

home nucrvs, signifies anartificialchannel orwatercourse, by which a suppl y ofwater is brought froma consxderable distanceuponaninclined plane raised onarches, ancarried across val leys and unevencount ry, andoccasional lyunder ground,wherehills orrocksintervene.As nearl y all the ancient aquaeducts nowremaining are of Romanconstruction, it hasbeengeneral l y imagined that works of thisdesc ription were entirely unknown to theGreeks. This, however, is anerror

,since

some arementioned by Pausanias and others,though too briefly to enableus to judge oftheirarticu lar construction. Probably thosewhichhave been recorded—s uch as that buil t byPeisistratus at Athens , that at Megara, andthe celebrated one of. Polycrates at Samoawere rather conduits thanranges of buildingl ike the Romanones . Of the latter, fewwereconstructed inthe times of the republic. i twas not until about a. that any wereerected , the inhab itants sop lying themselvesup to that time with water mthe Tiber ormakin use of cisterns or springs. The firstaqua not was begunby App. Claudius thecensor, and was named after him, the AquaAppia. S ub uently sevenor eight aquaeducts were bui t , which brought anabundanteu ly ofwater to Rome.he or water channel , was formed

either 0 stone or brick coated with cement,and was arched over at tep, inorder to exclude the sun, onwhich account there werea rtures or ventholes at certaindistances.he water, however, besides flowing throughthe specus, passed al so through pipes

,either

of lead or burnt earth (terra- cotta). At themouth and terminationof every aquaeductthere was a large rese rvoir, cal led castellum,

and there were usual l y al so intermediate ca:tella at certaindistances along its course. Thecastel lumat the mouth or Opening

into theaquaeduct was also cal led piscina imam, be.

cause the water was collected init, inorderthat itmight first deposit its impurities. Thep rincipa l castel lumwas that inwhich theaquaeduct terminated , and whence the waterwas conveyed by difi

'

erent branches and pipesto various parts of the city.

aquamm. These officers were first createdby Augustus and were invested w ith considerable au thority. Inthe time ofNerv e andTrajan, about sevenhundred archi tec ts andothers were constantly employed , under theorders of the curatores aquarum, ina ttend

'

to the a uaeducts. The officers who hcharge -0 these works were, 1 . The v illici,whose duty itwas to attend to the aquaeductsintheir course to the cit 2. The castellan

'

i,who had the superintenence of all the cas

tella both w ith inand wi thout the cit 3.

The circuitou s , so called because they ad togo frompost to post, to examine into the stateof the works, and also to kee watch overthe labourers employed u ont m. 4. Thesilicarii, orpavioutjs. 5. he restores , or lasterers. Al l these officers appear to haveincluded under the eneral termofaquam.

AQUAE ET I NiS lNT E RDl’

CT lO.

[E XS ILI UM.

}AQ UA’

R l, slaves who carried wate r forbathing, 660. into the femal e apartments. Theaquarii were also public officerswho attendedto the a uaeducts. [Aquaa Decree ]AQU DUCT . [AQ UAE Decree ]A

'

Q U lLA. [S tG NA Ma rmara ]ARA who;dvrfiptov), anal tar. Ara was

a genera termdenotin any structure elevatedabove the ground, andused to receive u ponit offeringsmade to the gods. Allure, robably contracted fromalta era,was proper y restricted to the larger, higher, andmore ex pensive structures.Four 8 eoimens of ancient altars are givenbelow ;t a two inthe former wood-cut are

square, and those inthe latter round , whichis the less commonform.

At the top of three of these al tars we seethe hole intended to receive the

'

fire (tox eply, éax épa) : the fourth was probably m

ARAT RUM

tended for the ofl’ering.rfruits or otherwhich were presenwd to the gods wit out

fire. Whenthe al tars were prepared for sacrifice they were commonly decorated with ar

lands or festoons. - These were compos ofcertainkinds of leaves and flowers, whichwere considered consecrated to such uses,and were called verbcnae.

The al tars const ructed wi th most labourand ski l l belonged to temples ;and they wereerected either before the temple or w ithinthecalla ol the temple, and principal l y before thestatue of the di vini ty to whomit was dedicated. The al tars inthe area before the temple were al tars of bu rnt- offerings, at whichanima l sac rifices (victimae, apd yta , lepf ia )were preseuwd : only incense was burnt, orcakes and bloodless sacrifices cfl

'

ered onthealtarswi thinthe bui lding.

ARA'

PRUMlg

ooi'

pov) , a lough. Amongthe Greek and mans the threemost essen

oosened and raisedto the share - beam

(dentalc), which wasmade double forthe purpose of receiving them.

2. The hand le (stiva ). Virgil desc ribes thispart as used to turnthe plou h at the end ofthe furrow ;and it is define by anancientcommentato r onVirgi l as the

“ handle bywhich the plough is di rected .

" I t is probablethat as the dentab‘

a , the two share -beams,were

inthe formof the Greek letter A , which Virgildescribes by duplici dam ,

the bankwas fastenedto the left share -beamand the stisa to theright , so that th e plough of Virgil was morel ike themodernLancashire plough , which iscommonly held behind with both hands.Sometimes, however, the cries was Malone and instead of the basi s or tai l. Inplace of slice the termcaps tan is sometimaem loyed.he onl other part of the ploug

lhrequirin

notice is t e cou lter (cutter), whic was usedby the Romans as it is with us . It was inserted into the pole so as to depend vertical lybefore the share, cutting through the rootswhich came inits way , a nd thus pre

tgaringfor

the more complete overturning of a sort bythe share.Two smal l whee ls were also added to someploughs . The annexed cut shows the formofananc ient whee l - plough . I t also shows distinctlythe (mo or pole the coul ter

S2), the am

or share -beam the bank or p ough- tail

Antrum, Plough.and the handle or str

'

va I t corres a

all essential articu lars with the oughnowused about antua

(a

9

ndfilgai;

e, 0 which

anengravin is given. cc‘

ag e.)The Gree s and Romans usual ly p55 ed

their land three times for each.

crop. hefirst ploughing was cal led proscmdere or novars (vcofiafla t, vséleeflu t) the secondaf ringere, or iterare and the third Eran, or tsrtiwe.

The field which underwent the proscissio,”

was cal led m acaw; or male (vac and inthis process the coulter was emp eyed, be

ARCA.

cause the fresh su rface was entangled.with

numberless roots which required to be di vided

Anti-um, Plough2. T eam. 3. Doub le.5. Vomer 6 6. Auras.

before the soil cou ld t e turned upby the share.

The term fromob and frangm,

was applied to the second ploughing ;becausethe long parallel clods al ready turned up werebrokenand cut across, by drawing the ploug

hthrough themat right angles to its former irection. The field which underwent this process was called agar iteram. After the secondploughing the sewer cast his seed. Also theclods were often, thou h not always, brokenstill fu rther by a w enmal let , or by herrowing occatio). TheRomanploughmanthen,for the rst time, attached the earth -boards tohis share. The effect of this adjustment wasto divide the level surface of the a itera

m into ridges . These were cal le parent ,and also lime,whence came the verb lirare, tomake rid es, and al so delivers, to decl ine fromthe straig t line. T he earth-boards,by throwing the earth to each side inthemanner alre

'ag‘yexplained , both covered thenewly-scat.

te seed , and formed'

betweenthe ridgesfurrows team“,

said ) for carryin ofi‘

thewater. Inthis state the fieldwas ca ed cagesand rplrrol op .

Whenthe ancients ploughed three timesonly, itwas done inthe spung, summer, andau tumnof the same year. But in order toobtaina still heavier crop both the Greeksand the.

Romans ploughed fou r times, theprosci ssi o being performed inthe latter partof the preceding year, so that betweenonecr0p and another two whole years intervened .

A‘RBlT E R. [Jap an]ARCA (x tflo f og). 1 . A chest, inwhich theRomans were accustomed to place theirmoney and the phrase ex area sol had themeaning of payin

ginreadymoney.

areas was usual y a plied to the chests inwhich the rich he t t eirmoney, and was epposed to the am er loculi, sacculus, and cmmenu. 2. The coffininwhich persons wereburied , or the bier onwhich the corpse wasplaced previously to buria l. 3. A stron cel lmade of oak.mwhich criminals and res

were confined.

l . Buns.

ARCHON .

By this ismeant that the supreme wer, thoughnotmonarchical,was confined to one smily.

ARCH. Ancus ;Forums ]ARCHE] N properlymeans any

public place belonging to themagi strates , butis more particularly applied to the archiveoffice , where the decrees of the people andother state documents we re reserved . Th is‘

oflice is sometimesmerely led 76 61; oalov.

At Athens the archives were kept int e temple of themother of the gods pow) , andthe charge of it was entrust to the res ident (érrwrérrzg) of the senate of the

‘

ve

hundred .

ARCHERS. Ali cea ]ARCHIMI

hill;chietl

'

eaictor i

lr

l

i a eu

tomime was espec '

app'

to t e c'

e.

mimus,’

who represented at a funera l the deceased - person, and imi tated his words andactions .ARCHIT HE O

’

RU S (dpx taéwpog). [THE Oans .

AilCHON («2p av) . T he government ofAthens be Wi thmonarchy, and alter passing throng a dynast and aristocracy, endedindemocracy. Of t e kings of Athens, considered as the capital of Attica, Theseusmaybe said to have beenthe first ;for to him,

whether as a real individual or a re resentstive ofa certainperiod , is attributed t e unionof the different and inde endent states ofAttica under one head. T e last was Codrus ;inacknowledgment of whose atriotism inmeeting death for his country , t e Atheniansare said to have determined that no oneshould succeed himwith the title of k ing(Heath er). I t seems, however, equal] rob.able, that itwas thenobleswho avail t emselves of the oportunity to serve their owninterests , bh

abolishing the kinly,

ower foranother, t e possessors of whic t ey cal l edArchontes (dpx ovrcg) or rulers. These forsome time continued to be, like the kings ofthe house of Codrus , appointed for life : stillanimot tant point was gained by the nobles .

the o ce heiugmade accountable (h eadway).which ofcourse implies that thenobility hadsome control over i t.This state of things lasted fortwelve reigns

of archons. T he next step was to limit thecontinuance of the office to tenyears, stil lconfining it to the Medontidae, or house ofCodrus, so as to establish what the Greekscalled a dynasty, till the archonship of Eryxias, the las t archonof that family elected as

such. At the end ofhis ten!yea

rs(a. c .

amuch greater change too place : the ar

chonship was made annual , and its variou s

ARCHON.

duties di vided among a col legeofnine, chosenby sufl

'

rage x t tporovta ) fromthe E u atridae ,or Patncrans , and no longer elected theMedontidae ex clusivel This arran entlasted ti l l the time 0 Solon, who 1 continned the electionby sufi

'

rage, but made thequalificationfor office depend, not onbirtbut property. The electionby lot is believto have beenintroduced by C leisthenes

gt. 0.

The last chan is supposed to ave

beenmade by Ariste'

who after the battleof Plataea (s . c. 479) abolished the propertyqualificat ion, throwing Openthe archonshipand other magistracies to all the ci tizens ;that is , to the Thetes, as

’ wel l as the otherclasses , t he former of whomwere not al

lowcla

ld by Solon's laws to hold anymagistracy

at a

Stil l , after the removal of the old restrictions , some security was left to insure respectability for, previously to anarchonenteriu

r

li

fonoffice , he underwent anexamination,ed the anacriu

’

: (dvdx ptotf), as to his being alegitimate and a good citizen, s good son, andqua lified inpoint of perty, but the latterl imita tionwas either one awayWi th by Artsteldes , or soonbecame obsolete. Yet, evenafter pas s ing ‘

a satisfactory anacn'

sis,each of

the a rchons, incommonwith other magistrates, was l iable to be deposed oncomplaintofmisconductmade before the people , at thefirst regu lar assembly ineach prytany.

’

Ou

such anoccasionthe -otoma (émx etpo

rov ia ) , as it was cal l took place : and weread that inone case the whole college ofarchons was deprived of office (ddrox etporoveiofia t).inconsequence of the democratical tenden

cy of:the assembly and courts of justice es

tablished by Solon, the archons lost the greatpolitica l wer which they at one timesessed. he became, infact, not as oldd irectors of t e government, but merelymunicipa l magis trates , exercising functions andbearing tit les described below.

I t has beenal ready stated , that the dutiesof the sin ls archonwere shared by a collegeofnine. be first, or president of this body,was called

EArchon, by way o

éf pre

-eminefnce ,

orArchon cm advvflOc). tomthe year bem

pgndmmiguisfied by and re tered

inhi s name. The second was styl.

ArcheaBas tien: (rip a v Heuri stic), or the K ing Archon; the t ird Polemrchus (noMnapx og),or commander-in-chief; the remaining si x ,

T hermal/zeta: legislators. As

33

It seems that a considerable portionof thejudicia l functions of the ancient kings devolved uponthe ArclumE ponyrmu ,whowas alsoconsti tuted a sort of state rotector of thosewho were unable to defend se lves. Thushe was to superintend orphans

, heireeses,fami lies losing their representatives, widowsleft pre t. and to see that they were notwron inany way. This archonhad alsothe superintendence of the greater Dionysia,and the Thargel ia.

T he functions of the K ing Arches were almost all connected with religion;his distinguishing title shows that he was considereda representative of the old kings intheir capacity ofhigh priest , as the Rex S acrificuluswas at Rome. Thus he presided at the Leuse s , or older Dionysia ;superintended them and the games called Lcmpadcphoriaq and had to offer up sacrificcs and

more in the E leusinium, both at AthensEleusia. Moreover, indictments for im

piety, and controversies about the priesthood ,were laid before him;and , incases ofmurder, he brought the tria l into the court of theareiepagus, and voted with itsmembers. Hiswife

,also , who was call ed Basilism (fleet

t oa ), had to offer certainsacrifices, andtherefore itwas required that she should bea

lci

tizenof pure blood, without stainor blem

i s

The Polmarch was original ly, as his namedenotes , the commander-W hich and wefindhimdischargingmilitary duties as late as thebattleofMarathon, incon

'

unctionwith the tenS trateg i be there took ike the kings of old,the command of the right wing of the army.This

,however, seems to be the last occasion

onrecord of thismagistrate appointed by lotbeing invested with such im ant functionsand inafter a we that his du tiesceased to bemi itary, having been, ina greatmeasure, transferred to the protection andsuperintendence of the res ident aliens, so thathe resembled inmany respects the praetor

peregrmus at Rome. Thus, all actions afecting al iens , the isoteles and prox eni werebrought before himpreviously to trial . Moreover, it was the polemarch’s duty to offer theyearly sacrifice to Diana, incommemorationof the vowmade by Cal limachus , at Marathon, and to arrange the funeral games inhonour of those who fel l inwar.T he six T hesmorheraewere extensively con

useted with the administrationcf justice, andappear to have beencal led legislators, because

regards the duties of the arcbons, it is mthe absence of awrittencode, theymightsomet imes difficul t to distinguish what he be said to make laws, or thmm

'

(despot inlonged to themindividuall y, and what rob the ancient langua

ge

.

of Athens, thong inlectively . reality they onl y exp them. They were

34 ARCUS T RIUMPHALIS .

r

qired to review, every year, thewhole body

of ws,that the might detect any inconsis

tencies or supe uities , and discover whethertinglaws which were abrogated were inthe

pu lic records amongst the rest. Their reportwas submitted to the people, who referredthenecessary al terations to a legislative committee chosenfor t l

;e p

r

i

li'

hrpose

l;and ca l ledfAtria.e c

_

ie part o t eduties of the thesmothetae consisted inre

ceiving informations , and bringing cases to

trial inthe courts of law, of the ays of sitt inginwhich ‘

they gave public notice.’

Theydid not try them themse lves, but seem to

have constituted a sort of grand jury, or ihquest.The trial itself took place before

tae. [Di casram]I t isnecessary to be cautious in

pretationof the words dpxfiandsince they have a double meaningticorators, sometimes referring to the a rctpecu liarly so called, and sometimes to anyothermagistracy.The archons had various rivileges andhonours. The greatest of the ormerwas theexemptionfromthe trierarchies—a boonnotallowed evento the successors ofHarmodiusand Aristogeiton. As a mark of their ofiicethey wore a chaplet or crownofm e ;anifany one struck or abused one o the thesmothetae or the archon, whenwearing thisbadge ofoffice, he became arenas (arm), or

infamous inthe fu llest extent , thereby losinghis civic rights. The archons , at the c loseof their year of service, were admitted amongthe members of the areiopagus. [Anatomeus.

A CUS T RIUMPHA’LIS , a triumphal

arch fortning.

a assage way, and erected inhonour ofanin vidual ,or incommemorationofa conquest.Triumphal arches were buil t across theprincipal streets of Rome, and, according tothe ace of their respective localities , consiste

e

ti'

of a single archway or a centra l onefor carriages , and two smaller ones oneachside for foot passengers. Those actual lymade use of onthe occasionof a triumphalentry'and processionwere merely temporaryand astily erected ;and, hay ing serv thei r

purpose , were takendownagain, and sometimes replaced by others oimore durablema.

terials .

S tertinius is the first uponrecord whoerected anything of the kind. He buil t an

ARCUS.

The actionof drawing a bow is wel l exarch inthe [forumBoarium, about a. c . 196, hibited inthe foll owing out line of a statueand anothermthe Ci rcus Maximus, each of belonging to the group of Aegina marbles ,which was surmounted by gil t statues. T he bow, laced inthe ha dThere are twenty-one arches recorded by was probes

n3 Of umstatue,ly of bronze, and has beenl ost.

different writers, as havingfibeenerected in

the city of Rome, five ofw ch now rema in:- 1. Areas Dms i, which was erected to thehonour of Claudius Drusus onthe A

ppian

way. 2. Areas T in’, at the foot of the alatine, which was erected to the honou r ofTitus , after his conquest ofJudaea ; the hasreliefs of this arch represent the spOi ls fromthe temple of Jerusa lemcarried intrium halproces sion. 3. Arcane S eptimi

'

t'

S aved ,w ich

was erected by the senate (A. D. 207) at theend of the Via Sacra, inhonour of that emperor and his two sons, Caracal la and G ets ,onaccount of his conquest of the Parth iansand Arabians. 4. Areas G allt

'

em'

,erected to

the honour of Gallienus by a private individual , M. Aurelius Victor. 5. Areas Con

fltl

amird, which was larger thanthe arch of'

tus.

ARCUS (346g. rdfov), the bow used forshooting arrows, is one of the most ancientofall weapons, but is characteristic of Asiarather thanof Europe. inthe Roman ar

mies it was scarcely ever employed ex

aflt by auxiliaries ; and these auxiliari es,

b'

ed angina -ii, were chieflyCretans and Aramm.

The up r of the two figures below sh owsthe Scyt

'

an or Parthian bow unst rung;the lower one represents the usual formof the G recianbow, which had a doubl e curvature, consisting of two ci rcular po rtions

w by the handle. Whggog

i ot used . thewas put into a case (ro x 7) , wpv

‘

rég.cory tus), which was made of lest er

, andsometimes omamented .

ARE IOPAG U S .

A’RE A (lil ac, or (thu d), the threshingfloor

,was a raised place inthe field, openon

all sides to the wind. Great pains weretakentomake this floor hard ;it was sometimes paved with fl int stones

,but more usu

all

lcovered with clay and smoothed w ith a

to er.AR E IO‘PAG U S (6

'

Apstocmiyog, or billof was a rocky eminence, lying to thewest 0 and not far from the Acropolis atAthens. I t was the place ofmeeting of thecouncxl (

'

H 5»’Apsl(,i mi 9:flovl rj) , which

was sometimes called he Upper CouncilCH t

'

i vu

flas h?) to distinguish i t fromtheFive -hundred, which sat in the

Cerameicus withinthe city.I t was a body of very remote antiquity,

actin as a criminal t ribunal , and existed1025.

store the t ime of Solon, but he so farm ified its Constitutionand sphere of duty,that he may almost be cal led its founder.What that ori

giéml constitutionwas,must in

some degree left to conjecture, thoughthere is eve reasonto sup se that it wasaristocratica themembers eing taken, likethe ephetae, fromthe noble patricianfami li es.[Enema ]By the legislationof Solonthe AreiOpa s

was composed of thee r-archons, who a.

eranunexce

ptionable discharge of their duties,

“ went up to the Areiopagus, and becamemembers of it for l ife, unless expelled formisconduct. As Solonmade the ualificationfor the ofiice of archonto depennot onbirth but onproperty, the counci l after

.

histime ceased to be aristocratic inconsti tution;but

,as we learnfromAtticwriters ,

_

continuedso inspirit. Infact

,Solonis said to have

formed the two council s the senate and theAt eio gus, to be a chechuponthe democracy ; t t, as he himself expressed it, “ the

state ridin uponthemas anchors mi ht beless tossedgby storms .” Nay, evensfti r thearchons were no lon r elected by suffragebut bylot, and the 0 ca was thrownOpenby Areisteides to all the Atheniancitizens,the “ u

gr council” sti l l retained its former

tone 0 ling.Moreover, besides these changes inits con

stttuti onSolonaltered and extended its functions . liefore his time itwas only a criminalcou rt ,

.trying cases of “ wi lfu l murder andwounding. of arsonand poisining,

” whereashe gave it extensive owers of a censoria land political nature. hus we learnthat hemade the council an overseer of every thing,and the guard ianof the laws empowerinit to inqui re howany one got his livin

g, an

to punish the idle ;and we are al so tol thatthe Areiopagites were “ superintendents of

good order and decency,”terms rather unlim

i ted and undefined , as it is not improbableSolonwished to leave their authority. Whenheinous crimes had notoriously beencommitted, but the guil ty parties werenot known,or no accuser appeared , the AreiOpagus ia

quired into the subject , and reported to theemus. The report or informationwas cal led

apophast'

s. Th is was a duty whi ch theysometimes undertook onthei r ownresponsibility, and inthe exercise ofanold established right, and sometimes onthe order of thedemus. Nay , to such anextent did theycarry their power, that onone occasiontheyapprehended anindmdual (Anti

phon), who

had beenacquitted by the genera assembland againbrought himto a t rial , wh ich ened inhis condemnationand death. Again

,

wefind themrevoking anappointment whereby Aeschines wasmade the advocate ofAthens before the Amphictyonic council, andsubstituting Hy erides inhis room.

They also ha duties connected with religion, one of which was to su

gerintend the

sacred ol ives growing about At ens, and t rythose who were charged w ith destroyingthem°

and ingenera l it was their oflice topunis the imp ious and

.

irrel igiou s. _

lndependent , then, of its2

urisdictionas a cnminalcourt incases ofwil ulmurder, which Soloncontinued to

'

the AreiOpagus, its influencemust have been sufliciently great to havebeena considerable obstacle to the aggrandiz ement of the democracy at the expense ofthe other parties inthe state. Accord ingly,we find that Pericles whowas opposed to thearistocracy, resolved to diminish i ts powerand circumscribe its sphere of action. Hiscoadjutor in this work was Ephialtes a

statesman of inflexible integri ty , and a so

a mi litary commander. They experienced

36 ARE IOPAG US .

much oppositionintheir attempts.not onlyinthe assembl but al so onthe sta e, whereAeschylus pr need his tragedy o the E umenides, the object ofwhich was to impressU ponthe Athenians the dignit

y, sacredness,

and constitutibnal worth of t e institutionwhich Pericles and Ephial tes wished to reform. Still the Oppositionfai led :a decreewas carried by Wll lCh, as Aristotle says , theAreiopa s was “mutilated

,

”and many of

its here itary rights abolished , though i t isdifficul t to ascertainthe precise nature of

the alterations which Pericles efl'

ected.

The jurisdictionof the AreiOpagus incaseofmurder was still left to them. Insuchcases the process was as fol lows —The k ingarchonbrought the case into court, and sat

as one of the judges, who were assembled inthe Openair, probably to guard against anycontamination fromthe criminal. The secuserfirst came forward to make a solemnoath that his accusationwas true , standingover the slaughtered victims, and imprecatingextirpationuponhimself and his whole family ,were itnot so. The accused thendeniedthe charge with the same solemnity andformof oath. Each art thenstated hiscase with all posstb e p ainness, keepingstrictly to the subject, and not bem al lowed to appeal inany way to the fee ings orpassions ofthejud es. After the first speech,a criminal accus ofmurder might removefromAthens , and thus avoid the capital punishment fixed by D

o

raco’s T hcsmi, which on

this point were sti ll inforce. Except incases of ameide, neither the accuser northe court d power to prevent this ;but theparty who thus evaded the extreme punish.

ment was not al lowed to returnhome, andwhenany decreewas passed at Athens to lsgal iza the returnof ex il es, anex ce tionwasalwaysmade against those who h thus lefttheir country.The Arcio gus continued to ex ist inname

at least , ti 8 very late period . Thus wefind Cicero mentions the council inhis letters ;and anindividual is spokenof as anAreiggagite under the emperors Grahamand

The osias (A. n.

The case of St. Paul is general ly quotedas aninstance of the authori ty of the Areioo

pagus inreligiousmatters ;but the words ofthe sacred historiandonotnecessari ly imp]?that he was brought before the council. tmay, however, he remarked, that the Areiopagites certainly took cognizance of the iatroductionofnewand unauthorized forms of

wig?

” worship, calledmam 1306, incon

t

i;stiil

t

r

ecuonto themirpra or 01 er rites of

t e

ARG ENTARII.

ARE '

NA.

ARE T A'

LOG I, persons who amused thecomany at the Romandinner tables.A

'

G E I, thename givenby the pontificesto the places consecrated by Numa

'

for thecelebrationof religious services . Varro ca llsthemthe chapels of the argei, and says theywere twenty- seveninnumber, distributed inthe different districts of the city. There wasa traditionthat these argei were named fromthe chiefrains who came with Hercu l es , theArgive, to Rome , and occupied the CapitOo

line, or, as itwas anciently cal led, Saturnianbill. It is impossible to say what is the historical value ermeaning of this legend ;wemay, however,notice its conformity with thestatement that Rome was founded by thePelasgians , with whom the name of Argoswas connected .

Thename argei was also givento certainfigures throwninto the T iber fromthe S ub

licianbridge, onthe Ides of May ineveryyear. This was done b the pontifices, thevestals, the praetors, an other citizens, afterthe performance of the customary sacrifices.The images were thirty innumber,made ofbul rushes. and in the formofmen. Ovidmakes various supposi tions to account for theoriginof this rite :we canonly conjecturethat itwas a symbolical offering, to propitiatethe gods. and that the number was a representative either of the thirty pat riciancuriaea

idRome, or perhaps of the thirtyLatintown

8 ps.

ARGENTA’RII, bankers ormoney-changers at Rome. The public bankers, ormenserg

’

r’

, are to be distinguished fromthe argentarii. The highest class ofmensarii, the mensaru inqucviri or triumviri

' were a sort of extrao inery ma strates ;their business wasto regu late the ebts ofthe citizens

,and to pro

vide and distribute specie on emergency.[Manasan] The argentarii , on the con.

trary, were private bankers. Almost all ma .

ney.

t ransactions were carried on throughthei r intervention, and they kept the ao

count-books of their customers . Hence. allterms respecting the re lationbetweendebtpr and creditor were borrowed frombanking busmess ; thus , rationemaecgpti scribers(“ to put downon the debtor’s side int hebanker’s book")means to borrowmoneyreset

-ions,“ to pay it back again m en(an

i teminthe account) is a debt,

”or even a

debtor.” These books of account have givenrise to the modernItaliansystemof bookkee ing by double-en

0

9 functions of t e argentari i, besidesthei r original occupationofmoney-changing(pa

-mad amargmti) were as follows —1. At

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

38 ARMA. ARMARIUM.

articles under theirLatinnames. eu i another description of men. the pcltas tas

h exed cht exhibits themall. (wh atnot).al so formed a part of the

Those who were defended inthemannerwhich hasnow beenrepresented are cal ledb

ZO

Homeraspistae (an imal), fromtheir greata ield (dearly) ;al so angemachi (dyx emi or),because they fought hand to hand with t eiradversaries ;but much more commonl y promachr' (wpdpax oc), because they occupied thefront of the army.In later times the heavy-armed soldierswe

'

re cal led hoph‘

tae (Mura t), because thetermhopla (67th )more especial ly denoted thedefensive armou r, the shieldand thorax. Bywearing these they were distingu ished fromthe li ht-armed (inl et, dvorrhoc, [wot

”arm-gar, y vfirsg ,who, instead of be7iv

ng do:ended by t e shiel and thorax, had amuchslighter covering, sometimes consisting ofsinus, and sometimes of leather or cloth andinstead of the sword or lance. they commonl yfou ht with darts, stones, bows and arrows,or a rage.

Besides theheavy and light-armed soldiers,

army, though we donot hear of theminearlytimes . Instead of the la round shield, theycarried a smaller one cal ed thepd té (rel -n;and inother respects their armour, thouheavier and more effective thanthat of t esili,was much lighter thanthat of the hites. ~

.The weapononwhich they princip yde ended was the spear.he Romanlegions consisted, as the Greek

infantry for the most part did, of heavy andHim-armed tr00ps (gravis ct leer

“

: armature).T e precedingfigure representsaheavg

-armedRomansoldier. Oncomparing itwit that ofthe Greek hoplite inthe other cut, we perceive that the several arts of the armou r correspond, excepting o y that the Romansoldier wears a da r) x atpa, pugw

’

onhisright side ins of a

flfword onh is eft, andinstead of greaves uponhis legs hasfandcoligue. Alltheessential artsofthe Romanheavy armourmmwgpm, hosts ),are menti together, except e r

, ina wel l-known assageof St. Pau lARMA'RI M, original ly a place forhas

ing a rms, afterwards a cupboard, inwhio

ARVALES FRAT RE S .

.were kept not on] arms, but al so clothes,book s, money, an other articles of yalue.

T h e armariumwas general ly placed inthea t riumof the house .A RM ILLA (seam , wéiltov, orwéM tov,

l cdé v , éfl¢tdtfi), a bracelet orarmlet, wornth by menand women.

T he Romangenerals frequent] bestoweda rmi llae uponsoldiers for deeds ex traordinary meri t .ARMILU '

S T RIUM, a Romanfestival forthe purificationof arms . Itwas celebratedeve ry year onthe 19th of October, whentheci tizens assembled inarms, and offered sacriflees inthe place cal led Armiluslrum, or Vicu s Armilustri.

A’RRHA

venas a

sumofmoney oranythin else, as anevidenceof the contract being in e ;itwas no essential part of the contract of buying and sel ling

,

but only evidence of agreement as to price.T he termarrha, inits genera l sense of anevidence ofagreement,was also used onotheroccasions, asmthe case of betrothment (sponsalia). Sometimes the word arrha is used assynonymous with ‘

gmu , but this is not thel ega lmeanin of ta;term.

ARROGA IO. [A mmo ]ARROWS . [Aacoa ]ARTABA (rim a Persianmeasure of

capacity= l medimnus and 3 choenices (Attic): 102 Romansex tarii= l2 ga l lons,pints .

ARTEMI’SIA a festival cel ebrated at Syracuse inhonour of Diana Potamia and S oteira. I t lasted three days, whichwere principal ly spent infeasting and amusements. Festivals of the same name. and inhonou r of the same goddess, were held in

ga

ll

hplaces inGreece, but principal ly at

c i .

A TOFTA .

ARU’RA (dpovpa eG reekmeasure ofsurface,mentioned by erodotus, who says thatit isa hundred E gy tiancubits inevery dirce otion. Now the Egyptian cubit containednearly 172 inches ; therefore the square of100 x 171 inches, al e. nearly 148 feet, givesthenumber of square feet (English) inthearura, viz .

ARUSPEX. Haausrex .

ARVA’LES AT RE S , ormed a collegeor comany of twelve rieste, and were socalled inod

'

erin pub ic sacrifices for thefertilit of the fishg That they were of ex

AS .

treme antiquity is proved the legend whichrefers their institutionto mulus, of whomi t is said, that whenhis nurse Acca Laurentialost one of her twelve sons, he al lowed him.

self to be adopted by her inhis place, andcal led himselfand the remaining eleven Fratres Arvales." We also find a col lege call edthe S odales Titii, and as the latter were confessedly of Sabine origin, and instituted forthe purpose of keepin up the Sabine rel igious ri tes, it is probe 18 that these collegescorresponded one to the other— the FratresArvales bein connected with the Latin, andthe S odales itii with the Sabine element ofthe Romanstate.The office of the fratresmaleswas for l ife,

andwas not takenaway evenfromanexileor ca tive. One of thei r annual duties wasto cc ehre ts a three days’ festival inhonour ofDes. Dis , supposed to be Ceres, sometimesheld onthe 17th , l9th, and 2oth ,

sometimesonthe z 7ib, 2eth, and 3oth ofMay. But besides this festival of the Des Die, the fratresarvales were required onvarious occasions,under the empe rors, tomake vows and offerup thanks

'

ngs .

Under iberi us,the Fratres Arvales per

formed sacrifices cal led the Amber-valid , atvarious places onthe borders of the ager Romanus, or original territory of Rome ;and itis probable that this was a customhandeddownfromtime immemorial, and,moreover,that itwas a duty of the priesthood to invokea blessing onthe whole territory of Rome.There were also the private ambarvalia

,which

were so call ed fromthe victim(hostia ambervalis) that was slainonthe occasionbeing ledthree times round the com-fields, before thesickle was put to the corn. This victimwasaccompanied by a crowd ofmerry-makers , thereapers and farm- servants dancingand singing,as they marched , the praises of Ceres , andprayin forher favour and presence.while theyotfe her the libations ofmilk , honey, andM e. This ceremonywas also cal led a Mtratio , orpurification.

ARK si gnifies a height withinthe wal ls ofa city, uponwhich a citadel was buil t. andthus came to be appl ied to the citadel itself.Thus the summit of the Capitoline hi l l atRome is cal led Arz .

AS,or Libra , a pound, the unit of weight

among the Romans. {Li ana }lAS , the unit of value inthe omanand oldItaliancoinages wasmade of copper, orof themixedmeta l ca lled As s. I t was original ly ofthe weight of a pound

,

of twelve ounces,whence i t was called as libralis and as: grave.The oldest formof the as is that whichbears thefigure ofananimal (a bull, ram, boar,

40 AS.

or sow The next andmost commonformisthat w

‘

ch has the two- faced head of Janusonone side

,and the prow of a ship on the

other (whence the expressionused by Romanbo 8 intossing up, Capitq out nanim.)he annexed specimenfrom the British

Museumweighs 4000 grains : the length of

the diameter is half that of the orig inal coin.

RomanAs, or Libra.

Pliny of thefimPunic war 264 inorder tomeet the expenses of the state , this weight ofa pound was diminished , and asses werestruck of the same weight as the sextans(that is, two ounces , or one- sixth of the eu

cientwei ht) ;and that thus the republic paidofi

’

its de ts , gaining five arts insix ; thatattem'

ards, inthe second unic war,inthe

d ictatorship ofQ. Fabius Maximus (a. c .asses of one ounce weremade, and the denariuswas decreed to be equal to sixteenasses,the republic thus gaining one half;but thatinmili tary pay the denariuswas always givenfor tenasses ;and that soonafter, by the Papirianlaw (about asses of half anounce weremade.

cw, tenewes were e ual to the denariusabout8§ pence Englis [Demaws Therefore the as 34 farthings . By t e reduc

ASCIA.

t ionthe denariuswasmade equal to 16 as se s 3therefore the as 2 farthings .The as was divide into parts,

named according to the number of ouncesthey contained .

They were the demus, (Isa-lam,

septum, semis , quincunz ,trims

, quadratic or terlmcius , serious , sescunmor sssmncia , and w in,consisting res actively of 1 1, 10, 9, 8 , 7, 6 , 5 ,4, 3, 2 , an 1 ounces. Of these divisionsthe following were represented by coinsnamely , the smis, guise

-

um,tn

’

em, quadrons ,swtans , and uncid .

After the reductioninthe weight of the ascoins were struck of the value of 2, 3, 4, andeven10 asses, which were cal led respectivelydassia or dupondius , tressia , quadrussis , and docussis . Othermultiples of the as were denoted by words of simi lar formation, up to mtussis , 100 asses ;but most of themdo notexist as coins .Incertainforms of expression

,inwhich ass

is used formoney w ithout specifying the denomination, we must understand the as.

Thus dem'

atria,mills aeris , deciles oer

-is ,meanrespectively 10, 1000, asses .

he word as was used al so for any wholewhichwas to be divided into equalparts andthose parts were cal led unciae.

'

l hus thesewords were applied not only to weight andmoney, but to measures of length , surface,and capac ity , to inheritances , interest, houses,farms , and many other th ings. Hence thephrases haeres er asse, the heir to a whole es»late ;hoarse ex dodrante, the heir to threefourths .

AS C IA, dim. AS CIOLA (ansrrépvov , or

e x rrrdpwov), anadze. Muratori has publishednumerous representations of the adze

, as it isexhibited onancientmonuments. We selectthe three fol lowing, two of which show the

AS YLUM.

instrument itself, h a slight ofform,whi l e the thi rd rep ts a ship-bu der holding it inhis right hand , and using it to shspethe rib of a vessel .AS S E MBLIE S of the people at Athens[E ccnasu at Rome Com'

r u

kA SSER OR, or A SERTO containsthe same root as the verb adscrm, which,whencon led w ith the word ”m 4, ifiesto lay he] ofa thing , to draw it tow one.Hence the phrase adccrm inh

’

bcrtatem, orh'

beralr

'

adverm mm , applies to himwho layshis hand ona personreputed to be a slave ,and cam-ta, ormaintains his freedom. T hepersonwho thusmaintained the freedomof arepu ted slave was ca lled adnrtor. The personwhose freedomwas thus claimed wassaid to be adm'm. The expressions liberali:cu m, and liberah

'

:"m s.which occur inconnectionwith the verb admm, wi ll easily beunderstood fromwhat has beensaid. Sometimes the word adcerere alone was used as

equiva lent to adume inIibertatrm. The expression” some insmitutam, to c laima per

sonas a slave, occurs inLivy.ASSESSOR, or ADSE S SORJiterally onewho si ts by the side of another. Since theconsuls. praetors, ernors of provinces, andthe

°

udices ,were o nimperfectly acquaintedwit the law and forms of procedure, it wasnecessary that . they should have the aid ofthosewho hadmade the lawtheir study. Theassessors sat onthe tribunal with themagistrate. Their advice oraid, was givenduringthe p roceedings as well as at other times,but they never pronounced a judicia l sen

AS T Y’

NOMI (dm voyot) or street - policeof Athens, were teninnu r, five for thecity

,will)?many fort

hhePm“ . Th

iam

°

vi weent mam .f a .

[Aeoru rt onn]ASY’

LUM (dovl ov) . ,Inthe G reek states

the temples, al tars, sacred groves, and statuesof the gods, general ly seed the privileof proteo slaves , btors, and crimina a

,

who fled to t emfor refuge. The laws, however, do not a pear to have recognized theright of all suc sacred places to afford thepro tec tionwhich was claimed, but to haveconfined it to a certainnumber of temples oral tars , which were considered ina more as

0

almanner to have the dovMa , or jus aayh’

.mmwere several p laces inAthens wh ichthis privilege ;of which the best

nownwas the T heseium, or temple ofTheseus , inthe ci ty,near the gymnasium,whichwas chiefly intended for the protecti onof illtrea ted slaves,who could

z

take refuge inthisD

AT HLE TAE .

These Atel lane plays werenot prad ez tatae,

at e. comedies inwhichmagistrates and persons of rank were introduced ,nortuba -norms ,the characters inwhich were takenfromlowl ife 5they rather seemto have beenanunionof comedy

and i ts

tplarody . They were

al so tmgurs ed from emimes by the absence of low bufl

'

oonery and ribald ry, beingremarkable for a refined humour, such as

could be understood and appreciated by educetad people. They were not performed byregular actors Itix triorm), but by Romancitizens of noble irth , who were not onthataccount subyected toany degradationbut retained thei r hts as Citizens, andmight serveinthe army. e Oscanor Opicanlanguageinwhich these playswere written,was spreadover the whole of the south of I taly

and fromi ts resemblance to the Latin, con6easily beunderstood b themore educated Romans.AT HLE AE (dfifiqrat, dfll qrfypeg), persons who contended inthe publi c games of

place, and compel theirmasters to sel l themto some other rson.

Inthe time fl‘

iberius,thenumber ofplaces

gassessing thepreasylimthe Greek cities inreece and Asia Minor, became so numerous

as seriously to irnpede the administ rationofjustice ;and consequently, the senate, by thecommand of the emperor, limi ted the jus asylito a few cities .T he asylum,whichRomulus is said to have

W at Rome to increase the ulationoft e crty, was a place ot

'

refuge for t e inhabitants of other states

,rather thana sanctuary

for those who had violsted the laws of thecity. Inthe re blicanand early imperialtimes , a right asylum, such as existed inthe Greek states , doesnot appear to have beenrecognized by the Romanlaw;but it existedunde r the empire, and a slave cou ld fly to thetemples of the or the statues of the emperors to av the ill-usage of hismaster.AT f-ILEIA (drama), immuni ty frompub

lic burthens , was enjoyed at Athens by thearchons for the time being ;by the descendants of certainpersons onwhomit had beenconferred as a reward fmt services, as inthe case ofHarmodius Aristogeiton;andby the inhabitants of certainforeignstate s. i twas ofseveral kinds: itmight be a general immunity (dréh ta drrdvrov) oramore specia lexemption, as fromcustomduties, fromthelit as , orfrom rovidin sacrifices.A ELLA’N FA

’

B LAE , were a scies offarce or comedy, so called fromAte la,a townof the Osei, inCamperria. Fromthiscircumstance , and frombem writtenintheOscandialect. they were so ca lled Ludi

42 AT HLE T AE .

the Greeks and Romans for prizes (dOl a ,

whence the name of which were of the k ing.

ATRAME NT UM.

had the privile of figh g hear ths manhe

.priv'

s of the a etae

givento thosewhoconque'

red incontestsofagil were secured, and insome respects increasedi ty and strength . Thenamewas inthe later by the Romanemperors.period ofGrecianhistory, and among the R0

erly confined to those persons who phed meta horicallevoted themselves to a course of was roper y limi to those who contended

mans,lp

enti re yt rainingwhichmight fit themto excel insuch for t econtests, and who, infact.made athletic ex —1 . Running (spam, cursus)erctses their -profession. The athletes difi

'

ered,therefore , fromthe agonistae (dywv toraflmhoonly pursued

‘mnestic exercises for the sakeof improving t eirheal th and bodi ly strength ,and who, though they sometimes contendedfor the rizes inthe public games , did notdevote eirwhole lives, like the athletes, topreparing for these contests.Athletae werefirst introduced atRome, s .o.

186, inthe games exhibited byM .Fulvrus..onthe conclusionof the Aetolianwar. AemthusPaul lus

,after the con

qt

ibest of Perseus, s . o.

167 , is said to have e°

ited games at Amphipolis , inwhich ath letas contended. Underthe Romanemperors, and especial ly underNem, who was passionately fond of the Grecian amss, thenumber of athletes increasedgreat y inI tal y, Greece, and Asia Minor.Those athletes who conquered inany of

the great national festivals of the Greekswere called Meronicae ( lepovtx ot), and re.

ceived the greatest honou rs and rewards.

Such a conqueror was considered to conferhonour uponthe state to which he belonged ;he ente red his native city through a breachmade inthe walls for his reception,ina cha

riot drawnby four white horses, and wentalong the principal street of the city to thetemple of the guardiandeity of the state.Those games , which gave the conquerorsthe right of such anentrance into the city ,were cal led Isslas tici (fromelgt l aévew). Thistermwas original ly confined to the four greatGrecianfestivals, the Olympian, lsthmian.Nemean, and Pythian, but was afterwardsappli ed to other public mes. Inthe G reeks

ham’

edbhvictors int

lese games not o

glu

yo taia

'

t o test ory an respect , talso substantgl

mrewagis. They were gene

ral ly relieved fromthe payment of taxes , andal so enjoyed the first seat (7rpoedpta) inall 0

public es and spectacles. Their statueswere uent ly erected at the cost of thestate, in s most frequented part of the ci ty,as the market-place , the gymnasia, and theneighbourhood of the temples. At Athens,accordin to a lawof Solon, the conquerorsinthe 0 ympic games were rewarded with a

prize of 500 drachmae ;and the conquerorsinthe Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian, withone of 100 draohmas ;and at Sparta they

T he termathletes , though sometimes upto other combatants,

prize inthe five following contests :[Summons ]

2. W aw luci d .

mi. 4. beM figs0

l av), or, as the Romans cal led it, qmnqumium. 5. T he pancratr

'

um Ofall these anaccount is gi veninseparate ar

tiolas. Great attentionwas paid to the train~ing of the athletas . They were general lytrainedinthe

tfiglaa tme, which , inthe Grecian

states, were tinct places fromthe3mm.

sia. Their exercises were superiate ed bythe gymnasiarch, and their diet was regulated the aliptes . Aster-na]

.

AT l [A (or e forfeiture of aman’sci vi l rights at thens. I t was ei ther totalor part ial. A manwas totally deprived ofhis rights, both for himself and for his descendants (mam;dr 0 whenhe wasconvicted of murder, t aft, false witness ,partiality as arbiter violence

.

offered to a

magistrate, and so orth. This highest degree_

of atimia excluded the personaffectedby it fromthe forum, and fromall oblio as

semblies ; from' the public sac’

ces andfromthe law courts ;or rendered himliableto immediate imrisonment, if he was foundinany of these

a

rjaces.

.

ltwas either temporary or rpetu and ei ther accompanied ornot wit confiscationof r

rqperty . Partial

atimia only involved the o eiture of somefewrights, as , for instance, the right of pleading incourt. Public debtors were an ndedfromthei r civic functions till the di sc argedtheir debt to the state. Peop e who hadonce become al together stimi were very geldomrestored to their Ionprivi leges . T heconferse termto atimia was cpitimia (trun

aMAT RAME NT UM, a terma plicable to

any black colouring substance, or whateve rpurgl

ose itmay be used, like themelon(,uéilav )f e Greeks . There were , however, threerincipal kinds of atrarnentum:one ca l ledharm orseriptorirmr (tnG reek. 7pmheilav), wri ting- ink ;another called M orison

,

which was used the shoemakers for dyeing leather ; the t tectorimnor ~

which was use

?by painters

ffor ae

gi s r

poses, a parent y as a sort 0 varnis heinks of the ancients seemto have beenmoredurable thanour own;they were thicker andmore unctuous

,insubstance and durabi lity

ATRIUM.

more resembling the jnk now used printe rs . Aninkstandwas discovered at erculanenm

,containing ink as thick as oil, and stil l

usab le forwriting. .The follow ing cut repsents inkstands found at Pommii.

The ancients used inks of various colours .Red ink, made ofmm or vermilion, wasused forwriting the titles and beginning ofbooks. S o also was ink made of rubrics ,red ochre and because the headings of

laws were writtenwith rubrica, the wordrubric came to be used for the civil law. Soalbum,

a wh ite orwhited table, onwhich thepraetors

’ edicts Were written, was used ina

simi lar way. A persondevoting himself toalbumand rubrica , was a persondevoting himself to the law.

Anson.)A’TRIUM c ed able;by the G reeks and

by V irgil, an alsomoorilwv, motor-vim) ,m: (orgies ), is used ina distinctive as wel l asco ective sense

,to des ignate a particular

part in the(priva

tehouses of the Romans

[Donna an al so a class of public buildings ,so ca l l fromtheir general resemblance inconst ructionto the at riumofa private house .Anat riumof the latter descriptionwas a

bu i ld ing by itse lf, resembling insome re

spects the Openbasilica BastLtca but consi sting of three sides. uch was t e AtriumPublicuminthe ca itol, which , Livy informsus, was struck wit lightning, B . c . 216. I twas at other times attached to some templeor other edifice , and insuch case conststedof an0 enarea and surrounding portico.mfront 0 the structu re .Several of these buildings are mentionedby the ancient historians two ofwhich wereded icated to the same goddess, Libertas. T hemost celebrated , as well as themost ancient ,was situated on the Aventine Mount. Inthis atrium there was a tabu larium, wherethe legal tablets (tabulae relating to the censors were preserved. 6 other AtriumLib

AUC’

I‘

OR.

The presco , or crier, seems to have actedthe part of the modernauctioneer, so far as

cal l ing out the biddings , and amusing thecompany. Slaves , when so ld by auctionwere placed ona stone, or other elevath ing ;and hence the phrase homo dcmuss . It was usual to put itinauctions ;a symbol derivethe ancient practice of selling under a spearthe boot ac uired inwar.AUC lo ( sa le). [Auc

'

rro ]AUCTOR, a word which contains thesame element as aug

-co, and signifies genorally one who enlar s, confirms, or gi vesto a thing its comp eteness and efiicientform. The numerous technical significations of the word are derivable fromthisgeneral notion. As he who gives to a th ingthat which is necessary for its completeness may inthis sense be viewed as thechief actor or door, the word auctor is alsoused inthe sense of one who 0 h ates or

proposes a thing ;but this cannot viewedas its primary meaning. Accordingly, theword auctor, whenused inconnectionwithlex or senatus consultum, oftenmeans ‘himwho originates and proposes. When a

measu re was:(pp

roved by the senate beforeitwas confirm by the votes of the people,the senate were said auctores fien

’

, andthis preliminary approval was called smarusM aria” .

0

Whenthe word auctor is applied to himwho recommends but does not originate a

legislativemeasu re, it is uivalent to suasor.

Sometimes both auctor sassor are used

ertatis was inthe neighbourhood of the F0rumCaesaris, and was immediatel y behindthe Basilica Paulli or Aelnilia.

AU'

CT IO signifies general ly anincreasing, anenhancement,” and hence the name isapplied to a public sale of goods, at whichpersons bid against one another. T he sal ewas sometimes conducted b anargentariu:or by amagister auctiom

'

s an the time, place,and condit ions of sale, were announced eitherby a public notice (tobada , album, due ), or bya c rier (praeco).The usual phrases to express the givingnotice of a sa le were, auctioncmproscriben,

procdicarc;and to determine ona sale, auc

tionemconstitucre. The purchase rs (mums ) ,whenassembled were sometimes said ad

tabulam adesse.

sThe phrases si nify ing to

bid are,liccri, .licitari , which was one e ither

by word of mouth, or by such'

ticanthmts as are knownto all people w 0 haveattended an auction. The property wassaid to be knocked down(addm

’

) to the pur

44 AUG URES .

inthe same sentence,‘

and the meaning ofeach is kept distinct.With reference to dealings betweenindi

viduals, auctor has the sense of owner. ,Inth is

sense auctor is the sel ler (vend itor), as opposedto the buyer (emtor) ;and hence we have thephrase a male auctore emere.

Auctor is al so used general ly to express anyersonunder whose authority any legal act isone. Inth is sense it means a tutor who is

appointed to aid or advise awomanonaccountof the infirmi ty ofher sex.AUCT ORAME NT UM, the pay of gladia

tors.é

’

G u nu 'roas s.

AU T O'

RlT AS . e technicalmeaningsof this word correlate with those of auctor.The auctoritas senatus was not a senatus~

consultum: itwas ameasure, incomplete initself, which received its completionby someotlxarauthority.

1 ed rtuctoritas as a i to props y, is,

equivalent to legalown

leli'ship, being a correlationof auctor.AUGURES (alwvorréilor), priests, who

formed a col lege or corporationat Rome..The institutionof augurs is lost inthe originoi

' the Romanstate. According to thatview of the constitutionwhichmakes it comeentire fromthe hands of the first king, a collegs of three was appointed by Romulus, euswering to thenumberofthethree early tribes .Numawas said to have added two yet at thepassing of the Ogulnianlaw (a. c. 300) theaugurs were but four innumber :whether, asLivy supposes , the deficiencywas accidental ,is uncertain. By the law justmentioned , theirnumber became nine, five ofwhomwere chosenfromthe lebs. T he dictator Sul la further incre themto fifteen, a mu l tiple oftheir originalnumber, which probably had a

reference to the early tribes . Thisnumbercontinued unti l the time of Augustus, who,among other extraordinary powers , had theright conferred onhim, inB . c . 29, of electingaugurs at his pleasu re, whether there was a

vacancy or not, so that fromthis time thenumber of the col lege was unlimited.

The augurs , like the other priests , wereoriginal ly elected by the comitia curiata, orassembly of the patricians intheir curiae. Asno electionwas complete without the sanctionof augu the college v irtual ly ssed a

vetoont e electionof all itsmem rs. Theyvery soonobtained the rivilege of self- election( jus woplationis ), w ich, with one interruption, viz . at the electionof the first plebe ianaugurs

,they retained unti l B . c. 104, the

year of the Domitianlaw. By this lawitwasenacted that vacancies inthe priestly collegesshould be filled up by the votes of aminori ty

of the tribes, cl ef. seventeenout of thirty -five,chosenby lot. The Domitianlaw was re.pealed b Sulla, but againrestored, B . c . 63,during t e consu lship of Cicero

,by the tri

bune, T. Annina Labienus.with the suppo rtof Caesar. I t was a second time abro a tedby Antony ;whether againrestored by io

us and Pansa, intheir general annulment ofthe acts of Antony, seems uncertain. T heem rore, as mentioned above, possessed therig t of electing augurs at pleasure.The augu rshi p is described by Cicero, himself euaugu r, as the highest dignit in thestate, having anauthority which con] preventthe comi tia fromvoting, or annul reso lutionsal ready passegi

if the auspices hadnot beenduly perform The words alio die, froma

single augu r.mi

ght put a stop to all bu siness ,

an a decree of t e college had severa l times

The augurs'

were elected for life, and , evenif capital ly convicted

,never lost their sacred

character . Whena vacancy occurred. thecandidate was nominated by two of the eldermembers of the col lege ; the electors weresworn.and the newmember took anoath ofsecresy before his inauguration. The onlydistinctionamong themwas one of

“

age , theeldest augur being styled magister collegii.Among other privi leges

,they enjoyed that of

wearin the purple manta, or, according tosome, t e trabea. ancient coins they arerepresented wearing a long robe,which veiledthe head and reached downto the feet, thrownback over the left shoulder. T he hold intheright hand a titans ,

‘or curvedwan hooked atthe end like a crosier, and sometimes have theca

fiis, or earthenwater-vesse l by their side.

T e chief duties of the augurs were to ohserve and report supernatura l signs. Theywere al so the repositaries of the ceremoniallaw, and had to advise onthe expiationofprod igies , and other matters of rehgious observance. Other duties of the augu rs were toassistmagistrates and general s intak ing theauspices. At the easing ofa lea cur

-iota,three

were required to present , a number probably designed to represent the three anci enttribes.One of the difficul ties connected w ith thissubject is to distinguish betweenthe religiousduties of the an rs and of the highermagistrates. Under t e latter were included consul, praetor, and censor. A sinlsmagistratehad the power of proroguing t e comi tia bthe formu la es de coelo servers. [AU S Prcwx iThe law obl iged himto give notice beforehand , so that i t canonly have beenareligiousway of exercising a constitutional right. Thespastic, as itwas termed,was a voluntary duty

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

46 AU SPICIUM.

Ofa. victory, to paymoney, which was cal ledeurumcoronan

’

um. This Offering, which wasat first voluntary, came to be regarded as a

regu lar tribute, and was sometimes ex actedby the governors of the provinces, evenwhenno victo had beengained.AU S P

’

CIUM, ori‘

nal l meant a signfrombirds. T hewo is erived fromavis ,and the root spec. As the Roman re

' '

Ou

was gradual ly extended by additions romGreece and Etruria, themeaning Of the wordwas widened , so as to include any supernatu ral sign. The chiefdifference betweenauspid amand aug tm

‘

umseems to have beenthatthe latter termisnever applied to the spactioof themagistrate. Ane tta ]

girds were divi

h tintotwo classes—arcin

g:

an res ; t e ormer gave omens ysingii

li

’r

218

5;latter by their flight and the motion0 their wings. Everymotionof everybird had a different 'meaning, accordin tothe different circumstances or times 0 the

year whenitwas observed.

Another divisionof birds,

was into dos-tree

and sinis trae about the meaning Of whichsome diflicul

’

t has arisen” froma confhsionmannotions inthe writingsof Greek and

of the classics. The G reeks and Romanswere nerally agreed that auspicious si scame omthe east but as the G reek pri

ge

nst

tu rned his face to thenorth the east was onhis right hand, the Romanaugur wi th hisface to the south had the east to his left.The confusionwas farther increased by theeuphemisms common to both nations ;andthe rule itselfwasnot universa l at least withthe Romans ;the jay whenit appeared ontheleft

,the crowonthe right being thought to

gi ve sure omens.The auspices were takenbefore amarriabefore entering onanexpedition, before t epassing Of laws, or electionofmagistrates,or any other important occasion, whetherpublic or private . Inearly times such wasthe importance attached to themthat a soldier was released fromthe mi li tary oath , ifthe auspices had not beendul y performed.The commander- ih -chief of anarmy re

ceived the auspices, together with the imperi“

rdand

1120warwas therefore said to be

pir

n on tu ct wuspm’ ‘

o imperatom‘

, sveni ewere absent fromthe army, and thus, if thelegatus gained a victory inthe absence ofhiscommander, the latter, and not his deputy,was honoured by a triumw.

The ordina manner Of taking the auces was as fo lows —The augur wentbefore the dawnOf day , and sittin in anopenplace, with his head veiled,mar ed outwi th a wand (lit-tun) the divisions of

AUTHE PSA.

heavens. Next he declared ina solemnformof words the l imits assigned,making shrubsor trees, cal led te his boundary Onearthcorrespondent to t at inthe sky. T he temlumaugurale, which appears to have inc ludedth , was divided into four parts : those tothe east and west were termed sinis tme anddes trae to the north and south, anticae andpastime. If a breath of air distu rbed thecalmness of the heavens, the aus ices couldnot be taken;and according to lutareh itwas for this reasonthe augurs carried lano

terns open to the wind. After sacrificingthe augur Ofl

‘

ered a prayer for the desisigns to appear, repeating after aninferiorminister a set form;unless the first appear.ances were confirmed b subsequent ones,they were insufficient . l inretu rning home,the augur came to a running stream, he againrepeated a prayer, and purified himself inits

Imater?l otherwise the auspices were held tonuAnother method of taking the auspices,more usual inmili tary expedi tions, was fromthe feedin Of birds confined ina cage , andcommit to the care of the puller

-ins . Anancient decree of the col lege of augurs allowed the auspices to be takenfromany bird.Whenall around seemed favou rable , eitherat dawnor in the evening, the pullariusOpened the es and threw to the chickenspu lse, or a kin Of sOfl- cake.

,If they refused

to come out, or to eat, or uttered a“

cry (occi

'

u rma) , or bea t thei r wings , or flewawaythe signs were considered unfavourable, andthe engag

tpment was delayed. Onthe con

trary, if t ey ate greedi l y, so that somethingfel l and struck the earth (tripud iwnsolisrz

’mummum asi terripavr'

um. solislimwn, fromm, the

(

lat ter part of the word probabl yfromthe root stimulo), itwas held a favoursble sign.

The place where the auspices were taken,cal led augur-scuba", a ale, or atomrm,

was Opento the 1188353; 000 g the mostancient of these was Onthe Palatine hil l , theregular stationfor the observationOf augurs.Sometimes the auspices were takenin thecapitol. Inthe camp a

place was set apart

to the right of the genera ’s tent.

The lex Aelia and Fufla provided that noassemblies of the peop le should be held ,m

'

sr'

'

us dc caclo rematamasset. It appears toave confirmed to themagistrates the power of

obnunci'

atio, or ofinte osing a veto. [AU G U IL]AUT HE PS A (a M y), which literal lymeans se lf-boi ling,” or self cooking,”wasthe name of a vessel which is sup tohave beenused for heating water, or orkeeping it hot.

BALNEUM.

AUTO'NOMI (airmépm), the name givenby the Greeks to those states which were governed by their ownlaws, and werenotsubjectto any foreignpower. This name was al so

47

givento those ci ties subject to the Romans,which were permitted to enjoy theirlaws and elect their ownmagistrates.AUX I ’LIA. [Soon]AXE. [SecuataAXI S . [Cens usAXLE. Cens us ]A'XONE (dEoveg), woodentablets of asquare or pyramidal form,made to turnonanaxis , onwhicSolon.

BAIL. [Aer-

to.)BAK ER. [PI S T ORgBALI STA , BALLI TA. [Tou ri st

-

rum]BALL. at. Pi t a.

BA’

LN UM orB Ll’

N UM (2.0crp6v or

1007 stov , also balms orholiness),but?

”

ormam. ina.primary sense, a bath or bath in vessel, suchas most Romans possessed in their ownhouses :and fromthat it came to mean thechamber which contained the bath . Whenthe baths of pri vate individuals became moresumptuous, and comprisedmany rooms, theplura l balm or balr

'

nca Was ado ted, whiCllsti l l. incorrect language, had re erence onl y

the laws of

Inthe Homeric times itwas customary toto the baths of private persons. Balms and take first a cold and afterwards a warmbath ;balr

‘

neae, which haveno singularnumber, were but inlater times itwas the usual p ractice ofthe public ba ths. But th is accuracy of dictioni s ac lected bymany of the subsequentwriters. [tarmac (fromflépm],warmth)meanproperly warm springs , or baths of warmwater, but were afterwards applied

.

to thestructu res inwhich the baths were placed ,and which were both hot a nd cold. Therewas, however, amaterial distinctionbetweenthe balneae and thcrmae, inasmuch as the formerwas the termused under the republic,and referred to the public establishments oftha t age, which contained no appliances forluxury beyond the mere convenience of hotand cold baths, whereas the lattername wgiven to those magnificent edifices wgrewup under the empire, and which comprised withintheir range of buildings all theappu rtenances belongin to the G reek gymnasia, as well as a regu ar establishment apprg

i

a

riated for bathing.

thin was a practice familiar to theGreeks 0 both sexes fromthe earliest times .The artificial warmbathwas takenina vesselcal led osmium: (dodmvfloc), by Homer, and

the Greeks to take first a warmorvapour, andafterwards a cold bath. At Athens the frequent use of the public baths,most of whichwere warmbaths (Bal avefa, ca lled by Homerowe some).was regarded inthe time ofS ocrates and Demosthenes as amark Of luxmy and efl

‘

eminacy. Accordinly , Phocionwas said to have never bath ina publicbath, and Socrates to have used it very

Afte r bathing, both sexes anointed themsel ves, inOrder that the skinmightnot be leftharsh and rough, especial lyafter warmwater.Oil (él acov) is the only Ointment mentionedby Homer, but inlater times precious naguente (pupa )were used for this purpose. Thebath was usuall y takenbefore the pnncrpalmeal of the day (deirrvov)TheLacedaemonians,who considered warmwater as enervatin used two kinds of baths ;namely

,the cold aily bath inthe Eurotas

and a dry sudorific bath ina chamber heatedwith warmair bymeans of a stove, and fromthemthe chamber used by the Romans for a

padres (mickey) by the later Greeks. I t didnot containwater itself, butwas only used forthe bather to sit in, while the warmwate rwas poured over him. OnGreek vases

,how

ever, we never find anything correspondinto amodembath inwhich persons canstringor sit ;but - there is always

3! round or oval

basin (M’

p or tov res ting on a

stand, by the side of which lhose who are

standing undressed and washing

BALNEUM.

similar purpose was termed Lecom'

cma . Asudorifi c or vapour bath (1rvpt

'

a o’

r Rupi ah }prov) - is mentioned as early as the time ofHerodotus .At what period the use of the warmbath

was introduced among the Romans isnot recorded but we know that Scipio had awarmbath inhis villa at Liternum, and the practiceof heating anapartment with warmair byflues placed immediately under it, so as to produce a vapour bath, is stated to have beeninvented by S

O

ergius Orata,who lived inthe ageof Crassus. before the Marsic war.By the time of Cicero the use of baths ofwarmwater and hot air had become common,and inhis time there were baths at Romewhich were opento the public uponpaymentof a small fee. Inthe public baths at Romethemenand womenused originally to batheinseparate sets of chambers ;but under theempi re i t became the commoncustomforbothsexes to bathe indiscriminatel in the samebath . Thi s practicewas forbid anby HadrianandM. Aurelius;and Alexander Severus ro

hibited any baths commonto both sexes, tliombeing opened in ome.

The pri ce of a bath was a quadrant, thesmal lest piece of coinedmoney, fromthe age

The chief parts of a Romanbath were asfol low1 . Apodytm

’m. Here the bathers were exted to take 08

'

their garments,which wereandelivered to a class of slaves ca l led cap connexionwith the apod

ofCicero downwards , which was aid to thekeeper of the ba th (balacator) . Chil nbelowa ce rtainage were admitted free .

.ltwas usual with the Romans to take thebath after exercise, and before the principalmea l (come ) of the day ;but the debaucheesof the empire bathed also after eating as wel las before, inorder to promote di cation, andto acquire anew appetite forfres delicacies .Uponquitting the bath the Romans as well asthe Greeks were anointed with oil.The Romans did not content themse l veswith a single bath of hot or co ld water ;butthey went through a course of baths insuc

cession, inwhich the agenc of air as well aswater was applied. It is di cu lt to asce rtainthe

“pre

ciseorder inwhich the course was

usu ly taken;but it appears to have beenageneral practice to close the pores , and bracethe body after the excessive perspirationofthe vapour bath, either by pouring cold waterover the head , or by plunging at once into the

To render the subjoined remarks moreeasily inte l ligible, the annexed woodcut ismserted, which is takenfroma fresco sta tingr

iponthe walls of the thermae of tus at

mm.

of the city, so that they connived at the robberies which the were placed to revent.Therewas progunanE lasotlrm’smor Us e

torium, as appears fromthe preceding cut, inyteri um, where the

serif, whose duty it was to take charge of bathersmight be anointed wi thoil.them. These menwere notorious for dishonesty, and were leagued with all the thieves

2. or Cello t ere thecold was taken. T he cold bath itself

BALNEUM. BARATHRON . 49

was ca ll ed Natal ia Natatorium, Pa’

scina , Bap reignofAugustus, was the first who affordedtis tcriwn, orPursue . these luxuries to his count3 . T cpidan

'

umwou ld seemfromthe prece men, by he

ding cut to have beena bathing room, for a

personis there apparentl y represented pour

ing water over a ather. But there is goodreas onfor thinking that thiswasnot the case .Inmost cases the tepidariumcontained nowate r at all, butwas a roommerely heatedwi th warmair of anagreeable tem rature,inorder to prepare the bod for t e greatbes t of the vapour and warm tbs

,and u n

retu rning fromthe latter, to obviate the anger of a too sudden transitionto the open

4. The Calder-inns or Coacamerata S ada-tie

contained at one extremity the vapour bath(Laconicum);and at the other the warmbath(balneum or calda lavatio) , while the centrespace betweenthe two ends was termed su o

datio or :udaton’

um. Inlarger establishmentsthe vapour bath and warmbath were intwoseparate cells, as we see inthe receding cut:insuch cases the former part a aswas cal ledW

de‘

da M ario. The who

le rested (iii l

a

1suspen pavement (suspensum ,unarw

'

c

was a fire (hypocaus tum), so that the flamesmight heat thewhole apartment . (See cut.)T he warmwater bath (balm-umor calda lavan‘o), which is also called piecina orcalida pisci ona , labrumand solr

'

um,appears to have beena

capacious marble vase, sometimes standing

queathing to themthe thermae and enswhich he had erected inthe Campus artius.The example set by A ”i

t

;was fol lowed by

Nero, and afterwards‘

tus, the mine ofwhose the rmae are sti l visible, covering a

vast extent, partly under mid, and pa rtlyabove the Esquiline hill . hermae were alsoerected by Trajan, Caracalla, and Diocletianof the two last of which ample remains still

Previously to the erectionofthese establishments for the use of the pepulation, it

uponthe floor, like that in'

the receding cut,and sometimes either partly e cy s ted abovethe floor, as it was at Pompeii ,“ or entirelysunk into it.After having gone through the regu larcou rse ofperspiration, the Romansmade useof instruments cal led strigiles or strigles , toscrape off the pe rspiration. T he strigilwasalso used by the Greeks , who cal led it “leaf

s

(mh nk) or systra (Sumpa). One of t 8figures inthe cut onp. 47, is representedwi tha strigi l inhis hand. As the strigil was nota blunt inst rument, its edge was softened bythe applicationofoil,whichwas dropped uponit froma small vessel cal led gurrus orenig

ma ,

wh ich had a narrowneck , so as to disc argeits contents drop by drop , whence thenameis taken. A representationof a ttus

‘

i s

given in the annexed cut, tOget er Wi thsome stri

‘

ls.Inthe hermae, spokenofabove. the bathswere of secondary importance. T hey were aRomanadaptationof the Greek gymnasium,

contained exedrae for the philosOphers andrhetoricians to lecture in, porticoes for theidle, and libraries for the l earned , and wereadorned with marbles , fodntains , and shadedwalks and plantations

éM. Agrippa, inthe

was customary for those who sought the fay our of the people to

'

ve thema day’s bathingfree of expense. romthence it is fai r to

inor that the quadrant paid for admissionintothe balneae was not exacted at the thermae,which , as being the works of the emperors,wouldnatural ly be opened with imperial generosity to all and without an charge.BA

’

LT E IlS (rel amfw) , a It, a shou lderbelt , was used to su spend the sword. Seethe figs. onp. 38. Inthe Homeric times theGreeks used a belt to support the shield.The bal teus was likewise employed to sus

pend the quiver, and sometimes together w ithit the bow. More commonly the belt,whetheremployed to support the sword , the shield , orthe quiver, wasmade of leather, and was frequently ornamented with gold , si lver, andprecious stories . Ina eneral sense baltmswas a plied not onl to t e belt which passedover t e shoulder, ut al so to the gi rdle (cinguhtf‘

nkwhich encompassed the waist.ISHME NT . [E x sini um]

BANK ER.

éfis os x '

u ari ;Ms rvss s trJBARAT HR épaflpov), a deep cavernor chasm‘

,like the eadas at Sparta, behind

the Acropolis at Athens, into whi ch criminalswere thrown. [Cu ms ]

50

BARBAOré yomyéveiovn’i ), thebeard.

The G reeks seemgeneral ly to ave wornthebeard til l the time of Alexander the Great ;and a thick heard was considered as a markofmanliness. The G reek

e(philosophers

inarticular were distinguish by their longards as a sort of badge . The Romans inearly times were the beard uncut

,and the

Romanbeards are saidnot tohave beenshavedtill a. o. 300,whenP. T iciniusMaena brou htover a barber fromSici ly;and Pliny adds, t at

the first Romanwho is said to have beenshaved every day was Scipio Africanus. Hiscustom, however, was soon followed, andshaving became a regu lar thing. Inthe latertimes of the republic there were many whoshaved the beard only partial ly , and trimmedit, so as to give it anOrnamental form;tother

lnetdl

‘

i e terms bm barbati and barbamli’ areap i

BASILICA.

inthe forumsd'

aining the curia, and was denominated Ba ica Portia

,incommemoration

of its founder, M. Porcius Cato. Besides thisthere were twenty others , erected at difl

'

erentperiods, withinthe city of Rome.T he fol lowing is a representationof theBasilica Aemilia, '

fromamedal ofLepidus.

nthe general way at Rome, a long beard(barba so) was considered a mark of

slovenhness and squalor. The first time ofshaving was re ed as the beginning ofmanhood, and t e day onwhich this tookp lace was celebrated as a festival. Therewasno particular time fixed for this to be done.Usual! however, it was done when the

goung manassumed the toga virilis. .Theair cut off onsuch occasions was consecrated to some god. Thus Nero ut his upina old box fset with pearls, dedicatedit to upiter Capitolians.With the emperor Hadrianthe beard began

to revive. Plutarch says that the emperorwore

'

it to hide some scars onhis face. Thepracti ce afterwards became common, and ti l lthe time of Constantine the Great , the em

perors appea r inbusts and coins with beards.he Romans let their beards grow intime ofmourning ;the Greeks , onthe other hand, onsuch occasions shaved the beard close.

BARBER. [Bu rsa ]BA

'

RBIT U S or BA'RBITON(d i rov) , a stringed instrument, the '

original fir

mofwhich is uncelr

l

ta

gn.lLaterEnters

use i as onytnous wit t 6 yrs . YE A.

B'

AS I’I'

XBA (sc. codes , auto , particusl

act!M 77, 3180 8 buildinwhi ch serve as a

court of law and anexchange, or place ofmeet ing formerchants andmenof business.The word was adopted fromthe Athenians,whose second archonwas styled archonbas i.

The forum, or, where therewasmore thanone, the one which was inthe most ftcguented and central part of the city, was always selected for the site~

of the basi l ica ;andhence it is that the classic writers not unfre~quently use the terms forumand bas i lica synonymously. T he ground lanof all thesebuildings is rectangular, an their width notmore thanhalf,nbr less thanone- third of thelength . This area was divided into threenaves , consisting of a centre (media portions),and two side aisles , separated fromthe centreone, each by a single row ofcolumns. At oneend of the centre aisle was the tribunal of thejudge , informeither rectangu lar orc ircu lar,as is seeninthe annexed planof the basilica

0 0 0 0

G round Plsnol'

s Bu c a.

at Pompe i i. Inthe centre of the tribunalwasplaced the curule chair of the praetor, andseats for the judices and the advocates: Thetwo side aisles , as has beensaid , were separated fromthe centre one by a rowofcolumns,beh ind each ofwhichwas laced a square pier

{faggot} Bomb er),and the tribunalwhere or pilaster porcelain), w ich sup ri ed the

J icatedrtoa bas ilcius (r?Baofl siocmod),the substantive auto orporticus inLatinbeingomitted for convenience, and the distinctiveepi thet converted into a substantive.

flooring of anupper portico, sigal lery

to theofamodernchurch.

The upper gal lery was inl ikemanner decorated with columns

,of lower dimensions

Thefirst edifice of this descniptionatRome thanthose below ;and these served to supwasnot emcted until a.c. 182. was situated port the roof, and were connected with one

BE S T IARJI.

another by a parapet-wall or balustrade pluo

lens ), which served as a defence a inst thedanger of fal ling over.and sc reened t e crowdof loiterers above (rub-barium ) fromthe people of business inthe area below. Many ofthese edifices were afterwards used as Christianchurches , andmany churches were buil tafter the model above described. Suchchurches were cal led basilica , which namethe retain to the present day, being stil lcal ed at Rome basiliclie.

BATH . Bu nsen]BATTE NG -RAM. Auras.

BEAK S OF SHIPS . AV I S .

BEARD.

gu ru .)

ED orC CH. [L

racianfes

mis and with the RomanDiana. The festivalwas of a bacchanaliancharacter. FromThrace it was brought to Athens, where itwas celebrated inthe Peiraeeus , onthe 19thor 2oth of the month Thargel ion, before thePanathenaea Minors . The temple of Bendiswas ca l led Bendideion.

T hetermbeneficiumis of frequent occurrence inthe Romanlaw, inthe sense of some specialp rivi lege orfavour granted to a rsoninrespect ofage, sex , or condition. at the wordwas a lso used inother senses. Inthe timeof Cicero itwas usual for a general , or a govcruor of a province, to report to the t reasu rythe names of those under his command whohad done good service to the state ;thosewho were included insuch report were saidinbencjiciis ad aerariumdeferri . Inba tefic

'

iis

inthese passages maymeanthat the personsso reported were considered as persons whohad deserved well of the state ;and so theword ba flciummay have reference to these rv ices of the individuals;but as the objectfor wh ich their services were reported wasthe benefit of the individuals , it seems thatthe termhad reference also to the reward,immediate or remote, obtained for their services. The honou rs and offices of the Roman state , in the re

publicanperiod , were

called the bmficia of t e Po ulus Romanus.Beneficiumalso signi

'

any romotionconferred onor grant made to sol

'

ers, whowere thence cal led beneficitm

'

i.

BE S T IA'

RII (Gupta/16x 00, persons whofought with wild beasts inthe games of theci rcus. They were either persons who fought

BIBLIOTHECA. 51

for the sake of pay (W arm ), andwhowere allowed anus, or they were criminals,whowere usuall y permitted to havenomeansof defence against the wild beasts.BIBLIOPO'

LA (firfihwrré l qg), also cal ledlibrarian, a bookseller. The shOpwas called0 beenor taba 'na Iibran

‘

a , ormere ly libretto.

Romans had their Paternoster-row;forthe bibliopoles or librarii l ived mostly inone street, call ed Ar

'

letum. Another favourite uarter of the ksellers was the Vicus S an lariusg There seems al so to havebeena sort of bookstalls by the temples of

Quad” 1.I I t or rr

m;Btfil lmv},primari y, the place wher

‘

eo’i;

collecti on0 books was kept ; secondaril ythe col lectionitse lf. Public col lections ofbooks a

ppear to have been very ancient .

That of eisistratus (B . c . 550) was intendedfor ublic use ;itwas subsequent ly removedto ersia by Xerxes. About the same timePolycrates , tyrant of S amos , is said to havefounded a library. Inthe best days ofAthensevenprivate rsons had large col lections 0books but t emost important and s lendid

public l ibrary of anti ui ty was that oundedthe Ptolemies at A ex andrea, begununderolemy Soter, but increased and re -arranged

inanorderl and systematicmannerb Ptoleo

my Phi lade hus, who al so a poin a fixedlibrarian, an otherwise provi ed for the use

fulness of the institution. A‘ great part of

this splendid library was consumed b fire inthe siege of Alexandros by Julius aesar ;but it was soon resto red , and continued ina flourishin

i sconditiontil l it was destroyed

by the Ara A. n. 640. T he Ptolemieswerenot long without a rival inseal. E umenes , king of Pergamus, became a atronof l iterature and the sciences , and estab beda

‘ l ibrary, which, inspite of the prohibitionagainst ex

pworting papyrus issued by Ptolemy

,

jea lous of is success , became very extensiveand erha 3next inimportance to the libraryof A exau rea.

The first publ ic libra inRome was thatfounded by Asinius Po

'

0 , and was intheAtriumLibertatis onMount Aventine. Thelibrary of Pol lio was followed by that of Augustus

'

inthe temple ofApol lo onMount Palatine and another, bibl iothecae Octavianae,in the theatre of Marcellus. There werealso libraries onthe Cap

l

itl

ol, inthe temple ofPeace, inthe palace of b onus, besides theUlpianlibra ry, which was the

.

most famous,founded by Trajan. Libraries were alsousually attached to the Thermae. [BALNg .

inn] 0

Private col lections of books weremade at

£52 Boso'macuss.

Rome soonafter the second Punicwar. Thezeal ofCicero, Att icus, and others , inincreasing their libraries iswel l known. I t became,infact, the fashionto have a roomelegantlyfurnished as a library, and reserved for that

Eurpose. The charge of the libraries inome was

'

vento persons cal led librarii.BlDE N AL, the name givento a placewhere any one had beenstruck by lightning ,or where any one had beenkil led by lightn

'

and buried. Such a place was consideiggsacred. Priests , who were cal led bidentales , col lected the earth which had beentornup by lightning, and every thing that hadbeenscorched, and burnt i t in the groundw ith a sorrowful murmur. The ofliciatingpriest was said candere fulgur ; he farther»consecrated the s t by sacrificing a two

year-old sheepFbi whence thename of

the place and o the pries t, and he also erected eu altar, and surrounded it with a wal lfence. Tomove the bounds ofa bidental, orin any way to violate its sacred precincts,was considered as sacrilege.BlG A or BlG AE . [Census ]BIG A

'

T U S . [DE NARIUSJBI 'K OS (62mg), the name of anearthenvessel incommonuse among the G reeks .Hesychius defines it as a arch way with handles. I t was used for holding wine, and sa lted meat and fish. Herodotus speaks ofBtx ovg oowtmfiovc x aré yovot oivov wl éovc,which some commentators interpret by vesselsmade of the wood of the palm- tree fullofwine.” But as E ustathius speaks of olvovdown/cuter!fibre we ought probably to readinHerodotus [x ovg powucni

'

ov, x . r: L ,

vessels ful l of palmwme.

”

BIPE NNIS . [Saouara ]BIRE

'

MIS . l . A ship with two banks of[NAV I SJ S uch ships were ca l led di

by the G reeks, which termis also usedicero . 2. A boat rowed by two oars.

60%S EXTUS ANNUS . [Canannaarump.BOE DRO

’MIA (fimfpoma), a festival cel

ebrated at Athens ont e seventh day of themonth Boedromion, inhonour ofA 0110 806dromina. The name Boedromius, y wh ichApollo was cal led inBoeotia andman otherparts of Greece

,seems to indicate t at by

this fes tiva l he was honoured as a martialod

, who either by his actual presence or by'

s oracles afi‘

orded assistance inthe dangers

BOULE .

of a military character. Each state of theconfederacy elected one boeotarch

,the The

bans two. The total number fromthe wholeconfederacy varied with the number of theindependent sta tes;but at the time of thePeIOppnnes ianwar they appear to have . beentenor twelve.T he boeotarchs, whenengaged inmil ita ryservice, formed a counci l of war, the decisions ofwh ich were determined by amajorityof votes , the president being one of the twoThebanboe0tarchs. who commanded alternatal y. Their period of service was ’a year,beginning about the winte r solstice ; andwhoever continued inoffice longer thanhistime was unishable with death, both at

Thebes an inother cities.BONA , property. The hrase inbas is is

frequently used as opp to domim'

um orQm

'

n'

tarianownership (se-

jut e T heownership of certainkinds of things amongthe Romans cou ld only be transferred fromone personto another with

scertainformali

ties , or acquired by usuca run (that is, theuninterrupted possessiono a thing for a certaintime). But if itwas clearly the intentionof the owner to transfer the ownership

,and

the necessary forms only were wanting, thepurchaser had the thing inbom'

s. and hethe enjoyment of it, though the original owner was stil l legally the owner, and was said tohave the thin as jure

'

tium, notwithstanding he h parted wit the thing. T hepersonwho possessed a thing inbani: wasprotected inthe en

'

oyment of it by the rae

ter, and consequenly after a time wou ldohtainthe Quiritarianownership of it by usu

a ion. [Usucarra ]00K . LI BE RJBOOK S LE R. [Bramoroam]BOOT.

-nuarvus.]BOREA US (Bopsoopogorfestival celebrated by the Athenians in

onourofBoreas,which, as Herodotus seemsto think, was instituted during the Persianwar, whenthe Athenians, being commandedby anoracle to invoke their yayfipbg éi rlx ovpay, prayed to Boreas. But considerin thatBoreas was intimately connected wit theearly history ofAttica, we have reasonto suppose that evenprevious to the Persianwarscertainhonours were paid to him,which wereperhaps onl y revi ved and increased after theevent recorded by Herodotus. The festiva l ,however, doesnot seemever to have had anygreat celebri tsorromii

’

v. [Fa x es ]BOULE’

(Bovkrj- i) rdivnsvrax oofwv). Inthe hermc ages , represented to us by Homerthe boat! is simply anaristocratical counci l of

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

54 BRASS.

the proedri ut the questionto the people,whether they

?a

pproved of it. The people deo

clared their wi l by a show of hands (apox etporovla) . If itwas confirmed i t became a psehisma (More or decree of the people,binding upona l c lasses. The formfor drawing up such decrees varied indifferent ages.Inthe time ofDemosthenes the decrees commence with the name of the archon; thencome the da

yof themonth, the tribe inoffice,

and lastly, t a name of the proposer. Themotive

,

for passing the decree is next stated :and thenfollows the dec ree itself, prefacedwith the formula 66661 004 ff;Book

“

;sol 743”The senate house was cal led Boulmtmoa

’

0

The prytanes also had a building to holdtheir meetings in, where they were entertained at the public expense during their prytany. This was cal led the Pry zami

'

on andwas used for a. variety of purposes. [PavT ANE IONJBOW.

éAacusJ

BOXIN [Pooru'rusJ

BRACAE , or BRACCAE (dvafvpfdsfi

,

trowsers, pantaloons, were commonto all t e

nations which encircled the Greek and Romanpopulation, extending fromthe Indiantothe Atlantic ocean

,but were not wornby the

G reeks and Romans themselves. Accordinglythemonuments containin representations of.peopl e difi

'

erent fromthe reeks and Romansexhibi t themintrowsers, thus distinguishingthemfromthe latter people. Anexample isseeninthe receding group of S armatians.BRACE ET.

iABl ILLL ]

BRAS S . [Ans

PnonJ

kind of horntrum

specimens annexed . Inthe forme r it is cu rvedfor the convenience of the performe r w ith avery widemouth, to diffuse and inc rease thesound . Inthe next, it sti ll retains the o riginal formof the shell . The M aine was distinct fromthe cornu ;but it is oftencwith it. The buccina seems to ha ve been

Bacchu s, T rumpets

BUCCINA.

BRAURO 'NIA vpéivta) a festival celebrated in honouimdf Diana ’

Brau ronia,in

the Attic townof Brauron, where Create:and lphigeneia, ontheir retu rnfrom Tauria,were anposed by the Athenians to h ave landed , and aft the statue of the Tauriangoddess .

I t was held every fifth year, and the chief aolemnity consisted inthe Attic gir ls betweenthe ages offive and tenyears gorng inso lemnprocessionto the sanctuary, where the wereconsecrated to the goddess. During t is act

the priests sacrificed a goat , and the girlsperformed a propitiatory rite, inwhi ch theyimi tated bears . This ri temay have simmyrisenfromthe cincumstance that the bearwas sacred to Diane, especia l l in Arcadia.

There was al so a quinquennial estiva l calledBrauronia, which was celebrated by menanddissolute women, at Brauron, inhone ofBacchus.

BUXUM.

Inlater times itwas carve d fromhorn, andperhaps fromwood ormetal , so as to imi tatethe shel l .The bucci’na was chiefly used to proclaimthe watches of the day and of thenight, henceca l led otic

'ma , sec-undo, &C. It was

also blownat unerals, and at festive enterta iments both before sitting down to table

BULLA , a circular plate or boss ofmetal ,so called fromits resemblance inforrnto a

eating uponwater. Bright studs ofthis descriptionwere used to adornthe swordbelt ;but wemost frequently read of bullae asornaments wornby chi ldren, suspended fromthe neck, and especial ly b the sons of thenoble and wealthy. The ulla was usual lymade of thinplates of gold.BURIS.

BU S T U I t was customs among theRomans to burnthe bodies of t e dead before burying them. Whenthe spot appointed for that purpose ad

'

oined the place of sepulture, it was terrne bastion;whenit wasso arate fromit, itwas cal led ustu '

na .

romthis word the gladiators, who werehired to fight round the burning pyre of thedeceased , were cal l ed bustuarii.BURIAL. [FUNU SQBURN ING the den [Forms ]BUXUM or BUXUS , probablymeans thewood of the box -tree, but was givenas a

name tomany thingsmade of this wood . The

CADUCEUS.

tablets used forwriting on, and cove -

ed withwax (tabulacmates), were usually made ofthis wood. Inthe sameway the Greekm)flav , formed fromwafer, “box -wood

,

” cameto be appli ed to any tablets, whether theywere made of this wood or any other substance.

.Tops weremade ofbox -wood , and also allwind instruments, especial ly theflute. Combshkemse weremade of the same wood.BYSSUS (floooog), linen, and not cotton.

The word byssus appears to come fromtheHebrewbutz , and the Greeks probabl y got it

Phoenicians.

CABE I'

RIA (x ctpta), mysteries,val s, and orgies, so emniz ed inall p laces inwhich the PelasgianCabeiriwereworshi

p‘ged,

but eqs

pecially inSamothrace, Imbros , m

nos, ebes, Anthedon, Pergamus, and Be

tos. Little is knownrespecting the riteso wed inthese mysteries, as no one wasal lowed to divulge them. T he most celebrated were those of the island of Samo~thrace, which, if wemay judge fromthose ofLemnos, were so lemnized every year andlasted fornine days . Persons ontheir admissionseemto have underg

lofne a sort of

ex amination res oeting the 0 they hadled hitherto, an were thenpurified of all

sheircrimes , evenif they had committedmurer.CADIS CI or CAD! (sadism or midoc),were sma l l vessels or urns, inwhich thecounters or pebbles of the dicasts were ut,whenthe gave their votes ona trial. T erewere in act usual ly two cadisci : onemadeof copper, inwhich the voting pebble was

put ; t e other made of wood , inwhich theother bhle, which had not beenused , wasput. (ter all had voted , the presiding oilicer emptied the counters or pebbles fromthemetal urn, and counted themonthe table.Judgment was thengivenaccordingly.CADU '

CEU Sggpé x ewv, impox tov), the

staff ormace carri by hera lds and ambassadors intime of war. This name is alsogivento the stat?with which Hermes orMer

cury is usuall represented , as is showninthe fol lowing ure of that ad.

Fromcaduceus was forme the word cadu

ceazor, which signified a personsent to treatof peace. The persons of the caduceatores

were considered sacred.

66 CAE RlT UM TABULAE.

CADUS x ddog, midday), a lar e earthenvessel, whic was used for severe purposesamong the ancients. Wine was frequentlykept init, and we learnfromanauthor quotedby Pollux , that the amphora was al so cal ledcadus. The vessel used indrawing waterfromwells was ca lled cadus , or yavitég.CAE

'

CUBUM VINUM, a name givento awine which was at one time the best growthof the Falernianvineyards. Formerly," saysPliny , the Caecubanwine,which came fromthe pgg

larmarshes of Amyclae.wasmost esteem ofall the Campanianwines;but it hasnowlmt its repute , partly fromthenegligenceofthe were , angg

artly fromthe limited extent o the viney which has beennearlydes troyed by the navigable canal that was be

gunby Nero fi'

omAvernus to Ostia.

” Theaecubanwine is described by Galenas a

emus. durable wine, but apt to affect theand ripening only after a lon te rmof

gears. I t appears to have beenone o Horace

’svourite Wines, ofwhich he speaks ingenml as having beenrese rved for important

festivals. After the breaking up of the principal vineyards which supplied it, this winewou ld necessarily become very scarce and

CAE’RIT UM TA’BULAE . T he inhabi

tants ofCaere obtained fromthe Romans,in

franchise , but Wi thnames of the citizens

CALCAR.

Slave presenting a G alatians.

cients used as a penfor writing. The bestsorts were ot fromAsg pypt and Cnidus.CA’

LAT US ( x a l afiog, also call edpog), usua l ly signified the basket inwidshwomenplaced their work , and es ecially thematerials for spinning. Inthe to owmg cut

a slave, belonging to the class cal ledlan

’

ac, is presenting her mistress witcalathus .

CALCEUS .

meals . People ingrief, as for instance at

ml 1'

uentl went barefooted .fmga

hoe:v

mr

fiq be din’

ded into those inwh ichthemere so e of a shoe was attached to thesole of the foot by ties or bands, orby a cover

fm' the toes or the instep Sous a ;Casl

rfign; S occus and those w ich ascendedhi her and er, according as the coveredthgankb a

tihge calf, or the whole b the leg .

To cal ceamenta of the latter‘

ktnd , l . e. toshoe s and boots, as distinguished fromsandals and slippers, the termcalceuswas applied

Cskcl, “Mann’

s S hoes.

CALCULI.inits proper and restricted sense. There werealso other varieties of the colou rs accordingto its ada

pta tionto part icu lar professions or

modes of ife. Thus the Cantonwas principall y womby soldiers ; the Pes o. by labourers and rustics and the Cornoanus by twgedians , hunters , and horsemen. The salesprobably didnotmuch differ fromour sbws ,and are exemplified ina painting at Herculaneum

, which reprwents a female wearingbracelets , awreath ofivy, and a ther

’s skin

while she is inthe attitude o dancing andpinging onthe cymbal s.n the other hand, a marble foot inthe

British Museumexhibits the formof aman’sshoe . Both the sole and the Upper leatherare thick and strong. The toes are uncovered,and a thong passes betweenthe great and thecond toe, as a sanda l.

Calceus, Man's 8mThe formand '

colour of the calceus indios ted rank and office. Romansenators worehigh shoes like bushins , fastened infront withfour black thongs, and adorned wi th a smallcrescent. Amon the calcei wornby senators , those cal l mullei, from their resemblance to the scales of the redmul let, wereparticu larly admired ;as well as others cal l edalulae, because the leather was softened bythe use of alum.

CALCULAT OR (l oywrfic), a has r ofaccounts ingeneral , and also a teac er ofarithmetic . InRomanfamilies of importancethere was a calculator or account -Ree r

,who

is. however, more frequently call ed,6

by thename of dispensator, or procurator :he was akind of steward .

CAL’CULI,little stones or pebbles , used

for various pu sea, as , for instance, amonthe Athenians or voting. Calculi were uséinplaying a sort ofdraughtsn S ubmuently,instead of pebbles, ivory. or si lver, or gold, orother men(as we call them) were used ;butthey stil l bore the name of calculi. Calculiwere al

58

CALDA'RI’UM. BALNE UM .

CALENDAE or ALE ND [Ci nnmama .

CAL NDA'

RIUM or K ALENDA'RIUM,

genera l ly si ified anaccount -book. inwhichwere eats thenames of a person’s debtors ,with the interest which they had to

Ea and

it was so cal led because the interest a to beaid onthe calends cfeachmonth . The word ,owever,was also used inthe significationof

amoderncal endar or almanac.I G R E E K CALE NDAR . The Greek year

~was

divided into twelve lunar months, de endingonthe actual changes of themoon. he firstday of themouth (vovmrvla) was not the dayof the conjunction, but the day onthe evening ofwhi ch thenewmoonappeared ;consequently ful l moonwas the middle of themouth. The lunarmonth consists of twentynine days and about thirteenhours ;accordingly somemonths werenecessari lymkonedat twenty-nine da 3 , and rathermore of themat thirty days. he latter were called fullmonths (almost the former hollowmonths( sai lor). As the twelve lunar months fellsho rt of the solar year, they were obligedevery other year to interpolate anintercalarymonth (p in) 5 al lus ionof thirty or twentynme days. e ordinary year consiswd of

354 days, and the interpolated year, therefore,of 384 or383. This interpolated year (rpiéf qpq

'

)was sevendays and a ha lf too long, andto correct the error, the intercala

'iymonth

was fromtime to time omitted. he Attic

fin;beganwith the summer solstice : the folwing is the sequence of the Atticmonths,

and the number of days ineach z—Hecatombacon Metageitnion Boedromion(3) Pyanepsion Maemacterion P0se

'

eon Gamelion AnthesterionElaphebolion Munychion T hargelion Scirophorion T e latercalarymon was a second Poseideoninserted inthemiddle of the yea r. Every Athenianmonthwas divided into three decads. The days ofthe first decad were designated as lorapévovor dpf

oy évovmimic, and were counted onrear y from‘

one to ten; thus devrépaair

a

uévov or larapévov is the second day hi smonth.

” The days of the second decad weredesignated as érrl déx a, or a wofiy rog‘. 83 dwere counted onregularly fromthe 1 1th tothe 20th day, which was called slang. .Therewere twowe of countin

g!the days of the

last decad e were eit er reckoned ou

wards fromthe h (thus. r ( in) érri clx édiwas the 2lst), orbackwards mmthe last day,Wi th the additionMlvovrog, a avopévov, Z r}yovroc.Ordwlovrog, thus the twentyofirst dayofa hollowmonthwas even;Mivovrog ofa

CALENDARlUM.

ful lmonth , dried") [vovrop T he last daof themonth was cal ed m2véa, the oldandnew because as the unarmonth reallyconsistedofmore thantwenty-nine and l essthantln

'

rty days, the last'

daym'

ht be considered as belonging equa lly tonewmonth.

Separate years were desi ated at Athenshy thename of the chiefarc on, henc e calledarchoneponymus (5,0,v érré vvpo

g), or th e

name givmg archon; at'

Sp arta , y the firstof the ephorr at Argos, by the priestess ofJuno, etc. .The method of reckoning byOlympi ads was brought into use by Tima eusof T auromeniumabout a. c. 260. As thisc lumsymethod of reckoning is sti l l retained ,it Wi l l be right to give the ru les for converting Olympiads into the year a. c., and vice

Ol. 95, l .

382 therefore in

1. To find the year s . c., givennth yearof 01. p., take the formu la 781 a ).If the event hap

lpfaned inthe second alf of

the Attic year, t must be farther reducedby l for the Attic year, asmentioned above,commenced with the summer solstice. ThusSocrateswas put to death inThargelionof01. 95, 1 . Therefore ins . c.

781—(4 x 9s! i ) - i ) — 381)

l 400 l 399.

2. To find the Olympiad, giventhe yeara. a. c., take the formula

781—n4

T he quotient is the CL, and the remainderthe current year of it if there is no remain

the current year is the fourth of theOlympiad. If the event happened in thesecond halfof the givenyear, it must beincreased

gy1 . Thus, to take the event yustmention Socrates was at to death

781 781

4 4Demosthenes was born in the summer of

81382,

7 382 333:

4

99, 3.

Il. Roms Cannon . The old Roman,frequent! cal led the RomMianyear, consisted of ony tenmonths, which were ca l ledMartins, Aprilis; Mains, Junius, Q uinctilis ,Sextilis, Se

ptember, October, November, De

camber. T at Marchwas the firstmonth inthe year is implied inthe last six names. Ofthese months fou r, namely, Martins, Mains ,Q uincti lis, and October, consisted of thirtyone days, the other six of thi rty. The fou rformer were distinguished inthe la test formof the Romancalendar by having theirnosestwo days later thanany of the othermonths .

CALE NDARJUM.

T he symmetry of this arrangement will appear by placin the numbers insuccession:—31 , 30;31 , 31 , 30, 30;31, 30, 30.

The Romu lianyear therefore consisted of

304 days , and contained thirty-e‘

ht nundinneor weeks every eighth day, uner thenameofname, or nundi

'

nac, bein especial ly devotedto re ligious and other pub] cp

urposes. Hencewe find that the number 0 dies fasti afterwards retained inthe Julian calender tall yexac tl y wi th these thirty-eight nundinea :besides which , itmay be observed that aof 304 days bears to a so lar year of 365 ays

nearl y the ratio of five to six , six of the R0mulianyears contain'

1824, five of the solaryears, 1825 days ;and ence wemay explainthe originof the wel l - knownquinquennialperiod called the lustrum, whi ch ancientw riters expressly ca l l anarms:magma thatis , inthe modem language of chronolo a

cyc le. i t was consequently the peri at

which the Romulianand solar years coin

The next divisionof the Romanyearwassaid to have beenmade by Numa Pompiliuswho insti tuted a lunar year of 12months an355 days. Livy says that Numa so regulatedhis lunar year of twelvemonths by the insertionof intercalarymonths, that at the end ofevery nineteenth ear (vicesimo m e) it againcoincided with t 6 same point inthe sun’scourse fromwhich it started. It is wellknownthat 19 years constitute amos t conv enient cycle for the junctionof a lunar andsolar year.I t seems certainthat the Romans continued

to use a lunar year for some time after thees tablishment of the ‘ re ublic; and it was

probably at the time of t e decemviral legistion that the lunar yea r was abandoned,By the change which was thenmade theyea r consisted of 12months, the length ofeach ofwhich was as followsMartius, 31 days. September, 29daysA rilis

,29 October, 31

aiua, 3 1 November, 29

Junius, 29 December, 29

Q uinctilis, 31 Januarius, 29

Sextilis,

29.

Febuarius, 28

The year theth is wasmade

22 or 23 days seems to have beeninsertedinal ternate years.As the festival s of the Romans were for

themost pa rt dependent U ponthe calendar,the re lationof the latter was entrusted tothe co legs of pontifices,

"who inearl y times

were chosenex clusivel fromthe body ofpatricians . Itwas there ore inthe power ofthe college to add to their othermeans of oppressing the plebeians,

o

l;yli es ing to them

selves the knowledge the s onwhichJustice cou ld be administered, an assembliesof the peo le could be held. Inthe yea r 304s . c., one n. Flavius, a secreta ry (

scribe ), ofAp ius Claudius, is said fraudulent y to havema e the Fasti public. The other privileofregulating the year by the insertionof t eintercalarymonth ve the pontifi

'

s great po'

litical ower whic they were not backwardto enip oy . li ve thing connected wi th thematter of inter ationwas left to their unrestrained pleasure ;and themajority of them,onpersonal grounds, added to or took fromthe year by capricious interoalations, so as

to lengthen or shorten the period dingswhich a rate remained inoffice,

serious! to sht or injure the farmer ofthe ab ic revenue.

e calendar was thus involved incornpleta confusion, and accordingly we find thatin the time of Cicero the ear was threemonths inadvance of the res solar year. Atlength , in the ear n. o. 48 , Caesar, newmaster of the world, emplczlzd hisauthority as pontifex maximus, in correctionof

! this serious evil. The account oftheway inwhich he efi

'

ected this is givenbyCensonnus The confusionwas at lastcarried so far that C. Caesar, the tifex

maximus, inhis third consulate,with pidus

for his colleague, inserted betweenNovemberand December two interca larymonths of67 days, the month of February havmg al

ready received aninte rcalationof 23o

days andthusmade the whole year to consistdays . At the same time he provided againsta repetitionof simi lar errors , by casting asi dethe intercalarymonth , and adapting the yearto the sun’s course . Accordingly. to the 355days of the previously existing year he addedtendays , which he so distributed betweenthe sev enmonths having 29 days that January. Sextilis, and December recei ved twoeach , the others but one ;and these addi~tional da a he placed at the end of the seve~ral rnont a,no doubt with the Wish not to

remove the various fes tivals fromthose positions inthe several months which they hadso long occupied . Hence inthe present calendar, al though there are sevenmonths Of 31days , yet the four months, which fromthefirst possessed that number, are still distinguishable by

'

having their nones on'

the seventh , the rest having themonthe fifth of themonth. Lastly inconsiderationof the quarter ofa day,whi ch he considered ascompleting

00 CALE NDARIUM.

the true year, he established the rule that, atthe end of eve four years, a single dayshould be inte ted where themonth hadbeenhitherto inserted, that is, immediatelyafter the terminalia ;which day is nowcal ledthe biasestum.

”

Themode ofdenoting the days ofthemonthwil l causeno difficu lty, ifit be recollected thatthe kalends always denote the first of themonth ; that the nones occur onthe seventhof the fourmonths ofMarch, May. Q uinctilisor Jul y , and October, and onthe fifth of theothermonths ;that the idea always fal l eightdays later thanthenones and last ly, that theintermediate days are inall cases reckonedbackwards upon the Romancounting both extremes.

be as follows1 . K ai. Jan.

2. a. d. IV. Non. Jan.3. a. d. III. Non. Jan.4. Prid. Non. Jan.

5. Non. Jan.

6. a. d. VIII. Id. Jan.7. a. d. VII. id. Jan.

8. a. d. VI. Id. Jan.9. a. d. V. Id. Jan.

10. a. d. IV. Id. Jan;1 1. a. d. I I I . Id. Jan.

13. Id . Jan.

14. a. d. X IX . K ai. Feb.

15. a. d. XVI II . K ai . Feb.16. a. d . XVII. K ai:Feb.17; a. d. XVI. K ai. Feb.

18. a. d. XV. K ai. Feb.19. a. d. XIV. K ai. Feb.20. a. d. XI I I. K ai. Feb.

21. a. d . Xi i .’

K ai. Feb.22. a. d. X I . K ai. Feb.

a. d . X . K ai. Feb.a. d . IX . K ai. Feb.a. d. VII I . K ai. Feb.a. d . VII. K ai . Feb .

a. d. VI. K ai . Feb.a. d. V. K ai. Feb.

29. a. d. IV. K ai. Feb.30. a. d. III. K ai. Feb.31. Prid. K ai. Feb.

r

I‘

he letters a d are often, through error,wri ttentogether.and so confounded with

‘ thepreposmonad which wou ld have a differentmeaning.forad kalmdas would signify by , i. e.onor before the kaiends. The letters are infactanabridgement of ants dim, and the fu l lhrase for

,

onthe second of January wouldw e diamquartumnonas Januan

'

as . Theword am inthis expressionseems really to

belong insense to nouns , and to be the causewhy nonas is anaccusative. Whether thebrass kale

‘

ndae Januaria’

was ever used by thebest writers is doubtful. T he words are cornmonl abbreviated ;and those passe eswhersApri s, Decembris, dtc. occur are 0 no avail,as they are probably accusatives. The ammay be omitted, inwhich case the phrase willbe dis quartononarimt.Inthe

'

ieap year (to use a’modernphrase),

the last days ofFebruary were called,

Feb. 23. a. d . V II. K ai. Mart.Feb. 24. a. d . V I. K ai. Mart. posteriorem.

Feb. 25. a. (1. VI. K ai. Mart. priorem.

Feb. 26. a. d. .V . K ai . Mart.Feb. 27. a. d . IV . K ai. Mart.Feb. 28. a. d. I I I K ai. Mart .Feb. 29. Frid. K ai. Mart.Inwhich the words prior and tm'

or

used inreference to the retro e directionof the reckoning.Fromthe fact that the intercalated yearhas

two days cal led ante diemm tum, th e namebissext i le has beenapplied to it. The termannus bissex ti

’

lis , however, does not occur inany classical w riter, but inthe place ofit thephrase minus bissexms .

The names of two of the months werechanged inhonour of Julius Caesa r and Austus . Juliuswas substituted forQ uinctilis,e month inwhich Caesar was born, inthesecond Julianyear, that ,

is, the year of the

dictator's death , for the - fi rst Juiianyear was

that is, a. c . 45. ThenameAugustus inplaceof Sexti li

'

s was int roduced bythe emperor

himseif ina. c. 27. Thement of Septemberinl ik emanner received the name of G ermanicua fromthe general so cal led , and the appe llationappears to have existed eveninthetime ofMac robius. Domitian, too,

conferredhis name uponOctober ;but the

’

old wordwasrestored uponthe death of the tyrant.The Jui iancalendar supposes themeantro

ical year to be 365 d. 6 h. ; but this ex cethe rea l amount by 1 1 the accumulationofwhich , year after year, caused at last considerable inconvenience. Accordingly

, intheyear 1582,Paps Gregory XI II. againreformedthe calendar. The tendays by which theyear had beenundul y retarded were st ruckout by a regulationthat the day after thefourth of Octobe r inthat year shou ld be ca l led

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CALE NDARIUM.

Nova i i sn .

A .

B . 2

CS 3

D. 4

CA’

LIGA , a strong and heavy sandal wornby the Romansoldiers, butnot by the superiorofficers . Hence the common

.soldiers, including centurions, were d istinguished b thename of cali'gati. The emperor Caliga re

ceived that wgnomenwhena boy, inconacquence ofwearing the ca li and being inuredto the life of a commonso dier.The cuts onpp. 38, 57, showthe difi

'

erencebetweenthe cal iga of the commonsoldier andthe calceus wornbymenof higher rank .

CALIX was sometimes applied toa large cup or vessel , but general ly signifieda smal l drinking cu

pused at symposia and on

aimilaro

occas ions. ts formis exhibited inthewoodcut under S vu roswu .

CALO’

NES , the slaves or servants of theRomansoldiers, so cal led fromcarryin wood(mil e ) for their use. They are

'

genera y supposed to have beenslaves , and almost formeda part of the army. The word calo, however,was not confined to this signification, butwasalso applied to farmservants . The calories andlime are frequently spokenof together, butthey were not the same : the latter were freemen, who merely fol lowed the camp for thepupp

oses of gainandmerchandise, and wereso arfrombeing indispensable to anarmy thatthey were sometimes forbiddento attendit.

1 Nov. K ai .

CALU 'MNIA. Whenanaccuser fai led in

niama , which sentence was fol lowed by theis 1 punishment .he punishment for calmnm’

a was fixed bythe lex Remmia, or as it is sometimes , perhaps incorrectly, named , the lex M einmia.

But it isnot knownwhenthis lex was passed,norwhat were its pena l ties . it ap are fromCicero, that the false accuser ht brandedonthe forehead with the letter the initia l ofK alumnia. The punishment forcaiumnia wasa lso ea‘silium,relegaria ininsulam,or loss of rank(ordim

'

smam) but probably onl y inc riminalcases,or inmatters relatin to status .

CA'

MARA x apdpa or‘A'MERA . 1 . A

particular kin of arc ed cieiing, formed bsemicircular bands orbeams ofwood , arrangedat smal l lateral distances, over which a ecstin of lath and plaster

“Was spread , and thewgole covered inby a roof

,resembling incon

structionth’

e’

hooped awnings inuse amongst

CANDELA. CANDYS . 63

na. 2 . A smal l boat used inearl y times by CANDELABRUM ori all a cand leth e pea la who inhabi ted the s hores of the stick, but afterwards ihe ngige o

’l"a stand for

Pa lu s aeoti s, capable of containing from supporting lamps (v vofixm), inwhich sigtwent y - fi ve to thirt ymen.

.These boats were nincationit most commonly occurs . Themade to work fore and aft, like lb?fast-sai lmg candelabra of this kind wereusnall made toproas of the Indi anseas , and continued inuse stand uponthe ound, and were 0 a considunt i l t he a ofTaci tus. crable height. emost commonkind wereC Q M IL l and CAMlLLAE , the names of made of wood ;but those which have beencerta inboys and 18 who assisted at seem in Hercu laneum and Pompeii are

fi ces am the ans.

CAM I 'N S . [Donna ]C AM P . Cu rran]CAMPS RE 80. subligar), a kind ofgird le or apron,whic the Roman'

youths worea round th eir loins, whenthe exercisednakedinthe Campus Martins. T e camiiestrewassometimes worninwarmweather, inplace oft he tunic under the toga.

CAM PUS SCELERA'TUS ,was a s t

w ithint he walls , and close by thePorts Co lina , where those ofthe vesta l virgins who hadtransgressed theirvows were entombed alive,fromwh ich circumstance it took itsname . Asit was unlawfu l to bury withinthe ci ty, or tos lay a vestal,whose person, evenwhenpolluted by the crime al luded to, was held sacred ,this expedient was resorted to in order toe lude the su

plefrstitionagainst takingaway a

consec rated e, or giving burial wi thintheonCAMPUS MA’RTIUS , anopenplainout

side of Rome , so ca ll ed because itwas consecrated to the god Mars . lt pro perly comprisedtwo lains , which, thou h general ly spokenof co ectively are some imes distin iehed .

T he former of these was the ao-cal ed ager

T ar‘m’

orum,which original ly belonged to

t h e ar uina,butwas takenpossessionofby

t h e peop e uponthe expulsionoftheTarquins;t h e other was givento the Roman cple bythe vesta l virginCaia Taratia or S u etia, andis sometimes cal led Campus T iberinus , andsometimes Campus M inor,

T he Comitia Centuriata were held inthe3m“ cm “

C ampus Martins ,and hence the word campus mostly of bronze. Sometimes they wereis put for the comi tia. It was included inthe made of themore precious metals, and evenci t y by Au re lian when he enlarged the of jewels . The candelabra did not alwayswa l l s

:stand 0 onthe ground , but were also placed

Thi s plainwas coveredWlth perpetual ver upon t e table. Such candelabra usuall

du re, and was a favouri te resort forair, ex er consisted of pil lars, fromthecapitals ofwhicci se , or recreation whenthe labou rs of the several lamps hung down, or of t rees, fromda were over. Plence campus is used as

“a whose branches lamps al so were suspended .

fie d" for an exerci se mental or.

bodi ly. The preceding cut represents a very elegantCANDE ' A , a candlemade e i ther ofwax candelabrumof this kind , found inPom

(ca-sa

g),or tal low (sebacea), was used uni ver pei i .

sa l l y the Romans before the inventionof CANDIDA‘T U S . [Ams i 'rua ]

o il am’

ps (lucemae) . Inlater times candelae CANDYS (x éy dvg), a robe wornby thewere only used by the poorer classes y the Medea and Persians over their trowsers and

houses of the more weal thy were always other garments . I t had wide sleeves , andli ghted by luccrnae. wasmade ofwoollencloth,which was either

64 CANTHARUS .

pu rp le or of some other splendid colour. Inthe Perse olitansculptures. fromwhich theannexed gures are taken,nearl y all the principnl personages wear it.

Candys, Pa sh a Cloak.

CANE ’PHOROS (uawdépo a Vi rginwho carried a flat circu lar has et (mivsov ,minim-

um) at sac rifices, inwh ich the chapletof flowers, the knife to slay the victim, and

Complies-i.

sometimes the frankincense were deposited .

T he name, however, was more parti cu larlyapplied to two virgins of the first Athenianfamilies who were appointed to ofliciate as

cariephori at the Panathenaea. The precedin cut represents the two canephori approaching a candelabrum. Each of themelevates one armto support the basket whi leshe sli htly raises her tunic wi th the other.CA VAS S ING inelections . [Alumnus ]CA’NTHARUS (x dvdapoP

a kind ofdrinking cup, furnished wi th han es. Itwas thecup meted to Bacchus, who is frequentl yrepresentwonancient vases holding it inhis

CAPITOLIUM.

Bacchus holding a Gunther“ .

aninterlude between

CAPS AM

the foundations ;whence the bill al so wascal led Mons Capitolinus. T ar uinius Priscus first vowed, during the Snine war, tobuil d this temple, and commenced the foundations . I t was afterwards continuedServius Tul lius, . and final l

ycompleted

T arquinius Superbus out o the spoi lslected at the capture of Susses Pomelie ;butwas not dedicated until the year s . c. 507

M . Horatius. It was burnt downduringcivi l wars, at the time of Sulla, (a. c .rebu i l t by him, but dedicated by LutetiasCatulus , s . c. 69. It was againburnt to theground b the factionof Vitel lius, ( i . n.

and rebui t by Vespasian, u whose deathit was againdestroyed

“?re , and sumptu

ouslgrebui l t , for the th

'

time, by Domit ian.

T e capitoliumconta ined three templeswi thinthe same ristyle , or three cel ls para l le l to each at er, the partitionwa lls ofwhich were common, and all under the sameroof. Inthe centre was the seat of Ju itertimus Max imus, ca l led cello Jam'

s. hat

0 M inerva was onthe right , and that ofthe left . The representationof

uminthe cut is takenfrom a

3 . Ca'

tolium is sometimes put for the

whole Lapitolinemount, including both summi ts of themountain. Sometimes it is usedto designate one only of the summits, andtha t one apparently dis tinct from the arx ,

which obscurity is further increased, because ,onthe other hand , an! is sometimes put forthe wholemount, and at~others forone of thesummi ts onl y.There were three approaches fromthe F0

rumto the Mons Capi to lians. The first wasby a flight of 100 steps,which led directly tothe side of the Tarpeianrock . The ‘othertw o were the d ivas CapitalismAsy ls

‘

. one of which entered onthe north , andthe other onthe south side of the intermon

CAPSA,or S CRI’NIUM,abox for holding

books among the Rogians. These box es

r

CAPUT.

the capes and scn'

nismr, except that the latterword was usual ly ap l ied to those boxeswhi ch held 8 considers is number of rolls.The slaves who had the charge of thesebook-chests were called capsarii , and also “ :

todcs scriniomm; and the slaves who carriedin9. ca sa behind their young masters thebooks, c., ofthe sons of respectable Romans,whenthey went to school , were called bythe samename.CAPS A

’

RII , the name of three difl'

erentclasses of slaves . [BALNBUtnCu es ]CAPUT, the head . The term head" isoftenused by the Romanwriters as

,

s%uivelent to person.” or humanbeing.

” y aneasy transitionit was used to signify lifethus, capite damnan

’

, plead , &c..are equivalent to capita l punishment.Caps:is also used to express aman’s status,

or civil condition;and the persons who wereregistered inthe tables of the censor are

spokenofas capita,sometimes with the addi

ti onof the word ces ium, and sometimes not.Thus to be registe red inthe censuswas thesame thingas caput balm-

c: and a slave and a

fi lius fam‘ ‘

as, inthis sense of the word ,‘were

said to have no caput. The sixth class ofServius Tullius comrised the proletarii andthe capits cerni. of w omthe latter, havinglittle orno property, were barely rated as so

many fund of citizens.He who lost or changed his status wassaid to be capite "rim , deminutw, or cupid:minor.

Capitis minutia or demiM o was a.

changeof a person’s status or civi l condi tion

,and

consisted of three k inds. A Romanci tizenpossessed freedom Iibcnas ) , citizenship, (civitas ), and fami ly amilias) : the loss of allthree consti tuted themax im capitis demumtio.

This capitisdemmutiowas sustained by those

66 CARCER.

who refused to be registered a t the census,orneglected the registration, and were thencecal led inccnsi . The Enema:was liable to besold, and so to l ose his liberty. Those whorefused to performmilitary semce mightalso be sold.The loss of citizenship

.

and famil onl yas whenamanwas interdicted from re andwater, was the media capitis dcminul io. [ExsrLi ux JThe change of family by ado t ion, and bythe inmanumconventio, was t eminima ca

pitis dcminutio.

,A yudrczumcap i tals, or poena cap i talrs , w

one which affected a Citizen's caput .CAPUT. Fauna ]CARACAL A, anouter garment used in

G au l , andnot unlike the Romanlucema .

was first introduced at Home by the emperorAure lius AntoninusBassianus,who compel ledall the people that came to court to wear it,whence he obtained the surname ofCaracal la ,

This garment, as worninGau l , does not apr to have reached lower thanthe knee ,

ut Caracalla lengthened it so as to reachthe ankle .

CARCER. (lu rker,Germ. yopytipa ,Greek),a prison, is connected with lpx og and elpyw,the gu ttural being interchanged with the aspi rate.

1

1 . Gu am. Imprisonmentwas seldomusedmanat the Greeks as a lega l punishmentfor o ences ;they preferred banishment tothe expense of keeping prisoners inconfinement. The prisons in different countrieswere ca l led by diflerent names : thus therewas the Ceadas (K eédaggo

at Sparta ;and,among the Ionians, the rgyra (yopyfipa )as at S amoa. The risonat Athens was informer times cal l Desmotm’

om(ciao-punipwv), and afterwards, by a sort of euphemism;olxmm. Itwas chiefly used as a guardhouse,or place of execution, and was under thecharge of the public omeara called theE leven.

2. ROMAN. A prisonwasfirst buil t at Romel?.

Ancus Martins, overhangin the forum.

hi s was enlarged by S ervius ullius, whoadded to it a souterrain, or dungeon, cal ledfromhimthe T ullianma. Sallust describesthis as bein twelve feet under ground , walledoneach si e, and arched over with - stonework. For a long time this was the onlypri sonat Rome, being, infact, the Tower,or state prisonof the city, which was sometimes doubly guarded intimes of alarm, andwas the chief object of attack inmany conspiracies. There were, however, other pris.

canoe.

were general l y executed , and thisprisonwas also cal led robur.

CA’

RCE RE S .

M[G races ]

CARCHE'

S IU a bas ketor drinking-cup, which was used by theG reeks invery early times. The

one besides this , though , as

o

wemight expect, itwithO

a pivot at the top and bottom(a, b) inthe words of Roman nans generally re ancient remains of stone,marble, wood.and

was used to designate the t0ps of a ship,is, the structure surrounding themast immediately above the yard [ANT E NNA] , intowhich the mariners ascended in order tomanage the sai l” This was probabl ca l ledcar

'

s/ces iumonaccount of its resemb ance informto the cup of that name. The ceruchi,or other tackle, may have beenfastened toits lateral -pro

pactions, which corresponded to

the handles o the cup.

CARDO,a h inge or pivot.

. The first figure , inthe annexed woodcu t is desi gned toshowt he general formof a door, as we find

CARNE IA.

also used h ingesmmonuse . Fourpreserved inthe

owninthe, fol lowing

Berna H inges.

CARME NT A’

LIA, a festival celebrated inhonour of Cements or Cannentis , who is fa.

bled to have beenthemother of E vander ,whocame fromPallantiumin'

Arcadia , and settledinLatium: hewas said to have brought withhima knowledge of the arts , and the Lat inal phabetical characters as distinguished fromthe Etruscan. This festival was celebratedannua ll y onthe 1 1 th of January . A templewas erec ted to the same goddess , at the footof th e Capitoline hill , near the Ports Car

mentalis , afterwards cal led S ce lerata . Thename Carmenta is said to have beengiventoh er fromher prophetic character, carmensor carmentis being synonymous with vates.The word is, of course, connected w ith car

men, as pmphes ies were general ly delivered

CARNE IA x apvcia), a great national festivel celebm by the Spartans inhonour ofApol lo Carneios . T he

‘

festival beganontheseventh day of the month of Carneios=Me

tageitnionof the Athenians, and lasted fornine days. It was of a warlike character ,lemmi to the Attic Boédromia. During thetim Of its celebrationnine tentswere pitched

CARPE NT UM.

the festival was sometimes designated by thename Ageton

’

a or AgelorcionCAL/7176 to or

and fromeach of t e S‘partan

tri s tivemen (K apveérat ) were chosenas

hisministers, whose oflice lasted four ears,during which period they were not cl owedtomarg

’

. Whenwe read inHerodotus andThney ides that the Spartans during thecelebrationof this festival were not al lowedto take the field against anenemy , wemustremember that th is restrictionwas not peculiar to the Carneia, but commonto all thegreat festivals of the Greeks : t races of it arefound eveninHomer.CA’RNIFE X , the public executioner at

Rome , who ex ecuted slaves and foreigners,but not citiz ens.who were punished inamanner different fromslaves. It was also hisbusiness to administer the torture. This officewas considered so disgraceful, that he wasnot al lowed to reside within the city, butlived without the Porta Metia or E squilina,near the place destined for the unishmentof slaves , called Sestertiumuner the empe rora.

CARPE NT UM , a cart ;also a two~wheeledcarriage enclosed , and with anarched or sloping cover overhead . The carpentumwasused to convey the Romanmatrons intheublic festa l processions and

,as this was a

high distinction. the privi lege of riding ina

carpentumonsuch occasions was al lowed toparticular females by special grant of thesenate.

This carriage contained seats for two,

sometimes for three persons , besides thecoachman. It was commonly drawn by a

air of mu les , but more rersl by oxen ororses, and sometimes by four orses like aquadriga.

Carpanta,or covered carts,weremuch used

by the Britons, the Gauls, and othernorthernnations. These, together with the carts of

68 CASTRA.

the more commonform. including baggawa gons, appear to have beencompreheneduner the termcam'

, or carra,which is the Celticname with a Latintermination. The Gaulstook a greatmu l titude of themontheirmilitary expeditions, and when they were encamped , arranged theminclose order, so as toformextensive lines of circumval lation.

CARRU ’

CA, a carriage, thename ofwhichonly occurs under the emcrore. It ap earsto have beena s ecies of r eda [RHE DA had

four wheels , an was used intravel ling.CARRUS. Caapss '

ruu .)CARYA’TID S . Caryae was a cit inArcadia,near the Laconianborder, the inab

itants of which joined the Persians after thebattle of Thermo ylas . Onthe defeat ofthe Persians the a had Greeks destroyed thetown, slew the men, and led the womenintocaptivity;and Praxiteles and other Athenianart ists employed female fi res , representingCaryal idae, or womenof e , instead ofcolumns in architecture. is account isi l lustrated by a has - relief wi th a Greek iascription, mentioning the conquest of theCaryatae.

CASSIS . G u m.)CASTELL M AQUAE . [AQ U '

AB Doc

t os .]CASTRA

, a carap . T he systemofencampment among the Romans was one of singularregularity and order.and has beenclearly described by Polybius, the friend and companionof Scipio Africanus, the younger. Fromhisdescriptionthe annexed planhas been—drawnupA

,praetorium.

—B,tents of the tribunes .

C , tents of the praefecti sociorum.

—D, street

100 feet wide—E , F, G ,and H , streets 50feet

wide—L,select foot and volunteers—K , se

lect horse and voluntee rd inaryhorse of the al lies —N ex t foot ofthe al lies.—O.reservedfor

aries. the street called Quintana, 50 feetwide. P, via rincipalis, 100 feet wide.The duty of se ecting a pro r situationforthe camp (castramelari) devo ved uponone ofthe tribunes and anumber of centurions whowere special ly appointed for that purpose. andsent inadvance whenever the armywas abou tto encamp ;they were cal led Melatores , fromtheir office. The cam was divided into twoparts the Upper and t e lower. The u perpart formed about a third of the whole . nitwas the praetorium(A) or heral’s tentpraetor being the oldname 0 the consul. Apart ofthe praetoriumwas cal led theAM ,

as the‘

auguries were there takenby the genera l. Onthe right and left of the raetori umwere theforumand quaeston

'

um;t e former ssort ofmarket- place , the latter appro tis tedto the quaestor and the camp stores nu er hissuperintendence:Onthe sides of -

.and facing the forumandquaestorium, were stationed se lect bodies ofhorse (K ) takenfromthe ex traordinariesmithmounted volunteers,who served out of re

spect to the consul, and were stationed nearhim. And paral lel to these were posted similar bodies of foot soldier

'

s (L). Before the

gi aeswriumand the forumwere the tents ofe twelve tri bunes of the two legions (B),

and before the select bodies of horse and ihfentry the tents of the praefecti sociorumwereprobably laced Again, behind the praetorium, t e quaestorium and the forum, rana

'

street orvia (D), 100 feet broad, fromoneside of the camp to the other. Along theup er side of th is street was ranged themainy of the extraordinary horse M) : they

were separated into two equal parts y a st reetfifty feet broad (E). At the back of this bodyofcaval

gwas posted a similar body of ia

fentry selected fromthe al lies,and facing

the Oppositeway, i . e. towards the ramparts ofthe cam The vacant spaces

(380 oneach

side of t ese troops were tesary or foreigners and occasional auxiliaries.The lower part of the camp was divided

fromthe u per h a street , ca l led theVia Princ

hi

ral“ V or rincipia, ahundred feet broad.ere t e t ribunal of the general was erected,

fromwhich he harangued the soldiers, andhere the tribunes administered justice. Herealso the principal standards , the al tars of thegods, and the images of the emperors wereplaced. T he lower part of the camp wasoccupied by the two legions and the tr 8 ofthe allies according to the arrangement 0 thefollowihg cut.Between the ramparts and the tents was

left a vacant s ace of 200 feet onevery side,whichwas use ul formany purposes : thus it

1

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70 CATHEDRA.

to keep guard before the ates of the camp,onthe ramparts, and indi s tent parts of thecamp ;and these guards were changed everythree hours. The guards placed before thegates of the camp were called station“ . Theword umbiacdenotes guards either by day ornight ;vigiliae bynight onl y. Thenight wasdivided into four watches, each of three hours’length. Certainpersons were appoinwd everyni ht to visit all the watches, and were hencecalled circuitou s . There was alwa s awatchword givenforthenight, inscrib ona fourcornered iece ofwood , and hence cal ledmu ra.whic was circulated throu h the army.CAT A

’

LOG U S (x aré l oyog), t e catalogue

of those persons inAthens who were liable toregu lar military service. At Athens, thosepersons alone who ssessed a certainamountofpro ywere owed to serve inthe regular i antry,whilst the lower class, the thetes,hadnot thi s rivile e. [Census ] Thus theformer are ed 0 a: x eraM yov orparcflov“rag, and the latter 01 550 7 013 x aral é yov.

CATAPHRACTA . [Loews ]CATAPHRACTI (x arédpakroc) . 1 .Heavy

armed cavalry, the horses ofwhich were alsocovered with defensive armour. Amongmanyof the Easternnations , who placed thei r chiefdependencema their caval ry , wefind horsesprotected in manner ;but among the Romans we donot read of any tr00ps of this description ti ll the later times of the empire ,whenthe discipline of

q

the legions was destroyed , and the chief dependencebeganto beplaced onthe caval ry.This species of tr00ps was commonamongthe Persians fromthe earliest times, fromwhomitwas adopted by their Macedonianconquerors . They were cal led by the Persians clibanarii .2. Decked vessels, inOppositionto Aph

racti.

11Aennac

'

rus .]CA APULT A. [T oausN

'wm]CATARACTA tmrabfidnmg), a portcul lis

so cal led because i t fell with great force ana loud noise . It was anadditional defence,suspended by ironrin and ropes, before thegates of a city

,insuc amanner that, when

the enemy had come up to the gates, theportcullis might be let downso as to shutthemin, and to enable the besieged to assai lthemfromabove.CATEIA

, amissil e used inwarby the Germ'

ans, Gauls, and some of the Ita l iannations,an to resemble the Acme.

AT E RVA’

RII. [G u nu roas s ]CATHEDRA. a seat or chair, was more

particularl applied to a soft seat used bywomen, w teas -u lla signified a seat commonto both sexes. The cathedrae were ,no doubt,

CAUPONA.

of various forms and sizes ;but they usuallyappear to have had backs to them. Onthecathed ra inthe annexed cut, is seated a bride.who is being fanned by a female slave with afanmade of peacock’s feathers.

Cathedrl .

Womenwere also accustomed to be ca

diversoria, or simply dwersorr'

wnordemaorfum.

2.A shop, where wms and ready-dressed

meat were sold , thus corresponding to the 4

Greek x arml eiov. The personwho kept acaupona was cal led caupa. InGreek t rim)signifies ingeneral a retail t rader, who so

goods insma ll quantities ; but the word ismore particu larly applied to a manwhosold ready-d ressed provisions, especial l y

CAUTIO. CENSOR. 71

wine insmall quantities. Inthese u lt ety of significations , according to the matteronl y persons of the very lowest class were to which they refer. Their genera l signifiaccustomed to eat and drink . cationis tha t of secu rity

‘

venby one personInRome i tself .there were no doubt , inns to another, or security w ich one personoh

to accommodate stran rs ;but these were tains by the advice or assistance of another.p robabl only frequent by the lower classes , The aud io was most frequent] a writing,since a 1 persons inrespectable society could which ex ressed the t of e parties to

easily find accommodationinthe houses of it;acco gly the wo cautio caine to sigtheir friends. There were. however inall nify both the instrument (ch£rogmphwnor in.

parts of the cit numerous houses where stmmmtum) and the object wh ich itwas thewine and read ressed provisions were sold. purpose of the instrument to secure. CiceroT he houses w ere persons were al lowed to uses the expression cauti

'

o chirographi' mei .

eat and drink were usually cal led inns and The phrase cavei's aliquid alicu i'

expressed thenot can e , and the tree rs o t empo

o fact of one persongiving securi ty to anotherpas . hey were principa y uented by as to some particu lar th or act.s laves and the lower classes, were com T he word cautio was so applied to thesequently only furnished Wi th stools to sit release which a debtor obtained fromhis11 oninstead of couches. The W ild , creditor onsatisfying his demand ; in thisw are the calida or warmwine and water sense cautio is equi

valent to amodemrecei pt ;was sold

,ap ear to have beenthe same as it is the debtor s securi ty against the same

the popinac. any of these pinae were li ttle being made a second time. Thusbetter thanthe lupaaan

'

a or rothels ;whence covers ab clique signifies to obtainthi s kind ofHorace cal ls themr'mmundaspopi

'

nas . The gam e, which are sometimesmentioned incon is also ap lied to express the pronectionwith thepopinacwerebrothels,whence fessional advice and

)

assistance of a lawyerthey are oftenclassed with the lustre. Under to his client for his conduct iii any legalmatthe emperors many attempts were made toregu late the popinac, but apparently wi th lita Cavere and its derivatives are also used

.

to

tle success. express the provisions of a law, by whichAl l persons who he t inns or houses of any thing is f

orbiddenor ordered, as inthepublic entertainment 0 any kind were held phrase, Lam mlegs, dtc. I t is al so usedinlow estimation among both the Greeks to express the words ina wi l l, by which a

and Romans. They appear to have full y de testator declares his wish that certainthingsserved the bad reputat ionwhi ch they os shou ld be done after his death .

ceased , for they were accustomed to c t CE'

ADAS or CAB’ADAS (s tride;or x at

their customers by false “(918t and mes s édac) , a deep cavernor chasm, like the Barnres , and b all themeans intheir power. athronat Athens , into which the SpartansCAU 'SI (gw za) , a hat Wi th a broad wereaccustomed to thrustpersons condemnedbrim,

which was made of fel t, and wornby to death.the Macedoniankings.

O

ne formis seenin CE lLlNG S OF HOUSES . [Dorms ]the annexed fi

gu res, whi ch are takenfroma CE

’

LE RE S , were three hundred Romanfictile vase , an fromamedal ofAlexander 1. knights whomRornulus establ ished as a bodyof Macedon. The Romans adopted it from guard. Thei r number, 300, has reference to

the number of the patriciangentes. Theywere under the command of the TribuanaCelerum. See Te rminus.CE NOTA

’

PHIUM , a cenotaph (s emi;andfactor) was anempt or honorary tomb,erec as a memo of a personwhosebody was buried elsewhere, ornot found forburial at all.CENSER. [Aciiza iuiJ

rheCENSOR rip rflc). office of censorwas institu at me ina. c . 443, its functions havin previous to that year beenperformed by t e kings, consuls, ormilitary inburies with consular power. The ostens iblereasonfor institutin the ofiice ina. c . 443

AVE'RE.These words are was, that i the con were toomuch occu

offiqti

j

itslr

‘

i

ltgcgurence, and have a great vari~ pied bywarand othermatters to conduct the

72 CENSOR.

census ;but this was not the real reason. ried of his ofice, the vacancy was not filledThe cities of themil itary tribunes with con up, as the death of a censor was rega rded as

sular wer, who supplied the place of the anevil omen;but the.

survivor was ob ligedconsu a, had beeninstituted the year before, to resignthe censorsh ip, and two new cenand was opento the plebeians as well as the sors were el ected .

patricians ;and since the latter were anx ious The censors were elected by the comi tiato cu rtail as much as possible, the power of the centuries and not of the cu riae, andwhich had beengivento the plebeians. they the same comitia centuriata at a secondentrusted the discharge of the censorial func mestin ratified the election. The

.

cu riaetions to two newmagistrates , two censors, hadnot ing to do with the election, becau sewho were to be exclusively patricians . For the censors had no inrperz

’

um,which no

a considerableperiod this drgnit was held assembly but that of the curiae cou ld have

by patricians ony, and the first p ebeiancen givent hem;the censors had only the jussorwas C . Marc ins Rutilus, ins . o . 351. I t cmmdr’, of which all their other rights werenow became a rule that one of the censors merely thenecessary results. lt isnot knownshould always be a plebeian. Inlater times, whether the censors had any outward dis.

whenthe distinctionbetweenpatricians and tmctrons inthei r dress, for the pug-

file robes

lebeians ceased to be of importance , it evenmentioned by Polybius were p l wornppened occasional ly that both censors were by themonl y inthe earliest times, an after

plebeians, thefirst instance of which occurred wards we hear simply of the toga prunes-(a.

ins . c. 131 , whenQ . Caeci lius Metel lus and Nor is there an ground for supposing thatQ . Pompeius Rufus were censors . Censors the censors ha l ictors as their attendancontinued to be elected downto the end of like the consuls ;but their numerous a

the republic , unti l Augu stus, under the title extensive functions, which had to be performof Praefectus Mar

-

um, undertook himself the ed inthe short period of 18months, requ iredfunctions of the censors, al though occasion a greatnumber of other attendants, such as

al ly be transferred some of themto other per scri bes and viatores.sons . Tiberius and Caligula likewise took T he principa l and original functionof thethe title of Pru cams Merum;but Claudius censors, fromwhich they received thei r ti t le,assumed that 0 censor, and made Vitel lius was that ofholding the census, at which everyhis colleague a . D. 48. Ves n, Ti tus, onehad to give inhis

‘

name, and to declare onand Nerve followed his ex amp e, and Domi oath the amount of his property. [Census ]tianevenassumed the title of Censor Per A sec ond part of

.

their functions consisted inpetuus. Trajanand the later emperors only a kind ofmoral Junsdiction, for they had thetook it for the time that they were actuall y right of censuring and punishing every thingengaged inholding the census. The empe that was contrary to good conduct or estaboror Decius made anattempt to restore the lished customs, .whi le real ly il legal ac ts or

censorshi and at his command the senate crimes.

were unishe'

d by the ordinary cou rtselected alerianus censor ;but the example ofJustice. hismoral Jurisdictions pears towas not followed , and we afterwards hearno have formed part of the censoria l unctionsmore of censors. fromthe very first, inasmuch as itwas theirThe office of censor lasted at first for a duty to observe, inholding the census, all

hum , that is, five years ; but ina. cases inwhich a manmanaged his afl'

airsthe dictator L. Aemilius Mamercinus carried badly, and thus reduced his pro rty ; and‘

a law (ter Amilia), which limited the(periodthe had consequently to remove 'mfroma

of office to eighteenmonths, so that uring big er, and place himina lower class of citithe remaining three years and a half of each sens . Inthe course of time this supe rintendlustrumno censors ex iswd at all, for censors ence of the conduct of Romancitizens ex.continued to be elected onl every five years. tended so far, that

.

it embraced the whol e ofThe c ensorship was con ered the highest the public and private life of the c iti zens.dignity inthe republic, part ly onaccount of Thus we have instances of their censu ring orits connectionwith religion, and art] on punishing persons fornotmarrying , for breakaccount of the great importance 0 i ts unc mg a promise ofmarriage, for divorce , for badtions ;hence it was usual l y the last mthe conduct duringmarriage, for imprope r educaseries ofofices through which Romanstates tionof ch i ldren, for living inanextravagantmen passed , most men. having been con and luxu riousmanner, and formany othersu ls before they aspired to the censorship. irregularities inprivate life. Their influ enceFor the same reasonit was not customary was stillmorepowerfu l inmatters connectedfor any one to hold the oficemore thanonce . Wi th the public life of the citizens. Thu s welfone of the two censors died during the pe find themcensunng orpunishingmagistratcs

CENS OR. CE NSU S.

who were forgetfu l of the dignity of theiroflice or guilty of bribery, as well aswho

‘

vvere guilfty of impmp

ggfcondi

li ct

magi strates , o permy an neg ectduti es both' inclviiandmil itary life.The punishment inflicted by a censor dif

fered fromthat immwd by a cou rt of law, inasmuch '

as a censor cou ldnot deprive a personeither of his l ife orof his property , but couldonly affect his status

‘

insociety : the propername for such a punishment ismgenera l notaornote emeria , and in articular ignwm

'

nia orinfamia. Such a punis ment moreover, didnot necessaril y last aman’s whole l ife ;but ifhis conduct improved, another censormi htrestore himto the positionfromwhich hispredecessor had removed him. The greatestand severest punishment was the expulsionofunworthymembers fromthe senate ;and according as the conduct of a senatormi ht bemore or less culpable, the censors h eventhe right of degrading himto thec onditionofaneques or of anaerarius. The had to ihformthe culprit of the cause of is degradation, and to mark it in the censorial lists ;hence the solo censoria. Aneques might bepunished by the censors by bemg obl

'

ed togive u his public horse , and this punis mentmight accompanied by his being compel ledto se rve inthe army onfoot , orby his beingexcluded fromhis tribe (tribu maven). Theact of removing the personfromhis tribe was

"

ally the same as degrading himto theran of anaerarian but afterwards, whenthere existed a difl

'

erence of rank among thetribes , a rsonmight either be transferredfromammmalice (which ranked higher) toa tribu urbana , or hemight be excluded fromall the tribes, and thus lose all the rights andprivileges connected with them that is, theright of holding amagistracy andof votin inthe assembly. Whena personthought tthe punishment inflicted by the censors wasundeserved , hemight try toJustify himse lf before the censor (causam apud censor-es) ;and if he didnot succeed , emi

ght endeavour.

to gainover one of the censors, orno punishment could be inflicted unl ess , both censorsagreed . Such cases oftengave rise to vehe

ment disputes betweenthe censors. A furtherappea l was not legal , al though itwas tried insome instances, especiallyb‘y

inducing the tribunes of the pea Is tomte ere.Another branc of the censorial functions

had reference to the finances. As the censorswere best acquainted with the

.

re rty of theci tizens, and consequently W ". t e amountof tax es they had to pay to the state, and as

they had to fix the tributum, they were thefittest magistrates to

anage the finances ,

which were under the supreme control of thesenate, so that the censors were infact theministers. of finance to the senate. Everything whichbelonged to the state, and fromwhich it denved revenues,was let out to farmby the censors among themwemaymentionthe ager publicus, ager vectigalis,mines, tol ls ,sa lt-works, dtc. Theyfurther had the aner

mtendence of all pubhc bui ldings ;and w ennewones were to be erected, they gave themincontract locabant) to the lowest bidder, andafterwards t e had to see that the contractorhad fulfil led is obligations, and done hiswork inthe properway. Inlikemanner theygave incontract every thing else that had tobe out of the state treasur evendownto t maintenance of the capitoline geese andthe painting of the statues of the gods. Thesenate always informed themof the sums theymight lay out, a nd the actual payment wasnotmade by the censors, but by the quaestorsor mas ters.

enthe business of the censorswas over,they celebrated the lustrumorgenera l purification[Laws on], and brought the censoriallists, and all other documents connected withtheir functions.into the aerarium,

whence theywere carried into the temple of the Nymphs

,

where the were deposited and kept for ever.CENS S , a register or valuationof persons and property.1. The census atAthens seems to date fromthe constitution of Solon. This legislatormade four c lasses (rmr‘mara , 1 . Pentacorionwdimni (nevrax ootoy édmvoc), or thosewho received 500measures, dry or liquid, fromtheir lands. 2. K night: (lmreig) , who had anincome of300measu res, and formed the Atheniancavalry. 3. Z eugiu

zgev Irat),whose in

comewas lSOmeasures , w oweresocalledfromtheir bein able to keep a team(Cab/0c)of oxen. 4. Item (first), whose propertywas under 150 measures. The word themproperlymeans a hired labourer, and this classcorres nds to that of the its censi at Rome.In0 er to settle inwhat c ass amanshouldbe entered onthe register (dwroypaefi), he re

turned a valuationof his property, subject,perhaps , to the check of a counter-valuation

$t5a org). The valuationwasmade veryrequent y ; insome states eve year ; inothers, every two orfour years. he censorswho ke

gt

s

the register at Athens, were robs.

hly at t the naucrari, but afterwa s thedemarche performed the ofiice of censor. lns . c . 378 a new valuationof property tookplace, and classes (commuter)were introducedexpressl

yfor the pmperty-tax (mp6). The

nature 0 these classes is involv mconsiderable obscurity. Thus much, however, may

74 CENS US.

be sta ted , that th consisted of 1200 individuals, 120 fromsac of the tentribes , who, byway ofa sort of litur advanced themoneyfor others liable to t e tax , and got it fromthem by the ordinary legal processes . Ina

simi lar manner classes wear an uent lyformed for the discharge ofanother anmoreserious liturgy, the h ierarchy ;and the strategi ,whonominated the tnerarchs, had alsoto formthe symmoriae for the property tax es .

Whenthe *

constitu tionessent iall y dependedonthe distributionof the ‘

citiz ens according toproperty, itwas cal led by the Greeks a tintecracy , or aristocracy

of

property (rt/i ox parfa ,

em“

; 1 1 rawno me a).2.mcensus at Rome was instituted byServius Tul lius, the fifth king of Rome : inhis constitutionthe political rights and dutiesofthe citizens we re regulated according to theamount of property they possessed , and ao

cordingly the census was anecessary consequence of that constitution. It was furthernecessary to repeat the census fromtime totime, as the property of the citizens , ofcourse,fluctuated at d ifferent times and under differeat circumstances : hence itwas the ru leat Rome that the census should be held everyfive ears.

e census was held by Servius Tu ll ius,and for some time afterwards, inthe CampusMartins, but subsequently ina public building,the villa ica, wh ich was erected intheCampus artius . Before the business comweneed , the auspices were consul ted, as onall other public occasions, and all the citizenswere summoned by a

' herald (praeco) to appear before the censors at the appointed time :onthe day ofmeeting the citizens were cal ledupon, in the order of their tribes, to maketheir returns. I t seems

,however, to have

beencustomary to cal l up first those whosenames had a favourablemeaning, such as Valerina, S alvius, etc. E very one gave his ful lname (nomcn, aenomcn

, and cognomm), thetribe to whi ch belonged

,the names of his

father, Wife, and children, and a statement ofhis ownage. Fmedrnenhad to ive the sameaccount, except that instead 0 their father

,

they had to state the name of their patron.

Widows and childrenunder age, being undera guard ian(tutor),were represented by him,andentered by the censors inseparate hsts. T heaerariz

’

,marina,andmunicipes , residing atRome ,were likewise entered inseparate l ists . Whenthese l istswere‘ drawnup, every one had tomake onoath a return profiten

'

, omen, or

60mm) ofhis property. tmust be observed,

however. that as i twas the names of Romanci ti zens alone that could be included inthecensus, so likewrse real Romanproperty, prin

cipally land (quiritarianproperty , dominium) ,wasalone registered. Whether aman’s capita l ordebts were takeninto account is uncertain.

The portions which persons o ccupied of theagerpublicus werenot assessed , as they werenotquiritarianproperty ;but inthe times oftheempi re, whenthe whole systembf taxationwas based ondifferent princi les, public landsseemto have beenassess Every personstated the amount ofhis real property

,but the

censorsmight nevertheless rate himhigher,if the thought proper ;and those who abse

'

n themselves for the purpose of avoid ingthe census, and without ap

pointing1

anybodyto act as proary, were severe y punis ed . T hesoldiers who were absent fromRome had tomake their returns to special commissionersappointed by the censors. Whenthe lists ofpersons and of their property were com leted ,the censors proceeded to divrde thewho e bodof citizens into senators, equites , &c., as was into classes and centu ries, and assigned toevery citizenhis prope r place, his rights as

well as his duties inthe republ ic , forwhich

purpose Servius Tu llius ha divided all Romancitizens int’o six classes and 193 centu ries .If a person's property had become alte redsince the last census, or if his conduct tequired it, the censors assigned h ima differentositioninthe social scale fromthat which helield before. Some were thus degraded,whileothers were raised . T he resu l ts of these proceedings were thenmade known, andwe havenumerous instances inLivy, infwhichnot onlthe sumtotal ofRomancitizens are recordbut likewise of all ersnas, including womenand children(capita Whenthe whole business of the census was over, one of the censors was ordered to celebrate the h a rm[Lennon], and before he d

'

d so, he deliveredanaddres s to the people, cit r to the wholebody or to particu lar individuals, by way ofadmonition, advice, and the like.Inthe Romanmunicipia, as wel l as inthecolonies , the census was held independent lyof the one at Rome , but the lists containingthe returns were sent to Rome, where thewere deposited inthe archives . Whena lthe inhabitants of Ita ly received the franchise,the local census appears to have continued

ial though many pe rsons went to the capitato have their property registered there. Inthe provinces the census was ’

conducted bycensors who were either elected inthe prov .

inces themselves, or were sent th ither fromRome. Inthe time of the empire, the samesystemofconductin the census inthe roviucsawas continu but it was carri outwith greater strictness and onamore extensive scale, forwhich purpose thenumber of

CENTURIO.

increased .

CENTU '

MVIRI were judices , who re

sembled other judices inthis respect , thatthey decided cases under the authority of amagistratus ;but they differed fromother judices ih being a definite body or collegium.

This collegiumseems to have beendividedinto four parts, each ofwhich sometimes satby itself. The originof the court is unknown.

According to anancient writer, three wereChosenout of each tribe, and consequentlthe wholenumber out of the 35 t ribes wontbe 105, who, inround numbers , were calledthe hundred men. If the centumviri werechosenfromthe tribes , this seems a strongpresumptioninfavour of the high antiquityof the court .Itwas the practice to set up a spear inthe

place where the centumviri were sitting, andaccordingly the word haste, or haste circumvirah

’

s , is sometimes used as uivalent to thewdrdsjudiciwncentumoirale. e praetor presided inthis court.The jurisd iction of the centumvi ri waschiefly confined to civi l matters, but it appears that crimina sometimes came undertheir cognizance.The younger Pliny, who practised inthiscou rt

,makes frequent al lusions to it inhis

letters .CENTU ’RIA. [Cs srus rmCesium]CENTU

'RIO, the commander ofa centuriaor company of infantry, varying innumberwi th the legion.The century was a military division, cor

responding to the civil one owia the centurio of the one answered to the curio of theother. Fromanalogywe are led to concludethat the century original ly consisted of thirtymen. In later times the legionwas composed of thirty maniples , or sixty centuries .As its strength varied fromabout three tosix thousand , thenumbers of a century wouldvary inproportionfromabout fifty to a bund red.

0

T he duties of the centurionwere ch ieflycentined to the regu lationof his owncorps,and the care of the watch . The viti: wasthe badge of office with which the centurionpunished hismen. The short tunic was eu

other mark of distinction. The followingcut represents a centurio

,

with the'

vitis inone of his hands . The centurions were usua lly elected by the mi litary tribunes, subjectrobably to the continuationof the consul.neverymani le there were two centuries,distingu ished y the ti tle ofprior and art

’

or,because the former ranked above t e lat

ter. The centurionof the first century of

CEREALIA.

the firstmaniple of the t riamwas cal led primus piles,Primipilus , primi pili cmturio, primcops centunonum, and was the first inrankamong the centurions , The centu rionofthe second century of the firstmaniple of thetnarii was cal led primipilu:posterior. Inlikemanner the two centurions of the secondmaniple of the triarii were cal led prior centurio and posterior contra alter-{us pili , and 80 onto the tenth , who were cal led prior ccntun

'

o

and posterior centurio decimi'

pili. Inthe samemanner we have primus prmceps , primus hastorus , &c. The primr

rihu was entrusted

with the care of the eag e, and had theofattending the counci ls of the general .The option“ , ar ormu tilat ion” w erethe lieutenants of e centurions, and theirdeputi es during i llness or absence they wereelected by the centurions.The pay of the centurionwas double that

of anord inary soldier. Inthe time of Polybius the latter was about ten denarii , or

73 . 1d. permonth , besides food and clothing.Under Domitianwe find it increased abovetenfold:CEREA'

LIA , a festival celebrated at Romeinhonour of Ceres, whom wanderings insearch of her lost daughter Prose ine wererepresented bywomen, clothed inw ite

,run

ning about Wi th lighted torches. During itscontinuance, games were celebrated intheCircus Maximus , the spec tators ofwhich a

ared inwhite ;but onany occasionofpuic mourning the games and festivals werenot celebrated at all, as the matrons couldnot:‘pp

ear at them.

ex ce t inwhite. T he

day the Cerealia ts dou tful;some think

CHELIDONIA.

CHARIOT. [Census ]

76 CHALCIOE CIA.

itwas the ides or 13th of April, others the7th of the samemonth. CHARI

’

S T IA (fromx aplCO/z ar, to grant aCERO'

MA (tripe /rail, the oilmixed with favour or pardon), a solemnfeast among the

wax (mp6; Wi th w ich wrestlers were Romans , to wh ich none but relations andanointed ; so the place where - they were members of the same famil y were invited , inanointed, and, inlater times, the place where order that any quarrel or disa reement whi chthe wrestled. had arisenamongst themmig t bemade 11ERH'CHI. [fimsrvrw] The day ofcelebrationwas the 19th of FeCESTUS . l . T he thongs or bands of ruar

CIIE IROT O'

NIA (x stporovla) . In theAthenenianassemblies two modes of votingwere practised , the one by ebbles (wage;00m) , the other by a show 0 hands etporo

est times, and ismentioned inthe Iliad :but vein). The latterwas employed int e elecin the heroic times it consisted merely of tionof those magistrates who were chosenthongs of leather, and ditl

'

ered fromthe ces the l3ut assemblies, and who were hencetus used inlater times inthe public games, called x erporovmot, invoting uponlaws, andwhich was amost formidable weapml’ being

insome kinds of trials onmatters which confr uently covered with knots and nai ls, an earned the 134323

16. We frequently find, howlo ed

'

Wi th ever, the W w'otiCroOat used where the

votes were really givenb showof hands.The manner of voting y a show of hands

was as follows —The herald said : “Whoever thinks that Meidias is gui lty, let himlift up h is hand.

" Thenthose who thoughtso stretched forth their hands. Thentheherald said again: “Whoever thinks thatMeidias is not guil ty, let him lift up hishand and those who were of this Opinionstretched forth their hands. The numberofbands was counted each time by the herald ;and the res ident, .uponthe herald

’s report, declare ou which side the majorityvoted.

I t is important to understand clearl the

leather, which were tied round the hands ofboxers, inorder to render their blows morewarfu l ly évreg, or

'

oreg murrucoili‘o

he cestugwas used bybl

asts inthe earli

2. A band or tie ofany kind, butmore particularly the zone or girdle of Venus , onwhichwas represented every thing that couldawakenlove.CETRA, or CAE T RA, a target, r

’

. e. a

small round shield, made of the hide of aquadruped . It formed part of the defensivearmour oftheOsci, and of the people ofS in,Mauritania, and Britain, and seems to ave

beenmuch the same as the target of theScotch H ighlanders. The Romans do notappear to have used the cetra ;but we findmentionof cetralae cohorts: levied inthe provinces. Livy compares it to the pelts of theGreeks and Macedonians, which was

”

also a

smal l li ht shield.

CO

HA ClOE'

ClA (Xol xwtx ro) , anannualfestival , with sacrifices, held at Sparta inhenour ofMinerva, surnamed Chalcioecus (X02.ld oucog),i. e. the oddess of the brazen-house .Youngmenmarc ed onthe occasion- ia ful larmour to the temple of the goddess ;andthe ephors, al though not entering the temple,but remaining Wi thin its sacred precincts,were obl iged to take part inthe sacrifice.

compounds o£,this word. . A vote conemn

ing anaccused personis more etporovtaone acquitting him, drrox stporov a émx srporoveiv is to confirmby amajority of votesém stporovta ramvapor:was a reviswnofthe aws.which took place at the beginningof every year : érrt erporovfa rein» dpx rtwwasa vote takenin t e first assembly of eachprytany onthe conduct of the magistrates;inthese cases , those who voted for the confirmationof the law, or for the continuanceinoffice of the magistrate, were said émx stporovsr

‘

v, those onthe other side r’mox st

foro

veiv :drax etporovta is a vote forone 0 twoalternatives dvnx srporovstv. to vote againsta proposition. The compounds ofwolCea t

have simi larmeanings .CHELIDO’NIA (x siltdévra) a customohserved inthe island of Rhodes, inthemonthof Boedromion, the time whenthe swal lowsreturned. During that season, boys, cal ledx sl tdovro

‘

ral, went fromhouse to house colleeting little gifts , ostensibly for the returnia swal lows, and singing

a son wh ich issti l extant. The cheli onia, w ich have

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

78 CHORUS.

CHOENIX (x oivtf), a G reek measure .

oi hymn, and the dancers ,'

who formed the chocapacity, the size ofwhich is differently gi v me, onl y allowed thei r movements to be

on;itwas probably of di fferent sizes intheseveral states. Some writers make it ualto three cotylae z ] .4866 pints Englisothers to four cotylae l .9821 mts E nglish) ; others againmake it eig t coty lae( z . 3 .9641 ints English).CHORA’ US a

pie

rsonwho

had to bear the expenses 0 the c oragia (x 0la), one of the regularly recurring state

urthens (éymix l torActrovpyla t) at Athens.Orfiinally [see Cnoap s] the chorus consisted

of l the inhabitants inthe state. With theimprovement of the arts ofmusic and dancing, the distinctionof spectators and performers arose it became more amatter ofart tosing and dance inthe chorus ;paid efformers were empl ed ;and at last the uties ofthis branch o worship devolved upononeperson, selected by the state to be their representative, who defrayed all the expenseswhich were incurred onthe difi

'

erent occasions . T his personwas the chorag us . Itwas the dut of themana ers ofa tribe (empclnral 4m17g), to whic a choragy hadcome round , to provide a personto performthe duties of it;and the persona painted bythemhad tomeet the expenses 0 the chorusinall plays, tragic or comic and satirical ;and of the lyric choruses ofmenand boys,the pyrrh ichistae, cliandancers , flute -players, etc. He had rat to collect his chorus

,

and thento rooms a teacher (x opodiddo'

xwM t).whom e aid for instructing the chot eti tas . The c orus were general ly maintained, during the eriod of their instructionat the expense of t e choragus. .The choragus who exhibited the best musical ~or theatrice l entertdment received as a rize a

tripod , which he had the expense 0 consecrating, and sometimes he had also to buildthemonument onwhich itwas placed. Therewas a whole street at Athens formed by thel ine of these tri pod - temples, and cal led TheStreet of the Tripods.”CHORUS (x 0

.g), a band of singers and

dancers, engage in the public worship ofsome dmmty.

.This is, however, onl y thesecondarymeanin of the Greek word. Thewerd chorus, whic is connected with agency,x wpa, properly denoted the market place,where the ,cborusmet.Inthe oldest times the chorus consisted ofthe whole papulationof the city, whomet inthe

opubllc place to offer up thanksgi vings to

thei r country’s god , by singing h mns andrforming corresponding dances. be hymn,owever, was not sung by the chorus, butsome post ormusiciansang or played the

guided'

by the poem(or the tune . The poet ,

therefore, was said to “ lead off the dance”

(éfdpx sw pol afig). Thi s old chorus , or thechorus proper,was always accompanied by thecithara, the l

gre, or the phomu

’

rw,which were

differentkins of stringed instruments whenthe accompaniment was theflute, itwas nota chorus, but anaglai

‘

a (dyl ata) or a coma:(K ay o a much more riotous afiii ir, whichwas ways rather of thenature of a proccasionthanof a dance, and inwhich there wasoftenno ex archus, but every one joined intothe song or cry of joy at his leasure.The chorus received its rst ful l development inthe Doric states. The Doric deitywas Apollo ;consequently we find the Doricchorus, which was properly accompanied bythe lyre, immediately connected wi th theworship ofApollo, the inventor of the lyre.The most important event inthe history

of Greek chora l postr was the adaptationofthe dithyramb, or 01 Bacchic song, to thesystemof Doric choruses ;for it was to this

i at we owe the Atti c drama. The dithyramb was originall of thenature of a coma:— itwas sung by a nd of revel lers to a fluteaccompaniment ;and Arion, the celebratedplayer onthe cithara, was the first to practise a regular chorus inthe dithyramb, andto adapt it to the °

cithara. The dithyrambwas danced round a blazing altar by a chorusof50menorboys ;hence itwas cal led a cir

cular chorus (mid d ay x opof).

T raged arose from he revitations of theleaders ofthe dithyrambic chorus, and thefirst beginning of it i s supposed to have beenwhen the poet , Thespis, as leader of h isdithyrambic chorus, either made long e icornarrative speeches , or conversed Wi th ischorus. Aeschylus introduced a dial oguebetweentwo of the a mid,who thus becameactors. T he tragic chorus subsequently consisted of twelve orfifteenpersons. the comicof twenty- four, and the satyri c probabl y ofnine or six .

'

The tragic chorus sti l l mustered aroundthe thymelc oral tar of Bacchus inthe theatre,thereby showing some last traces of its dithyrambic origin;and though the l yre was itsgeneral accompaniment , i t did not by anymeans re udiate the flute, the old accompaniment of t e dithyramb.The expense of the chorus , as is stated

under CHORAG U S,was defrayed by the choragus, who was assigned to the poet by thearchon. Inthe case of a dramat ic chorus

,

the poet, if he intended to represent at theLenses , applied to the king-archon;ifat the

CiPPU S .

great Dionysia, to the chief archon, whogave hima chorus,” ifhis lay was thought

to deserve it. The comic ance was not at

first thought worthy of a public chorus.butthe chorus inthat species of drama was at

firstlperformed b

e;amateurs.

C OUS or HORUS (1 017; or x orfic),equa l to the Romancongius , and containedsix form, or sextarii 5 .9471 pints E nlish I t seems that there was also a smafier measu re of the same name , containingtwo sextarii .9823 pints English).CHRYS E

’

NDE T A,costly dishes used by

the Romans at their entertainments , apparentl made of silver, with goldenornamentsCI OTUS G ABI'NU S . [T oes ]CI ’NGULUM . [ Z ONA.]C INE RA

'

RIU S . [CALAMI S T RUBL]Cl

’NE RE S . Fus es ]CI

'

NIFLO. ALAMI S T RU hlJCIPPUS

,a low column, sometimes round ,

butmore frequentl y rectangular. Cippi wereu sed for various purposes ;the decrees of thesenate were sometimes inscribed uponthem;and with distances engraved u onthem, theya lso served asmi le- stones. T ey were how

Cippus , Sepulchral Monument.

monuments .It was also usual to place

’

at one corner of

CIRCUS .

the buryin- ground ap ippus, onwhich theextent of t e burying- ground was marked ,towards the road (infronts), and backwardsto the fields inagrum) .CIRCE N ES LUDI. Cuz co

?CIRClT O’

RE S ,orClC IT O’

R S. [Casrm.

ClllCU S . WhenT arqu inius Priscus hadtakenthe townofApiolae from the Latins,he commemorated his success by anex hibitionof races and pugi listic contests in theMurcian va l ley , betweenthe Palatine andAventine hills ;around which a number oftemporary platforms were erected by the patres and e nites

,cal led spectacula ,fori , or 0

ruh'

,fromt eir resemblance to the deck 0 a

ship ;each one raisin a stage for himself,

uponwhich he at to view the games.his coume , with its surrounding scad’old

ings , was termed circus ;either because thespectators stood round to see the shows , orbecause the processionand races went roundin a circuit. Previously

,however, to the

death of T ar uin, a permanent bui lding wasconstructed or the urpose , wi th regu lartiers of seats inthe ormof a theatre. Tothis the name of C ircus Maximus was subsequently given, as a distinction- from theFlaminianand other similar buildings

,which

it surpassed inextent and splendour ;andhence it is oftenspokenof as theCircus, without anv dis tingu ishing epithet.Of the Circus Mammus scarcely a ves tigenow remains ;but this loss is fortunately sup

plied by the remains of a smal l circus ontheis Appia. the ground -planof which is ina

state of considerable preservation it isEg

re

sented inthe annexed cut, andmay be anas amodel ofall others .Around the double lines A,A) were ar~

ranged the seats odes , aedi'

a, subsonic), asina theatre, term collectively the cases ; thelowest of wh ich were as stated from theound by a podi

‘mn, and t whole dividedongitudinally bypracci

'

nctiones , and diagonallyinto cimci , with their vomitoria attached toeach. [Ameni 'rnsu s un] Towards the extremity of the upper branch of the cases , thegeneral outline is brokenby anou twork (B) ,whichwas probably the pulvirtar or stationforthe emperor, as it is placed inthebefi situationfor seeing both the commencement andend of the course, and inthemost prominentpart of the circus. Inthe Opposite branch isobserved another interruptionto the uniformline of seats (C) , betokening also, fromitsconst ruction, a place of

' distinction;whichmighthavebeenm

‘

gned to thepersonatwhmeexpense the mes were en(editor spectaculoru

‘m). In e centre 0 the area was a low

80

wal l (D) running lengthways dCIRCUS .

u the course, of the dorsal bone inthe humanframe , was

which. fromits resemblance to the position termed spins.

G round Ph i:of the Cirem.

At each extremity of the spins were placed11 na base (E , E), three woodencylinders,o a conical shape, like cypress trees,whichwere calledmeme—the goals. Their si tuationis distinctly seeninthe fol lowing cut.Themost remarkable objects uponthe spinawere two columns (F) supporting sevenconical bal ls , which f romtheir resemblance toeggs, were cal ledova, and these are also seeninthe fol lowing cut. Their use was to enable the spectators to count the number ofrounds which had beenrun;and they wereseveninnumber, because sevenwas thenumber of the circuits made ineach race. Aseach roundwas run, one of the amwas eitherput up or takendown. Ane

ggwas ado ted

for this purpose , inhonour of aster and 01

lux . At the other extremity of the spins weretwo simi lar columns (G), sustaining sevendolphins, termed delphi

'

nac, ordelpkinarumco

lumnae, which (lo -not agpmr to have beenin

tended to be removed , ut onl y placed thereas correspondia ornaments to the ow ;andthe figure of t e dolphinwas se lected inhonour ofNeptune.At the extremity‘

ofthe circus

two horns of the cam terminate , were lacedthe stal l s for the horses and chariots ,H ),commonly cal led cart-ma, butmore ancient l ythe whole l ine of building at this end of thecircus was termed oppidpm hence inthe circus, ofwhich the planis givenabove, we findtwo towers ( I , I ), at each end of the carca ss .

Thenumber ofcarceres is supposed to have beenusual ly twelve, as inthis p lan. They werevau l ts c losed infront by gates of Openwoodwork (cancelli),which were opened simu l taneonelyuponthe signal being given. There werefive entrances to thecircus,one (L) inthe centreof the carceres, called

gmna because it

was the one throu hw ich t e ircensian ro

cessionentered ;t e.others atM,M,N, ans0.

.

At the entrance of the course. exactl y inthedi rectionof the line (J, K ) , were two smallpedesta ls (km-mid i

“

) oneach side of the pod izmi ,to which was

.attached a chalked to (alba

linen), for the purpose of making t e startfai r, precisei as is ractised at Rome forthehorse- races uring swivel . T hus,whenthedoors olithemm ere thrown0 en, ifanyof the horses rushed out before t others ,they were brought up by this rope unti l the

CIRCUS .

whole were fairly abreast, when it wasloosened fromone side, and all poured intothe course at once. T hiswas al so called cab ,

and crew. T hemetric served only to regu latethe turnings of the course, the alba lined eu

swered to the starting and winning post ofmoderndays.Fromthi s descriptionthe Circus Maximus

little, except insize andmagnificenceof embellishment . T he numbers which theCircus Maximus was capable of containingare computed at byDionsius,by Pliny, and by P. ictor, all ofwhich are robably correct, but have reference to ercut periods of its history.

,lts

lenth, inthe tiers of Julius Caes‘

ar,was threesta ia

,the width one, and the depth of the

buildings occu ied halt'

a stadium.

When the ircus Maximus was perms .

uently formed by T arquinius Prisons, eachof the thirty curia had a pa rticular place wsigned to it ;but asno provisionwasmade forthe plebeians inthis circus , it is supposed thatthe Circus Flaminius was designed for thegames of the commonal ty,who inearly timeschose their tribunes there, onthe Flaminianfield However, inthe latter days of the tepubl ic, these invidious distinctions were lost,and all classes sat promiscuously inthe cir~cus . The seats were thenmarked otf at intervala by a line or groove drawnacross them( linen), so that the space inc luded betweentwo l ines afforded sitting roomfor a certainnumber ofspectators. U nder the empire, however, the senators and e

fiuites Were separated

fromthe commonpaop e. The seat of theemperor (Werner, or cubiculum) was mostlikely in e same situationin the CircusMaximus as inthe one above described.

The Circens ian mes (Ludi Circenses)werefirst instituted by mulus, according to thelegends,whenhe wished to attract the S abinepopulationto Rome, forthe purpose of furnishing his ownpeople with wives , and were celso

brated inhonour of the god Census, or Neptunus E questris, fromwhomthey were styledComrades . But after the constructionof theC ircus Maximus , they were cal led indiscriminately Circmses ,Romani , or M agni . They emb raced six kinds of mes —l. Census ; II.Lupus Taou n I I . Poem E ous srars ;IV. Csa'

u ns rv G ru rt xcuu ; V. Veru '

rro ;VI. Nauu i cuu . The tw

'

oJast were notculiar to the circus, but were exhibited so

inthe amphitheatre, or inbui ldings appropriated for them.

The games commenced with a d process ion(Pompa Circensis ) , inwhic all thosewho were about to exhibit inthe circus aswell as persons ofdistinctionbore a part. The

statues of the gods formed themost conspicuous feature inthe show, which were paradeduponwooden latforms, called fen-

ids andthemes. T he ormer were home upontheshoulders, as the statues of saints are car

ried inmodernprocessions ;the latter weredrawnalong u wheels.

I . Census , t races. The cams?

usuall y(

famplgy

ed ing

emd

fzwn y t

lwo or

our orses‘

unnus.

Thhe

'

usuainumber of chariots which startedfor each race was four. T he drivers (w igae,agitators: were also divided into four companies, eac distinguished by a different colour,to represent the four seasons of the ear, andcalled afactio : thus facn

’

o pracina , e gresh ,represented the spring ;factio russata , red, thesummer ;factio emu , azure , the autumn;and [ actio alba or album, white, the winter.Originall y there were but two factions, albumandmsara, and consequentl y only two chariots started at each race. The driver stood inhis carw ithinthe reins which went round hisback. This enabled himto throw all hiswei‘tfil‘it against the horses, by leaning back.

w but it greatlyenhanced his danger in

case of anupset. o avoid this peri l , a sortof knife or bi l l-hook was carried at the waist,for the purpose of cutting the reins ina caseof emergency.Whenallwas ready, the doors of the carceres were flung open, and the chariots wereformed abreast of the alba lined bymencal ledmoratorcs fromtheir duty ;the s ignal for thestart was thengi venby the personwho te

sided at the games , sometimes by sou oftrumpet, ormore usually by letting fal l a napkin;whence the Ci rcensiangames are calledspectacularmappac. The alba lines was thencast off, and the race commenced the extentof which was seventimes round the spine,kee ing it always onthe left. A course ofsev ncircuits was termed emu missus, andtwent Jive was the number of races runineach y, the last ofwhich was ca l ledmissusaeranus

'

because inearlfltimes the expense of

itwas defrayed b a co actionofmoney (ass)made amongst e peo

ple . The victor de

scended fromhis car at he conclusionof therace, and ascended the spins where be re

ceived his reward (brav ium, mmthe Greekflpafleiov), which consisted ina considerablesumofmoney ,The horse- racing fol lowed the same ru les asthe chariots.T he enthusiasmof the Romans for theseraces exceeded allbounds . Lists ofthe horses(libella ), with theirnames and co lours, and thenames of the drivers,were handed about, andheavy betsmade uponeach faction;and some

as ClS TA.

times the contests betweentwo parties brokeout into Openviolence and bloody quarrels,unti l at last the disputes which originated inthe circus had nearly lost the Emperor Justinianhis crown.

II . LupusTaoran, a sort ofsham-fight, saidto have beeninvented by Aenea performedby younmenof rank onhorsebac and oftenex hibi by the emperors.llI. Poona soussrars a

'r elements

,a re.

presentationof a batt le , uponwhich occasionsa camp was formed inthe circus.IV. C sn'

rannncvumcun. S eeA'

rnLn'ras ,

and the references to the articles there given.

V. Glenn ie ] VI. [Naumacnrm]Cl

'

b lUM, a l ight Opencarriage with twowheels

,adapted to carry

two persons rapidly fromplace to place .Thecisiawere quicklydrawnbymules. Ciceromentions the case of amessenger who travelled 56miles in10 hoursinsuch vehicles , wh ich

were kept for hi re at the stations along thegreat roads ; a proof that the. ancients con‘

sidered six Romanmi les perhour as anextraordinary speed .

CISTA a smal l box or chest , inwhich anyt g might be pla more

C isiurn.

CIVITAS .

part icularly applied to the small boxes whi chwere carried inprocessioninthe festivals ofCeres and Bacchus. These boxes, whi chwere always kept closed inthe publ ic processions

,contained sacred things connec ted

with the worsh ip of these deities . lnthe re

presentations oi Dionysiac processions onemcient vases, womencarrying cistae are frequently introduced .

Thbox , into which those who voted inthe comitia and in the courts of justice cast their

tabellae . It is represented inthe anh exed cut, and shou ldnot be confound

slaves was its negative.T he rise of a dominant class gradual ly overthrew themonarch ies of ancient Greece. Ofsuch a class , the ch ief characteristics weregood birth and the heredi tar transmissionofrivileges , the ossess ionofiand , and the perormance of itary service. To these charac

rs suppose it tohave beenworth inourmoney aboutC i

’

T HARA. Lvm.]C ITI Z E N . wins ]CIVI S . C i vrm

fllCI ’VITA , citizens ip.

l . G s s s x ( frol trela). Ari stotle defim a

citizen(g ammy) to be one who is a partnerinthe legislative and

IJudicial power (péro Of

x pt’

oen ai d x ix ) . o definitlonwi l l equa yapply to all t e different states of Greece

,or

to any single state at difl'

erent times ; theabove seems to comprehendmore or less ro

perly all those whomthe commonuse of amguage entitled to thename .

ClVl'

l‘

AS . e.

monl happened that thenobi li ty occupied theforti ed towns , whi le the demus (67mg)

livedinthe country and followed agriontural pursui ts : whenever the latter ' were gatheredwithinthe wal ls, and became seamen or

handicraftsmen, the difl'

erence of ranks wassoonlost, and wealthmade the onl standard.The uarrelsofthenobility among t emselves,and t e admixture of ulationarising fromimmigrations, all tene to raise the lowerorders fromtheir political subjection. itmustbe remembered, too, that the possessionofdomestic slaves , if it placed theminnonewrelationto ' the governing body, at any rategave themleisure to attend to the higher doties of a citizen, and thus served to increasetheir politica l efficiency.During the convu lsions which followed the

h eroic ages naturalizationwas readil y granted to all who desi red it;as the value of citiz enship increased , it was , of course, moresparingly bestowed . The ties of hospitalitydescended fromthe prince to the state, andthe friendly relations of the Homeric heroeswere exchanged for the apofevlat ofa laterperiod. In li tiosi intercourse. the importanceof these ast soonbeganto be felt, and theProcenus at Athens, inalter times, obtainedhts onl y inferior to actual citiz enshi

E,cannons ] The isopol ite relationex is

owever, ona much more extended scale.Sometimes particu lar privil s were granted as émyay la, the right 0 intermarriage ;éyxmocg, the right of acquiring . landed pr0perty :dréh ta, immunity fromtaxation, especially drél eta iteratx tw, fromthe tax imposed onresident aliens. Allthese privi legeswere included under the general term[001 5‘l aw, or Ioorrol lrsta, and the class who ohtained themwere called lam They.bore the same burthens with the . citizens,and cou ld lead in the courts or

‘

transactbusiness wit the people, without the interventionof a npoordmg.

or patron.

Respecting the divi sionof the Athenianc itizens into tribes , phratriac and demes, seethe articles T ntsus and Demos.Ifwe would pictu re to ourselves the truenotionwhich the Greeks embodied inthe tem.

word polx’

s ( tram).wemust lay aside allmo Some members of a political communitydernideas res

pecting thenature and ob

Lect of (cives) may have more poli tical rights than

a state. Wit us practical ly ifnot int eory, others ;and thiswas the case at Rome underthe martial object of a state hard ly embraces the re blic, inwhich we find a distinctionmore thanthe protectionof life and property. made tweentwo at classes of RomanThe Greeks

, onthe other hand, had themost citizens, one that and another that hadvivid conceptionof the state as awhole, every not, a share inthe sovereign

Tlpower(optinw

part ofwhichwas to co-operate to some t jun, non (prim jure aim) . at whichgeend to which all other duties weremost cred culiarly di stingu ished the higher class, or t e

as subordinate . Thus the aimofdemocracy optima jun sion,was the ri ht to vote ina

was said to be liberty weal th, of oligat‘

Chy ; tribe (JaeW ar-um), an the capacity of

and education, of aristocracy. Inall govemments the endeavourwas to draw the socialunionas close as possible, and it seems tohave beenwith thi s view that Aristotle laiddowna principle which answered well enoughto

.the accidental circumstances of the Grecienstates, that a pa“:must be of a certains ize.This unity of purposewasnowhere so full ycarried out as inthe government of Sparta .

The designof Spartanins titu tions was evidently to unite the governing body amongthemselves against the superior numbers ofthe subject pog

ulation. The divisionof lands,the syssitia , t e educationof their youth , alltended to this great object . ni t rou s ;Pnmos es ]Inlegal rights all Spartans were

but there were yet severazg

radations,whenonce formed, retain their hold onthearistocratic feelings of the people. First,there was the dignity of the Heraclid families ;and, connected with this , a certainpreeminence of the Hylleantribe. Another dis«tinctionwas that betweenthe Homioi (6 t

or) and Hypomeioncs whic inlater times, appears to have beenconsiderable . The latter termprobably comprehendedthose citizenswho, fromdegeneracy ofmanners or other causes, had undergone somekind of civi l degradation. To these the Ho

moioi were Opposed , slthou h it is not certaininwhat the precise erence consisted.All the Spartancitizens were included inthe three tribes Hylleans, Dymanes orDymanatae, and fimphilians, each 0 whichwas divided into tenobes or phratries. Thecitizens of Sparta, as of most oligarchica lstates, were land-owners, al though this doesnot seemto have beenlooked uponas anessentialof citizenship.2. ROMAN. Civitas means the whole bod

of cives, ormembers, of any gi venstate, an

the word is frequently used by the Romanwriters to express the rights of a Romancitiz en, as distinguished fromthose of other persons not Romancitizens, as inthe phrases

ClVlT AS .

enjoyin magistracy (jus honorum). The iaferior c ass, or the non imo are d im, dld

not possess the above rig its, w ich the R0mans cal led jus publicum, but they onl y hadthe jus privatum, which comprehended the

connubit’

and jus commercii, and those whoit’

d not these hadno citizenship.Under the empire we find the free personswho were withinthe political limi ts of theRomanstate divided into three great classes.The same divisionprobably existed in

.

anearly period of the Romanstate and certainlyexisted inthe time ofCicero. These classeswere , and peregrini. Civis is hewho possesses the complete rights of a Romancitizen. Peregrinus was incapable ofexercising the rights of cmnmerciwnand connubium, which were the characteristic rightsof a Romancitizen;but he had a capaci tyformakin all kinds of contracts which wereal lowable y the jus gentium. The Latinaswas inanintermediate state ;he had not theconnubium, and conse

flt

x

i entl he hadnot thefirm-ta potestas nor rig ts a natio ;but head the commerciumor the rig t of acquiringquiritarianownership , and he had also a ospacity for all acts incident to quiritarianownership, as the power ofmaking a will inRomanform, and of becoming heres under a

The rights of a Roman ci tizenwere sequired inseveral ways, but most commonlyby a personbeing bornof parentswho wereRomancitizens.A slave might obtainthe civitas bymanumission(mam), by the census, and by a

testamentum, if there was no lega l impediment ; but it depended on circumstanceswhether he became a civis Romanus, a La b

'

nus , or inthenumber of the peregrini dediticii.[Manua l ssim]The civitas could be conferred ona foreier by a lex, as inthe case of Archias w 0

was a civrs of Heracles , a civitas which hada foedus with Rome, and who claimed thecmtas Romans under the provisions of a lexof S i lvanus and G arbo, B. c. 89. By the proVtsions of this lex , the personwho chose totake the benefit of it was required , withinsixty days after the passi of the lex , tos igni fy to the praetor hiswis and consent toaccept the civitas (profiteri). This lex wasintended to give the civitas, under certainl imitations, to foreigners who were citizensof federate states (foederatisscripti). [Fosnsnu s Ci vt'ra'

rs'

sJ Thusthe

.

great mass of the Italians obtained thecmtas , and the privileges of the former civitates foederatae were extended to the provinces, first to part of G aul, and thento Sici ly,

CLAVUS

under the name of .Ius Latii or Latim'

tas .

This Latinitas gave amanthe right of acquirin the Romancitizenship by having exercis amagistratu s inhis owncivitas ; aprivilege which belonged to the foederatae ci‘

vitates of Ital y before they obtained the R 0

mancivi tas.CLARIG A

’

T IO. [FE T IALE SJCLASSES. Carer ;Counts .)CLA’SSIC [CORNUJCLAVIS (mt

,

dim. x x stdtov). a key.be key was use tnvery earl times, andwas probably introduced into reece fromE t ;althou

gh E ustathius states, that in

eary times al fastenings were made bychains, and that keys were comparati vely ofamuch later invention, which inventionheattributes to the Laconians. We have noevidence respectin the materials of whichthe Greeks made t eir keys , but among theRomans the larger and coarser sort weremade of iron. Those discovered at Pornand elsewhere are mostly '

of bronze. beannexed woodcut re resents a key found at

Pornpeii the size which indicates that itwas usedas a door key.

CLAVUS LATU S , CLAVUS ANG USTUS . T he claws , as anarticle of dress

,

seems to have beena purple band wornuponthe tunic and t0ga, and was of two fashions ,one broad and the othernarrow, denominatedrespectively claims lotus and claw mtgustus.

T he formerwas a sin ls broad band of purple , extending perpenicularly fromtheneckdownto the centre of the tunic ;the latterprobably consi sted of twonarrow purple slirunning paral lel to each fromthe toabo ttomof the tunic

,one fromeach a oulder.

The lotus class: was a distinctive badge ofthe senatorianorder;and hence it is usedsignify the senatorial dignity, and landmine,th

'

e

rgersonwho enjoys it.e angustus claws was the decorationOf

the uestrianorder ;but the right of wearing t e latus c lavus was also givento thechi ldrenof equestrians at least inthe timeof Augustus, as a preiude to entering thesenate-house. This , however,was amatter ofpersona l indulgence, and was granted only topersons of very anci ent family and corresponding weal th, and thenby special favour of the

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86 CLIPEUS .

the patronwas poor and to his ransom, orthat ofhis children, ifthey were taken risoners ;he

paid the costs and damages 0 a suit

which t a patronlost , and of any penal ty inwhich he was - condemned he bore a part ofthe patron’s expenses incurred by his dis~

charging publ ic duties , or filling the honourable places inthe state. Neither party couldaccuse the other, or bear testimon againstthe other, or

give his vote against t a other.

This relations'

p betweenpatronand clientsubs isted formany generations

,and resembled

inall respects the relationship b blood.The re lationof a master tohis liberatedslave (libertus )was expressed by the wordtram , and the libertus was the cliens ofhispatronus. Distinguished Romans were alsothe protectors of states and cities,which wereina certainrelationof subjectionor dependence to Rome . Inthe time of Cicero we alsofind patronas inthe sense ofadviser, advocate,or defender, Opposed to aliens inthe sense ofthe rsondefended or the consu ltor—a useof t a word which must be referred to theor

'

ginal character of the patronus.

LIE NT E'

LA. [Caress ]CLI 'PEUS (dour! the lar a shield wornby the G reeks and mans ,

°

ch wasually of the circular form, and is said to

Inthe Homeric times, the Greeks merel yused a leather strap (rel apCm) to sn

apport the

shield, but subsequently a handle z awawor61mm), the use and formofwhich areiwd inthe annexed cut.

Chpees’

Shnl'

d.

omnnms.

beenfirst used by Proetus and Acrisius ofArgos, and therefore is cal led clipeus Argob

’

cus,

and likened to the sun. But the clipeus isoftenrepresented inRomanscul pture of anoblong oval , whichmakes the distinctionbetweenthe commonbuckler and that ofArgos .The outer rimwas termed dvrvf by the

G reeks ;and inthe centre was a projectioncal l ed smu g or umbo. which served as a

sort of weaponby itself, or caused the missi les of the enemy to glance off fromthe

Whenthe censuswas instituted by ServiusTu l lius at Rome, the first class on] used theotipua , and the second were arm with thescum [S ou

-

run] ;but after the Romansoldiery received pay, the clipeus was discontinued al to ether for the scumCLlT

’

LLAE ,apairot’

ers ,and therefore only used inthe In number. InItal ythey were com y und Wi th mu les orasses ;but inother countries they. were alsoapplied to horses, of which an instance i s

gi veninthe annex ed woodcut fromthe columnofTrajan.

COACTOR. COE NA.

CLOA’CA , a sewer, a drain. Romeintersected by numerous sewers

,some of

wh ich were of animmense size : the mostcelebrated of themwas the clones max im

,

the constructionofwhich is ascribed to T arqumius Priscus. i t was formed by tlireeti ers of arches

,one withinthe other

,the in

nermost ofwhich is a semicircular vau14 feet indiameter. Themanner of itsstructionis showninthe annexed cut.

Under the republic, the administrationof

the sewerswas entrusted to the censors ;butlar officers were ap

was spunand wovenat a veryearly period .

COACTOR, the name of col lectors of various so rts, e. g. the servants of the publicani,orfarmers of the public tax es, who collected

the revenues for them, and thosewho collected themone fromthe purchasers of thingssold at a u lic auction. Horace informs usthat his ther was a coactor of this kind .

Moreover, the servants of themone - changerswere so cal l ed , fromcol lecting t eir debtsfor them. The “

coactores agminis” werethe soldiers who brought up the rear of a lineofmarch.

CO'CHLEAR (x ox luiptov),akiudofspoon,which appears to have terminated with a ointat one end, and at the other was bro andhol low like our spoons. The pointed endwas used for drawing snai ls (cochlear) out oftheir shel ls, and eating them whence it derived its name ;and the broader part fores ting eg s, are.

Coc Iear was al so the name givento a

sma l lmeasure like our nful.CODEX, identicalwit sander

, as amand Clodius , clamtrumand clostrum, comic andcoda, originall y signified the trunk or stemofa tree. The name codex was especial ly ap

plied to woodentablets bound together andined with a coat ofwax , for the purpose ofwriting uponthem, and when, at a later age,parchment or paper or other materials weresubstituted forwood, and put to ether intheshape ofa book , the name of c ex was stil lgivento them. Inthe time of Cicero, wefind it also applied to the tablet onwhich a

bi ll was written. At a stil l later period, daring the time of the emperors, the word wasused to express any col lectionof laws or constitutions of the emperors, whether made byprivate individuals or by ublic authority, asthe Codes G regorianus , odes T heodosiamu

,

and Code: Justiniané’us.

COE 'MPTIO. [MarsrnorvmanCORNA. As the Roman are not

always clearly distinguished , it will be convenient to treat of all under themost important one ;and we shall confine ou rselves tothe descriptionof the ordinary life of themiddle ranks of society inthe Augustanage, noticing incidental ly themost remarkable devietions.The mea l with which the Romansometimes began the day was the jmtaczdum,

Which was chiefly takenby children, or sickpersons, or the luxurious. Ani rregularmeal(ifwe may so express it) was not l ikely tohave any very regu lar time ;two eprgrams ofMartial , however, seemto fix the hou r atabou t three or four o’clock inthe morning.

Bread formed the substantial part of thi searly breakfast, to which cheese, or driedfruit, as dates and raisins , were sometimesadded .

Next followed the proudo‘

umor luncheon,

88 COE NA.

with rsons of simple habits a fruga l meal,usual y takenabout twelve orone o clock .

The coma , or principal mea l of the day,

correspondin to our dinner,”was usual ytakenabout t ree o’clock inthe time ofCicero and Augustus, though we read of somepersonsnot dining till near sunset. A

’

Ro

mandinner at the house of a wealthymanusually consisted of three courses. Thefirstwas cal led antecoena or tatia,a

gd was in e u of

lsorts of stim

;ants to

t e appeti te. ggs so were so inispensable to the first course that they almost gavea name to it (ab ovo usque admala T he fru

gality ofMartial onl al lowed 0 lettuce andS icenianolives ;ineed he himself tells usthat the promulsis was a

“refinement ofmodernluxury. It wou ld far exceed our limitstomentionall the dishes which formed thesecond course ofa Romandinner. Of birds,the Guinea hen(Afia avis), the pheasant (phasierra, so cal led fromPhasis, a river of Colchis), and the thrush, were most in ute ;the liver ofa on nsteeped inmilk, beccaficos ( dressed with pepper, wereheld a elicacy. The peacock, accord ing toMacrobius, was first introduced by Hortensins the orator, at aninaugural supper, andacquired such repute among the Roman our

mands as to be commonly sold forfifty enarii. Other birds arementioned as the duck(m s), especial ly its head and breast ;thewoodcock (attagen), the turtle, and flamingo(phoeuiooplerus), the tongue ofw Martialtel ls us, es

aeciallscommended itse to the

delicate a te. ffish the variety was per.haps stil greater : the charr (scam ), the tarbot (rhombus ), the - Stu eon themullet (mullaa),were big {p

'

, and dress.ed in the most various ashions. Of solidmeat, pork seems to have beenthe favouritedish, especial ly sucking-

gig. Boar’s flesh

and venisonwere also in i h ‘

ute, ,espe

cially the former, descri by uvenal asanimal oonm'm'

a natum. Condimentswere to most of these di shes : suchwere themnia, a kind of pickle made fromthe tunny fish ; the arm aocionmr, madefromthe intestines of t emackerel (scomber),so called because brou ht fromabroad ;also,a sort of brine ;faas , t a sediment of wine,ac. S everal kinds offungi are mentioned,trufies (bolefi), mushrooms (u bera ), whicheithermade dishes by themselves, or formedthe garniture for large r di shes.Itmustnot be supposed that the artistes of

imperial Rome were at all beh ind ourselvesinthe preparations and arrangements of thetable. Ina lar household, the functionsries to whomt unportant duty was en

trusted were four the butler (prom ), thecook (anhi

’maginus, the arranger of the dishes (structor), and the carver (carptor or scissor).Carving was taught as anart, and performedto the sound ofmusic, wi th approp riate gesticulations .

— mlnlmo sane diacrlmine refert,Q ou vultu leperse, at quo galliaa sece tur."Int}l6

0:31p of Petmniusba larbge mungtray er um, repositories: is roug t irnwit

the signs of the zodiac figured all round itu it each of which the artis te (atractor) hadp aced some appropriate viand, a guess onAquarias, a pairof scales with tarts (scriblitac)and cheesecakes (placenta ) ineach scale onLibra, doc. Inthe middle was laced a h ivesupported by delicate herbage. recently fourslaves come forward dancing to the sound ofmusic, and take away the upper part of thedish ; beneath ap r all k inds of dressedmeats ;a hare Wit

_wings, to imitate Pegasus, inthe middle ;and four figures of Mar

syas at the corners,lp‘ouring hot sauce

.(garum

piperatum) over the h, that were swimminginthe Euripus be low. 80 entirely had theRomans lost all shame of luxury, since thedays whenG ineina. insupporting the Fannianlaw, charged his ownage with the enormity of introducing the porcus T rojanur, a so rtof adding stuffed with the flesh of other anima s.The third coursewas the bcuaria ordessert ,to which Horace al ludes whenhe says of T igellius obovo usque admole cular“; itconsistedof fruits (which the Romans usually ate un

such as alnt

i

londs (amyg

uia

jae), dried

grapes um pame ates palm , laryotae.du tyb) ofsweetmhats and(confections, cal ledEdammellita, dulcian

’

a, such as cheeslicake

;cupedtae' matula, libs , placentaet arto am’

almond cakes (caplet ), tarts (scriblizae),wlfencethemakerof themwas ca lled pistor duk ian

'

us,

placenta-ins, libcm

'

ua, dcc.

We wil l nowsuppose the table spread and

the cats assemb ed, each with hismappa or

nap in, and.

inhis dinner dress. called'

eoenaions orcubitoria , usually of a bright colou r, andvariegated wi th flowers. First they took offtheir shoes , for fear ofsoi ling the couch,whichwas ofteninlaid with ivo or tortoiseshell.and coveredwith cloth ofgo Next th laydownto eat, the head resting onthe left bowand supported by cushions. The re were usual ly, butnot always, three onthe same couch ,the middle place being esteemed the mosthonourable. Around the tables stood the servants (ministri) clothed ina tunic. and girtwith as kins ;some removed the dishes andwiped e tables with a rough cloth, othersgave the guests water for their hands , or

COLLEG IUM.

cooled the roomwith fans. Here stood aneaste rnyouth behind hismaster’s couch , readyto answer thenoise of the fingers,while othersbore a large platter of different kinds ofmeatto the guests .Dinner was set out inaroomcalled scenario

or diaeta (which two wortzle perhaps conveyed

to a Romanearnesrl t e same distinctionas our dining- rooma parlou r). The comtio, inrich men’s houses, was fitted Up wi thgreat magnificence. Suetonius mentions asupper- roominthe golden alace of Nero,const ructed like a theatre,wit shifting scenesto change with every course. Inthe midstof the coenatio were set three couches (irid im’

a) , answeringinshe to the Square, as the

10 semicircu arcouc es

gsigmate ) did to the

tables. Anaccount 0 the di itiou ofthe couches. and of the place w ich eachguest occupied , is giveninthe article T aroni rt i ux .

For anaccount of G reekmeals, see the article DE IPNON.

COENA'CULUM. [Donna ]COE NA

'

T IO. [Cosme ]COFFlN. [Fus syCOGNA‘TI , COG A’TLO.

- Twas the relationship of blood, whichbetweenthose who were sprung froma com.

mon air; and all persons so related werecal l cognati.The foundationof cognatio is a legal marriege . The termcognatus (with some ex ceptions) comprehends agnatus ;anagnatusmaybe a co but a cognatus is onl anagitate:when is relationship by blo is tracedthroughmales .

Those who were of the same blood by bothparents were sometimes called germam

’

consanguinei were thosewhohad a commonfatheronly ;and uterim

'

those who had a commonmother onlv.

CO’

G NlTOR. [Acme ]COGNO’

MEN . [Nou ‘

sNJCOHORS .

UB'E

IIx sncr'rusJ

COLLE’

G I The pe rsons whoa col legiumwere cal led colleges or

The word col legiumpro rly expressed the

notionof severe persons ing umted inofice for any commonpurpose ;it afterwcame to si ify a body of persons, and theunionwhio bound themtogether. T he collegiumwas the émrpta of the Greeks.The legalnotionof a col legiumwas as follows —A collegiumor corpus , as itwas alsocal led ,must consist of three persons at least.Persons who legal ly formed such anassociationwere said corpus habcre, which i s equiva

lent toourphrase ofbein incorporated;and inlatcrtimes they were sai

z

tobecorporati,andtheI!

COLON1A.

body was called a corporalw,Associations of

individuals , who were entit led to have a cor

ggg, cou ld hold property incommon. Such ay, which was sometimes also cal led a imi

sam‘

ras, was a legal unity. That which wasdue to the bod was not due to the individuals of it and t t which the bod owed , wasnot thedebt of the individuals. he commonpro ert

gof the bodywas liable to be seized

an 801 for the debts of the body.

It doesnot appear how collegia were formed ,except tha t some were special ly establishedby legal authority. Other collegia were ro

babl formed by voluntary assoc iations o indivi uals under the provis ions of some generallegal authority, such as those of the publi

Some of these cor rate bodies resembledour companies or gui s such were thefals erum,pisrorum, etc. collagi

'

a . Others were of areligious character ; such as themag

ici an,augurum from medium collegia . therewere bodies concerned about government andadministration; as tribunommpirois, quantarum, decurionumcollegia.

According to the definitionof a collegium,

the consuls being onl y two innumber werenot a colregium, though each was cal led collega with respect to the other, and thei r unioninofficewas cal led collegium.

Whena newmemberwas takeninto a collegium, he was said cc-oprari, and the oldmembers were said with respect to him, rscipere incolic ium. Themode offilling up vscancies wou d vary indifferent collegia. Thestatement of their rules belongs to the severa lheads ofAucua

,Ponrrrs x , ac.

COLO’NIA, a colony, contains the sameelement as the verb calm to cultivate,” andas the word colonus ,whichprobably originallysignified a til ler of the earth.

”

1. Guess . The usual G reek'

words for a

colony are drrouria and shapes/( la. The latter word , wh ich signified a d ivisionof conquered lands among Atheniancitizens, andwhich corresponds insome respects to theRoman colonic

, is exp lained in the articleCLs sucur.The earlier G reek coloniea, cal led drroudat,were usuall y corn seed ofmere bands of adventurers,who is theirnative country, withtheir families and property, to seek a newhome for themselves. Some of the colonies,which arose inconsequence of foreigninvasionor civil wars , were undertakenwithoutany formal consent fromthe rest of the communit but usual ly a colony was sent outwith t e a probationof themother country ,and under hemanagement of a leader (oix io

-nig) appointed by it. But whatever may

90 COLONIA.

have beenthe originof the colony, it wasalways considered ina political point of viewindependent of the ,mother count called

by t e Greeks metropolis (pm-

prim 23.the

mother-city ,” and entirely emancipat fromits control . At the same time, though a col

onywas inno politica l eub'

ectionto its parentstate , itwas united to it y the ties of filialaffection;and, according to the general ly i sceived opinions of the Greeks, its duties to theparent state corresponded to those ofa daughter to hermother. Hence, inallmatters ofcommoninterest, the colon gave precedenceto the mother state ;and t e founder of theco lony (olxwrfig), who might be consideredas the representative of the parent state, wasusual ly worshipped , after his death, as a hero.Also

,whenthe colony became inits turna

parent , itusual ly sought a leader forthe colonywhich it intended to found fromthe origina lmother country ;and the same feel ing of re.spect was manifested by embassies whichwere sent to honour the

irincipal festivals of

the parent state, and also y bestowing placesof honour and other marks of respect uponthe ambassadors and other members of thearent state, whenthey visited the colony attiy ela and onsimilar occasions. The col

onists also worshipped intheirnewsettlementthe same deities as they had beenaccustomedto honou r intheirnative country : the sacredfire,whichwas constantly kept burningontheirpublic hearth,was takenfromthe Pr taneiumof the parent cit and sometimes t e priestsalso were brong t fromthemother state. Inthe same spirit, it was considered a violationof sacred ties foramother country and a colonytomake waruponone another.The preceding account of the relations be

tweenthe Greek colonies and the mothercountry is supported by the histo whichThucydides gi ves us of the quarrel tweenCorcyra and Corinth . Corcyra was a colonyof Corinth, and E pidamnus a colony of Corc m;but the leader (oixwrfzg) of the colony

flidamnus was a Corinthianwho was in

vi fromthemetropol is Corinth. Incourseof time, inconsequence of civil dissensions,and attacks fromtheneighbou ring barbarians,the E pidarnniaiis apply for aid to Corcyra,but their request is rejected. The next ap

the Corinthians, who took pidamnusthei r rotection, thinking, as s T hucy

dides, that t e colony wasno less t eirs thanthe Core ans’: and also induced to do so

through stred of the Corcyreans, becausetheyn lected themthough the

ywere colo

nists ; or they did not give to t e Corinthians the customary honours and deference inthe pubhc solemnities and sacrifices , which

the other colonies were wont to pay to themother country. The Corcyreans, who hadbecome very powerful by sea, took offence atthe Corinthians receiving E

'

damnus undertheir protection, and the rresu t was a war betweenCorcyra and Corinth . The Corcyreans sent ambassadors to Athens to ask as

sistence ;and inreply to the objection tha tthey were a colony of Corinth

,they sa id

that every colon as long -

as it is t rea tedk indly, respects t 8 mother country : but.whenit is injured

,is alienated fromit ;for

colonists are not sent out as subjects, butthat theymay have equal rights with thosethat remainat home.”It is true that ambitious states, such as

Athens, sometimes c laimed dominion ove rother states onthe ground of relationship ;but, as a general rule , colonies may be re

garded as independent states, attached to

their metropolis by ties of sympathy andcommondescent, but no farther. T he caseof Potidaea, to which the Corinthians sentannual ly the chiefmagistrates (dumovpyol) ,appears to have beenanexceptionto the general ru l e.2. ROMAN. A kind of colonizationseemsto have existed among the oldest I taliannations, who, on certam occasions, sent outtheir eu rfiuousmal e opulation,with armsintheir ands. to seek or anewhome. Butthese were apparentlymere bands of adventurere, and such colonies rather resembledthe old Greek colonies, thanthose by whichRome extended her dominionand hername .

Colonies were established by the Romansas farback as the annals or traditions of thecity extend , -and

,the practice was continued

without intermission,during the republic and

under the empire . Colonies were intendedto keep incheck a conquered people, andalso to repress hostile incursions ;and thei rchief object was ori al ly the extensionandreservationof the omandominioninItal y.icero calls the old I taliancolonies the pro

pugnacula imperii. Another object was to ihcrease the papu lation. Sometimes the immediate object of a colony was to carry 03 a

number of turbulent and discontented persons. Colonies were also established for thepurpose of provid ing for veteransoldiers, apractice wh ich was begunby Sul la, and continned under the emperors : these coloniaewere cal ledmilitares.The old Romancolonies were inthenature

of garrisons planted inconquered towns, andthe colonists had a portionof the conqueredterritory usual ly a third part) assigned tothem. T inhabitants retained the res t ofthei r lands, and lived together with the new

COLONIA.

sett lers, who alone composed themarcolony. The conquered peo la must at firsthave beenquite a distinct c ass from, and inferior to the colonists.No cbloniawas established without a lex ,

plebiscitum, or senatusconsultum; a factwhich shows that a Romancolonywas neveramere body of adventurers, but had a regu larorganization the parent state. Whena

lawwas forfounding a colony, personswere appointed to eu rintend its formation(colom

‘

amdeducere). hese persons varied innumber, but three was a commonnumber(triumvt

'

fl ad colonos dcducendos). We alsoread of dmcmviri, v

'

viri for thesame

(pu

rpos

e.

‘llhe law fix the quantityof lan that was to be distributed, and howmuch was to be assigned to each person.

No Romancould be sent out as a colonistwithout his free consent, and whenthe coloo

was not aninvi ting one , it was difficu l t to1 up the number ofvolunteers.The colonia roceeded to its place of des

tinationinthe ormof anarmy sub vex illa),which is indicated onthe coins some coloniae. Anurbs, if one did not al ready exist ,was a necessary part of a new colony, andits limits weremarked out by a plough , whichis also indicated onancient coins. The colonia had also a territory , which;whethermarked out by the plough or not was at

leastmarked out bymates and bounds . Thusthe u rbs and territory of the colonia respectively corres nded to the urbs Roma and itstemtory . ligious ceremonies always secommnied the foundationof the colony, andthe anniversarywas afterwards observed . I tis stated that a colony could not be sent outto the same place to which a colony hadal ready beensent indue form(auspicaro dc.

ducta ). This merelymeans, that so long as

the colony maintained its existence, therecou ld be nonew colony inthe same place ;adoctrine that wou ld hard ly need proof, for a

new colony implied a new assignment oflands ;butnew settlers (novi adscrr

'

pti)mightbe sent to occupy colonial landsnot alreadyassigned. Indeed it was not unusual for a

colony to receive additions, and a colonymight be re establ ished, if it seemed necessery, fromany cause.The commissioners a pointed to conductthe colony had apparent a profitable office,and the establishment o a new settlementgave employment tonumerous functionaries,among whomCicero enumerates—a

‘

tom,

scribes,librarii,prosecut e, architect; e foun

dationof a colonymight then, inmany cases,not onl y be amere partymeasu re , carried forthepurpose ofgainingpopularity, but itwould

91

give those inpower an nity ofviding places formany of eir friends.

pro

The colonies founded by the Romans weredivided into two great classes of colonies ofRomancitizens and Latincolonies ;nameswhich had no reference to the rsons whoformed the colonies, but mere y indicatedthei r poli tical rights with respect to Rome asmembers of the colony. The members of aRoman colony (colonia civiumRmnmwrmn)reserved all the rights of Romancitizens.hemembers ofaLatincolony (colonia Latina )ceased to have the fu l l rights ofRomancitizens. Probably some of the old Latincolonies were established by the Romans inconjunc tionwith other Latinstates . After theconquest of Latium, the Romans establishedcolonies, called Latin colonies, in variousparts of i ta ly. Romancitizens , who chose to

jomsuch colonies , ve up their civic rights,or the more ao

'

advantage of a grantof land , and became LAT I N I. [Crvru s ]Such colonies were subject to and partof the Romanstate;but they did not pos~sees the Romanfranchise, and had no

po

litical bond among themselves. T he lex u

lia, passed a. c .90, gave the Romanfranchiseto themembers of the Latincolonies and theSocii ;and such Latincolonies and states ofthe Socii were thencal led municipia, and hecame completemembers of the Romanstate .

Thus there was thenreal l no difference betweenthesemunicipia a the Romancoloniae, ex cept in their historical origin: themembers of both were Romancitizens, andthe Romanlawprevail ed inboth .

Inthe colonies , as at Rome, the popularassembly had original ly the sovereignpower ;the chose the magistrates, and could evenor e laws . Whenthe pular assembliesbecame amere formin e. and the elections were transferred by Tiberius to thesenate , the same thing happened inthe colonies, whose senates thenpossessed whateverer had once belonged to the community.he commonname of this senate was ordo

dcouriomrm inlate r times, simply ordo andcuria ;the members of it were decwiones or

mazes . Thus, inthe later ages, curia is 0pposed to senatus , the former being the senateof a co lony, and the latter the senate of

Rome. But the terms senatus ,and senator

were also applied to the senate andmembersof the senate ofa colony. After the declmeof the popular assembl ies, the senate o

had thewhole internal administrationof a c i ty, conjointly with the magistratus ;but only a decurio cou ld be amagistratus, and the chorce

wasmade b the decuriones.

T he highgstmagtstratus of a coloniawere

93 COLUMBARIUM.

the duumvi ri or'

quattuorvt'

ri, so ca l led, as themembersmi ght vary,whose functionsmay becompared with those of the consu late at Romebefore the establishment of the praetorship.The name duumviri seems to have beenthe

COLUMNA.

most common. Their principal duties were column.the administrationof justice , and accordinglywe find oninscriptions Duumviri J .D.

”(jun

'

dicendo), Quattuorviri J . D.

” The nameconsul also occurs ininscriptions to denotethis chiefmagis tracy ;and evendictator andpraetor occur under the empire and under therepublic . The office of the duumviri lasteda ear.

it some I taliantowns therewas a asfsctmjun

'

dicundo he was inthe place 0 and notco-existent with , the duumvi ri. The doumviri were, as we have seen, originally chosenby the people ; but the praefectus was appointed annual ly inRome , and sent to thetowncal led a praefectura , which might beeither amunicipi umor a colonia, for i t wasonly inthe matter of the praefectus that atowncal led a praefectura differed fromotherI taliantowns . Arpinumis called both amunicipiumand a praefectura ;and Cicero , anative of this p lace , obtained the highest honoursthat Rome cou ld confer.The cens or, curator, or quinquennalis , allwhich names denote the same functionary,was al so a municipal magistrate, and conesponded to the censor at Rome, and insomecam, pe rhaps, to the quaestor also . Censorsarementioned inLivy as magistrates of thetwelve Latin colonies . The quinquenna leswere sometimes duumviri, sometimes quattuorviri ;but the are always carefu ll y distiniehed fromthe duumviri and quattuorviriD . and their functions were those of censors. They held their omce for one year, anddu ring the four intermediate years the functions were not exercised. The office of censor or quinquennaliawas higher inrank thanthat of the duumviri J . D. , and it could onlybe fill ed by thosewho had discharged the otherofices of themunicipality.COLOSSUS x ol oooérl. is used both by

the Greeks and mans to signify a statuelarger thanlife ; but as such sta tues werevemmmon, the word wasmore frequentlyapp

'

to designate figures of gigantic dimansions.Such figures were first executed ia Egypt ,

and were afterwardsmade by the Greeks andRomans. Among the colossal statues ofGreece, the most celebrated was the bronzecolossus at Rhodes, dedicated to the sun, thehei ht ofwhich was about 90 feet.

OLUMBA'

RIUM, a dovec'

ot or igeonhouse, also mgnified a sepulchral ber lnall the orders ths shafi tapers

preserve it fromdeca so the columnwasmade With a uare and was m atedwith anabacus . Anselm] Hence the th iamipal parts of which eve columnconw

'

sts see

three , the base (basis ), t e shaft (w as), andthe ca ital (capitulumIntlia Doric, whic is the oldest style ofGreek architecture, we must consider all thecolumns inthe same row as havingme eommonbase , whereas inthe

'

lonianand Corinthianeach columnhas a separate haw, ca lledira . The capitals of these two latter orders

5 ow, oncomarisenwith the Doric , amuchricher style 0 ornament ;and the characte rof lightness and elegance is further obtainedinthemby theirmore slender shalt, its heightbeingmuch eater inproportionto its thic kness . “

Of a these circumstances some ideamay be formed by the inspectionof the threeaccompanying specimens of pil lars. The firstonthe lelt hand is Doric, theand the third Corinthian.

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94

out taking the auspices ;the comitia tribute didnot requi re these sanctions .I . Cona '

ru Cerium. Thissembly of the Romans originatwhenthere wasno second order of the state.

I t was a meeting of the populus, or originalburgesses, assembled intheir tribes of houses,and nomember of the pub: cou ld vote at suchameeting. The ancient us of Rome consisted of twoWhen—the mass orRomani a :and the T itimq: or T ithe, ca l led after the twopatronymic heroes of the state Roma , Remus,orRoma! and T im: T alia: to whic} ! wassubsequent y added a third tribe , the LacemorLuca -

crises. The Rams es are an used tohave beenthe Romans

pmpe r, the fries, S e

bines, and the Luca -

u , suns or ofa T yrrhenianstock .

The three original tribes of the populus orpu re: were divided into thirty crm‘

ae, and eachof these into tengenre: or houses ;and thisnumber of the gentes also corresponded to thenumber of council lors who represented them

l;the senate, which consisted of 300memrs.The comitia curiata were thus the assembly

of the original patricians;inwhich the votedby curiae. This assembly was chie y he ldfor confirming some ordinance of the senate

0 nomatter cou ld be brou ht before themex

cept by the authority of t e senate ;and withregard to elections and laws, theyhadmerelythe power of confirming orreject ing what thesenate had al ready decreed. After the estahlishment of the comitia cmturiata , the twoprincipal reasons for summonin the comitiacuriata were, either the passing 0 a lex curiatadc impw

’

a, or the elections of priests. The lescuriata dc impm

’

owas necessary inorder toconfer uponthe dictator, consuls, and otherma '

st rates , imperiumor mi litary command ;wit out this they had onl y a pota to: or civi lauthorit and were not al lowed to meddlewithm'

itary affairs. The comitia curiata werealso held forthe purpose ofcarrying into effectthe formof adoptioncalled adro atio, for theconfirmationof wil ls , and for t e ceremonycal led detestatio sacrorum. They Were held inthat part of the forumwhich was cal led comitium, and where the tribunal (suggestum) stood.The patricianmagistrates properly held thecomitia curiata;or, if the uestionto be proposed had relationto sac rights

,the ponti

fices presided As the popular element intheRomanstate increased inpower and import.ance , and the lebeians came to be placed ona footing of po

'

tical equal ity wi th the patricians , themeetings of the comitia curiata werelittlemore thanamatte r of form:their suflfrages were represented by the, thirty lictors of

COMITIA.

the crui se, whose duty itcuriae whenthemeetings actually took p lace ,just as the classes inthe comitia centuriatawere summoned by a t rumpeter (comicm orclassicus). Hence, whenthe comi tia cu ria tawere held forthe inaugurationof a flamen, forthemaking

_

of a wil l , doc , they were cal l edspecially the comitia estate, or the summonedassembly.”I I. The Comm Csmuau u , o) , as theywere sometimes cal led , the comitia majora,were a resul t of the constitutiongeneral ly attributed to Servius Tullius, the sixth king ofRome. The object of this

tJjagislatorseems to

have’

b eento uni te inone y the populus orpatricians— the old burgesses of the threetribes , and the

plebs , or the commonal ty who

had wnup y their side ;and to give thechic weight inthe state to weal th and numbers

,rather thanto birth and family p reten

sions. With a view to this he formed a planb

yvirtueo f which the people would vote on

a l important questions according to theirequipments whenonmilitary service, and ac.

cord ing to the positionwhich the occupiedinthe great phalanx or army of t e city : inother words, accordin to their property ;foritwas this which enab themto equip themselves according to the prescri bedmethod. Inmany of the Greek states the heavy armed soldiers were identical with the citizens possessing the full franchise ;and instances occurinGreek history whenthe privi leged classeshave lost their prerogatives, fromputting thearms ofa ful lcitizeninto the hands of the commonalty;so that the princi

ple which regu

lated t e votes inthe state y the arrangement of the army of the state, was notculiar to the consti tutionof Servius . Tarrangement considered the whole state as

formmg a regular army, with its cavalry,heavyoarmed infantry, reserve, carpenters ,musicians, and baggage- train. The caval ryincluded , first, the six e uestriancenturies,or the sea:sufimgia, whic consisted exclusively of atricians, who had the requisiteamount 0 wow to which were addedtwelve centuries o plebeianknights, selectedfromthe richestmembers of the commona l ty.The foot- soldiers were organized inthe following five classes —1 . Those whose propertywas at least asses or pounds weightof copper. They were e

quipped ina complete

sui t 0 bronae armour. 11 order to°

ve theirweal th and importance its proper po itical induenes , they were reckoned as forming 80centuries;namely, 40of youngmen

‘

umiore:from17 to 45, and 40 of older men u nions;of 45 years and upwards. 2. Those whosepropertywas above and under

COMIT IA. 95

asses , andwhowere equippedwith thewooden up out of all the three hes a rmed classes;sou-tum instead of the bronze clipeus , but had the second and third claases umrshed 20cenno cos t ofmai l . Theymade up 20centuries, turies apiece, Le. twice the number of their:10 of juniors: and 10 of u nions . 3 . Those junior votes, and 10 fromeach c lass stoodwhose roperty was above as ses and among the triarii , the rest be

’

hastati w ithbelow and who had neither coat of shie lds;the fourth class suppli 10centones,mai l norgreaves. They consisted of the same thenumber of its '

unior votes,who formed thenumber of centuries as the second class , simi bearm'

without the fifth class forlarly divided into jrmiorcs and u nions . 4. h ished 30 centuries, twice the number of itsThose whose ropert was above cases

and below and,

who were armed withthe p ike and javelinonl y.contained 20 centuries. 5. Thosewhose propetty was between and asses,

and who were armed with slin and darts.They formed 30 centuries . first fourclasses composed the phalanx : thefifth class,the light~armed infant ry. Those citizenswhose

gmerty fell short of the qua lification

for the figclass were reckoned as supernomeraries. Of these there were two centuriesof the (3 c and eelati, whose pro erty exceeded 1500 asses ; one centu ry of e proletariz

’

,whose pro y was under 1500asses and

above 375;an one century of the capitc-cmsiwhose property fell short of 375 acres .

these centuries were\ classed according to

their property :but besides these, there werethree centones which were classed accord ingto their occu ation;the fabn

’

or carpenters,attached to t e centuries of the first class;the comicines or horn-blowers, and the h ibicemor liticines , the trumpeters,who were reckonedwith the fourth class. Thus there would bein all 195 centuries 18 of cavalry , 140 ofheavy infant ry, 30 0 light infantry, 4 of reserve and camp- fol lowers , and 3 of smiths andmosicians. Invoting itwas intended to givethe first class and the knights a preponderanceover the rest of the centuries, and this wasetfected as we have just mentioned “ for thefirst c lass, with the knights and t e fabri ,amounted to 99 centuries, and the last fourclas ses , wi th the supernumeraries and musicians, t0 96 centuries ,who were thus outvotedby the others, eventhough they themselveswere unanimous. Evenif we suppose thatthe aim“

were ex pected to vote rather withthe ower classes thanwith the first class towh ich they were assi the first class,withthe knights ,would_

st lhave amajorit of onecentu ry . The same p rinciple was rvedwhenthe army was serving inthe field. Asthe centuries of unions consisted of personsbeyond the military age, the juniores a loneare to be takeninto the account here.

"

Thefirs t class sent its 40 centuries ofjunior” , ofwhich 30 formed the principa and 10 were

a posted among the trismi , who probably owedtheirname to the fact that they were made

junior votes , who formed the thirty centu riesofmerit. To these were added 10 tarmac oicaval ry, or 300men. This was the divis ionand arrangementof the army as a Is

'

ou. Butwhenit was necessary to vote int camp,they would of cou rse revert to the principleswhich regulated the divisionof the c lasses forthe purpose of voting at home, and would re.unite the double contingents. Inthis way,wehave 85 centuries of junior votes, or 90withthe five unclassed centuries. Of these, thefirst class with the fabn

‘

formed 41 centuries,leaving 49 for the other centu ries ;but Wi ththe first class the 10 tarmac of the cavalrywou ld also be reckoned as 10 centuries, andthe first class would have 51, thus exceedingthe othermoiety by 2.

T he comitia centw-iata were held in thecampus M arries without the city, where theymet as ibe cmcit‘us urbane: or army of thecity ;and, inreference to their mi li tary or

ganiz ation, they were summoned by the soundof the horn

,and not by the voice of the lic

tors, as was the case with the comitia curiata.

Onthe connectionof this divisioninto een~turies with the registrationof personsproperty, see Cs x sons and Census. Thegeneral causes of assembl ing the comitiaturiata were, to create magistrates , to passlaws, and to decide capital causes whentheofl

'

ence had reference to the whole nation,and notmerely to the rights of a particu larorder. They were summoned by the king,or by the magistrates inthe republic whorepresented some of his functions , that is bythe dictator, consu ls , praetors, and, inthecase of crea ting magistrates , by the interrexalso. The praetors could onl y hold the cc

mitia inthe absence of the consu ls, or, . ifthese were present, onliy

w ith their permission. The consuls he] the comitia for theappointment of their successors , of the praetors, . and of the censors. I t was necessarythat seventeendays’notice shou ld be gi venbefore the comitia we re held. This intervalwas cal led a trinundt

'

num,or

" the space ofthree market-days" ( tree nund inac, “ threeninth -da because the country peoplecame to e to buy and sell every ninth, orrather eve eighth day, according to our

mode ofrec oning, and spent themterval of

sevendays inthe country. T he firs t step inholding the comitiawas to take the auspices .

The presiding officer, accompanied b one ofthe augurs (augurs adhibito), pitch a tent(tabcmamdumcepit) Wi thout the city, for thepurpose of observing the auspices. It

“

thetent was not ched indue farm, all the proceedings of t e comitia were utterly vitiated,and a magistrate elected at themwas compelled to abdicate his oiiice. The‘ comitiamight also be brokenoff by a tempest;

ll(7the intercessionofa tribune ;if the stands

whichwas set up inthe ja’

niculum,Was takendown;or if any one was seized with theepilepsy, which was fromthis ci rcumstancecal led themorbus corm

'

tialis.

The first step takenat the comitia cenntriatawas for themagistratewhoheld themto repeatthewords ofa formof prayer alter the augur.Then, inthe case of anelection, the candidates'names were read , or, inthe case ofa lawor a trial , the roceedings or bil ls were readby a herald, a different speakers were heardonthe subject. The questionwas put tothemwi th the interro ation, Veliris , jubeati:,Quirites Hence the illwas cal led rogatr

’

o,

and the people were said jabers legem. T he

formof commencing the pol l was : S i

vobis videtur, discedite, Qui rites or Its insutl

'

ragium, bene jursutibus diis , et quae patres censuerunt, vos jubete.

” The order inwhich the centu ries voted was decided bylot ;and that . which gave its vote first wasca l led thecenturiapraa

'

ogatr'

va . The rest wereca lled junmates. Inancient times the people were polled, as at our elections, by wordof mouth. But at a later peri od the bal lotwas introduced by a set of special enactments

ghe legs: rubella

-m reference to the'

li'

stent ob'

ects invoting. hese laws were,

1 . The G a inianlaw, introduced b Gabinius, the tribune, ins . c. 139. 2. e Cassianlaw, a. o. 137. 3. The Papirianlawintroduced by C . Papirius G arbo, the tribune,ins . c. 131 . 4. The Caelianlaw, a. c. 107.

Invoting, the centuries were summoned inorder into a boarded enclosure (septum or

evils), into which they entered by a narrowssage (pom) sli htly raised fromthe ground.arewas pfi l a difl

'

erent enclosure foreach centu for t e Romanauthors general ly speak o theminthe plural. The tabellaewi th which they had to bal lot were giventothe citizens at the entrance of the pass bycertainoflicers, call ed rogatons, because thused , before the

'

ballotwas introduced , to as(roger?

each century for its vote, and hereationwas oflenpractised. If the busiin

ness of the day were anelection, the tabellae tribute, if they were chad the ini tials of the cand idates . If it were

OOMIT IA.

the passing or rejectionof a law, each voterreceived two mace . one inscribed U . R .,

i . e. ati’

rages , j‘I vote for the law the other

inscribed A., i . e. antique, “ I amfor the oldlaw.

” The tabellae were throwninto the cistae

,or bal lot-boxes [C I ST A] and whenthe

voting was finished , the regatares col lec tedthe tabellae, and handed themover to otherofficers, cal led diribitorea, who divided thevotes , whi le a third class of officers, termedcustodes , checked themOff by points (meta

marked ona tablet . Hence punctum i s u

metaphori call y to signify a vote .” -The ro

atom, din’

bitorcs, and custodcs were generally

riends of the candidates, who voluntari l yundertook these duties. ButAugustus selected 900 of the equestrianorder to performthese offices.T he acceptance of a law by the centimeter

comitia did not agguire fu l l force til l alter it

had beensection by the comitia cerium[butsee

o

Ls x Post i t u ], except inthe case of acapi tal offence against the whole .nation,whenthey decided alone.Ill. T he

'

Cou i ru Tni suu were not established ti l l it. c. 491

, whenthe plebs hadacqui red some considerable influence inthestate. They were anassembly of theple according to the local tribes, into whichthe plebswas original ly divided : for the plebsor commonalty took its rise fromthe formao

tionofa domainor te rritory, and the tribesof the commonalty were necessari ly local ,that is, they had re

fgions corresponding toeach of them;there ore, whenthe territory

diminished thenumber of these tribes diminished also. Now, according to Fabius, therewere originall y 30

.

tribes of plebeians, thati s, se o

meny plebeiantribes as there werepatncrancm'

ae. These 30 tribes consistedof 4 urbanand 26 rustic tribes. But at theadmi ssionofthe Crustu inine tribe, whenApp .Claudius with his numerous trainof c lientsmigrated - to Rome, there were only 20 ofthese tribes. So that probably the sessionof athi rd ofthe territory to Porsenaalso diminishedthenumber of tribes by one- third. [T R IBU SJSuch be ingthenatu re ofthe plebeiantribes,no

.qua1ificationof birth or proport was re

quisi te to enable a citizento vote in comitiatribute whoever belonged to a givenregion,andwas

'

mcon uence registered inthe corresponding tribe, ad a vote at these comitia.

They were summoned by the tribuni plebis ,who were also the

presidingmagis trates , if

the purpose forwhic they were cal led wasthe elec tionof tribunes or aedi les ;but consuls or praetorsmight reside at the comitia

ad for the electionofother inferiormagistrates, such as the quasa

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98 COMITIA.

ther they should vote the same way or not.After this was done. all the centuries of thefirst class voted simul taneously, andnot oneafter another, as the space of one day wouldotherwise not have been suflicrent. Nextvoted inthe same manner all the centuriesof the second, thenthose of the third class,and so on, until all the centuries of all theclasses had voted . The simu l taneou s votingofall the centu ries ofone class is sometimesfor this very reasonex ressed by or:ccunda classic vacatur. enall t e centuries of one class had voted, the result wasannounced . I t seems to have happened sometimes that all the centuries of one tribe votedthe same way, and insuch cases itwas conveulent to count the votes according to tribesinstead ofaccording to centuries.The comitia tributa inthe latter days of therepublic acqui red supreme imortance, thoughthe comitia centuriata , with eir altered andmore democratical constitution, still continued to exist, and preserved a great part oftheir former

gower along with the comitia of

the tribes. irring this time the latter appear to have beenchiefly attended by thepo lace, which was nided by the tribunes,an the weal thier an more respectable citizens had little influence inthem. Whenthel ibertini and all the Italians were incorporatedinthe old thirty -five tribes, and whenthe political corruptionhad reached its height,notrace of the sedate and .moderate characterwas left by which the comi tia tributa hadbeendistinguished informer times. Violenceand bribery became the order of the day, andthe needymul titude lent willing ears to anyinstigations coming fromweal thy bribers andtribunes who we remere demagogues. Sul lafor a time did away with these odious ro

ceedings ;since, according to some, he I

inhed the comitia t ributa al together, or, according

_to others, deprived themof the rightof electing the sacerdotes, and of all theirlegislative and Judicig

las

owers. But the constitution, such as it existed before Sul la

,

was restored soonafter his death by Pompeyand others, with the exceptionof the jurisdictio, which was for ever takenfrom thepeople by the legislationof Su lla. The people suffered another loss inthe dictatorshiof J. Caesar, who decided upon e anwar himself inconnectionwi th t e senate.He had also the whole of the legislationinhis hands, through his influence with themagistrates and the tribunes. The peoplethus

.

retained nothing but the electionof

magistrates ;but eventhis powerwas muchlimi ted, as Caesar had the ht to appointhalf of themagistrates htmsfii’

,with the ex

CONG IARIUM.

captionof the consuls and as inadditiontothi s. he recommended to the people thosecandidates whomhe wished to be el ec ted :and who would have Opposed his wish ? Under Augustus the comitia stil l sanctionednew laws and elected magistrates, but theirwhole proceedings were a mere farce

, forthey could not venture to elect any other persons thanthose recommended by the emperor. Tiberius deprived the peo le evenofthis delusive power, and conferr the powerof electionuponthe senate. Whenthe elections weremade by the senate the resul t wasannounced to the people assembled as comitia centuriata or tributa. Legislationwastakenawa fromthe comitia entirely

, andwas comp etely inthe hands of the sena teand the emperor.

‘

Fromthis time the comi tiamay be said to have ceased to exist, as allthe sovereignpower formerly possessed bythe eople was conferred uponthe emperorbyt e lex regia. [Lax Reeve ] The peo

p e only assembled inthe ca Martius forthemom of receivingmafionas to

who beenelec ted or appointed as itsmagistrates, until at last eventhis announceo

ment (rmuntiatitaappears to have ceased.

COMMENT S , a fu rlough, or leave of absence fromthe arm fora certaintime .

COMMENTA' US or COMME NTA’

RIUM, a book ofmemoirs ormemorandum-book,whence the ex ressionCaesar-is Commenter-ii.It is al so used ora lawyer’s brief, the notesof a s ech.&c.

CO ME'

RCIUM. [Crvr'na Romx

gjg‘COMPITA'

LIA, al so cal led L DI CPITALI

’

ClI , a festival celebrated once a ear

inhonour of the lares compitales, to w omsacrifices were ofl

'

ered at theplaceswhere twoormore waysmet. Inthe time ofAu stus,the ludi compitalicu had gone out of ashion,but were restored b him.

The compital ia longed to the fif th: eonccptc

’

vae, that is,festivals which werecelebratedondays appointed annual ly by themagistratesor priests. The exact day onwhich this festivalwas celebrated appears to have varied,though itwas always inthe winter, general l yat the heginnin of Janual'

giCONFARR A’TIO. A'

ramomum]CONG IA

’

RIUM (soil.m , from a

vesse l containing a congius . Comma ]Inthe early times of the manrepublicthe eongiu:was the usual measure of oi l orwige

te

v

ghich was

],

1

oncertaino

gc

alsions, ,

dis

tri u amount 3 e0p e~an t ua con

n’

umbecame a namepfor liheral donationm

the people, ingeneral , whether consistiu ofoil, wine, cornmone

y, or other things, w e

donations made to t e soldi ers were called

CONS UL.

they were sometimes alsoCongian

'm was,moreover,simply to designate a pre

sent or pensi ongi venby a personofhigh rank,or a

grince, to his friends.

C NG IU S ,aRomanliqurdmeasure,whichcontained six sextarii, or the eighth part of theam ora —

. 5.947l pints Eng ). I twas equa lto t e lar rchous of the Greeks.CON ‘

BlUM. Mars iuomnx .

CONQ U IS IT O’

R S , persons emp o ed togo about the country and impress diets ,whenthere was a difficu lty: incompleting a

levy. Sometimes commissioners werepo inted by a decree of the senate for thepose ofmkin a conuisitio .

CONSANG l’

NE [Coeua'rL]

CONS E CRA'

T iO. [APOT HE OS IBJCONSI 'LIUM. [Convnm m]CONS UA

’LIA, a festival,with games, cele

brated by the Romans, accordtng t0 0vid andothers, inhonour ofCensus, the god ofsecretdeliberations, or, according to Li vy, of Neptunns E questris. - Some wri ter's , however, saythat Ne tunus E questria and Census were

di erentnames for one and the same de~I t was solemnized every year inthe cir

cus, by the symbolica l ceremony ofuncoveringanaltar dedicated to the wh ich was bu

inthe earth. For mu lus, who wasconsidered as the founder of the festival,wassaid to have discovered anal tar inthe earthonthat

spot. The solemnity took place on

the2i st August with horse and chariot races,and libations were poured into the timeswh ich consumed the sacrifices . During thesefestive games horses and mu les werenot allowed to do any work, andwere adorned withgarlands offlowers . It was at their fi rst celeo

brationthat, according to the ancient legend,the Sabinemaidens were carried off.CONS UL (owarog), the title of the twochief officers ormagistra tes of the Romanrepublic. T he word

,is probably composed of

conand sul, which contains the same root asthe verb satin, so that consules signifies thosewho come together,” ust as pramd meansone who goes before, and a nd, one whosee out.

” The consulship is said to havegeeninstituted uponthe expulsionofthe kingsins .o . 509, whenthe kinglyK

owerwas t ransferred to twomagistrates, w ose office lastedonl y forone‘year, that itmightnot degene rateinto tyranny by being vested longer inthesame persons ;and for the same reason

'

twowere appointed instead of one l ong, asneithercould undertake an thing unless i t was sanctionedandfippm by his collwm

indT hei}origins tit was prud om orcomm ers o

the armies, but thiswas changed into that of

martin i!) 449, and the latter title re.

mained inuse unti l the latest periods of theRomanempire . The consuls were at firstelected fromthe patricians ex clusivel Theirothcewas suspended ins . c. 451, its functions were performedby tenhigh commissioners appomted to frame a code oflaws. Onthe re- es tabl ishment of the consulshi p, in 449, the tribunes proposed thatone of the consuls shou ld be chosenfromthe

attainthe higher dignity of the consulship.At length after a serious and long-protracted

strugg e between the two orders, it wasenacted the Licinianlaw, ins . c. 367, thathencefort the consulsh ip should be dividedbetweenthe patricians and plebeian and thatone of the consuls should always a plebeian. Accordinly, in 366, L. S ex tiuswas elected the rat plebeianconsul. Thislaw, however , was not alwa 8 observed, andit stil l frequently happened t at both consu lswere patricians , until , inlater times,whenthedifference betweenthe two orders had entirelyceased , and the plebeians were ona footing ofperfect equality with the ricians, the consuls were elected frombut orders indiscriminately;During the later periods of the republic it

was customs for persons to pass throughseveral subo inate magistracies before theywere elected consu ls, though th is rule wasdeparted frominmany particular cases. T heage at which a personwas eligible to the consulship was fixed ina. o. 180, by the lex ano

nalis [La x Asmara] at 43. The elect ionofthe consu ls always took place inthe comitiaof the centuries , sometime before the expiration.of the official year of the actual consuls,and the electionwas conducted either by theactual consuls themselves , or by aninterrexor a* dictator, and the persons elected , untilthey entered upontheir oflice,were called con.mles dcsigmtl i . While they were .

designati'

,

they were inrealitynomore thanprivate .

r

sons, but stil l theymight exercise consi er

able influence uponpublic afl’

atrs,.

for inthesenate they were asked for their Opinionfirst.If the had beenguilty

of any,illegal act,

either fore or du ring t eir election, such asbribery ambitus) they were liable to prossention, an the electionmight be declared void.

100 CONSUL.

T he time atwhich the oldconsulslaid down lowed b the lictors ;and the onewas calledtheir ofiice and the consules designati entered during t tmonth consulmajor, and the otherupontheirs, differed at different times. The consulminor. - Other distinctions of the confirst consuls are said to have entered upon suls were the curule chair (u lla curulia), andtheir office inOctober thenwe findmentionof the toga with the purple hem(toga d a ta ).the lat ofAugust, of the ides of December, the The ivory sceptre (m

‘

pt‘

o orsceplrum and ar

l st of July, and very frequently of the idea of ple toga werenot d istinctions of the congulsMarch , until , in 153. it became anestablished rule for the consuls to enter upontheirduties onthe lat of January ;and this customremained downto the end of the republic.Onthat day the senators, equites ,and ci tizensof all classes conducted ina procession(dcductio or processes consularis ) the newmagistrates from their residence to the capitol ,where, if the auspices were favou rable, theconsuls offered up sacrifices, and were inaugurated. Thence the processionwent tothe curis , where the senate assembled , andwhere the consuls returned thanks for theirelection. There theymight also a alt onanysub

'

eet thatwas of importance to t e republic,suc as peace andwar, the distributionofprovinces. the general conditionof the state, the[ cries Latinos, and the like. During the firstfive days

lof their office they had to convoke a

condo , and publicly to take a solemnoath , bywhich inthe earliest times, they pledged themselves not to allow any one to assume rega lpoweratRome ,butafterwardsonly tomaintainthe laws of the republic (in s jurors). Onthe expirationof their office 1 ey had to takeanother oath, stating that they had faithfu l lyobeyed the laws,andnot done anything againstthe constitution. .Thenew consuls onentering upon their office usual ly invited theirfriends to a banuet. Whena

,consul died

during his year 0 office, his col league immediately convoked the comitia to elect a newone. A consul thus elected to fill a vacancywas cal led consul aufi

'

ectus, but his powerswere not equal to those of anordinary consul .for he cou ld not pres ide at the elections ofotherma trates,not eveninthe case of thedeath of is col league. Inthe latter case as

wel l as whenthe consuls were preventedbyillness or other circumstances, the comitiawere held by aninterrex ora dictator.The outward distinctions of the consulswere , with fewexceptions , the same as thosewhich had formerly belonged to the kings.The principal distinctionindicative of theirimperi umwere the twelve lictors w ith thefoam, who, however, preceded

‘

the consu lsonly whenthey were out of the city. Thisoutward signof their power was takenbythe consuls inturneve month, and whileone consul was preceded y the twelve lictorswi th their fasces , the other was during thesamemonth preceded by anCW , and fol

mgeneral , but only whenthey celebrateda triumph . Under the empire a consul wassometimes distinguished by the senate witha sceptre bearing aneagle onthe top, but hisregu lar ensigns consisted of the togathe trabm, and the fasces, both withinwithout the city.The consuls were “

the highest ordinarymagistrates at Rome

.Their power was at

first guite equal to that of the kin exceptthat it was limi ted to one ear, an that theoffice of high priest , whic had beenvestedinthe king

,was at the very beginning de

teched fromthe consulship, andl

'

l

vento therowsacrorumor re: samficuha . e ausptcta

'

major?“This?“

continued tofbe

mlzng to theconsu a. re war 0 consu ls,however,was grad

-

fil

my;curtai led b variouslaws, es

‘peciall by the institution0 the tri

bunes o the p ebs.whose province itwas toprotect the plebeians at the unjust oroppressive commands o the patricianmagistrates. Nay, inthe cou rse of time, wholebranches of the consular power were detachedfromit ;the reasonforwhich was, that, as

the patricians were com lied to al low theplebeians a share inthe highest magistracy.they stripped it of as much of its origina lpower as they cou ld, and reserved these detached portions for themselves. Inthisman.

ner the censorship was detached fromtheconsulship inn. o. 443, and the praetorshipinn. c. 367; But notwithstanding all this,the consul s remained the highestmagist rates,and all othermagistrates, exec t the tri bunesof the plebs, were obliged to thei r corn~mands, and show themgreat outward re

functions of the consu ls during thethe republic may be convenient] de

scribed under the following heads — 1. eywereinall civi lmatters the heads ofthe sta te,bei

t

r

écgiinv ested with the imperium, which emao

na fromthe sovereignpeo Is , and whichthey held during the time of t eir office. Inthis capacity they had the right ofconvokingboth the senate and the assembly of the people ;they presided ineach (inthe comi tia ofthe curies as wel l as inthose of the centu ries),and they took care that the resolutions of thesenate mid people were carried into edect.Theymight also convoke continua , wheneverthey thought it necessary. Inthe senate

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toe CONSULARIS .

but that each had the imperiumevery othermonth. The onewho possessed it, as the consulma ‘

or, exercised all the ri hts of the office,thong he always consu lted is colleague. Inthe earliest times it was customary for theelder of the two consuls to take the imperiumfirst, afterwards the one who had had the

ternumber of. votes at the election, andtherefore beenproclaimed (remmliars)first .

Inthe time ofAugustus it was enacted thatthe consul who hadmost childrenshould takeprecedence of the other ;and some distinctionof rank continued to be observed downto thelatest times of the empire. Towards the endof the republic the consu lship los t its powerand importance. The first severe blow it received was;fromJulius.Caesar, the dictator,for he received the consulsh ip inaddi tiontohis dictatorship, or he arbi trarily orderedothers to be elected who were merenominalofficers , and were allowed to donothing without his sanction. He himselfwas elected consul at first forfive, thenfor tenyears , and at

last for life. Under Augustus the consu lshipwas amere shadow ofwhat it had been: theconsu ls no Ion r held their ofiice fora wholeear, but usual y for a fewmonths only ;andence it he ned that s ometimes one year

saw six , twe ve, or eventwenty-five consu ls.

Those who were elected the first inthe yearranked higher thanthe rest , and theirnamesalone were used to mark the year, accordingto the ancient customof the Romans ofmarking the date of anevent by the names of theconsu ls of the arinwhich the event occurred. During t e last period of the emire itbecame the practice to have titu lar or onoconsu ls, who were elected by the senatemconfirmed by the emperor. Constantine

appointed two consuls, one for Rome andanother for Constantinople, who held theiroflice fora whole year, and whose functionswere only those ofchief

'

ustices . All the otherconsuls were designs as honorarit

'

orconsulam. But

lthough the consulship had thus

become almost anemt

7 title, it was stil l regarded as the h ighest ignity inthe empire,and as the object of the greatest ambition. i twas connected with very eat ex penses,partly onaccount of the pa

‘

c es whicha consu l had to provide, and part y onaccountof the lar e donations he had tomake to thepeople. be last consu l at Rome was Decimus Theodorus Paulinus, 536, and at

Cons tantinople, Flavius Basilms, junior, .t .n.

541.CONS ULA’

RIS , si ified under the republic a personwho had eld the omes of consul, but ‘

under the empire, itwas the title ofmanymagistrates and public oflicersmho en

CONVE NT US .

Loyed the ins

'

of consulardi ,withouteving fil led t e office of consu hus wefind commanders of armies and governorsof provinces called Consults -

os under theemire.

(goNT UBE RNA’LE S (mic-mar), siguified originallymenwho served inthe samearmy and lived inthe same tent. The wordis derived fromtabmta (afterwards labemacu

lum), which was the original name for ami litary tent , as it was made of boards (tabulac).Each tentwas occu ied by tensoldiers (conmbemalcs );with a n rdinate officer at theirhead, who Was cal led decorum, and inlater.times caput contubcmii .Yenng.

Romans of il lustrious families usedto accompany a distinguished eral onhisexpeditions, or to his province, or the purposeof gaining under his superintendence a ractical training inthe art ‘

of war, or in’

t e administrationof public adairs, and were , likesoldiers living in the same tent, cal led hiscontubmalcs .

Ina sti l l wider sense, the name contubernules was applied to persons connected by tiesof intimate friendship, and living under thesame roof;and hence, whena freemanand aslave, or two slaves ,who were not allowed tocontract a l ega l marriage

, lived together ashusband and wife, they were cal led contrabanales : and their connection, as well as the irplace of residence,CoNT UBE

’

RNlUM . Com mun ists ]CONVENI’RE IN ANUM. [Murrumoment .CON E NT U S ,was the namethe whole body of Romancitizenseither permanently or for a time sett led ina

province . Inorder to facilitate the administrationofjustice, a province was divided intoanumber of districts or circuits , each ofwhichwas cal led constants

,forum, oryurwdrctw Romanci tizens l iving ina province were entirelyunder the

jurisdictionof the roconsul ;and

at certain imes of the year, x ed by thetproconsul , theyassembledmthe chieftown0 the

district , and this meeting bore the name ofcontents: (M edog). Hence the expressions—conoentus agsre, pcragers, conveyors, dis til lers.At this conventos litigant parti es appl ied tothe proconsu l, who selected a numbe r of‘

udges fromthe conventus to t their causes .

he proconsu l himself presid at the trials ,and pronounced the sentence according to theviews of the judges.who were his assessors(consiliumor constlian

‘

i) . These convento s appear to have beengeneral held after the proconsu l had settled the mi itary affairs of theprovince ;at least , whenCaesar was proconsul of G aul, hemade it a regular practice to

I CORONA.

hold the conventus alter his armies had retiredto their winter uarterS .

CONVI’VIUI“SS vm'osxt

CORNU, a wi instrument, ancientl ymade ofborn, but afterwards of brass. Likethe tuba, it difl

'

ered fromthe tibia inbeing a

larger and more werful inst rument, andfromthe tuba ites l inbeing curved nearly inthe shape ofa C, with a crm o

piece to steadythe instrument for the convenience of the perfo rmer. I t hadno stopples or plugs to adjustthe

.

sca le to any particular mode ;the entireseries ofnotes was produced without keys orholes, by the modificationof the breath andof the li psat themouth- piece . The classicum,whi ch original lymeant a si al, rather thanthemusi cal instrumentwhicli

ngave the signa l

sounded with the cams .

CORO’NA (arédavdg), a crown, that is;a

ci rcular ornament ofmetal leaves, orflowers,wornby the ancients roundthe head orneck,and used as a festive as wel l as funerea l decotation, and as a reward of ta lent ,mi litaryornava l prowess, and civi l worth.

I ts first introductionas anhonorary rewardis at tributable to the athletic games, insomeof which itwas bestowed as a rize uponthevictor. I t was the only rewa contended forby the Spartans inthei r gymnic contests, andwas wornby themwhengoing to battle.The Romans refined u onthe practice ofthe Greeks

, and invan a great vari ety ofcrowns formed of

'

difl'

erent materials, eachwith a separate appellation, and appropriatedto a particu lar urpose .

I. Coaom s srororu ms. Amongst the

honorary crowns bestowed hy the Romans formi litary achievements, the most drfiicult ofattainment, and the one which conferred thehighest honour, was the corona obs idionalfz ,resented by a beleaguered army after i tsb eration. to the general who b roke up the

103

siege. I t was made ofgrass, or weeds and

Wild flowers. thence cal ed corona aminca,and graminea obsidionalis

,gathered gem the

spot onwhich the beleagured army had beenenclosed.II Coaorn017 101 , the second inhonou r

and importance ,was presented to the so ld ierwho had preserved the life ofinRomaninbattle. I twasmade ofthe leaves ofthe oak.

The soldier who had acquired this crownhad a place reserved next to the senate at allthe public spectac les ;and they, as wel l asthe rest of the cornpany , rose up uponhis entrance . Hewas freed fromall public bu rthens,as were a lso his father, and his paternal randfather ;and the personwho owed his lie to

as bound, ever after, to cherish his pre~server as a parent , and afl

'

ord himall suchwe re due froma sonto his father

104 CORONA.

.

'III. CoaomNanni e o'

r cal ledalso CLAS S ICA. I t is difficult to determinewhether these were two distinct crowns, oronly two denominations for the same one Itseems probable that thenavalis corona , besidesbeing a generic term, was inferior indignityto the latter, and ento the sai lor who firstboarded anenerlly s ship:whereas the rostrumwas givento a commander who destroyed thewhole fleet, or gained any very signal victorAt all events, they were both made of £

01

and one at l east (rostrata) decorated wit thebeaks of ships l ike the rostra inthe forum.

The Athenians likewise bestowed goldencrowns fornava l services ; sometimes uponthe personwho got his trireme first e

ggand at others uponthe captainwho hisvessel inthe best order.IV. ConomMU RAL1 8,W88 presented by thegeneral to' the first manwho scaled the wal lof a besieged city. I t wasmade of gold, anddecorated with turrets.V. CoaomCAS T RE NS IS or VALLAR IB,waspresented to the first soldier who surmountedthe vallum, and forced anentrance into theenemy’s camp. This crownwasmade ofgoldand ornamented w ith the pa lisades (valli) usedinforming anentrenchment.VI . Conorva T a i unrasms. There werethree sorts of triumhal crowns : the firstwasmade of laure l '

or ay leaves , and was wornround the head of the commander during hist riumph the second was of gold, which, be

too arge and massive to be worn, washe d over the head of the genera l during histriumph by a public officer. This crown, aswel l as the former one, was presented to thevictorious general b his army . The thirdk ind, likewi se ofgo and of great value,wassent as a present fromthe provinces to thecommander. [Atriu mConcuss i on]

evenpu sh y.

VII . G u ns,was givento a 60tmander who obtained only anovation. I t wasmade ofmyrtle.VII I. CORONA Ons aema , wasmade of the

Olive leaf, and conferred uponthe soldiers aswel l as their commanders .T he Greeks ingeneral made but little use

of crowns as rewards of valour inthe ea rlierperiods of their history, except as p rizesinthe athletic contests ;but previous to thetime of Alexander, crowns Of gold were profusely distributed, amongst the Athenians atleast, for every trifl ing test, whether civil,naval, or mi litary, which , though lavishedwithou tmuch discriminationas faras regardsthe character of the receivin parties , werestill subjected to certainle restrict ions inrespect of the time, place, andmode inwhichthey were conferred. They cou ldnot be presented but inthe public assembl ies and w iththe consent, that 18 by suffrage, oi

’

the people ,or by the senators intheir council , or by thedfmérat tomembers of their own h og. According to the statement of Aesc ines, thepeople cou ld not lawfu lly present c rowns inany- place except intheir assembly,nor thesenators except inthe senate -house ;nor, according to the same authority

,inthe theatre,

which is, however, denied by Demosthenes ;norat the blic games, and if any crier thereproclaim the crowns he was subject to atimia. Neither could any personholding anOffice receive a crownwhi lst he was 13711 602)v that ia, before he had passed his accounts .“The second class of crowns were emble'

metical and not honorary and the adoptionOfthemwasnot regulated by law, but custom.

Of these there were also several kindsI . CORONA S ACE RDOT ALIB,was wornb thepriests (moor-doles),with the exception0 thepontifexmaximus and hisminister (cami llus ),as well as the bystanders , whenofiiciating at

the sacrifice. I t doesnot appear to have been

confined to any onemateriall. CORONA FUN E BRI S and S E PULCBRALI S .

The Greeks first set the example Of crowningthe dead with chaplets of leaves and flowers,whichwas imi tated by the Romans . Garlandsof flowers were also placed uponthe bier, orscattered fromthe Windows under wh ich theprocessionpassed , orentwined about the cinerary urn, or as a decorationto the tomb . InG reece these crowns were commonlymadeof arslelll. Chaos ; Cos v i vu u s. The use of

Chaplets at festive entertainments sprung l ikewise fromGreece. They were of

.

va riousshrubs and flowers , such as roses (wh i ch were

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106 COTYLA. CROTALUM.

the knees. Itwaswornprincipallyby horseo half ol'

the sex tarinso r £679 and contained

mmby hunwmand bymw d nnkmd au 6 c aglish .

thority. OUCl-IE S . [Leona ] Respectmg theirThe sole of the cothumus was commonl y use for reclining onatmeals, see Accou rra

of the ord inary thickness ;but itwas some and T R ICIJ NIU I .

timesmademuch thicker thanusual, probably by the insertionof s lices of cork. T heobject was, to add to the a parent sta ture of

the weare r ;and this was one inthe case ofthe actors inAtheniant ragedy, who had the

soles made unusuall y th ick as one of themethods adopted inorder to magnify theirwhole a pearance. Hence tragedy ingeneral sides with the exceptionof the front. It had

was ed cothumur. no seat for a driver, but was conducted bythe traveller himself, who sat inside. Thecovr

'mm'

i (this word occurs only in T ack

tus) seemto have constituted a regu lar anddistinct part of a British army. Compare

cormsUS (x érrafl"

alE N D“

of a soc: gamewhichwas introduced fromgicily intoG reece,where it became one of the favourite amusements

.

of young people alter their repasts.The simplestway inwhich it original l y wasplayedwas this - One of the company threwout of a goblet a certainquantity of wine, ata certaindistance, into ametal basin. Whilehe was dom this, he either thought of orpronounced t ename of hismistress ;and ifall the wine fell inthe . basin, and with a ful lsound , itwas a good signfor the lover. Thissim

‘fiheamusement soonassumed a variet

'

yof erent characters, and became insomeinstances, a regular contest, with prizes forthe victor One of themost celebratedmodesinwhich i twas carried onis cal led dr’

M . A basinwas filled with water, withsmal l empty cups (bfdflaea) swimming upon

Into these the young men, one after an:other, threw the - remnant of the wine fromtheir goblets, and he who

'

had the good fortune to drownmost of the bowls obtained

.the

exercised their ski l l and the numbe r otfcraters dedicated intemples seems everywhere

WEI” “2? r sr7r a a l r. 1 pets

were wornwit“pare alliumg

pgot wi the

toga, and were pro r y characte ristic of theGreeks, though pts d fromthemby theRomans.CRISTA. [ G u ns] ;CRITES (spa rk ) a judge ,was the name

applied by the Greeks to,an} personwho did

not judge ofa thing like a arsenic, according to posi tive laws, but accord ing to his ownsense of justice andequity. But atAthens 3number of eral were chosenby ballot fromanumber selected candidates at eve cel

ebrationof’zl

ére Dionsis

,“

iiiwere

toeddgei

Kptrat, rear 0'

v . ei r o cewas u

of themerit of difl‘

erent choruses anddramatic poems, and to award the prizes to thevictors. Their number was five for comedyand the samenumber for tragedy, one beingtakenfromevery tribe.

CRO‘

BYLU S . [Coavnaus ]CROCO

'

T A (se. acetic, «pomrétgrtav, ornpox o rég so. x rrév), was a k ofgala-dress, chiefly wornby womenonsolemnoccasions, and in) G reece especially, at thefestival of the Dionysia. Its namewas derived fromcram , onep f the favourite coloursof the G reek ladies.CRO’TALUM (x

’

ral ov), a kind ofbal. I t ap ears tofive beena split r or

cane, whio clattered whenshakenwith the

CULINA. CURATOR.

hand . Womenwho played onthe crotalumwere termed crotalirtriac. The annexed cut

rep resents one of thesemg .

stone

Pmsle play ing onthe Omtala.

G ROWNS . Oceans ]CUBICULA’

lI, slaves who had the careofthe sleeping and dwel ling - rooms. Faithfu ls laves were always selected for this odies , asthey had, to a ce rtain extent, the care oftheir mas ter's person. I t was the duty ofthe cubicularii to introduce visiters to theirmaster.CUBI 'CULUM usual ly means a sleeping

and dwell ing room ina Romanhouse [Dolws]. but it is also a l ied to the pavi l ionortent in which the oman emperors wereaccustomed to witness the public games . ltappears to have beenso cal led , because the T ombstone anewemperors were accustomed to recline inthecubicula, instead of sitting. as was ancientlythe raetics , ina sells curulis .

C '

BITUS (vrfix vg), a G reek and Romanmeasure of length .original ly the length of thehumanarmfromthe e lbow to the wrist, .or tothe knuckle

got

'

the middle linger. I t wasequal to a foot and a half, which gives 1 footi e744

uinches Eng . for the Roman, and 1 footinches for the Greek c

‘

ubit.CUCULLUS , a cowl . As the cowl was

intended to be newinthe Openair, and to bedrawnover the head to protect it fromtheinjuries of the weather, instead of a hat orcap , it was attached only to garments of thecoarsest kind . The cucul lus was also usedby pers ons in the higher circles of society,whenthey wished to go abroad without beingknown.

CU'

LEUS , orCU’

LLE U S , a Romanmeasure, which was used for estimating the produce of vineyards. I twas the largest liquidmeasure used by the Romans, containing 20amhorse, or 1 18 gal lons, p ints.ULI’NA . [Dorms ]

107

ULT RA'

RIU S . [Cur/ran?lU’

NE US was thename app'

ed to afoot sold iers

,drawnu inthe form

wedge, for the purpose 0 break ing throughanenemy’s l ine . The commonsoldiers ca lledit a caput porcimrm.or pig’s head. I

The name caucus was also up Lied to thecompartments of seats incircu ar or semic ircu lar theatres, which were so arranged asto converge to the centre of the theatre, anddiverge towards the external wal ls of thebuild ing

,with passages betweeneach com

partment.0

CUNI’CULUS (swimmer?amine or pas

sage underground was so ca ed fromits tesemblance to the burrowing ofa rabbit.CURA'TOR. Til l a Romanyou th attainedthe age of puberty, which was general ly Qu adat fourteenyears of age , he was incapable ofany legal act, and was under the authori ty ofa tutor or guardian;but with the attainmentof the age of pube rty , he became capable pdperforming every lega l act

,andwas freed from

the contro l of his tutor. As, however, a per

103 CURROS .

sonofthat tender agewas liable to be imposedupon, the lex Plaetoria enacted that everyperson between the time of

Egberty and

twenty -five ears of age should under theprotection0 a curator. The date of th is lexi s not known, though it is certainthat the lawexisted whenPlautus wrote (aboutwho s sake of it as the lu '

qur’

na vicmaria.

This aw established a distinctionof age,

wh ich was of great practical im rtance, byforming the citizens into two c asses, thoseabove and those bel ow twenty-five years ofage (minorcs vig inti gain reminis) . A personunder the last-mentione age was sometimessimply cal led minor. The ob

'

ect of the lexwas to protect persons uner twenty ofive

years of age against all fraud (dolus). A personwho wasted his property (prodigus), anda personof unsound mind (furrows , denim ),were also laced under the care of a curator.

CURA O’RES were ubiis officers of various kinds under the manempire, suchas the cura tor“ annonac, the curators: ladenmm, 650.

CU 'RIA. [Cas te ]CU’RIAE . Conn-

u CuaumJCUR IA’TA OMI'TIA . [ConsumeCU ’RIO . Each of the thirty curiae at

ECom'

ru CUR IAT A] had a president cal ledwho performed the sacred rites , a par

ticipationinwhich served as a bond of unionamongst the members . The Curiones themselves

, forming a coils ofthirty priests.werepresided over by the uric Max imum Moreover, each of these corporations had its commonhal l , cal led curia, inwhich the citiz ensmet for religious and other purposes. Butbe

sides the halls of the old corporatibns, therewere also other curiae at Rome, used for a

variety of pu rposes ; the most imottant ofwhich was the curia inwhich t e senategeneral lymet;sometimes simply cal led curia,sometimes distinguished by the epithet Hosti lia as itwas said to have beenbuil t by T ullus li ostilius.CURS US . Ci scus, p.

CURU’

LlS ELLA . [S BLLL ]CURRU S (apps ), a chariot , a car. These

terms appear to have denoted those twowheeled vehicles for the carriage of persons,which were openoverhead , thus difl

'

ermg fromthe carpmtum, and c losed infront , inwhichthey ditfered fromthe cis ium. Themost essential articles inthe constructionof the curms were, 1 . The Award . 2.Theaxle (aim) , ax is 3. The w eelsm’mM , rpo

x ol, rotae),whic revolved uponthe -axle, andwere revented fromcomin 06

' by the insetti on{3108 (511301 00 into t e extremities of

the ex es . he parts of the wheel were

The G reeks and Romans ppear nev er tohave u sedmore thanone pole and one yoke,and the currus thus const ructed was commonly drawnby two horses , which were at

teched t?it by theirnecks.and t herefore ca lled

di v a; 1mm, ovv ly, gcmini jugales , bi

jug, &c. Ifa third horsewas added , gymnot unl

'

uentl y the case. it was fas tened bytraces. he

dgi

zrse so attached was

fe l led

1r apog, rr oezpog'

, oetpaeopog,m atiu,we , and is Opposed to the {ve a t or (67401,the yoke horses. TheLatinname for a chariotand pai rwas biga. Whena third h orse wasadded , itwas cal led rri a ;

'

and b the sameanalogy a chariot and ourwas c led quadri

ga inG reek , rerpaopla or rédfiumrog.

The horses were commonl y arnessed inaquadriga after themanner a l ready represented, the two strongest horses being placedunder the yoke, and the two others fastenedoneach side b

ymeans ofme. Th is is

clearl y seen'mt e two quad rigae inthe next

cut, especial ly inthe one onthe righ t hand.

I t represents a chariot overthrowninpassingthe oal at the circus. The cha rioteer having al ienbackwards , the pole and y oke are

th rownupwards into the air; the two tracehorses have fallenontheir knees , and the

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110 DARE ICUS . DE CE HVIRI.

T he“

cymbalwas a very ancient instrument, u o‘m‘

.

being used inthe worship ofCybele, Bacchus,Juno, and all the earlier deities of the Grecianand Romanmythology . I t probabl camefrom the East. For rim-

um, whi somehave referred to the class of cymbals , see S te

DAE’

DALA (Aaldal a), the name of twocelebrated inBoeotia inhonour of

Juno, and cal led res actively thethe Less Daeda la.

9The latter were

brated by the Plataeans alone ; inthebrationof the former, which took placeevery sixtieth year, the Plataeans were Jby the other Boeotians .DAGGERS . [Puo xo g S um]BANAG E (davdnq), properly the name of

a foreigncorn,was al so thename gi vento the

abolgs

eadwhich w

gs [seed in

.

the mouth ofe to pay t e errymaninHades.

gages. (43mm). 1! os

tival celebrated everyninth year at Thebesinhonour of Apol lo, surnamed Iamenina orG alaxies. Its name was derived from thelaurel branches (Meme) which were carriedby those who took part inits celebration.

DARE ICU S (dapemég).a old coinofPersia, stamped onone side wit the figure ofanarcher crowned and knee ling upononeknee, and onthe other with a sort of quadrata incusa or deep cleft. I t is supposedto

‘

have derived itsname fromthe first Darei us, k ing of Persia. I t is equal toI I. ls . 10d . farthin

The tentables of the former, and the twotables of the latter decemvirs, formtogetherthe laws of the Twelve Tables, wh ich werethe groundwork of the Romanlaws. This,

tom. x"

DECE’MVIRI , or the ten-men,” thenameof various magistrates and functionaries atRome. ofwhomthemost important were1 . Dscs x vrnr Lnorsus S oarnssms , tencommissioners, who were appointed to drawup a code of laws. T hey were ent rustedwith supreme power inthe state, and all theother magistrates were su

spended . They

entered upontheir odies at,

e beginning ofthe year a. o. 451;and they discher theirduties with diligence, and di spe justicewith impartiality. Each administered thegovernment day by day insuccessionas da

ring aninterregnum;and the fasces wereonly carried before the one who presided forthe day. They drew up a body of laws, distributed into tensections;which , after beingapproved of by the senate and the comitia,were engravenontables ofmetal, and set upinthe comitium. Onthe expirationof theiryear of office, all parties were so wel l satisa

'

tied with themanner inwhich they had diacharged their duties, that itwas resolved tocontinue the same formof government foranother year ;more espec ially as some of thedecemvirs said that their work was not finished. T ennewdecemvirs were accordin lyelec ted , of whomA

23. Claudius al one

longed to the former b y. Thesemagistratesframed several new laws, which were approved orby the centuries, and engravenontwo add itional tables. They acted , however,inamost tyrannical manner. Each was attended by twelve lictors, who carried not therods only, but the axes, the emblemof sovereignty. Theymade commoncause with thepatricranparty. and commi tted all kind s ofoutrages uponthe persons and pro tty of theplebeians and thei r fami lies. hen theiryear of office expired they refused to resignor to appoint successors . At length , the nu'

ust decisionofApp

. Claudius, inthe case ofir inia, which ed her father to kill herwit his ownhands to save her fromprostitution, occasioned aninsu rrectionof the peo.

ple. The decemvi rs were in consequenceobliged to resigntheir oflice, a. c. 449;after

which the usual magtstracies were re-eatab

DE OUMAE .

the first attempt to make a code, remainedalso the only attempt fornear one thousandyears . until the legislationof Justinian.

2 . Dscs uvrar S s ea i s Facwnms, sometimes cal led simply Dses x vra t S acaonmt,were themembers of anecclesiastical colle

gium, and were s la ted for li fe. Their chiefuty was to take care of the S ibylline books,

and to inspect themonall important occasionsby command of the senate.Under the kings the care of the Sibyl line

books was committed to two menW )of high rank: Onthe expulsionof t e kinthe care ot

'

these books was entrusted to enob l est of the patricians, who were exemptedfromallmi li tary and civi l duties. Theirnum~herwas increased about the year 367 a. c. to

ten, ofwhomfive were chosenfromthe patricians and five fromthe plebeians. S ubsequently their number was stil l further iacreasedS ll

to fitteen(qmndecm'

in) , probably byu a.

I t was also the duty of the decemviri toce lebrate the games ofApol lo, and the seculargames.

'

DE CIMA’

T IO, the selection, by lot, of

eve tenth manfor punishment, whenanynum r of soldiers inthe Romanarmy hadbeenguil t of any crime. The remainderusuall y be barley al lowed to theminstead ofwheat. This punishment appearsnot to havebeeninfl icted inthe early times ofthe republic.DECRE'TUM seems to meanthat which

is determined ina particular case after examinationor consideration. I t is sometimes applied to a determinationof the consu ls, andsometimes to a determinationof the senate.A decretumof the senate would seemto differfroma senatus-consullum, inthe way above indicated : it was l imited to the special occasionand circumstances, and thi s wou ld betrue whether the decretumwas of a judicialor a legislative character. But this dietinetioninthe use of the two words, as appl iedto anact of the senate, was, perhaps, not ai

wa 8 observed .

E’

CUMAE se. partes) formed a portionof the vectigalia o the Romans, and were paidby subjects whose territory, ei ther by conuest or deditio, had become the property oft e state (ager publia u ). They consi sted , asthe name denotes, of a tithe or tenth of the

a tenth was, however, generall y paid by comlands : plantations and vineyards, as re uir

ing no seed and less labour, paid a fifth o theproduce.

DE IPNON l ll

A simi lar existed inG reece also.Peisist ratus, or instance, imposed a tax of atenth onthe lands of the Athenians, whichthePeisistratidse lowered to a twentieth. Atthe time of the Persianwar the confederateGreeksmade a vow, by which all the stateswho had su rrendered themselves to the enemywere sub

'

to the pa ment of tithes forthe use 0 th

eiod at Delp

The tithes the public lands belonging toAthens were farmed out as at Rome to contractors, called dsx aré va t : the termdammAérnwas applied to the collectors ;but the

ca lins were, as we might suppose, oftenunite inthe same person. T he ti tle dex arwrat is

“

applied to both. A dex é‘m, or tenth ofa difl

'

erent kind, was the arbitrary exactionirnposed by the Athenians (a. c. 410) onthecargoes of all ships sail ing into or out of thePontus. They lost it by the battle ofmtami (a. o. but it was re- estaE;Thrasybu lus about a. c. 391.was let out to farm.

DE CU'

RlA.

éE XBROIT U SJ

DECURIO’N S. (Cut outs ; Enact‘rus.

D G U S S lS . [As, 45a

1mDE DlT l’

ClI, were t w had takenuparms against the Romanmph , and beinconquered,had surrendered themselves. S uc

le didnot individuall lose their freedom,

t as a community lost al political existence,and of course had no other relationto Romethanthat of sub

’

acts.DE DUCT O

’ ES . [Auairua ]DE IPNON detrrvov). the principal meal

of the Greeks, inner. The resent artic le isdes igned to give a sketch 0 Grecianmealsand customs connected with them.

0dT hree names oi

;meals occur intht

égliad an?ysse

—ar£stond wrov), dcipnoa ehrvovdorpon{ddmovy e wordmister;uniforml ymeans the early, as demondoes the latemealbut «h im , onthe other hand, is used foreither, apparentl y without any reference totime.Inthe Homeric age it appears to have been

usual to sit duringmeal- times. Beef,mutton,and goat’s flesh were the ordinary meats

,

usally eatenroasted . Cheese , flour, and occasionally fmits.also formed part of the Homericmeals. Bread , brou ht on inbaskets , and

Fig, to which omer gives the epithetarementioned.Greeks of a later age usual ly partook

of three meals, cal led acratisma («in’

f tay a),ariston

,and deipnon. The last , w ich cor

responds to the demonof the Homeric poems,was the evening mea l or dinner ; the micronwas the luncheon;and the aerarium, which

112

answers to the (is-immofHomer,was the earlyThe aeratismtrwas takenimmediatel y afterrising inthe morning. I t usual ly consis ted,of bread, dipped inunmixed wine (imm),whence it derived its name .

Next foll owed the aristonor luncheon;butthe time at which it was takenis uncertain.

I t is frequentlymentioned inXenophon'sAnahasis , and appears to have beentakenat different times , as wou ld natural ly be the casewith soldiers inactive service. Wemay conclude frommany circumstances that thismea lwas takenabout the middle of the day, andthat it answered to the Romanprandr

'

um. Theaviators was usua lly a simple meal, but ofcourse varied according to the habits of indi

1 al h dames. Ite riusi me was t e wasusually

ptaken

pgather late inthe day, frequentlynot before sunset.The Athenians were a social people. andwere very fond of dining incompany. Entertainments were usually given, 'both in theheroic ages and later times, whensac rificeswere offered - to the gods, either onpubl ic orprivate occasions ; and also onthe anniversary of the birthdays ofmembers ofthe family,orofil lustrious persons,whetherl ivingor dead.Whenyoungmenwished to dine togetherthey frequentl y cont ributed each a certainsumofmoney, cal led symbols or

brought their own provisions with them.

Whenthe first planwas adopted , they weresaid drrb ovnBoAa

‘mdemvei‘v. and one individual was usual ly entrusted with the moneyto procure the provisions, and make all thenecessary preparations. This k ind of enter.tainment

,inwhich each guest contributed to

the expense, ismentioned inHomer under thename of épavog. Anentertainment inwhi cheach personbrought his ownprovisions withhim, orat least contributed someth ing to thegeneral stock ,was cal led a deirrvov drrb arru

£26k“ because the provisions were brought in

8 ets.The most usual kind of entertainments,

however, were those inwhich a personinvited his friends to his ownhouse. I t was expected that they should 1 come dressed withmore thanordinary care, and also have bathedshortly before . As soonas the guests arrivedat the house of their host, their shoes or sandals were takenoil

” by the slaves , and theirfeet washed . After their feet had beenwashed , the guests reclined on the couches . I thas al ready beenremarked that Homerneverdescribes persons as reclining, but always assi tting at their meal s ;but at what time thechange was introduced is uncertain. The

DE IPNON.

articles of food of the Greeks.A dinner givenb anOpulent Athenian

usuallylconsis

tedo twg000

38

38' called re

spective «para:rpd ire at an stirs t 1'

a'

sCat. The first course embraced th‘da

wh’dc

l‘

e

ofwhat we consider the dinner,namely , fish ,poultry, meat, di e ;the second which corresponds to ourdessert and the itomanbella‘

ria , consisted ofdifferent kinds offruit , sweetmeats, confections, dtc.

Whenthe firs t coursewas finished , the tables were takenaway

, and water was gi vento the guests for the urpose ofwash in theirhands. Crownsma e of arlands of owerswere also thengivento t em, as wel l as va

rious kinds ofperfumes. Winewasnot d runktil l the first course was finished but as soonas the gues ts had washed their hands, unmixed wine was introduced ina large gobl et

, ofwhich each drank a l ittle , after uring outa smal l quantity as a libation. his libation

Dorians of Crete always sat;but the otherGreeks reclined. T he Greek women. andchi ldren, however, like the Roman;continuedto sit at their mea ls. [Aocunr rto ] I t wasusua l for only two persons to rec line oneachcouch . After the guests had placed themselves ou the couches, the slaves brought inwater to wash thei r hands. The dinner wasthenserved up;whence we read of rd;rpdm’

fag slgoépsw, by whi ch expressionwe are

to understand notmerely the dishes but thetables themselves, which were small enoughto be used with ease.In eating, the Greeks had no knives or

forks, butmade use of their fingers only , except ineating soups or other liquids, whichthey {asynook of bymeans of a spoon, called

var!'

ar or {arrpltwoulfl

u

ex cepqe

‘

d thél

limrptgfof this work to

give anaccount of the different dishes whichwere introduced at a Greek dinner, thoughtheir number is far below those which were

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1 14 DENARIUS. DIAETETAE.

haps of those who were natives of Athensi tself. These subdivisions corresponded insome degree to the naucrariae (vavx papla i ) ofthe old tribes , and were original ly one hundred innumber.These demi formed independent corpora

~tions,and had each their severalmagistrates,

landed and‘ other property, with a common

treasury . They had likewise their respective convocations or parishmeetings ,

”con

vened by the demarcfrt', inwhich was transacted the public business of the demus , such asthe leas ing of its estates , the elections of oflieers the revisionof the registers or lists ofdmwrar, and the admissionof newmembers .Independent of these bonds of union, each demus seems to have had its pecul iar templesand religious worship. There were likewiseJudges , cal led di sco -

rd K a radrinovg,who decided cases where the matter indispute wasof le% value thantendrachmae .

Admissioninto a demuswasnecessary, before any individual

‘

could ente r uponhis ful lrights and privileges as anAttic c itizen. Theregi ster of enrolment was ca lled Anfiapxmbv‘

y reiov .

NA’

BIU S , the principal silver coinamong the Romans, was so cal led because itwas originall y equal to tenasses but onthereductionof the weight of the as [As], itwasmade equal to sixteenas ses , except inmil itary

apay , inwhich it was still reckoned as

egu to tenasses. The denarius was firstcomed five

gears before the first Punic war,

a. o. 269. aosrv'rimJ

DIADE’

MA , originally a white fillet, usedto encircle the head. It is repmnted onthehead of Dionysus see cut, p. and was,

T he average value of the denamcorned inanornamented orm,mumm kings asthemd of the commonweal th is about 8M , anmblemof sovereignty .

those under the empi re about ‘nd. DIAETETAE (dra i rvlraf),If the denarius be reckoned invalue Bid , at Athens, were of two kinds

DICE .

and appointed by lot award ) , the otherprivate, and chosen peror

’

) by the partieswho referred to themthe dec isionofa disputedpoint, instead of trying it before a court ofJustice ;thejud ments of both. according toAristotle , being ounded onequity rather thanlaw. Thenumber of public arbitrators seemsto have been40, four for each tribe. Theirjurisdictionwas confined to civil cases.BlCAS T E S the name of a

judge , or rather ju n, at Athens. Thecondi tions of his e ility were, that heshouldhe a free citizen, inthe enj nt ofhis full franchise (err-triple} ,

andnot see thanthirty years of age, and 0 persons so qualified six thousand were se lected by lot for theservice of every year. Their appointmenttook place every year under the conduct ofthenine archons and theirofficial scribe;eachof these tenpersonages drew by lot thenamesof six hundred persons of the tribe assigned tohim' the wholenambar ao selectedwas againdivided by lot into tensections of 500 each,together with a supernumerary one, consisting of a thousandg

arcons , fromamong whomthe occasional de ciencies inthe sections of500might be supplied . To each of the tensections one of the tenfirst letters of the alphabetwas appropriated as a distinguishinmark , and a smal l tablet ( iri vdaiov , inscnbeg

'

wi th the letter of the sectionand 0name ofthe individual , was delivered a s a certificateof his appointment to each dicast.Before proceeding to the exercise of his

functions, the dicastwas obliged to swear theoflicial oath. This oath being taken, and thedivisionsmade as abovementioned, it remained to assignthe courts to the severa l sectionsof dicasts inwhich theywe re to sit. Thiswas not

,like the first , anap tment ih

tend ed to last during the year, t took placeunder the conduct of the thesmothetae, denew , every time that itwas necessary to impane l a number of dicasts. As soonas thea l lotment had taken lace

,each dicast re

ceived a staff, onwhic was painted the letterand the colour of the court

.

awarded him,

whichmight serve both as a_

ticket to procureadmi t tance, and also to distinguish himfromany l oiterer that might endeavour claudestinely to obtaina sitting after business had he

Whi le incourt, and probably fromthe

ofthe presidingmagistrate (byéyawduraamptov ) , he received the O

tokenor ti cket thatenti t led himto receive hi s foe (dtx aorzgcov).Thi s eymont is said to have beenfirst institutedgi y Pericles , and was 0 ally a singleobo lus ; it was increased by leanto thricethat amount about the 88th Olympiad.D ICE , game of. [T swana ]

115

Ina dim; onl y the personwhose rightswerealleged to be affected

,or the legal protector

(leaping) of suclapersoa a minor or other

wise incapable. appearing suojun, was r

mitted to insti tute anacti onas plainti inpubl i c causes , with the exceptionof some fewinwhich the personinjured or his fami ly weremuharly bound and interested to act

,any

citizen, and sometimes , whenthe statewas di rectly attacked , almost any a lien, wasempowered to do so“ The cou rt fees, cal led

fir

cytaneia, were paid inprivate butnot inpubcauses, and a public rosecutor that com

promi sed the actionwit the defendant wasinmost cases unished by afine ofa thousanddrachmae an a modified disfranchisement ,while there was no lega l impediment at anyperiod of a private lawsuit to the reconciliationof the li tigant parties .The proceedings in the dim;were commenced by a summons (updgx lnotg) to thedefendant to appear ona certainday beforethe properma trate (elcayo airy), and thereanswer the c arges referred against him.

This summons was it served by the plaintid

'

inperson.accompanied by one or twowit“

peg),whoeenames were endorseduponthe lutation

15q or fy irl ima). Be

tweenthe semce o the summons and appearance of the ies before themagistrate,i t is very

Oprobab e that the law rescnbed the

interventionof a period of five ys. If both

parties a peered , theproceedings commencedy the p smtih

‘

putting inhis declaration, andat the same time depositing his

“

share of thecourt fees ( irpvmvela), which were trifling inamount but the non-pa ent of which was afatal objectionto the rther progress of a

cause. Whenthese were paid , it became theduty of the magistrate, ifnomanifest objecti onappeared onthe face of the declarat ionto cause it to be writtenout ona tablet, anex posed for the inspectionof the public onthewal l or other place that served as the causelist ofhis court .

DICE‘ (dim), signifies generallceedings at lawby onep

arty directatel y against others . he object 0 all suchactions is to protect the body politic, or oneormore of its individualmembers, frominjuryand aggression; a distinctionwhich has inmost countries suggested the divisionof allcauses into two gl'eat classes , the public andthe private, and assigned to each its peculiarformand treatment. At Athens . the first ofthese was implied by the terms public dix cu ,

or dv or stillmore pecu liarly by ypaoai ;causes the other class were termed

ar

gu e

dim , ordydveg, or sirnply disc:inits'

ted

1 16 DICE .

Themagistrate thena pointed aday for thefurther roceedings of t e anacris is, [ANacs rare]. l the plaintiff fai led to appear at theanacrisis, the suit, of course, fel l to theground ;if the defendantmade defaul t, judgment passed against him. Anafiidavitmightat this

,as wel l as at other periods of the ac

tion, bemade inbehalf o f a personunable toattend uponthe givenday, and this would , ifallowed , have the effect of postponing furtherroceedings it might, however,Be combated b a counter-affidavit, to theeffect that the a le ed reasonwas unfoundedor otherwise insu cient anda questionwou ld arise uponthis point, thedecisionof

,which, whenadverse to the defendant,would render himl iable to the penal tyof contumacy. The laintifl

'

was inthis casesaid épfl

'miv él siv ;t e defendant, épr'nunv 64>Z eiv, dinnv being the word omitted inbothphrases . The anacrisis beganwith the afiidavit of the plaintiff (rrpow [a thenfollowed the

(answer

of

)thfi

e

t

il

'

enant (din

-

o

at'

a, or vrt t en e rties ro,dgced thei r resggca

tige witnesses,33d redugedtheir evidence to writing, and put inoriginals,or authenticated copies, of all the records,deeds , and contracts that mi ht be useful inestablishing their case, as we 1 asmemorandaof ofl

'

ers and requisitions thenmade by eitherThe whole of the docu

ments were then, if the cause took a straightforward course (midvducia), enclosed onthelast day of the anacrisis ina casket (éx ivog),which was seal ed , and entrusted to the custody of the presiding magistrate, ti l l it wasproduced and Opened at the trial. During theinterval no alterationinits contents was sr

mitted, and accordingl evidence that adbeendiscovered after t e anacrisis was notproducible at the trial . Insome causes, thetria l before the dicasts was by law appointedto come onwithina giventime ;insuch as

werenot provided for by s uch regulationsmemay suppose that it would principali

tyIdepend

uponthe leisure of themagistrate. ponthecourt being assembled

,the magistrate called

onthe cause,and the plaintiff opened his case.

At the commencement of hi s speech, theproper oflicer (6 éd

’

Mop) fil led the clepsydrawit water. As long as the water flowedfromthis vesse l the orator was permitted tospeak ;it, however, evidence was to be readby the ofiicerof the court , or a law recited.the waterwas stapped till the speaker recommenced. The quantity of water, or, inotherwords, the length of the speeches , was different indifferent causes. After the speechesof the advocates, which were ingeneral twooneach side, and the incidental reading of

DICTATOR.

the document and other evidence. the di.casts proceeds to give their judgment bybal lot.Whenthe princi point at issue was decided infavour of t a plaintiff, there fol lowedinmany cases

,a farther discussionas to the

fine or punishment to be inflicted onthe defendant (nadciv i} tin-orient) . All actionswere divided into two classes,—drave tiri

purer, suits not to be assessed, inwhic thefine, or other penal ty, was determined rby thelaws ;and dydwcg

‘

rmnrof, suits to be assessed,inwhich the penal ty had to be fixed by thejudges. If the suit was and rtthe plaintifi

'

general lymentionedyi

‘

r

’

i

v

the’

pmings the punishment which he considered thedefendant deserved (rty ya ) ;and the defendant was al lowed to ma e a counter-assessment (dvrtriydada t or irrrormc’mdat), and toargue before the judges why the assessmentof the plaintiff ought to be changed ormi tigated . Incertaincauses which were

'

determined by the laws, any of the judges wasal lowed to propose anadditiona l assessment(npogrfmma ) ;the amount ofwhich , however, appears to have beenusual ly fixed by thelaws . Thus, incertain cases of. theft, theadditional penalty was fixed at five days’ andh i hts’imprisonment.

’

ponjudgment being givenina privatesuit, the Athenianlaw left its ex ecutionverymuch in the hands of the successful party,who was empowered to seize the movablesof his antagonist as a pledge for the paymentof themoney

, or institute anactionof e’

ectment (si

mil ar) against the refractory de tor.

The ju ment o a court of dicasts was ingeneral ecisive (dim;oer-orch id ;but uponcertainoccasions, as, for instance, whena

gross case of perjury or conspiracy could beproved by the unsuccessful party to have 0perated to his disadvantage, the cause , u ponthe convictionof such conspirators orwitnesses,might be commenced ds nova.

DICTA'TOR. T he name and office ofdictator are confessedly ofLatinorigin thuswe read of a dictator at Tuscu luminear l y,at Lanuviuminvery late times.Among the Romans

,a dictator was gener

al ly appointed incircumstances ofex traordinary danger, whether fromforeign enemiesor domestic sedition. Instances occu r ve ryfrequentl y inthe early books of Livy , fromwhomwe learnthat a dictatorwas sometimescreated for the follow ing purposes al so — 1 .

For fixing the clavu s annalts” onthe temle of Jupiter, intimes of pestilence or c ivildi sco'

rd. 2. F or holding the comitia, or e l ections, inthe absence of the consu ls. 3 . Forappointing holydays (fa icrwncameraman-rm

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118 DIES .

calledMir. beganwith sunrise, and comprehended the whole space of time during ‘

whichli ht seemed to be increasing Le ti l lmid oday .

e second part was called’

meo'ov i) p or

midd ay, during which the sunwas t oughtto stand still . T he third part

.

bore thenameof dea f;or detel ov imap, whi ch deri ved its

name from.the increased warmth of the atmosphere. Among the Athenians thefirst andlast ofthe divisionsmade at the time ofHomer

as it was of importance that this momentshould be known

, anespecia l oflicer [ACCE Nsus] was appointed , who proclaimed the timeof mid-day. The divisionof the day intotwelve equal spaces, which were shorter inwinter thaninsummer, was adopted at thetime whenartificia lmeans ofmeasuring timewere introduced among the Romans fromGreece. This was about the yearns. 291

,

whenL. Papirius Cursor, after the warwithPyrrhus insouthernI taly, brought to Romeaninstrument cal led solariumhorologium, or

simply solarium. But as the solariumhadbeenmade fora differentmeridian, it showedthe time at Rome very incorrectly. ScipioNasica, therefore. erected in 159, a public cle ydra, which indicated the hours of

thenig t aswel l as of the day. Evenafterthe erectionof this clep dra itwas customary for one of the subo inate ofiicers of the

star to proclaimthe third , sixth , and ninthours which shows that the day was, likethenight divided into fourparts, each consisting of three hours.

fammwhile the other halfwasnefastus.

BIONY81A.

All the days of the earwere accordmg'

todifi

'

erent points ofviewfdivided bythe Romansinto different classes. For the purpose of theadministrationof justice all days were dividedinto dicsfas ti and dies nefasti.D I E S nevi were the days onwhich thepraetorwas allowed to administer Justice inthe public courts ; they derived their namefromfari

'

arim'

a verbs do. dies , addico). Onsome of dies fasti comitia could be held ,but not onall. T he re ar die: [ sari weremarked inthe Roman endar by the letter F.and their number inthe course of the yearwas 38. Besides these there were certaindays call ed dies Wen-ia } onwhich the praetormight hold his courts , butnot at all hours , sothat sometimes one half of such a da was

heirnumber was 65 inthe year.

D IE S NE PAST I were days onwhich neithercourts of justice nor comi tia were allowed tobe held, and which were dedicated to other

held , or die: compcrmdini , that is, days towhich '

any actionwas allowed to be transferred ;or dies stati , that is , days set 8 art forcauses betweenRomancitiz ens andem;or dies procliales , that is, all days onwhichreligiondidnot forbid the commencement of awar.DIFFARE A

‘

T IO. [01 7 08 1 1lDIMACHAE Macedonianhorsesoldiers, who also ought onfoot whenoccasionre uired, like our d na.

DIM NU 'TIO CA’PIT 8 . [CarurigoDINNERS, Greek [Daws on], man

[G ummyDION'

S IA (Awmima), festivals celebrat~ed invarious parts of Greece inhonour ofDionysus (Bacchus), and characterized by extravagantmerriment and enthusiastic joy.

Dmnkenneas, and the boisterous music d

DIONYS IA.

flutes, cymbals, and drums, were .

likewisecommonto all Bacchic festivals. Inthe processions cal led 05am: (from0811a withwhich they were celebrated , womena so tookpart inthe disguise of Bacchae, Lenae. Thyades , Naiades, Nymphs, &c., adorned withrlands of ivy and bearing the thyrsus int eirhands, so that the whole trainre resented a populationinspired and setuat by thepowerfu l ressaca of the god. The chorusessung ont e occasionwere called dith rambe.and were hymns addressed to the g inthefreestmetres and with the boldest imagery, inwhich his exploits and achievements weree xtolled . Cnoaus.] The pha l lus, the symbol of the rtility of nature , was al so carriedin these processions. The indulgence indrinking was considered by the Greeks as a

duty of gratitude which they owed to the giverof the vine ; hence insome places it wasthought a crime to remainsoberattheDionysia.

The Attic festivals of Bacchus were fourinnumber : the Rural or Lesser D ionys ia

{Awm’

nna am" dypofig, ormnpd), the LandauAfivata), the Anthestm

’

a (’

Avfisarizptaz, andthe Ci orG reatD ionsia (Atovtiota eu caret ,dorm orpeydl a). he seasonof the yearsacred to Bacchus was duri the monthsnearest to the shortest day ;an the Attic festivals were accordingly celebrated inPoseideon,G amelion,Anthesterion, andElaphebolion.

The Rural orLesserD ionysia , avmtage festiva l, were ce lebrated inthe various dames ofAttica inthe month of Poseideon, and wereunder the superintendence of the several localmagistrates, the demarche. This was doubtl ess themost ancient of all, andwas held withthe highest degree ofmerriment and freedom;evenslaves en

'

o ed full freedomduring itscelebration, t eirboisterous shouts ontheoccasionwere almmintolerable. It is herethat we have to seek for the originof comedy,inthe jests and the scurrilous abuse whichthe peasants vented uponthe bystanders froma waggoninwhich they rode about , TheDionysi a inthe Peiraeeus , as wel l as those ofthe other dames of Attica, belonged to thelesse r Dionysia.

T he second festival , the Lenaea (fromM 6the wine- press, fromwhich also the montof G amelionwas cal led b the IoniapsLenaeon), was celebrated int e month of Gamelion;the place oi its celebrationwas the anc ient tem

ple of (from

,as t e districtwas originally a swam

T is temple was cal led the.

Lenaeon.

'

l‘ e

Lenaea were celebrated Wi th a recessionand scenic contests intragedy an comedy.The procession robably went to the Lenseon, where a goaf(rpdyog, hence the chorus

1 19

filled“ traged

bcy whiz? arose

andout

git“)were

1 or 0 r a wassacrificed

pfgmd afigms standigg

yaround the

al tar san the dithyrambic ode to the god .

As the thyramb was the element out ofwhich, by . the introductionof anactor t e

dy arose [Cueaus it is natural that, in escenic contests of t

'

s festival , tragedy shou ldhave preceded comedy. T he poet who wishedhis play to bebrought outat theLenaea appliedto the second archon, who had the superintendence of this festival , andwho gave himthechorus if the iece was thought to deserve it.The third estival , the Anthestm

‘

a, was celebrated onthe l lth, 12th, and lath days ofthe month ofAnthesterion. The second ar

chonl ikewise superintended the celebrationof the Anthesteria , and dist ributed the pricesamong the victors inthe various games whichwere carried onduring the season. The firstday was cal led mfloq ta : the second , get;and the third , x érpm. The first day derivedits name fromthe openin of the rcasks totaste the wine of the prec g year ;the second fromx ofic,

'

the cup, and seems to havebeenthe day devoted to drinking. The thirdday had its name from “may, a pot, as onthis day persons ofi

'

er pots with flowers,seeds, or cooked vegetables, as a sacrifice toBacchus and Hermes (Mercury) Chthonius.It is uncertainwhether dramas were per

formed at the Anthesteria ;but it is supposedthat comedies were re

assented, and that tra

gedies which were to brought out at thegreat Dionysiawere perhaps rehearsed at theAnthesteria.

’

T hemysteries connected withthe celebrationof theAnthesteria were heldatnight .The fourth festival , the C or G reat Dio

ayaia, was celebrated abou t t 0 12th of themonth of Elaphebolion;butwe donot knowwhether they lasted more thanone day or

not. The order inwhich the solemni tiestook place was as follows —the g reat publicrecession, the chorus of boys, the coma oaus], comedg

, and, lastly, tragedy. Ofthe dramas whic were rformed at the

great Dionysia, the tra res at least weregeneral lynewpieces repetitions donot, however

,seemto have beenexcluded fromany

Dionysiac festival . The fi rst archonhad thesuperintendence, and gave the chorus to thedramatic poet who washed tobrmg out his

piece at this festival. T he prize awarded tothe dramatist for the best play consistedof acrown,and hisname was roclaimed

O

mthetheatre of Bacchus. As t a great Dionysiawere celebrated at the beginning of spring,whenthe navigationwas re-opened , Athenswas not only Visited bynumbers of country

‘120 DIONYSIA . DISCU S .

peOEle, but also by strange rs fromother parts

of and the various amusements andexhibitions onthis occasion‘Were not unlikethose ofamodernfair.The werebi of Dionysus , whomthe R0

mans cal led acchus, or rather the Bacchicmysteries and orgies (Bacchanalia ), are saidto have beenintroduced fromsouthern“Italyinto Etru ria, and fromthence to Rome, wherefora time they were carried oninsecret, and,during the latter period of their existence, atui ht. The initiated , according to Livy, notorfiy indulged infeasting and drinking at theirmeetings, but whentheir minds were heatedwithWine they practised

‘

the coarsest excesses and the most unnatural vices . The timeof initiationlasted tendays ;onthe

'

tenth,the personwho was to be initiated took a so.lemnmeal, underwent a purificationby water

,and was led into the sanctuary (Bacchu

nal) . At first onl y womenwere initiated, andthe or were celebrated every year duringthree ays. But PaculaAnnia, a Campanianmat ron, pretending to act under the directinfluence of Bacchus, chaned the wholemethod of celebration: she a ittedmentothe initiation, and transferred the solemnizetion, which had hitherto takenplace duringthe daytime, to the night. Instead of threedays inthe year, she ordered that the Bacchanalia should be held durin

g)five days in

every month. It was frem'

t at time thatthese orgies were carried onwith frightfullicentiousness and excesses of every kind .

T he evil at length became so alarming, that ,ina. c . 186, the consuls , by the command ofthe senate, instituted aninvestigationintothenature and object of these newrites. Theresul t was that numerous raona were ar

rested , and some put to deat and that a decree of the sena te was issued, commandingthat no Bacchanalia should be held either inR0 or l taly

o; that if any one should think

suc ceremoni es necessary, or if hecouldnotneg lec t themwithout scruples or makingatonements , he should apply to the praetoru rbanus, whomight thenconsu l t the senate.If the perunssionshould be granted to himinanassembly of the senate, consisting ofnotless thanone hundred members , he mightsolemmz e the Bacchic sacra ;but no morethanfive persons were to be present at thecelebration; there should be no commonfundandnomaster of the sacra or priest . A braz entable containing this important documentwas discovered near Bari, insouthernItaly,mthe car 1640, and is at present inthe impenal nasumof Vienna.

.While the Baochanah‘

a were thus anpressed.anothermore simple and innocent estival

moi

T hrowing the D iscus.

of Bacchus, the Liberalia (fromLibcr, or LLber Pater, a name of Bacchus), continued tobe celebrated at Rome every year onthe l6thof March . Priests and aged priestesses ,adorned with garlands of ivy , carri ed throughthe city wine, hone cakes

,and swee tmeats ,

together with an tarwith a hand le (amalaam), inthemiddle ofwhich therewas a sma l lfire-

pan(foculus ), inwhich fromtime to timesacrifices were burnt. Onthis day Romanyouths who had attained their sixteenth yea rreceived the toga virilis .

DlO’

T A, a vesse l having two ears (dra) orhandles , used for holding wine. lt ap earsto have beenmuch the same as the amp ora.

[AMPHORADlPLO

’

DdA, a writ or publ ic document,which conferred upona personany right orprivi lege. During the republic, it was granted by the consuls and senate ;and under theempi re;by the emperor and the magist rateswhomhe authorized to do so. I t consistedof two leaves, whence it derived itsname.DIPTYCHA

Slim-

v a), two writing tablets, which cou l be to ded to ether. Theywere commonlymade of w and coveredover with wax .

DlRlBlT O'

RE S , officers in the comitia,whose duty itwas to divide the votes (caballac), whentakenout of the cistae, or ballotboxes, so as to determine which had the majority. They handed themover to the cus

todes , who checked themoff by pointsona tablet.DISCUS (dlax oc).a circular plate of stone

ormetal,made for throwing to a distance as

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122 DIVORT IUM. BOG IMAS IA.

phenomena inthe heavens (di oomrel'a , signs ,or u) were thunder and lightning, anec 1 as of the sunormoon, earthquakes, rainof b ood, stones,milk, etc. Any one of thesesignswas sufficient at Athens to break up theassembl y of the people. In common life ,things apparently ofno importance, whenoccurr ing at a criti ca lmoment, were thought bythe ancients to be signs sent by the gods , fromwhich conclusionsmight be drawnrespectingthe future. Among these commonoccu rrenceswe may mentionsneezing, twinkling of theeyes, tinklin of the ears, Are.

The art 0 interpretin dreams (bustpowoMa),which had probably ea introduced intoEurope fromAsia ,where it is still a universa lmeme, seems inthe Homeric age to have

it held inhi h esteem, for dreams weresaid to be sent b upiter. Insubsequent times,that class of

'

viners who occupied, them

se lves with the interpretation of dreams,seems to have beenvery numerous and pepular; but they never enjoyed any protecti onfromthe state , and were chiefly resorted to

by private individuals . The subject of oraclesis treated ina separate article . [ORACULUMJThe word divinatiowas used ina particularmanner by the Romans as a law- term. If inany case two ormore accusers came forwardagainst one and the same individual , itwas,as the

phrase randecided by dwinaticm, who

should the chiefor real accuser, whomtheothers thenjoined as subscriptores i. s. byputting theirnames to the charge brought a netthe offender. This transaction, bywhic oneof several accusers was selected to conduct

.the accusation, was called divinatio, as thequestionhere was not about facts , but abou tsomething

bzvhich was to be done, and which

cou ld not found out by witnesses orwri ttendocuments;so that the

'

udices had, as it were ,to divine the course w

'

ch they had ‘to take.Hence the oratio ofCicero, inwhich be

‘ tu'

esto show that he, andnot Q . Caecilius Nag

er,ought to conduct the accusationagainst eres , is cal led D id actic inCaeci

'

lium,

DlVl’

S OR. Amend s.)DlVO

’

RT lU (awoke i f, r’mérre

vorcea l . Gas es . The awe ofAt ens r

witted either the husbandor the wife to cal forand effect s divorce. i f it ori ated with thewife, shewas said to leave her nehand’a house(drrol slrretv) if otherwise to be

.

dismissedfromit (dvrorrémrcoOa t). After di vorce, thewife resorted to hermale relations,withwhomshe wou ld have remained if she had neveruitted hermaidenstate ;and it thenbecameeir duty to receive or recover fromher latehusband all the

' p rty that she had broughtto haminacknow edged dowry upon their

marriage . If, uponthis, both parties weresatisfied, the divorce was final and complete:if otherwise, anactionderol sirlwug, or drrorré/i cog, would be instituted, as the casemig t be, by the party Opposed to the sepa ration. A separation, however, whether it origiusted from the husband or the

,wife, was

cons idered to reflect discredit onthe la tte r.2. ROMAN. Divorce always

, existed intheRomanpolity. As one essential partof amarriage was the consent and conjuga l

'

affec tionof the parties, itwas considered that this affectionwasnecessary to its continuance, andaccordingly either partymight dec lare his orher intentionto dissolve the connection.

"

No

judicial decree, and no interference of anypubl ic authority, was requisite to dissolve a

marriage. The first instance of divorce at

Rome i s said to have occu rred about s . c. 234,whenSp. Carvilius Ruga put away h is wife,onthe round of barrenness ;it is added thathis connotwas general ly condemned .

Towards the latter part of the republic , andunder the empire, divorces became very common. Pompey divorced his wife Mucia foral leged adul tery ; and Cicero divorced hiswife Terentia, after living with her thirtyears, and married a youn woman. If a

usband divorced his wife, t e wife’s dowry

,

as a neral rule,was restored;and the samewas t e case whenthe divorce took place bymutual consent.Corresponding to the forms ofmarria e by

confarrcario and coeml ionthere were the armsofdivorce by diq

arreatio and remandpaho. Incourse of time, ess ceremony was used ;butstill some distinct notice or declaration otintentionwas necessary to consti tute a divorce .The termrepud i

'

am, it is said, properly ap‘pl ies to amarriage only contracted, and divortiumto anactual marriage ; but sometimesdivortiumand repudiamappear to be used iadifi

'

erently. Thephrases to express a divorceare, nunciumreve llers, divorliwn acers andthe formofwordsmight be as fo owe—T ue:res tibi habelo,mas res tibi The phrasesused to express the renunciationof

'

amarriagecontract were, rmunctiare repudmm,

’

repudi’

amrcmittere, dt

'

cere, and repudiare; and the formofwordsmight be, Conditions rue nonutor.DOCIMA

'SIA (dos t cola). Whenan ci tiz eno

'

fAthens was eit er appointed by ot, or

chmnby suffrage, to hold a public office, hewas obliged, before entering onhis duties, tosubmit to a docimasia , orscmtiny into his previous l ife and conduct, inwhich any personcou ld object to himas unfit. The docimasi‘a,however, was not confined to persons anpointed to public offices ;forwe read of the

DOMUS.

denouncement Of a scrutiny a inst oratorswho spoke inthe assemblywhi e leadin profligate lives, orafter having committed agiti ous c rimes.DO’

LIUM, a lindrical vessel , somewhatresembling our to or casks, into whichnewwine was t to let it ferment.DOM I [UM signifies quiritarianownership, or roperty ina thing;and don

'

n'

ans, ort 2 Qmus is the owner.

,The domimuhas the power of

.

dealing ,with a thing as he

p leases, and differs fromthe bare possessor,who has onl

ythe right ofpossession, and has

not the a ute ownership of the thing.DOMU (olx og). a house. 1. Gases . A

G reek house was always divided into two distinct portions , the Andronitt

'

s , ormen’s apartments (dvdpo vlrtg), and the G ynaeconitu , orwomen's apartments (mou rning). Intheearliest times , as inthe houses referred to bHomer, and insome houses at a later perio!£the women’s apartments were inthe uppers tory (unspcpw), but usual ly at a later timethe gynaeconitis was onthe same story withthe andronit is, and behind it.The front of the house towards the street

was not large , as the apartments extendedrather inthe directionof its depth thanof itswidth. Intowns the houses were oftenbuil tside by side, with party-walls between. Theexterior wal lwas plain, being composed generally of stone, bri ck, and timber, and oftencovered with stucco.Therewasno Openspace betweenthe street

and the house-door, like the Romanwalibulmn.

T he 1rp60vpa , which is sometimesmentioned,seems to be merel the space infront of thehouse. Infront the house was general lana l tar ofA ollo Agyieus, or a rude obeliaemblematic Of the god. Sometimes therewas a laurel t ree inthe same position, andsometimes a head of the god Mercury.A fewsteps (dvaflaflpoc

’

) led up to the housedoo r, which general ly bore some inseri tion,for the sake Of a good omen, or as a c arm.

The door sometimes Opened outwards ;butthis seems to have beenanexceptionto thegeneral rule , as is roved by the expressionsu sed for opening, dofivat, and shuttin it,émorrdoaoflat and éesl x éoaadat. The eu

d les were cal led érrtovr”

pay.

The house-door was cal ed or a6~itemGripe, because it led to the It gaveadmittance to a narrow passage papeiov ,ml dm, v é v), onone side of which , ina

large house, were the stables , on the otherthe portet

’s lodge . The duty Of the porter(v opég) was to admi t visitors and to prevent anythg

i

‘g imErOper frombeing carried

into or out the ones . The porterwas ate

tended by a dog. Hence the phrase allaBsi00m1971: M a, corresponding to the LatinCase canem.

Fromthe flu peZov we pass into the peristyle

.

or courtgapwrfilwv , of the andronitis , which was a space Opento the skyinthe centre

gammy ), and surrounded on

all four sides y porticoes a real), of whichone, robably that nearest e entrance

,was

cal l npooroov . These porticoes were usedfor exercise, and sometimes for dining in.di amwas commonly the al tar onwhich sacrifices were offered to the household gods. Inbui lding the po rticoes the object sought wasto obtainasmuch suninwinter, and asmuchshade and air insummer, as possible .Round the ristyls were arranged thechambers used y themen, such as banqueting rooms (olx oc, dvdfwbvec,which were largeenou h to containsevere sets of couches(rpfn vat, éarrix lwos, rpmx ovrdx lwoc),andat the same time to al low abundant roomforattendants ,

lmusicians, and perforn

ge

‘

r

s

-

s

3‘

games ;par ours or tting rooms (é éand sma ller chambers and sleeping £ 33;

fdupdrta , satravsc, olx

jyara) ;picture-gal

eries and l ibraries , an sometimes storerooms ;and inthe arrangement ofthese apartments attentionwas iu

' te their aspect.The periat

'

le of t e andronitis was -

conwith t at of the gynaeconitis by a door

cal led péravl oc, aéoavl orf, or maaélwc,

was inthemiddle 0 the portico of theperisty le opposi te to the entrance. Bymeansof this door all communicationbetweentheandronitis and gynaeconitis could be shut off.Accordingly Xenophoncalls it Gripe (Sal amarég. I ts name '

oavl oc is evidently derivedfrompéooc, e

'

u means the door betweenthetwo abla i or peristyles .This door gave admittance to the rist le

of the gynaeconitis,which difl

'

emd row t tof the andronitis inhaving porticoes roundonly three of its sides . Onthe fourth sidewere laced two antae [Auras], at a cousiderab a distance fromeach other. A third ofthe distance betweenthese antae was set offinwards, thus forming a chamber or vestibule,which was called «poorer wapaorég, 1rp6dpopog. Onthe right and left of this s pamwere two bedchambers, the del uge;spasm“ , of which the former was theprincipal bedchamber of the house, and herealso seemto have beenkept the vases, andother valuable articles of ornament. Beyondthese roomswere large apartments (lordweg)used for working in wool. Round the

Egristyle were the eating- rooms , bed-chmrs store-rooms, and other apartments in

m nouns.

Besides the adhere;Gripe and the péoevl ocGripe , there was a third d oor (murals Grips )leading to the garden.

0

The fol lowing isa conseturnl lanear of a Greek ouse o the larger

G round Planet' s G reek House.

a, Home-door, airl esog015m:Ovp.passage,v opsiov orGupdm

' A. enstyle , or 0131 1} ofthe andronitis ;o, the ha Is and chambers ofthe andronitis

g,yéravlogorpéoavilogGripe

.I‘

p‘eristyle oft e gynaeconitrs ;y, chambers

oft e gynaeconitis ;rr.rr 0rd;ornapaorég;041 0c and waif: I , rooms for

working inwool lar-aver) ; K , garden-door,xmrala 06pmTherewas usually, though not always, an

up r story (encoder) dtfipeg), which seldome nded over the whole space occupied bythe lower story. The principal use of the

gpper story was for the lodging of the slaves.heaccess to the upper floor seems to havemensometimes by stairs onthe outside of

the house. leading up fromthe street. Guestswere also lodged inthe upper story. But insome large houses therewere rooms set apartfor thei r reception(fwdvrfi

'

onthe ground

Inthe interior of the house the place ofdoors was sometimes supplied by cu rtains( ir aire

‘

rdouara ), which were either plain,or?ed, or emblroidered.

f h ue principa Openings or t e admissionof light and airwere inthe roofs of the

’

peristyles but it is incorrect to sup that

,thahouses had nowindows (Guplde or at leastnone overlooking the street. Theywere,notat all uncommon. .

W j , "jArtificial warmth was procured partly bymeans of fire-places. I t is s upposed thatchimneys were alt

gfgetherunknown,and that

the smoke escap through anopenin'

gfiinthe roof (x anvodém), but it isnot easy.to tin;derstand how. this could be the case

‘

whenthere was anupper story. Little "

porta.

ble stoves l t, £0 a [dc or chafingdishes (t

’

wflgéixta were } pt"

requentl used,The houses of the wea lthy inés country,

at least inAttica, weremuch larger andmoremagnificent tha’

nthose inthe towns. -T h'

e

latter seemto have beengeneral ly smalland lain, especiall inearher times

“

,when

the reeks preferr expending the resourcesofart and wea lth onthei r temples and publicbui ldings ; but the private houses becamemoremagnificent as the public buildings

'

beganto be neglected.The decorations of the

'

interiorwcre ver'y

plainat the period to which our descriptionrefers. The fibers were of stone. ,

‘

At a lateperiod coloured stones were used. Mosaicsare firstmentioned under the kings of_

Pergamus.The wal ls, u to the 4th censeemed to have enonly whited. e

'

.firstinstance of painting themis that of Alcibiades . This innovationmet with considera

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126 DOMUS .

therefore impossible to assignto themanyregular place inthe house .1 . Crimes“ , bed-chambers, appear to havebeen usual l y smal l. There were separatecubicula for the day and night ;the latterwere also called dormitories.2. Tniomma are trea ted of ina separate

arti cle. [a cu s i uufj3. Oscr, fromthe Greek olx og, were spa

cious »hal ls or saloons borrowed from theGreeks, and

* were frequently used as tricli

nia. They were to have the same preportionsas triclinia, but were to bemore spacious onaccount of having columns, which tricliniahad not. i

4. E x snu s were rooms for conversationand the other purposes of societ

y5. PlNACOT BBCA, a picture-gs lery .

6, 7 Bi smo'waca and Bau h aus are treated Oi inseparate articles.8. Cumin, the k itchen. The food wasoriginal ly cooked inthe atrium;but the progress Of refinement afterwards led to the useof another part of the house for thi s purpose.9. COE NACULA, prope rly signified rooms todine in;but after it became the fash iontodine inthe up orpart Of the house, thewholeofthe rooms a ove the ground-hoorwere cal ledcomet-ids .

10. Du nn, anapartment used for diningin

,and for the other pu rposes Of life . I t ap

pears to have beensmaller thanthe tricliniurn.

Dianeis also thename givenby Pliny tnroomscontaining three or four bed-chambers (cubicula). Pleasure -houses or summer-houses arealso cal led diaetae.l l . S ou au , properly places for basking inthe sun, were terraces onthe tape of houses .

The cut annexed represents the atriumof ahouse at Pompeii. Inthe centre is the imluvium, and the pamge at the further on isthe ostiumor entrance hall.

m amm dm nw

G round PlanOra RomanHome.

DOMUS.

T he large roomonthe right of the peristyleis the triclinium;beside it is the kitchen;andthe smal ler apartments are cubicula and otherrooms for the use of the famil y.Having givena neral descriptionof the

rooms Of a Roman ones , it remains to speakof the ( 1) floors , (2) walls, (3 cei lings, 4)windows, and , (5) the mode 0 warming t erooms . For the doors, see Janus.

The floor (solum) Of_a roomwas seldom

bo ed : itwas general l covered with stoneor marble, ormosaics. he common-floorswere aved with pieces ofbricks, tiles , stones ,&c., arming a kind of compositionca l led ruderatio. Sometimes pieces ofmarble were imbedded ina compositionground, and th ese

probably gave the idea ofmosaics. As theseoors were beatendown(paoita) with rammers (fistucae), the word vimenrumbecamethe general name for a oor. Mosaics, ca l led by Pliny h

'

thostrota (Ridden-

pom), thoughthis word has a more extensive meaninfi rst came into use inSul la’sfirm,

who in eone inthe temple of Fortune at Praeneste.Mosaic work was afterwards cal led Mau i

’

gd?u opus , and was most extensively employ

The inner wallsVar

-ism) of rivate

rooms were frequently med Wi th s of

marble, but were more usual l y covered bypaintings ,which inthe time ofAugustus weremade uponthe wal ls themse lves. This practice was so commonthat we find eventhesmall houses inPompeii have paintings upontheir wal ls.

The ceil ings seemoriginal] to havebeen left uncovered , the beams w ch sup

ported the roofor the upperare being visible.Afterwards planks were plac across thesebeams at certainintervals, leaving hollowspaces, cal led lacunaria or laqucan

‘

a , whichwere frequently covered with gold and ivory,and sometimes with paintings. There wasanarched ceiling incommonuse, cal led Caru n.

The Romanhouses had fewwindows(fenestrae). The principal apartments, theatrium,

peristyle, &c., were lighted fromabove, and the cubicu la and other smal l roomsgeneral ly derived their light fromthem. andnot fromwindows looking into the street .The rooms onl onthe u per story seemtohave beenusu ly lighted y windows.The windows appear ori ally to have beenmerely openings inthe wa I, closed bymeansof shutters , which frequently had two leaves(bi ores westme).

inawe were also sometimes coveredby a kind of lattice or trel lis workand sometimes by net-work, to prevent ser

pents and othernox ious repti les fromgettingm.

fAfterwards, however, v

a

v

ninedio

zs were made

0 a transparent stone, c speculum,

such windows were callgd'

adaria.

indowsmade of glass (vitrum) are rstmen.tioned by Lactantius, who lived inthe fourthcentury of the Christianera ;but the discoveries at Pompeii prove that glasswas usedforwmdows under the early emperors .

The rooms were heated inw inter indi ercutwe a;but the Romans hadno stoveslike ours. he cubicula, t riclinia, and otherrooms , which .were intended forwinter u se,were buil t inthat part of the house uponwhich the sunshone most ;and inthemi ldclimate of I taly this frequently enabled themto dispense with any art ificialmode ofwanning the rooms. Rooms exposed to the sunwere sometimes calledheliocamini. The roomswere wmeth es heated by hot air, which wasintroduced bymeans of pi s froma furnacebelow, but more frequent y by ortable fur

naces or braziers inw'

eh coal orcharcoal was burnt. The caminus was also akind of stove inwhich wood appears to havebeenusual l yhurnt, and probably onl differedfromthe foculus inbeing is r an fixed toone place. The rooms usual y had no chimneys forcarryin ofi

‘

the smoke,but the smoke

escaped . throng the windows, doors , andopenings inthe roof;but stil l chimneys donotappear to have beenentirely unknownto theancients, as some are said to have beenfoundinthe ruins of ancient buildings.DONA'

RIA (dvaflr’mara or dvax efuevqs,presentsmade to the gods, either by indivr

uals or communities . Sometimes they are

also cal led done or dopa. The belief that thegods were pleased wi th costly presents wasas natural to the ancients as the belief thatthey could be influenced intheir conduct towardsmenby the offering of sac rifices ;and,indeed , both spran fromthe same feeling.Presents weremos y givenas tokens of gratitude for some favour which a god had bestowed onman;as , for instance, by personswho had recovered fromi llness or escapedfromsh i wreck ;but some are al so mentioned

,whio were intended to induce the deit

to grant some especial favour. Almost 1

presents were dedi cated intemples , to whichinsome

places anespecial bui ldingwas ad

ded, inw h these treasures were preserved.

Such buildings were cal led Gneavpot (treasuries) ;and mthe most fr uented templesof Greece many states h their separatetreasuries. The act of dedicationwas calleddvanflévat, damn, dedicate, ormeans.DONAT I

'

VUM. [Consumers ]

DRAemu.

contraryto bringuniversa lchiefdistham} , or concubme. consisted inthe formerhaving a portion, whereas the latter hadnot ;hence

,persons who married wives without

portions appear to have giventhemor theirguardians anacknowledgment inwriting bwhich the recei t of a portionwas admitteti

’

.

Moreover, poor eiresses were eithermarriedor portioned by theirnext of kin, according toa. law, which fixed the amount of portiontobe givenat five minae by a Pentacosiome

Peace.

The Mina contained 100 drachmae, andwas consequently equal to

,4l.

'

ls . 3d . ;andthe talent 60minae , and was thus ual to2431. 153 . Respecting the value of t e different talents among the Greeks, see

_

T ALBN'ruu .

The tetradrachminlater times was calledstatcr. T he latter word a lso signifies a goldcoin, equal in value to twenty drachmae.

The obolos, inlater timé s, was‘

of broriz etidimnus, three by a Horseman, and one and a but inthe best t imes ofAmong we onl y yeahalf by a Z eugites . The husband had to give

to the relatives or guardians of the wife see

curity (dnorgunye

r

a) for the dow which

was not consider the property o the hueband himself, but rather of his wife and chi ldren. The portionwas returned to the wifeincase of a divorce.2. ROMAN . The dos among the

,

Romanswas everything which onthe occasionof awoman’smarriage was transferred by her, orby another person, to the husband . All theproperty of thewife which wasnotmade doscont inued to be her own, andwas comprisedunder the name ofparapherna . The dos uponits delivery became the husband’s pmperty,and continued to be his so long as the marriage relationexisted.Inthe case of

”d ivorce, the woman, or herrelations cou ld bring anactionfor the restitutionof

,

the dos ;and, accordingl a womanwhose dos was large dorara w ar had someinfluence over her hue and , inasmuch as shehad the power of divorcing herself, and thusofdepriving himof the enjoyment of her property.DOWRY. [Dos ]DRACHMA

gipc prmcr al si lver

coinamong the reels.

”The two c ief stan

dards inthe currencies of the Greek stateswere the Attic and Aeginetan. The averagevalue of the Attic Drachma'was 9 d. of our

money. I t contained six obols i) ;andthe Athenians had separate sil ver come, fromfour d rachmae to a quarter of anobol. Therewere also silver pieces of two drachmae andfour drachmae. The fol lowing table gi ves

of sil ver obols The cl ass;was a copperoin, and the eighth pfrt of anobol.

As the Romans reckoned in so

the value inEnglish money of the Athenian the G reeks general ly reckoned by drachmae ;coins, froma quarter obol to a tetradrachm: and whena sumis mentioned mthe Attic

The Attrc standard prevai led most intheeritima and commercial states . I t was thestandard of Phil ip

’s gold , and was introducedby Alexander for silver also. The Aeginetanstandard a pears to have beenthe prevalentone inearly times :we are told that moneywas first coined at Aegina by order of Pherdonof Argos. Inlater times the Aeginetanstandard was u sed inalmost all the statesof the Peloponnesus, except Corinth. T heaverage value of the Aeginetandrachma was10. l id. inourmone and the values of thedifferent coins of 1. standard are as fol.

lows

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E CCLE S IA.

ceived for it. The paymentwas originally an 9

obolus, butwas afterwards raised to three.

E DICTUM.

If, however, the chairmanrefused tosu mit any questionto the decisionof the

The right of attending was enjoyed by all people hemight he proceeded against by’

enlegitimate citizens who were of the propera e dals-i: and if he al lowed the people to vote( genera l ly supposed to be twenty, certs y upona proposal which was contrary to existnot less thaneighteen), and not labounngunder any atima , or loss of civi l rights .

mg constitutional laws, hewas insome casesliable to atimia. If, onthe contrary,no oppo

Inthe artic le Boot s it is explainedwho the sitionof this sort was ofl‘

ered to a proposedprytanes and theproedriwere;and wemay here decree, the y otes of the people were taken, byremark, that itwas the duty of the proedri of the permissronof the chairmanand with thethe same tribe, under the presidency of their consent of the rest

'

of thechairman(6 to lay before thepeople the subjects to discussed ;to read,orcause to be read , the previous bil l rd apo

floul evpa ) of the senate. without w'

eh nomeasure could be brought before the ecclesia,and to

'

ve permissionto the speakers to address e people. The ofiicers who actedunder them, were the crier (6napvf), and theS c thianbowmen.

vious, however, to the commencementof any business, the place was purified by theod

'

e ring of sac rifices, and thenthe gods wereimp ina prayer to bless the proceedingsof themeeting.The pri vilege of addressing the assemblywasnot confined to any class or ,

age amothose who had the right to be present : a

l

l?tv

gritlrhoaut anydistinctio

'lnzcv

zere invi ted to

ado so

t proc amation,'

em or? amt

which wasmade b the cnfifie

ger t eproedrihad e throu h t necessary prel iminaries,and aid the anject of discussionbefore themeetingfor though.according to the institu

ti ons 0 éolon, those persons who were abovefifty years of a e ought to have beencal leduponto speak rst, this regu lationhad inlatertimes become quite obsolete. The speakersare sometimes simply cal led o! rt ra

g, and

a pear to have worna crowno myrt e onair heads while addressing the assembly.Themost influential and practised speakersof the assembl were generally distinguishedby thename 0 Mropeg.

After the speakers had concluded , any onewas at libert to propose a decree, whetherdrawnup be orehand or framed inthemeeting, which, however, itwas necessary to present to the proedri , that they might see, inconjunctionwith the nomophylaccs , whetherthere was contained init anything injuriousto the state or contrary to the existing laws.Ifnot, itwas read by the crier ; though evenalter the readin the chairmancould preventit being put to t vote, unl ess his Oppositionwas overbome by threats and elements. Private individuals also could do the same,

.

byengaging upon oath (i s ometric) to bring

st the author of anymeasure theymight

proed ri. The decisionof the ls was givenei ther by showof hands, or b i. s. by casting pebblesinto urns (mdimcor) the formerwas express.ed by the word x erporoveiv, the latter byweighed“ altho

gdgh the two terms are fre

quently confound Themore usualmethodof votingwas show of hands, as beingmoreex peditiousan convenient uporovla). Voteby ballot, onthe other han was onl

yused in

a few special cases determined by aw; as,

for instance , whena propositionwasmade forallowin those who had sufl

'

ered atimia to appeal to t e people forrestitutionof their formerrights ;or formfiictin extrao rdinary punishments onatrocious o enders, and gene rall y,uponanymatter which afi

'

ected pnvate r

sons. Incases of this sort itwas settledx

hylaw, that a decree should not be valid unlesssix thousand citizens at least voted infavourof it. This was by far the majority of thosecitizens who were inthe habit of attending ;for, intime ofwar, thenumbernever amounted to five thousand

,and intime of peace sel

domto tenthousand .The determinationor decree of the lo

was called a'

¢wpa , which properly signi esa law prepose to anassembly, and a provedof by the people. Respecting the armfordrawing u aMorena, see Bout s .

Whent e business was over,the order for

the dismissal of the assembly was given bythe prytanes, through the proclamationof thecrier;and as itwasnot customary to continuemeetings, which usual ly beganearl y inthemorning , til l after sunset, if one day were notsufiicient for the completionof any business,itwas adjourned to thenext. But anassembl was sometimes brokenup, if any one,whether a magistrate or private individual

,

declared that he saw anunfavourable omen,or perceived thunder or lightning. T he suddenappearance of rainalso, or the shock of

aneart uake, oranynatura l phenomenonofthe kin called Granular, was a sufiicientreas

tolnfor the hasty adjournment of anas

semED CT UM. The Jars E dicendi. or power

ofmaking edicts , belon d to the highermat to, anaccusationcalled a YM !) napa gimaras popah

'

Romani, at itwas principally

E ISANG E LIA.

ex ercised by the two praetors, the rector uro

bonus, and the praetorperegrinus,w ose jurisdictionwas exercised -inthe provinces by thepraeses. The curule aediles likewise mademany edicts ;and tribunes, censors, and pontifices al so

xromulgated edicts relating to the

matters of air respective jurisdictions . The

idiots were among the sources of Romanw.

The edictummay be described general ly asa ru le promu lgated byamagistratus onentering onhis office, wh ich was done by writingit oneu albumand placing it ina conspicuousp lace. As .

the ofiice ofamagistratuswas annual , the rules promulgated by a predecessorwerenot hindingona successor, but hemightc onfirmor adapt the ru les of his predecessorand introduce theminto his ownedict, anhence such adapted rules were called edid umv alentines, ornexus , as opposed to edictumuseum.

W edictumwas that rule whichwas0 (proutm eicidit) for the occasion. A

perpetimmedictumwas that rule which wasmade by the magistrates onentering uponodice, and which was intended to a ply to allcases to which it was applicable, uring theyear of his

“

office : hence it was sometimescalled al so am lea . Until it became the

or.

IREN or IREN (ripqv or1pm.thenamegivento the Spartanyouth when e attainedthe age of twenty. At the a ofeighteenheemerged fromchildhood, an was cal lednail.l etpmv. Whenhe had attained his twentiethyear

,he beganto exercise a direct influence

over hisJuniors

,and was entrusted with the

cominan of troops inbattle . The word apto have originall signified a commander.‘

he lpévegmention inHerodotus, inconnectionWi th the battle of Plataeae, were certainly not ouths, but commanders,E lSAN E'

LIA (elgayyeua ), signifies, inits primary and most general sense, a denun

E ISPHORA. B l

ciationof any kind but,much more usually ,aninformationlaidbefore the counci l or theassembly of the aple, and the con nentimeachment an trial of state crimina s atAt ens undernovel or extraordina ry circumstances. Among these were the occasionsuponwhichmanifest crimes were alleged tohave beencommitted, and et ofsuch anatureas the existing laws had ailed to anticipate,or at least describe specifical ly (dypaoa dd:x r

'mara), the resul t of which omi ss ion.wouldhave been, but for the enactment by whichthe accusations inquestionmight be preferred(v6 slcanel sx rmég), that a prosecutorwoul not have knownto whatma istrate toapply;that a magistrate, if applic to, couldnot wi th~safety have accepted the indictmentor brought it into court ;and that. inshort ,there would have beena total fai lure ofjustice.E I

'

SPHORA (algoo an extraordinarytax onprepert ra at Athens, wheneverthemeans of t e state were not sufficient tocarry onawar.I t is not quite certainwhenthis property

tax was introduced ; but it seems to havecome first into general use about a. c . 428. I tcou ldnever be raised without a decree of thepeople, who also assigned jhe amount i a

quired;and the strateg i, or general s, sti petended its collection, and presided in thecourts where disputes connected with, orarising from, the levying of the tax were settled. The usual ex ressions for paying thisproperty- tax are : e coépew x pfinara , elgoépew dc rev ndlepov, sic rip: owmptav rflcrrél wg, elgpopdg 81 and those whopaid it were cal led ofe goépovrrg.The census of Solonwas at first the stand

ardaccording to which the cisplrorawas raised ,until inn. c. 377 anewcensuswas instituted,inwhich the people, for the purpose of fixingthe rates of the property- tax

,were divided

into anumber of symmoriae (avp mplar) orclasses , similar to those which were afterwardsmade for the trierarchy. Each of theten tribes or phylae, a

ppointed 120 of its

weal thier citizens ;and t e whole number ofpersons included inthe s oriae was thus1200, who were consideredas the representalives o f the whole rc ublic. This body of1200was divided into our classes, each consisting of300. The first c lass , or the richest,Were the leaders of the symmoriae ( ' yepévscmippopid

'

iv), and are often ca l led the threehundred. They probably conducted the proceedings ofthe symmoriae and they, or whichismore likely, the demarchs, had to value thetaxable prope rty . Other officers were appointed tomake out the lists of the rates, and

132 ELEUS INIA.

were calledl

émypaeek , dra-medial;or take7eig. When the wants of the state werepressing, the 300 leaders advanced themoneyto the others , who paid it back to the 800 atthe regu lar time. The first class probablyconsisted of persons who possessed propertyfrom12 talents upwards : the second class ,of persons who possessed aperty from6

talents and upwards, but unat 12: the thi rdc lass , of persons who possessed property from2 talents upwards, but under 6 : the fourthclass, of persons who possessed property from25minae upwards, but under 2 talents . Therate of tax ationwas higher or lower according to the wants of the republic at the thus ;we have accounts of rates of a 12th, a soth,a 100th , and a 500th part of the taxable propetty.

If any one thought that hisproperty was

taxed higher thanthat of anot er manonwhomjuster c laims could be made, he hadthe right to cal l uponthis rsonto~take theoffice inhis stead, or to an it to a completeexchange of roperty. [Arrrmos i s ] NoAthenian, ont 8 other hand , if belongin tothe tax -paying classes, could be exempt romthe eisphora ,not eventhe descendants ofHar

modius and Aristogeiton.

ELEVEN T he. [Hw usE LE U S l

'fiTIA festival andmysteries, originally celebrated only at Elensis inAttica, inhonour of C eres and Proserpins . The Eleusinianmysteries

,or the

mysteri es, as they were sometimes calledwere the holiest and most venerable of allthat were celebrated inGreece. Various traditions were current among the Greeks, respecting the author of these mysteries ; for,while some considered Eumolpus orMusaeusto be their founder, others stated that theyhad beenintroduced fromEgypt by Brechtheus , who at a time of scarci ty providedhis country with cornfromEgypt, and imported fromthe same quarter the sacred ritesandmysteri es of Eleusis . A third traditionattributed the institutionto Ceres herse lf,who, whenwandering about insearch of herdaughter, Proserpine, was believed to havecome toAttica, inthe reignofErechtheus, tohave suppl ied its inhabitants with com, andto have instituted the mysteries at E lensis .

This last op inionseems to have beenthemostcommonamong the ancients, and insubse

zuent times a stone was shownnear the wel l

‘

alhchoros at Eleusis, onwhich the goddess,overwhelmed with grief and fatigue

,was be

l terad to have rested onher arrival inAttica.

All,

the accounts and allusions inancientwri ters seemto warrant the conclusion, thatthe legends concerning the introductionofthe

Eleusinia are descriptions of a period whenthe inhabitants of Attica were becoming se

quainted with the benefits of agricu l ture andoi

’

a regu larly consti tuted fo rmof society.inthe reignof Erechtheus awar is said tohave brokenout betweenthe Athenians andEleusinians ; and whenthe latter were defeated , they acknowledged the supremacy ofAthens incv thing “

i t?the mysteries

,

which theywis ed to c act and regu late ‘

for themselves. Thus'

the superintend enceremained with the descendants of E umol us

the daughters of the E eu

sinianking Ce sus, and a third c lass of priests,the Ceryces, who seemlikewise to

’

have beenconnectedwith thefamil ofE umolpus, thoughth themselves traced t eirorigintoMercury

A lauros .

At t a time whenthe local governments ofthe several townships ofAttica were concentrated at Athens , the capita l became a lso thecentre of religion, and several deitieswho hadhitherto onl y enjoyed a local worship, werenow raised to the rank ofnational gods . Thisseems also to have beenthe case w ith theEleusiniangoddess , forinthereignofTheseuswe findmentionof a temple at Athens, cal ledEleusinion. probably the new and nationa lsanctuary of Ceres . Her rieste and

pgiest

essesnow became natura l y attached thena tional temple of the capital though heroriginal place of worship at lilleusis, withwhich somany sacred associations were con~nected stil l retained its importance and itsspecial

,

share inthe celebrationof thenationalsolemnities.We must distihgu ish betweenthe greate rE leusinia, which were celebrated at Athensand E leusis, and the lesser, which were heldat Agrae onthe I lissus. The lesser E leusinia were onl a preparation(npox éflapat or

apod every;for the real mysteries . Theywere eld every yea r inthemonth ofAntheaterion, and, according to some accounts , inhonour of Proserpine alone. Those whowere initiated ia ' thembore thename ofMystae (p risms), and had to wait at least anotheryear before they cou ld be admitted to the

great mys teries. T he principa l rites of thisrst stage of initiationconsisted inthe sacrifice of a sow, which the mystae seem tohave first washed inthe Canthams , and inthe purification by a risst, who bore thename of Hydranos ('T The mystaehad al so to take anoath of sec recy, whichwas administered to themby the Mystagogu:(pva

'mymyég, also cal led [speedvmg or rrpo~wjmg), and they received some k ind of re

pa ratory instmction,which enabled thema er

wards to understand the my steries which

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134 E MBLEMA.

resul ts have beenas various and as fhnciful laid ornament. T he art of

asmight be expected . Themost sober andprobable view is that, accord ing to which ,

EMIS SARIUM.

mlayinwas emloyed inproducing beautifulwor of twoascriptions , vi z z—lst, Those which resem

they were the remains of a worship which bled our marquetry, boule, and Florentinepreceded,

the rise of the Hel lenicmythology mosaics ;and 2dland its attendant rites, grounded ona viewofnature, less fancifu l ,more earnest,and betterfitted toawakenboth phi losophical thoughtand reli

'

ous feeling.

”

E LE THE'RIA (élwdépta), the feast ofliberty, a festival which the Greeks, after thebattle of Plataeae (479a instituted inhohourofJu iter E leutheriua ( the de liverer). itwas inte ed notmerely to be a tokenofthei rgrati tude to .

the god to whomthey beli evedthemselves to be indebted for their Victoryover the barbarians, but also as a bond of

unionamong themselves '

for, inanassemblyof all the Greeks, Aristides carried a decreethat delegates (npéBovZo t x ai 8 fromall the Greek states shou ld assemle everyear at Plataeae for the ce lebrationof theleutheria. T he townitse lfwas at the sametime declared sacred and inviolable, as long asits citizens offered the annual sacrifices whichwere then instituted on behalf of Gmece.

E very fifth year these solemnities were celehi s ted with contests, inwhich the victorswere rewarded with chaplets .

EMANCIPA’TIO, was anact by whichthe putrid pomrmwas disso lved inthe life?time of the parent, and itwas so cal led because itwas inthe formof a sa le mandpatio).By the laws of the Twelve T a lea i t wasnecessary that a sonshould be sold threetimes inorder to be released fromthe paternalpower, or to be nd juria. In the case ofdau hters and grandchi ldren, one sale wasan cient. The father transferred the sonbythe formof a sale to anothe r rson, whomanumi tted him, uponwhich e returnedinto the powenof the father. This was re

peated , and Wi th the like result. After athird sale, the paternal powerwas ex tinguished, but the sonwas res old to the parent,who thenmanumi tted him, and .ao acquiredthe rights of a patronover his emancipatedson, which would otherwise have belongedto the purchaserwho gave himhis finalmanumias ion.

EMBAS (épfléc), a shoe wornby men,which is frequentlymentioned b AristOphanee and other Greek writers . his appearsto have beenthe most commonkind of shoewornatAthens. Pol lux says itwas inventedby the Thracians , and that it was like thelow cothurnus. The M

'

was also wornby the Boeotians, and probe ly inother partsofGreece .EMBLE '

MA ( lyfil rma , lmrawpa), ania

y, those inwhich c rusts

(6mm),exquisite y wrought inbas re lief andof preciousmaterials, were fastened uponthesurface ofvessels or other pieces of furnitu re .

T o the latte r class of roductions be longedthe cups and plates w h Verres obtainedby violence fromthe Sici lians and fromwhichhe removed the emblems for the pu rpose ofhaviagE

themset ingo ld instead of si l ver.E ’RITI , the name givento those Romansoldiers who had served out their time,and had exemption(meetin) frommi litary service. T he usual time of service was twentyears for the legionary soldiers, and sixteenor the praetorians. At the end of their periodof service th

eyreceived a bounty or rewanlm), at or in lands ormoney, or in

EMI SSA'RIUM , anartificial channel fortned to carry 05 any stagnant bod of water,like the sluices inmodernuse. ome worksof thia kind are among the mo“ remarkable

E PANG E LIA.

smarts of Romanin nui T hah throughWhich the waters the she Fucmus discharged themse lves into the Liris, is reprosented inthe

lprecedin woodcut.

EMPO’

RI M (rd pmipzov), a .

place forwholesa le trade incommodi ties carried by sea.

Thename

.

is sometimes s

upplied1to a sea

-port

town, ut i t ry sign es ony a particu ar

lace insuc r(

spawn. The word is derivedromE/nropog

'

, which signifies inliomer .

a

greenwho sails as a passenger ina shiplonging to another person; but in laterwriters it signifies the merchant ordea ler, and differs fromM anl ey,dea ler.The em riumat Athenswas under the ia

spectiono certainofice who were electedannual ly in l

ard for? wropfov).

ENDE XI decay) , proper! denotes aprosecutioninstituted against suc persons aswere alleged to have exercised rights or heldoflices whi le labouring under a uliar disqual ification. T he same form0 actionwasavai lable at the chairmanof the proedri(émo'rdmg who wrongly refused to take thevotes of the people inthe assembly ;againstma lefactors, especially murderers ; traitors,ambassadors accused ofmalversation, and persons who furnished supplies to the enemy during war. The first step takenby

.

the p rosecutorwas to lay his informationinwriting,a l so cal led endemic, before the roper magist rate, who thenarrested , or he d to bail, the

rsoncriminated, and took the usual ate a

or bringing himto trial . There is great oscuritywith respect to the punishment whichfol lowed condemnation.

~The accuser, ifunsuccessful , was responsible for bringinga malicious charge (rpevdoirf évdelfwg {mavGwq ‘lDROMlS (évdpoplg), a thick coarse

b lanket, manufactured in G au l , and cal ledendromis,” because those who had beenex

ercising inthe stadium(évwas») threw itover themto obviate the e cts of suddene xposure whenthey were heated . Notwithstanding its coarse and shaggy appearance,i twas wornonother occasions as a proteotionfromthe cold by ri ch and fashionablepersons at Rome .

ENSIGNS, MILITARY. [S temMILInew ]E NS lS .

éG u nwsJ

EFA’NG If i a citizenof Athens had incurred atimia , thep

rivilege oftaking part ora k ing in

O

the pu lic assem.

bly was forfei But as i t sometimesmighthappenthat a person, thoughnot formal l y declared al imas, had committed such crimes as

would , on accusation, draw uponhimthis

E PHE BUS .

punishment, it was of course desirable thatsuch individuals, like real atimi, should be excluded fromthe exercise of the hts of ci tizens. Whenever, therefore, suc a personventured to speak inthe assembly, any Atheniancitizenhad the right to come forward inthe assembly itself, and demand ofhimto astablish his right to speak by a trial or ex amionation

.

of his conduct (dommoia rofi ion),and this demand , denouncement, or t ieat,was cal led or die r10d

agend a: oxmaafac). who im bed ih'

dual was thencompelled to esist fromspeaking, and to submit to a scrutiny into hisconduct, if he was convicted, a formaldeclaration atimia followed.EPHE’

BUS (Mafia; the name ofAthe

nianyouths after t ey attained the ageof 18. The state of ephebei

’

a (eonfiefa) lastedfor two years , till the ouths had attained theage of 20, whenthey men, and wereadmitted to share all the ri hts and duties ofcitizens , forwhich the law not prescribe amore advanced a

ge.

Before a yout was enrolled among theephebi, he had to undergo a doctfl lal ia (dos i

the object of wh ichwas part ly to as~

certainwhether he was the sonof Atheniancitizens, or adopted by a citizen, and partlwhether his body was sufliciently developedand strong to undertake the duties whichnowdevolved uponhim. After the docunasiathe youn menreceived inthe assembly ashield an a lance ;butn those whose fathershad fal leninthe defence of their country received a complete suit of armour inthe theatre. I t seems to have beenonthis occasionthat the e hebi took anoath in the templeof Diana glenroe, by which they pledgedthemselves never to disgrace their arms ortodesert their comrades ;to fight to the last inthe defence of their country, its altars andhearths;to leave their countrynot ina worsebut ina better state thanthey found it;toobey themagistrates and the laws ;to resistall attemts to subvert the institutions ofAttica; an final l y, to respect the religionoftheir forefathers. This solemnity took placetowards the close of the year, and the festiveseasonbore thename ofephebia (formi c). Theexterna l distinctionof the ephebi consi sted inthe chlamys~and the ,petasus.

0

During the two years ofthe ephebeiazwhichmay be considered as a kind ofapprenticeshiinarms, and inwhich the youngmenpre at

themselves for the hi her duties of ful Ci tiz ens , theywere gene ly sent into the country,under thename ofperipoli

'

(neptnol oi ), to keepwatch inthe towns and fortresses , onthecoast and frontier, and to performother duti es

iss E PHORI.

whichmight benecessary for the protectionofAttica.

E PHE G E'

S IS denotes o

themethod of roceeding against such criminal s aswere li la to be summari ly arrested by a private citizen[APAG OG B] whenthe p rosecutorwas unwilling to expose h imself to pemonalrisk inapprehendi the offender. Underthese circumstances e made anappl icationto the pro er magistrate, and conducted himand his 0 cars to the spot where the captu rewas to be efl

'

ected.

E ’PHETAE (mm ), the name of certain'

udges at Athens,who t ried crises of homicide.hey were fifty-one innumber, selected fromnoble families, and more thanfifty years. ofage . They formed a tribunal

'

ofgreat antiquity,and were inexistence before the legislationof

Solon, but, as the state becamemore andmoredemocratica l.their duties became unimportantand almost antiquated.E PHORI (Epopoc). Magistrates called

E phon’ '

or .overseers were commonto manyDorianconstitutions intimes of remote antiquitg

;bu t the ephori of S arts are themostcele rated of themall. he originof the8 mme hori is quite uncertain, but their

es int e historical times was a kind ofcounterpoise to the kings and council, and inthat respect peculiar to Sparta alone of theDorianstates. Their number, five, appearsto have beenalways the same, and was ro

bably connected wi th the five d ivisions o thetownof Sparta, namel y, the four x ii /tat.Limnae, Mesoa, Pi tana, C osura, and the 11624;or ci ty properly so ca led , around which theeditorla They were elected fromand bythe peop e, without any qual ificationof age orproperty, and withou t undergoing an scru

tiny so that the people en’

oyed throug thema participationinthe big eat me '

stracy ofthe state. They entered u ono ce at theautumnal solstice.and the rst inrank of thefive ve his name to the year, which wascal l afterhiminall civi l transactions.They ssessed judicial authority incivi lsuits, an also a genera l superintendence overthemorals anddomestic economyof thenation,which inthe hands of able menwould soonprove aninstrument ofunlimited power.Their jurisdictionand power were stil l far

ther increased by the privi lege of institutingscrutinise (cflflvvo t) into the conduct ofall themagistrates . Eventhe kings themselves cou ldbe brought before thei r tri bunal (as Cleomeneswas for bribery ). Inextreme cases the ephorswere also competent to lay anaccusationagainst the kings as wel l as the othermagistrates, and bring themto a capital trial beforethe great court of justice.

E PIBATAE .

la later times the power of the ephorswasgrea tly increased ;and this increase appearsto have been

principa l ly owing to the fact,

that they ut t emselves inconnectionwiththe assemly of the ople, convened itsmeetings. la idmeasures fore it, and were constituted its agents and representatives.

.

Whenthis connectionarose ismatter of conjecture.T he r which such a connection ve

woul more thananything else.‘enable t emto encroach onthe royal authority , andmakethemselves virtual ly supreme in the state .

Accordingly we find that they transacted bu si

ness wit foreign ambassadors ; dismissedthemfromthe state;decided u nthe government of dependent cities ;eu ribed inthepresence of other persons to treaties of peace ;and iii time ofwar sent out troops whentheythoughtnecessa

z. inall these capaci ties the

ephors acted as e representatives of the nation, and the agents of the public assemblbeing infact the ex ecu tive of the state . ncourse of time the kin became comwetelyunder their control . or example, they finedAgesilaus onthe vague charge of trying tomake himself popular, and interfered evenwith the domestic arrangements of otherkings. Inthe field the kings were fol lowedby two ephors

,who belonged to the council

ofwar; the three who remained at home received the boot incharge , and paid it into thetreasu whic was under the superintendence o the whole Col lege of Five. But theephors had stil l another rerogative, based ona religious

-

foundation.w'

eh enabled themtoeffect a temporary depositionof the kings.Once ineight years, as we are told, they chosea calmand cloudless night to observe theheavens, and if there was any appearance ofa fallingmeteor, itwas believed to be a signthat the godswere displeased with the kings,who were accordingly suspended fromtheirfunctions unti l anoracle al lowed of their restoration. The ou tward symbols of supremeauthority al so were assumed by the ephors ;and they alone kept theirseats while the k ingspassed ;whereas i twas not considered belowthe di ity of the kings to rise inhonour ofthe e ors.

enAgis and Cleomenes undertook torestore the old constitution, it was necessa ryfor themto overthrow the e horalt and ac.

cordingly Cleomenes mu cred t e ephorsfor the time being, and abolished the office(a. c . itwas , however restored underthe Romans.

(émfidrat), were soldiers ormarines appomted to defend the vessels inthe Atheniannavy , and were entirel y d istinctfromthe rowers, and also fromthe land sol

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E QUIT ES .

.triancenturies unless his character was unblemished, and his father and grandfatherhad beenbornfreemen.Each of the equites received a home from

the state (equus rubber“) r money to pur

chase one, as we 1 as a stingofmoney for itsannual support ;the ex

pense of its support

was defrayed by the orp ans ‘

and unmarriedfemales ;since, ina mi litary state, it couldnot be esteemed unjust, that the womenandthe chi ldrenwere to contribute largely forthose who fought inbehalfof themand ofthe commonwealth . The urchase-moneyfor a knight’s horse was ca ed as: eqmrre,and its annual provisionass hordean

’

im. Theformer amounted, according toLivy, toasses , and the latter to 2000.

All the equi tes of whomwe have beenspeaking. received a horse fromthe state,and were included inthe 18 equestriancenturies of the Servian constitution;but incourse ofW e, we read of another class of0

1mminRomanhistory who did not receive

a orse fromthe state , and who werenot iac luded inthe 18 centuries. This latter classis firstmentioned by Livy, inhis account ofthe swge lof

O

Veii, a. o. 403. He says thatduring the siege, whenthe Romans had at

one time suffered great disasters , all thoseci tizens who had anequestrianfortune, andno horse al lotted to them, volunteered toserve Wi th their ownhorses ;and he adds,that fromthi s time equites first beganto serveWi th thei r ownhomes. The state paid them,as a k ind of compensationfor serving withthei r ownhorses. The foot so ldiers had te

ceived pay a fewyears before ;and two yearsafterwards, it. c. 401, the pa of the equiteswasmade three-fold that of t e infantry.Fromthe year a. o. 403, there were there

fore two classes ofRomanknights :one who

emer

gedhorsesl f

ree;lthe state, and are there

dore uent y ca equites publwo'

ansometimesM ine: ormfiz

u

fiand anotherclass ,who served, whenthey were r uired ,Wi th thei r ownhorses, but were not c assedamong the 18 centuries . As they served onhorseback they were called eq m andwhenspokenof in0 positionto caval ry, which didnot consi st of mancitizens , they were alsocall ed equites Romam

’

but they had no lega lclaimto thename of equites, since inancienttimes this title was strictly confined to thosewho received horses fromthe state.The reasonof this distinctionof two classes

arose fromthe fact, that thenumber of equitesinthe 18 centuries wasfixed fromthe time ofServius Tul lius. As vacancies occurred inthem, the descendants of those who were originally enrolled succeeded to their places,PYO'

vided they had not dissipated their property.But in course of time, as p ulation andwealth increased, thenumber 0 persons whopossessed anequestrianfortune also increased greatly ;and as the ancestors of these persons hadnorbeenenrol led inthe 18 centuries,thejycould not receive horses fromthe sta te

an were therefore al lowed the privilege ofserving with their ownhorses among the cavalry, instead of the infantry, as they wouldotherwise have beenobliged to have done .The inspectionof the equites who receivedhorses fromthe state belonged to the censors,who had the wer of depriving aneques ofhis horse , reducing himto the conditionof anaerarian, and also of

'

ving the vacanth rse to themost distinguis ed of the equitesw 0 had previously served at their ownexpense. For these purposes

“theymade duringtheir censorship a public inspection

,inthe

forum, of all the knights who possessed public horses (equitatumrecognoscerc). The tribeswere takeninorder, and each knight wassummoned byname. Every one, as hisnamewas called, walked past the censors, leadinghis horse.Ifthe censors hadno faul t to find either withthe character of the knight or the equipmentsofhis horse, they ordered himto pass on(traduc equant) ;but if onthe contrary they considered himunworthy ofhis rank , the struckhimout of the list of hts

, and eprivedhimof his horse, or ordered to sell it,withthe intentionno doubt that the personthusdegraded should refund to the state themoneywhich had beenadvanced to himfor its pur

This reviewof the equites by the censorsmust not be confounded with the E quitmnT runsvcctio, which was a solemnprocessionof the bo

'e‘plevery year onthe Ides ofQuintilis

(July). e processionstarted fromthe templeofMars outside the city,and passed throu hthe city overthe forum,and by the temple of eDioscuri. Onthis occasionthe equi tes werealways crownedwith olive chaplets , and woretheir state dress, the trabea, with all thehonourable distinctions they had gained inbattle. According to Livy , this annual p rocessionwas first established by the censorsQ. Fabius and P. Decius, 304; but se

cordin to Dionysius it was instituted afterthe de eat of the Latinsnear the lakeRegillus,ofwhich anaccountwas brought to Rome bythe Dioscuri.Itmay be asked how long did theknight re

tainhis public horse, and a vote inthe eques~triancentury to which he belonged 1

.

Onthissub

'

eet we have no posi tive information;bu tas ose equites, who served with thei r own

E QU ITES .

horses, were only obli ed to serve for tenyears (stipendia) under t e ,

age of46, wemaypresume that the same rule ex tended to thosewho served with the public horses, rovidedthey wished to

five up the service. or it is

certainthat int e ancient times of the republic a knightmight retainhis horse as long ashe pleased , evenafter 118 had entered thesenate , rovided he continued able to discharge t e duties of a knight. Thus the twocensors , M . Livius S alinatorand C. ClaudiusNero, ins . c. 204, were also equites, and L.

Scipio Asiaticus, who was deprived of hish orse by the censors inB . c. 185, had himselfbeencensor ins . c 191. But during the latertimes of the republ ic the knights were obl igedto

(gi

veop their horses onenterin the senate,

an consequently ceased to be on to theequestriancenturies. It thus natura ly cameto pass, that the greaternumber of the equitesequo publico, after the exclusionof senatorsfromthe equestriancenturies, were young

.The e oestriancentu ries , ofwhich we havehi therto eentreating, were only regarded as

-a divisionof the army : they did not forma

dis tinct class or ordo inthe constitution. Thecommunity, ina political point of view, wasd ivided only into patricians and plebeians ;and the equestriancentu ries were composedof both. But inthe year a. c. 123,a newclass,cal led the Ordo E tris, was formed inthestate by the Le: emronia, which was ihtroduced by 0 . Grace us. By this law, or

one passed afew years afterwards , every personwho was to be chosen

ggdex was requi red

to be above 30 and under years of age, tohave either anequus publicus, or to be qualified by his fortune to possess one, and not tobe a senator. The number of judices, whowere required yearly, was chosenfromthisclass by the praetor urbanus.As thename of equites had beenoriginal lyextended fromthose who possessed the publichorses to those who served wi th their ownhorses , itnowcame to be a pl ied to all thosepersons who were qualifie by their fortuneto act as judices, inwhich sense the word i su sually used by Cicero.After the reformof Sul la, which entirely

depriy ed the equestrianorder of the right ofbe in chosenas judices, and the passing ofthe ex Aurelia which ordainedthat the judices shou ld be chosenfromthesenators , equites , and tribuni aerarii, the influence of the order, says Pliny,was stillmaintained by the licam'

, or farmers of the public taxes. e find that the publicani werealmost always called equites,not because anyparticular rank wasnecessary inorder to oh

139

tainfromthe state the farming of the taxes ,but because the state was not accustomed tolet themto any one who didnot possess a considerable fortune. Thus the publicani are

freqiiently spokenof by Cice ro as identical

wit the uestrianorder. The consulship ofCicero, an the active part which the knightsthentook in suppressin the conspiracy ofCatiline, tended stil l furt er to increase thepower and influence of the equestrianorder ;and fromthat time," as s Pliny, it becamea third body (ca

ges ) int e sta te, and , to the

tit le of S emi tic:gmhu queRomania , there be

ganto be added t E quu tris Ordo.

”

InB. c . 63. a distinctionwas conferred uponthem, which tended to separate them stil lfurther fromthe plebs. By the Lex RosciaOthonis, assed inthat year, the first fourteenseats int e theatre behind the orchestra weregivento the equites. They also possessed theright of wearing the Clavus Angustus [Cnivns], and subseqi

uently obtained the privilege

ofwearing a gal ring, whichwas original yconfined to the eq

ruites equo publ ico.

The number 0 equites increased greatl yunder the early emperors, and all personswere admitted into

.the order, provided theypossessed the requisi te property, without anyinquiry into their character, or into the freebirth of their father and grandfather. Theorder inconsequence gradual ly to l oseall the considerationwhich i t h acquiredduring the later times of the republic.Augustus formed a select class of equites,consisting of those equi tes who possessed thepro

pert

gof a senator, and the old requirement

of res irth up to the grandfather. He permitted this class to wear the lotus clavus ;andand also al lowed the tribunes of the plebs tobe chosenfromthem, as vvell as the senators,and gave themthe option. at the terminationof their office, to remaininthe senate or returnto the equestrianorder. This class ofmit ts (was distinguished bindhe special titletrcs sometimes ins ignes

' maid: uitcs Romani.

spl “I

The formationof this distinct class tendedto lower the others sti l l more inpublic estimation. Intheninth year of the reignofT iberius, anattempt wasmade to improve theorder b

yrequiring the old qualifications of

free birt up to the grandfather, and by strictlyforbidding any one to wear the gold ring nuless

.

he possessed this qualification. Thisregulation, however, was of little avai l, asthe emperors frequently admitted freedmeninto the equestrianorder. Whenprivate persons were no longer appointed judices, thenecessit fora distinct c lass inthe community, like t e equestrianorder, ceased entirely

140 EQUITES. ES S EDA.

and the gold ring came at length to be wornby all free citizens. Evenslaves, after theirmanumission, were al lowed to wear it

.

b

special permissionfromthe emperor, whicappears to have beenusuall y granted providedthe atronus consented.

aving thus traced the history ofthe squeso

trianorder to its final extinctionas a distinctclass inthe communit wemustnow returnto the equites equo pu lico who formed the18 equestriancenturies. This class stil l existed during the latter years of the republic,but had enti rely ceased to serve as horse-soldiers inthe army. The caval ry of the R0manlegionsno longer consisted , as lnthe timeof Polybius, ofRomanequites, but thei r placewas sup lied by the caval ry of the al liedstates . t is evident that Caesar inhis G allicwars possessed no Romancaval ry. Whenhe went to aninterview with Ariovi stus, andwas obliged to take caval ry with him, we aretold that he did not dare to trust his safetyto the

,Gallic caval ry, and therefore mountedhis legionary soldiers upontheir horses.Romanequites are, however, frequentl ytioned inthe Gal lic and civil wars , but neveras commonsoldiers ;they Were officers at

tached to the staff of the general, or commanded the caval ry of the alhes, orsometimesthe legions.After the year s . o. 50, there wereno censors inthe state, and it wou ld therefore followthat for some yearsno review of the bodytook place, and that the vacancies were notfil led up. WhenAugustus, however, tookuponhimself, ins . c . 29, the raefecturamorum, he frequently reviews the troops ofequites, and restored the longneglected cus

tomof the solemnprocessron (transvccl io) .Fromthis time these uites

'

formed anhonourable corps , fromw ich all the higherofficers inthe ‘

army and the ch iefmagistratesin the state were chosen. Admissionintothis body was equivalent to anintroductioninto public life, and was therefore esteemeda grea

tzfrivilege. If a young manwas not

admit into this bod he was excludedfromall civi l offices 0 any importance, except inmunicipal towns ;and also fromall

rank inthe army, with the exceptionof cen

All those equites , who were not employedinactual servi ce , were obliged to reside atRome, where they were al lowed to fill thelower magistracies, which entitled a personto admissioninto the senate. T hey were diovided into six turmas, each of which wascommanded by anofficer, who is frequentlymentioned in inscri

£tions as S evir cquitum

Rom. tarmac I . c., or commonly S evir

tumor or S evir runner-umequitumRomanormn.Fromthe time that the equites bestowed thetitle of

'

ner’

pes juvenrutis uponCains andLucius aesar, the grandsons of Augustus,it became the customto confer this ti tle, aswell as that of sevir, uponthe probable suc

cessor to the throne, whenhe first enteredinto public life, and was presented with anequus publicus.The practice offil ling all the higher offices

inthe state fromthese equites appears tohave continued as long as Romewas the centre of the government and the residence ofthe emperor. After the time of Diocletian,the equites became only a city guard, underthe command of the praefectus vigilum;butthey stil l retained , inthe t ime of Valentinianus and Valens, A. D. 364, the second rankinthe city

,and were not subject to cor oral

punishment. Respecting the Magister i gnitum, see Dicmroa.

EQUULEUS or E CULE U S,aninstru

ment of torture , which is suppwed to havebeenso cal led because it was inthe formofa horse.E’RANI

gfpavm), were clubs or societies ,

establ ished or chari table, convivial , commercial. or political purposes.Unions of this kind were cal led by the general name of érarpfac, and were oftenconverted tomischievous ends , such as bribery,overawing the publ icassembly, or influencingcourts of justice. Inthe days of the Romanempire friendly societies, under the name ofmini, were frequent among the Greek cities ,but were locked onwith suspicionby theemperors, as leadingto political combinat ions.T hegiIds, or fraterni ties formutual aid, amongthe ancient Saxons, resembled the eram‘

ofthe Greeks.E RG A

’

S T U-LUM , a private prisonattached to most Romanfarms , where the slaveswere made to work inchains . The slavesconfined inaner astulumwere also employedto cultivate the elds inchains . Slaves whohad displeased their mas ters were punishedby imprisonment inthe ergastulum;and inthe same place all slaves , who could not bed nded uponor were barbarous intheirha

’

ta,were regularly kept .

ER I’CIUS , amilitary engine ful l of sha rpspikes , which was placed by the to of thecamp to revent '

the approach of enemy.ESS A

’

Rll. E sssnux JE 'SSEDA, or E

' SEDUM (fromthe Celtic E u , a carriage), the name of a chariotused, especial ly inwar, by the Britons , theGauls, and the Germans. I t was buil t vestronly, was openbefore instead of behinlike t 0 G reek war~chariot, and had a wide

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142 E XE RCIT U S .

tionofhis ofiice, and at the time whenhe submitted to the sumas any ci tizenhadthe right to come forwa and impeach him.

The officers before whomthe accounts weregivenwere at Athens teninnumber, cal led

or l oy i oral, inother places éferaoraforav o i .

l°]s so

T ORA'

T IO. [Mu s ic ]E XAU G U RA

’

T IO, the act of phanging asacred thing into a profane one, or of takingaway fromi t the sac red character which ithad received by inauguratio, consecratio, ordedicatio. Such anactwas performed by theaugurs, and never without consul ting thepleasure of the

Egods, by augurium.

E XCU’

BIA Cu rs e ]E XCUBIT O

’R S , which properlymeans

watchmenor sentinels of any kind , was thenamemore particu larly givento the soldiersof the cohort who guarded the palace of the

motia appears to have beentwenty-fourmen,besides its ca tain. The lochus, then, consisted ord inar

'

y of 100 and the more of 400men. The front rowof the enomotia appearsto have usual ly consisted of three men, andthe ordinary depth of the line, of eight men.The number ofmenineach enomotia was ,however,not unfrequently increased . Thusat the battle of Mantinea another file wasadded ;so that the front row consisted offourmen, and each enomotia consequent] contained thirty-twomen. At the battle 0 Lanetra, onthe contrary, the usualnumber of fi leswas retained, but the depth of its rankswasincreased fromeight to twelvemen;so thateach enomotia contained thirty-six men. Inthe time ofXenophonthemore a are tohaveconsisted usual ly of 600men. he numbersseem, however, to have fluctuated consider

ably, according to the greater orless increaseinthenumber of the enomotia.

To eachmore ofheavy o armed infantry therebelonged a body of cavalry bearing the samename, co

dnés

distgngit

s

themost of 1001men, and

oommen y ‘t hipparmomr'

1m‘

rflfl. The caval ry is said,by Plutarc to

have beendivided inthe time of Lycurgusinto oulami (col ori st) of fifty theneach ;butthis portionof the Lacedaemqnianarmy wasunimportant, and served only to cover thewins

‘

of_

the infant ry

. The three hundredhuig ts forming the ing’s body ard mustnot be confounded with the cave ry. Theywere the choicest of the Spartanyou ths, andfought either onhorseback or onfoot , as oc~casion uired .

Solon’

vided the Athenianpeople into fourclasses, ofwhich the first two comprehendedthose persons whose estateswere re ectivelyequivalent to the .value of 600 and 3 of theAtticmeasures called medimni. These werenot

'

obli to serve inthe infantry ,nor onboard a

’

p, ex cept insome command ; butthey were bound to keep a ho rse for the public, and to serve inthe caval ry at their ownexpense. The third class, whose estates wereequivalent to 150 suchmeasu res ,were obligedto serve inthe heavy-armed foot, rovid ingthei r ownarms ;and the ople of t e fourthclass, if unable to provi e themselves withcomplete armour, served either among thelightfarmed troops or inthenavy. Theministers of religion, and rsons who danced inthe festival of Base us, were exempt fromserving inthe armies ;the same privi legewasalso accorded to those who farmed the revénues of the state. There is rio doubt that,among the Athenians, the divisions of thearmy difi’

ered from those which, as abovestated , had been appointed b the Spartanlegislator ;but the nature of e divisions is

E XE RCITU S .

mended by tenstrategi [S ru ‘rsot and

‘

tentaxia rchs, and the can! by two ipparchsand ten phylarchs. T ese ofiicers werechosenannual ly, and they appear to have ape

pointed the subordinate officers of each tax i:or locbus.

Q

T he mountainous character ofAttics andthe Peloponnesus is the reasonthat cavalrywasnevernumerous inthose countries. Previously to the Persianinvas ionofGreece, thenumber of horse- soldiers belongin to theAthenians was but ninety -six , sac of theforty-eightnaucrariae (vavx papta t) , into whichthe statewas divided

,furnishing two persons

but soonafterwards the bodywas nugmant o twelve hundred heavy-armed horsemen,and there was besides anequal number ofarchers , who fought on horseback. Thehorses belonging to the forme r c lass werecovered with bronze or othermetal, and theywere ornamented wi th bells and embroideredclothing. Before being al lowed to serve, bothmenand horses were subject to anexaminationbefore the hipparchs, and punishmentswere decreed against persons who shouldenter wi thou t the requisi te ualifications.

E ve free citizenof the reek states wasenrol l formilitary service fromthe age of

18 or 20, to 58 or 60 years. T he young men,

previously tojoining the ranks, were instructed inthemili tary duties thema id (rax rtx ot), or public teachers , w 0 weremaintainedlgthe state for the purpose ;and no towninreecewas without its nasium, or school.

At Athens the ephebi rns s i ] guarded theci ty and the frontier fromthe age of 18 til l 20.

At 20 years of a the Athenianrecruit cou ldba

‘ sent onfore gnexpeditions ;but, amongthe S partans, this was seldomdone ti ll thesoldierwas 30 years old.

Anattentionto military duties, whenthetroo s were encamped ,was strictly enforcedina l the Greek armies ;but a considerabled ifi

'

erence prevailed inthose of the two prmcipal states with respect to the recreations ofthe soldiers. The menof Athens were al

lowed to witness theatrical performances, andto have inthe cam companies of singers anddancers. In the acedaemonianarmy, onthe contrary, all these were forbidden;theconstant practice of ternammo, and the

.

observance of a rigid discip ine being rescnbedto the Spartan outh, inorder that t eymightexcel inwar (w ich among themwas considered as the proper occupationof freemen) ;andmanly exercises alone were permit inthe intervals of duty. Yet, while encamped,the young menwere encouraged to use perfumes , and to wear costly armour, thou h theadorning of their persons, whenat s,

« 143

would have subjected themto the reproachof efi

’

eminacy .

Inthe early times of the Greek republicsthe soldier served at his ownexpense inthatclass of troops which his fortune permittedhimto oin.Peric as first introduced the practice atAthens ofgiving pay to a class of the soldiersout of the public revenue and t his was subsequentlyadaptedby the other states ofGreece.The amount of the pay varied according toci rcumstances fromtwo oboli to a drachma.

The commanders of the lochi received double,and the strategi four times the pay of a private foot- soldier.The strength of a Grecianarmy consistedchiefly inits foot-soldiers ;and of these therewere at first but two classes —the Hoplimgamma, who wore heavy armou r, carriedarge shields, and inaction, used swords andlong spears ;and the Psili clot), who werelightoarmed , having frequen y only helmetsand small bucklers , w ith neither cuirassesnorseaves, and who were employed chiefly

as s'

rmishers indischarging arrows, darts ,or stones. Anintermediate class of troops,called Penance wel roaral) or targeteers,was formed at them, by fphicrates, alterthe PeIOponnesianwar:

“they were armednearl inthe samemanner as the Heplitae,but t eir cuirasses were of lineninstead ofbronze or iron;their e

gears were sho

gfiand

they carried smal l roun bucklers,cal l pet

These troops, uniting insomemeasure the stabi lity of the phalanx with theagility of the light-armedmenwere found tobe highly edicient;and fromthe time of theiradoption, they were extensively employed inthe Greek armies.Scarlet, or c rimson, appears to have beenthe general co lour of the Greek uniform, atleast inthe days ofXenophon.The oldest existing works which treat ex

pgessly of the constitutionand tactics of therecianarmies are the treatises of As lianandArrian;which were writteninthe time ofHadrian, whenthe art ofwarhad changed itscharacter, and whenmany detai ls re lating tothe ancient military organizations were forgotten. Yet the systems of these tacticians,speaking nerally, a pear to belong to theage of ip or exsuder ; and, cousequently they may be considemd as hav

igg:gg

ceeded those which have beenindicave.

As lianmakes the lowest subdivisionof thearmy to consist of a lochus , decos , orenomotia,which he says were thensupposed to havebeenrespecti vely files of 16, 12, or 8men, andhe recommends the latter. Thenumbers in

144 E XE RCITU S .

the superior divisions proceeded ina geometrical progressionby doubles, and the princial bodies were formed and denominated as

ollow z—Four lochi'

constituted a tetrarcht’

a

64men), and two of these, a tax i:

men). The latter doubled, was cal led a sys

tagma (arivray a

xiorsmog-is (fwayta

men), to whio visionit a pears t fivesupernume raries were attac ed ;these werethe crier, the ensign, the trumpeter a servant, and anofficer, called wagus (ad ayégz,who brought up the rear. Four of the leementioned divis ions formed a chiliarchia (x tl tapx la) men), which doubled becamea telos (ram), and quadrupled , formed thebody which was denominated a phalanx (MM This cor 3 would, therefore, ap ear

to have consist of 4096men;but, inact,divisions of very different strengths were, atdiiferent times, designated by thatname, andbefore the time of Phi lip ofMacedon, phalanxwas a general expressionfor an large bodyof troops inthe Grecianarmies .

YPhat prince,

however, united under thisname 6000of hismost efficient heavy-armed men, whomhecal led his companions ;he subjected themto judicious regu lations , and im roved theirarms and discipline ;and, fromt at time, thename of his country was constantly a pliedto bodi

des of troops which were simi lar y or

ganiz eThenumerical strength of the phalanxwasprobably the greatest in the days of Philipand Alexander ;and, if the tactics of As lianmay be considered appl icable to the age ofthose monarchs, it would appear that theco 9, whencomlete, cons isted of about16, heavy-arm men. I twas divided intofour parts, each consisting of 4000men, whowere drawnup infiles general l 16mendeep.The whole front , properly spasimconsistedof two grand divisions ;but sac of thesewas divided into two sections, and the twomiddle sections of the whole constituted thecentre orWes l ey. T he others were designated sépara, or wings ; and inthese thebest troops seemto have beenplaced. Theevolutions were performed uponthe enomoty,or single file, whether it were required to extend or deepenthe line‘ :and there was aninterval betweenevery two sections for theconvenience ofmanaeuvring.

0

The Greek cavalry, according toAelian,wasdi vided into bodies, ofwhich the smal lest wascalled ile’ (an) : it is said to have consisted of64men, though the termwas used inearlier

times i311

a

Rarty of horz

e

finy number. 31roop, e cpdarchza

’ mg

to) containtwo ilae, 128 men; and a (fivision. subsequently call ed taraatinarcli ia (rapavrwapx la),

fromTarentuminI,taly,was double the former.Each of the succeeding divisions was doub lethat which preceded it ;and one, consistingof 2048men,was called lelos (réitog) :finally,the epitagma (énirayua) was equal to two tel:(réiln), and contained 4096men.Inmaking or receiving an attack , wheneachmanoccupied about three feet indepth,and the Macedonianspear, or sarissa , whichwas about 18 or 20 feet long,was held ina

horizontal ition, the point of that whichwas inthe da of a front- rank manmightpro

'

ect about 14 feet fromthe line ;the pointof t t which was inthe hands of a secondrankmanmight project about 11 feet, and so

on. Therefore, of the sixteenranks , whichwas the ordina depth of the pha lanx , thoseinrear of the i

r

iilth cou ld not, evidently, cont ribu te by their pikes to the anno ance of theenemy they consequently kept t eir pikes inaninclined position, resting onthe shou ldersof themenintheir front ;and thus they wereenabled to arrest the enemy’smissiles, which ,after flying over the front ranks,might otherwise fall onthose inthe rear. The ranks beyond the fifth pressing with all their forceagainst themenwho were intheir front,wh ilethey prevented themfromfal ling back, ihcreased the efl

'

ect of the charge, or the resistance opposed to that of the enemy.Inactionitwas one duty of the offi cers toprevent the whole body ofmenfromincliningtowards the right hand ; to this there wasalways a

' great tendency, because every sol

dier endeavoured to press that way, inorderthat hemi

ght be covered asmuch as possible

by the chic d ofhis companion;and thus dangerwas incurred ofhavin

’

the army outflankedtowards its left by that 0 the enemy. Previonel y to anaction some particular word orsentence (manna )was givenout by the commanders to the soldiers, who were enabled ,ondemanding it, to distinguish each other fromthe enem

y).e

Itmay said that, fromthe dispos itionofthe troops inthe Greek armies, the success ofan actiondepended ingenera l ona singleefl

'

ort ; since there was no second line of

troops to su port the first, inthe event of anydisaster. e dense order of the phalanxwasonly proper for a combat ona perfectly levelplain;and eventhen, the victo de ndedrather onthe prowess of the sol

'

er t anonthe skil l of the commander who was commonly distinguished fromthe menonl byfighting at their head. But,whenthe fie d ofbattle was commanded by heights , and intersected bystreams ordefiles, the unwieldymassbecame incapable ofacting,wh i le i twas overwhelmed by the enemy’smissuss.

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ex aacrrus .

ministered (sacramentum) : onthis occasion eachma‘gipulus containing 62 soldiers, a can.

one rsonwas appointed to pronounce the turion, a vex illanus : the hastati were thewo s of the oath (qut

'

rd iqmw rba sacramenti youngest of the soldiers. The second line orpract

'

rct), and the res t of the legionaries, ad principes consisted'

s i l ikemanner of 35 manivancing one by one, swore to performwhat puli ;these weremenofmature age, and fromthe first had pronounced ( inmin ejaa jumbaat). The formof the oath difi

'

ered a t di fferent times :during the re ublic it contained anen gement to be faithfu to the Romansenateand

a

people, and to execute all the orders thatshould be givenb

ythe commanders. Under

the empe rors.fide ity to the sovereignwas ihtroduced into the oath ;and after the establishment of Christianit the engagementwasmade inthe name oi

zythe Trinity. and the

ma'

caty of the emperor. Livy says that thismi i tar oath was first legal ly exacted inthetime 0 the second Punic war, a. c . 216. andthat previously to - that time each '

decuria ofcaval ry and centuria of foot had onl y beensecustomed to swea r, voluntarily among themselves, that they would act l ike cd soldiers.T he Romanarmies were, as as beenohserved above, originall y drawnup inthe formof the phalanx . Incourse of time the ponderousmass of the phalanx was resolved intosmal l battalions marshalled inO

pen order,

which were termedmanipuli , and w'

eh variedinnumbers at d ifferent periods, accordin tothe varying constitutionof the legion. eori

'

nalmeaning of the wordmanipulus whichis erived frommanna.was a handful orwispof hay . and this, accordin to Romantrad ition,affixed to the end of a po e, formed the primitivemi litary standard inthe days ‘

ofRomulus;hence it was applied to a detachment of 5019diers serving under the same ensi Theearliest account of the divisionof t e legionintomanipuli is givenby Livy inhis descriptionof the battle foughtnear Vesuvius inB . c .337. Onthis occasionthe front line orhas tan‘,so cal led fromthe haste , or 10

25spear

,which

each mancarried , consisted 15 manipuli ,

I:

theirname ltwould a that ancient ly theywere placed inthe front line. This combinedforce of30manipo l iwas comprehended unde rthe genera l appellationof antepilam

‘

. Thethird line or triariiwas also drawnup in15 divi smns, but each of these was triple, containing 3manipoli, 3 vexilla, and 186 men. T hetriorr

'

i‘

were so cal led because - they formed the.thir‘d l ine; they were the veteransoldierseach of themcarri ed two pita, or strong javelins, whence they were sometimes call ed pilam’

and the hastati and principes ,who stoodbefore them. an: as al ready remark ed .

Inthe third line t e veterans or tn’

an’

i prOperformed the front ranks ; immediate l y behindthemstood the rotarii

, inferior inage and re

nown;whi le the accms i, less trustworthy thanei ther , were posted inthe extreme rear.The battle array is represented inthe cutbelow.

If the hastati and princi pes were. successively re ulsed, they retired through the open.ings ls betweenthe maniples of the t ria rii,who thenclosed op their

‘

ranks '

so as to leaveno space betweentheir maniples, and presented a continuous front and solid columntothe enemy : the beav -armed veterans intheforemost ranks with t eir long pita now howthe brunt of the onset, whi le the rorari i andaccenarbeh ind gave weight and consistencyto themass , anarrangement bearing evid enceto a l ingering predi l ectionfor the principle ofthe phalanx , and representing

, Just as wemight expect at that period, the Romanta cti csintheir transitionstate.Inthe tirne - of Polybius, whenthe legioncontained 4200men;itwas divided into 1200hastati , 1200 principes, 600 triarii, the remain.

16 Man'

18 Mani

lmerettus , Batt le Amy.

E XE RCI'

I‘

U S .

ki

g1200 being velites, or light-armed troops,

w 0 were distributed equal ly among the threelines. Whenthe legionexceeded 4200, thenumbers of the hastati, principes , and veliteswere increased inproportion, the number oftriarii remaining always the same Thehastati, principes , and triarii were subdividedeach into 10manipidi

'

or ordina , and ineachmanipulus there were two centre-tones, two opl ioncs, and two sigm

'

eri’ hence, whenthe le

gionconsistedO H amanipulusofthehastatior of the rincipes would contain1 20men, including 0 cars, and amanipulus of the triariiinall cases 60menonly.T o Marius , or Caesar, is ascribed the

“

rac

tics of drawing up the Romanarmy in inesby cohorts

,which gradual ly led to the aban

donment oi' the anc ient divisionof the legionintomanipuli and ot

’

the distinctions ot'

hastati,principes , and triarii. Each la

'

onwas thendivided into tencohorm‘

, eac cohort intothreemaipuli

'

, and each mani ulus into twocenturies , so that there were t itty manipuliand sixty centurias ina legion. It appearsthat very anciently the al lies orauxiliaries ofRome were arranged by cohorts.T he cavalry of the legionwas divided into

tentarmac, each containing 30men;and eachturma into three decun’

ae, or bodies of 10men.

Each turma had three decur'ionss , orcommandera of ten;but he whowas first elected commandad the turma, and was , probably, cal led

Inthe time of the republic, the’

six tribuneswho were placed over a legioncommanded bytu rns. [TR IBUNI Mu rrow] T o every 100menwere appointed two centurions : the firstof whomwas properly so ca l led ; and theother, cal led optic,magus, or subcmhm

’

o, actedas a lieutenant, being chosenby the centurion.

[C srtruaie ] The centurional so chose thestandard- bearer or en

Ii?“ of his century (sig

mfer or vex illan’

us). ach century was alsod i vided into bodies often, each ofwhich wascommanded by a dccwio or decanus .

The allied tr00ps were raised and oflicerednearly inthe same manner as those of theRomanlegions ;but probably there was notamong thema divisi onof the heavy- armed infant into three classes. They were comm ed by aefocti

‘

,who received their orders

fromthe an consuls or tribunes. Thetr00ps sent by foreignstates for the service ofRome were designated auxi liaries (m afia ) ;and they usual ly, but not invariably, received

Cohenorchars, the G reek x dprogwriginsll signifiad anenclosure for

.

sheep or poultry , and,was

afterwards used to designate the number of menwhich could stand withinsuch anenclosure .

147

their pay and clothing from the republic.[Soon]According to Livy, the Romansoldiers at

first received no pay (stipendr'

wn) from thestate. He says that i twas first ated to thefoot, 3 . c . 405, inthe war with t e Volsci, andthree years afterward s to the horse, during thesiege of Veii . I t appears, however, the troopsreceivedpay at amuch earlier riod, and thatthe aerarians [Amman] h always beenobli to give pensions to the infantry , assing e womenandminors did to the knights :the change alluded to by Livy probably consisted inthis, that every soldier nowbecameentitled to pay, whereas previously the number of pensions had been l imited by that ofthe persons liable to be charged with them.

Pol bius sta tes the dai l y pay of a le'

onarysoldier to have beentwo oboli, whic wereequal to 3} asses , and inthirty days wou ldamount to 100 asses . A centurion receiveddeup

le the pay of a legionary , and a horsemanin 8 .

he pay of the soldiers was doubled by Jul ius Caesar. Inthe time ofAugustus the payof a legionary was 10asses a day ( three timesthe original sum) , or 300 amonth, whichwasincreased stil l more by Domitian. Besidespay, the soldiers received amonthly al lowanceof corn;and the centurions double and thehorse triple that of a le

gonar T are was

also a law passed by C. racc us, which provided that, besides their pa

‘y, the soldiers

shou ld receive an~allowance or clothes ;butthis law seems either to have beenrepealed ,or to have fal leninto disuse.

The Praetoriantroops are treated of ina

separate article. [Paasroau un]After the establishment of the imperial au~

thority, the sovereignappointed some personof consu lar dignity to command each legioninthe provinces ;and this o fficer, as the emperor

’s lieutenant, had the title of praefectus , er

legatus legiom'

s . The first ap ointment of thiskind appears to have takenp es inthe reignofAugu stus, and Tacitusmentions theexistence of the oflice inthe reignof Tiberius.T he authority of the legatus was superior tothat of the tribunes;who before were tsaponsible only to the consul.E XI

’

LIUM . IE XBILwI .

E XO’

DIA (éfodta, fromt and 666g) were

148 E XPE DIT U S .

old-fashioned and laughable interludes inverses

,inserted inother plays, but chiefly in

the Atellanae. The exod iumseems to havebeen introduced among the Romans fromItal ianGreece ;but after its introductionitbecame very popular among the Romans , andcontinued to be played downto a very latepe riod .

EXO’MIS (éfw t ), a dress wh ich had onlya sleeve for the e t arm, leav ing the rightwith the shoulder , and a part of the breastfree, and was for this reasoncal led ex omis .

It is represented inthe following figure of

The exomis was usual ly wornby slavesand workin

fie ple .

E XOS T (éfa’mrpa, froméfwdéw), a the

atrical machine,by means of which things

which had beenconcealed behind the curtainonthe sta were pushed or rolled forwardfrombehin it, and thus became visible to thespectators .E XPE DIT U S is o

ggosed to impeding ,

andsignifies unencumber with armour or withbagga (impediments ). Hence the epithetwas 0 enapplied to any portionof the Romanarmy, whenthe necessit forh aste, orthe desire to conduct it with t e greatest fa

to place ,made i t desirableevery weight that could be

E XS ILIUM.

Anactionfor wilfu l mu rder was broughtbefore the Areopagus, and formans laughterbefore the court of the Ephetae. T he ac

cused might , ineither case , withdraw himse lf s

'

yew) b efore sentence was passed;but w ena criminal evaded the unishmentto which anact of murder wourd have ex

not inthe latter .

turned , it was usual for the convicted p ityto leave his country by a certainroad. andwremaininexile til l be induced some one d

supposin that there wasreasonab e to concludeal lowed to returnafter awho is believed to havelaws fromthe constituti

E XPLORAT O'

RE S . [Sncuu t oau ]E XS E

’

Q U IAE . Pursue ],banishment. LG it t t t .

Banishment among the Greek states seld om,

if ever, appears as a punishment appointedby law for particular offences . We might,indeed , expect this , for the d ivisionof Greeceinto a numbe r of independent states wouldneither admit of the establishment ofcolonies, as among us,norof the variousof exile wh ich we read of under the Romanemperors. The general term (flight)was for themost part applied in 8 ca se ofthose who , inorder to avoid some punis h.ment, or danger, removed fromthen on

one year.Under W , or banishment, as a

term, is comprehenda i astrammW ‘

Those that were oetraciz di wtlose their property, and the time as well aplace of their banishment was fix fi . Thisostracismis su

pposed by some to have

instituted by C isthenes , afier themu

of the Pisistratidae ; its nature and ebieetthus explained by Aristotle -

“ Demo

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150 FALX. FAS CE S .

termof reproach, but as relegsm. T he chief on the reverse ,species ofex siliumwas the depot-redo inbu s with a sickle.lam, or d

rains simply. whi ch was intro from the MS S .

duced uner the empe rors inplace of the a fat: vim’

ton’

a , or

aqua a ignis interdictw. The rclegal iomerely dresser.confined the personwithin. or exc luded himfrompart icular places. The rdsgatus wentinto banishment ;the 13

0m“.was conducted to his place ofmo ment , sometimes inehama.

EXTI SPEX . [Haausrem]E XT RAORDINA

’

RII, the so ldiers whowere placed about the personof the consulinthe Romanarmy. They consisted of abouta third part of the cavalry, and a fifth part ofthe infantry of the al l ies, and were chosenbythe prefects. Hence , for a legionof 4200foot and 300 home, since the number of theinfantry of the al lies was equal to that of theRoman soldiers , and their caval ry twice as

man the number of ex traordinarii would be840 oot and 200 horse , formin two cohorts ;or, inanarmy of two legions, our cohorts.

FABRI are workmenwhomake anythingout of hardmate ria ls, asfabn

’

ti carpenters ,fabri aerarii, smiths, etc. he dilierenttrades were divided by Numa into nine collegia, which corres pond to our companies or

ilds. inthe constitutionof S ervius T ulus, the jalm

'

riguarii’

and the fabn‘

acran‘

r'

or

ferrarii were formed into two centu ries, whichwere ca l led the centuries fabrdm(not fabmrimi ). They did not be long to any of thefivecla

ss

es

binhto

yogi?Servius

brz‘i‘ZIided tb

speo e ; ut t e"

tilge y vote

wit the first c lass , and theforn'

car. with themend.

The fabri inthe army were under the command of anoficercal led praefecnu fabnlm.

FALA 'RICA. Ba sra ]FALX , dim. FA’ CULA (5mm, dpéiravov ,

post. dpemim) , dim. dvtov) , a sickle;ase the;apruninkn

'

eorpruninghook ;abill;a alchion;a hal rt. As culterdenoted a knifewith one straight edge,fats signified an aimiler instrument the am Is edge of whio wascurved. By add itions e ithets the varioususes of the fol: were inicated. Thus thesickle. because itwas used b

iereapers, was

called fats messoria ;the scyt which wasemployed inmowing hay, was cal led ale

foaari‘

a , dtc. A rare coinpublished by ellerin, shows the head of one of the Lagidai ,kings of Egypt, wearing the Diadema, and,

FAMI’LIA . T he wordthe same element as the word famalu ,

i

slave, and the verb famulati . inits widestsense it signifies the total ity of that whichbe longs to a Romancitizenwho is sui juris.and therefore a paterfamilias . Thus. incer

‘

taincases of testamentary disposition, thoword familia js explained by the equivalentpatrimonium and the personwho receirdthe familia mmthe testatorwas ca lledfan'

FASCES .

tween.them;and in the fourth , the same,

onl y With no crowns around the fasces.

The fasces appear to have beenusual l ymade of birch , but sometimes also

'

of thetwigs of the elm. They are said to havebeenderived fromVetulonia, a city of Etruria. Twelve were carried before each of thekin b twelve lictors ;and onthe expulsionof bit 'Farquins, one of the consuls was preceded by twelve l ictors with the fasces andseci

'

ires, and the other by the same numberof lictors with the fasces only, or, accordingto some accounts.with crowns around them.

But P.

‘Valerius Publicola, who gave to thepeople the ri ht of provocatio. ordained thatthe secures 8 ou ld be removed fromthe fasces , and al lowed only one of the consuls tobe preceded by the l ictors wh ile they were atRome. The other consu l was attended onlyb

lya single accensus [Accs ivsus]. When

t ey were out of Rome, and at the head ofthe arm each of the consuls retained theax e int e fasces. and was preceded by hisownlictors, as before the time of Va lerius.The fasces and secures were

,however

,

carried before the dictator eveninthe city,and he was a lso preceded by twenty-four lictors, and themagister equitumby six .

The praetors were preceded inthe city bytwo lictorswith the fasces ;but out of Rome

plebs, the aediles and quaestors , had no lictors inthe city , but inthe provinces the qutors were permitted to have the fasces.

FASTI.T he lictors carried the fasces on their

givenabove andwhenaninferiormagistratemet one who was higher inrank , the lictorslowered their fasces to him. This was doneby Valerius Publicola, whenhe addressedthe people, and hence came the expressionsubmittcre foam inthe sense of to yield, toconfess one’s self inferior to another.Whena general had gained a victo and

had beensaluted as lmperator by his so diers .he usuall crowned his fasces with laurel.FASC A, a band or fil let of cloth , worn, 1 .round the head as anensignof royalty ;2 .

by womenover the breast ;3 . round the legsand feet , es cially by women. WhenthetOga had fal eninto di suse, and the shorterall iumwas worn in its stead, so that theege were naked and exposed ,fasciae crumb sbecame commonevenw ith themale sex.

FAST] . Fae signifies divine law: the epithetfas tus is properly ap

plied to anything inaccordance Wi th divine aw

,and hence those

days uponwhich legal businessmight, without impiety (sins piacido), be t ransacted beforethe praetor, were technically denominatedfasti

’

dies, i . e. Ienfal days .

The sacred books inwhich the fasti'

dies ofthe year weremarked were themselves denoo

minated fas ti ; the term, however, was employed to denote registers of various descriptions. Of these the two princi al are the Fam‘

S acri'

or Fasti K elmdarcs, an F'

s-sti Annalcs

I . FAS 'N S ACRI OI K ALE NDARBS . Fornearlyfour centuries and a half after the foundationof the city a knowled e of the calendar waspossessed exclusively y the pri ests. One ofthe pontifices regu larly proclaimed the appearance of the newmoon

,and at the same time

announced the eriod which wou ld intervenebetweenthe K a ends and the Nones. OntheNones the country people assmhled for thepurpose of learning fromthe rex sacrommthe various festivals to be celebrated durin

gthemonth , and the days onwhich theywoulfal l . Inlikemanner allwho wished to o tolawwere obli ed to inquire of the pri

'

egedfew onwhat gay the might bring their suit ,and received the re y as if fromthe lips of anastrologer. The w ole of this lore, so long asource of power and profit, and therefore jealously envelo inmystery, was

.

at lengthmade public'

y a certain_

Cn.‘

Flayius, scribeto App. Claudius ;who, hay ing gained accessto the ponti lical books,cepied out all the reuisite information, and exhibi ted i t intheorumfor the use of the people at large . From

such tables became common,

152 FASTIG IUM.

usually contained an enumeration of themonths and days ofthe year;the Nones, Ides,Nundinae,

’ Dies Fasti, Nefasti , Comi tales,Atri, &c., to ether with the difi

'

erent festivals,weremarks intheir proper places : astrono~mical observations onthe ris ings and settingsof the fixed stars, and the commencement ofthe seasons were frequently inserted. [CALasnsa i un;Di as ]Il. FAS T ! As s ume or H i s'

rori rcr. Obronicles such as the Annalee Max im, containing thenames of the chiefma

'

strates foreachyear

,and a short account of t emost remark

able eventsnoted downopposite to the daysonwhich they occurred , were, fromthe re

semblance which they bore inarranementto the sacred calendars;denomina am'

and hence this word is used , especial l y theoats, inthe general sense ofhi storic records.

nprose writers fouris commonly employedas the technical termfor the registers of consuls , dictators , censors and othermagistrates,which formed part of the ublic archives.Some most important asti

‘ longing to thisclass, executed probab y at the beginning ofthe reignofTiberius, have beenpartial ly re

served, and are deposited inthe capito inRome , where they are knownby thename ofthe Fastt' C lini.FAS T I

'

G UM. Ari ancient G reek orR0.

mantemple, of rectangular construction, isterminated at its upper extremity by a triangular figure, both infront and rear, whichrests uponthe cornice of the entablature as abase, and has its sides fornied by the corniceswhich terminate the roof. The whole of thistriangle above the trabeationis imlied intheterm[ a t

' ‘

um, cal led dérwpa by ,e Greeks,

pediment y ourarchitects.

The dwelling-houses of the Romans hadnogable ends ;consequently whenthe word isa

pplied to them, it isnot inits strictly techni

9 sense, but desi ates the roof simply.andi s to be nadorst of one which rises to an

PE NUS.

apex,as distinguished froma flat one. T hefastigium, properly so called ,was ap reprintedto the terriples of the gods ; there re.whenthe Romans beganto bestow divine honoursu nJul ius Caesar, amongst other privilegesw ich they decreed to him, was the liberty oferecting a fastigiumto his house , that is. aportico and pediment towards the street, likethat ofa temple.FAX (¢av ), a torch. Inthe annexed wood

cut, the fema figure is copied froma fictilevase. T he winged figu re onthe left hand ,asleep and leanin ona torch

, is froma funeralmonument at me. T he other wingedfigu re represents Cupid as Avoépug, orLethaus Amer. Inancient marbles the

'

torch issometimesmore ornamented thanthe examesnow produced. but it always appears toformed of woodenstaves or twigs , eithe r

bound by a rope drawnround themina spiralform, as inthe middle figure below. or sur

rounded by circular bands at equal distances ,as inthe two exterior figures. The inside ofthe torchmay be an sed to have beenfil ledwith fiax ntow, or or r vegetable fibres, thewhole being abundantly impregnated with

wax , oil, and other inflammable

FE CIA'LE S . [Fr rru ms ]

FENESTRA. Dorms ]FENUS orF0 US (rdx og). interest ofmoney. 1 . Guns . At Athens therewas norestrictionuponthe rate of interest. A ratemight be expressed or represented intwo different ways : ( I) b the number of oboli ordrachmae paid b t e month for everymine(2) by the art 0 the principal (rd dpx ar

'

ov or

x epd l acov1paidas interest either annual! or

for the who e period of the loan. Acco ingto the former method, which was generall y

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FERlAE .

all da onwhich public fes tivalswere celehrated

mwere feriae or dies feriati . But some

of them, such as the feria vindemialis , andtheferiae aestivae, seemto have had no di rectconnectionwith the worship of thegods. T henundines, however, during the tune of thekings and the early period of the re ublic

were feriae onl y for the populus, and eye ofbusiness for the plebeians , until, by the Hortensianlaw, th

'became fasti ordays of business forboth 0 ers.All arias publicus, i. e. those which were oh

serv by the wholenationwere divided intoferiae station,feriae conceptions, and feriae imperative-s. Fcriac statis tic or stalac were thosewhich were held regularl and on certaindaysmarked inthe calenat . T o these be~longed some of the great festival s, such as theAgonalia, Carmentalia, Lupercalia, etc. Fe

n'

as conception or concsptas were held every

Lase

r, butnot oncertainor fixed days, the time

ing every year appointed by themagistratesorpri ests . Among these wemaymentiontheferiae Latinas , feriae S ementivae, Paganalia,and Compitalia. Fsriae imperatives were thosewhich were held oncertainemergencies atthe command of the consuls, praetors, orofa

Themannerinwhich all publ ic feriae werekept bears great analogy to the observance of

,our Sunday. T he p

r

e

egple visited the temples

of the gods, and oils .up their prayers andsacrifices. The most serious and solemnseemto have beenthe feriae imperatives , butall the others were generall y attended withrejoicings and feasting. Al l kinds of business, especially law-sui ts, were suspended during the public feriae, as they were consideredto ollute the sacred season.

emost important of the holidays desig~nated by the name of feriae, are the Fm

’

as

Latims or aim ly Latinas (the original namewas Latiar), w ich were said to have beenihstituted by the last Tarquinincommemorationof the alliance betweenthe Romans andLatina. Thisfestival, however,was ofmuchhigher antiqui ty ;i twas a panegyris, or a festival of the whole Latinnation, celebrated onthe Albanmount ;and all that the last T aruindid was to convert the original Latinestiva l into a Romanone, and tomake it themeans of bellowing and cementin the al liance betweenthe two nations. efote theunion, the chiefmagistrate of the Latins hadpresided at the festival ;but Tarquinnow as

sumed this distinction, which subsequentlyafter the destructionof the Latin commonwealth, remained wi th the chiefmagistratesofRome. The object of this pane montheAlbanmount was the worship offilipiterLa

FE T IALE S .

tiaris, and, at least as long as the Latinrepublic existed, to deliberate and decide onmat.ters of the

.

confederacy, and.

to settle anydisputes whichmight have ari senamong itsmembers. As the fame Latinas belonged tothe conceptivae, the time of their celebra tion

atly depended on the state of affairs atome, since the consu ls were never allowed

to take the field until they had held the Latinas . This festival was a great engine inthehands of themagistrates, who had to appointthe time of its celebration(concipere, edit ors,or M irrors Latinas) ; as it might often su ittheir purpose either to hold the festival at aparticular time or to delay it, inorder to prevent or delay such public proceedings as

seemed injurious and pernicious, and to promote others to which they were favourablydis The festival lasted six days.

E S CE NNI’NA, scil . car-mine , one of the

earliest kinds of Italianpoetry, which consisted of rude and jocose verses , or ratherdialogues of extempore verses , inwhich themerry country folks assai led and ridiculed oneanother. This amusement seems on

’

allyto have beenpecu liar to country peop

tlil

e

l

,

l

butitwas also introduced into the towns of I talyand st Rome;where we find itmentioned asone of those inwhich young people indu lgedat weddings.FE T lAjLE S orFE CIA’

LE S , a college ofRoman nests ,who acted as the guardians ofthe pub ic faith. I twas theirprovince

,when

any dispute arose with a foreignstate, to demand satisfaction, to determine the circum~stances under which hosti litiesmight be comweneed , to performthe various religious ritesattendant onthe solemndeclarationof war,and to reside at the formal ratificationof

peace.

.

henaninjury had beenreceivedmma foreignstate , four fetiales were de utedto seek redress,who againelected one 0 theirnudmbgr ti) act as t

llégirhrepresentative. Th is

inm us was aty t e pater parrots: iRomani. A filleto f whi te wool was $33round his head ,

ltgg

etherwith a wreath of ascred herbs gathe

‘

withinthe inclosure oftheCapitoline hi l l (Verbenas S agmi

'

aa)whence hewas sometimes named Verbcnarim. Thusuip heproceeded to the confines of the

0 en ing tribe, where be halted , and addressed a prayer to Jupiter, calling the god to wi tness, Wi th heavy imprecations, that his complaints were wel l founded and his demandsreasonable. He thencrossed the border

, andthe same formwas repeated innearly thesamewords to the firstnative of the soi l whomhemight chance tomeet againa third timeto the sentinel or any Ci tizenwhomhe encountered at the gate of the chief town;and

FlDE lCOMMlS S UM.

a fourth time to themagistrates inthe forumin presence of the people. If a satisfac

tory answer was not returned withinthirtydays, after publicly delivering a solemndenunciationofwhatmight be expected to follow, he returned to Rome, and, accompaniedby the rest of the fetiales,made a report ofhismissionto the senate. If the people, as wellas the senate , decided forwar, the pater pat retna aga in set forth to the border of thehostile territory, and launched a spear tippedw ith iron, or charred at the extremity andsmeared with blood (emblematic doubtless oftire and slaughter) across the boundary, pronouncing at the same timte a solemndeclara¢

tionof war. The demand for redress , andthe proclamation of hos tilities, were aliketermed clarigatio. The whole systemis saidto have beenborrowed fromtheAequicolae orthe Ardes tes , and similar usages undoubted lyprevailed among the Latinstates.The number of the fetiales cannot be ascer

tained with certa inty, but the were probablytwenty. They were original y selec ted fromthe most noble families

,and their allies lasted

FI'

BULA (nrpéwl,a rpovic,mp wnrpc’g.7r6pAre ) , a brooch , cons isting of a pm(am ),

and of a curved portionfurnished with a hook .

The curved po rtionwas sometimes a circula rring or (1180 the pinpassing across its centre(woodcut , figs. 1 , and sometimes anarc,

the pinbe ing as the chord of the arc (fig.

The forms of brooches ,which were commonl yof gold or bronze, and more rarely of silver,were, I owet’

er, as various inancient as inmode rntimes ;for the lihu la served indressnot merel y as a fastening, but also as anor

Fibulas , Brooches.

FIDE ICOMMlS S UMmay be defined to bea testamentar

ydisposmon, bywhich a pe rson

who' ves a t ing to another imposes onhim

the ligationof transferring i t to a third per.son. The obl igationwasnot created by wordsof lega l binding force (ay ilia verbs ), but bywords of request (precatwe), such asfideicom.

FLAMEN .

mitts , pd o , volt) dari , and the like ;which werethe o erative words (verbs utilia ).Fl CU S

,the imperia l treasury. Under the

republic the publ ic treasury was called Amp

rium. IAaaaatux .) On the establishmentofthe imperia l power, therewas a divisionofthe provinces betweenthe senate, as the representative of the old republic, and the Caesar or the emperor ;and there was consequentl y a division of the most importantbranches of publ ic income and ex penditure .The propertyof the senate retained the nameofAeran

‘

um, and that of the Caesar, as such ,

received the name of Firms. The privateproperty of the Caesar (res private principia,ratio Carson

'

s was quite distinct fromthat ofthe fiscus. he word fiscus si nified awicksr- basket , or pannier, inwhio the Romanswere accustomed to Res and carry aboutlarge sums ofmoney ;a hence fiscus cameto signify

any person’s treasure or money

chest. he impo rtance of the imperia l fiscussoonled to the practice of ap rcpriating thename to that property whic the Caesarclaimed as Caesar, and the word fiscus, without anyad

'

unct,was used inthis sense. U l~

timate y e word came to s i nify general lythe property of the state , the aesar havingconcentrated inhimself all the soverei a

few

er, and thus the word fiscus final ly he the

same significationas aerariuminthe republicanperiod .

Various officers, as Procuratores,Advocati,Patroni, and Praefecti. were employed intheadministrationof the tissue.

FLAMEN, the name forany Romanpriestwho was devoted to the service of one par

,ticulargod , andwho received a distinguishinge ithet fromthe de ity to whomheminister.e Themost dignified were those attachedto Diiovis, Mars , and Quirinus the H arrier:

D ialis , FlmncnMartialis , and Islam Quirinalis . They are said to have beenestabl ishedby Numa. The numberwas eventual ly increased to fifteen: the three original flamenswere always chosenfromamong the patricians, and sty led Majorca ; the res t fromtheplebeians , with the e ithet M inores . Amongtheminores , we rea of the Plum Florali

'

a,

the FlamcnCarmenlali'

s , 660 .

The flamens were elected original ly at tComitia Curiata, but h is con

'

ectured t atsubsequently to the passing of t '

e Leo D omitia B. c. 104) they were choseninthe Comtetia ributa . After being nominated by thepeople

,they were received (capgi) and instal l

ed ( iuaugurabanrur) by the pontifexmax imus,to whose authority they were at all timessub

'

ect. r

he ofiicewas understood to last for li fe

156 FLORALIA .

but a flamenmight be compe l led to r'

esignabire) for a breach of dut or even

onaccount of the occurrence ofani l- omenedaccident while discharging his t

'

unctions.Their characteristic dress was the apex

[Apex], the lama [Las s a], and a laurelwreath . The most distii i iehed of all theflamens was the D ialis ; t 6 lowest inrankthe Pomonali's . The former enjoyed manpeculiar honours. Whena vacancy

'

occurred,three rsons oi

“

patriciandescent, whose parents ad beenmarried according to the dewmonies of caiif

'

arreatio, werenominated by theComitia, one ofwhomwas selected (captus ),and consecrated

éinaugumbalur) by the ponti

fex maximus. rornthat time forward hewas emancipated fromthe control of his father, and became sui juris . He alone of allpriests wore the albogalem ; he had a right toa Iictor, to the toga prosta te , the sellti w alk ,

and to a seat inthe senate invirtue of hisotfice. If one inbonds took refuge inhishouse , his chains were immediately struck offT o counterbalance these high honours , - thedialiawas subjected to amultitude of restrictions. It was unlawful for himto be out ofthe city for a single night ;and he was forhiddento sleep out of his ownbed for threenights consecutively. He might not mountuponhorseback,nor eventouch a horse ,norlook uponanarmy marshal led without thepomoerium, and hence was seldomelected tothe consulshi

p. The object of the above rules

wasmanifest y tomake himl iteral ly Jovi' ad.

siduumsacerdoiem to compel constant attent ionto the duties of the priesthood .

R eminica was thename givento thewife ofthe dialia. He was required to wed a vi rginaccording to the ceremonies of confarrcatio,wh ich regu lationalso a plied to the two otherflannnes

_

majores ;and e cou ld not marry asecond t ime. Hence, since her assistancewasessential inthe performance of certainordinances , a divorce was not permitted, and ifshe d ied. thedialiswas obli ed to resi n.

Themunic i al towns alsofiiad their flgamens.

Thusthe cele rated afl'

ray betweenMilo andGlod ina took place while the former was onhis way to Lanuvium, of which he was thendictator, to declare the electionof a damen(ad flammem um) .

LA‘MM .UM M i ra i uos rux JFLORA’

LIA , or loralee Ludi, a festivalwh ich was celebrated at Rome inhonour ofFlora or Chloris. durin

gfive days , beginning

onthe 28th ofApri l an ending onthe 2nd ofMay .

.

It was said to have beeninstituted at

Rome in236a. c., at the command of anorac le inthe S ibyl line books

, for the purpose ofobtaining fromthe goddess the protectionof

FOLLIS .

l ocales , Movable Hearth.

the blossoms. T he celebrationwas , as usual ,conducted by the aediles , and was carried onwi th excessive merriment, drink ing,civious games.FOCA '

LE, a covering for the ears andneck ,made ofwool , and wornby infirmand delicatepersons.FOCUS, dim.FO

’

CULU S (éarla :éax épa ,

é epic), a fire- place ;a hearth ; a brazi er.T e lire -place possessed a sacred characte r,and was dedicated amon the Romans to theLares of each fam

ily"dovahle hearths, or

braziers, properly c focidi'

,were frequentl y

FOEDE RA’T AE .CiVITA

’T E S ,FOEDE

RA'TI , SO’CII . Inthe seventh century of

Rome these names expressed those Ital ianstates which were connected wi th Rome by atreaty (feedin). These names didnot includeRomancolonies orLatincolonies , or any placewhich had obtained the Romancivitas or citiz enship. Among thefoederati were theLariat,who were themost nearly related to the R0.

mans , and were designated by this distinctivename ;the rest of the foederatiwere cornprisedunder the collectivename ofS ocii orFoederari'.They were independent states , yet under a

ggieral l iability to furnish a contingent to themanarmy. Thus they contributed to in

crease the power of Rome, but they had notthe privileges of Romancitizens. The discontent among the foederati, and the ir claimsto be admitted to the privi leges of Romancitizens, led to the SocialWar. The JuliaLex (a. c. 909gave the civitas to the Socii andLatini ;and a lex oi

'

the fol lowing ear contained , among other provisions , one or the admissionto the Romancivi tas of those peregriniwho were entered onthe l ists of the citizensoffederate states. andwho complied with theprovisions ofthe lex . [Ctn

‘

u a ]FORNUS . [Fenne lFOLLIS , dim. FOLL ’

CULU S . 1 . Aninflated ballof leather, fil led with air. Boys andold men, among the Romans, threw it fromone to another with their arms and hands, as

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158 FUNDA.

bratedcolumna rostrata Intheupper part of the forum, or the comi tium, thelaws of the Twelve Tables were exhibited forpublic inspection, and itwas robably inthesame art that, in304 a. o., n. Flavius exhibi the Fasti , writtenonwhite tables ( inalbo) that eve citizenmight be able to knowthe days onw ich the lawal lowed the administrationofjustice. Bes ides the ordinarybusiness which was carried oninthe forum,

we read that gladiatorial games were held init, and that risonera of war and faithlesscolonists or egionaries were put to deaththere.A second forumjudiciariumwas bui lt by

Julius Caesar, and was cal led T or-umCaesar-isorJulii

’

. The level ling of the ground a lonecost himabove ami l lionof sesterces , and headorned it besides with a magnificent templeof Venus Genitrix.A third forumwas built by Augustus, andcal led ForumAugusti

'

, because the two existing ones were not found suflicient for thegreat increase of business which had takenplace. Au ustus adorned hia forumwith a

temple of are and the statues of the mostdistinguishedmenof the republic, and issueda decree that onl y the

fimiim

'

o M ike and thesortitiones judicmnahou (1 take place init.T he three forawhich have beenmentionedseemto have beenthe only ones that weredestined forthe transactionof public business.All the others , which were subsequent] buil tby the emperors, such as the Forum jam

’

or U !'

um, the ForumS allustii , FommDiocletiam‘

, orumAureliom'

,&c.,were probablymoreintended as embel lishments of the city thantoon any actual want .

erent fromthese fora were thenumerousmarkets at Rome, which wereneither as largenor as beautiful as the former. They are always distingu ished fromone another by epithets expressing the articular kinds of thingswh ich were sold inthem,

e. g. forumboarium,

the cattle -market ;forumolitarr’mn

,the vege

table-market ;forumpimm‘

im, fish-market ;forumcupedim

'

s market fordainties ;quinam, a market inwhich cookedpared dishes were to be had, c .

FRA’

MEA. Has 'uFRATRES A VA

’

LBS . [ARVALE S FruT RE &

FR E DME N. Li saa '

rus.]FU G lT I

'

VU S . {S aavosjFUNDA (oeevd a sling. Slingers arenotmentioned inthe lied;but the light tr00psof the G ree

tlt land Romanarmies consis ted r

?at part o s ingers ( famdctom'

,ooevdovy‘

rat

fxl‘

r

l‘

iemost celebrated stingers were the inhabitants of the Balearic islands. Besides stones,

FUNU S .

plummets, called glands: (1101 0561669, of a

ormbetweenacorns and a lmonds, were castinmoulds to be thrownwith slings .FUNDITO 'RES . [Forum]FUNERALS. [Forms ]FUNUS , a funeral .l . G as es . The Greeks attached

grea t

portance to the burial of the dead. hey beieved that souls could not enter the E lysianfields till their bodies had beenburied ;and sostrongwas this feeling among the Greeks, t hatitwas considered a religious duty to th rowearth upona dead body, which a personmightbe pen to find unburied ; and among theAt enians , those chi ldrenwho were releasedfromall other obligations to unworthy parents ,werenevertheless bound to bu themby oneof Solon’s laws. Theneglect bu one’srelatives is frequentlymentioned by t e ora torsas a grave charge against themoral characterofaman;infact, the burial of the body bythe relations of the dead was considered oneof themost sacred duties by the universa l lawofthe Greeks. So

phocles represents Antigone

as disregardin a l consequences inorder tobury the dead Lot

her brother Pol ices ,wh ich Creon, the g of Thebes

, h commanded to be left unburied. The commonexpressions

'

”622the funeral rites, rt?)

diamv or 6 c, i r’

x ovra, s owtlig

‘

d‘

gad had , admitwermlegal and moral

claimto burial.After a personwas dead , itwas the custom

first to lace inhis mouth anobolus , cal leddanaco vd x

fi,w ith which hemight pay the

ferryman in ades. The body was thenwashed , and anointed w ith perfumed oil, thehead was crowned with the flowers wh ichhappened to be inseason, and the body dressedinas handsome a robe as the family could afford. These duties were not performed byhired persons, like the polliaa ora among theRomans, but by the womenof the fami ly,uponwhomthe care of the corpse alwaysdeio

iived'

h l d p60ecorpse was t enai out i r totcnrportdeoflai ) ona bed , which ap ears to havebeenof the ordina kind , wit a pil low forsup rting the hea and back. By the sideof t e bed there were placed painted earthenvessels, ca l led Mai /doc, which were alsoburied with the corpse. Great numbers ofthese painted vases have beenfound inmoderntimes ;and they have beenof great use inexplaining manymatters connected wi th antiqfl ity. A honey-cake, ca ll ed min-

room.

w'

eh appears to have beenintended forCerhome, was also p laced by the side of thecorpse. Before the door a vessel ofwaterwasplaced, called dorpax ov, dpddl tov or dpdé

FUNUS . 159

vtov, inorder that persons who had beeninthe housemight purify themse lves, by sprinkling water on their persons. The relativesstood around the bed , the womenutte ringgreat lamentations, rending their garments,and tearing their hair. Onthe day after thenpéflemg, or the third day after death , theco rpse was carried out (élwopd. 6mm forbu ria l , early inthe mo rning and be ore sunrise. A burial soonafter death was ”

181mm

to be pleasing to the dead. Insome p ces it

appears to have beenusual to bury the deadonthe day following death . Themenwalkedbefore the corpse , and the womenbehind.T he funera l processionwas preceded or fol

lowed by hi redmournersédpyvqodol), who ap

pear to have beenusually arianwomen, playmournfu l tunes onthe flute.he body was either buried orburnt. The

word (him-

cw is used in connectionwi the ithermode ;it is applied to the col lectionofthe ashesafter bumin andaccord in lywefindthe words x aletv Odaru v 11 together.The proper expressionfor interment intheea rth is x aropvrrsw. InHomer the bodiesof the dead are burnt ;but intermentwas a lsoused invery ancient times . Cicero says thatthe dead were buried at Athens inthe time ofCecrOps ;and we also read of the bones ofOrestes being found ina coffinatTegea. Thedead were commonly buried among the Spartans and the Sicyonians, and the prevalenceof this practice is proved by the greatnumberof skeletons found incodina inmoderntimes,which have evidentlynot beenexposed to theactionof ti re. Both burning and burying sp

r to havemenalways used to a ater orextent at different periods ;til l t e spread

of Christianity at length put anend to .theforme r raeticsThe ead bod ies were usual l y bu rnt onpiles

ofwood , cal led pyre: (mat). The bodywasplaced onthe top;and inthe heroic times itwas customary to burnwith the co se animals and evencaptives or slaves . ils and

rfumes were also throwninto the flames.henthe pyre was burnt down, the remains

of the fire were quenched with w ine, and therelatives and friends col lected the bones. Thebones were thenwashed with wine and oil,

and placed inurns, which were sometimesmade of gold.The corpses which were not burnt wereburied incofiius, which were ca l led by variousnames, as aopol. init i al. drivel, l dpvansc,dpoirru ,

though some of these names are a lsoap lied to the urns inwhi ch the bones werecollected . They were made of various ma Some Greentombs were built under ground,terials , but were usual ly of baked clay or and cal led hypo ea (imiya i a or i

'm-é eta).They correspo to the Roman

The dead were usuall buried outside thetown

,as itwas thou ht t t their resence in

the ci ty brought pol ationto the'

ving. AtAthensnone were allowed to be buried withinthe city ;but Lycurgus, inorder to removeall superstitionrespecting the presence of thedead, al lowed of buria l inSparta .

Persons who possessed lands inAtticawerefreqluently buried inthem, and we therefore

rea of tombs ii i the fields. Tombs , however,weremost frequent ly bui l t by the s ide of roads.andnear the gates of the ci ty. At Athens, themost commonplace of buria l was outside ofthe ltonian to, near the road lead ing to thePiraeeus, w ich gate was for that reasoncalled the burial gate. Those who had falleninbattle were buried at the public expense inthe outer Ceramicus, onthe road leading tothe Academia.Tombs were cal led 077ml , wider,M acro ,

maria, 077mm. Many of these were onlymounds of earth or stones (xy

lem, x ol a’

wat ,reader). Others were buil t stone, and frequently ornamented wi th at tas te .Some of themost remar able G reek tombs

h have recently beendiscoveredinL cia by Mr. Fellows . The fow cut Wi ll give anidea of their

FUNUS .

persons were usual ly of four kinds: 1 . urina l ,pil lars or upri ht stone tablets ;2. x foveg, columns ;3. valgta , orbpqia, smal l bu ildings inthe formof tem

ples and 4. rpdrre€a t, flat

square stones , ca led by Ciceromenace. Thetermorfiilat is sometimes appl ied to all kindsoffuneralmonuments , but rOpérly desi atesupright stone tablets ,whic were usual terminated withenova l heading, called in! pa .

These ém017para were frequently ornamentedwith a kind of arabesque work

'

, as inthe twofollowing specimens

The recovery, or columns, were of variousforms, as is shownby the three specimens inthe annexed cut.

The tions uponthese fune ralmonuments usua y containthe name of the deceased person, and that of the demus to whichhe belon as well as frequently some se

count ofEiflife.

T he following example ofan will givea genera l idea ofmonuments 0 this kind.

Sepulehral Hermon.

Orations inpraise of the da d were sometimes pronounced ; but Solonordainwthatsuch orations shou ld be confined to personswho were honoured with a public fune ral. Inthe heroic ages games were celebrated at thefuneral ofa greatman, as inthe case of Petroclus but this raetics does not seemtoW e

beenusual inthe h istorical times .All persons who had beenengaged intime»rals were considered po l luted , and could notenter the temples of the gods fill they hadbeenpurified.

After the funeral was over, the relatim

tive to themall.Onthe second day after the funeral a sacri

fice to the deadwas offered , cal ledmire ;hmthe rincipal sacrifice to the dead was ontheninth day, cal led aw ard or swam. T hemou rning for the dead ap ears to have lastedtil l the thirtieth day after t e funeralmnwhichday sacrifices were againofl

’emd. At Sparta

the time of mourningwas limited to elevendays . Du ring the time of monming itwasconsidered indecorous for the relativmd the

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FUNU S .

had l iberated , wearing the cap of l iberty not burnt , but buried onthe spot, which wasfecti ) ;thenumber ofwhomwas occasion ly cal led Bidental, and was considered sacred .very great, since amaster sometimes liberatedall h is slaves inhis will , inorder to add tothe pomp of his funeral. B_efore the corpsethe images of the deceased and of his ancestors were carried , and also the crowns ormilita

’i'

y rewards which he had gained .

he co sewas carried ona couch (lectica ),to which t ename offeretrumor oapulumwasusual

iygiven;but the bodies ofpoor citizens

and o s aves were carried ona commonkindof bier or coffin, cal led sandapila. T he sondapilo was carried by bearers, cal led vespae

or vespilfoncs because they carried out thecorpses in t e evenin (vespertino remT he couches onwhic the corpses o the

rich were carried were sometimes made ofi vory, and covered with gold and purple.

They were oftencarried onthe shoulders ofthe nearest relations of the deceased . andsometimes onthose ofhis freed -men. Jul iusCaesar was carried by the magistrates, andAu stus by the senators.

e relations of the deceased walked behind the corpse ia mourning ;his sons withtheir heads veiled , and his dau hters withtheir heads bare and their hai r ishevelled ,contrary to the ordinar

s1pra

ctice of both .

They oftenuttered lou amentations , andthe womenbeat their breasts and tore theircheeks, though this was forbiddenb the

Twelve Tables. If the deceasedwas 0 illustrious rank, the funeral procession wentthrough the forum, and stopped before themire, where a funeral oration(loadatio) inpraiseof the deceased was del ivered . This

pasctice was of great antiquity among themans, and is sa id b some writers to have

beenfirst introduced y Poplicola, who ro

nounced a funeral orationinhonour 0 hiscolleague Brutus. Womenalso were honcured by funeral orations. Fromthe forumthe so so was carried to the place of burning or urial which, accordin to a law of

38 Twelve Tables,was obligedto be outsidee ci ty.T he Romans inthe most ancient timesburied their dead, though they also earlyadopted, to some extent , the customof burning, which is mentioned inthe Twelve T ables. Burning, however, does not appear tohave become general till the later times ofthe republic. Marius was buried , and Sul lawas the first of the Cornelian gens whosebody was burned. Under the empire bumingwas almost universal ly ractised , butwasgradual ly discontinued as C

'

stianity read"

,

so that it had fal leninto disuse inthe ourthcentury. Persons struck by lightning were

Browne ] Childrenalso, who had not cu tt eir teeth , were not burnt , but buried ina

place cal led S uggrundarium. Those whowere buried were placed ina coffin(area or

loculus), which was frequentlymade of stone,and sometimes of the Assianstone, whichcame fromAssos inTroas , and which consumed all the body,with the ex ceptionof theteeth, in40 days, whence it was ca lled sarco

This name was incourse of timeap iod to any kind of coffinor tomb.

e corpsewas burnt ona pile of wood

fwd or rogue). This pile was buil t :inthe

ormofana l tar, with four equal sides,whencewe find i t cal led are sepulchri and m'

a am.

T he sides of the pile were, acco’

ng to theTwelveTables, to be left rough and unpol ished

, but were frequently covered with darkleaves.

“Cypress trees were sometimes laced

before the pile. Onthe top of the pi e thecorpsewas placed with the couch onwhichit had beencarri and the nearest relationthenset fire to the pile with his face turnedaway. Whenthe flames beganto rise ,variousperfumes were thrown into the fire, thou hth is practicewas forbiddenby theTwelve a

bles ;cups of oil , ornaments, clothes, dishesof food, and other things, which were sup.

posed to be agreeable to the deceased,were

also thrownuponthe flames.T he place where a personwas burnt wasca l led bustum, if he was afterwards buried onthe same spot, and us trina orustrinumifhewasburied at a different lace. Sometimes anima ls were slaughte at the pile, and inancient t imes captives and slaves , since themanes were supposed to be fond ofblood ;butafte rwards gladiators, cal led bustuarii , were

’

hired to fight round the burning pile.

Whent e pilewas burnt down, the emberswere soaked with wine, and the bones andashes of the deceased were

gathered by the

nearest relatives, who sprinled themwi thperfumes, and placed themina vessel cal ledm e , which was made of various materials,according to the circumstances of individuals .T he urnae were also of vari ous shapes, butmost commonly square or round ;and uponthemthere was usual ly aninscriptionorepilapb, (titular or

gn

’

taphium), be’

nning W i ththe letters D. M. oroni D. that is Di sMart i ans S acauu , follow by thename ofthedeceased , with the length of his l ife, et c.

After the bones and ashes of the deceasedhad beenplaced inthe um, the persons present were thrice sprinkled bya priest with purewater froma branch of olive or laure l for thepurpose ofpurification;after which they were

FUNUS .

dismissed by the praefica, or some other to

son, by the solemnword I liad , that is, inat.

At their de me they were accustomed tobid farewel to the deceased by pronouncingtha word Vale.T he urns were placed insepulchres,which,

as al ready stated,were outside the city, thoughina fewcases we read of the dead being buriedwithin the cit

y:Thus Valerius, Peplieola,

T ubertus , and abricius were buried intheci ty ;which ri ht their descendants al so possessed, but d

'

not use . T he ves tal virginsand the emperors were buried inthe city.T he verb sepclire, like the Greek Grin-raw.

was applied to everymode ofdisposin of thedead ; and firm signified any ind oftomb inwhio the body or bones of a manwere placed. T he termhumanwas original lyused for burial inthe earth , but was afterwards ap

‘pl ied like scpelire to anymode ofdis

ggesing o the dead ;since it appears,to .haventhe customafter the body was burnt, to

th rowsome earth uponthe bones.

T he places for buria l were eitherpublic or

private. T he public places of buria l were oftwo kinds ;one for i l lustrious citizens,whowere buried at the public expense , and theother for poor citizens, who cou ld not afl

'

ordto purchase ground for the urpose . T he forwarwas inthe Campus artius, which waso rnamented with the tombs of the illustriousdead , and inthe Camus E squilinus ;the latoterwas also inthe ampus E squilinus, andconsisted of smal l

pits or caverns, callew.

culi or puticulac; ut as this place re eredtheneighbourhood unhealthy, it was giventoMaecenas, who converted it into gardens, andbu ilt a magnificent house uponit. Privateplaces for buria l were usual ly b .the sides . ofthe roads leading to Rome ;a onsome ofthese roads, such as the Via Appia, the tombsformed analmost uninterrupted street formanymi les fromthe gates of the cit Theywere frequently bui lt by individua s duritheir l ife-time ; thus Augustus, inhis sixtconsulship. built theMausoleumforhis se ulchre betweenthe Via Flaminia and the Ti r,and planted round it woods and walks forpublic use. T he hei rs were oftenordered b thewi l l of the deceased to bui ld a tomb for

'm;and they sometimes did it at their ownex

pense.

Sepulchres were originall y cal led lama, butthis word was afterwards employed inthemanner mentioned under Busruu . S epul.

chres were also frequently-calledmom enta,

but this termwas also applied to amonumenterected to thememory ofa personina di fferent place fromwhere he was buried . Conditm'

aor conditivawere sepulchres under ground,

163

inwhich dead bodies were placed entire , incontradistinctionto those sepu lchres whichcontained the bones and ashes only.T he tombs of the rich were commonlybuilt

ofmarble. and the ground enc losed wi th anironrailing or wal l , and lanted round withtrees. T he extent of the u ing g round wasmarked by ci

cplpi [ClPPt ]. hename ofman

soleum, whi was original ly the name ofthemagnificent se ulchre erected by Artemisia tothememory 0 Mausolus , kin of Caria, wassometimes '

vento any a ls'

d tomb. T heOpena ore a sepu chre was called forum}onus ], and neither this spacenor the

sepu chre itself cou ld become the property ofa rsonby usucapion.

t irate tombs were either buil t by anindividual for himself and the membe rs of his

of the resemblance of theseniches to the holesofa p

'

eon-house. Inthese tombs the ashesof the menand slaves of great famil ieswere frequent] laced in vesse ls made ofbaked clay, cal otlae, which were let intothe thickness ofthe wal l withintheseniches,the l ids only being seen, and the inscriptionsplaced infront .Tombs were of various sizes and forms, secording to the wealth and taste of the owner.A sepulchre, orany place inwhich a person

was buried, was r Ii torus ; all things whichwere left or belongedto the Dii Manes werereligiou s those consecrated to the Dii Superiwere called accrue. Eventhe place inwhicha slave was buried was considered religiosus.Whoever violated a amichre was subject toanactiontermed sepu

'

e iolan' actio.

After the bones had beenplaced inthe urnat the funeral. the friends returned home.

They thenunderwent a further purification,cal led suflitio,which consisted inbeing sprinkled with water and stepping over a fire. T he

house itselfwas also swept with a certainkind of broom;which sweeping or purificationwas cal led swarms and the

'

rsonwhodid it ever-rim . T he ba sics!“ arias werealso days set apart for the urificationof the

family. T hemourning an solemni ties conuseted with the dead lasted fornine days afterthe funeral , at the end ofwhich time a sacrifice was performed , cal led aovendiale.A feastwas giveninhonour of the dead.butit is uncertainonwhat day ;it sometimes appears to have beengivenat the time of the

funeral , sometimes on the novendiale, andsometimes later. T hename ofsilica -

alumwasgivento this feast.

164 RURCA.

After the funeral of greatmen, therewas, inadditionto the feast for the friends of the deceased , a dist ributionof rawmeat to theeople, cal led visceratio, and somet imes a pub.

'

c banquet . Combats of ladiators and othergames were al so frequent?exhibited inhonourof the deceased . Pub

'

c feasts and funeral games were sometimes givenonthe anniversary offunerals. At all banquets inhonou rof the dead , the ests were dressed inwhite.

T he Romans, ike the Greeks, were accustomed to visi t the tombs of their relatives atcertainperi ods, and to offer to themsacrificesand vari ous gifts , which were cal led inferiaeand pamdali

'

a. T he‘Romans appear to have

regarded themanes ordeparted sou ls of thei rancestors as gods ;whence arose the practiceof present ing to themoblations, which consisted of victims , wine,mi lk , garlands of flowers, and other things. T he tombs

'

were some.times il luminated on these occasions withlamps. Inthe latter end of themonth ofFeb:ruary there was a festival;called feralia , inwhich the Romans were accustomed to carry

go

odlto the sepulchres

,for the use of the

anT he Romans were accustomed to wearmourning for thei r deceased friends, whichappears to have beenblack under the republi cfor both sexes. Under the empire the mencontinued to wear black inmourning, but thewomenwere white. They laid aside allkindsof ornaments , and did not cut either thei rhairor beard . Menappear to have usual ly worntheir mourning for only a few days , butwomenfor a year whenthey lost a husbandor arent.na publicmourning onaccount of some

signal calamit as , for instance the l oss of abatt le or the eath of anemperor, there wasa total cessationfrombusiness , called justitium, which was usual l

yordained by public

a

ppointment. During t is period the courts

0'

ustice did not sit, the shops were shut,an the soldiers freed frommi l itary duties.Ina public mourning the senators did notwear the latus c laws and their rings.nor thema '

strates their badges of office.

0RCA, which properly means a fork.was also thename of aninstrument of unishment. I t was a piece ofwood inthe ormof the letter A ,

which was laced upontheshou lders of the offender, w ose hands weretied to it. Slaves were frequently puni shedinthis way, and were obliged to carry aboutthe furca wherever they went ;whence theappel lationoffumferwas applied to a manas a termof reproach . T he termfurca wasused inthe ancient mode of capitab punishment among the Romans ;the crimmalwas

FUSU S .

tied to it, and thenscourged to death. The

pctibuhmx was also aninstrument of punishment, resembling the furca ; it a to

have beeninthe formof the lette r i? Boththe furca and patibulumwere a lso employedas crosses, to which criminals a pea r to hmbeennailed.

p

FURIO'SUS . (Cannon.

PU ’SCINA (rplawa ), a t r imou ly ca l led trident ,meaning trid em stimuli“.because it was ori inally a three - plungedgoad , used to incite orees to greater smitness . Neptune was supposed to be armedWi th it whenhe drove his chariot

,and it thus

became his usual attribute, rhaps with an

allusionalso to the use of e same instrument inharpooning fish.

Inthe contests of gladia tors, the mimic:

was armed with a trident. [G u nra 'ros sa]

FU S T UA’

RIUM'

G-

vl ox orrta ) , was a capital pumshment infl icted uponRomansoldiersfor desertion, theft, and simila r ewes. Itwas administered inthe fo l l owing manner;—Whena soldierwas condemned

, the tribunetouched hims lightlywith a s tic k , uponwhichallthe so ldiers of the legionfe l l u himwi th sticks and stones, and generall

)

;nkil led

himuponthe spot . If, however he escaped.for he , as al lowed to fly, be con(1not returnto his native country,nordid any of his relatives dare to receive himinto the i r houses.

flax or wool , and the lower pa r t was heldunder the left arminsuch a pos itionas wasmost convenient forconducting the 0 ratios.The fibres were drawnout. and at t e was

time spiral ly twisted , chief] by the use ofthe fore -finger and thumb the righ t hand;and the. th read (film , stamen, v1

“

) so produced was wound uponthe spin le until thequantity was as great as it wou ld carry .T he spindlewas a stick , 10 or 12 inchesl ong, havmg at the to a slit or catch (dau ,

dyxwrpov) inwhich t e thread was fixed.sothat the weight of the spindlemigh t continu.al l y carry downthe thread as it was formed.Its lower extremi ty was inserted into a smallwhee l, cal led the whorl (vortiocllum),made ofwood ,

.

stone, Ormetal (see woodcu t), the useof whi chwas toheep the spind lemore steady,and to promote its rotation. T he accompa

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G ENS .

T he G alli were according to anancient custom, alwa castrated , and it would seemthat, impe led by religious fa

hngnicism, th

ey

ormed this Operationont mse ves. n535i: wild , enthusiast ic, and boisterous ritesthey resembled the Corybantes. They seemto have beenalways chosenfroma poor anddespised class of people, for, while no otherpnes

’

ts -were al lowed to beg, the Gal li were

al lowed to do so oncertain ays. The chiefpriest amon themwas cal ledmkigallu .

G AMBL R,GAMING. At.n .]

GAME ‘

LIA (yapnl ta). he dames andphratries ofAttica variousmeans toprevent intruders romassuming the rights ofcitizens . Among other regu lations, it was ordained that every bride, previous to hermarriage. shou ld be introduced by her parents orardians to the phratria of her husband.his introductionof the young womenwas

accompanied by presents to their newphratores, which were ca l led gamelia. T he womenwere enro l led inthe lists of the phratries, andthis enrolment was also ca lled gmelia.

G AU S APA, G AU SAPE , or G AU S APUM,

a kind ot'

thick cloth ,which was onoue side

EZ?wool ly, and was used to cover tables,

8,and by persons to wrap themselves up

after taking a bath , or ingeneral to protectthemselves against rainand cold. Itwas wornbymenas well as women.

The word gausapa is also somethnes usedto designate a thick wig such aswasmade ofthe hai r of G erinans, andwornby the fashionable wople at Roms at the tims ef the em

GENE'SIA. [FUN08 , p.GENS . Accord ing to the traditiona l accounts of the old Roman constitution, theG auss were subd ivisions of the curiae, just asthe curiae were subd ivisions of the three ancient tribes . the Roman, T il imsa , and Luce-res .

There were tengentes ineach curia, and con

fluently one hundred gentes ineach tribe ,three hundred inthe three tribes . Now

GE ROUS IA.

A hundred newmembers were added to thesenate by the first Tarquin. These were th erepresentatives of the Luca a , the third andinferior tribe ;which is indicated by the gentes of this tribe being calledminor“ , by wayof being distin bed fromthe older entes ,majora , of the mnes and Tities, a ist inctionwhich appears to have beenmore thannominal. [S t un-

us ]There were certainsacred rites (sacra g en

rilitia ) which belonged to a gens , to which

all the members 0“

a gens, as such werebound. itwas the duty orthe ponti lices to

look after the due observance of these genti lesacra, and to see that they were not lost .Each gens seems to have had its pecu liarplace (med ium) for the ce lebra tionof thesesacra, which were rt

'

ormed at stated times .

8;the lawof the welveTables the prope rt y

0 a personwho died intestate devolved uponthe na to which he belonged.G O’MORI.G EROU '

S IA (ycpofia ta ).or assemblyders,was the aristocratic element of thetanpolity. I twasnot peculiarto Spartabut found inother Dorianstates , just as a

Boulé (Bovl rj) or'

democratical counci lwas anelem'

ent of most Ionianconstitu tions T heG erma inat Sparta inc luded the two kings , itspresidents, and consisted of thirty membe rs(yé ref): anumber which seems connectedwi t the divisions of the Spartan people .

Every Dorianstate. infact, was divided intothree tribes : the Hylleis, thenanes, andthe Pamphili. The tribes at parts werea

gainsub divided into oboe (M amwhich were ,

li e the G erman, thirty innumber. so thateach obs was represented by its counci l lor ;aninference which leads to the conclusionthattwo obae at least of the Hylleantribe,musthave belonged to the royal house of the Heraclids . N0 one was eligible to the council ti l lhe was sixty years ofa ge , and the add itionalqualifications were strictly of anaristocraticnature .

'We are told , for instance. tha t theoffice of a council lorwas the reward and prizeof virtue, and that it was confined tomenofdistinguished character and station.

The electionwas dete rmined by vote, andthemode ofconducting it was remarkable forits Old-fashioned simpli city. The competitorspresented themselves one after another to theassembl of electors ; the latte r testified theiresteem acclarnations, which varied inia

G LADIAT ORE S ..

tensity according to the popularity ofthe cand idates for whomthey were given. Thesemanifestations of esteemwere noted by persons inanadjoining build ing, who could judgeof the shouting, but could not tel l inwhose

itwas given. The personwhomthesejudges thought to bemost applauded was declared the successful candidate. ' The ofiicelasted for life.The functions of the counci l lors were part lydel iberative, partlg

udicial, and partl ex ecu

t ive. Inthe disc rge of the first, t ey prepared measures and passed reliminary decrees ,which were to be laid be the papularassembly, so that the important priv i lege ofinitiating all changes in the government orlaws was vested inthem. As a criminal cou rt,they could punish with death and civi l degradation(ti rade ). They also appear to have exercised, like the Areopag

us at Athens, a gen.eral superintendence an inspectionover thelives andmanners of the citizens , and probablywere al lowed a kind of patriarchal authority,to enforce the observance of ancient usageand discipline. It isnot, however, easy to define with exactness the original extent oftheirfunctions ;especial ly as res ts the last-mentioned duty, since

' the ep not only eu

croached uponthe prerogatives of the kingand council, butalso possessed, invery earlytimes , a censorial power, and were not likelyto

germit any diminutionof its eXtent.iRDLE . [ Z one ]

G LADIAT O'

RE S (,uovopdx or) were menwho fought with swords inthe amphitheatreand other places, for the amusement of theRomanpeople. They are said to have beenfi rst exhibited by the Etrurians, and to havehad their originfromthe customof killingslaves and c tives at the funera l

gyros of the

deceased . us'rux Fence ] show of

glad iators was cal menus, and the personwho exhibited (edebat) it, editor,muncrator, ordaminus , who was honoured during the day ofexhibition, if a privateperson,with theoflicialsigns of amagistrate .Gladiators were first exhibited at Rome in264, inthe ForumBoarium, by Marcus

and Decimus Brutus , at the funeral of theirfather. They were at first confined to publicfuneral s, but afterwards fought at the funeralsof most persons of consequence , and evenat

those ofwomen. Combats '

of gladiators werea lso exhibited atentertainments.and especial lyat publi c festivals by the aedi les and othermagistrates, who sometimes exhibited immense numbers, with the view .of pleasingthe people. Under the empire the passionofthe Romans for this amusement rose to itsgreatest height, and thenumber ofgladiators

who foughtonsome occasions appears almostincredible. AfterTrajan’s triumph over theDacians

,there weremore than exhibited.

Gladiators consisted either of captives ,slaves , and condemnedmalefactors , oroffreeborncitizens who fought voluntarily. Freemen. who became gladiators for hire werecal led auctorati, and their hire auaommenmmorgladialon

'

um. Evenunder the ublic, freeborncitizens fought as gladiators, ut they apto have belonged only to the lower orders.

nder the empire, however, both knights andsenators fought inthe arena, and evenwomen.

Gladiators were kept inschoolsfind: ,where

they were trained by persons ca led fals e.

The whole body of gladiators under one la~nista was frequently cal led fannlia . Theysometimes were the property of the lanistae,who let themout to persons who wished toexhibit a show

,

of gladiators ; but at othertimes they belongedto citiz ens ,who kept themfor the purpose of exhibition, and enga lanietas to instruct them. Thus we rea of theIndus Aemilius at Rome , and of Caesar’s lndue at Capua. The gladiators fought intheseludi with woodenswords, cal led rudes . Greatattentionwas paid to their diet inorder to iacrease the strength of their ies.

G ladiators were sometimes exhibited at thefuneral pyre, and sometimes inthe forum.butmore frequent] inthe amphitheatre. [Aurmrnnrauu . The personwho was to exbibit a show of gladiators, published somedays before the exhibition, bi lls (libelh

’

) containing the number and frequently thenamesof those who were to fight. Whenthe daycame , they were led along the arena in me

cession, and matched by pairs ; and t eirswords were examined by the editor to see ifthey were sufficiently sharp. At first therewas a kind of shambattle

,cal led praelusio, in

which they fought with woodenswords, orthe like, and afterwards at the sound of thetrumpet the rea l battle began. Whena gladiator was wounded, the people cal led outhabet orhas habst ; and the one who was vanquished lowered his arms intokendf submission. His fate, however, depended uponthepaegle who pressed downtheir thumbs ifthey

wis edhimto be saved , but turned themu

if they wished himto be kil led, and orderedhimto receive the sword (ferrumwhich gladiators usually didwith the restestfirmness. If the life of a vanquished g adiatorwas spared, he obtained his discharge for thatda which was cal ledmissio and hence inanex

’

bitiou of gladiators sinemissions, the livesof the conquered were never spared. Thiskind of exhibition, however was forbiddenbyAugustus .

168 GLADIAT ORE S .

Palms were usually givento the victorious and wore nothing onhis head. If hegladiators . Oldthose who had onywere dischargedat theeach of themw ith a rudi s or woodensword ;whence those who were discharged werecal led Rudiarii .Gladiators were digided into differentc lasses

,according to

,

their arms and differentmode of fightin or other circumstances .The names of the most impo rtant of thesec lasses is giveninalphabetical orderAndabatas wore helmets without any aperture for the e as, so that they were obliged tofight blindfol and thus excited the mirth ofthe specta tors.Camerawas the name givento gladiatorswhen they did not fight inpairs, but whenseveral fought to ether.M me foug t from chariots, like the

G au ls and Britons. [Rescue ]Hoptomacln

’

appear to have beenthose whofoe ina complete suit of armour.

u were those whofought inthemiddle of the day , after combats with wild beastshad takenplace inthe morning. These gladiators were very

slightlyarmed .

Minnillones are to have beenso calledfromthei r having the image ofafish (mormyr,M oog) onthei r helmets. Their arms wereh e themof the Gauls , whence we find thatthey were also cal led Gal li . They wereusual ly matched with the Re tiarii or Thracians.1’q fought with the Samnites , butwe do not know anything respecting themex cept theirname.Rattan? carried only a three -pointed lance,called widens or [m ine [Possu m], and a net

which they endeavoured to throw overadversaries, and the thenattacked them

with the fuse las whi le ey were entangled.

dm ed ina short tunic ,

A i l irmillo and a Reth rlul.

fromthe service by the editor net fora second cast , while his adverequest of the people, who presented lowed himround the arena inorder to him

G LADIU S .

wispedladiators, and sometimes his aiminthrowmg the net, he betook h imfought for a short time , self to flight, and endeavoured to prepare his

fat

the retiarius.S amnites were so cal led , because th were

armed inthe same way as that peop andwere particularly distinguished by the ohlmgscutum.

bat with the retiarius ursued the latter whenhe failed inascuria by his pe t. Otherwriters think that t ey were thempposi litii , who were gladiatorsinthe lace of those who were wearied aswere ed.

T hrace: or T hrace: were armed, like theThracians,with a round shield or buckler, and

lanista stands behind each.

GLADIUS (floor. poet. W W } , asword or glaive, by the Lagg

p

poets called a s»

six . The ancient sword had generally a

straight two- edged blade, rather broad, andnearl of e

gual width from'

hilt to point. T heGree s an Romans wore themon the leaside cut, p. so as to draw themout 6?thesheet (vag ina, x 01:hand infront of theh i lt with the thumb nea t to the blade. T heearly Greeks owd a very short sword. I phi

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GYMNASIUM .

gymnasia, the Lyceum Gynosares (v oaapycg) , and the Academi a (

’Ax a

51mm) ; to whi ch, in later times, severalsmal ler ones were added.Respectin

gthe superintendence and admin

istrationof t e gymnasia atAthens , we knowthat Soloninhi s legislation thought themworth of grea t attention;and the transgression0 some of his laws relatin to the ymnasia was punished with deat His awsmentionamagistrate, called the gymn

asiarch

vaolap or or pyaotdp f), w 0 wasgit

ii‘

ustedwi th thewholematilagement of thegymnasia, and with everything connectedtherewith. His office was one of the regu larliturgies like the choregia and tnersrchy ,andwas attended with considerable expense. Hehad to maintainand y the persons whowere preparing themse ves for the games andcontests in the public fes tivals, to providethemwith oil, and perha with the wrestlers’ dust. It also devo ved uponhimto

adornthe nasium. or the place where theagones too p lace. The gymnasiarch was a

real magistrate, and invested with a kind of

jurisdictionover all those who frequented or

were connected with the gymnasia. Anotherpart ofhis dutieswas to conduct the solemnesit certain;great festi

gal‘

s , es iallye torc - race ( mr eople , orw ich beselected the most di

C

s

‘

iiJn iehed amon theephebi of the gymnasia. henumbero gym.

nasiarchs was ten, one fromevery tribe.Anofiice of very great importance, inaneducational point of view, was that of theS ophrom

‘

stae (ooepovlarath Thei r provincewas to inspire the youths Wi th a love of cm¢pom3vmand to protect this virtue agains t allinjurious influences . In

,early times their

number at Athens was ten, one fromeverytribe

,with a sale of one drachma per day .

Their duty not y required themto be present at all the games of the ephebi, but towatch and correct their conduct wherevertheymightmeet them, both withinand wi thout the gymnasium.

T hebtnsug

u

ations in the gymnasia

an?ven y ymaastae wy vaoral) an t

aedotribae (natdorptfiais;at a later periodhypopaedotribaewere added. The paedotri beswas required to possess a .knowledge of allthe various exercises which were performedin the gymnasia; the gymnastes was thepractical teacher, and was expected to knowthe physiologica l effects and influences ontheconstitu tionof the youths, and therefore as.

signed to each of themthose exercises whichhe thoughtmost suitable .

T he anointin of the bodies of the you thsand strewing {bemwith dust. before they

GYMNOPAE DIA.

commenced their exercises, as wel l as theregu lationof their diet , was the duty of theal iptae. [ALIPT AB

é]

Among all the di ercut tribes of the Greeksthe exercises which were ca rried on in a

Greek gymnasiumwere either mere games ,or the more important exercises wh ich thegymnas ia had in commonwith the publ iccontests inthe festivals.Among the ormer we may ment ion, I .

The game at bal l which wasinuni versal favourWi th theGreeks. [Pl LAJEvery gymnas iumcontained one large roomfor the purpose of playing at bal l ini t (apatpwrr

'

jpcov). 2. IlatCeiv él x varlvda. dielx vortvda , or da)

vary ing. was a game in

which one boy, ho ding one end of a mpe ,tried to pul l the boy who held its other end ,

across a l ine marked. betweenthemonthe

ground. 3. The top

.

Benflnf, fiépfitf. My” paging.whio was as commonan

amusement With Greek boys as it is withours . 4. Thenevrdl tfiog, whichwas a gamewi th five stones, which were thrownup fromthe upper part of the hand and caught inthepalm. 5. Enavrépda.wh ich was a game inwhich a rope was drawnthrou

“ h the upperpart of a tres or a post. Two

_ys , one on

each side of the post , taming thei r backs towards one another, took hold of the ends ofthe rope and tried to

pulleach otherup. Th is

sport was al so one o the amusements at theAttic Dionysia.

The more important'

games, such as running (dpéy og) , throwing of the Jimmy and thedxwv , )uming and leaping (624m, w ith andwithout rfipeg), wrestling (ma y ), box ing(Hype), the pancratium(nayspdriov), we‘v

raO or, Raynadfleopla, dancing gripmo tg),

&c.

,are described inseparate artic es .

A gymnasiumwasnot a Romaninstitution.

The regu lar training oi'

ha 8 inthe Greekgymnastics was fore ignto manmanners ,and evenheld in contempt. Towards theend of the republic, man wealthy Romanswho had acquired a taste or Greekmanners ,used to attach to thei r villas smal l places forbodily exercise, sometimes cal led gymnasia ,

sometimes alaestrae, and to adorn themwith beauti ul works of art. The emperorNeroWas the first who built a public gymnasiumat Rome.G YMNOPAE

’

DIA the fee.

tivel of “naked youths,’ was ce lebrated at

S parta every year inhonour of Apo l lo Pythaeus, Diana, and Latona. The statues ofthese deities stood ina part of the agora cal ledx opéc, and itwas

.

u ound these statues that,

at the gymnopaedia,lip

artanyouths performed thei r choruses a dances inhonour of

Q

HALTERES .

Apol lo. The festival lasted for several , perhaps for ten, days , and onthe last day mena lso performed choruses and dances inthetheatre ; and during these gymnastic ex hi

bitions they sang the songs of T haletas andAlcman, and the paeans of Dionysodotus .

The leader of the chorus (npoora'mg or x 6

porrorég) wore a kind of chaplet in commemorationof the victory of the S artans at

Thyrse . Th is event seems to ave beenc losely connected with the ymnOpaedia, forthose Spartans who had is enonthat occasionwere a lways praised insongs at this festival. The boys

'

intheir dances performedsuch rhythmicalmovements as resembled theexercises of the pala

‘es tra and the pancration,and also imitated the wild ges tures of theworship of Bacchus. The whole seasonof

the gymnOpaedia, during which Spa rta wasvisited by great numbers of strangers , wasone of at merriment and rejoicings , andold bac elors alone seem to have beenexc luded from the festivities. The introductionof the gymnopaedia is generall y assignedto the year 665 s . o.

HAIR. Comm]HALT E ’ ES (d).

“

pad ,.were certain

masses of stone ormet which were used inthe gymnas tic exercises of the Greeks andRomans. Persons who practised lea ing ftcquently erformed their ex erciseswith alteresinboth ands ;but they were also frequentlyusedmerely to exercise the bod insomewhatthe samemanner as our dumb lls.

HARUSPICES . 17l \

HARMAMAXA (egg ofa ), a carriage for

persons , covered over as and inclosed withcurta ins. Itwas ingenera l large, oftendrawnby four horses, and atti red with lendid omaments . It 0000l among the ersians thesame place which the carpentumdid amongthe Romans , be ing used . especially uponstateoccas ions, for the conveyance of womenandchi ldren, of eunuchs, and of the sons of thekin with their tutors.

ARMOS T AE (appear-

at, from u ,

to fit or jointogether), the name of t o

vernors whomthe lmcedaemonians, after t ePeloponnesianwar, sent into their subjector conquered towns, part ly to keep theminsubmission, and part ly to abolish the democratical formof government, and establish inits stead one simi lar to their own. Althonhinmany cases they were ostensibly sent rthe purpose of abolishing the tyrannica l government ofa town, and to restore the pwpleto freedom, yet they themselves acted lake

The art of the hamspices, whichm calledhanwpicina , consisted inexplaining and interprating the will of the gods fromthe spyance of the entrails (ex ta) of animals 03insacrifice,whence they are sometimes calledwtixpices , and their art wasp icium;and alsofromlightning, earthquakes, and all extraerdinary

‘

phenomena innature, to which thegeneral name of sure was en. Theirart is said to have caninvented y the E truscanTages, andwas contained incertainbooksmed libn

'

hamspicim'

, fidpmles , and (mi83 .

HASTA. HELOTES .

among well-educated Romans ; and C icerorelates a saying of Cato, that he wonderedthat one hamspex didnot laugh whenhe sawanother. 1Thename ofhamspex is sometimes applied

to any kind of soothsay er or prophet.HASTA (571 00,

a spear. The spear isdefined by Homer, do dam/peg, a lefittedwith bronze .” T e ronze. forwi ch i ronwas afterwards substituted ,was ind ispensableto form the

plaint(alxwi, M iami. Homer ;

M y” , Xeno on;aciea, erupts , apicylwn) ofthe spear. ach of these two essential partsis oftenput for the whole, so that a s r iscalled do’pv and dapé rtov , alz aiz, and

’m.

Eventhemore especial termpel ts ,meamnganash- tree, is used inthe same manner, because the pole of the spear was oftentheste

lr

inhgfi

a young ash , stript of its bark andspo

T he bottomof the spearwas ofteninclosedina pointed cap of bronze, cal led by the Ionicwriters eavpu rfig

, and odplax og, and inAtticorcommonGree ordpaf. By loreing this intothe ground the spearwasfixed erect.Under the eral terms haste andmo;were includ various kinds of missiles, ofwhich the

princi l were as follow:

Lancea ( dyx r) the lance, a comparativelyslender spear commonly used by the Greeks.Pilum(60660. the

'

avelin, much thickerand atroner thanthe recianlance . Its shaftwas part y uare, and st feet long. Thehead , nine inc es long, was of iron. it wasused either to throw or to thru st with ;itwaspeculiar to the Romans, and gave the name ofpilam

'

to the divisionof the army by which itwas adopted .

c or Verutum, a spit, used by the lightinfantry of the Romanarmy. I t was ado tedby themfromthe Samnites and the V0 sci.Its shaft was 3;feet long, its point fiveinches.Besides the terms jaculm and a

‘

culum(brow, (ucévrwv which probably enoted

we find t 0 names of various otherspears,which were characteristic ofparticularnations. Thus

,the gaerumwas the spear pe

culiar to the Gauls, and the u rine the spear

widis t to theMacedonians. Thiswas usedh to throwand as a pike. It exceeded in

l ength all othermissiles . The Thracianrom

ghee

, which had a very lon point, like thelade ofa sword ,was probab ynot unl ike thesarissa.

The ironhead of the Germanspear, called

{cians ,was short andnarrow, but very sharp.e Germans used it with great efl'

ect, eitheras a lari ce or a pilte ;they gave to each youtha framea and a ahield oncoming ofage. T he

falarr'

ca or pl alan'

oa was the spearof the S anguntines, and was impelled by the aid oftwisted rOpes : it was large and ponderou s ,havin a head of irona cubit inlength, and a

bal l 0 lead at its other end; it sometimes carried flaming pitch and tow. Themature andtraguta were chiefly used inGau l and Spainthe tragu lawas probably barbed as it requ

'

to be cut out of the wound. The ache andcold s weremuch smal lermissiles.A spear was erected at auctions Aves

and when“

tenders were received or publicoflices (locationes). I t served both to announce ,by a conventional signconspicuous at a d istance, that a sale was going on, and to showthat itwas conducted under the authority ofthe public functionaries. Henceanauctionwascal led harm, and anauction~room~hactafimi twas also the practice to set up a spear inthe court of the Csmuuvts t.

HAS -TA'TI . E x s scrrus, p .HE LLANO’ CAE (élfiavodlx at), the

)udges inthe Olymic games, of whomanaccount is givenuner Owner/l . The samename was also givento the judges or cou rt~martial in the Lacedaemonian army, andthey were probably first cal led by this namewhenSparta was at - the head of the Greekconfedera

iy.

HELL NOT AfMIAE (él lnvoraplac), ortreasure rs of the Greeks , were

.

magistratesappointed by the Athenians to receive thecontributions ofthe al lied states; Theywerefirst appointed a. c. 477, whenAthens, in

'

consequence of the conduct of Pausanias, hadobtained the command of the al lied states.Themoney

paid by the different states , which

was origina y'

fixed at 460 ta lents, was deposited in 10s, which was the place ofmeeting for the discussionof all commonintercets ;and there canbe no doubt that thehellenotamise not onl received , but wereal so the guardians ot

‘

, t esemonies . T he oil

ficewas retained after the treasurywas transferred to Athens onthe pmposal of the S emians, but was of course abolished ontheconnest of Athens by the Lacedaemonians.H LME T . [GALE L ]HELO‘TES (allu re a class of bondsmenpeculiar to Sparta. hey were Achaeans,who had resisted the Dorianinvaders to thelast, and had beenreduced to slavery as thepunishment of their obstinacy.The Helots were regarded as the property

of the state which , while it ve their services to individuals, reserve to itself thepower of emancipating them. The wereattached to the land, and could not soldaway fromit. They cu l tivated the land , andpaid to theirmasters as rent a fix edmeasurs

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HISTRIO

Houses inAthens had one of these statuesplaced at the door, and the rest eu rstitronattached to themis shown y the a rmandindignationwhich were felt at Athens inconsequence of themutilationof the whole number ina single nightxjust before the sai lingof the Sic ilianexpedition.As the square part of the statue represent

ed Hermes (Mercury hisname is oftencompounded with that 0 the deity whose bust itsupports. Thus, theHermallmta which Atticasent fromAthens to Cicero bore the bust ofAthena or Minerva ; the Hermeraclas, thoseofHeracles Hercu les .)HERMA A arc), festivals of Hermes (Mercury) cc ebrated invarious partsof Greece . As Mercury was the tutelarydeity of the gymnasia and alaestrae, theboys at Athens celebrated the ermaea inthegymnasts .

HlE ROMNE’MONES the

more honourable of the two classes of reptesentatives who composed the Amphictyoniccounci l. Anaccount of themis gi venunderAurarc'

rvos ss. We al so read of hieromneo

mouse inGrecianstates . distinct fromtheAmphictyonic representatives of this name.Thus the priests of Neptune, at Megara, werecal led hieromnemones, and at Byzantium,

which was a colony ofMegara, the chiefmagistrate inthe state appearscal led by this name.HlE RONl

'

CAE .

H lLA'

RIA (lldpta a Romanfestival , celebrated onthe 25th of March , inhonour ofCybe le themother of the gods.Hl

’

S T RlOGmoxptrr'

) ,enactor. LG as arr.I t is showninthe artic es Cuoaus and D10.

rwsu that the Greek drama origina ted inthechorus which at the festivals of Bacchusdanced around his altar, and that atfirst onepersondetached himself fromthe chorus,and, wi th mimic gesticulation, related hisstory either to the chorus or inconversationwith it. If the story thus acted requiredmore thanone person, they were all represented insuccessionb the same actor, andthere wasnevermore t none persononthesta e at a time. This customwas retainedby has is and Phrynichus. Aeschylus introdu a second and a third actor ;and thenumber of three actors was but seldomexceeded inany Greek drama. T he three regular actors were distinguished by the techarcalnames of apo rayuvwrrig, rigors

-

paramerfig, and rptrayawwrfig, which ind icated themore or less prominent part which anactorhad to performinthe drama.

T he female characters of a play were always performed by young men. A distinct

class of persons, who made acting on t hestage thei r profession, was unknownto theGreeks during the period of their great d ramatists . The earliest and greatest drama ticpoets, Thespis, Sophocles , and probably Aeschylus al so acted in their ownplays, and inall probability as protagonistae . I t was nOtthought degrad ing inGreece to performonthestage. At a later period persons beganto devote themselves exclusively to the rofessionofactors ,anddistinguished individua 8 receivedevenas early as the time of Demosthenes exorbitant sums for their performances.2. ROMAN. The word his trio, by which theRomanactor was cal led , is said to have beenformed fromthe EtruscanMater, which siguified a ludio or dancer. i nthe year 364 B. 0.

Rome was visited by a plague, and as no humanmeans could stop it, the Romans are saidto have tried to avert the an r of the gods byscenic plays (ludi scenici) , w ich , unti l then,had beenunknownto

.them; and as there

wereno persons at Rome prepared for suchperformances , the Romans sent to Etruria forthem. The first his triones, who were thusintroduced fromEtruria, were dancers, andperformed theirmovements to the accompaniment of a flute. Romanyouths afterwardsnot only imitated these dancers , but also re

cited rude and Jocose verses, adapted to themovements of the dance and themelody of theflute. This kind of amusement, which wasthe basis of the Romandrama, remained unal tered unti l the time ofLivius Andronicus,who introduced a slave uponthe stage forthepurpose of singing or reciting the recitative,whi le he himself rformed the appropriatedance and gestienation. A further ate inthe develo ment—of the drama, which is ikewise ascri to Livius,was, that the dancerand reciter carried ona dialogue, and acted astory with the accompaniment of the flute.

Thename histrio, which original ly signified adancer

,was nowapplied to the actors inthe

drama. The atellanae wereplayed by free

bomRomans, while the re u r drama wasleft to the histriones, who ormed a distinctclass of persons. The histriones werenot citizens ;they were not contained inthe tribes,nor al lowed to he enl isted as soldiers intheRomanlegions and ifany citizenentered theprofessionof anhistrio, he, onth is account ,was excluded fromhis tribe. T he hist rioneswere therefore always either freedmen. strangers, or slaves , andmany passages of Romanwriters show that they were general ly held ingreat contempt. Towards the close of the re

public it was only such menas C icero, who ,

3gotheir Greek educationh raised themselvesvs the prejudices of thei r countrymen, and

HOROLOGIUM .

va lued the personno less thanthe talents ofanAe80pus and aRoscius . Butnotwithstanding this low estimationinwh ich actors weregeneral lyheld,distinguished individualsamongt hematt racted immense crowds to the theatres , and were exorbitan

tpaid. Roscius

a lone received every da t at he performedone thousand denarii , an AesOpus left his sona fortune of sesterces, which he hadac uired solel by his profession.

he pay oft e actorswascalled (scar,whichword was perhaps confined original ly to thepaymentmade to those who took part intherel igious serv ices celebrated ingroves .HONO'RES , the high oflices of the state

to which qualified individuals were cal led bythe votes of the Romancitizens . The wordsmagistratus and honoree are sometimes

coupled together. The capacity for enjoyinthe honoree was one of the distinguishmarks of citizenship. C i v i u sJHonorwas distingu is ed frommunus . The

latter was anoffice connected with the ad

ministrationof the state, and was attendedwith cost (sumptus ) butnot with rank (dignizas ) . Honor was properly said dcferri, darimunus was said impom

‘

. A personwho helda ma 'stratu smight be said to d ischargemanera , u only as incident to theoflice ,forthe office itse fwas thehonor. Suchmuneraas these

measured by feet,whichwereprobablymarkedonthe lace where the shadow fell . Inlatertimes t e name gnomonwas applied to ankind of sun-dishesp

‘

ecially to its linger whiothrew the shadow,and thus pointed to thehour.The poles or heliotmpion(fil torpémov), on

the other hand , seems to have beena moreperfect k ind of sun-dial ;but it appears,nevertheless not to have beenmuch used . I t consisted of a basin inthe middle ofwhich the perponicular staff or finger (you

'

r

au v) was erected, and init the twelve partsof the day weremarked by lines.

175

Another k ind ofhorologiumwas the ydra ( x h tpfidpa ). I t derived its name romx l érrrew and Mop, as inits origina l and sim

ple formit consisted of a vessel with severalittle Openings (rpmnjpara) at the bottom

,

through which the water contained init secaped , as it were, by stealth . This instrument seems atfirst to have beenused only forthe purpose of measuring the time duringwhich persons were al lowed to speak inthecourts of

'

natice at Athens . itwas a hollowglobe, pro bly somewhat flat at the tap part,where i t had a short neck (sol os), like thatof a bottle, through which the water was

poured into it. This Openingmight be closedy a lid or

' stop'

per (new). to prevent thewater running out at the bottom. As the timefor speaking inthe Atheniancourts was thusmeasured by water, the orators frequently usethe termMop instead of the time al lowed tothem. Anespec ial oliicer (6 éo

’

Map) wasappointed inthe courts for the purpose ofwatching the clepsydra, and sto

pping i t when

any documents were read,where y the speakerwas interrupted. The time , and consequentlythe uantity ofwater allowed to a speaker, depened uponthe importance of the case.The clepsydra used inthe cou rts of justice

was properly speaking, no horolo'

um; butsmaller ones,made of glass , and o the samesimple structure, were undoubtedly used veryearly infami l ies for the urposes of ordinarylife, and fordividing the ay into twelve equalparts. Inthese glass cleps drae the divisioninto twelve partsmust have nvisible, eitheronthe glass globe itse lf, or inthe basinintowhich the water flowed.The first horologiumwith which the R0mans became acquaintedwas a sun-dial (solarium, or horolog iumsciothericwn), and was saidto have beenbrought to Rome by PapiriusCursor twelve years before the war withPyrrhus. But as sun-dials were useless whenthe sky was cloudy, P. S ci io Nasica, inhiscensorship, 159a.c., establis ed a public clepsydra, which indicated the hours both of dayand ni ht. This clepsydra was inaftertimesgener 1 cal led solarium. After the time ofScipio as ica several botolo chiefly solaria, seemto have beenerec invarious public places at Rome.Clepsydrae wereused by theRomansintheircamps, chiefly for the purpose ofmeasuringaccurately the four vigilias into which theui ht was d ivided.

be customof using clepsydrae as a checkuponthe speakers inthe courts of

'

ustice at

Rome, was introduced by a lawof n. Pompeius , inhis thi rd consu lship. Before thattime the speakers had beenunder no restricu

176 HOSPlT lUM.

tions, butspoke as long as they deemed pAt Rome

,as at Athens, the time al low? to

the speakers, depended uponthe M portanceof the case.HOSPI‘T IUM (ga la, npofevla) , hospi tal

ity, was inGreece as wel l as at Rome, of atwofold nature, either private orpublic, insofar as itwas either established betweenindiv iduals, or betweentwo states. (Hospitiumprivatum, and hospitiumpublicani, Eevia anda

'

pofevta .)In ancient Greece the stranger, as such

(Eévog and hosris), was l ooked uponas anenemy ; but whenever he appeared amonganother tribe or nationwithout any signof

hostile intentions, he was considered not onlyas onewho required aid, but as a suppliant,an

Jupiter was the rotecting deity of strangersand suppliants ( t i»;fefvtog). Onhis arrival ,therefore, the stranger was kindly received,and provided with ever

ything necessa ry to

make himcomfortable. t seems to have beencustomary for, the host, onthe departure of

the straner, to break a die (dorpdyal og) intwo, one If of which he himself retained ,while the other halfwas givento the stranger;and whenat any future time they or thei r descendantsmet, ti?

had ameans of rec0gmzing each other, a the hospitable connectionwas renewed . Hospitality thus not only existed betweenthe persons who had original lyformed it, but was transferred as aninheritance fromfather to son.

What has beensaid hitherto, only refers tohospitiumprivatum but of far greater import.ance was the It itiumpublicus: (npofevia,sometimes simply evr

‘

a) or public hospitality,which existed betweentwo states, orbetweenanindividua l or a famil onthe one hand, anda whole state onthe ot er. Of the latter kindof publ ic hospitality many instances are re

corded , such as that betweenthe Pisistratidsand Sparta, inwhich the people ofAthens hadno share. The hospitium ublicumamongthe Greeks arose undoubt I fromthe hospi ti umprivatum, and it may ave originatedintwo we s. Whenthe Greek tribes weregoverned y chieltains or kings, the privatehospitality existing betweenthe ruling families of two tribes may have produced similarrelations betweentheir subjects, which , afterthe abolitionof the kingly power, continuedto exist betweenthenew republics as a kindof political inheritance of former times. Or apersonbelonging toone statemight have eitherextensive connections with the‘ citizens of euother state,or entertaingreat partiality fortheother state itself, and thus offer to receive allthose who came fromthat state either onprivate or public business, and to act as their

patroninhis owncity. This he at first didmerely as a rivate individual , but the state towhich he 0 eraci this kind service wou ld naturally soonrecognize and reward himfor it .

Whentwo states established public hospitality, and no individuals came forward to act asthe representatives of their state, itwas necessary that ineach state

Persons shou ld be

appointed to show hospita ity to, and watchover

,the interests of, all persons who came

fromthe state connected by hospitality . T hepersons who were appointed to this odies as

the recognized agents of the state for whichthey acted were cal led prox cni (n fevm), butthose ‘who undertook involunta y etheloproarem'

éflel orrpéfevoc)e oflice of mus, which bears great

resemblance to t at of a modernconsu l orminister- resident , was insome cases hered iotary ina particu lar famil y. Whena state ap e

pointed a prox enus, it either sent out one ofi ts owncitizens to reside inthe other state , orit selected one of the citizens of this stat e ,and conferred uponhimthe honour of prox .

enus. The“

former was, in early times , th ecustomof Sparta, where the kings had theright of selecting fromamong the Spartancitizens thosewhomthey wished to send ou tas prox eni to other states. But insubsequenttimes this customseems to have been '

venup, forwe find that at Athens the fami y ofCallias were the prox eni of Sparta, and at

A as , the Argive Alciphron.

he principal duties of a proxenus were toreceive t ose persons, especial l

yambassadors

,

who ca e fromthe state whic be represented ;to procu re for themadmissionto the as

sembly, and seats inthe theatre ;to act as thepatron.

of the strangers , and to‘mediate be

tweenthe two states if any dis utes arose .If a stranger died in the state, t proxenusofhis country had to take care of the propert yof the deceased.

The hos itality of the Romans was, as inGreece, ei t er hospitiumprivatumor publicum. Private hospitality with the Romans ,however, seems to have beenmore accurate l yand legal ly defined than inGreece . T hecharacter of a fun

gu s, i. e. a personconnected

with a Roman y tiea of hospitality. wasdeemed evenmore sacred, and to have greaterclaims uponthe host , than that of a personconnected by blood oraflinity . The relationof a hospes to his Romanfriend was next inimportance to that of a oliena. The obligations which the connectionof hospita li tywi tha foreigner imosed upona Roman, were toreceive inhis ouse his hospes whentravelling ;and toprotect, and, incase ofneed, torepresent himas his patroninthe courts 0!

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IMAG O. IMPUBE S .

of four indispensable parts ; the threshold, or data. They were preserved with great care

si ll (tam ,fiql ég, adder) ;the lintel (jugimm ia cases inthe atria of houses , and were onlyM t, listensuper

-um) and the two Jambs (posr brought out onsolemnoccasions as

, for ian,mayor) . stance, onoccasion.of the funerafof amemT he door itselfWas called fan

'

s or sales , ber of the fami ly. Hence the word imag inesand in Greek oavtg, x l tcmic, or Otiperpov. is frequently used as equivalent tonobility ofThese words are commonly found inthe plu bi rth , and homemidtermmm signifies ami, because the door-way of every building, personof great nobility many ofwhose eu

of the least importance contained two doors cestors had ' held the highe r offices of thefoldin together. Whenfan

'

s .is used inthe state. Nobilea, therefore, weremenwho hadan ar, it denotes one of the folding doorsonl

'

lzhe fastenings of the door (closure, 066m)muly consisted

x i?5bolt (punI

l ed“ ”d

ire.

x aro trig, t p ac at tbase of eacli

tforis, so ag

wto admit

.

of beingpushed into a socket made inthe 3111 to reserve i t.Bynight, the front door of the house was

furthersecurgd bymeans ofwooden

12dmtimesaniron ar(sara ,rspagula, ) p a

across it, and inserted . into sex/

(

lite oneachside of the door-way . Hence itwas necessary to remove the bar (revno Adv napciospsw) inorder to openthe door reiterat e.)Itwas considered impmperto enter a housewi thout giving notice to its inmates. Thisnotice the S artans gave .by shouting ;theAthenians, all otherna tions by using theknocker, ormore commonly by rapping Wi ththe knuckles orwith

'

a stick (x porierv, sorrf ew). In the houses of the rich a porter(janitor, ouster, li v was always inat~

tendence to nthe oor. He was commonly a eunuc or a slave

,and was chained

to his post. T o assist himiniuarding the

entrance,a dogwas universal ly eptnear i t,

being al so attached by a chain to the wal l ;and inreference to this practice, the warningewes scrim, riyvm

’

rva,was sometimeswrittennear the door. The appmpriatenamefor the portionof the house immediately behind the door (v é v), denotes that itwas a

kind of a

gartment;it corresponded to the

hall or lob y of ourhouses. Immediatel ad

Joining it, and close to the front door, t erewas inmany houses a

'

small roomfor the

porter.IDUS . Csu xni awitJIG NOM

’

NIA. Csnson;IG NO

'

BILE S . NovrHOK INI GJ0

IMA'

G Cgé:

representation

rlikene

hsa

lgiimage or re o e person. mong t e

mans those persons who had fil led any of thehigher or curule magistracies of the state,had the right ofmaking images of themselves(jus imagt

'

imm), which privi legewas permittedtono one else. These images weremade ofwax , and painted , and were likenesses of thepersons they represented, downto the shou l

the behalf of the state. It was not incidentto

lag!office, and was always spec ial ly cou

fer by a lex curiata, that is, a lex passedin'the comitia curiata” Consequently, notevena consul could act as commander of anarmy, unless he were em ered by a l excuri ata. I t could not be eld or ex ercisedwithinthe city inthe republicanperiod ;butit was somet imes conferred spec ial! uponanindividual for the day of his t riumphWi thinthe city, and at least, insome cases, by .a

plebiscitum.

As ap to pala tes, imperiimi is the power whic was conferred by the state uponanindividual who was appointed to commandanarmy. The phrases consularis potesra: andconsulate un

it-mammight both be properl y

used ;but t efimsion tribuniti

'

a pota to:only cou ld be u as the tribuni never received the imperium,

Inrespect ofhis imperium, he who receivedit was styled imper

'

ator. After a victory itwas usual for the soldie rs to salute their cornmander as imperator, but this salutationneither gave nor confirmed the title, since thetitle as a matter of course was givenwiththe imperium. Under the republic the titlecame raperly alter the name ;thus Cicero ,when ewas proconsul inCilicia, could properly style himse lf M . Tullius Cicero Impera.

tor, for the te rmmerely expressed that hehad the imperii im. The emperors Tiberiusand Claudius refused to assume the praenomenof imperator, but the use of ,

it as a praenomenM ame established among their succassora.

The termim riumwas applied inthe republicanperi to express the sovereignty ofthe Romanstate. Thus Gau l is said by Ciceto to have come under the imperiumand ditioof the nine Romanus.IMPL

’VIUM.

INhibmrs, p. 125.

IMPRIS ONME [CancunIMPU

'

BE S . Aninfans was incapable of

INFANS .

doing an legal act. Animpubes who hadassed t e l imits of infantis. could do anye al act with the auctoritas of his tuto r.i th the attainment of pubertas, a person

obtained the ful l ower over his pro erty, andthe tutela c he could also ispose ofhis property b w ill ;and he cou ld contractmarriage. Pu rtse, inthe case o f a male,was attained with the completionof the fourteenth, and ina female, With the completionof the twelfth year.Uponattaining the age of puberty a Romanyouth assumed the toga Vi ril is, but until

that time he wore the tOga praetexta, theb road par to hemofwhich (progra m) at oncedis tinguis ed himfromother persons. Thetoga viril is was assumed at the :Liberalia inthemonth of March , and though no s e appears to have beenp os itively fixed or theceremony, it probably took place as a generalru le on the feast which nex t followed thecompletionof the fou rteenth year ;thou h itis certainthat the completionof the our

teenth yearwasnot always the time observed.S till , so long as ama lewore the praetex ta,be was impubes, and whenhe assumed theto viri lis , he was pubes.

AU G URA’

T IO,was ingeneral the cere~many by which the augurs obtained. or endeavoured to obtain, the sanctionof the godsto something which had beendecreed byman;inparticular, however, itwas the ceremony b wh ich things or persons were conaecra to the gods , whence the terms dedicatio and ’

consecratio were sometimes used as

synonymous with inauguratio. Not‘ only

were priests inaugurated, but-

al so the h ighermagistrates, who for this purpose were summoned by the augurs to pear onthe capitol, onthe third day aftert eir election. Thisinauguratio conferred no priestlydignit

(ri

son

themagistrates , butwasmerely amet ofobtaining the sanctionof the gods to theirelection, and gave themthe right to take suepicia ;and onimportant emergencies itwastheirduty tomake use of this privi lege .l’

NDU T US . [Animus ]lNFA‘

M IA,was a consequence ofcondemnationfor certaincrimes, and also a directconsequence of certainacts, such as adultery,prostitution, appearing onthe public stage asanactor, one. A personwho became r'nfamislost the suffragiumand honoree

,and was de

graded to the conditionofanaerarian. lnfamiashould be distinguished from the Nora CenW , the consequence of which was only ignomi‘m'

a. [Cs xvsors lIlNFANS , lNFA'

i TIA. Inthe Romanlawthere were severa l d istinctions of age whichweremade with reference to the capaci ty for

lNT E RCE S S lQ'

. 179

doing is al acts — 1 . The first wasimmbirt to the end of the seven ear, during which timc persons were calledM antaor Q uifari

'mmpossum. 2. The second periodwas fromthe end of sevenyears to the end offourteenor twelve years, according as the personwas amale or female , during which persons were defined as those Q ui

’

fari'

permit.

The persons included inthese first two classeswere Impubcm. 3. The third periodwas fromthe end of the twelfth orfourteenth to the endof the twenty-fifth year, during which periodpersonswereAdolescent“ ,Adam. T he personsincluded inthese three classes wereminoresxxv annis or annorum, and were often, forbrevity’s sake, cal led minores onl y [Coniroa] ;and the persons inc luded inthe thirdand fourth class were Pubsrcs . 4. The fourthperiodwas fromthe e

rg;of twenty-five, during

which raona were ajom.

iNF'

RIAE . [Forms p.I ’NF'ULA, a flock of white and red wool,which was sl

'

bi l y twisted , drawninto theformof a wrest orfil let, and used b the R0mans forornament onfestive and so emnoccasions. Insacrificing itwas tied with awhiteband Vi 'r ‘u ] to the head of the victimandalso 0 the nest.INGE'N l , were those freemenwho werebornfree. Consequentl

y, freedmen(libmim)

werenot ingenui, thong the sons of libertiniwere ingenui ;nor could a libertinus by adOpo

tionbecome ingenuus. The words ingenuesand libertinus are oftenopposed to one anotherand the title of freeman(fiber), which wouldcomprehend libertine, is sometimes limited bythe additionof ingenuus (liber st ingenuus .)Under the em

pire a person not ingenuusby birth , cou ld made ingenuas by e

cc;a fil let.The Romanmatrons sometinms wore a broadfil let w ith ample folds, sewed to the bottomofthe tunic and reaching to the instep. The useof it indicated a superior regard to decencyand ro riety ofmanners . 0 0

l' SULA was , properly, s house not Jomed

to theneighbouring houses b a commonwal l .Aninsula, however, general y contained severa l separate houses , orat least separate apartments or sho s, wh ich were let to difierentfamilies ; an hence the word demus underthe emperors seems to be a pliedto the housewhere a family lived , whet er it were aninsu la ornot. and insu la to any hi red lodgings.INT E RCE

'

S S IOwas the interference ofamagist ratus towhomanappea l [Arsst t i '

rio]

180 INTERDICT UM.

wasmade. T he object of the intercessiowasto ut a stop to proceedings;onthe ground ofinl’drmality or other suffi cient cause . Anymagistratus might inter-cedars, who was ofequa l rank with Or of rank superior to themagistratus fromor against whomthe a

ppel

latio was. Cases occur inwhich onear

e

thepraetors interposed (M t) against t roseedings ofhis colleague. The intercessio ismost frequently spokenof with reference tothe tribunes,who originally hadnotjurisdictio,but used the intercessio for the purpose ofpreventing wrong which was offered to a personintheir presence. T he intercessio of thetribunes of the plebs was auxilium, and itmight be exercised either injunorinjudicio.

The tribuneg:

intercom“

: could'preve

nt a ju

diciumfrom ing instituted. he tribunescou ld only use the intercessio to prevent ex eicutionofa judicia l sentence. A single tribunecou ld effect this , and against the opinionof

his col leagues .INT E RCl

'

S I DIE S . Dina ]INTERDICTUM. ncertaincases (cer

ri: es causis) the praetor or proconsu l , inthefirst instance principaliler), exercises his authority for the terminationofdisputes . Thishe chiefly does whenthe dispute is abou tpmessionor quasi-possession;and the exareias of his authority consists inorderingaomething to be done, or forbiddin somethingto be done. T he formulae a the termswhich he uses onsuch occasions, are ca l ledeither interdicta or deer-eta. They . are ca l leddecreta whenhe orders something to be doneas whenhe orders something to be produc(arbibm) or to be restored : they are ca l ledmlerdicta whenhe forbids something to bedone, as whenhe orders that force shal l nothe used against a personwho is inpossessionrightfu l ly (sine vino or thatnothing shal l bedone ona piece 0 sacred ground. Accordingly all interd icta are either restitutoria, orex h ibitoria, or prohibitoria .

"

This passage. which is takenfromG ains,the Romanjurist, contains the essential distinctionbetweenanactioandaninterdicnun. Inthe case of anactio, the praetor pronouncesno order or decree, buthe gives a judex ,whosebusiness it is to inves tigate thematter indispute, and to pronounce a sentence consistentlywith the formu la, which is his authority foract ing. inthe case of anactio, therefore. thepraetorneither ordersnor forbids a thing to bedone, but he

_says , Judiciumdabo. Inthe caseof aninterd ict , the raetormakes anorderthat something shal l done or shal l not bedone , and his wordscommand .

Ra tiruas,Embeae, unfieri veto.

is immediate interpositionof the praetor ia

are accordip'gly words of

INTERREX.

ap epriately expressed by the word pre-aiter.

INTEREST OF MONEY. [Farina ]INT E RPRE S , aninterpre ter. This c lass

Al l Romanpraetors, proconsu ls, and quaestors who were entrusted with the administ rationof a province, had to ca onall theirofiicial proceedings inthe Latinangnage , andas they cou ldnot be ex ted to be acquainted with the language 0 the provincial s, theyhad always among their servants [Aru mrorts s

}one ormore interpreters, who were

genera ly Romans, but inmost cases unoubtedly freedmen. These interpreters hadnot only to oficiate at the conventus [Cortv sn'

rus], but also explained to the Romangovernor eve

'

thing which the provincialsmi'ght wish to laid before him.

NT E RRE G NUM. [ lsrannx

INTERREX . This ofiice is to havebeeninstituted onthe death ofRomulus,wlienthe senate wished to share the sovereignpower among themselves, instead of electinga king. For this purpose, accordin to Livy ,the senate, which thenconsisted 0 one humdredmembers,was divided into tendecuries ;and fromeach of these decu ries one senatorwas nominated . These .ther formed a

board of ten, with the title 0 1 es, eachof whomenyoyed in succession t e regal

powerand its badges forfive days ;and if noing was appomted at the expirationof fiftydays, the rotationbegananew. The perioddurin which they exercised their power wascal l an[ a im mt. These teninterregeswere theDecent or tenleading senators,of whomthe first was chief of the wholesenate.The interreges agreed among themselveswho should be pro osed as king, and if thesenate approved their choice, they summoned theassemblyofthe curiae,and proposedthe personwhomthey had previously agreedupon; the power

_

of the curiae was confinedto accepting or rejecting him.

inte rre were appointed under the tomblic forho

'

ng the comitia for the electionofthe consuls, whenthe consuls, through civilcommotions or other causes, had beenunableto do so intheir year ofofiice. Each held theoffice for only five days , as under the kings.

The comitia were hardl ever held b the firstinterrex ;more usual ly y the seco orthird ;but inone instance we read of aneleventh,

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182 JHDBK .

at. Thematterwasfirst briefly stated were thence cal led E diritii‘. Both the soonto t e judex (causes eonjsctio, collect£o) and the sator and the reus had the privi le of re.advocates of each party supported his causeina speech . “’

itnesses were produced onboth sides, and examined oral ly : the witnesses onone side were also cross-examined bythe other.

jecting orchallenfl'

ngcicere) suc judices

as they dld not li e. nmany cases a lexwas passed for the purpose of regulating themode of procedure.The judices voted by bal lot, at least gener

After all the evidence was'

venand the all y, and amajorit determined the acquittaladvocates had finished, the ju ex gave sentence : if there were several Judices, am

yor

ity decided . If the matterwas one of lncul ty, the hearingmight be adjourned asoftenaswasnecessa ry (surpliatiog

;and if the Judexcould not come to a satis actor

gconclus ion,

he might declare this u onsat and.

so re

lease himself fromthe '

fiiculty. This was

done by the formofwords nonliquors (N .

T he sentencewas pronounced orally, andwassometimes first writtenona tablet. If thedefendant did notmake his appea rance afterbeing duly summoned , judgment might begivenagainst him.

Accord ing to Cicero, all judicia had fortheir object, either the settlement ofdisputesbetweenindividuals (controversies or the punishinent of crimes (” Mach

T is refers toa divisionof judicia, whio '

dappears inthe

urista, intomima'

pubhca'

an“

cia‘

vata.1The former, the judicia publicafg

a

ucceepdfl

ed tothoeij

udicia

lpopuli of the earl republicanpe

n the atter were so ca led because inthemthe populus acted as judices . Original l y the kings presided inall crimina l cases,and the consuls succeeded to their authority.

But after the [gas sing of the Lex Valeri a

(a. c. whic gave anappeal to the populus (that is , the comitia curiata) fromthemagistratus, the consu l could not sit injudgment onthe caput of a Roman citizen, butsuch cases were tried inthe comitia, or persons were appointed to preside at such ihquiries, who were accordingly cal led Quaesitores or Q uaa tmsparri

'

cidi i or rmrmcapitalism.

Incourse of time, as such cases became ofmore fr usut occurrence, such quaestioneswere ma e perpetual, that is, particular ma .

gistrates were appointed for the purpose. I twas eventual ly determined, that whi le thepraetorurbmms and pmgrr

’

nus should continueto exercise their usual Jurisdictions , the otherpraetors should preside at public t rials. Insuch trials lan personmight be anaccuse r(seawater). The praetor general ly presidedas uaesitor, assisted by a ndex quaestiouis,an a body of judices cal ed his consilium.

The Judices were genera l l chosenby lot outof those who were qual

'

ed to act ;but insome cases the accuser and the accused (mu )bad the privilege of choosing (edere) a certainnumber ofJudices out ofa largenumber, who

orcondemnationo the accused. EachJudexwas provided with three tablets (tabular) , onone of which was marked A, .Absolvo;ona

second C, Condemns and ona third N.

Nonq uet. The judices voted by placing oneof these tablets inthe u rns, which were thenexamined for the purpose ofascertaining thevotes. I t was the duty of themagist ratus topronounce the sentence of thejud ices ;inthecase of condemnation, to adjudge the legalpenal ty ;of acquittal , to declare himacquitted ;aud of doubt , to declare that themat termust be farther investigated (amplias cognascendum).k judicium i, properly so called,was

one inwhich e casewas tried inthe comi tiacuriata, but afterwards inthe comitia centuriata and tributa. The accuserhad to be a

magistratus , who commenced i t by declaringina contie that he would ona certainday secuse a certain rson, whomhe named, or

some offence, w ich he also specified. Thiswas expressed by the phrase diamdicerc. Ifthe offender held any high office, itwasneces~sary to wait till his time of se rvice had expired, before proceedings could be thus coniweneed against him. T he accused was re

uired torgivesecurity forhis appearance on

t e day 0 trial ;the security was cal lednodesina causa capitalis, and praedes when the

penal ty;for the al leged offencewas pecunia ry.

f suc security was not'given, the accused

was kept inconfinement . I othing preventedthe inquiry fromtaking lace at the t ime fixedfor it, the trial precede and the accuser hadto prove his case by evidence. The investigationof the facts was called anquis i

'

lio withreference to the proposed penal ty : accordingly, the phrases pecunia, ca e orcapitis ann

gain-

re, are used. When t e investi tion

was concluded , the magistratus promu gateda rogatio, which comprehended the chargeand the punishment or fine. I t was a rule oflawthat afine should not be imposed togetherwith another punishment inthe sa‘me rogatio.The rogatio was made ublic du ring threenundines. like any other ex, and proposed atthe acomitia for adaptionor rejection. Theaccused sometimes withdrew into exile beforethe votes were taken;or he might make hisdefence .

T he offences wh ich were the chief subject

JUDE X.

of judicia pocpuli and publ ica weremajestas,

adu lteria an stupra, parricidium, falsum, via

putgica '

and privata, peculatus, repetundse,amitus.

With the passin of special enactments for

JUCUM. 183

the M i, who had a lower pecuniaryqualification, and onl decided insma llermatters. Cal igula add a fifth decu ria, inorderto dimmish the labours of the judices .JUDG ES , Greek Roman[Ju

the punishment o part icular offences, was nu .

int roduced the pract ice of forming a body ofjudices for the trial of such offences as theenactmentswere directed against . T he

'

Albm-iJudicumwas the body out of which judiceswere to be chosen. lt isnot knownwhatwasthe number of the body so constituted , but ith as beenconjectured that

.the number was350, and that tenwere chosenfromeach tribe,and thus the originof the phrase Decuriae Judioumis explained. I t is easy to concei ve thatthe judicia populi , proper! so called, wou ldbe less f usut, as special egos were framedfor partienar ‘ ofl

'

ences , the ci rcumstances ofwhich could be better investigated b a sma l lerbody ofjudices thanby the assembThe Lex Servilia (s . c . 104) enac ted t thejud ices should not be under thirty nor abovesixt y years of age, that the accuser and se

cused shou ld severall y pro one hundredjudices, and that each mig t reject fifty fromthe list of the other, so that one hund redwould remainfor the trial . Up to 123,the jud ices were always senators, but inthisy ear the Sempronia Lex of C. Gracchus tookthe judicia fromthe senators and gave themtothe equites . This state of things lastednearlyfifty years, til l Sul la (s .c. 80)

'

restored thejudic ia to the senate. and excluded the equi tesfromthe albumjudicum. A Lex Aure lia70) enacted that the judices shou ld be chosenfromthe three classes—of senators, uites,and tribuni aerari i ;and accordingly t e jud iciawere thensaid to be dividedbetweenthesenate and the equites. The tribuni aerari iwere takenfromthe rest of the Ci tizens , andwere

,or ought to have been, persons of some

prope rty." Thus the th ree decu ri as of judi ces

were formed ; and it was ei ther inconseuence of the Lex Aurelia or some other lex,t at, instead of one urnfor all the tablets, thedecuriae h

'

ad several ly their bal loting urn, sothat the votes of the three classeswere known.

I t isnotknownif the Lex Aurelia de terminedthenumber of

'

udices inany givencase. TheLox Pompeia e V

'

and DeAmbitu (a. c. 52)determined that eig ty judi ces were to be se«lected by lot, out of whom

.the accuser andthe accusedmight reject thi rty. Inthe caseof Clodius, inthe matter of the Bona Des ,

there were fiftyosix judices. i t is conjecturedthat thenumber fixed fora givencase, by thehex Aurelia, was seventy judices .Augustus added to the existing three decu

:ias judicuma fourth decuria, called that of

J'GERUM, a Romanmeasure of surface,

240 feet inlength and 120 inbreadth. containing therefore squa re feet . It was thedouble of the Astra Quadratus, and fromthisc i rcumstance, according to some wri ters , itderived its name. [Acres ] The uncial dim en[As] was

.

applied to the jugerum, itssm'

allest part being the wr’

l

l

npulumof lo s fes t

square,=100 square feet. bus the jugerumcontained 288 scrupula. The jugerumwasthe commonmeasure of land among the R0.

mans. Twojugcra formed anheredium, s hundred lteredi

’

a a cmturia, and fourmrw-

r’

aa a aaltus. T hese

o

divisions were derived fromtheorigina l assignment of landed property inwhich twojugera were givento each ci tizenas heritable ropertmenu the .zvrtiv). signified ingeneralthat which 3 two things together, such asthe transve rse beamwhich united the uprightmomloom, the em barof a lyre, a scal e

&c., but it denowdmore especial ly theyoke by which loughs and carriages weredrawn. The fo owing woodcut shows twoexamplesof the yoke a the u perone is provrdedwi th two col lars, the ower one withex cavations cut inthe yoke, inorder to

'

ve

more ease and freedomto the animals. helatter figure shows the method of tying the

yoke to the pole (tuna,M ) bymeans of aeathernstrap.

184 LACERNA.

The word jug'umis oftenused to signi sla~

or the conditioninwhichmenare compe ed , against their wi l l, like oxenor horses,to labour for others. Hence, to ex press symbolically the subg

ugatiimofconquerednations,the Romansma e their ca tives pass under ayoke (subjugwnminers), w

'

ch, however,wasnotmade l ike the yoke used indrawing carriegas or ploughs, but consisted of a spearsupported transverse ly by two others placeduprt t.J RIS

'

DICT IO,signifies general ly thenu

thority of themagistrate qui jus dicitf’and

ismost ly applied to the authori ty of the rae

tor incrvil cases. such as the giving theformula inanactio and the appointment of ajudex. [Aorta ]JUS . The law eculiar to the Romanstate

is sometimes cal l In:CivileRomanomm,

‘

but

more frequently Jus Civils onl The JusQ uiritiumis equivalent to the us Civils Romonorum. The jus «rivile of the Romans is divisible into two parts, jus cim

'

ls inthenarrowersense, and jus ponnjicium, or the lawof reli~

gran. Thi s oppositionis sometimes expressedy the words Jus and Fas . The law of religion, or the Jar Pantificium, was under thecontrol of the pontifices,who infact originallyhad the control of the wholemess of the law;and itwas only after the separationof the juscivi lemitswider sense into the two parts of thewe c

o

ivile, inits narrower sense. and the juspontrticiumt that each part had its roper andpecu liar lumts. Still , evenafter t e separati on, there was a mutual relation betweenthese two branches of law;for instance, ansdrogatiowasnot valid by the )us civile unlessi twas valid by the jus ntificium. Again,jus pontiiicium, inits wi er sense, as the lawof religion, had its subdivisions, as into jusau rum

,

p’ontificium, etc.

US Cl l'LE . pus ]JUS LA‘

T II. [LIV IT A8 ;La mina ]JUS PONT IFl’ClUM. [Jus.]JU S Q U lRl

’

T IUM. [Jus.]JUS T I ’T IUM. [FUNUs, p .

K . S E : C.

A’BAK UM. [S temMa rmara.)ACE RNA(uavdéag, avdéq),a cloak worn

by the Romans over t e toga. lt differedfromthe ula inbeing anOpen rmentl ike the reel: pal lium, and fastene onthert ht shou lder bymeans ofa buck le (fibula),wi ereas the paenula was what is cal led a

LAMPADEPHORIA.head . The Lacerna appears to have beencommonly used inthe army. Inthe time ofCicero itwas not usual ly worninthe city ,but it soonafterwards became quite commonat Rome:The lacerna was sometimes thrownove rthe headi or the purpose of concealment ;bu ta cucullus or cowlwas general ly used for thatpurpose, which appears to have been freuentl attached to the lacerna, and to haveormeda rt of the dress .

LACI ’ IAE , the angular extremi ti es ofthe tOga, one of which was brought roundover the left shoulder. It was genera l ly tucked into the girdle, but sometimeswas allowedto hang downloose.LACO

'

NlCUM. [BALNE U lL p.LACU’NAR. [Donna p .LAENA l ab ia), a wool lencloak , thecloth of whio was twice the ordinary thickness , shaggy u both sides, and wornoverthe palliumor t e toga forthe sake ofwarmth .

Inlater times the issue seems , to a certainextent, to have beenwornas a substitute forthe togia.

LA PADE PHO’

RIA ( l amradr; tamh-bearnig, ,LAwmnsnaouu Aqua

-a dpo

pta), torchm , and oftensimply u ins (“l ap

mig),was a game commonthroughout Greece.

At Athens we know of five celebrations ofthis game :one to Prometheus at the Prometheia, a second -to Minerva at the Panathensan, a third to Vulcanat the Rephaseteia

,a fourth to Pan, and a fifth to the Thra

cian Diana or' Bendis. The three former

are ofunknownantiqgity ;the fourth was ih

troduced soonafter t e battle of Marathon;the last inthe time of Socrates.The race was usual ly runonfoot, horsesbeingfirst used inthe time of Socrates some.times also

‘

at night. . Thepreparation for it

was a principal branch of t e G yrmasmchm,

somuch so indeed inlater times, that Lampadarclu

'

a ( itamr z la), seems to have beenrettymuch equiv ent to the G ymmnhrchia .

e mnasiarch had to provide the lampas,whio was a candlestick with a kind of shi eldset at the bottomof the socket, so as to shelter the flame of the candle ;as is seenintbefollowing woodcut

,

taken froma coin.

He had also to provide for the traininof the runners ,whicwas ofno slight consequence, for the racewas evidentl a severe one, wit otherexpenses, which onthe whole were very

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186 LECTISTERNIUM. LEOTUS .

anion the Romans, it was chiefly used intra

‘

ys g, and very seldomia ome itself.

But towards the end of. the orepublic, and under the empire, itwas“ commonly used inthecity, and was fitted up

-inthe mos t splendidmanner. Instead ofcurtains, itwas frequentlyclosed onthe sides

”withwindows m

aids of

trans arent stone aria), an was

providedWith a pillowand Whenstanding, it rested onfou r fee t, genera ll

ymade of

wood. Persons were carried ina ectica byslaves (lecticari i), bymeans of poles (cu ms )attached to it, butnotfixed, so that theymightcasi l be taken off whennecessary. Themi rage“ r of lecticarii employed incarryin

gone

lectica'

varied according to its size, an thediamofwea l th which a personmight wishto e. T he ordinarynumberwas probablytwo ;but i t varied fromtwo to eight, and thelactica is cal led haraphoronor octophoron, according as it was carried by six or eightpersons. The fol lowing woodcut representsa lad ies . I t is takenfromthe tombstone ofM. Antonius Antius.

Sacrificesbeing ofthenature of feasts, the G reeks and Romans ,ou

'

occasion of extraordinary solemnities,placed ima s of the gods recl ining oncouchas

'

, with ta Ice and v iands before them, as ifthey were reall y partaking of the th ings offeted ingacrifice. This ceremonywas called

T hewoodcut here introduced

“J ‘J O M :r

ex hibits a couch employed onone of'

theseoccasions. I t . has a

' cushioncovered by a

cloth hanging inample folds downeach side.This beautiful pidviuar is wrought al togetherinwhitemarble, and is somewhat more thantwo feet inheight. “ JitLEOTUS or, s l im) , e a bed. T hecomplete of a w thy Greek inlater times general ly-consisted of‘ the following parts z—x l tvr) , éirlrovot, rvld ov ornewl oph

flmfiflwé’vem’ al

lid “ prin

ci-

a.

u ly te x l re, pro er spea ing,mebedstead ,:ti

ld seeingto

‘have consisted only of

ts fitted into one another and resting uponour feet . At the head part alone therewas aboard (dvé x lwrpov or érrtx lwmovl to support the pil low and prevent its fal l ing out.

Sometimes, however, the bottompart of a

bedstead was l ikewise protected by a ’board ,so that inthis case a Greek bedstead resembled what we cal l a French bedstead . l.The bedstead was pro ided wi th girths

(révot, éntrovot, x stpla) onwhich the bed ormattress (x védal ov , wh iov, sowé c, or 'nian)rested. The cover

’

or ticking of a mattresswas made of linenor woollencloth, or ofleather, and the usualmaterial with whi ch itwas fil led was either wool or dried weeds.

At the head part of the bed, and supported bythe éirix l tvrpov , lay a round pi llow (s pectre¢é l aiov) to support the head.The bed -covers (or para) were generallmade of cloth;whic was very thick anwoolly, either onone oronboth sides . oa r,

The beds of the Romans (kcti M ia-clan.)inthe earl ier periods of the republic were probably of the same descriptionas those used in'

Greece ;but towards the end of the re ublicand during the empire, the richness anmagnificence of the beds of the weal thy Romansfar surpassed eve thing we find described inGreece. The stead was nerally ratherhigh, so that persons entered t bed (wanders,ascmdera) bymeans of s teps placed beside it(seem ). I twas sometimesmade ofmetal ,and sometimes of costly kinds of wood , or veneeredwith tortoise shel l or ivory its feet

gal

chm) were frequently of silver orgold. hebed ormattress (calcite and tom) rested upongirths or strings (ra tes ,fasciac, tiiu titae, orMm ), which connected the two horizonta l sides .

posts of the bed . Inbeds destined for twomus, the two sides areO

distinguished by .

rent names ; the side at which persons

LEG ATUS .

Egres

sions it isnot improbable that such lecti

d two beds ormattresses, one for each person. Mattresses were inthe earlier timesfil led with dry herbs or straw, and such bedscontinued to be used by the poor. But insubsequent times wool , and, at a still laterriod , feathers, were used by the wealth

Kor thekbeds as well as the pillows. T he clo

th

or tic ing (open‘mcntumor bwolucrum) wi

which the beds or matt resses were. covered,was called (oral, corals, linieum, or segntrs.

T htg'sllankets or counterpanes (mmstmgulae,

air a, peru'

tromata, pcnpcrasmata‘

were inthe heuses of wealth Romans 0 the mostcostly description, generally ' of a urple

colour and embroidered with beautifu l ghresingold. Covers of this sort were called peritasmota Armies , because they were said toave beenfirst used at the court of Attalus.The pil lows were likewise covered withmagnificent casings.T he leotus genials

'

s or advermwas thebridalbed, which stood inthe atrium, Opposite the

ianua, whence it derived the epithet adverm .

t was nerslly high, with ste s by its side,and in ater times beautifu l ly orned.

Respecting the lectus funebris see Forms,p. 161 . Anaccount of

.the dispositionof thecouches used at entertamments is givenunderT arcmrlwu .

LE G A’

T IO LI’BERA. [Leanna p.LEGA'TUS

, fromIago, a person.commiso

sioned orde ted to do certainthings. Theymay be div

‘

ed into three classes —1. Legatior ambassadors sent to Rome by foreignnations ; 2. Legati or ambassadors sent fromRome to foreignnations and into the rovinces ;3. Legati who aecomanied the mangenera ls into the field, or t e proconsuls andpraetors into the provinces.1 . Foreignlegati at Rome, fromwhatevercountry the cams , had togo to the temple ofSaturn, an deposit thei r names wi th theuaestors . Previous to their admissionintot 9 city, foreignambassadors seemto havebeenobliged to

’givenotice fromwhat nation

they came and or what - purpose ;for severalinstances are mentioned , inwhich ambassadors were prohibited fromentering the city,especial ly incase ofawarbetweenRome andthe state fromwhich they came. In suchcases the ambassadors were either not heardat all , and obli to qui t Italy, or anaudiencewas givento t mby the senate (senate: legati: da tur) outside the ci ty, inthe temla ofBel lona. This was endently a sign0 mig .

t rust , but the ambassadors were neverthelesst reated as public guests, and some public villaoutside the city was sometimes ass igned fortheir reception. Inother cases, however, as

187

soones the report of the landing of foreiambassadors onthe coast of I talywas brouggi

'

:to Rome, especial ly if they were persons ofgreat distinction, or if they came fromanal lyof the Romanpeo lo, some one of the inferiormagistrates , or a tus of a consu l . was des

gatched by the senate to receive, and conductt emto the city at the expense of the republic. Whenthey were introduced into thesenate by the tsetor orconsu l , they first explained what ey had to communicate, andthenthe praetor invited the senators to ut

their ques tions to the ambassadors . bewhole transactionwas carried onby interpreters , and inthe Latin language. [ l uresPas s .} After the ambassadors had thusmenex amined , they were r nested to leave theassembly ofthe senate, w 0nowbeganto discuss the subject brought before them. T heresu l t wss communicated to the ambassadorsby the praetor. Insome cases ambassadorsnot only received rich presents on their de~parture, but were at the command of thesenate conducted by a magistrate and at thepublic ex nse, to the frontier of I tal y, andevenfart er. By the Lex G abinia itwas decreed , that fromthe 1st of February to the 1stof March , the senate shou ld everyi‘

day giveaudience to foreignambassadors. here wasa place onthe rightzhand side of the senatehouse, cal led G raecostasis, inwhich foreignambassadors waited.All ambassadors, whencesoever they came,were considered b the Romans throughoutthe whole period 0 their existence as sacredand inviolable.2. Legati to fpreignnations inthename ofthe Romanrepublic were always sent by thesenate ;and to be appointed to such amissionwas considered a great honour, which wasconferred only onmenof high rank or eminence : for a Roman ambassador had thepowers of a magi strate and the venerablecharacter of a risst . If a Romandu ring theperformance hismissionas ambassador diedorwas killed, hismemorywas honored by therepublic with a ublic sepu lchre and a statueinthe Rostra. he expenses during the journey of anambassador were, of course,

than! b

the republi c ;and whenhe travel led rouga province , the provincials had to supply himWi th everything he wanted.3. The third class of Iegati, to whomthename ofambassadors cannot be applied , werepersons who accompanied the Romangeneralsontheir ex itious, and inlater times thegovernors o provinces also. They arementioned at a very early

’

od as serving alongwith the tribunes, uner the consu ls. Theywerenominated (legabantur) by the consu l or

LEG ATUS .

the dictator under whomthey served, but thesanctionof the sena te was anessentia l point,without which no one cou ld be legal ly considered a legatus. T he persons appointed tothis office were usual lymenof greatmili tarytalents, and it was their duty to advise andassist their superior inall his undertakings,and to act inh is stead ,

both incivil andmi liatary afi

’

airs . The legati were thus alwaysmeninwhomthe consu l placed great ooh hdence, and were uently his friends or relations ;but they no power independentof the command of their eneral. Theirnumber varied according to t e greatness or hmportance of the war, or the ex tent of the province three is the smallest number that weknow of, but Pompey, wheninAsia, had lifteenlegati. Whenever the consu ls were absent fromthe army, or whena proconsu l lefthis province, the legati or one of themtack hisplace, and thenhad the insignia as wel l as thepower of his superior. He was inthis casecalled legatus pro praetors , and hence wesometimes read that a mangoverned a province as legatus without anymentionbeingmade of the proconsul whose vice rent hewas . During the latter riod of t e republic, it sometimes happen that a consul carried ona war, or a

_

roconsul emed hisprovince. through his agati, whi e he himselfremained at Rome, or conducted some othermore urgent affairs .Whenthe provinces were divided at the

tims of the empi re [Paovmou ], those of theRomanpeo la were governed by menwhohad beeneit er consu ls or praetors, and theforme r were always accom ied by threeIegati, the latter by one. he provinces ofthe emperor, who was himself the proconsul ,were verned by persons whomthe emperorbimse appointed, andwho had beenconsulsor praetors, orwere at least senators. Thesevicegerents of the emperor were cal led legati

ti pro praetors, legat i praeton’

r’

, ati conam, or simply Iegali, and th

ir

ty, ike the

governors of the provinces of the omanpeople, had one or three legati as their assistants.During the latter period of the republic it

had become customary for senators to obtainfrom the senate the permission to travelthrough or stay inan province at the en»

pense of the provincia mere ly for the purpose ofmanaging and conducting their ownpersonal affairs. k T hsre was no restraint asto the length of time the senators were al lowed to avai l themsel ves of this privilege, whi chwas a heavy burdenuponthe provincmls.

This mode of sojourning ina provincewascal led legatio libero, because thosewhoavailedthemselves of it enjoyed all the privi leges of

LE IT URG IA.

a public le tus orambassador, without having any of is duties to perform. At the timeof Cicero the pri vilege of legatio libera -wasabused to a very t extent. Cicero, therefore, inhis consu hip (a. o. 63) endeavouredto put anend to it, but, owing to the Oppositionof a tribune, he only succeeded inlimiting the time of its durationto one Year.Julius Caesar afterwards extended the timeduring wh ich a senator might avai lof the le tio libera to five ears.LE

'

G 0.

éE x s acrruaf

LEITO’R lA h i rovpy la, fromIon. Mir-ou, i . e. poem, or, according toothers, npvravelov), a liturgy)

, is thename ofcertainpersona l services w ich at Athens,every citizen,who possessed a certainamountof preperty, had to performtowards the state .These personal services, which inall caseswere connected with considerable expenses,were at first a natural consequence of thegreater politi cal privi leges enjoyed by theweal thy, who, inreturn, had also to performheavier duties towards the republic ;butwhenthe Atheniandemocracy was at its height,the original character of these liturgies became changed. for, as every citiz ennow eu

joyed the same rights and privi leges as thewealthiest, they were simply a tax uponproparty

.

connected with personal labour andexert ion.All liturgiesmay be divided into two classes,

1 . ordinary or encyclic litur es (é x ox lwth imvpylai ), and 2. ex trao inary

'

turgies .

The former were cal led encyclic because theyrecurred every year at certainfestive sea

sons, and comprised the Choregic, G ymnasiuchi

'

a , Lamgodard tfa ,Architheon

'

a.and Bas tions.

Every At enianwho possessed three tal entsand above, was subject to them, and theywere undertakeninturns by themembers ofevery tribe, who possessed the prope rty qualificatlonjust mentioned, unless some onevolunteered to undertake a liturgy for an»other person. But tha ' law didnot al low anyone to be commlled to undertakemore thanone litur at a time. and he who had inoneyear pe armed a liturgy, was free for thenext , so that legal ly a personhad to performa liturgy only eve other year. Those whoseturnitwas to u ertake any of the ordinaryl iturgies, were always appointed by their own

The'per

s

onswho were exempt fromall

kinds 0 liturgies were thenine archons,heir

esses, and orphans until after the commencement of the second year of their coming ofage. Sometimes the exemptionfroml iturgies (di

-

sl ate), was nted togame for

especialmeri ts tow the repub

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LE X AG RARIA .

fromthe chief contents of its first chapter, asLa: Julia dcMoritandis Ordiuibus. Sometimesa lex comprised very various

.

revi sions, relating to matters essential ly (1 rent, and inthat case it was ca l led LewScrum.

The number of le was greatly increasedinthe later part of t e republicanperiod , andJulius Caesar is said to have contemlated arevisionof the whole body. Under 1mandAu

gustus numerous enactments were passed,

wh ch are knownunder the generalname ofJuliaeLeges . I t is oftenstated thatno leges,properly so ca l led, or plebiscita, were passedafter the time ofAugustus ;but this i s amisctake. Though the voting might be a mereform, still the formwas ‘kept. Besides , various leges arementioned as having beenpassedunder the empire. such as the Lex Junisunde r Tiberius

,the Lex Visellia

,the Lex

Mamilia under Caligula, and a Lex Claudiaonthe tutela of women. It does not appearwhenthe ancient forms of legislationwerelaid as ide.A parti cu lar enactment is always referredto by its name. The following is a list of the

musipal leges; properly so cal led ; but theincludes also Various plebiscita and privil egiaACI’LIA. [Rsrs

'roirnu h]

ACI ’LIACALPU’RNIAorOALPU'RNIA.

[AMBIT U SJAE BU

‘

T IA, of uncertaindate, which withtwo

.

Juliae Leges put anend to the LegesActiones , exce

pt3

ince rtaincases .

.This or anot r lex of the samename, prohibited the proposer of a lex, wh ich createdany oflice or power (maria acpotestas), fromhavizgsuch office or power, and evenex

clud his colleges cognati, and afiines.

AE'

LIA. This lex and aFufia Lex passedabout the end of the sixth century of the city,gave to all themagistrates the obnunciatio, or

power ofpreventing or dissolving the comitia,y observmg the omens and declaring themtobe unfavourable:AE

’

LlA SEN'TIA, passed inthe time ofAugustus (about A. o. This lex containedvarious provisions as to the manumissionofslaves .

AEMI’LIA. A lex passed inthe dictatorship of Mamercus Aemilius (s . c . bywhich the censors were elected for a year anda half, ins tead of a whole lustrum. After thislex they had accordin

eonl y a year and a

halfal lowed themfor he ding the census andlettin out the ublic works to farm.

AE l’

LIA AE’

BIA. [Constanta Basnu .

A MI'LIA. [Lucas S UI T UARIAt JAG RA’

RIAE , thename of laws which had

LE X CAECILIA.

relationto the ager publicus. AssnPUBLIcus.] Themost important of t ese arementioned under the names of their roposers.APPOLE la;CABS“ ;Coausu a; LAht lA;LAV lA;JULIA;LICINII ;S suraoma ;S eav i t i a ;T noau JA’

MBITUS. Anni -rue.)ANNA’

LlS or I’LLIA , proposed by L.V illius

‘

T apulus ins . o. 179, fixed the age at

which a Romancitizenmight become a candidate for the hi

ghermagistracies. it appea rs

that unti l this aw was passed , any officemight be enjoyed by a citiz enafter completinghis twenty-seventh year. The Lex Annalisfixed 31 as the age for the uaestorshi

g, 37 for

for the aed ileship,40 for t e praetors ip, and

43 for the consu ship.A

’NTIA. [S um'

rmi au s Las sa ]ANT O

’

NlAE , the name of various enactments proposed or passed by the influence ofM. Antonius, after the death of the dictator

APPULE'

IA AGRA'RIA, proposed by thetribune L. Appuleius S aturninus , n. c. 101.

proposedabout the same time b

Ethe same tribune.

APPULE’

lA MAJ STA'TIS. [Mu s su s.

A E'RNIA TARPE’IA,a . c . 441 . This

lex empowered allma '

strates to fine personswho resisted their eu ority ;but it fixed thehighest fine at two sheep and th irty cows, ortwo cows and thirty sheep, forthe authori tiesvary inthis.A‘TIA DE SACE RDO’

T IIS s ic. 63), proposed b the tribune T. Atins sbienna

, re.

pealed t e Lex Cornelia de S acerdotiis.

ATI’NIA, ofuncertain‘

date,was a plebiscitumwhich gave the rank of senator to a tribune. Thismeasure probably originated w ithC.Atinius, who was tribune s . c. 130.

AUFI’

DIA. [Aunt-rue ]AURE '

LIA enacted that the judices should be chosenfromthe senators, equites,and t ribuni aerarii. Juns x , p.t BAE

'

BIA (s . c . l or enacted tha tfou r praetors and six praetors should be chosenalternately ; but the law was not oh~

serveCAE CI

'

LIA DE C E NS O’

RIBU S or

CE NS O’RlA preposed by Metel lus

S ci io, repealed a Clod ia Lex (a. c. 58),t hha prescribed certainregu lar forms of

tfiro

seed ing for the censors inexercising eirfunctions as inspectors ofmo res, and had te

uired the concu rrence of both censors to ihiet the nets censoria. Whena senator hadbeen al ready convicted before an ordinarycourt the lex permitted the 'censors to removehimfromthe senate ina summary way.

LE X CINCIA.

CAECI’LIA DE VE CT IG A’

LIBUS (s . c.

released lands and harbours inItaly fromthe payment of taxes and dues portori

'

a).The onl y vectiga l remaining after the passingof this lex was the Vicesima .

CAECI'LIA l) l'

DlA (s . c . 98) forbade thepron ofa Lex S aturn, onthe and thatthe peoplemight be compel led eir r to votefor something which the

zdid not approve, or

to reject somethingwhic theydid approve, itit was proposed to theminthi smanner. Thislex was not alwa s Operative.CAE

’

LIA.

Sas s t u au nLeona ]

C i

tPU

'

RN A DE A'

MBIT U t [Aimi

CALPU’RNIA DE RE PE T UNDIS . [RtParanoi a

};CANUL ’IA (a. o. 445) es tablished connubiumbetweenthe patres and plebs, whichhad beentakenaway by the lawofthe TwelveT agif

s

s

'

su i posed by h(s . o. 04 pro t e tribune L. Cassius Longinus , did not al low a

personto remaina senatorwho had beenconv icted ina Judiciumpopu li , orwhose imperiumhad beenabrogated by the ulus .CA’SSIA empowered the ictator Caesar

to add to the number of the patricii, to preventtheir extinction.

CASS '

IA AGRA’RIA, progpsed by the

consu l Sp. Cassius,'

s . o. 486. his is said tohave beenthe first agrarianlaw. It enactedthat of the land takenfromthe Hemionus,half should be givento theLatins, and half tothe lebs, and l ikewise that part of the publiclan possessed b the patricians should be diS ftributed among t e plebeians. This lawmetwi th themost violent Opposition, and appearsnot to have beencarri ed . Cassius was ac

cosed of aiming at the sovereignty, and wasput to death . Aos a Pusu cus.

CA’SSIA ABE LLA’

RIA. LI G E S T As lim line ]CA

'SS IA TERE’NTIA. FRUME NT A'

RIA (s . c. 73) for the distributionof cornamong the poor citiz ens and the purchasingof it.CI’NCIA DE DONIS ETMUNE ’

RIBU S ,a plebisc itumpassed inthe time of the tribuneM . C inclus Al imentos (s . c. 204 I t forbadea personto take anything for is pains inpleading a cause. Inthe time ofAugustus,the Lex Cinciawas confirmed by a senatusconsultum, and a

,penal ty of four times the

sumreceived was imposed onthe a dvocate.The lawwas so farmodified inthe time ofClaudius, that anadvocate was al lowed toreceive tensestertia ; if he took any sumbeyond that, hewas liable to be prosecuted forrepetundae. I t appears that this permission

LEX CORNELIA . 191

was so far restricted inT ra'

an‘s - time, that

she fee could not he paid the work wasone.

CLO’

DIAE , thename of various plebiscita,pro used by Clodius, whentribune, 59.

coma n: Ausri cu s prevented themagictratas fromdissolving the comitia tributa , bydeclaring that the auspices were unfavourableThis lex therefore repealed the Aelia and Patia . It also enacted that a lex might he passesonthe dies fasti. [AE LIA L2 18CLODIA

_

DB Cas soarsus. normsJCaonu ns Ctvraus Rou ters lms s aur

u s, to the efi'

ect that qui civemRomanumindemnatuminteremisset, ai aqua at igni iaterdiceretur.” It was inconsequence of thislex that the interdictwas pronounced againstCicero, who considers the whole proceedingas a privile

'

um.

Cwnu s ouax u au , brawhich the com,

which had formerly beenso to the poor ci tizens at a low rate was given.

Ompu DB S onaar'rnraus or anCoau t

orrs restored the S odalitia, which had beenabolished

bya senatusoconsultumof the year

a. c. 80, an permitted the formationofnewS odalitia.

There were other soo called Legewhich were however rivilegia.

CORNE’

LIAB. arious leges passed inthe dictatorship of S ulla, and by his influence,are so ca lled.Asmara, bywhichmany of the inhabitants

of Etru ria and Latiumwere deprived of thecomplete civitas, and retained onl the commareiam, and a large part of t eir landsweremade public, and givento mi litary co

Ds FALS I S , a t those who forged testaments or other eeds

,and agains t those who

adul terated or counterfeited the publicwhence C icero calls it (summaries andmanmaria .

h umans . [Juns x .p.

Mu s sn '

rrs. [Manama ]DE Paoscnrr'rronx s

'r Paoscarr'

rrs.

[Paoscnrrrm]Ds Ps anrcrmo. [PannroxnmDz 81 02 8 0011 18 . [S aosnnoaDa S i cu ma ar Vs s srrcrs , contvisions as to dea th or fire caused byha

, and against persons going about armedwith the intentionof killing or thieving. Thelawnot only vided for cases of oisoning,but contain provisions against t ose whomade , sold , bought, possessed , or gave poisonfor the purpose of poisoning ;also against amagistratus or senator who conspired rnorderthat a personmight be condemned ina judi

192 LE X FRUMENTARIAc w nappears to have beena lex whichlowered the rate of interest, and to havassed about the same time with the Legesumptuariae of Sulla.

There were also - Leges Comel ias , whichwere proposed b the tribune C . Cornehusabout 67, an,

limited the edicts! powerby

.

compelling the praetors Jus dice-ea edictis

mAnot er lex of the same tribune enactedthat no one legions solverstur, unless such a

measure was agreed onina meeting of thesauste s t w

dhlat

ith two

rgundred memberswerepresent, an erwa 3 approved y t e eo

hi?and it enacted thatno tribune shouk ut

veto onsuch a senatus-consu ltam.

There was also - a Lex Cornelia concerningthe wills of those Romancitizens who died incaptivit gy

m!COR '

LIA BAB’BIA DE AMBIT U ,

preposed b the consu ls P. Cornelius Cathegus and Baebius T amphilus, 8 . c. 181.

This law is sometimes, but ~erroneously, attributed to the cgnsuls of the preceding year,L. Aemilius and Ca. Baebius. [Antenna ]Dl

’

DlA. Las t s S unrosnu rs

fi]DOM I’TI DE SACE RDO 118 . [S Acanoes ]DUI’LIA (a.c. a plebiscitumpro

by the tribune Duilius, which enact thatwhoever:left the people without tribunes , orcreated a magistrate fromw

hi;omth

rggs

awasno appeal provocatw

‘ should seen anbeheaded .

(

DUI ’LIA MAE ’NIA, proposed by the tribunes Duilius andMaenius (a. c . restoredthe old uncial rate of interest (und ariwn c

m ), which had beenfixed by the Twelve a

bles. [Farma ] The same tribunes carried ameasure whichwas intended , infuture, to prevent such unconstitutional roceedings

‘

as theenactment ofa lex b the so diersout ofRome,onthe roposal of t e consu l.FA’

lA DE PLA’GIO. [Pass i on]FALCI'DIA. [Lax Vocorvra .]FA'NNIA . [Leona S UXT UARIAEJFLAMI’NIA was anAgraria Lex for thedistributionof lands inPicenum, proposed bythe tribune C . Flaminius, inn. c . 228 accordingto C i ero, or ina. c . 232 according to Polybius.T he atter date is themore probable.FLA’VIA AGRA’RIA, a. c . 60, for the dis

tributionof lands amon Pompey’s soldiers,proposed by the tribune Flavius

,who com

witted the consu l CaeciliasMetellus to prisonfor(Kp’

osin it.F M T A

’

RIAE , various leges were socal led which had for their ob

'

ect the diatribatiqnofgrainamong theW e

,eitherat a low

pnce or gratuitously. [APPOLt u ; Cmu

LE I JULIA.

T BRBNT IL;CLOD IA;Li'

va ;OCT AV IA ;S unoun.

FU’F A DE RELIGIO 'NE , 61

,was

a privilegiumwhich related to the tria l of lClodius.

FU 'RIA or FU ’

S IA . CANI’

NIA limitedthe number of slaves to be manumitted by

FU’

RJA or FU’SIA T E S T AME NT A'o

RIA, enacted that a testator shou ld not givemore thanthreeofourths of his property inlagacies , thus securingone

-fourth to the heres.G ABI

'

NIA TABELLA’RIA. [Lace s T aasLLu u nJ 1

There were various G sbiniae Leges someofwhich were privilegia, as that for conferringextraordinary power onOn. Pompeias forcon.ducting the war against the pirates.A G abinia Lex , a . e. 56, forbade all l oans ofmoney at Rome to la tionas from foreignparts. The object of t e lex was to preventmon being borrowed for the purpose of brihing t e senators at Rome.(J E

'

LLIA CORNE’

LIA , no. 72, whichgave to Cu. Pompeius the extraord inarypower of conferring the Romancivitas onSpaniards inSpain, with the advice of hisconsilium.

G E NU'

CIA, a. 0. 341 , forbade altogetherthe takin of interest for the use ofmoney.HIER ’NICA was not a lex properly socal led. Before the Romanconquest of Sici lythe payment of the tenths of wine

,oil

, andother produce had beenfi xed by H iero ;andthe Roman uaestors , inletting these tenthsto farm,

fo owed the practice wh ich theyfound established .

HORA’T IAE ET VALE '

RIAE . [Li s t s 1

Vanna“ :

HORT El’

NS IA DE PLE BIS CI‘T IS . [Lle ss PUBLILIAR ;Panama -

run.)Another Lex 'Hortensia enacted that thenundinae. which had hitherto beenferiae,should be dies fasti. This was done for thepurpose of accommodating the inhabitants ofthe country.ICl

'

LIA,n. c . 456, b which the Aventinuswas assigned to the ple Thiswas thefirstillifl al

igte

i

of the ager publicus being assigned tot e p s.Another Lex Icilia, proposed by the tribuneSp. Icilius, a. c . 470, had for its object to prevent all interruptionto the tribunes while act~ing inthe discharge of their duties. Insomecases the

EenaIt was death.

JU’

LIA oat of the Juliae Lagos werepassed inthe time of C . Julius CaesarAugustus.D: Aucuu arrs. [Anus

-res in .)Autumn.a. e. 59, inthe consulshi p ofCae

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

194 LE X LIVIA.

JU’NIA RE PE T UNDA'

RUM. [RitrpT UNDAE .

LAE O’RIA, the false name of the Le:Plaetoria. [Cou rom]Sometimes the lex proposed by Volero forelecting plebeianmagi strates at the comitiatributa is cited as a Lex Laetoria.

LICI’NIA DE SODALI’

T IIS . [Ari st1 0s.

L G I ’NIA JU ’NIA, or, as it is sometimescal led,Junia et Licinia, passed inthe consu lship ofL. Licinius Morena and Junius Silao

nus , a. c. 62, pnforced the .

Caeci liaDidia, inconnectionwi th which it is somet men

LICI 'NIA MU ’

CIA DE CIVIBU S RE.

G UNDIS passed inthe consulship of L. Lieinlas Crassus and Q. Mucius Scaevola, a. c .95 enacted a strict examination as to thetitle to citizenship, and deprived of the ex ercise of civic rights all those who could notmake out a good title to them. This measure partl led to the Marsic war.LICI IA S UMT UA’

RIA. [Lucas S im.

T UABIAE .

LICI’ AE , proposed by C. Licinius, whowas tribune of the

people from s . c . 376

_

to367, and who broug t the contest betweenpatricians and plebeians to a happy termination. He was su

gported inhis exertions b

his colleague L. extine. The laws whiche prepomwere - 1. That in future nomore consu lar tribunes should be appointed ,but that consuls should be elected as in

'

for

mer times, one ofwhomshould always be a

plebeian. 2. That no one should possessmore than500 jugera of the public land ,norkeep uponitmore than100 head of large , or500 of sma l l cattle. 3. A law re a l sting thesfl

'

airs betweendebtor and c itor, whichordained that the interest al ready aid forborrowedmoney shou ld be deducted row thecapital, and that the remainder of the lattershould be back inthree early insta lments. 4. t the Sibylline he shouldbe entrusted to a col le e of tenmen(decemn

‘

u) , half ofwhomshou d be plebeians, in'

os

der thatno falsifications might be introducedinfavour of the patricians. These rogationswere passed after amost vehement opg

ositiononthe part of the patricians , and L. ex tiuswas the first plebeianwho, in accordancewith the first of them, obtained the consulshi for the year 8 . o. 366.

’

VIAE ,various

.

enactments proposed bythe tribune M. Linus Drusus, a. c. 91 , forestablishing colomes inItal y and S icil yting cornamong the r citizens at a

low rate, and admitting a feederatae

tates to the Romancivi tas. He is also

LE X PAPIA.

MA’RCIA, probably abou t the year a. o.

IiiA'RCIA.anagra rianlawproposed by tintribune L. Marcius Philippus, ,

a. 0. 104.

MA'RIA prepwed byMariuswhentribunea. 0. 1 19, or narrowmg the pontes at elec

ME’

MMIA orRE’

MMIA.

ECawx nu .)

MINU'

CIA, s. c. 216, or the triumvirimensarii. ’

OCTA’VIA, one of thenumerous lega frumentariae which repealed a S emroma Frumentaria. I t is mentioned by ro as a

more reasonable measure thanthe S empronia, which was too profuse.OG U ’LN1A, proposed by the

300, increased the number of pontifiees toeight, and that .

oi the augurs tonine ;it alsoenacted that four of the pontifices and five ofthe au rs should be takenfromthe plehes.O

'

P IA. [Leona S unwaa tam]O

’RCHIA. [Laces S um-ma in.)

OVI'N1A, of uncertaindate, was a pleb iscitumwhich gave the censors certainpowersinregu lating the lists of the senators (ordosenatorius) : the main

‘

object seems to haveMen to exclude all impro rthe senate, and to prevent eirin0ther res cts ualified .

PA'PIA E P RE G RI'

NIS . [Lax Joinsm:Panorama ]

LE X POMPEIA.

PA’PIA POPPAEA. [Lex Junu er PAPu POPPAE AJPAPI

'

RIA. or JULIA PAPI'RIA DE

‘

M ULCT A'

RUM AE S T IMAT IONE (a. c.

fixed amans value according to whichfines were paid, w

'

eh formerly were paid insheep and cattle. Some writers make thisvaluationpart of the Aternianlaw [Ars art uT a x rau ], but inthis they appear to havebeenmistaken.

PAPl'

RlA,by which the as wasmade se

muncialis, one of the various enactmentswhich tam red with the coinage.PAPI

’

R A, s . c . 332, proposed by the praetor Papirius, gave the Acerrani the civitasw ithout the sufl

'

ragium. I t was properly amvilegium, but is useful as il lustrating thetory of the extensionof the civi tas Ro

mana.

PAPI’

RIA, of uncertaindate, enacted thatno aedes should be declared consecratas without a lebiscitum.

PA l'

RlA PLAU‘

T IA, a plebiscitumof

the year a . c . 89, proposed by the tribunes C.

Papirius Carbo and M. Plautius Silvanus, inthe consulship of On. Pompeius Strabo andL. Porcius Cato, is ca l led by Cicero a lex

‘

ofS il vanus and Carbo. [See C tvru s ;Foe

ns ru u a C IV IT AT E S .

£PAPl'

RlA POET ’

LIA. [Lex Poureu a

lP PI 'RIA TABELLA’RIA.. [Laces T aBBLLAR IAE JPE DUCAE A; s . o. 1 13, a plebiscitumseems to have beenmerely a privi legium, annot a eneral lawagainst incestum.

,PE RE 'IA, dc decimationmilitant, incase

ofmutiny.PETRO'NIA , probably passed inthe time

of Augustus, and subsequently amended byvarious senatus-consul ta, forbade amaster todeliver u his slave to fight with wild beasts.PINA RlA, related to the giving ofa judexw ithina limited time.

[Cosmos ]PLAU'TIA or PLO’

T IA DE VI. [V i alPLAU'

T IA or PLOT lAf JUDlClA'

Rlenacted that fifleenpersons should be annuall takenfromeach tribe to be placed intheAl umJudicum.

POE T E'

LIA, s . c . 358, a plebiscitum,wasthe first lex a inst ambitus.

POE T E'

L A PAPl'RlA, a.

‘o. 326, made

it?important change inthe liabil ities of the

ex t.

POMPE IAE . There were various legesso cal led.

De Ctvr'u 're , pro by On. Pompeius

Strabo the father o On. Pompeias Magnus,probably inhis consulship, a. c. 89, gave the

LEX PUBLILIA. 195

jigsLatu or Latinitas to all the towns of therans adani, and probably the civi tas to theCiap ani.De Artu ro. As sn-

ca ]Junrcu au . Juns x , p.

De Jus e Maorsranuuu , forbade a personto be a candidate for public oflices

'

ito Itonor-um) who was not at Rome ;but Caesarwas excepted. This was doubtless the oldlaw, but it had apparently become obsolete.De Paaarcmu s. [PARRICKDIUBL ]T arsusrru (n. c. restored the old tri

bunitia potestas , wh ich Sul la had nearly destroyed. [T arsumjDe Vr,was a riv

'

egium, and only referredto the case of do.

PO’

RCIAE DE CA'PITE CIVIUM, orDE PROVOCAT IO

'

NE , enacted that noRomancitizenshould be scourged or put todeath.

PO'RCIA DE PROVI'NCIIS , about198, the enactments of which are doubtful .PUBLI

’

LIA. Inthe consulship of L. Ptnarius and P. Furius, 472, the tribunePublilius Volero roposed , inthe assembly ofthe tribes , that t e tribunes should infuturebe appointed inthmmitia of th

'ei‘t

'

ribes (at

plebeit magu'

tratus r is comilt'is cut), iastead of by the centuries

, as had formerlyxbeenthe case ;since the cl ients of the patricianswere so numerous inthe centuries, that the

plebeians cou ldnot elect whomthey wished.his measure was violently Opposed by thepatricians,who prevented the tribes fromcomingto any resolutionres ting it throughoutth e ear;but inthe fol owing year, a. c . 471 ,Pub ilius was re-elected tribune , and togetherwith himC . Laetorius, amanof stil l greaterresolutionthanPublilius. Fresh measureswere added to the former

proposition: the

aediles were to be chosen y the tribes, aswel l as the tribunes , and the tribes were to becompetent to deliberate and determine onallmatte rs afl'

ectin the whole nation, and notsuch only asmig t concernthe plebes. Thispmposition, though stil lmore violently resisted by the patricians thanthe one of the previous year, was carried . Some said that thenumber of the tribunes wasnow for the firsttime raised to five, having beenonly two preoviouslg

.

PU LI'

LlAE , proposed by the dictator Q.

Publilius Phi lo.a. c . 339. According to Livy,there were three Publiliae Leges. l . Thefirst is said to have enacted , that plebiscitashould bind all Quirites, which is to the samepurport as the Lex Hortensia of a. o. 286. I tis probable, however, that the object of thislawwas to render the approval of the senatea sufficient confirmationofaplebiscitum.and

LEX REGIA.

tomake the confirmationof the curiae “

unnecessary . 2. The second lawenacted, ut iegwnques comitia} centuriatis fsrrcrsntur ante mittensaj r

'

umpatres austere:fiercnt. By atres

Livy eremeans the curiae ;and accor inglythis lawmade the confirmationof the causeamere formal ity inreference to all laws submitred to the comitiacenturiata. since everylaw proposed b

.the senate to the centuries

was to be consi cred to have the sanctionofthe curiae also . 3.T he third lawenacted thatOne of the two censors shou ldnecessanly bea plebeian. It is probable that therewas al soa fourth

glaw, which applied the Licinianlaw

to the praetorship as ’well as to the censorship, and which provided that ineach alternate

lyear

‘

the praetor should be a plebeian.

P 'PIA, mentioned . by Cicero, seems tohave enacted that the senate cou ldnot meetoncomi tiales dies.Q U I

’

NT IA, was a lex proposed by T.

Quintius Crispinus , consul a. c. 9, for the preservationof the aquaeductus.RE'GIA. A Lex Reg ia during the kinglyperiod ofRomanhistorymight have a twofoldmeaning. Inthe first place, it was a lawwhich had been

passed by the comitia under

the presidency o the kin and was thus distinguished froma Let ribunicia , which Waspassed by the comitia under the presidencof the tnbunus celerum. Inlater times a llaws, the originof which was attributed tothe time of the kings, were cal led Leges Re

g ins, though it bynomeans follows that theywere all passed under the

presidency of the

kms, andmuch less, that t ey were enactedby t e kings wi thout the sanctionof the cunes. Some of these laws were reserved andfollowed at a very late period 0 Romanh is.

tory. A collectionof themwasmade, thoughat what time is uncertain, by Papisius or Papirius , and this compilationwas called theJus CivilePa

'

rianumor Pa is ianum.

The secon meaning of .r Regia duringthe

period was undoubtedly the same

as that 0 t a Les:Curiata do Imperio. Inesi utm. This indeed is notmentioned y anyancient writer, butmust be inferred fromtheLea:Regia which wemeet with under the empire. for the,name could scarcely have beenmvented then;itmust have come downfromearly times, whenits meaning was similar,though not nearly so extensive. During theempire the curies continued to hold theirmeetings, though they were only a shadow offormer times ;and after the electionof anewemperor, they conferred uponhimthe imperiuminthe ancient formby a Lea:Curiata dc

,which was now usual ly cal led LeeThe imperium, however, which this

LE X SACRATA.

Ragx’

a Le: conferred uponanemperor, was ofa very different nature from that which informer times it had conferred uponthe k ings.Itnow embraced all the hts and powerswhich the populus Romanus ad formerly possessed. so that the emperor became what formerly the populus had been, that is , the soverei

lgnpower inth

fstate. A fragment of such

a ex regta'

, conerring the imperiumuponVespasian, engraved upona brazentable, isstil l extant inthe Lateran-at Rome.RE

’MNIA.

Igou rmet“ .

RE PE T UN A’RUM. su rname ]RHO‘DIA. The Rhodians had “

amari timecode whichwas highly esteemed. Some ofits

grovismns were adopted by the Romans, andave thus beenincorporated inthemaritimelawofEuropeanstates. Itwasnot, however,a lex inthe p r sense of the term.

RO'

S CIA T E AT RA‘LIS , pro b

the tribune L. Roscius 0tho, 7,whic

gave the equites a special place at the publicspectacles infourteenrows or seats (ingunmordecim adibm rive ardent “) next to theplace 0 the senators, which was inthe or

chestra. This lex also assi ned a certainplace to spendthrifts . The p rase scdere inquatuordeoimordinibmis equivalent to havingthe proper census uestris which was re

quired by the lex . T re arenumerous allusions to this lex, which is sometimes simlycal led the Lex of Otho, or referred t o b hisname. It is supposed by some writers to ave

been enacted inthe consulship of Cicero,a. C . 63 .

RU’

E RIA. The province of G al lia Cisalpina ceased to be a ravineis, and became apart of ltalia, about e year a. c . 43. Whenthis change took place, it was necessary toprovide for the administrationof justice, asthe usual modes of rovincial administrationwould cease with t e determinationof theprovincial form of overnment This waseffected by a lex, a arge part ofwhich, onabronze tablet, is preserved inthe Museumat

Parma. Thename of this lex isnot known,

lhu

tit is supposed by some to be the Le: Ru

ri a.

RUPI'

LIAE LE G E S (s . c . were theregu lations established by P. RUpilius, andtenIegati, for the administrationof the province of S icil after the close of the first servile war. T e weremade inpursuance ofaconsultumof t e senate. Cicero 8 its ofthese regulations as a decretumof upilius,which he says they call Lex Rupilia ;but itwas not a lex proper. The powers

'

ventothe commissioners by the Lex Ju lia unicipalis were of a similar kind.

SACRA’

T AE . Leges were properly so

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198 LE X S UMT UARIA.

should not contract debt to the amount of thatnot onl y those who gave entertainmentsmore than2000denarii. The last enactment which exceeded inex nee what the lawhadmay have beenintended to expel persons from prescribed, but also a who were resent atthe senatewho should get indebt. All these such entertainments, shou ld be lia Is to theleges were re sled b Sulla. pena l ties of the law. We are not, however,S ULPI

‘

CI S E M RO'

NIA,3 . c . 304. No told inwhat these consisted .

name is givento this lex by Livy,but it was Li ci ai i s . agreed inits chief provisionswith

probably pmposed by the consu ls. lt prevent the Lex Fannia, and was brou t forward ,ed the dedicatio of a templumor al tar with we are told , that theremight be t e authori tyout the consent of the senate oramajority of of a newlawh ponthe subject , inasmuch as

the tribunes .

S UMT UA'

RIAE , thename of various lawspassed to prevent inordinate expense (sumtus )mbanquets , dress , &c. Inthe states of antiquity i twas considered the duty of government to put a,

check uponex trava ance inthe rivets , expenses of persons. an amongthe omans inparticular we find traces ofthis inthe laws attributed to the kings, andinthe Twelve Tables . The censors, towhomwas entrusted the discipline or cure morum,punished by thenote censoria all persons guiltyof what was thenregarded as a luxuriousmode of living;a at many instances ofthis kind are reco ed. But as the love ofluxury greatly increased with the foreignconques ts of the republic and the growingwea lthof the nation, various leges sumtuariae werepassed at different times with the object ofrestraining it. These, however, as may besupposed , rarely accomplished their object ,and inthe latter times of the re

public they

were virtual ly repealed. The fo lowing listof themis arranged inchronological orderOrru , proposed by the tribune C. Oppius

ins . c. 215, enacted that no womanshouldhave above half anounce of gold , nor weara dress of different colours, nor ride ina car

riage inthe city or inany town, orwi thina

mile of it, unless onaccount of publi c sacrifices. This lawwas repealed twent

hyng

ears

afterwards,whence we frequentl the

Lex Orchismentioned as the first ex sumtu

Os cars , proposed by the tribune 0. Orchins ina. c. 181 , limited the number ofguests to be present at entertainments.Fa tima , preposed b the consu l C . Fannius, s . c. 61 , limited t e sums which wereto be spent onentertainments, and enactedthatnotmore than100 asses shou ld be spentoncertainfestivalsnamed inthe lex, whenceit is cal led centuu i: by Lucilius ;that ontenother days ineach month notmore than30asses, and that onall other days not morethan10 asses , should be e x pended ;also ,thatno other fowl but one henshould be servedup. and that not fattened for the

(pu

rpose.

D IDIA, passed a. c . 143, extened the LexFannie to the whole of Ital y, and enacted

the Lex Fannia was beginning to be neglected.

.

It al lowed 200 asses to be spent onentertainments uponmarriage days, and onotherdays the same as the Lex Fannie ;a lso, thatonordinary days there shou ld not be se rvedupmore thanthree pounds of fresh , and onepound of salt meat. ItWas probably passedina. c. 103.Commune lawof the dictator Sul la, s . c.

81 , was enacted onaccount of the neglect ofthe Fannianand Licinianlaws. Like these ,i t regu lated the ex

ams“ of entertainments.

Extravagance in nerals, which had beenforbiddene veninthe Twelve Tables, wasalso restrained by a lawof Sul la.

Asmara, pro by the consu l AemiliusDepidus, B. c. 7 did not limit the expensesof entertainments, but the kind and quantityof food that was to be used.Arena

“

, of uncertaindate, proposed by An.

tius Resto, besides l imiting the expenses ofentertainments, enacted thatno actualmagistrate, ormagistrate elect, should dine abroadanywhere except at the houses of certainpersons. This lawhoweverwas l ittle observedandWe are told that Antius never dined out

“

afterwards, that hemightnot see his ownlawviolated.

Junta , proposed by the dictator 0 . Ju liusCaesar, enforced the former sumptuary lawsrespecting entertainments, which had fal leninto disuse. He stationed officers inthe provisionmarket to seize uponall eatables forhiddenby the law, and sometimes sent lictorsand sold iers to banquets to take every thingwhich was not al lowed by the law.

Junta, a lex ofAu stus, al lowed 200 seeterces to be expend uponfestivals ondiesprofesti, 300 onthose of the calends, ides ,nones, and some other festive days, and 1000u onmarriage feasts. There was al so anict of Augustus or Tibe rius, by which as

much as from300 to 2000 ses terces were alto be expended uponentertainments,

the increase betngmade with the hope of secu ring thereby the observance of the law.

Tiberius attemted to check extravagancequote;a a senatus -consultumwas

passed inhis rei for the purpose of restraining lux ury, w h forbade gold vases to bs

LE X T RIBUNIT IA.

employed except for sacred purposes , andal so proh

ibited the use of sil k garments to

men. This sumptuary law, however,was butlittle observed . Some regulations onthe subJectwere alsomade by Nero and the succeeding emperors, but they sppen

ar to have beenof litt le orno avail inchec g the increasinglove of lux ur indress and food.T ABE LL

’RIAB, the laws by which theba llotwas introduced invoting inthe comitia.As to the ancient mode of voting at

‘

Ronie,see S un-news .

G ABINIA, proposed b the tribune G abinius,n. c . 139, introduced t e bal lot inthe electionofmagistrates ;whence Cicero calls thelabellrm

'

sda rm‘mlibertaris .

Cassu , pr0posed by the tribune L. CassiusLonginus, s . c. 137, introduced the ballot in

ed h:iha

e

gy the wh’

;e bod}‘

ba

fs

tfa

liet

iizeopig,t e

o.ex ceptionof cases 0gerduel

Pu ma, preposed y the tribune C. Papirius G arbo, s . c. 131 , introduced the ballot inthe enactment and repeal of laws.

Cums , proposed by C . Ose lina Caldus,ll. 0. 107, introduced the

' ba llot incases ofrduellio, which had beenexcepted intheinnlaw;

The re was also a lawbrought forward byMarius, s . c. 119 which was intended to se

cure fmedomandorder invoting.TARPE'IA AT E ‘

RNIA. [Au s tinT an

0. 121 , concerned thefaras the rivers Ru

graved oa t hs back part of the same bronzetablet which contained the Servi lia Lex Judiciari and onRepetundae.T RIElBO’

NlA, a plebisci tumproposed byL.Trebonius, s . c . 448 , which enacted that

if the tentribunes were not chosenbefore thecomitiawere dissolved , those who were elected should not fill up the number (co-opts"

but that the comitia should be continued 1

the tenwe re elected .0

T RIBUNI‘

T IA. LAlawpassed intheti ines

LE X VAT lNlA. 199

of the kings under the presidency of the trihunus celerum, and was so called to distinguish it fromone passed under the presidencyof the king. Lax Rum

}2. Any law ro

by a tri une of the p abs. 3. The wproposed by Pompey ina. c. 70, restorin

gto

the tribunes of the plebs the power of w ichthe had beendeprived h Sul la.

U’

LLIA DE A'MB U. Aus i 'rus .

TU'

LLIA DE LE G AT IO E LI 'BE A.

[Ls oa'

rus,

VALE’R AE , proposed by the consu l P.

Valerius Publicola, s . enacted: 1. Thatwhoever attempted to obtain nofroyal power should be ~dev to the gods ,together with his substance. 2. That whoever was condemned b the sentence of amagistrate to be put to th, to be soonor to be lined , shou ld possess the ri ht 0 sppeal (provocat io) to the people. T e patricians possessed previously the right of ap alfromthe sentence of a magistrate to t elrowncouncil , the curiae , and therefore thislawbgf Valeriut

ti

i

probably reIIi

I

i tedfnlj;to thee ians tow omit gave t e rig t o a

so the lebeiantribes, and not to themries.

fmnie

lnce the laws [i

mpacted

h thegale

rian res ing t e ri t o a are

alwavsgs

ykenpedz

t?as one of the 0 1g?safe

guards the liberty of the plebs. The rightofappeal didnot extend beyond amile fromthe ci tygwhere unlimited imperiumbe towhich the patricians were just asmu sub

ject as the lebeians.

VALE'

AE ET HORA’PIAE , three laws

pimposed by the consu ls L. Valerius and M .

oratius, a. c. 449, inthe year after the decemvirate, enacted : 1 . That a plebiscitumshould be binding onthe whole people, respecting the meaning ‘

of which expressionsee Pas s i scnun. 2. That whoever shouldprocure the electionof a magistrate withoutappeal should he out- lawed

,and m’

ht hekil ed by any one with impuni ty. 3. enewed the penal ty threatened against any one whoshou ld harmthe tribunes and the aediles, towhomwere now added the

’

udices and decemviri. There is considers le doubt as towho aremeant by the judices and decanviri .VALE’RIA, pmposed

‘

by the consul M. Valerina, s . c. 300, re-enacted for the third timethe celebrated law of his famliy respectinga peal provocatio) fromthe deci sionof amaP

The law specified no fixed penaltyii:its violation, leaving the ’

ud'

to determine what the unishment s ond be.VA'RIA. au s

‘

ras.

VATI’NIA DE PRO I'

NCllS , was theenactment by which Julius Caesar obtainedthe province of G allia Cisalpina with Illyri

200 LlBE R.

cumforfive years, to which the senate addedGallia Transalpina. This plebiscitumwasproposed by the tribune Vatinius. A Trabonis Lex subsequently prolonged Caesar

’s imperiuni forfive years.VAT l

'

NlA. RsrsrurvmsJVAT l

'

NlA D COLONIS , under whichthe Latina Colonia [a iri s] of Novum~Comum in G al lia Cisalpina was planteda. c . 59.

DE V i . [Vi a.lV iA

'

RlA. A Viaris lex which Cicero saysthe tribune C:Curio talked of but nothingmore seems to be knownof it. Somemodernwriters speak of leges v iariae, but there donot appear to beany leges properly so cal led .

The provisions as to roads inmany of theAgrarianlaws were parts of~such leges, andhad no a ecial reference to roads.VI'LL A ANNA’

LIS . [Lex ANNALI S .

VOCO'

NIA.enacted onthe proposal 0 Q

Voconius Saxa, a tribunus plebis, a. c.. 169.

One provisionof the,lex .was, that no per

sonwho should be rated inthe census at

sesterces (centummillio aeria)’

afte rthe census of that year, should make any female (virginsmnewnudism ) his hares. Thelex showed no ex ce tions, eveninfavour ofanonly dau hter. t onl y applied to testaments , and t erefore a daughter or other female could inherit ah intestate to any amount.The vesta l Vi rgins could make womentheirheredes inall cases, which was the only excaptionto the provisions of the lex

'

Anotherprovisi onof the lex forbade a person, whowasincluded inthe census ta gi yamore inamount,inthe formof a legacy to any person, thanthe heres or heredes shou ld take. This proVi sionsecured something to the horse or heredes. but stil l the provis ionwas ineffectual,and the object of the lex was only aecompushed h the Lex Fal cidia. a. whichenacted t at a testator should not give morethanthree fourths inlegacies, thus securinga fourth to theheres.LIBER (fltfiuov) a book . Themost commonmaterial onwhich books were writtenby the Greeks and Romans , was the thincoats or rind (Mm, whence the Latinnamefor a book) of the Egyptianpapyrus. Thisplant was called b the E tians Byblos(Bel? whence t e Gree derived theirname or a

o

book (BtBMov). The papyrus.tree grows inswamps to the height of tenfeet and more, and paper (charts ) was prepared fromthe thincoats or pel licles whichsurround the plant. The formand generalappearance of the papyri rol ls wil l be understood. fromthe fol lowing woodcut takenfrompaintings found at Pompd .

Next to thepapyrus, parchment (mmbrana )as the most commonmaterial for writing

nvented by

The ancients wrote usual l y on onl y oneside of the paper or parchment. The backof the pa r

,instead of being writtenu pon,

was usua ly stained w ith saffroncolour or

the cedrus, whichp roduced a yel low colour.As pa r and parchment were dear. itwas

frequent the customto erase orwash out

wri ting 0 little importance, and to write uponthe paper or parchment again, which wasthencal led Pala’mpscsm(wal lptq arog).The r orparchmentwasJowed togetherso as to ormone sheet, and whenthe workwas finished. it was rolled ona stafi

'

, whenceit was cal led a volumm; and hence we havethe expressionaeolm tibrinu. Whenanau

thor d ivided a work into several books, itwasusual to include onl y one book ina volumeor roll , so that there was genera l ly the same '

number of volumes as of books.Inthe papyri rolls found at Herculane

um,the stick onwhich the papyrus is ro lled

does not project fromthe papyrus.but is comcealed by it. Usual ly, however, there wereballs orbosses , ornamented or painted, calledumbilici or cor

-nus , which were fastened at

each end of the stick and pre'

acted fromthepapyrus. The ends of the no Iwere careful lycut,polished with pumice- stone and coloured

blac they were cal led theW W .

To protect the rol l frominjury it was frsquantity

v put ina parchment case, which wasstain with a purple colour or with the yellowof the Lutum.

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LITUUS .

slaves were unished by the Carnifex ;andthe also pro bly had to assist insome casesint execu tionof a decree or judgment inacivil suit. The lictors likewise commandedpersons to pay proper respect to s o

magistrateassing by, whi ch consisted indrsmounttngmhorseback, uncovering the head, stand.

in out of the way, dtc.

he lictors were original ly chosenfromtheplebs, but afterwards appear to have beengeneral ly freedmen, probably of the magistrate onwhomthey attended .

Lictors were properly only granted to thosemagistrates who had the lmpe rium. Conseuently

,the tribunes of the plebs never had

ctors, nor several of the other magmrates.

Sometimes , however, l ictors were granted topersons as amark of res act or for the sake ofprotection. Thus by a aw of the Triumvirsevery vestal -v ir inwas accompanied b a lictor, whenever a e went out, and the onourof one or two lictors was usual ly granted tothe wives and other female members of the1m rial famil y.here were also th irty lictors cal ledListon:

Cwiati, whose duty it was to summon thecuriae to the comitia curiata ;and whenthesemeetings became litt le more thana form,

their sufl’rages were represented by the thirty

LIMEN. [Janna ]LINTER, a light boat frequently formed of

the trunk of a tree. and drawing l ittle water.[Donne p.

LITRA (Mr-

pa ), a Sic i liansi lver coinequa linvalue to the Aeginetanobol.LITURGIES .

gLsrrouaou J

LI’TUUS probe ly anEtruscanword signifying Groom l . The crooked staff borneby the a ugura, with which they divided theexpanse of heaven, whenviewed with refer.

LIXAE . [Gnomes ]LOU IX , a smal l shaggy blanket. It

recount ]

but those of generals and oficers usuady eonsisted of two ’

al a , the breast-piece andback-piece,megs

”of bronze, iron, &c. ,

whichwere joined bymeans of buckles (wanderer).The epi thets h a rde r-6; and col tdwrég are

hafnium

ence to'

divination(templum), into regions (regium ). I t is very frequently exhibi ted uponworks of art. Thefigure inthemiddle of thepreceding i l lustrations is fromanancientspecimenof Etruscansculpture , representinganaugu r ;the two others are Romandenarii .2. A sort of trumpet slightl curved at the extremity. it ditfered both rpmthe tuba andthe com , the former being straight, whi le thelatter was bent round into a spiralIts tones are usual ly characterized as

and shri ll .

LUCERNA . ”3

planed to a cuirass ;the former onaccount cuirass wasi t s resemblance to the scales made of cotton, and among thew ) , the to the scales of serpents (po northernnations of

Locka u wornby anomaa tmpom. Loflcanwornby a oreekWan-ior.

8 . [S ou'

rs e ] noz z les or holes for the wicks. T he followLU CAR.

guinea ] ing is

LU'

C E RE [Taurus ] whichLU CERNA am) anoil lamp.

G reeks and Romans on al l y used cand les ;but inlater times sowere chief! confined to the houses of the lower c sees.

ECANDt LAJ A greatnumber ofancient lampsas come downto us ;themt“ part ofwhich aremade of terra cotta, al so a conside rable number of bronze . Mos t of thelamps are of anoval form, and flat uponthetop, onwhich there are frequent ly figures inrelief. Inthe lamps there are one or moreround holes, accordmg to thenumber ofwicks(ell hm’

a) burnt init ;and as these holeswerecal ed fromanobvious analogy, pvx rfipeg or

“135m, literal] nostril s or nozzles, the lamp T he nex t woodcut represents one of the

was also cal ed Mommym , Dimyros , T ri most beautiful bronze lamps which hasmm , orPolymym , according as it contain beenfound . Uponit is the figure of a sta

ed one, two, three, or a greaternumber of

LUDI.

lamps sometimes hungthe ceiling of the room, but they generallystood u a stand . Ca x nsmaam

d

l

gaLUC A,'

LUCT A

13.rr

dram,

imitate ormm m: wrea ing.

T he greeks ascribed theqmventionofwrestlin tom hical personages , and Mercury.the

of al stic exercises, also presidedover wrest in Inthe Homeric age wrestl ingwas muc practised : during this periodwrestlers contended naked, and only the loinswe re covered with the

perizoma (mpKwua ),

and this customprobab remained through?out Greece until Oi. 15, mmwhich time t e

rizoma was no longer used, and wrestlersught entirely naked. Inthe Homeric agethe customof anointing the body forthe '

pur

pmof wrestl ing does notappear to have

known, but inthe time Solonitwasquite eneral, and was said to have beenadopt by the Cretans and Lacedaemoniansat a ve early period. After the body was

'

anoint it was strewed over with sand ordust, inorder to enable the wrest lers to takea firmhold of each other. Ifone combatantthrew the other downthree times , the victwas decided. Wrestling was ractised ina lthe great games of the Gree The mostrenowned wrestler was Milan, of Croton.[Pascna

'rwm]

LUDI. the commonname for the wholevariety of games and contests which wereheld at Rome onvarious occasions, butchieflat the festivals of the gods '

and as the 10 iat certainfestivals formed the principal art

of the solemnities, these festivals them ves

are cal led Judi. Sometimes ludi were alsoh e ld inhonour of amagistrate ora deceased

person,in

.which case theymay be consideredas ludt pnvati.A ll ludi were divided by the Romans intotwo classes , (udi cinema and Judi maid , ac

cord ingly as they were held inthe circus orinthe theatre iii the latter case the weremostly theatrica l representations wit theirvariousmodifications ;inthe former they consisted ofall or

‘oi a art of the mes enume

rated inthe articles rscus and Lanu 'rou s.

Another divisionof the ludi intou rm‘

, imperatim‘

, and votiei, is anal ogous to the divisionofthe feriae. [Fenian]The superintendence of the games , and thesolemnities connected with them,was inmostcases entrusted to the aediles. [AE DtLE sJif the lawfu l rites were not observed inthecelebrationof the ludi, it de nded uponthedecisionof the pontid

'

a whet er they were tobe held againms tauran'

) or.not. Analphabetical l ist of t e principal ludi is subjoined.LU DIAronu s anaswere instituted at Romeduring the second Punic war, after the ’

battleof Cannae (212 a. at the command of anoracle contained inthe books of the ancientseer Marcius, inorder to obtainthe aid ofApo l lo. They were held every year und erthe soperintendence of the praetor urbanus,and tenmensacrificed to Apol lo, accordingto G reek rites a hull with

'

It horns and twowhite goats also with gil t orns, and to La.

tona a heifer with(gi

lthorns. The games

themse lves were hel inthe CircusMax imus,the spectators were adorned wi th chaplets

,

and each ci tizengave a contributiontowardsdefraying the expenses. InB . o. 208, it wasordained that the

yshou ld always be celebrated

onthe 6th ofJo y.Loni As s es-r i nse. [AUG U ST ALBSJLoni CArtroumwere instituted a. e . 387,

after the departure of the Gauls fromRome .

as a tokenof gratitude towards Jupiter Capitolinus,who had savedthe

’

capitol inthe hou rofdanger. The superintendence of the gameswas entrusted to a college of priests cal led0 italim

'

.

ourCrscsnsss.Romanor Maonrmere

celebrated every year daring several days,fromthe fourth to the twelfth of Septembe r,inhonour of the thwe great divini ties, Ju

uno. and M inerva. or, according to

in honour of Jupiter, Consus, andus E questris. They were superinby the curule aed i les. For further

particulars see Ctacus.

Lont Couriu u orr. [Cox rrnu a ]Loni q u s. [FLoaALu JLoni Fons sanswere games celebrated at

the funera l pyre of i l lustrious persons. Suchgames arementioned inthe very early legends

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206 LUPUS .

the god goats and young d Two youthsofnoble birth were theni to the Lu

gerci,

and one of the latter touched their fore eads

fins , and the god himselfFebrm .

The festiva l of the Lu realia, though itnecessaril y ost its original

pi

e

mport at thetimewhenthe omens were no longer anationofshepherds

,was at alwa observed incom

memorationof t e founera of the city. M.

Antonius, inhis consulship, was one of theLuperci, and not only ranWi th themhalfnaked and covered wi th pieces of goatskinthrough the city, but evenaddressed thepea le inthe foruminth is rude attire.L PERCI, the riesteof the 0dLu rcus.

T hey formed a co ege , themem rs o whichwere ori ly youths of patricianfamil iesand whio was said to have beeninstitutedby Romulus and Remus. The college wasdi vided into two classes, the one cal led Fabt

’

z’

orFabiani,and the other Q iaactilii

’

or Q idactiliam‘

. The officewas not for life, but howlonit lasted isnot known.

‘ Julius Caesar addto the two classes of the col lege a thi rd withthe name of Julii‘ or Juliani, and made Antonius their high -priest. He al so to

themcertainrevenuesfox tigsh

’

a )which wereafterwards withdrawn romthem.

LUPUS FE '

RRE U S , the ironwolf used

LU ST RAT IO.

by the besieged inrepelling the attacks ofthebesiegers

,and especial ly inseizing the batter

-ramand diverting its blows.U S T RA

’

T IO (addoptnf), was originall ya purificationby ablationinwater. But thelustrations, of which we possess direct knowigi

r, are always connected with sacrificesother religious rites , and consisted inthe

sprinkling of water bymeans of a branch oflaure l or olive

'

, and at Rome sometimes bymeans of the aspergil lum, and inthe bu rningof certainmateri als, the smoke of which wasthou ht to have a urifying effect. Wheneversacri ces were 0

,red, it seems to have been

customary to carry themaround the personor thing to be purified. Lustrations ' weremade inanc ient Greece, and probably at

Rome also , by private individua ls whentheyhad pol luted themselves by an crimina l action. Whole cities and states sometimesunderwent purifications to e the crimeor crimes committed b amem of the community. Themost celebrated purificationofthis kind was that of Athens, rformed byEpimenides of Crete ,a fter the lonianmassacre. Purificationalso took p s whena

sacred had been,unhallowed by profane

use,‘

as burying dead bodies init, aswasthe case with the island of Delos.The Romans

_

tiormad lustrations onmanoccasi ons, onw h the Greeks d id not tof them;and the object ofmost Romanlustrationswasnot to atone for the commissionof crime, but to obtainthe blessing of the gods

things which were luswere purified after the

business of sowmgwas over, and before thesickle was put to the corn. As vi ns s Fruraits.] Sheep were purifi every year atthe festival of the Palilta. All Romanarmiesbefore t took the field were lustrated , andas the so ty was robably always connected Wi th a review the troops, the wordlustratio is also used inthe sense of themod~emreview. The establishment of anewcolonvwas alwa s preceded by a lustratiowithsolemnsac ces. The city of Rome itself,as well as other towns withinits dominionalways underwent a lustratio, after they hadbeenVi si ted

23some great calamity, such as

civil bloodsh awfu l prodigies, and the like.A regular and general lustratio of the wholsRoman e took place after the com ctionofevery ustrum, whenthe cehsorhad edhis census and before he laid downhis office.This lustratio (also called lust rum)was conducted by one of the censors, and held wi thsacrifices Call ed S rm taarib

'

a, because thesacrifices consisted of a pig (or ram) , a sheep,and anoa. .It took place inthe Campus Mar

tins , where the people assembled for the purpose. The sacrifices were carried three timesaround the assembledmul titude.LUSTRUM (fromlua, Gr. l oan) is properly

speaking a lustrationor purification, and inpa rticular the purificationof the whole RomaneOple performed by one of the censo rs intheampus Martins , after the husinem of thecensus was over. [Carlson Losraa '

rioJAs this purificationtook place only once infive yea rs, the word lustrumwas also used todesignate the time betweentwo lustra. Thefirst lustrumwas rformed inn. c . 566, byk ing Servius, alter e had completed his census , and it is said to have takenplace submquently every five years , alter the census wasover. The censu smight be held w ithout thelustmmand indeed two cases of this kind arerecordedwhich ha pened ina. c . 459 and 214.

Inthese cases the ust rumwas not performedonaccount of some at ca lamities whichhad befal lenthe repub ic.

The time whenthe lustrumtook place hasbeen very ingeniously defined by N iebuhr.S ix ancient Romulianyears of 304 days eachwere, with the difierence of one day , ual to

five solar years of 365 da a each , or t e sixancient yea rs made 1824 aye, while the fivesolar years contained 1825 days. The lust rum,

or the great year of the ancient Romans,was thus a cycle , at the end of which , the beginnin of the ancient year nearly coincidedw ith t at of the solar year. As the coincidence, however, was not '

pert’

ect, amonth of24 days was interca lated inevery eleventhlustrum. Now it is highly probable that therecurrence of such a cycle or great year was,fromthe earliest times , solemnized with sac

rifices and purifications , and that ServiusTu l lius did not introduce them, but mere lyconnected themwith his census, and thus setthe example for sub nent ages .Many writers of the atter period of the reblic and du ring the empire , use the word

ustrumfor any space offive years , and withou t any regard to the census , whi le othersevenapply i t inthe sense of the Greek pentaeteris or anOlympiad , which contained onlyfou r ears .L RA (leper, Lat.fides), a l yre, one of themost ancient musica l instruments of thestringed kind. The Greeks . attributed theinventionof the lyre to Mercu ry, who is saidto have formed the instrument of a tortoiseshel l

,over which he placed gut-strings . The

name 2.15pmhowever , does not occu r intheHomeric poems, and the ancient lyre, ca ll edinHomer phormr

’

na' (dépp i yf) and citharis

seems rather to have resembledwas cal l ed {dyer} , and inLatinThe horns were ca lledM

afia ;or cor-nus .

the swim of later times, which was insome These instruments were often orned inthe

whereas inthe l bf ancient times they

zgilefret;onhot aide

zndThe lyre is also

6 v;or cum; inLatrn‘ mad e,

becauseitwas grade of} a tortoise- shell.The lyre had original] three or four strings,

but after the time of erpander of a

(abou t a. o. who is said to have Mthreemore

,itwas generallymade with a

The ancients, however,made use of aof lyree ;and about the time of Sappho andAnacreonsevera l et

figed inst ruments, web

asmagadia,Wham, others, were used inGreece, and especial ly inW e . They hadhwnintroduced fromAsia Minor and theirnumber of strings far ex ceedw that of thelyre, forwe know that some had eventwwtystrings , so that theymust have more imambled amodemh thana ]But the lyra an cithara ad inmost casesnomore thansevenstrings . The lyre had a

great and fu ll - sounding bottom, which continned as before to he made general ly of tartoise-ehell, fromwhich the horns rose as fromthe head of a stag.

connecting the two home at or neartap

-ends se rved

ma MAG IS TRATUS .

most costlymanner with gold and ivory. Thelyre was considered as a moremanly instrument thanthe cithara,’ which, onaccount ofits smaller sounding bottom, excluded fullsoundin and dee tones, and wasmore calculated or the s tones. The lyre whenplayed stood inanupri ht posi tionbetweenthe knees, while the cit ara stood upontheknees of the piner. Both instruments wereheld with the le hand and played with theright. It has nerally beensupposed thatthe strings of t ese instruments were alwaystouched with a little staff cal led pleat-um(nlfix rpov), but among the paintings discovered at Hercu laneumwe find several instances where the persons play the lyre with theirfingers. The lyrewas at all times only playedas anaccompaniment to songs.The Latinname jda , which was used for

a l yre as well as a cithara, is probably thesame as the Greek coldegmhich signifies gutstring.The lyre (cit/ram or phomr

’

nz ) was at firstused inthe recitations of epic poetr

y:though

itwas probablynot played du ring t e recitationitself, but only as a prelude before theininstrel commenced his story, and inthe ihtervala or pauses betweenthe several parts.The lyre has

'

venits name to a species ofpoetry cal led yric;this kind o f poetry wasoriginal lynever recited or sung withou t theaccomaniment of the lyre, and sometimesalso 0 anappropriate dance.

MAGADIS . [LYRAJMAG IS T E R,which contains the same root

asmag - is and mag -ma , was a

pplied at Rome

to(pe

rsonspossessing various indaof oflices

,

an especial ly to the leading personina collegiurnor corporation[CoLLE OlUM];thus themagisler soa

’

ctatis’ was the esident of the

config

rstionof equites,who armed the taxesat me.

MAG lS T RAT U S was a personqur’

dicimdo cent. T he K ing was origins ly thesole agistratus he had all the Potestas.Onthe expulsionof the K ings , two Consulswere annual ly appointed , and the were Ma

gi stratus. lncourse of time other agistratuswere appointed ; namely, dictators, .censors,praetors, aediles, tribunes

'

ot' the plebs , and

the Decemviri litibus udicandis. The governors of provinceswit the title ofProprestor or Proconsul were also MagistratusThe word Magistratus contains the sameelement asmag (id cr) andmad am);and it.sig

imperium, the latter hadnot. Themagistratus were al so divided into curu les and thosewho were not curules she magistratus curules were the dictator, consu ls, praetors , censors,

’

and the curu le aedi les , who were so

called, because theyhad the jus sel lae cu rub’

a.

The magistrates were chosenonly fromthepatricians inthe early republic, but incourseof time the plebeians shared these h onours,v

gith1mexceptionof‘ that of tl

lie lnter

rle

e

x

d:

t e ianmagistratus, proper so cas

iege

)

the plebeianaediles and {he tribunie is.pMAJESTAS prettynearly corresponds totreasoninEnglish law;but all the offencesincluded under majestas comprehend morethanthe English treason. One of the oti

'

encesincluded in‘majestaswas the effecting. aidingin, or planning the death of amagistratus populi Romani. or of onewho had imperiumor

potestas. Though the phrasem maju tati: was used , the complete expressionwascrimes i ssu e, immimdae, diminutae, mimics,yna

'

estal ir.he word majes tas , consistently with its

relationto ma ), signifies the magnitude0

;greatness omne mngly, the

p rases nc '

ssm mapsm'

majestas , signify

jthe whole of that which consti

tuted the Roman. state ; inother words, thesovereignpower of the Romanstate. Theexpressionmimlm majestatm consequentlysignifies any act by which this majestas isimpaired . inthe republicanperiod the termmajectas lam ' or mimda wasmost commonl yapplied to cases of a general betraying or surrendering his army to the enemy, excitingsedi tion, and general ly by his bad conduct inadministrationimpairing themajestas of thestate.The old punishment ofmajestas was perpetsai interdictionfromfire and water. Inthe later imperial period, persons of low con.

ditionwere thrownto Wi ld‘

beasts, or burntalive

(personsofbetter condi tionwere simply

put to eath .

Inthe early times of the republ ic, every actof a citizenwhich was injurious to the stateor its peace was called -

pa ducui’

o, and the o ifender pa dmllis) was tried before the popuo

l (populi'

judicia), and , if convicted, put to

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MANUMIS S IO.

tium, and he is purchased byme with thispiece ofmoney (ass) and brazenscales. Hethenstrikes the scales with the piece of

money, and ives it to the selleraso

a symbolof the price quasi

‘

prm'

i loco)” Thismode of

transfer appl ied to all free persons or slavanima ls or lands, all of which persons

.

anthings were cal led Res H ana

?other things

were called Nee Mancips'

. ands (praedia)might be thus transferred, thou h the rties

to themancipatio werenot ont e l s ;butall other things

,which were objects ofman

cipatio, were only t ransferable inthe presence of the parties, because cor rea l approhensionwas anecessary part oft e ceremony .

The party who transferred the ownership 0thingflmuant to these forms was saidman

c'

gn’o he who thus acquired the owner

a ipwas saidmanci'

piow ipers. The verbmanci

'

pare is sometimes used as equivalent to um

Manci piummay be used as equivalent tocomplete ownership, andmay thus be opposedto am and tofrom”. Sometimes the wordmancipiumsignifies a slave, as being one of

the resmancip} .

MANDA‘

T M, oftensignifies a commandfroma superior to aninferior. Under the empire the mandate principumwere the com~moods and inst ructions givento governors ofprovinces and others.MANI

’

PULU S . Enaci 'rus, p.

MANU ’

BIAE . Poms .)MANUMI

'

S S IO was the formby whichslaves were re leased fromslavery. Therewere threemodes by which this was efl'

ected,namely,d icta, Census, and T estsmentum.

Of these the .manumissio by vindicta is probably the oldest

,and perhaps was once - the

onl mode ofmanumission. It ismentionedby vy as inuse at anearly period ;‘

and , indeed, he states that some persons refer theoriginof the vindicta to the event which here lates, and

.derive its name fromVindicius ;the latter part , at l east, of the suppositionisofno value .

The ceremon of the manumissio by thevindictawas as ollows z—Themaster broughth is slave before the magistratus , and statedthe grounds (cause) of the intendedmanumis~sion. The lictor of themagist ratus laid a rod(festuca ) on the head of the slave, aecomshied With certainformal words , inwhichdeclared that he was a free manex o

jrnre

qniritium,that is ,nindicas it inlibertu s-rt. be

master inthe meantime held the slave, andafter he had pronounced the words hm hominemlibemmvole , he tu rned himround and let

at Berlinpresents anexample.

MATERFAMI'LIAS . [Ma-ra inwater ,

himgo (mid temm ),whence the generalname p. 212.

ofthe act ofmanumission. T he word vindicta a festival celebratedatRome

MATRALIA.itself, which is

progeny the

used for festuca y orace.

Inthe case of the census the slave wasregistered by the censors as a citizenwith hismaster's consent. The t ird mode ofmanumissionwas,whenamas r we liberty to a

slave by his wi ll (ta tammumThe act ofmanumissiones tablished the re

lationof patronus and libertus betweenthemanumissor and the manumitted . Whenmanumitted

25a citizen, the libertus took the

praenomena the gentilename of themanumissor, and became ina sense amembe r ofthe gene of his patron. T o these two nameshe added some other name as a cognomen,either somename by which hewas previouslyknown, or some name assumed onthe occasion thuswefind thenames M.T ullius Tiro

,

P. T erentius Afer, and other like names . T herelationbetweena patronus and libertus isstated underParaorws.

MANUS FERREA. [Hansen]MARRIAGE . [Mu nrnou i om]MARS U '

PIUM (nepotism. flaw -raw)

a purse. T he purse usedby the ancients was commoul y a smal l leathern

3 amwe rat the mouth. Marcois commonly resenholding one in

'

s hand,of which the annexed

MATRIMONIUM.

eve year onthal i th ofJune, inhonour of thegod ess Mater Matuta, whose temple stoodin the ForumBoarium. i t was celebratedonly by Romanmatrons, and the sacrificesoffered to the oddess consisted of cakesbaked inpots earthenware. Slaves werenot a l lowed to take part inthe solemnities , orto enter the temple of the goddess. One slave,however, was admitted by the matrons , butonly to be exposed to a humiliatin treatment,forone of thematrons gave her a lowonthecheek, and thensent her away fromthe temple. Thematrons onthis occasiontook withthemthe bhildrenof their sisters, but notthei r own, held theminthei r arms, and prayedfor their welfare.MATRONA’

LIA , a festival celebramd onthe K al ends of March inhonour of Juno Lncina. Hence Horace says, Martiis mies.quid K alendis."

MA RIMO’

NIUM, NU'

PT IAE ,

marriage. 1. G as“ . The ancient reeklegislators considered the re lationofmarriageas amatternotmerely of private, but also ofoblio or genera l interest . Thiswas partien~arly the case at Sparta, where proceedingsmight be takena inst those whomarried toolate or unsuitab y, as well as against thosewho didnotmarry at all.But independent o f public considerations,

there were also private or personal reasons,pecu liar to the ancients, whichmademarriageanobligation. One of these was the duty iacumbent uponevery individua l to provide fora continuance of representatives to succeedh imse lfasministers of the Divinity and euotherwas the desire fe lt bmlmost every one ,notmerely to perpetuate ownname, butto leave some one who might make the customary offeringr at his

grave. We are told

that with this viewchi l less persons sometimes adopted children.

The choice‘ ’

of a wife among the ancientswas but rarely grounded uponaffection, andscarcely ever could have beenthe resu lt ofprevious acquaintance orfamil iarity: Inmanycases a father chose forhis sona bride t i

the latter had never seen, or compelled himtomarry for the sake of checking his extrava nces.

y the Athenian laws a c itizenwas nota llowed tomarry with a foreignwoman, norconversely, under VBT

Zsevere alties , but

proximity by blood yxwretamr consanguinity (ovyyévera) , was not,wi th some fewexceptions, a bar to marriage inany part ofG reece ;direct linea l descent was.At Athens themost important preliminaryto marriage was the

.

betrothal (éyyénotc),whichwas infact indispensable to the com

211

plate validity of amarriage contract. Itwasmade b thenatural or legal guardian(6miproQ o the bride elect , and at tended by therelatives of both parties as witnesses. TheWife’s dowry was sett led at the betrothal.Onthe day before the games, ormarriage,or sometimesonthe day i tself, certainsacrifices or offerings (wporél sra 76mmor rrydpsta) weremade to the gOds who presi edovermarriage. Anothe r ceremony of almostgenera l observance onthe wedding day, wasthe bathing of both the bride and bridegroominwater fetched fromsome particular founta

in, whe

gcr

g,as s

gfmelt’h’ink , the customof

p acrng t e gu re a rpo¢6pog or“water

carrier’f over the tombs of those who diedunmarried . After these pre liminaries , thebride was nerally conducted from herfather

’s to t e house of the bridegroom atnightfal l , ina chariot (64Vautism) drawnby a

.

u’ofmules or oxen, and furnished with a

ind of couch sh irt?

as a seat. Oneitherside of her sat t e bri egroomand one of his

gloatt

iigitimate frie

pld:io

hrelations , who {Sig

nis o ce was ca t e paranymph rr

tamperorwyowrrig) but as he rode(inthe

carriage (mica) Wi th the bride and bridegroom, hewas sometimes cal led the irripox og.

Thenuptia l processionwas probably aecom

gilded, according to circumstances, by anumr ofpersons , some of whomcarried thenuptial torches. Both bride and bridegroom(theformer veiled) were decked out intheir bestattire, with chaplets ontheir heads, and thedoors of their houses were bu

g’with festoons

of iv and bay. As the b al processionmov along, the hymenaeansongwas sangto the accompaniment of Lydianflutes, eveninoldentimes, as beautiful ly described byHomer, and the married pai r received thegreetings and congratulations of those whomet them. After entering thehouse, into which the bridewasducted by hismother bearing si twas customary to shower sweetmeats uponthem as emblems of plentyand rosperi ty.

r this came thenuptial feast, to whichthe name

games was particularly ap lied ;it

was genera ly giveninthe house of t bride

groomor his parents ; and besides being a

estivsmeeting, served other andmore important urposes. There was no public rite ,whet r civi l or religious , connected with thece lebrationofmarriage amon the ancientGreeks, and therefore no

Euh

‘

c record of itssolemnization. This de cienc then‘wassupplied by the marriage feast, or the estswere of course com nt to prove the act ofamarriagehaving t nplace. T o this feast,

MATRIMONIUM

contrary to the usual practice amongst theGreeks, womenwere invi ted as well asmen;but they seemto have sat at a separate table,with the bride sti ll veiled amongst them. Atthe conclusionof this feast, she was conducted by her,husband into the bridal chamber ;and a law of. Solonrequired that onenteringit they shou ld eat a quince together. as if toindicate that their conversationought to besweet and agreeable. The song cal led theE halmm’

umwas thensung before,

the doors0 the bridal chamber.The day after themarriage , the first of thebride’s residenceinhernewabode,was ca l ledthe epauh

'

a (érra iiiua) ;onwhich their friendssent the customary presents to the newlymarried couple. Onanother da the apaulia(dradl i a ), perhaps the second rmarriage,the bridegroomleft his house, to lodge apartfromhis wife at his father’s- ih - law. Some ofthe presentsmade to the bride by her husbandand friends were called anacalypteria (dvax aRum-

vipw) as being givenonthe occasionofthe bride first appearing unveiled : the wereprobably givenonthe epaulia, orday a r themarriage. Another ceremony observed aftermarriagewas the sacrifice which the husbandoffered u onthe occasionof his bride beingre istere amongst his ownphratores.

be above account refers to Atheniancustoms. At Sparta the betrotha l of the bride byher

‘

father or guardian(x iipwg) was uisiteas a preliminary ofmarri age, as we as at

Athens. Another custompecul iar to theSpartans, and a relic of ancient times, wasthe seizure of the bride by her intended husband, but of course with the sanctionoLherparents or ardians. Shewasnot, however,immediate y domiciled inher husband'

s house ,but cohabited with himfor some time clandestinely , til l he brought her, and frequently hermother also, to his home.The Greeks, general ly speakin enter

tained little regard for the female c aracter.

They considered women, infact.as decidedlyinferior tomen, qualified to discharge only thesubordinate functions inlife, and rathernecessary as helpmates thana reeable as comanions. T o these notions emale educationor the imost part corresponded , and infactconfirmed them;itdidnot supply the elegantaccomplishment and refinement ofmannerswhich permanently en gs

“ the affectionswhenother attractions ave passed away.Aristotle states , that the relationofmantowomanis that ofthe governor to the subject ;and Plato,that a woman’s virtuemay be sum.

med up ina fewwords, for she has only tomanage the house wel l , keeping what thereis init, and obeying her husband. Among the

Dorians, however, and especia l ly at Sparta,njoyed much more estimationthan

inthe rest of Greece.2. Bonu s. A legal

o

Romanmarriage was0cal led justas nuptiae, Justin» matrmomum, as

bein conformabletojus (cim’

le) or to law. Alegs?marriage was either Cumconventions as

aria inmanumm’

ri, or itwas without this co nventio. But both forms ofmarriage agreed inthis : theremust be connubiumbetweentheparties, and consent. The lega l con uencesas to the power of the father over his c ildrenwere the same inboth.Cm ubiwnismerely a termwhich comprehends all the conditions of a legalmarriage.General ly it may be stated , that there wasonly connubiumbetweenRomancitizens thecases inwhich it at any time existed betweenparties not both Romancitiz ens ,were ex ceptions to the genera l ru le. Ori

ginal ly, or at

least at one period of the repub ic, there wasno connubiumbetweenthe patricians and theplebeians ; but thi s was altered b the LexCanuleia which allow connubiumbetweenpersons of those two classes .There were various deg rees of consanguin

ity and afl‘inity, withinwhich there was no

connubium.

Ani l le 1 unionof a male and female,though oeting to be, was not a marriage :the manhad no legal wife, and the chi ldrenhadno lega l father : consequently they werenot inthe power of their reputed father.Themarriage Cumconventions difl

'

ered fromthat S inemunitions, inthe relationship whichit effected betweenthe husband and the wife ;themarriage cumconventions was anecessaryconditiont o make a womanamalerficmilias .

By the marriage cumconventions, the w ifepassed into the familia of her husband, andwas to himinthe relationof a daughter, or,as it was expressed , inmanumsouvenir. inthemarriage sine conventions, the wife’s relationto her ownfamilia remained as before,and shewasmerel m r.

‘

User,” says Cice

to,“ is a genus 0 which there are two spe

cies ;one isma terfamilias, inmanumeonnem'

t ; the othe r is us er ony.” Accordingly,amaterfamilias is a wifewho is inMann, andinthe familia of her husband. A wifenot inmanu was not amember ofher husband’s fami lia, and therefore the te rmcou ld not applyto her. Matrona was properly a wife not inmanu. and equivalent to uxor ;and she wascal led matrons before she had any child ren.

But these words arenot always used inthesetheir original and propermeanings.I t doesnot appear that any forms were re

quisite inthemarriage sine conventions ;andapparently the evidence of suchmarriagewas

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214 MATRIMONIUM.

by three boys dressed inthe praetex ta, and husband (prams), to the lectus genialis inwhose fathers and mothers were still a live the atrium, which was onthis occasionmg

0

(patrim'

st One of themcarried nificentl adorned and strewed with flowers.before her a torch ofwhite “10

235m or, Onthe llowmg day the husband sometimesaccording to others, of ine w the twoothers walked by her s e, supporting her bthe arm. The bride herself carried a disand a spindle with wool. A boy cal ledcomitia: carried ina covered vase (camera,crewman, or comitium) the so-cal led utensil sof the bride and playthings for children(crepundia). Besides these personswho officiatedonthe occasion, the processionwas attendedby a numerous trainof friends, both of thebride and the bridegroom.

Whenthe processionarrived at the houseof the bridegroom, the door of which wasadorned with garlands and flowers, the bridewas carried across the threshold by pronsbi

'

.

ti e.menwho had beenmarried to only onewoman, that shemight not knock against itwith her foot, which would have beenanevi lomen. Before she entered the house , shewound wool around the door-posts ofhernewresidence

,and anointed themwith lard (Me

gs

millus) or wolPs fat (adefis T e

husband received her wit fire and water,which the womanhad to touch. This waseither a symbolic purificationor a symbolicexpress ion of welcome, as the interdicerena et i ni was the formula for banishment.e bri e saluted her husband with the

words : ubi’

tu Cains , ego Caia. After shehad entered the house Wi th distafi

'

and spindle

,she was placed u a sh eep- skin, and

here the keys of themac were deliveredinto her hands. A repeat (com nuptialis)givenby the husband to the whole trainof

relatives and friends who accompanied thebride generall y concluded the solemnity ofthe day. Many ancient wri ters mention a

very popular song.Team'

s: or T alassio, whichwas sung at weddings ;but whether itwassung during the re ast or du ring the proccasionis not qui te c ear, thou

gh we may infer

fromthe story respecting t e originof thesong, that itwas sun whilst the processionwas advancing tow the house of the bus

Itmay easily be ima ed that a solemnitylike that ofmarriage di not take place amongthe mer

.

and humorous_

ltalians without avariety o Jests and rai l leries, and Ovid men

gave another entertainment to his friends,which was called repa id , and the woman,who onthis day undertook themanagementof the house of her husband , had to performcertainreligious rites ;onwhich account, aswas observed above, itwasnecessary to selecta day for themarriage whichwasnot followedb a dies ater. These rites probably consistedsacrifices to the Dii Penates.The pod tionof a Romanwomanaftermarriage was very

different from that of aGreek woman. T e Romanpresided over thewhole household she educated her chi ldren,watched over and preserved the honour of thehouse, and as the materfami lias she sharedthe honours and respect shownto her busband. Farfrombeing confined like the Greekwomento a distinct apartment , the Romanmatron, at least during the better centuriesof the republic, occupied the most importantpart of the house, the atrium.

MASK S . I’

Ps asoruJMAUSOLE 'UM. For: . 163.

MAS TS OF S HIl’S .

O

FAig'rss sla ;NA

v i

gajE ALS , Greek, [Daws on] ; Roman,[CoatingME A URE S of length [s ;Juncti on] ;of capacity , [Mxnrrsu Mani ituos ;Mo

mus ;S s x u a ius.

ME DIMNU S t the rinci Imeasure of thefifi

wnwasusetl

’a

es

d

pzcially formeasuring corn. The Atticmedimnus was equal to six Romanmodii.The medimnus contained 1 1 lls.

pints, Eng. l twas divided into t e foll owing

6 Error12 iypfsx ra48 ohmi c;96 form .991 1192 x oriil at .4955

ofwhich the x oimf, fear-7x , and sorel y , andtheir further subdivisions, were common to

the d and fluidmeasures.but the 011115wasof di erent sizes . [Mt rans it ; ironinxXx s'

rss ;Cor vus .

MEGALE 'SIA, E G ALE’

NS IA, or MEG ALE NS E S LUDI . a festival w ith games,tions obscene son

gs which were sung beforeathe door of the bri l apartment by girls, after celebrated at Rome inthemonth ofApril and

the commny had left. ’These songs were inhonour of the great mother of the edsprobably“the old Fescennina FE SC E NNINA], (Cybele, peydl q easy, whence the festiva deand are frequently cal led pithalamia . At rived its name). The statue of the goddessthe end of the

replie

sthe bridewas conducted was b ht to Rome fromPessinus ina. c.

bymatronswho not had mors thanone 203, t day of its arrivalwu solemniz ed

ME NSA. ME T OICI. 215

with a magnificent procession, lectisternia, uponit, and thento bring it thus furnishedand games, and great numbers of o

gle car to the place where the guests were rec lining

ried presents to the goddess ont e a itol. Onmany occasions , indeed each est eitherThe regu lar celebrationof the Me ests , had a smal l table to himself, or t e companhowever, did not beginti l l twelve years later was divided into parties of two or three,wit(a. c. whenthe temls

,which had been a separate table foreach part as is distinctly

vowed and ordered to be ui lt ina. c. 203,was represented in the cut uner S YMPOS IU I .

cro

géinetedmeetgeamd by]M. Jggius Brutus . Hence we have such

dphra

sesasmmsamap

esti va orm aye, lining on porters or opponcre. an m amau crre or tethe 4th ofApril . T he seasonof th

gi

l

s festival ,I

like that of the wholemonth inwhich it tookplace,was full ofgeneral rejoicings and feasting. I t was customary for the wealthy Romans ou this occasionto invite one anothermutual ly to their repasts.The games which were held at the Megalesia were purel y scenic, and not circenses.They were at first held onthe Palatine, infront of the temis of the goddess, but afterwards also int e theatres. The da whichwas especial ly set a art for the pe ormanceof scenic plays was t e th ird of the festiva l .Slaves were not permitted to be present at thegames. and themagistrates appea red dressedina purple toga and praetexta, whence theproverb, Magnit ud e. T he games wereunder the superintendence of the curu leaedi les, and we know that four of the extantp lays

'

ofTerence were performed at the Megalesta.

MEMBRA'NA. Li ssa .)ME NSACrpérreCa s table . The aim l estkind of tablewas a round one with three ecal led inGreek rpfrrovc. I t is shownint edrinking scene painted onthe wal l of a wineshop at Pompeii , and is represented inthe

codent. Tables , how must

Mensa, T abla.

usually have had four legs , as the e 010

of Tpdrt'

r

itga, the commonword f

or ta Is, ini

cates . or the houses of the opulent, tablesweremade of themost valuable and beautifulk inds ofwood , especial ly ofmaple , or of theci t rus of Africa, which was a species of cy.

p ress or juni r.As the tab e wasnot large, itwas usual to

place the dishes and the various kinds ofmeat

T he two principal courses of a deipnonandocean, or a Greek and Romandinner, werecal led respectively «pan;rpdrrefa , devrr neCmand mmsa pn

’mmmensa s

oeru ;Daws on.

“

M ENS A'

Rll, M NS ULA'

Rll, or NUMULA

’

Rll, a kind of ublic bankers at Romewho were appoint by the state ;they weredistinct fromthe ar ntarii , who were commonbankers, and di business ontheir ownaccount. [ARG E NT AR lL] Themensarii hadtheir tables or banks (menace like ordinarybankers, inthe forum, and int ename of theaerariumthey offered readymoney to debtorswho could give security to the state for it.Such anexpediency was devised by the stateonly intimes of great distress. Thefirst timethat mensarii (quinqueviri mensarii) were appointed was ia a. c . 352

,at the time when

the plebeians were so deeply involved indebt,that they were obl iged to borrowmoney fromnew creditors inorder to pay the old ones,and thus ruined themselves completel Onthis occasionthey were al so authoriz to or

dainthat cattle or land should be received aspayment at a fair valuation. With the exceptionof this first time, they appear duringthe time of the republic to have always beentriumviri’memarii. One class ofmensarii.however, (perhaps aninferior order), themem-

ulari i

’

or rmmulan'

t'

, seemto have beenpermauently emplo

yed by the state , and thesemust

he meant w enwe read, that not onl y theaerariumbut also private individual s, deposited ia their hands sums ofmoney which theyhad to dis of.MENS S . [Ca t amarans]MERENDA. [CORNA'

AOMETAE. Ci scus, p.METALL [Vacr i oi u ic]ME T OlCI (y éroucor), the name by which,

at Athens and inother Greek states , the rm“

dent aliens were designated. They must bedistinguished fromsuch

'

strsngers as madeonly a transitory stay ina place, for itwas a

characteristic of a metoicus . that he residedpermaneL

i

i

t

Jiy inthe city. No city of Greece

perba s such anumber of resident al iensas At ens since none afforded to strangerssomany faci li ties for carrying onmercanti le

216 ME T OICI.

business or amore agreeablemode of l iving.Inthe census instituted by Demetrius Pha

MIMUS .

sll the rights of citizens. except those of aoliti calnature. Their conditionwas termed

1areus (a. c. thenumber of resident aliens aorél eta. and Iabrrol trsla.

at Athens was inwhich number wemenand ch ildrenwere probablynot included.

METRE’TES (y er f). the rinciGreek li uid measura

m’

l‘

nhe Attic getrept:

The jealousy with which the citizens of the was equa incapacity to the ainfil‘iora, con

ancient Greek re'publics kept their body clear taining 8 gal ls. pints, E ng

a somanifested inthei r regu PROBL ] ltwas d ivided inof intruders, is.

lations concerning aliens. However long themight have resided inAthens , they were a

ways regarded as strangers, whence they aresometimes called évor, and to remind themof their position, t ey had onsome occasionsto performcertainde rading services for theAthenian citizens [H

gvnau euoau ]. These

services were,however inall probability not

intended to hurt the feelings of the aliens, butwere simply acts symbolical of their relationto the cit i z ens.Aliens werenot al lowed to acquire landed

property inthe state they had chosenfor theirresidence, and were consequently obliged t ol ive inhired houses or apartments. As theydidnot constitute a part of the state, and wereyet in constant intercourse and commercewith itsmembers every alienwas obl iged toselect a citizenfb r his patron(rrpp orémg),whowas not only themediatorbetweenthemand the state, throu

gh whomalone they cou ld

transact any legal usiness ,whether privateor publ ic, butwas at the same time answerable (émqrfig6

to the state for the conductof his chent. nthe other hand, however,the state al lowed the aliens to carry onallkinds of industry and commerce under theprotectionofthe law infact, atAthensnearlyall business was inthe hands of aliens, whoonthis account lived for themost part inthePeiraeeus.Each fami l ofaliens, whether they avai l edthemselves 0 the privilege of carrying onanymercanti le business or not, had to pay anannual tax (peror

’mov or Sword) of twelvedrachmae or if the head of the familywas a

w idow, ofonly six drachmae. lf al iens didnot pay this tax , or if they assumed the rightof ci tizens, and probably also incase they refused to select a patron, theynot only forfeited the protectionoi the state, but were soldas slaves . Extraordinary taxes and liturgies(alcqbopal and Astrovpyt

'

ar) devolved uponaliensno less thanuponcitizens. The ahenswere also obliged , l ike citizens, to serve intheregular armies and inthe fleet, both abroadand at home, for the defence of the city.Those aliens who were exempt fromthe burthens peculiar to their class were cal led isoteles (laorel stg). They had not to pay theperolx tov (dréh taneraurtov), werenot obligedto choose a wpoarémg, and infact enjoyed

Greece and atwas designated , though the Romanmimusdiffered essential ly fromthe Greek.

a [An

li x epriuta,12

48 olvursg72 éarat .991 1

’

144 fro-

rel at .4955

[See Caous ;Caos srx ;Xas'

rss ;Corvu JMETRO’POLIS.

[G ummy p . 100.

MILIA‘RE , M ILL A'

RIUM, or MI EEAS S UUM (hilltop). the Romanmile , consisted of 1000 aces of 5 feet each ,and was there are M t. Takin theRomanfoot at English inches [gas],the Romanmile would be 1618 Enlish yards ,or 142 ards

‘

less thanthe E ng ish statutemile. he most commontermfor the mile18 mills possum , or only the initials M. P. ;sometimes the word possuamis omitted . TheRomanmile contained 8 Greek stadis.

T he mile-stones alon the Roman roadswere call

eld milliar

éa. T

od

ay were al so cal ledlaptda

'

t us we ave tertiumlapidam or

Wi thout the word lapidem) for 3 mi les frdmRome. Augustus erected a gil t pil lar intheForum,where the principal roads terminated,wh ich was cal led mdltart

'

umour-

cum; but themiles were not reckoned fromit, but fromthegates of the city. Such centra lmarks appearto have beencommonintheof the Romanempire. TheinCannon-street 18 supposed to havemarkedthe centre of the Romanroads inBritain.

rincipal c itiesonstone”

MlMU S (p i g). the name b which. inme,

_

a species 0 the drama

The Greek mimus seems to have originatedamong the Greeks of S icily and southernItaly, and to have consisted originally of extemporary representations or imitations ofridiculous occurrences of commonlife at certainfestivals. At a later period these rudere

gresentations acquired amore artistic form,

W ich was brought to a high degree of per.fectionb S ephronof Syracuse (about

e wrote his pieces in the popu lardialect ofthe Dorians and a kind ofrhythmicalprose.Among the Romans the word mimus was

applied to a species of dramatic plays as wel las to the persons who acted inthem. I t iscertainthat the Romans did not derive their

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momma.money was coined . Themint of Rome wasa buildin onthe Capitoline, and attached tothe temp e of Juno Moneta, as the aerariumwas to the temple of Saturn. The officerswho had the superintendence of the mintwere the T riumv iriMonetales,whowere perha 3

firs t appointed about iw . 269. Under the re u

lie, the coining ofmoney was not a privi agewh ich belonged exclusively to the state. Thecoins struck inthe time of the republicmostlybear the names of private individuals;and itwould seemthat every Romanc itizenhad theright of having his own old and silver coinedin the public mint , an under the anerintendence of its oflicers . Stil l no one ti l thetime of the empire had the right of putting hisownimage upona coin: Julius Caesar wasthe first to whomthis privilege was granted.

MONEY. Ans ;Ancnnruat ;Aus tin]‘MONI ’LE ( pyo a neck lace . Necklaceswere wornb bo thsexes among the mostpolished of t ose nations which the Greekscalled barbarous , especial ly the Indians , theEgyptians, and the Persians. Greek and Romanfemales adopted themmore particularly asabridalornament. The were ofvarious forms,asmay be seenby the ollowing specimens

HYSTERIA.

MONTH S . CALE NDAR IUMJMONUMEN UM . [Funus, p.MOSAICS . [Donus, p . 127.

MOURN ING for the dead. EFUNU S JMULSUM. V i x en.)MUNE RA’

T R.

lEG inini ivronizs.]

MU'

NICE PS , M NICIPIUM.

1A ;Fosnaaaraa G in-rai ns.)

MUNUS. [Hortense ]MUNUS . [G nani aroans ]MURA'

LIS CORONA. [Coaona ]MU ’SCULUS was a kind of vines. one ofthe smal ler mil itarymachines, by which thebesie era of a townwere protected .

M S E’UM the name of anin

stitutionfounded by Ptolemy Philadelpbns ,about a. c . 280, for the promotionof learningand the support of learnedmen. Themuseumformed part of the palace

, and contained cloisters or porticoes (a spirrarog), a public theat reor lecture- room (éfédpa ), and a large ha l l(also ,uéyag where the learned mendinedtoget er. T e museumwas sup

ported by a

commonfund , suppl ied apparent y fromthepublic treasury ; and the whole institutionwas under the superintendence bf a riest,who was appointed by the kin an afterE gypt became a province of the omanempire, by the Caesar. Botanical and zoologica lgardens appear to have beenattached to themuseum.

MYS T E’

RIA. Thenames b whichmysteries or

_

mystic festivals were esignated inGreece, are pvo ‘

rripta.reke‘

ral, or 6pyta . Thename 6py i a (from50pm) ori

'

nal ly signifiedonly sacrifices accomanied y certainceremonies, but it was a terwards a plied mnecially to the ceremonies observ inthe worship of Bacchus , and at a stil l later period tomysteries in genera l . T ek rfi signifies, ingeneral , a religious festival, butmore partienlarly a lustrationor ceremony performed inorder to avert some calamity, either ublic orprivate. Moorriptov signifies, properlyv speak s

ing, the secret part of the werebi but itwasalso used inthe same sense as re and, and formysticworship ingeneral.Mysteries ingeneralmay be defined as as

crifices and ceremonies which took place at

night or in secret wi thin some sanctuary.which the uninitiated were not al lowed toenter. What was essential to them, wereobjects of worship, sacred utensils,traditions with their interpretation, n o

were withheld from all persons not imti~ated .

were those of Samothraceare described inseparate arti cles. E amms ia E nsusinu J

[Cow

NAUCRARIA.

NAR’NIA . Fus es. p. ISL]NAMES . ox srv.]

rNATA’

T IO,NATA O

'

RIUM. [Bu nnmr, p .NAVA '

IA, docks at Rome where shipswere buil t , laid up, and refitwd. They wereattached to the emporiumoutside ofthe PortsTrigemina, and were connected with the T iber. The emporiumand navalis were firstincluded within the walls of the city byAurelian.

0

The docks (weds-omerorveépta) inthePetraeeus atAthens 'cost 1000 talents ,and having

cers who served under himwere the trierarchsand the pentecontarchs, each of whomcommanded one vesse l ; the inferior officers inthe vessels were thev epm

'

jrat or helmsmen,the “ M oral or commanders of the rowers,and the apoparat , who must have beenemplcg

ed at the rowof the vessels.ther Gree states who kept a navy had

likewise their navarchs. The chief admiralof the Spartanfleetwas callednavarchus , andthe second incommand epistolcu:(éma‘

rol eflThe same personwasnot allowed to hold theoffice of navarchus two successive years atS parta. E ersrms us.)NAUC A'RIA vavx papr

’

a) thename of adivisionof the inabitants of Attica. Thefour ancient phylae were each divided intothree phratries, and each of these twelvephratries into fournaucraries, ofwhich therewere thus forty-eight. What the naucrarieswere previous to the legislationof Solonisnot stated anywhere , but it isnot improbablethat they were politica l divisions similar tothe domes inthe constitutionof Clisthenes,and weremade perhaps at the time of the ihstitutionof the nine archons , for the urpose

of regu lating the liturgies , taxes, or nancialand mi litary afi

'

airs ingeneral. At any rate ,however

,the naucraries before the time of

S oloncanhave had'

no connectionwith thenavy, for the Athenians thenhad no navy;

NAVIS . 219

the word valix papo therefore cannot be derived frommay, 8 ip, but must come fromvote , and vatixpapocis thus only another formforvafix l qpog inthe sense of a householder

,

as vai’

Otov was used for the rent of‘a house .

.Soloninhis legislationretained the old iasti tutionof thenaucraries, and charged eachof themwith the equipment of one triremeandwith themounting of two horsemen. Al lmi l i tary afl'

airs, as far as rega rds the defraying of expenses, probably continued as beforeto be regulated according tonaucraries . Clisthenes,mhrs change of the Solonianconsti tution, retained the divisionintonaucraries{or mi l itar

y)and financial purposes ; but he

increased t eir numbe r to fifty,making fivefor each of his tent ribes ;so that now thenumber of their ships was increased fromfortyoeight to fifty, and that of horsemenfromninety- six to one hundred . The statement ofHerodotus, that the Athenians intheir waragainst Aegina had onl y fifty ships of theirown, 18 thus perfectl inaccordance with thefifty naucranes of

‘

listhenes . The functions of the former va iixpapot, or the heads ofthei r respective naucraries , were now t rans.ferred to the demarchs. [Dnsu acun] Theobligationofeach naucrary to equip a sh ip ofwar for the service of the r

epubl i cmay be re

garded as the first form0 trierarchy. Asthe systemof trierarchy became developedand established , this obli ationof theneuereri es appears to have gra ually ceased, and to

have a leninto d isuse . nreu aceu .)NAVIS , NAVI

'

G IU (vafig, wholov), ashi

'

lehenumerous fleet with which the Greeks

sa iled to the coast ofAsiaMinor inthe Trojanwar

,must onthe whole be regarded as sufii

cient evidence of the extent to which navigationwas carried oninthose times, howevermuch of the detail inthe Homeric descriptionmay have arisenfromthe poet

’s ownimagination. Inthe Homeric cataIOgue it is statedthat each of the fifty Boeotianships carried120 warriors, and a sh ip which carried somany cannot have beenof smal l dimensions.What Homer states of the Boeotianvesselsa plies more or less to the ships of otherreeks . These boats were provided with a

mast (tank), wh ich was fastened by tworapes (npérovoz) to the two ends of the ship,so that whenthe rope connecting it with theprow broke, the mast would fal l towards theste rn, where it might ki ll the helmsman.

Themast could be erected or takendownasnecessity required. They a lso had sails (Iarla), but onl y a half-deck . Each vessel , however, appears to have had only one sail,whichwas used infavourable winds 3 and the prin

220

cipalmeans of propel ling the vessel lay intherowers,who satuponbenches (shuttle Theoars were fastened to the side of the s

'

pwithleathemthongs, inwh ich they were turnedas a key inits hole. The ships inHomer aremostly cal led black (pel awat), probably be:cause they were painted or covered Wi th a

black substance, such as pitch , to protect thewood against the influence of the water andthe air; sometimes other colours , such as

ai l -

rag, minim (a red colour), were used toadornthe sides of the shi 3 near the prow,

whence Homer occasional y cal ls shipsm1‘

rmrdpqm, i. s. red - checked ; they were a lsopainted occasiionz

al’lf);1

'with a pu rple colour(patvtx orréppm). enthe Greeks had landed onthe coast ofTroy, the ships were drawnonland , and fastened at the poop with a repsto lar stoues,which served as anchors [ANcoas T he Greeks then surrounded thefleet with a fortification, to secure it againstthe attacks of the enemy. T he customofdrawing the ships uponthe shore, whentheywere not used, was followed inlater timesalso. Homer describes inameage intheOdyssey the building of a t. U lyssesfirst cuts downwith h is ax e twenty trees, andprepares the wood forhis purpm by cuttingi t smooth and

’

ving it theproper sha He

thenbores the oles fornai s and hoo s, andfits the leaks to ether and fastens themwithnails. e roun the bottomof the ship l ikethat of a broad t ransport vessel , and raises thebu lwark (p w), fi tt ing it uponthenumerousribs of the ship . He afterwards covers thewhole of the outside with planks, which are

laid across the ribs fromthe kee l Upwards tothe bu lwark ;next the mast is made , and thesail ‘yard attached

‘

to it, and lastly the rudder.Whenthe ship is thus far completed , heraises the bu lwark stil l higher by wickerwork, which goes all around the vessel , as aretectionagainst the waves . This raisedulwark ofwicker-work and the likewasusedin later times also. For ballast U lyssesthrows into the ship 5217, which according tothe Schol iast , consisted

'

ofw stones,and

sand. Cal so thenbrings himmaterial s tomake a se

'

of, and he fastens the inrépac, orropes which run fromthe t of themast tothe two ends ofthe yard, an also the ndl oz ,with which the sai l is drawnup or let down.

The node mentioned inthis passage wereundoubte y, as inlater times, the ropes at»teched to the two lower corners of the squaresai l . The sh ip ofwhich the building is thusdesc ribed was a small boat, a ox edia as Ho.mer cal ls it;but it had, like all the Homericships, a round or flat bottom. Greater shipsmust have beenof amore compl icated strue

NAVI S.

ture, as ship -builders are praised as artists .

A representationof two boats is givenonp. 26, which appear to bear great resemblanceto the one described above.The Corinth ians were the firstwho brough t

the art of ship -buildinnearest to the point atwhich we find it int e t ime ofThucydides ,and they were the first who introduced sh ipswith three ranks of rowers (rpuipez triremes ).Abou t a. c. 700, Ameinocles, the orinthian,to whomthis inventionis ascribed ,made theSamians acquainted

‘

with it;but itmust havebeenpreceded by that of the biremesthat is, ships with two ranks of rowers, whichPliny attrib utes to the Erythraeans. Theseinnovations, however, do not seemto havebeengenerally adopted for a [on time ;forwe read that about the time of yrus (a c.

the Phocaeans introduced ships withlong and sharp keels, called wwmx évmpor.These belonged to the class of long ships ofwar (wk; pax pat and had fifty rowers,twenty -five oneac side of the shi who sat

inone row. I t is further stated , t at beforethis time vessels cal led orpoyy

'éila t , withlarge round or rather flat bottoms, had beenused exclusivel y by all the lonians inAsia.

At th is period most Greeks seem to haveadopted the long ships with only one rank ofrowers oneach side ;their name varied ac

cord ingly as they had fifty, or th irty (rpmx évropog), or even a smal ler number ol

rowers .The first G reek people who acqu ired anavy

ofimportance were the Corinthians, Samians ,and Phocaeans. ‘

Abou t the time ofCyrus andCambyses the Corinthiantriremes ‘were ri

erall adopted by the S icil iantyrants an bythe orcyraeans,who soonacquired themostpowerful navies among the Greeks. Inotherparts ofGreece, and evenat Athens and inAegina,wemost commonvesse l s about th istime were long sh ips w ith only one rank ofrowers. Athens, although

‘

the foundationofitsmaritime power had beenlaid by Solon[Nsucasnu ], did not obtaina fleet of anyimportance unti l the time of Themistocles,who persuaded themto build 200 triremesforthe po

goso of carrying onthe waragainst

Aegina. at eventhenships were not provided with complete decks ( x araorpépam)covering the whole of the vessel .

'

A completedeck appears to have beenaninventionoflater times. At the same time whenT hemistocles induced the Athenians to build a

fleet of200 sail, he al so carried a decree, that

every year twen new t riremes shou ld bebuilt fromthe p uce of the mines of Lautium. After the time of Themistocles as

many as twenty triremesmust have beenbui l t

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29s NAVIS.

warked vessels (quinqueremes) of the Cartha 8. But the Romans wou ld have beenuna Is to build others , had not fortunately aCarthaginian

fininquerenle beenwrecked on

the coast of rutti um, and fal len into theirhands. This wreck the Romans took as theirmodel , and after it buil t 120, hr. according toothers 130 ships. From this time forwardthey continued to keep up a powerful navy .Towards the end of the republic the a lsoincreasmthe size of their ships, a buil twar-vowels wi th fromsix to tenord ines ofrowers. The constructionoftheir ships, however,mrcely difl

'

ered fromthat of G reek vessels ; the only great difference was , that theRomangal ley s were provided with

‘

a greatervariety of destructive engines of war thanthemof the Greeks. Th evenerected turres and tabulata uponthe coke of their greatmen-of-war (noses tie-rites), and fought uponthemas if they were standing uponthe wa ll sof a fortrm.

The following is a l’wt of themipel partsOfancient vessels

T ksm (npépa or pérmrov, prom).0!

or at least to a level with

fore part of the ship ,was genera ll y ornamented onboth sides with figures , which wereeither painted uponthe sides or laid in. I tseems to have beenvery commonto resent aneye oneach side of the prow. Uponthe row or fore-deck therewas always someemblem by whichthe shipwas distinguished fromothers. Justbelow the prow, and projecting a litt le abovethe keel ,was the rostncm( cl og, éyfiol ovkor beak , which consisted o a beam, to whicwere attached sharp and pointed irons, or thehead of a ram, and the like. I t was used forthe pur e of attacking another vesse l andof brea ing its sides. These beaks were at

first a lways above the water, and viable ;after;wards they were a

_

tttached lower, so that

they were invisible, and thus became stillmore dangerous to other ships ,

The upperpart of the prow was frequentlymade intheformof a swan’s or goose’s neck;and ha cecal l ed chmiscm(xmuox éf), and to the extremepart of the prow, whatever itmight be , thegeneralname ofmu tation(Mpwfl ih ov ),wasven.8“

The command inthe prow of a vewelwasexercised by anofiicer cal led npupeég.whoseems to have beennext inrank to the steersman, and to have had the care of the gear,and tga command over t

he rowers .

2. 7msternor peop 1r tempt: '

) wuenerally higher thanthee)?er par

’tfu

of theeck, and init the helmsmanhad his elevated

seat. I t is seeninthe re resentations of ancient vessels to be rouner thanthe prow,

though its extremity is likewise sharp. T hestemwas , l ike the prow adorned invariou sways, but especial ly with the imm of thetu telary deity of the vessel (mu le ). I tnaquently terminates with anornament ofw@.

enplanks, cal led aphlastm M ares ) andaplusm, and sometimes it h a shame.

(See the cut, .m.) At the end of the stemwas frequent y erected a stafl

'

or pole, to

which a streamer or ribands were attached(fascia or twain) . Insome re resentations a

kind of roof is formed over t e ha d of thesteersman.

3. T he M ic of the vessel (rd S), orrather the uppermost edge of it. InMhos ts the pegs (as exual, betweenwhich the cars move, and to which they are

NAVISto occupy a

(posi

tionfromwhich they could

see fararoun and hurl their darts agamet theenemy. Such anelevated deck appears intheannexed cut, representing a M bneris . Inthisinstance the flag is standinguponthehind -deck .

5. One of themost interesting, as wel l asimportant parts inthe arrangements of thebiremes , tri remes , are , is the positionof theranks of.rowers , fromwhich the ships themselves derive theirnames. Various Opinionshave beenentertained by those who havewritten0 on this subject . Thus much iscertain, t at the different ranks of rowers,who sat along the sides of a vessel , werep laced one above the other. Inordinary vessels, fromthe moneris up to the quinqueremis, each oar was managed by one man.

The rowers sat uponlittle benches attachedto the ribs of the vessel , and cal led édé h a ,

and inLatinfon'

and transtra. The lowestrowof rowerswas cal led Odl apog, the rowersthemselves 0a “

rat orOal cimot. The uppermost ordo o rowers was called Bpé voc,and the rowers themselves Opavtrat. Themiddlz’ordo or o

crdines of rowers were call ed

we, wt, or Zrac.fTw

i

g/

ear of agsselwas divided into woodenand hanging gear (occur) game ,

x psyaaré ).

I . WoonaN G em.

1 . Oars (x é rratwemi). The col lective termfor oars is rabpé which properly signifiednoth ing but the blade or flat part of the oar,

but was afterwards used as a collective expressionfor all the oars with the exceptionof the rudder. The oars varied insize, accordingly as they were used by a lower orhigher ordo of rowers, and fromthe name of

the ordo by which they were used , they alsoreceived their especial names , viz . mtnrat Oud u u, Céymt, and Opavirtdcg. Each Athe

mast, see Auras “ .

niantrireme had onanaverage 170 rowers.Ina Romanquinquereme, durmg the first Punic war, the average number of rowers was300: inlater times we evenfind asmany as400. The lower part of the holes throughwhich the oars passed , appears to have beencovered with leather (dax upa), which al soextended a little wa outside the hole.2. T he rudder. us snnacuwu

é3. Ladders (x l tpax ldeg, scalae). sch trireme had two woodenladders.4. Pole:orpunt oles (x ovrolmonti). Three

of these belon to every trireme, whi chwere ofdifl

'

erent lengths.5. Parasratae (rr af firm), or supports forthemasts They

(

33mto have beena

I I. HANG ING Gai n. .

1 . H z omata (more ra) ,were thickbroad$23 which ran{i

l

i

u

s horizontal dircetionaround the ship fromthe stemto therow, and were intended to kee the wholebric together. They ranroun the vesse l

inseveral circles, and at certaindistancesfromone another. The Latinname for{mo40 is rormenmm. Sometimes they weretafgnonboard whena vesse l sailed. andnotput ontill itwas thought necessary. Theact ofputting themonwas cal le d dyroCmvmivacor dcaC

‘

wvvfivac, or (door. A tri reme required four t'nroCépara.

2. T he sail (lart'

ov, velwn) . Most ancientship‘s had onl y one sail, .whi ch was attached

wit the yard to the greatmast. Ina tri reme,too, one sailmight be sufficient, but the trierarchmight nevertheless add a second. Aseach of the two masts of a trireme had twosailo yards, it further follows that each mastmight have two sails,one ofwhichwas placedlower thanthe other. The two belonging tothe mainmast were robably ca l led lof tspeyé l a . and those of t e foremast torta drairta. The former were u sed onordinary occasions , but the latter probably onl incaseswhen itwas necessary to sa i lwit ex traor

dinary speed . The sail s of the Attic wargal leys, and ofmost ancient ships ingeneral ,were of a square form. Whether triangularsails were ever used by the Greeks

, as hasbeenfrequently supposed , is very doubtful.

224 Navre.

The Romans, however,need triangular sails ,which they cal led suppara , and wh ich hadthe shape of aninverted Greek A (v), theU pper side ofwhichwas attached to the yard.3. T he carriage (ran

-

cia) differed fromtheox owta. The a owfa mm) are the stro

enigropes to which t e auc ors were attachand by which a shipwas fastened to the land;

21mg)

with the pole conorMania.

Gnom cvdmn,mddlwv.

whi le the retrainwere a lighter kind of ropesandmade w i th greater care, which were a ttached to themasts, yards , and sails . E a c hrope of this kindwasmade fora distinct purpose and

’Place S

rorrog, whence theremain). he fol owmg kinds aremostworthy oi notice: a. x al é dta ormi les are t heropes by which themas twas fastened to both

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226 NE K UM. NOMEN.

taken fromS irWil liamHamilton's vases , time be publ icly ex osed the debtor onthreeshows a priestess of Bacchus inthe attitude nundinae, and proc aimed the amount of hrsof offering a rubric to himor to- one of his debt. Ifno personreleased the prisone r byministers. payin the debt, the creditor mi ht se l l himNEMEA (véy sa, vermin. or venom), the as a s ave orput himto death . I there we reNemeangames , one of the four greatnati ona l severa l cred itors, the letter of the lawal l owfestivals of the Greeks. I t was held at Ne ed themto cut the debtor inpieces, and tomen, a lace near Cleonae inArgolis , and rs take their share of his body inproportiontosaid to ve beenorigina l l y instituted 'by the their debt. There isno instance of a cred itorSevenagainst Thebes incommemorationof ever having adopted this extreme mod e ofthe death ofOpheltes , afterwards ca l led Ar satisfying his debt. But the caeditormightcheme rna. They were revived by ’Hercu les, treat the debtor,whowas addictus, as a slave ,after he had slainthe Nemeanlion and were and compel himtowork out his debt;and thefromthis time celebrated inhonour ofJupiter. treatment was oftenvery severe .The games were at first of a warlike charac The Lex Poetilia (s . c . 326) al leviated theter, and only warriors and their sons were conditionof thenex i. So faras we canuno

al lowed to take part inthem;subsequently, derstand its provisions, it set all the h exi free ,however, they were thrownopento all the ormade themsafari, and it enacted that forGreeks. The various games were horse the futu re there should be no nexum, andracin running in

‘

armour in the stadi um, thatno debtor should for the future be put inwrest ing, chariot- racing and the discus, box chains.ing, throwing

hthe spear and shootingWi th the NO'

BILES . [Novt Horu rtns.

bow, towhic we may addmusical contests. NOMEN (dvopa), a name . e GreeksThe rize givento the victors was at first a bore only one name , and it was one of the eschapiiat of olive-branches , but afterwards it pecia l rights of a father to choose the nameschaplet of greenparsley. The presidency of forhis children,and to alter themifhe pleased ,these games, and the management of them,

belonged at different times to Cleones , Corinth, and Argos . They were celebratedtwice inev Olympiad , v iz . at the com.

mencement every second ‘Olymp ic year,inthe winter, and soonafter the commencement of every fou rth Olympic yea r, inthesummer.NE’NIA. (Fox es, p.

NEXUM, was either the transfer of theownership of a thing, or the transfer ofa thingto a creditor as a security : accordingl inonesense Nexuminc luded Manci ium auc tPttm] ; in another sense, ancipiumandNexumare Opposed inthe sameway inwhichSale and Mortgage or Pledge are opposed .

The forma l part of both transactions cons istedina transfer per ass at fibrom.

The personwho becamenex us by the effectofa ass

-umor nex us (for this formof the word

also is used)was saidnemminfra. The phrases nee-i datia, nari liberaria, respectively express the contracting and the release fromtheobliiation.

T e Romanlawas r to the payment ofborrowed mon was very strict. B a law ofthe Twelve ables, if the debtor a mitted thedebt, or had beencondemned inthe amountof the debt by a judex, he had thirty days all owed himfor payment. At the expirationofthis time, hewas liable to be assigned over tothe creditor (add ictus) by the sentence of therector. The creditor was

.

required to itimfor sixty days inchains, during “thigh

I t was customary to '

ve to the eldest sonthename of the grandfat er onh is father’s sideand childrenusual ly received theirnames onthe tenth day after their birth.

Originel l every Romancitizenbelonged toa gens, a derived hisname (nomenornomengentilicr

’mn) fromhis gens, which nomengentiliciumgeneral ly terminated inius . Besidesthis, every Romanhad a name, cal l ed pracnommmhich preceded thenomengentilicium,

and which was pecu liar to himas anindivi ‘dual , 3 . g. Cains, Lucius, Marcus, Cneius,Sextus

, dtc. This praenomenwas at a late rtime givento boys onthe ninth day after theirbirth, and to gi rls onthe eighth day. Thisday was cal led dies Iustricus, dies nominan or

nominalia. The praenomengivento a boywas inmost cases that of the fathe r, butsometimes that of the grandfather or great 4grandfather. Thesemonames , a pramommand a nomengentilicium, or simplynomm.wereindispensab le to a Roman, and they were at

the same time sufficient to designate him;hence the numerous instances ofHumans being designated onl y by these twonames, evenincases where a third or fourth name waspossessed by the person.

Every Romancit izen, besides belonging toa gens, was al so frequent ly a member of afami lia. contained ina gens , and accordinglmight have a third name or cognomen. S uccognomina were derive

gohiythe Romans from

a variety ofmental or ily pecu liarities , orfromsome remarkable event inthe life of the

NOMOTHE T AE .

gersonwho was the founder of the familia.

uch cognomina are ,Asper, lmperiosus, Magnus, Maximus , Publicola, Brutus, Capito,Cato

,Naso, Labeo, Caecus, C icero , Scipio,

Su l la, T orquatus , dcc. Thesenames were inmost cases hereditary, and descended to thelates t membe rs of a famil ia ;insome casesthey ceased with the death of the persontowhomthey were

'

venfor specia l reasons.Many Romans ha a second cognomen(cognomensccundumor agnomen wh ich was givento themas an honorary istinction, and incommemorationof some memorable deed orevent of their l ife, e. g . Africaii us , Asiaticus,H ispallus , C retensis , Macedonicus, Allobrogions , doc. S uch agnomina were sometimesgivenby one general to another, sometimes bthe army and confirmed by the chief-generasometimes by the people inthe comitia , andsometimes they were assumed by the personh imself, as inthe case of L. Cornel i us Sc ipioAsiaticus.

The regu lar order inwhich these namesfollowed one another was z— l . praenomen;2 . nomengentilicium;3. cognomeii primum;4. cognomensecundumor agnomen. S omet imes the name o f the tribe to which a ersonbelonged , was adde d to his name

,int e ab:

lative case, as Q .Verres llomilia, C . ClaudiusPalatine.

If a person by adoptionpassed fromonegens into another, he assumed the praenornen,nomen. and cognomenof his ado tive father

,

and added to these the name 0 his formergens

,with the termination anus . Thus 0 .

Octavius , after being adopted by h is uncleC . Ju lius Caesar, was ca l led C . Juliua CaesarOctavianus. and the sonof L. Aemilius Paul .lus, whenadopted b P. Cornel ius Sc ipio,was ca l led P. Corrie ius S cipio Aernilianus .

[Aooe'no ]

S laves had only one name , and usual ly retaine d that wh ich they had home before theycame into slavery . If a slavewas restored tofreedom, he received the praenomenand nomengentiliciumof his formermaster, and tot hese was added the name wh ich he had hadas a slave. Instances of such freedmenare

,

T . Ampius Menander, a freedmenof’

l‘

. Am.

p ius Balbus , L. Cornel ius Chrysogonus , a

freedmenof L. Corne l ius S ulla , and M. T ul

l ius Tiro, freedmenofM. Tu l lius C icero.

NOMO'

T HBTAR movers brprOposers of laws, the name of a legislativecommittee at Athens, which , by aninstitutionof S olon, was appointed to amend andrevise the laws. At the first x vpla éx x ilrzalainevery year, any personwas at liberty topoint out defects inthe ex isting code or propose al terations . if hi s motionwas deemed

NORMA.

worth ofattention, the third assemblymightrefer t e matter to the Nomothetes. Theywere

‘

selected by lot fromthe Heliastic bodit be ing the intentionof Solonto limit the

appointedvaried according to the exigency ofthe occas ion. T he people a pointed five advocates la

'uvdtx or) to attend lbefore the boardandmaintainthe policy of the existing institutton. If the proposed measure met theapproval of the committee, it passed into lawforthwith. Besides this , the Thesmothetaewere official ly authorised to review the wholecode , and to refer to the l't'omothetae all stat~uteswh ich they considered unworthy of beingretained .

Hence ap cars the difference betweenPsephisma rope ) and Nomos (vdy oc). Themere reso utionof the people inassemblywas a psephisma , and only remained inforcea year, like a decree of the senate . Nothingwas a law that did not pass the ordeal of theNomothetae.

NONAE . [CALE NDAR IUBL]NORMA (yvéywv), a square used by carpentere,masons , and other artificers tomakhtheir work rectangu lar. I t was made by

g three flat woodenrulers of equal thickone of thembeing ‘two feet tenincha

Norma, Square.

NUBUS .

long, the others each two feet long, and join.ing themtogether by their ex trermties, so asto assume the formofa right-angled triangle.Thismethod, though onlya close approx imation,must have beenqui te sufficient for allcommonpurposes . ’

For the sakep fconveniéence, the longest side, i. c. the h otenuse ofthe triangle, was discarded , an the instrument thenassumed the forminwhich it isexhibited, among other tools, ona tomb foundat Rome, and which resembles that inmodernuse. A square of a stillmore simple fashionmade bymerely cutting a rectangu lar pieceout of a board is shownonanother sepulchralmonument and copied inthe woodcut whichis here introduced .

NO’

I‘

A CENSO'RIA. [Cameos ]NOVE NDIA’

LE (sc. sacrum). l . A festival lasting nine days

,which was celebrated

as oftenas stones rained fromheaven. It

was original ly instituted by Tu l lus Hostilius,whenthere was a shower of stones upontheMons Albanus, andwas frequent lycelebratedinlater times. 2. This name was also gi vento the sacrifice performed nine days a fter afuneral . Punus.NOVI O

’MlN S. After the senate andthe higher ofiices of the state were opened tothe plebeians , a neworder ofnobili ty arose ,and the termNobiles was ap

plied to those

persons whose ancestors had enma tra

tus curules and who were entitled to t ejusimaginam. [Maorsrau us l ined ] Thosersons, on the contrary, whose ancestorsad not beenso distinguished, were,

calledI iles ;and whenthose who belonged tot e latter class obtained any of the highermagistracies, they were cal led Noni Hominesor 11 starts. Thenobiles attempted to keepall t e hi her odiosa of the state intheir ownbody , an violently 0p ed all candidateswho did not belon to t eir order. Some ofthemost distinguis edmeninthe state were,however,novi homines, as T. Coruncanius,who l ived before the first Punic war, Sp.

Carvilius, M. Cato, Mummius, the conquerorof Achaia, C. Marius, and Cicero.NUDUS (yvyvog). These words, besidesdenoting absolute nakedness, were appli edto any one who, being without anArri e

'

ros,wore onl y his tunic or indutus. Inthis stateofnudity the ancients performed the Operations of ploughing, sowing and reaping. Theaccom nying woodcut shows amanploughih in

'

s tunic only.'

s termap lied to the warrior expressedthe absence 0 some part of his armour.Hence the light-armed yvere cal led yvy vfirsg.[Anus ]

NUMMULA’

RIIorNUMULA'RII. [Mim

SAR IX.

N UllMU S orHUMUS . [Sang u ine ]NU '

NDINAB is derived by all the ancientwri ters fromnasemand dies , so that it literal lysignifies the iunth

'

dracy

. Every eighth day,according to our in e of speaking

, was anundinae, and there were thus always sevenordinary days betweentwo nundinae. T heRomans intheir peculiarmode of reckoningadded these twonundinae to the sevenordi

'

nary.days, and consequently said that the

nundinne recurred everyninth da and cal ledthemnundinae, as it werem anila“ .

Thenumber ofnundinne inthe ancient yearof tenmonths was 38. They were originallmarket-days for the coun folk, onwhichthey came to Rome to as the produce ofthei r labour, and onwhich the k ing settledthe legal disputes among them. When

,there

fore, we read. that the nundines were feriae,ordiesnefasti , and thatno comitiawere allowed to be held, we have to understand this ofthe populus or

.

patricians, and not of theplebes ;and

’while for the populus thenundinae were feriae, they were real days of business (diesfasti or comitialcs) for the plebeians,who onthese occasions pleaded their causesWi th members of their ownorder

, and heldthei r ublicmeetings (the ancient comi tia ofthe p ebeians). Alterwards thenundinae became fast i for both orders, and this innovat ionfacilitated the attendance of the lebelane at the comitia centuriata. The eu jectsto be laid before the comitia ,

whether theywere proposals fornew laws, or the appointment of ofiicers, were announced to the people three nundinne beforehand (trivmdino die

sometimes used,but onlywhenit is precededBay

anumeral, as intrimmdmumor trim mm

NU’

PT IAE . [Mu nmoswm]

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230 OLYMPIA .

assistance of Lycur s, the 8 anlawgi ver,and Cleosthenes o P isa. he date of thisevent is

'

venby some writers as a. c . 884,and by ot ers as a. c . 828. The interval offour years betweeneach celebrationof thefestival was cal led an Olympiad but theOlympiads were not emplo ed as a chronolo

“

cal aera ti l l the victory o Coroebus intheoot- race, a. c . 776. [Onvmvi i s ]Themost imortant point inthe renewal ofthe festival by phitus was the establishmentof the E cecheiria (éx ex srpla) , or sacred armistice. The proclamationwasmade by peaceheralds (mrovdopépm), first inElis and after.wards inthe other parts of Greece ;it put a

amp to allwarfare forthemonth inwhich thegames were celebrated , and whichwas cal ledthe sacred month (lrpopnvla). The territoryof E lie itselfwas concidered especial ly sacredduring its continuance, and no armed forcecould enter it without incurring the guil t ofsacri lege.The Olympic festivalwas probably confined

at first to the Peloponnesians ;but as its cc

lebrity extended. the other Greeks took partinit, til l at length it became a festival for thewhole nation. No one was al lowed to con.

tend inthe games but persons of pure Hel lenic blood : barbariansmight he s ectators, butslaves were entirely ex clud After theconques t of Greece by the Romans, the latterwere al lowed to take part inthe games.No womenwere al lowed to be present orevento cross the Alpheu s during the celebra

the games , under penalty of beinghurled downfromthe T ypaean rock , butwomenwere al lowed to send chariots to theraces. The number of spectators at the festive l was very great ;and these were drawntogether not merel

yby the desire of seeing

the mes , but part y through the opportunityit a orded themof carrying oncommercia lt ransactions with persons fromdistant places ,as is the case with the Mohammedanfestivalsat Mecca and Medina. Many of the personspresent were also deputies (Gemof) sent torepresent the various states of (graces ;andwe find that these embassies vied w ith oneanother inthenumber of their offerings, andthe splendour of their general a pearance , inorder to support the honour 0 their native

first fu llmoonafter the summer solstice. I tlasted , after all the contests had beenintro

duced, five days fromthe 1 1th to the 1sthdays of themont inclusive. The fourth dayof the festival was the 14th of the month ,wh ichwas the dayofthe ful lmoon,andwhichdivided themonth into two equal parts.The festival was under the immediate eu

perintendence of the OlympianJupiter,whosetem ls at Olympia, adorned with the statueof t e god made by Phidias, was one of themost splendid works ofart inG reece. Therewere also tern les and altars tomos t of theother gods. T e festival itselfmay be dividedinto two parts, the games or contests (dydm’Ol vmrtcutég) , and the fes tive rites (form?)connected Wi th the sacrifices, with the processions, and with the public banquets inhonour of the conquerors .The contests consisted of various trial s ofstrength and skill . which were increased innumber fromtime to time. There were inalltwenty -four contests , eighteeninwhichmentook

s

art, and six inwhich boys engaged ,thoug they were never all exhibited at onefestival , since some were abolished almostimmed iately after their institution, and othersafter they had beeninuse onl y a short time.We subjoina list of these fromPausanias ,w ith the date of the introductionof each ,commencing fromthe Olympiad ofCoroebus—1. The foot - race (dpéyog), which was theonly

contes t during the first 13 Ol m ieda .

2. he diavl og, or foot- race , inw ic th estadiumwas traversed twice,first introducedinG I. 14. 3. The 6619109 3 sti ll longer footrace thanthe dlavl og, introduced in0 1. 15 .

For amore particular account of the dla vl ogand dél tx og, see 8 7 1 01031. 4. Wrest ling(new), and , 5. The Pentathlum(névrafll ov ),which consisted of five exercises [PE NT Aruwn], both introduced in01. 18. 6. Box .

ing (vi-syn?) introduced in01. 23. Pos tu

rus.)h

. l‘

h

ezchariot-r

gce, v

v’i th our ful l

grown orses m v rs claw o a

introduced in0 1. 25. 8. T hepélgl

arfcr‘

z

zifil

udi(frayx pdrtov) [PANCRAT IUM and, 9. Thehorse - race ( irrrroc bot introduced in0 1. 33. 10 and 1 1. The foot- race and wrestling for boys , both introduced in01. 37. 12.

The Pentathlumfor b 3, introduced in01.38 , but immediately twarda abolished.

13. Boxing for boys, introduced in 41.14. The loot- race, inwhichmenranwith theequipments of heavy-armed soldiers (rawormer» (lpéflog), introduced inOl. 65, onaccount of its t rainingmenforactual service inwar. 15. T he chariot - race withmules (d inivq), introduced in01. 70;and , 16. The horserace w ith mares (M imi). introduced inCI.72, both ofwhich were abolished in01. 84.

17. T he chariot- race with two ful l -grown

OLYMPIA .

ho rses (Imrcrv f el t-towm op! introducedinOl.93. The contestofheralds (m

'

ypv

x cg) and trumpeters (calmyx ral), introducedin01. 96. 20. The chariot- race with fourfoal s new dppaatv), introduced in01. 99.

21 . T e chariot- race with two foals (né l uvovv ig), introduced in01. 128. 22. Thehorse - race wi th foa ls ( i i-G l oc introduced luol. 131. 23. The Pancratiumforboys,introduced in01. 145. 24. There was al so ahorse race ( imm;rising) inwhich bo s rode,butwedonot know the time ofits int uction.The judges inthe Olympic Games, cal led

Hollanodi'

cae were appointedby the -Eleans , who had the re ulationof thewhole festival. I t appears to ve beenori

'

nal l y under the superintendence ofPisa, int e neighbourhood of which Olymis wassituated , but after the conquest of elo nnesus by the Dorians onthe returnofthe era

clidae, the Aetolians, who had beenof rest

assistance to the Heraclidae, settled in lis,and fromthis time the AetolianEleans oh

tained the regu lationof the festival, and appointed the presiding officers.The Hellanodicae were chosenby lot from

the whole body of the E leans. Their number varied at different periods, but at a latertime there were eight Hellanodicae. Theiroflice probably lasted for only one festival .They had to see that all the laws relating tothe games were observed b the competitorsand others, to determine t e prizes, and to

give themto the conquerors. Anappeal layromtheir decisionto the Eleansenate . U h

der the d irectionof the Hellanodicae was acertainnumber ofAlytas (M irror) with anAlytarchcs (dl vrdpxng) at their head , whoformed a kind of pol ice, and carried into executionthe commands of the Hellanodicae.

There were also various other‘minor ofiicers

under the control of the Hellanod icae.

All free G reeks were al lowed to contend inthe games , who had complied with the rulesprescribed to candidates . The uestriancontests were necessari ly confine to thewea lthy ;but the poorest citizens could contend inthe athletic games. This, however,was far fromdegrading the games inpublicopinion;and some of the noblest as well asmeanest citizens of the state took art inthese contests. The owners of the c ariotaand horses were not obliged to contend inperson;and the weal thy vied with one another ia thenumber and magnificence of thechariots and horses which they sent to thegames .All pe rsons, who were about to contend,

had to prove to the Hellanodicae that theywere freeman, and ofpure Hel lenic blood, that

231

the had not beenbranded with atimia, nor

gu

'

ty of any sacrilegious act. They furtherad to prove

o

that they hadundergone the preparatory training (a yvitvdopara) for tenmonths previous. Al com

'petitors were oblig

ed , thirty days before the estival , to undergocertainexercises inthe Gymnasiumat E lia, uhder the superintendence of the Hellanodicae.

The competitors took their laces by lot.The herald thenproclaimed the name andcountry ofeach competitor. Whenthey wereall ready to beginthe contest. the judges exhorted themto acquit themselves nobly

, andthengave the signal to commence.The only rize givento the conqueror was

a garland 0 wi ld olive (fairway) , cut froma

sacred olive tree, which grew inthe sacredgrove ofAltis inOlympia. The victor wasoriginal ly crowned upona tripod

'covered wi thbronze, but afterwards upona tablemade ofivory and gold. Palmbranches, the commontokens of victory onother occasions, wereplaced inhis hands. Thename of the victor,and that ofhis father and ofhis country ,werethenproclaimed by a herald before the representatives of assembled Greece. The festivalended with processions and sacrifices

,and

with a publ ic banquet ivenby the Eleans tothe conquerors inthe rytaneum.

The“most powerful states cons idered an

Olympie‘

s ictor gained by one of their citizens, to confer enent U ponthe state to wh ichhe belonged ; and a conqueror usual ly hadimmunities and privileges conferred uponhimby the gratitude of his fellowocitiz ens. Onhis returnhome the victor entered the city ina triumphal procession, inwhich his rai seswere celebrated , frequently in the oftieststrains ofpoetzy

. [Arnns'

ras

i]

As persons romall parts 0 the Hel lenicworld were assembled together at the OlympicGames, it was the best opportunity whichthe artist and the writer possessed ofmakingtheir works known. I t infact, to some extent, answered the same urpose as the pressdoes inmoderntimes. efora the inventionof printing, the reading of anauthor's worksto as large anassembly as could be obtained ,was one of the easiest and surest modes ofpublishn

'

them and this was a favouritepractice of the Greeks and Romans. Accordme we findmany instances of l iterary worksthus published at the Olymic festival. Herodotus is said to have read is h istory at thisfestival ;but though there are some reasonsfor doubting the correctness ofthis statement,there are numerous other writers who thusublished their works, as the sophist Hippies ,Prodicus of Ceos

,Anax imenes, the orator

Lysias, Dio, Chrysostom, di e. It must be

bome inmind that theoe recitations werenotcontests, and that they formed properly nopart of the fes tival. lathe sameway paintersand other artists exhibited thei r works at

01 men.

L MPIAS anOlympi ad ,themost celebrated chronolo '

calaera amongthe G reeks, was the peri of four years ,which elapsed between each ce lebrationofthe Olympic Games . The Olympiads beto be reckoned fromthe victory of Coroe us

inthe foot- race, which happened inthe years . c. 776. Timaeus of S ici ly , however, whoflourished s . c. 204, was the first write r whoregu larl y arranged events according to theconquerors ineach Olymiad.

.

His practiceof recording events by lymé

nads was fol~lowed b Polybius , Diodorus iculus, Dionysius of alicarnassus, dtc.

The write rs who make use of the aera ofthe Olympiads, usual l y give the number ofthe Olympiad (the first corresponding to n. c.

and thenthe name of the conqueror inthe foot- race. S ome write rs al so speak ofevents as happening inthe first, second , third,or

O

fourth year, as t he casemay be, of a certamOlympiad ;but others do not

'

ve theseparate years of each Olympiad. T e rulesfor converting Olympiads '

into the year B. c.,

and vice versa, aregivenunder Cans s oaarux ,

p. 58 ;but as this 18 troublesome, we subjoinor the use of the student a l ist of the Olympiads. with the years of the Christianaeracorres ndin to themfromthe beginning of

the O ympia s to A. D. 301. To save 8 ace,

the separate years of each Olymiad,wit thecorresponding years a. c. , are ony givenfromthe 47th to the l26th Olymiad, as this is themost important period of recianh istory ;inthe other Olympiads thefirst year onl y is given.

Inconsult ing the fol lowing table itmust beborne inmind , that the Olympic G ames werecelebrated about midsummer, and that theAttic year commenced at about the sametime. If, therefore , anevent happened i nthesecond half of the Attic ear, the yearmust be reduced by 1. bus S oc rates wasput to death inthe lat

(yea

rof the 95th Olym

iad, which correspons inthe following tale to B . c. 400;but as his death happened inTharge lion, the 11thmonth of the Attic year,the year a. 0. must be reduced b

y“?which

gives us B . c . 399, the true date of death.01. a. c. 01. a. c. 01.B . C.

776 1 1. 752 7 1 . 728 13 1 .

772 2 1 . 748 8 1 . 724 14 1 .

768 3 1 . 744 9 1 . 720 15 1 .

764 4 l . 740 10 1 . 716 16 1 .760 5 1 . 736 1 1 1 . 712 17 l .756 6 l . 732 12 1. 708 18 l .

n. C.

700

524"64

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234 0111 01121111.

nobilit consisting of weal thy plebeians as The Pythia the spewing) was alway s awel l agpatricians, had beenformed , and oc native of Delphi, and whenshe had once encupied the place formerly held by the patrieiaus, the termOptimates beganto be appliedfrequently to arsons belon ing to this neworder of nob es, and most y comprehendedthe ordo senatorius and the ordo equestris.

Whenat a stil l later period the interests ofthe senators and equites became separated,thename Optimates was used ina narrowersense and onl y comprised the party consisting ofthe senate and its cham ions, inoppos itionto the popular part

yw

'

eh was nowsometimes designated by t 13name of Plebs.ORA’CULUM (yucvrsiov, x pfleréptov)was

used by the ancients to designate both therevelat ionsmade by the deity toman, as wel las the place inwhi ch such revelations weremade. The deitywas innone of these placesbelieved to appear in raonto man

,and to

communicate to him '

s will or knowledgeof the future, but all oracu lar revelations weremade through some kind ofmedium, whichwas different inthe different places whereoracles existed. It may, at first sight, seemstrange that therewere, comparatively speaking, so few oracles of J 11 iter, the father and

ru er of ods andmen. ut al though , accordin to t e belief of the ancients , Jupiter himsel was the first source of all oracular revelations, yet hewas too far abovemento enterwith theminto an c lose relation;other godstherefore

,es cially Apollo, and evenheroes,

acted asm tors betweenJupiter andmen,andwere, as itwere, the organs through whichhe communicated his Will. The ancientsconsul ted the wi l l of the ode onall impor~tant occasions of

public and rivate life, s ince

they Were unwil ing to unertake anythingof importance wi thout their sanction.The most celebrated oracle was that ofApollo at Delphi. Its ancient name was Pytho. Inthe centre of the temple there wasa smal l opening (1 601111) inthe ground , fromwhich , from tune to time , anintoxicatingsmoke arose which was believed to comefromthe well of Cassotis, which vanishedinto the ground close by the sanctuary. Overthis chasmthere stood a h igh tripod onwhichthe Pythia, led into the temple by the prophetes flpOMmg). took her seat wheneverthe orac e was to be consulted . The smokerising fromunder the tri od affected her braininsuch amanner that s e fel l into a state ofdelirious intoxication, and the sounds whichshe uttered inthis state were believed to containthe revelations ofApol lo. These soundswere carefu l l writtendownb the prophetes,and afterwar s communies to the personswho had come to consul t the oracle.

tered the se rv ice of the god she never left it.and was never al lowed to marry. Inearlytimes she was always a youn gi rl, but subsequent lyno one was elect as rophetesswho had not attained the age of ii y years .The Del hians, or,more proper] speaking ,the noble milies of Delphi , had the superintendence of the oracle. Among the Delphianaristoc racy, however, there were five familieswhich traced their originto Deucalion, andfromeach of these one of the five pries ts

,

cal led Bosiat(60 1m).was taken. The Hos ioi'

,

together with the high priest or mphetes .held their offices for l ife, and had t e contro lof all the affairs of the sanctuary and of thesacrifices. That these noble families had animmense influence uponthe oracle is manifest fromnumerous instances, and it is notimprobable that they were its very sou l , andthat itwas they who dictated the pretendedrevelations of the god.

Moat of the oracular answers which are

extant , are inhexameters, and inthe Ionicdialect. S ometimes, however, Doric formsalso were used.

No reli'

ous institutioninall antiquity obtained suc a paramount influence inGreec eas the oracle ofDelphi. Whenconsul ted ona subject of a religious nature, the answerwas invariably of a kind calculated not onl yto protect and preserve re ligious institutions,but to command newones to be establishedso that it was the preserver and promoter ofreligionthroughout the ancient world. Colonies were seldomornever founded withouthaving obtained the advice and the direc tionsof the Delphic god . The Delphic orac le hadat all times a leaning infavour of the Greeksof the Doric race , but the time whenit beganto lose its influence must be dated fromtheperiod whenAthens and Sparta entered upontheir struggle for the supremacy inGreece ;for at this time the partiality for Sparta hecame so manifest, that the Athenians andtheir party began to lose all reverence andeswemfor it, and the oracle became amereinstrument inthe hands of a pol itical party.Of the other orac les , the most celebratedwere that ofApol lo at Didyma.usual ly cal ledthe oracle of the Branchidae, inthe territoryofMiletus that ofJupiter, atDodona,wherethe oracle was

'

venfromsounds producedby the wind ;that ofJupiter Ammon, inanoasis inLibya, not far fromthe boundariesof Egypt ; that ofAmph iaraus , betweenPot.nias and Thebes, where the hero was saidto have been swal lowed up by the ea rth ;andthat ofT rophonius,atLebadea, inBoeotia.

OS CILLUM. PAEAN . 235

ORCHESTRA . [T ns a'raura]

ORC INU SORDO is appl ied to any y ofmen, who

forma distinct class inthe community , eitherYby possess ing distinct privi leges , pursuingcertain trades or professions, or inany otherway. Thus the whole body of sacerdotes atRome is spokenof as anordo, and separateecc lesias tical corporations are cal led by thesame title . T he l ibertini and scribae alsoformed separate ordines. T he senate and theequites are also spokenof respectively as theordo senatorius and ordo equestris, but thisname is never ap

plied to the plebes . Accord

magi}

we find 1 6 ex pression, utcrque ordo,

~u w ithout any farther ex planationto designate the senatorial and ec

gpestrianordines .

T e senatoria l ordo ,as the ighest, is some

t imes distinguished as amplix s imas ordo.

T he senate incolonies and municipia wascal led ordo decurionum and sometimes simply ordo .

The termordo is also applied to a companyor tr00p of so ldiers , and is used as equivalentto centuria : thus centurions are sometimescal led qui

'

ordina durcr unf, and the first ccn.

tu ries ina le'

onpri'

mi ordines . E venthecenturions of t i e first centuries are occas ionall cal led primi ordines .

O’RG IA. Mvsr aau jOS CHOP O

’

R lA (bex odéprafiax ooéptal,anAttic festival, which , according to somewriters,was celebrated inhonour ofM inerva,and Bacchus

,and according to others

, inhonour of Bacchus and Ariadne. It is said

to have beeninstituted by Theseus. It wasa vintage festival , and its name is derivedfroméex og, 150x 053 or a branch of vineswi th graOSOI LUM , a diminutive through osculum

fromas ,meaning a l ittle face ,

”was the termapplied to faces or heads of Bacchus , whichwere sus ended inthe vineyards to be turnedinevery ee tionby thewind . Whichsoever

PAEAN'(nazrjuv , nerdy , a hymn

or song.wh ich was originall sung inhonourofA ol lo. It was always 0 a joyous nature,and ts tune and sounds expressed hepe andconfidence. It was a song of thanksgiving

,

whendanger was passed , and also a hymntopropitiate the god. Itwas sung at the solemn

way they looked they were supposed tomake,the vines inthat quarter frui tfu l . T he left ‘hand figure inthe recedingcut rea thecountenance of Bacchus w ith a beaumild , and propitious expression. The othe rfigure represents a treewith four oscilla hunguponits branches . A syrinx and a pedumare placed at the root of the treeOS T IA

’RIUM, a tax uponthe doors of

houses , which appears to have beensometimes levied inthe provinces . There was a

similar tax , cal led columnar-rum, imposed uponevery i l lar that supported a house.O

’

S lUM . [Jarwm]OS

’

I‘

RAC IS M . [ E XS ILIUM ]OVA

’

T IO , a lesser t riumph . T he circumstances by wh ich it was d istinguished fromthe more imosing so lemnity [T atum’uus]were the fo lowing — T he genera l d id notenter the city in a chariot drawn by fourhorses, but onfoo t :he was not arrayed ina gorgeous gold embroidered robe , but inthes imple toga praetex ta of a magistrate ;hisbrows were encircled with a wreath,not oflaure l but ofmyrtle ;he bore no sceptre inhis hand the processionwasnot heralded bytrumpets. headed by the senate, and throngedwith victorious troops , but was enlivened bya crowd of flute-

players, attended chiefly bknights and plebei ans. frequently without sodiers : the ceremonies were concluded by thesacrifice , not of a bu l l but of a sheep . T heword ovatio seems clear] to be derived fromthe kind of v ictimofl

'

er

Anovationwas granted whenthe edvehtage gained, a lthough considerable, was notsufficient to constitute a legitimate claimtothe higher distinctionof a triumph , or whenthe v ictory had been achieved with litt lebloodshed ;or whenhostilities had not beenregu larly proclaimed ;or whenthe war hadnot beencompletely terminated or whenthecontest had beencarried onagainst base andunworth foes ;and hence whenthe servi lebands 0 Athenianand Spartacus -were destroyed by Perperna and Crassus, these leaders celebrated ovations only.OVI 'LE . [COMIT IA, p.

236 PAENULA.

festivals ofApollo, and especiall y at the Hyacinthia. The paeanwas also sun as a bat

t le- song, both before anattack ont e enemyand after the battle was finished. I t is certain. that the paeanwas inlater times sungto the honour of other 3 besides Apollo.Thus Xenophonrelates t at the Greek armyinAsia sun a paeanto Ju iter.FAEDA O '

G U S (mu aywycig), a tutor.The oflice of tutor ina Grecianfami ly of rankand opulencewas assigned to one of themosttrustworthy of the slaves. The sons of hismaster were committed to his care onattaining their sixth or seventh year, their previouseducationhaving beenconducted byfemales.They remained with the tutor unti l they attained the age of puberty. His duty wasrather to guard themfromevil , both physicalandmoral , thanto communicate instruction.

He went with themto and fromthe schoolor the G vumswm;he accompanied themout of doors onall occasions ;hewas res nsible for their personal safety, and for t eiravoidance of bad company.

Inthe Romanempi re thenamefinedagogi

or poedu gift was givento beaut'

1 youngslaves,w o discharged inthe imperial palacethe duties of the modernpage, which is infact a corru tionof the ancientname.PAR’NU a thick cloak, chiefly usedby the Romans intravelling, instead of thetoga, as a protectionagainst the cold and rain.

It appears to have hadno sleeves, and onl y

PALA.

i is

anopening for the head, asceding figure.PAGANA'LIA. [Paon]PAGA’

NI. [Paon]PAGI , were fortified places inthe neighbourhood ofR ome, to which the country-peolemight retreat incase of a hostile inroad .

glach of the country tribes is said to havebeendivided by Numa into a certainnumberofpa i ;which name was givento the country joining the fortified vil lage, as wel l asto the vil la e itself. There

,was amagist rate

at the heat?of each pagus, who kept a regis‘terof thenames and of the property of allpersons inthe pagus , raised the taxes, andsummoned the

,people, when”

necessary, towar. Ea ch pa 8 had its ownsacred rites

,

and anannual estiva l cal l ed Paganalia . Thepagam

'

. or inhabitants of the pagi, had theirregu larmeetins, at which they passed resolutions. The

'

visionof the country - peopleinto pagi continued to the latest times of theRomanempire.The termPagani is oftenused inoppositiontomilites, and is applied to all who were notsoldiers , eventhough they didnot live inthecountry. TheChristianwriters gave thenameof pa ni to those persons who adhered tothe o d Romanreligion, because the lattercontinued to be general ly believed by thecountry - people, after Christianity became theprevai ling religionof the inhabitants of the

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'238 PALUDAMENTUM.

having undergone any process of this kind .

The rawmateria l , such as wool , flax , or cotton, was manufactured inits natural state,and hence pa l lia were commonly white, although fromthe same cause brown

,drab, and

gray , were also prevail ing colours.As the pal liumwas themost commonoutergarment , we find it continual lymentioned inconjunctionwith the tunica ,which constitutedthe indutus. Such phrases as coa t andwaistcoat ,” or shoes and stockings ,” arenotmore commonwith us than the followingexpressions , which constantly occur in ancient authors : tunica palliumque, [narrow x aitrév , r?) Lud i

-

rev x ai 6 x trw lox oc, papa;£63 x tré v , etc.

To wear the pal liumwithout the underclothing ind icated poverty or severity ofmanners, as inthe case of Socrates.One of themost commonmodes ofwearingthe pal liumwas to fastenit with a broochover the right shoulder, leavin the right armat liberty, and to pass the mi dle of i t eitherunder the left armso as to leave that armat

liberty also, or over the left shoulder so as tocover the left arm. The figure inthe preceding cut is attired in the last-mentionedfwhion.

PasPALMA.

1)PALUDA EN UM, the c loak wornh

is

18Romangeneral commanding an army,prmcrpal ofiicers and personal attendants , in

PANATHENAEA.

PANATHEN greatest and most splend id of the fes tival s celebrated inAttica inhonour of Minerva, inthe

ever

fi' year.

T e lesser Panathenaea were probab l y cal»ebrated onthe 17th of the month Hecatum

contradistinctionto the sagwnof the commonsoldiers, and the to c orgarb of peace . Itwasthe practice for a omanma '

strate, afterhehad rece ived imperiumfromt comi tia cu riata and offered up his vows inthe capito l, tomarch out of the city arrayed inthe aludamentum(ex -ire paludalus ) , attended by is lic.

tors insimilar attire (pa ludatis lictonbm),norcou ld he againenter the gates unti l he hadformal ly divested himself of this emblemofmilitary power.The paludamentumwas Open in front,reached downto the knees or a l ittle lower

,

and hung loose lgover the shoulders - M g

fas tened across t e ches t by a clasp.The colour of the paludamentumwas earn

PANCRATIUM.

G reece. They represent onone side the figure ofMinerva, and onthe other the variouscontests and games inwhich these vases weregivenas priz es to the victors.Of the discussions ofphiloso hers and orators at the Panathenaea we sti l possess twospecimens , the Havaflnvazfrég of Isoc rates , and that 0 Aristides . Herodotus issaid to have recited his history to the Atbonians at the Panathenaea . Themanagementof the games and contests was entrusted topersons ca l led Athlothctae (dHZ OOérat).whosenumber was ten, one being takenfromeveryt ribe. Their office lasted fromone greatPanathenaic festival to the other.The chief solet of the great Panathe

naea was the ma i cent processionto thet emple ofMinerva olias ,which probably tooklace onthe last day of the festive season.

he whole of the processionis representedin the frieze of the Parthenon, the work ofPhidias and his disciples , now deposited inthe British Museum. The chief object of therocessionwas to ca the peplus of the godSeas to her temple. his peplus was a croo

cue-coloured,garment for the goddess , and

made by maidens, cal led épyaorivat. Initwere wovenEnceladus and the giants,as theywere conquered by the goddess. T he pepluswas not carried to the temple by men, butsuspended fromthe

'mast ofa ship. The processionproceeded fromthe Ceramicus,neara monument cal led Leocorium, to the temple(if Ceres at E leusis, and thence along thePelasgic wal l and the temple of A ollo Pythius to the Pnyx , and thence to t e Acre.

pol is, where the statue of Minerva Poliaswas adorned with the peplus.Inthis processionnearly the whole popu

lationof Attica appears to have takenpart,either onfoot, onhorseback. or inchariots,asmay be seeninthe frieze of the Parthenon.

Aged mencarried olive branches, and werecal led T halia hori (Gal l odépm) ;young menattended , at east inearlier times, inarmour,and maidens who belong ed to the noblestfamil ies ofAthens carried baskets, containingofferings for the goddess , whence they werecal led Canephori (x avfloépm). Respecting thepart which aliens took inthis procession, andthe duties they had to perform, see a nraenoau .

Menwho had deserved wel l of the republ icwere rewarded with a old crownat the greatPanathenaea , and the srald had to announcethe event durin the gymnastic contests.PANG RA'

T I M (nayx pdrtovg,is derived

fromrainand x pérog, and accor ingly S igni .

fies anathletic game, inwhich all the powersof the fighter were called into action. T he

PANE GYRIS .

cratiumwas one of the or gymnasiitncontests which were ex ibited at all the

great festivals ofGreece ;it consisted of boxing and wrestling (arena;andmike) , andwasreckoned to be one of the heavy or hard exercises (dyu vfauara Bapéa orBapv

'

repa), onaccount of the violent exertions it requiredand for this reasonit was notmuch practisedinthe ymnasia.

In omer we find neither the game northe name of the ancratiummentioned

,and

as itwasnot intra used at the Olympic gamesuntil 01. 33, wemay presume that the game,though itmay have existed long before ina

rude state, was not brought to any degree ofperfectionuntil a short time before that event.The name of the combatants was Pancratiatas (1mnparmorat

’

) or Pammachi mimicor).

"lzhey fou ht naked , and had t sir bo

res anointed an covered with sand,by which

the/ylwere enabled to take hold ofone another.henthe contest began, each of the fight

ersmight commence by boxing or by wrestl ing. accordinly as he thenht he should bemore success ui inthe one t aninthe other.The victory was not decided until one of the

parties was kil led , or lifted up a finger, therey declaring that he was unable to continuethe contest either

PANE’GYRISYravfiyvpt signifies a

meeting or assemb y of a whole people forthe purpose ofworshipping at a common’

sanotuary. The word is used in three s

‘

nitications — 1 . For a meeting of the inabitants of one particular townand its vicini ty ;2. For a meeting of the inhabitants of a

whole district, a province, or of the wholebody of people be longing to a articu lar tribe[DamnPANIONIA] ;and 3. or great national meetings, as the Olympic, Pythian,Isthmian, and Nemeangames. Although inall panegyreis which we know, the religious

240 PANT OMIMU S . PARE DRI.

character forms themost prominent feature,other subjects , political discussions and resolutions, as wel l as a variety of amusements,were not excluded , though they Were perhapsmore a consequence of the presence ofmany persons thanobjects of the meeting.Every panegy ris , moreover, was made bytrades - people a sou rce of gain, and it me bepresumed that such ameetingwasnever eldwithout a fair, at which all sorts of thingswere exhibited for sale.PANIO’

NIA (rravtévta), the greatnationalpanegyris of the Ionians onMount Mycalé,where the national god Ne tune Heliconinshad his sanctuary , ca l led the anionium. Oneof the principal objects of this nationalmeeting was the commonworship ofNeptune, towhomsplendid sacrifices were offered ontheoccasion. But rel igious worship was not theonly object forwhich they assembled at thePanionium;oncertainemergencies , especial ly incase of any danger threa tening theircountry, the Ionians discussed at theirmeet:ings political questions, and passed resolutions which were binding uponall.PANO'PLIA (a avorrl fa), a panoply or sui t

of armour. The articles ofwhich it consistedboth inthe Greek and inthe Romanarmy

,

are enumerated under Anita .

PANTOMI'MUS , the name of a kind ofactors peculiar to the Romans , who verynearly resembled intheirmode of actin themoderndancers inthe bal let. They notspeak onthe stage, but merely acted by gestures ,movements, and attitudes. All movements, however, were rhythmical like thoseinthe ba l let , whence the general termforthemis saItatio, salami , the whole art wascal led musica muta ; and to represent NiobeorLeda was expressed by sultanNiobcnandsultanLedam.

During the time of the republic thenamepantomimus does not occur, though the art

i tselfwas knownto the Romans at anearlyried ;for the first histriones said to haveenintroduced fromEtruria were infactnothing but

ggntomimic dancers

whence we d that under the empire thenames histrio and pantomimus were used as

synonymous. T he pantomimic art, however,was not carried to any degree of perfectionuntil the time of Angustus. The greatest

pantomM es of this time were Bathyllus , areedmanand favourite ofMaecenas , and

'

PyIades , and Hylas . Mythological love - storieswere fromthe first the favouri te subsets of theantomimes

,which weredisgraced y themost

centious scenes. InS icil pantomimic danceswere cal led ballisrm'

(Ba not),whence perhaps themodernwords bal l and bal let.

PAPER. LIBE RJPAPY

’

RU [14 18 8 83PARADI’SOS (nape “mi;the name

givenby the G reeks to the par 3 or pleasure

grounds, which su rrounded the count ry resiences of the Pers ian kings and satraps .

The were genera ll stocked with animalsfor the chase , ere l l of all kinds of t rees,watered bynu eroua streams, and enclosedwith wal ls .

PARAGRAPHE (radaM. This word

does not exactly correspon wit any te rminour language , but may withoutmuch impropriety be cal led a ple I t is anobjectionraised by the defendant to the admissibilit ofthe plaint action. T he paragr é, ikeevery other answer (dvfl ypaeiz)m e by thedefendant to the plamtid ’

s charge,was'

veninwriting ;as the word itself iniplies. f thedefendantmerely denied the laintifl ’

s al l egations, a court was at once he d for the tria l ofthe cause. If, however, he put inaparagraphé,a court was to be held to try the prelimina ryquestion

,whether the cause could be brought

into court or not; Upon this previous trialthe defendant was considered the actor. Ifhe succeeded;the whole cause was at anend ; unless the objectionwas only to theformofaction, or some other such technicality, inwhich case itmi ht be recommencedinthe propermanner. 1 however, theplaintit

’f succeeded , the origina l actionwh ich inthemeantime had beensuspended, was proceeded with.PARAPHERNA. [Dos .]PARASANG A (ampaoa r).a Persianmeasure of length, frequent ymentioned bythe Greek writers. I t is sti ll used by the Persians, who ca l l it fmmg . According to He

rodotus the parasang was equal to 30 Greekstadis . Xenophonmust also have calcu latedit at the same , as he says that stadiaare equal to 535 parasangs. -5

Other ancient writers'

ve a different lengthfor the parasang. M ernEnglish travellersestimate it variously at from3 to 4 Englishmiles, which nearly agrees wit the calculationofHerodotus.PARCHMENT. [LIBE IL]PARE DRI (fl dpsdpor) . Each of the threesuperior archons was at liberty to have twoassessors ( t aped t) chosenby h imself, toassist~ himby a vice and otherw ise in theperformance of his various duties. The asasesor, like the magist rate h imself, had toundergo a docimasia (doxmaot’a) inthe Senateof Five Hundred and before a jud icial tribunal, before he cou ld be permitted to enteruponhis labours. He was a l so to render anaccount (atom) at the end of the year. T he

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242 PATRIA POTESTAS .

but every fami ly, raised above poverty, possessed one ofsilver, together with a silver sa l tcel lar. The preceding cut exhibits a highly or lutely equivalent to the dominica

PATRICII.

I t does not seemthat the patria potestaswas ever viewed among the Romans as abso~

testas , ornamented patera,madeofbronze . The viewof as involvin ownershi of the ch

“

d ;and yetthe up r surface is accompanied by a sideview, s owing the formandde th ofthe vessel .PAT I

'

BU LUM. (Fus es;PA’TINA (l sx évfl), a basinor bowl ofearthenware, rarely of bronz e or si lve

'

r.The atina was of a formintermediate be

twee‘nt e patent and the one, not so flat asthe former, nor so deep as the latter. T hemost f uentuse ofthepatinawas incookery .

PAT ES . PAT R ICI I .PA’TRIA P TESTA Potestas sigui

fiesgeneral l y a power orfaculty of any kind

w ich we do anything. Potestas," saysaulus

,a Romanjurist, has several signifi

caticns : whenapplied to magistrates, it isImperium;inthe case of children, it is thepatria potestas ;inthe case of slaves, it is Dominium.

” According to Paulus then, potestas, as applied tomagistrates. is equivalent toimperium. Thus we find potestas associatedwith the adjectives praetoria, consularis. Butpotestas is applied tomagistrates who hadnotthe imperium, as forinstance to quaestors andtribumplebis :and potestas and imperiumare

oftenOpposed inCicero. [ Invas ion] Thusi t seems that this word potestas, ‘like manother Romanterms, had both a wider signicationand a narrower One. Inits wider significationit might meanall the power thatwas delegated to any personby

‘ the state,whatevermight be the extent of that power.Inits narrower significations , it was ontheone hand equivalent to imperium;and ontheother, it ex ressed the power of those functionaries w 0 hadnot the imperium. S ometimes it was used to express a magistratus,as a person;and hence inthe I talianlanguage the word pedestal si ifies amagistrate.Potestas is also one of t e words by which

is ex ressed the power that one private person as over anather

,the other two being

manus andmancipium. The potestas is eitherdominica, that is, ownership as exhibited inthe relationof master and slave [Seru ms] ;or atria as exhibited inthe relationof fatheran child. Themancipiumwas framed afterthe analog of the potestas dominica. [MANcrews .)Patria

rpotestas then si ifies the power

which a omanfather ha over the raonaof his chi ldren, grandchi ldren, an otherdescendants filiae amilias), andgeneral ly all the rights which 6 had by virtee of his paternity. The foundationofthe patria potestaswasa le alma rriage, and the birthofa chi ld gave it ful ‘en‘act. [MAT RIHONi U lL]

the origins notiono the patria came v e rynear to that of the dominica potestas. O riginall y the father had the power of life anddeath over his sonas amember ofhis fami l ia ;and he could sel l him, and so bring himintothemancipii causa. He cou ld also gi ve h isdaughter inmarria e, orgive a w ife to hisson, divorce his ch d,

“m himinadoption,and emanei ate hima

'

s pleasure.PATRI

'

II. This word is ev identl y a derivative frompater, which fr uently occu rsintheRomanwriters as equiv eat to senator.Patricii

' therefore signifies those who be longed to the patres, but it is amistake to supp

osethat the patricii were only the oils rin o thepatres inthe sense of senators . t e contrar the patricians were, inthe early historyof me, the whole body of Romancitizens,the populus Romania , and there were no realcitizens besides them. The other parts ofthe Romanpegg

lation, namely c lients andslaves, did not long to the pepulus Romanus, and were not burghers or patricians.The senators or patres (

linthenarrower sense

of the word) were a se ect body of thenopulus or patricians, which acted as their represqntatives. The burghers or patricians consisted original ly of three distinct tribes,whichafterwards became united into the sovereipopulus. These tribes had founded sett ements up‘

on several of the h il ls which weresubsequent! included withinthe precincts ofthe city of ome. Their names were Ramnes , Ti ties, and Luceres, or Ramrienses, T itienses, and Lucerenses. Each of thesetribes consisted of tencuriae, and each curiaof tengentes , and of the same number ofdecuriesvwhich were established forrepresentative and military purposes. [S eamus ]The first tribe , or the Ramnes, were a Latincolony onthe Palatine hil l , said to have beenfounded by Romulus. As long as it stoodalone

,it contained only one hundred gentes.

and had a senate of one hund red members.Whenthe Tities , or Sabine sett lers ontheQuirina l and Viminal hil ls, under king T atius

,became united wi th the Ramnes, the

number ofgentes. as well as that of senators,was increased to200. These two tribes aftertheir unioncontinued probably for a considerable time to be the patricians of Rome, untilthe th ird t ribe , the Luceres, which chieflyconsisted of Etruscans, who had settled onthe Caelianbill also became united with theother two as a third tribe .Theamal gamationofthesethroe tribes did

PAT RICIL

not take place at once : the unionbetweenLatins and Sabines is ascribed to the reignof Romulus , though it doesnot appear to havebeenquite rfect, since the Lat ins onsomeoccas ions c aimed a superiority

over the S eb ines. T he Luceres ex isted or a long t imea s a sepa ra te tribe withou t enjoyin the samerights as the two other tribes, unt il a uiniusP riecne, himse lf anEtruscan, cau themto be placed ona footing of equal ity with theO thers. For this reasonhe is said to haveincreased thenumber ofsenators to 300. TheLuceres , however, are , notwithstanding thisequaliza tion. sometimes distinguished fromthe other tribes by the name palm ormirwrummtiwn. During the time of t e re

public , tingu ished strangers and wea lthyp lebeians were occasionallymade Romanpatric ians ;for instance , Appius Claudius andh is us , and Domitius Ahenobarbus .

“genthe plebeians became a distinct c lassofcitizens [

timu s]. the atricians , ofcourse ,

ceased to the only c ass of citizens, butthe y stil l retained the exclusive possessionofall the power inthe state. Al l c ivi l and relig ious ofl‘ices were in their

figswssion, and

they continued as before to the populusthe nationnowconsisting of the

Kapulus and

the lobes. Intheir re lationto t e plebe iansor t e commonal t

y;the patric ians were a real

aristocracy of birt A personbornof a pa

tricianfami ly was and remained a patrician,whether he was rich or poor, whether hewasamember of the senate, or aneques, or heldany of the great oflices of the state, ornot:there was no power that couldmake a patriciana plebeian. As regards the census, hemight indeednot belong to the wea lthy classes , but his rank remained the same. Theonl y way inwh ich a pat ricianmight becomea lebeianwas whenof his ownaccord heleghis gens and curia, gave up the sacra, dtc.

A plebe ian, onthe other hand, orevena stran.

ger,might bemade a patric ianby a lex curi~ata . But th is appears to have beendone veryseldom;and the consequence was , that inthe course of a fewcenturies the

o

number‘

of

patricianfamil ies became so rapidly d immiehed , that towards the close of the republict here were notmore thanfifty such families.Although the patricians throu hout this

whole period had the character 0 anaristocracy of birth , yet their pol itical rights werenot the same at all times . During the firstcentu ries of the repub l ic therewas ana lmos tuninterrupted stru

ggle betweenpatricians and

plebeians, inwhic the former exerted everymeans to retaintheir exclusive ri hts , butwhich ended inthe establishment the politios l equality of the two orders. [Pu rina ]

PAT RONU S . 243

Only a few insignificant priest ly oflicee. andthe performance of certainancient religiousrites and ceremonies

,remained the exclusive

privi lege of the patricians ;of which they

were t e prouder, as informer days their religious power and significance were the basis

0 their pol itica l eu eriority. At the timewhen the struggle tween pat ricians andlebeians ceased , a new k ind of aristocracyganto arise at Rome , which was partlybased uponweal th , and partly uponthe at

otiices of the republic , and the termno ileswas givento all persons whose ancestors hadheld any of the cu rule offices. (CompareNovrBonnet s .) Th is aristocracy ofnobilesthrewthe old patricians as a body st il l moreinto the shade, though both classes ofaristocrats united as faraswas ible tomonopolize all the great offices 0 the state.In their dress and appearance the pat ri

cians were scarcely d ist inguished fromtherest of the citiz ens, unless they were senators , curu lema

'

strates , or equites, inwhichcase they wore ike others the ensigns pecul iar to these c lasses. The only th ing bywhich they appear to have beend ist inguishedintheir ap arance fromother citizens wasa uliar ind of shoe , wh ich covered thew ole foot and art of the leg, though it wasnot as high as t e shoes of senators and cu

ru lemagi strates . These shoes were fas tenedw ith four strings (corrigias or lampatria a

'

) andadorned with a lunula onthe top.

PAT RIMI ET MAT RlMl were children

created anewrelationbetweenthemanumissor and the slave , which was analogous tothat betweenfather and son. T hemanumissor became with respect to the manumittedperson his patronna, and themanumitted person

‘

became the libertus of the manumissor.T heword atronna (from ater) indicates thenature ofthe relation . It

'

t emannmissorwasa woman. she became patrona.

T he libertus adopted the'

gentile name ofthemanumissor. C ice ro’s freedman T imwasca l led M . Tullius T im. T he libertus owedrespect and gratitude to his patron, and inancient times the

patronmight punish himina

summary way or neglec ting those duties .

244 PEGMA. PE LT A;

This obl igation extended to the child renof

the l ibe rtos , and the duty was due to the

child ren of the pat ron . i t was the duty of thepatron to sup rt his freedman incase of necess tty, and i he did not , he lost his patrona lrights ; the consequence was the same if hebrought a capita l charge against h im. T he

mos t impo rtant of the patrona l rights re latedto the prope rty of the l ibe rt i, as ince rta incases the patronos had a right to the whole orpa rt of the rop

e rty of a libertus .

PAVIM N UM . (Dos es, p . 121 ]PE CULA

’

T U S . is prope rly the misappropriationor theft of ublic prope rty. T he per

songuilty of th is 0 ence was culator. T he

origin of the word appears to i:pecan, a termwhich original ly denoted that k ind ofmovablepropert wh ich was the ch ief s ignof weal th .

Origins ly trials forpecula twrwere before thepopu lus or the senate . Inthe t ime ofC iceromatte rs of pct ulalus had become one of thequaestiones e rpetuae .

PE CL”LI 1M . [S any us ]

P E C U '

NIA . M as ;Aao s s rou ;Antwan]PEDA’

R ll. [S ax i’

ros ]PE DUM ( x opcbvn), a shepherd

's crook . Onaccount of its connection w ith pastoral l ife ,

the crook is oftenseen inworks of ancientart , inthe hands of Pan, Satyrs. Fauna, andshepherds. It was also the usua l attribute ofThal ia, as themuse of pastora l poetry.

Podum, S hepherd’s Crook.

PE G MA (nfiypa), a ageant, i . c. anedifi ceof wood , consi st ing 0 two ormore stages

(tabulala) , which were raised or depressed at

pleasu re bymeans of ba lance-we ights . These

greatmachines were used inthe Roman emphitheatres , the

agladiators who fought upon

thembeing ca l l pegmares . They were supported upon whee l s so as to be drawninto the

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246 PEREGRINUS.

beenthe same persons ;but - after the establishment of the republic, the oflices were distinct , for the quaestores were a pointed reg-no

larly eve ry year, whereas ~the uumviri wereappointed very rarely, as had beenthe caseduring the lun

g?riod. Livy represents

the duumviri pe ue lionis sabeingappointed

by the kings , but they were real y proposedb the king and appointed by the pu lus.

'

ng the earl part of the repub'

c theywere appointed the comitia curiata, andafterwards b the comitia centuriata, ontheroposal of t e consuls. Inthe case of Rairius however

,this customwas

violat as the duumviri were appointed bythe praetor instead of by the comi tia centuriata. T he punishment for those who werefound guil ty of perduellio was death ; theywere either hanged onthe arbor infant . orthrownfromthe Tarpeianrock. But whenthe duumviri found a persongu ilty, hemightappea l to the

rgeople (inearly times the pcpu

lus, afterwa s the comi tia centuriata). aswas done inthe first case which is onrecord ,that of Horatius, and inthe last, which isthat of Rabirius, whomCicero defended before the so Is inthe orationstil l extant.PER G l

’

NU S , a stranger or foreigner.inancient times thewordpa qn

'ma was used

PERIOECI.as synonymous with Ironic ;but inofwhich we have his torical records, a peregrions was any personwhowas not a Romancitizen. In a. c . 247, a second praetor practorpcregn

'

nm) was appointed for the pu rpo seof adrmniatering Justice inmatters betweenRomans and peregrini, and inmatters between such peregrini as had taken up the irabode at Rome . Pnap '

roaJ T he numbe rof peregriniwho ved inthe city of R omeappears to have had aninjurious influenceuphbnthe poorer classes of Romanc itizens,

w ence on some occasions they were drivenout of the city. T he first example of thiskind was set inB. c . 127

,by the tribune M .

Junius Pennus. They were «expel led a sec~

ond time by the tribune C.Papius, in 66.

During the last period of the republic andthe first centuries of the empire. all the freeinhabitants of the Remap world were , inre

gard to their pol itical rights, either Romancitizens, or Latins, or peregrini, and the latterhad, as before , neither commerciumnor connubiumwith the Romans. They were e itherfree provincials , or c itizens who had forfe itedtheir civitas, and were degraded to the rankofPeregrini, or a certain class of freedmen.

cal ed ere rini dediticii.PE FU ES . [U s ousnrm]PE RIOE CI (rreplocx or). This word prep

erly denotes the inhabitants of a districtlying around some particular local ity, but isenerally used to describe a dependent pOpution , l iving without thewalls or inthe coun .

try provinces ofa dominant city, andalthoughpersonal ly free, deprived of the enjoyment of

gi tiz enship, and the political rights conferredy it.A political conditionsuch as that of the

pm'

oeci of Greece, and like the vassalage ofthe Germanic nations

,could hardly have ori

giusted inanythin else thanforei nconques t,and the perioeci of onia furnia a stri kingil lustration of this. Their origin dates fromthe Dorianconquest of the Peloponnesus,when the old inhabitants of the country, theAchaians, submitted to their conquerors oncertainconditions , by which they were leftinpossessionof their private rights of citizenship. They suffered indeed a partial deprivation of their lands, and were obliged to submit to a king of foreign race. but stil l they

s ined equal inlaw to their conquerors ,were el igible to all offices of state exceptsovereignty. But this state of things d idlast long : inthe next generation afterconquest the relationbetween the two

parties was changed . T he Achaians werereduced fromcitizens to vassa ls ;they weremade tributary to Sparta ; their lands were

PERU .

subjected to a tax ;and they lost their rightsof citizenship, the right of voting inthe gene ra l assembly , and their e ligibility to important oflices inthe state , such as that of a sena tor, dtc. I t does not, however, appear thatthe pm

’

oeci were genera l ly an0p reseed peo

ple, thou h kept ina state of poiitical inferiori ty to t eir conquerors . On the contrary ,themost d istingu ished among themwere ad

witted to offices of trust, and they sometimesserved as heavy - armed soldiers ;as, for instance, at the battle of Plataea.

T he Normanconquest of E ngland presentsa striking para l le l to the Dorian con nest of

Laconia, bo th inits achievement an conac

quences. T he Sax ons , like the old Achaians,were deprived of their lands , excluded fromall offices of trust and d ignity, and reduced ,

though personal ly free , to a state of po liticalslavery. T he Normans , onthe contrary , ofwhatever rank inthe ir owncount were all

nobles and warriors , compared wit the conquered S ax ons , and for a long time enjoyedexclusive ly the civi l and ecclesiastica l administrationof the land .

PE RI’

S C E LIS (weprox sl lcg,ananklet or

bangle,wornby the Orientals , t e Greeks, andthe Roman ladies also . It decorated theinthe samemanner as the brace le t adorns thewrist and the necklace the throat.

Pem elis, Anklet, wornby a Narcid.

T he word , however, is sometimes used inthe same sense as the Latin feminalia , thatis , drawers reaching fromthe navel to theknees.

PERIS T RO‘MA, a coverlet large enough

to hang round the sides of the bed or couch.P E R IS TY'

LIU M. (Dorms,p .

PE RO (dpfliib z) , a low boot of untannedhide worn by ploughmen mmatus crater andshepherds , as ex emplifie in the w -cut

at p . 228.

m usl in.

PERSONA .

T he termdpflél is applied to anappendage to the Greek c ariot . It seems to havebeen a shoe fastened to the bottomof thechariot , into which the driver inserted hisfoot, to ass ist himindriving, and to prevent .

hifié

r

fir

gge

hing thrown out.Y

A larva , npogu rrov or it 90

rreZov ), amask. Masks were worn by (ggeekand Roman actors innearly all dramatic re

presentations. This cedlyxfromthe practice

w‘

t certain juices anding indisguise, at the[Dronvsnu ] Now as the Greek drama amout ofthese festivals, it is highly probable thatsomemode of dis uising the face was as oldas the drama itsel Choerilus ofS amos ,however, (about 500) is said to have been thefirst who introduced regu lar masks. Othe r

T hea is orAeschylus,though the latter had

probe 1y on ly the“merit ofperfecting and com

pleting the whole theatrical appa ratus andcos tume . Some masks covered, like them‘

asks ofmodern times, on ly the face, butthey appear more genera l ly to have coveredthe whole head down to the shoulders, forwealways find the hair belonging to amask described as being a part of i t ;and this musthave been the case intragedymore as ecially ,as it was necessary tomake the bee corresond to the stature of anactor, which washeightened by the cothumus .

T he annexed cut re resents the grotesquemask of a Satyr, together with a tragicmask,which are contained inthe British Museum.

248 P8 8 .PHARE T RA.

Some of the oldestmanuscripts ofTerence (is. n.

contain representations ofRomanmasks, and ddx rvl ocfromthesemanuscri ts they have been co ied

insevera lmodern editions of that poet . he

cut annex ed contains representations of fourof thesemasks prefixed to the Andria.

Hu t s.

PES (rrofig), a foot. T he G reeks and Romans, like most other nations, took theirstandards of length original ly fromthe

fereat parts of the human body, andnames which were thus given to themessures were retained after the measuresthemse lves had beendetermined with greaternicety .

T he probable value of the Roman foot is1 ] .1496 inches English .

he'

following tables exhibit the Romanmeasures of Ian h , with their values inE nglish feet and inc es

Inch“ .

5000 1618

probably equal to1 115

125 English fmt, or inches.be square measures of the Greeks manner as

the free or square foot, the apwpa z ssoo haste purasquare wt. and the nM pov = 4 sruras [Canons].

uare feet .T he ollowin table represents the parts

andmultiples o the Greek foot PHARE T RA (paper-

pa), s

dlavlog'

P E SSI .aj

i i'raus cum.

PE'

S S UL S [JanusFETAL ISMUS . [E x sru un]PE ’TASUS . [ .Pt ps us ]PETI ’TOR .

PE T AU RIS su uaun.

PE T AU RUM (wéravpov , rrérsvpov) , nwdthe Roman games, swms to have been a

board moving up and down , with a

arsonat

each end , and supported inthemid ia, some

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280 PILENT UM. PILEUS .

grace to the figure ;whence it was highl y but openat the sideesteemed by the Greeks.so h igh a value onit, that they conferred uponAristonicus of Ca stus the right of citiz emship on account of is skill inthis game. i t

was equally esteemed by the other states of

Greece ;the young Spartans,when they werela ying the conditionof ephebi, were cal ledamnesty, probably because their ch ief ex erc was the game at ba l l. Every completegymnasiumhad a room{common} my , coa tpimps ) devoted to this exerc ise Grams:uu], where a special teacher (apmpcarméf)gave instruction inthe art.Among the Romans the game at bal l wasora lly layed at by ns before takin3:bath, iii a room(W ) attachto the baths for the purpose .

Pile was uwd ina general sense for anykind ofball:but the ha l ls among the Romansmemto have hwnof three kinds ;the dc inits narrower sense, a smal l ball;the aura, a

great bal l fil led with air;and the monies ,

of which we know scarcely any thing, butwhich appea rs to have hwnsmal ler than thefoliia and larger than the pile . T he Herpesmm(fromdprrc

’

e ) seems to have been thename of a hal l , wh ich was thrownamong the

glayers, each ofwhomendeavoured to catchT he persons playing with the pila or

m il ball inthe annexed woodcut, are takenfroma painting inthe baths ofTitus ;but itis dificult to say what particular kind of

game they are playing at. Three of the players have two ba l ls each.

PiLA'Ni .

PILE NT U , a splendid our-w led car

M ,H

furnished Wi th soft cushions, which

T he Athenians set initmi ht both see and be seen .

Pi’

L US or P’

iLE UM (a nml u rév) , any piece of fel t ;mx mfifiga skull -ca of fe l t, a hat. There seems noreason to oubt that felting is amo re ancientinvention thanweav ing [T am],nor that bo thof these arts came into Euro pe fromAs iaFromthe Greeks, who were acquainted wi ththis article as early as the age ofHome r, theuse of felt passed together with its name tothe Romans. Its princ i al use WW to makecoverings of the head or the ma le sex , andthe most common one was a simple skull

Pileas , $ tfllv0ap,w as byWm

Among the Romans thecap of feltemblemof libs When a slave ohtaine ihis freedomhe a

‘

d his head shame , andwore instead of his hair anundyed pileus.This change of attire took place inple of Feronia, who w@ the an

men. T he figure of Liberty ons m thecoins of Antoninus Pius, ch uck A. n. l&holds this cap inthe right hand.

T he Patents (s h am) difl’

eredm theileus or simple skull -cap in a widerim: the etymology of the word, i t .

Q

PIS T OR.

révvvm, expresses the distinctivet hese hate. I twas preferred to theas a protection fromthe sun.

Petunia, Cap, wornby a G reek Soldier.

PILUM . [Hu ngPlS Cl

'

NA. (Bu ns en, p.

PIS T OR (dprorrmég). a baker, from'

n

ecrc, to pound , since corn was pound inmortars before the inventionof mil l s . ,

At

Rome bread was origina l ly made at home bythe womenof the honee ;and there were no part ofwhichpe rsons at Rome who made bak ing a trade, planks . T he blocks ofstone, or other thin9? any slaves SpeCIaUYkePt for “1 18 purpose to be carried , were either laid upon this tab 0inprivate

.

houees . ti ll 8 . c. 173. T he neme withou t any other enport , or anadditionalwas 8150 81W" toPW‘TY' COOKS and confection security was obtain b the use either of

boarde at the sides, or 0 a large Wicker besket tied upon the cart.

’

T he wi nner] cnt

Lou » of Bread.

t imm,Wmn.

PLAUS T RUM. 251

ers, inwhich case they were usuall y calledpis tons duk iarii or candida -ii .

Bread was often baked in mou lds calledwraps“ , and the loaves thus baked were termed artopticii. Inone of the bake -houses discovered at Porn ii , severa l loaves have beenfound apesten y baked inmou lds, whimmay therefore be rega rded as wtoptifi theyare represented in the preced ing cut. T hware flat, and abou t eight inches indiameter.Bread was not general lymade at home at

Athens, but was sold in the ma rket-place,

chiefly bywomen , cal led dproné l tdeg. beeswomen seemto have beenwhat the fish-womenof London are at presen t they ex eellwin abuse.

PLAG IA'

RIU S . Pu o tom.

PLA'GIUM , the o ence ofki napping, concealing, and sel l ing freemen and other

at

;sons’ slaves was the subject of a Fabia(a; c . The enalty of the lex was pe~cuniary ;but this all into disuse and personswho offended against the lex were pun ishedaccording to the nature of theirolfence;underthe emp ire the were general ly condemnedto the mines. he word PM is said to

come fromthe Greek rrMw , obl ique, indirect, doloeus. He who committedwas plag iarius , a word which Martial appliwto a person who falsely ve himself oat asthe author of a book ;an in this sew theword has come into commonuse in our langua e.

Pi AU S T RUM or PLOS T RUM i c a

a cart or wagon. It had common ly twowheels, but sometimes four, and it was then

262 PLEBES .

exhibits a cart, the body ofwhich is suppliedby a basket.The commonest k ind of cart-wheel was

that call ed tympmmm, the “ drum,” fromitsresemblance to themusica l instrument of thesame name. It was nearly a

'foot inthickness , and was made either by sawin

gthe

t runk of a tree across in a horiz onta l irec

t ion, or by nailing together boards o f the re

quisite shape and siz e . (See the cu t.) Thesewheels advanced slowly, and made a loudcreaking, which was heard to a great dis‘tance.PLEBES or PLEBS. PLE BE lI. This

word contains the same root as int-plea.com-

plea,&c., and is therefore etymological ly connectsed with a termwhich was applied tothe plebeians by themore correct Greek writers onRoman history, whi le others wronglycalled them617mor 01 dimer-a wl.The plebeians were the body of commons

or the commonalty of Rome, and thus constituted one of the two great e lements ofwhich theRoman nation consisted , and whichhas given to the earl ier pe riods of Romanh istory its pecu l iar charac ter and interest.The time when the plebeians first appear

as a distinct c lass of Roman citiz ens incontradistinctionto the patricians, is in the re ignof Tu l lus Hostilius. Alba, the head of theLatin confederacy, was in his reigntaken bythe Romans and raz ed to the ground. Themost distingu ished of its inhabitants weretransplanted to Rome and received amongthe patricians ;bu t the great bu lk of Albancitizens, who were l ikewise transferred to

to'

Rome, received settlements onthe Caelianhil l , and were he t in a state of submissionto the popu lus anus or the patricians.This new population ofRome,which innumber is said to have been equal to the old ihhabitan ts of the city, or the patricians werethe plebeians. They were Latins, an con.

sequent ly of the same blood as the Ramnes,thenobles t of the three atriciantribes. Afterthe confinest of Alba, e, inthe reignof

Anous artius,acqu ired possession ofa

_

considerable extent of count ry, containin anumber of de dent Latin towns, as 1 edullia

,

Fidenas,

olitorium, T ellenae. and Ficana.

G reat’numbers of the inhabitants of these

towns were again transplanted to Rome.andincorporated with the plebeians al ready settled there, and the Aventine was assigned tothemas thei r habitation. Some port ions ofthe land which these new citizens had rig:sessed were given back to themby themans, so that they remained free land-ownersasmuch as the conquerors themselves, andthus were d istinct fromthe clients.

The lebeians were citizens, butnot optimajun,

y were perfectly dist inct fromt hepatricians, and were neither conta ined inthethree tribes, nor the cu riae, nor in the patriciangentes. he on ly point of contactbetween the two estateswas the army. The

plebeians were obliged to fight and shed the i rlood inthe defence of thei rnewfel low c i tiz ens, without being al lowed to share any oftheir ri

ghts or privi leges, and withou t even

the rig t of in termarriage (connubium). I nall judicialmatters they were entirely at t hemercy of the patric ians, and had no right ofappeal against any unjust sentence, thoughthey were not, like the clients. bound to havea patronus. They continued to have thei rownsacra, which t hey had had before theconquest, bu t .these were re lated by the

Ei tncianponttfi

'

s. Last ly, t ey were freend-owners , and had their owngentes.The popu lation of the Roman state thus

consisted of two opposite elements ; a ru l ingclass or anaristocracy , and the commonal ty ,which, though of the same stock as thenoblest among the rulers, and exceeding theminnumbers. yet en oyed none of the rightswhich might enab themto take a part inthemanagement of public affai rs rel ' '

ous orcivil. Theircitiz enship resembled t e relaption of aliens to a sta te, in which they are

merely tolerated on conditionof rformingcertainservices, and th are, in act, sometimes cal led peregrin i. t such a state ofthings cou ld not last

,is a tru th which must

have been fel t by every one who was notblinded by his ownselfishness and love ofdominion . T a ninina Priscus was the fi rstwho conceived t e idea of placin the pieheians on a footing of equal ity wit the oldburghers, by divid ing theminto three tribes,which he intended to callafter his ownnameand those of his friends. But this noble planwas frustrated b

hthe owsirionof the augu r

Attus Navius, w o prob ly ac ted the rt ota representative of the pat ricians. A l thatTargu inine cou ld dowas to effect the admission of the noblest plebeian families into thethree old tribes,who were distin uished fromthe old patrician fami l ies by t e names ofRamnes, Tities, and Luceres secundi, andtheir gentes are sometimes distingu ished bythe epithetminores, as they entered in to thesame relation in which the Luce res had beento the first two tribes, before the time ofT arquinius.I t was rese rved to h is successor, Servius

Tu l l ius , to give to the commonalty a regu larinterna l organiz ation;and to determine theirrelations to the patricians. He fi rst dividedthe city into four, and thenthe subject coun~

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254 PLEBES .

themto retain, stripped the consu l ship ofaconsiderable part of its power, and transferred . itto twonewcuru l e offices, viz . that of praetorand of curule aedile. [Asni t su Panama .)But after such great advan tages had been‘

once gained by the p lebeians, it was imposaible

.to stOp themin their progress towards a

perfect equal ity of political rights with thepatricians. .In 356, 0. Marcius Ru tiluswas the first plebeian dictator ; in 351

the censorship was thrown Open to the la.

beians, and in n0. 336 the ra‘

etorship. heOgu lnianlaw, in 3 . c. 300, a O Opened to themthe offices of pontifex and angur. These advanta were

,as might .be supposed , not

gain without the fiercest oppositionof thepatricians

,and even after they were gained ,

and sanctioned b law,the patricians exerted

everymeans to root the Operation of thelaw. Such fraudu len t attempts led , in286, to the last secession Of the plebeians,afterwhich, however, the dictator Q. Hortensiussuccessfu l l y and permanently reconciled thetwo orders, secured to the plebeians all therights they had acquired unti l then , and ro

cured for their pl ebi scita the fu l l power 0 Is.

ges binding upon the whole nation .

After the passing of the Hortensian law,

the pol itical distinction between atriciansand plebeians ceased , and with a ewunimportant exceptions,both orders were placed ona footing of perfect equality. Henceforth thename popu lus is sometimes applied to the plebeians alone,and someth es to thewhole bodyofRoman citiz ens, as assembled in the comtia centu riata or tributa. The termplebs or

plebecula, onthe other‘hand, was appl ied , in

a loosemanner Of speaking, to themu lti tudeor popu lace, in opposition to thenobiles or thesenatorial party

.

A rsonw owas borna plebeiancouldonly raised to the rank of patrician by alex curiata, as was sometime done du ringthe kingly period, and intheearly times of there

public.t frequentl y occurs in‘ the history ofRome

that one and the same as contains ebeianas well as patrician ami lies. Int e gensCo rnelia, for instance, we find the

lElebeian

famil ies of the Balbi , Mammu lae crulae,&c., along with the atricianS cipiones , S ul

lae, Lentuli , etc. he occu rrence of thisphenomenonmay be accounted for indifferentwe a. I tmay have been, that one branch Ofa plebeian familywas made patrician , whilethe others remained plebeians. I t may alsohave happened that two famil ies had thesame nomen entiliciumwithout being actualmembers of t 0 same gene. Again , a patricianfami lymight go over to the plebeians ,

POLE MARCHUS ;

and as such a family continued to bear thename of i ts patriciangens , this gene ap parently contained a lebeianfamil y. Wh e n a

peregrinus Obtain the civitas throu gh theinfluence of a pat rician, orwhen a slave was

emancipated by his patric ianmaster, th ey

general y adopted the nomen gentiliciurn oftheir benefactor, and thus appear to be l ongto the same as with him.

PLE BIS'TUM , aname properl y applied

to a lawpassed at the comitia tributa onthero

'

gationof a trib une. Original ly, a plebiscitumrequ ired confirmationby the comi tia cu .

riata and the senate ;bu t a Lex Hortensiawas passed 3 . c . 286, to the effect that plebiscita shou d bind all the popu lus (universespopulus ), and this lex rendered continua t ionunnecessary . The Lex Hortensia is alwaysreferred to as the lex which

put pleb isc ita as

to their binding force ex ac,

y onthe samefooting as is es. The principal p lebisc itaarementions under the article Lex .

f shedhides,

which cou ld bemoved forward by smal l wheelsattached to it and under which the besiegersof a townmade their approaches. 2. Board sor planks placed on the val lumofa camp , onmovable towers or other mi litary engines ,as a kind of rooforcovering for the protectionof the soldiers.PLYNT E

’

RIA (a l um-wipm, fromnl évcw.

‘

to wash), a festival celebrated atAthens everyear, .ou the 2sth ofThargel ion , in honour ofinerva, surnamed Aglau ros, whose temls

stood onthe Acropol is. T he da of this es

tivalwas at Athens among the no '

dscordies nefas ti ;forthe temple Of theg dess wassu rrounded by ammto prec lude all communicationwith it ;her status was stripped ofits garments and ornaments for the purposeof cleaning them, and was in themeanwhilecovered over, to conceal it fromthe sight ofman. The city was therefore, so to speak ,onthis day w i thout its protecting dinnity ,and

'

any undertaking commenced on it wasbel ieved to be neces saril unsuccessful.PNYX. E ccns su ]PO

’

DIU Annamaria-racin]POIS ONIN , crime of. [VE NE FICIU IL]POLE MARCHUS UroMy apXog). Respect

igg

the olemarchus at Athens,see Ascnort .

e rea also of polemarchs at S arts , andin various cit ies Of Boeotia. As t eir namedenotes , they were original ly and properlyconnected Wi thmil itary affairs, being entrusted either with the command ofarmies abroad

POMOERIUM.

or th e superintendence of theward mentat home : sometimes with both. he polemarchs of Sparta appear to have ranked nextto the king.when on actual service abroad ,and were generally of the royal k indred or

h ouse (yévoc They commanded singlemome, so that t ey wou ld appear to have beens ix innumber, and sometimes whole armies.T hey also formed part of the king

's councilinwar, and of the royal escort cal led dmnosia .

At Thebes there appear to have been twopolemarchs, perha elected annual l y ;andint imes of peace t e

‘y seemto have been inc

vested with the chic executive power of thestate, and the command of the city, havingits mili tary force under their orders. Theyare not, however, to be confounded with theBoeotarchs.POLE

'

T AE a board of tenoflicers , ormagistrates,whose du ty itwas togran t leases of the public lands andmines, anda lso to let the revenues arising fromthe cusetoms, taxes, confiscations, and forfeitures. Ofsuch lettin the word a o l siv (notmofiofw)was genera ly used , and also the correlativewords dweioflat and npfaoflar. One waschosen fromeach tribe. In the letting of therevenue they were assisted by the mana are

of the theoric fund (75 Geopuct'

w), and t eyacted under the authority of the senate of

Five Hundred, who exercised a general control over the financial department of the ad

min istration. Resident aliens, whopay their residence tax .

(guarant

or), were

summoned before them, an iffound to havecommi tted defau lt, were sold.

POLLINCT O’

RE S . (Furies, p.

POMOE’RIUM . This word is compounded of post andmeriam(mums), in the samemanner as pamm

’

diemof post and m idim,

and thus signifies a line running ,by the wal lsof a town (

gamer postmares). But the wa lls

of a town ere spoken of are not its actua lwal ls or fortifications, bu t symbolical walls,and the course of the pomoeriumitself wasmarked by stone pillars ,

’

erected at certainintervals. The sacred line of the Roman pomoeriumdillnot prevent the inhabitants frombu ilding upon or taking into use any placebeyond it, but itwas necessary to leave a certai n space oneach side of it unoccupied , soasnot to unhal low it by profane use. Thuswe find that the Aventine, although inhabited

'

fromearly times, was formany centuriesnotinc luded within the pomoerium. The pomo~eriumwasnot the same at all times ;as thethe city increased the pomoeriumalso wasextended ;bu t this extensioncou ld , according to ancient usage , on ly be made b suchmenas had by their victories over oreign

FON S .

nations increased the boundai ies of the empire , and neithercou ld a pomoeriumbe form.

ed noral tered withou t the augu rs previouslyconsulting . the wil l of the gods by augu ry ;hence the jus pouwm

‘

i of the augu rs.POMPA ( imam? a solemn procession , as

onthe occasion o a funeral , triumph, etc.

It is, however, more particu larly applied tothe grand procession with which the gamesof the circus commenced (Pompa Circerm

'

s).[CP

R

Ocg] ( é bnd A heu a s t e riversof Greece

ywerg

a

sma ll. argid the use of thearch known to themmay to a limited extent ,it is probable that the G reek bridges werebu il t entire] of wood, or, at best, were nothingmore t anawooden platformsupportedupon stone piers at each extremity. Plinymentions a bridge over the Acheron 1000 feetinlength ;and also says that the island Euhoea was oined to Boeot ia by a bridge ;butit is probe is that both these works were executed after the Roman conquest.The Romans were the first peopl e who ap

pl ied the arch to the construction of bridges,y which they were enab led to erect struc

tu

ir

les of great beauty and sol idity, as well as

ll t Ity. 9

The width of the passage-way in a Romanbridge was common ly narrow, as comparedwith modernstructures of the same kind,and corresponded with the road via) lead ingto and from it. I t was divid into threeparts. The centre one, for horses and car.

riegas , was denominated or iter;andthe raised foot paths on eac side dccursoriq ,which were enclosed by parapet wal ls similar in use and appearance to the plates: inthebasilica.

0

There were eight bridges acrm the Tiber.I. Of these the most celebrawd, as well asthemost ancient

,was the Pos s S uau cros,

so ca l l ed because it was bu ilt ofwood ;subolist s, inthe language of the Formiani ,meaning wooden beams . I t was bui l t by AncusMartins , when be uni ted the Jan iculumtothe city, and was situated at the foot of theAventine.

9

, I I. Pos s Pau '

rrsus formed the communication between the Palatine and its vicin itiesand the Janicu lum.

III. IV. Ports Fanarcws and Ports Cesrrus were the two which connected the Insula Tiberina with the opposi te sides ,

of theriver ;the first with the city, and the latterwith the Janicu lum. Both are st il l remaining. They are represented in the annexedwoodcut ; that onthe ri

ght hand is the pons

tFab ricius, and that on 3 left the pons Cestius.

35g PONS.

V. Ports Jarrxooas asrs, which led direct VI I. Pos s Asmus, bu il t byHadrianmhichto the Jan icu lum. led fromthe ’ci to the mausoleumof tha tVI. Pos s Vnrcasws , so ca l led because it t e bridge and castle of S t.

formed the commun icationbetweenthe Campus Martins and Campus Vaticanus. III. Poss M imi cs, onthe Via Flamuua.

roa m -rmnow Ponte Molle, was bu il t by Aemilius pendons remains, still existing inItalyS eamus the censor. tugal , and Spain, attest, even to the presentThe Roman bridges without the city were day, the scale of grandeu r with which the

too many to be enumerated here. T he?Roman works of national u tility were always

formed one of the chiefembellishments ina lthe public roads ;and their frequent and stu The bridge which Trajanbu il t across the

Danube was one of the greatest efforts of fol lowing woodcut, froma re resentatirmof

humaningenu ity. The formis given in the it onthe columnofTrajan at ome.

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258

external worship of the gods. t h e of theirp rincipal du ties was the regu lation of the as

cra, both publ ica and private, and to watchthat they were observed at the p r

’

times(forwhich pu rpose the pontifis had t 3 wholeregu lation of the calendar, see CALE NDAni un), and in their proper form. Intheman.agement of the sacra publica they were inlater tim‘

es assisted in certa in duties by theT riumviri E nlones. [E rut onaeLThe pont ' convoked the assem Iy of thecu ties (comitia calci te orcuriata) in caseswherepriests were to be appointed, and tim es ora rex sacrorumwere to be inaugu rated °

alsowhen wil l s were to be received, and w en

.

a

detestatio sacrorumand adoptionby adrogatiotook place. [Anorr i e ]In most cases the sentence of the pontifi

'

s

only infiicted a fine u n the offenders;bu tthe personfined had t e right ofappealing tothe people, whomight release

'

himfromthefine. In regard to the vestal vi rgins. and thepersons who committed incest wi th themthe pontifi

'

s had criminal Jurisdiction, andmight pronounce sentence of death. Amanwho had violated a vestal virginwas according to anancient law, scourged to death bythe pontifex maximus in the comitium, andit appears that originally neither the ves talvir nor themale offenders in such a caseh any right of:appeal. Inlater times wefind that, even when thepontifi

'

s had passedsentence upon vesta l virgins, a tribune interfered , and induced the people to appoint aquaestor for the purpose ofmaking a freshinqu iry into the case ;and it sometimes happened that after this new trial the sentence ofthe pontid

'

awasmodified or annulled. Suchcases

,however, seemto have beenmere irreg

ulariti es, founded uponanabuse of the tnhuaitienpower. Inthe early times the

‘pon

tifi‘

s were inthe exclusive possession o thecivi l as wel l as rel igious law, until the formerwasmade public by On. Flavius. The regulutions which served as a guide to the ponetitle intheir judicial proceedings, formed a

large collection of laws, which was calledthe ponh

'

ficium, and formed part of the Libri ontificii.Themeetings of the col lege of pontid

'

a, towhich insome instances thefiamines and therex sacrommwere summoned, were held inthe curia re onthe Via Sacra. to whichwas attach the residence of the pontifexmaximus and of the rex sacrorum. As thechief pontiffwas obliged to l ive in a domuspublica, Augustus, when he assumed this dignity, chan ed part of his ownhouse into a

domus pu'

ca.

.Al l the ntifi'

s were intheirappearance dis tingui sh by the conic cap,

binus assumed this diofTheodosius the emperorsno longer appearin the dign

ityof

pontiff;bu t at last the title

was assum by t

PONTIFEX.

called tutu lus or galerus, with anapex uponit , and the toga praetex ta.

The pontifex maximus was the presidentof .the col lege, and acted in its name, whencehe alone is frequentlymentioned in cases inwhich hemust be considered on ly as the ornof the college. Hewas general ly chosen

romamong themost distinguished persons

,

and such as had held a (mmsmagistrac orwere alreadymembers of the col lege. woof his espec ial duties were to appo int c)the vestal vi rgins and the fiamines [csru es;Frames ], and to be present at everymarriageby confarreatio. When festive gameswere vowed , or a dedication made, the chiefpontiffhad to repeat over, before the personswhomade the vow or the ded ication , the formu la in which itwas to be rformed (pracireverba ). During the peri of the republ ic

,

when the people exercised sovereignpowerinevery

:respect, we find that if the pontifi

'

on consti tutional or rel igiousgrounds, refusedtoperformthis solemnity, hemight _be com

pel ed by the people.A pontifex mi ht, like all the members of

the great priest y col leges hold an othe rmi li tary, civil , or priestly 0 cc provi ed thed ifferent offices did“ not inter ers with oneanother.

.Thus we find one and the sameperson being pontiff, augu r, and decemvir sacrorum instances ofa pontifexmaximus beingat the same time consu l are ve numerous .

Bu t whatever might be the civ‘

ormil itaryodies which a pontifexmaximus held besidehis pontificate, lie was not allowed originallyto leave Italy.

The col lege of pontitfs continued to existuntil the overthrow of paganism. The emperora themselves were always chiefponti d'

a,and as such the presidents of the col l ege ;hence the title of pontifexmaximus (P. M . orPON.M

iappears onseveral coins of the em

perora. f there were several emperors at a

time, on l y one bore the title'

oi pontifexmaximus ;but inthe year A. n . 238 we find thateach of the two emperors Maximus and Bal

gu ity. Fromthe time

e Christian bishop ofRome.There were other pontiffs at Rome. who

were distingu ished by the epithet”

Mmores .

They appear tohave been ori inally on l y thesecretaries of the pontifi

’

s ;a when the realontifi

'

s beganto neglect their dut ies , and tosave the principal business to be done bytheir secretaries. i t became customary to designate these scribes by the name ofPontificcsM inores. The number of these secreta ries

PORTICUS.

POPA. [S aoa i ri cwm]l’OPl

'

NA. Caveman]POPULA’R A. [Ax eu i rnsu num]PO'PULUS . Fara i on.

POPULIFU'

G A or PO LIFU'

G IA, theday of the people's flight , was celebrated onthe nones of July, according to anancient tradd ition , in commemorationof the fl ight of thepeople, whenthe inhabi tants of Ficulae, Fidenae, and other places round about, ap

tgeared

inarms against Rome short ly alter e departure of the Gau ls , and roduced such a

pan ic that the Romans s denly fled beforethem. Other writers saythat thePOpul ifugiawas celebrated in commemoration of the fl ightof the people before ths T uscans;whi le othersa refer i ts to the fiight of the peo

pmthe death ofRomu lus.PORIS T AE (women-

cl), magi strates at

Athelns,who probably levied the ex traordi naryies .pO

’

R’

I‘

ICU S (crud ). a walk covered witha roof. and sup ri ed

gycolumns, at l east on

one side. S ucho

shad walks and places ofresort are almost indispensable inthe southerncountries ofEurope, where peo le l ivemuchinthe openair, as a protectionromthe heatof the sun and fromrain. T he porticoes attached to the temples were either constructedonl in front of themorwant round thewholebuiidin as is the case in the ao-call ed T emple of They were originally intended as places for those persons toassemble and converse in

,

who visited thetemple forvarious purposes. As such temple

- porticoes , however,were found too small,ornot su ited for the various purposes of

Krillvate and public l ife ,most Grec ian townsindependent porticos, some of which werevery extensive ;and in most of these stone,seats (ceedrae) were laced , that those whowere ti red might sit own. They were fre

quanted not only by idle loungers, but a lsoby philosophers, rhetoric ians, and other

per

sons fond of inte l lectual conversation. heS toic school of philosophy derived i ts namefromthe circumstance, that the founder of i tused to converse with his disciples ina stoa.The Romans derived their great fondness forsuch covered walks fromthe Greeks;and as

luxuries among themwere carried ineverythin to a greater extent than inGreece,we thy Romans had their rivets porticoes,sometimes in the city itse and sometimesin their country- seats. '

In the public porticoes of Rome, which were exceed ingly numerous and very extens ive (as that aroundthe Forumand the Campus Martins), a variety of business was

.

oecasionally transactedwe find that law-sui ts were conducted here,

POSTLIMINIUM . 860

meetings of the senate held, goods exhibitedfor sa le, dtc.PORT I

'

S CULU S (new ), anofficerin a ship, who gave the signal to the rowers,that theymight keep time in rowing. Thisofficer is sometimes called Hertator or PauseTM

PORT IT O'RE S . Poau oari i .

PORT O’

RIUM, a ranch ofrevenues of the Roman state, conthe duties paid on imporwd andgoods. A portorium, or du ty upongoods, appears to have beenp

aid at e veryearly pe riod, for i t ' is said that alerius Peplicola exempted the plebes fromthe portoriaat the time when the republic was threatenedwith an invasion by Porsena. The time ofits introduction is uncertain;but the abol itionof it, ascribed toPeplicola, canonly havebeen a temporarymeasure ;and as the ex penditore of the republic increased, newportoriamust have been introduced. Inconqueredplaces, and inthe rovinees, the im rt andexport du ties , whic had beenpaid t are before, were general ly not only retained , bu tincreased, and appro riated to the aerarium.

Sicily, and above al Asia, fu rnished to the

Roman treasury large sums , which wereraised as portoria. n all the portoria in the ports of I y were done awa withby a Lex Caecilia, but were restored y Julius Caesar and the subsequent emperors.Respecting the amount of the import or ex

port duties we have but little information . Inthe time ofCicero the portoriumin thep

ortsof Sicil y was one4wentieth u

'

ccaima) o thevalue of taxable art icles ;a it is probablethat this was the average sumraised in allthe other provinces. In the times of the emperora the ordinary rate of the portoriurnappears to have been the fortieth art (quadra

gnima) of the value of im goods ;andat a laterperiod the exo itant sumof oneeighth (octave) ismentioned.

The portoriumwas , like all other vectigalia,farmed out by

.

the censors to the publicani,who col lected i t throu h the portitorea. [VacT lOALlA t Puaai cmr

'

.

POSSE’SSIO.,As snPusu cusJ

POSTICUM. artua.

POSTLIM INI M, P0 T LI'

MINII JU S .

Ifa Roman c itiz en duringwar came into thepossession of anenemy, he sustainedrio capi

’

rism ime [Carer], and all his civilrightswere inabeyance. Beingcaptured by theenemy, he became a slave but his rightsover his children , if he had any , werenot destro ed, butwere said to be in abeyance (den by virtue

.

of the Jua PM : w onhe returned, his chi ldrenwere againinhis

PRAE CONE S .

power ;and if he died incaptivitcame sui juris. Sometimes by anstate amanwas given u bound to anenemy ,and if the enemy woul not receive h im, itwas a questionwhether he had

.

the Jus Postliminii. T his was the ~caseWi th Sp. Postumine,whowas givenup to the S amnitesh andwi th C .Hostilius Mancinus, who was givenup to theNumantines b ut the better opinionwas, that they had no

’

Jus‘

Pastiimim’

i, andMancinus was restored to his Civic rightso

bya lex . It appears that the “ Jus Posthmmiiwas founded on thefiction of the captive havingnever been absent fromhome ;a fictionwhichwas of easy application, for, as the captive during his absence cou ldnot do any legalact, the interval of captivity was a

. period oflogalnon-activity, which was terminated byhis showin h imself again.

POTES AS . [Pan za Por t er-as.)PRAiCT ORE S (npéx ropcc), subordinate

officers at Athens,who co l lected thefines and

[Anemrnmraum]E RAE CO

’

NE S,criers

,were employed for

various urposes : I . In sal eeby auction. theyfrequent)?

advertised the time,place, and con

ditions sale : t seemalso to have actedthe part of the emauctioneer, so far asca l l ing ou t the biddings and amu the com

pany;though the propertywas knoc ed downthe magister M orris . [AUOT ioJ 2. In1 publ ic assemblies the ordered silence.

3. In the comitia they ca led the centu riesone by one to give their votes

égronounced the

vote ofeach century, and call out the namesof those who were elected . They also reci‘ted the laws that were to be passed. 4. Intrials, the summoned the accuser and theaccused , plaintiff and defendant. 5. Inthe pub is mes they invited the maple toattend , proclaimed the victors. 6. Insolemn funerals they al so invited peopleto attend by a certain form; hence thesefunerals were ca l led fimem radiation. 7 .

When things were lost , they cried themandsearched for them. 8. Inthe infliction of

capital pun ishment, they sometimes conveyed the commands of the magistrates tothe lictors.Thei r office, called Pru e-trium, appears to

have been re ed as rather disrepu table : inthe time of icaro a lawwas passed preventing all persons who had beenpraecones frombecoming decuriones in themunicipia . Underthe earl

yem rors , however, it became very

profitab e, w ich was no doubt partl owingto fees, to which they were enti inthe

PRAE FE CT US .

cou rts ofjustice, and partlyto the bribes whichthe received fromthe su itors , dtc.

RAE FE CT U S AE RA'

RII. [As u non.

PIRAE FE CT U S ANNO’

NAR, the praefect of the provisions, espec ially of the cornmarket.was not a regular magistrate unde rthe republic, but was only a pointed incasesof extraordinary scarci ty, w anhe seems tohave regu lated the prices at which corn wastohe sold. Augustus created anofficer underthe tit le ofPrac cctueArmonae,who

‘

had ju risdiction over matters rtain

' mgfto the

corn-market, and , l ike themed “ ig ilum,

was chosenfromthe equites, and was notreckoned amon the ordinaryma rates.PRAEFECT S AQ UA

'

RU [AQ UAIDoc-

rue.

PRA E CT U S CAS T RO’

RUM. praefect of the camp, is first mentioned inthe

reignof Augustus. There was one to each

on.RAE FE CT U S CLAS SIS ,~ the com

mander ofa fleet. This title was frequ entlygiven in the times of the repub l ic to the consmander of a fleet ;bu t Augustus appoin tedtwo permanent oficers with this title

, one ofwhomWas stationed at Ravenna on theHadriat ic, and the other at Misenumonthe

g‘uacansea

, each having the command of aset.

PRAEFECT US FABRUM. Fu n] .PRAE FE C

‘

I‘

US‘

JURI DICU DO. o

Loma,E

.

PRA FE TUS LE G IO’

NIS . [E x t e017 08 , . 147.

PRA FE TUS PRAE T O’

RIO, was thecommander of the troops who gua rded theemperor’s person .

Phases-mu s h ] T his

oflice was instituted y Augustus. and was at

first only mil itary, and had compa rativelysmal l power attached to it ;but under Tiberius, who made Sejanus commander of thepraetorian troo it became ofmuch terimportance, til at length the power thesepraefects became only second to that of theemBegc

ors . Fromthe reign of Severus to thatof letisn, the praefects, l ike the viz i rs ofthe east, had the superin tendence of all de

partments of the state, the pa lace, the a rmy ,the finances , and the law: they also had a

cou rt,ia which they decided cases. T he

ofice of praefect of the raetoriumwas notconfined to mi l itary 0 cars : it was fil ledby U lpian and Papinian, and other d is tinguished ju rists.Original ly therewere two praefects ;after

wards sometimes one and sometimes two ;fromthe time of Commodus sometimes th ree,and evenfou r. They were, » a regular rule,

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262 PRAE T OR.

were a portionof the functions of the consuls.The praetor sometim¢es commanded the ar

mies of the state andwhi l e the consu ls wereabsent with the armies, he exerci sed thei rfunctions within the city. He was amagi stratus curulis, and he had the imperium, andconsequentlywas one of themagi stratusmajores : bu t he owed respect and obedience tothe consu ls. His insign ia of odies were sixlictors but at a later period he had onl y twolictors inRome. The praetorshipwas atfirstgiven to a consu l of the preceding year.

.

In a. c . 246 another praetorwas appointed ,whose business was to administer justiceinmatters indispu te between peregrini, orperegrini and Roman citiz ens ;and accordmgly he was cal l ed proctor Theother praetor was then proctor urlgama ,

qm‘

jus inter d imdicit, and sometimes simplyproctor urbanus and printer urbt

'

s . The twopraetors determined by lot which functionsthey sbould respectively ex ercbe. If either.of themwas at the head of the army, theother

.

performed all the du ties of both withinthe .ci ty. S ometimes themilitary imperiumof a praetor was prolonged fora second year.Whenthe terri tories of the state were extended beyond the limits of Italy , new praetorswere made . Thus, two praetors were creawd a . c.

_

227, for the administration of Sicil yand Sardinia.and two

O

more were(added when

the two Spanish prov inces were formed, a. c.

197. When there were six raetors, twostayed inthe city, and the o er four wentabroad. The senate determined their provinces, which were distribu ted among thembylot. After the discharge of his Judicial funco

tions in the cit a praetor often had the administration o a province, with the title of

propraetoro Su l la increased the number ofpraetors to eight, which Ju l ius Caesar raisedsuccessively to ten , twelve, fourteen, and s ixteen. Augustus, after severa l changes, fixedthenumberat twelve. Under Tiberius therewere sixteen. T wo praetors were

fipointed

by Claudius formatters relating to eicommissa, .whenthe business inthis departmentof the lawhad become considerable , bu t Titusreduced thenumber to one ;and Nerva addeda praetor for the decision ofmattersb etweenthe fiscus and individuals. Thus there wereeventual ly eighteen praetors, who administered justice inthe state.

The praetor u rbanus was special l y namedpraetor, and hewas the first in rank. His duties confined himto Rome, as is implied bythe name , and he could on ly leave the cityfortendays at a time. Itwas part of his dutyto supermtend the LudiApolliuares. Hewasalso the chiefmagistrate forthe administra

PRAETORIAN I.tionofjustice ;and to the edicta of the sus

cessive praetors the Roman law owes ina

great degree its development and improvement. Both the praetor u rbanus and thepraetor peregrinus had the )us edicendi, andtheirfunctions in this respect do not a ppearto have been limi ted onthe establishme n t ofthe imperial power.though itmust have beengradual ly restricted , as the practice of imperial constitu tions and rescripts became common. [Eni ca

'mn]The chief Judicial functions of the p raetor

inciv ilmatters consisted ingivmg a judex.

[Jnnx xflI twas on ly inthe case of in te rdicts

that he ecided in a summary way. [In-nu.

DICT U I . Proceedings before the praetorweretechni y said to be injut e:The praetors al so presided at trial s of c riminal matters. These were the quaest ionesperpetuas , or the trials for repetundae, ambiotus, majestas, and peculatus, which, whenthere were six praetors, were assigned t o fourout of the number. Sulla added to thesequaestiones those of falsum, de sicariis et veneficis , and de parricidis. and for this purposehe added two, or, according to some accounts,four praetors. Ontheseoccasions the praetorpresided , bu t a body v ofJudices determmed bya majori ty of votes the condemnationor noqu itta l of the accused . [JunsThe praetor, when be administered ju stice,

sat ona sel ls cutuli s in a tribunal , whi ch wasthat part of the court whichwas appro

!priated

to thepraetor and his assessors and riends,

and is ’

Opposedto the subsel lia, or part occupied by the judices, and others who werepresent.PRAETO'

RIA COHORS . [Pu n'

roaram.

P A'

E T ORIA’NI, sc.mailer, or praetonac’

cohort“ , a bod of tr00ps instituted byAugustus to rotset

'

s person and his war, andcalled y that name in imitation o the

{rad o

ria when or select tr00ps which atten ed theperson ofthe praetor orgeneral of the Romanarmy. They original ly consisted of n ine ortencohorts, each comprising a thousandmen,horseand foot. Augustus in accordance withhis general policy ofavoiding the a pearanceofdespotism, stationed only three 0?hortsinthe capital , and d ispersed the remainder inthe adjacent towns of i taly. Tiberius

,however,

O

under pretence of introducing a

stricter discipline among,them, assembled

themall at Rome in a permanent camp, whichwas strongly fortified. Their numberwas increased by Vitellius to sixteen cohorts

, ormen.

The , praetorians were distinguished bydo uble pay and especial privileges. T hen

PRINCIPES .

termof service was original ly fixed by Augustus at twelve years, bu t was afterwardsinc reased to sixteen years ;and when theyhad served their time. each soldier received

ses terces. They soon became themost powerfu l body inthe state , and, like thejan issaries at Constantinople, frequently deposed and elevated emperors according tothe ir pleasu re. Even the mompowerfu l ofthe emperors were obl iged to court their favou r ;and they always. obtained a l iberal O

do.

nation uponthe accesa onof each sovereign.

After the death of Pertinax (a. n. 193 ) theyeven ud

'

ered the empire for sale, which waspu rchased b Didius Julianus ;but upon theaccession Severus in the same year theywere di sbanded , on account of the part theyhad takenin the death of Pertinax , and banished fromthe ci ty. The emperors, however,cou ld not dispense with guards, and accordingl the raetorians were restored ona newmod

yel by everus, and increased to fourtimes

their ancient number. Diocletian reducedtheirnumbers and abolished their privileges ;they were stil l al lowed to remainat Rome,bu t had no longer the guard of the emperor'srson, as he never resided in the ital.heir numbers were againincreased by

.

ax .

entipe ;bu t after h is defea t by Constantine,A. they were entirely suppressed bythe latter, thei r fortified camp destroyed , andthose who had not perished in the battletween Constant ine and Max entius werepersad among the legions.The commander of the praetorians was

ca l led Pa i ns-acre s P iu s-roam.

BART O

i o.]18 .mourns,

140.

PR! CEPS SENATUS. [S am-roe ]PRI'NCIPES. [Exciter

-rue, p.

PROCONS UL. amPRINCI’PIA,PRINCIPA

’

LIS VIA. [Cu‘

riu .

P lsoN. CARCE BJPR lVlLE

' UM . Lax , p.

PRO’

BOLE ( 1rpoBo anaccusationof acriminal nature, preferred before the peopleofAthens in assembly

,with a view to obtain

thei r sanction for brin ing the charge beforea judICIal tribunal . T probatewas reservedfor thosecases where the public had sustained aninju ry , or where, fromthe station, power, or influence of the delinquent, the prosecutormight deemit haz ardous to proceed inthe Otdit‘lfil

?’ way withou t bein authoriz ed

by a vote o the soverei assemly. lnthispoint it diflered fromt 0 d i d , that inthe lat ter the people were ca lls?upon eitherto pronounce fina l Judgment, or to directsome pecu l iarmethod of trial ;whereas, inthe probolé, eiter the jud ment of the assembly, the parties proceed to trial inthe usual

The cases to which the proboléwas a pliedwere, complaints against magistrates or officialmisconduct or 0 pression against thosepublic ( informers an mischief-makers whowere cal l ed sycophmuae (ovx opdvrat) againstthose who outraged ublic decency at the teligious festivals ; against all such as byev il practices exhibited disaffection to thestate.PROBOULE UMA. Bonn

,p.

PROBOULI (npdflov t). a name appl icable to any persons who are appointed to consu l ter takemeasu res for the benefit

£3 the

pe0p e. en probanti were a at

Athens, after the end of the S iciliffinwar, to

act as a commi ttee of public safety. Theirau thority did not last much longer thana

year ;fora year and a half afterwards Pisander and his coll eagues established the counc il of Fou r Hundred, by which the democracywas overthrown .

PROCONSUL anofficerwhoacted in the place of a consul , withou t holding the office of consu l itself. The proconsu lhowever, was general l one who had heldthe omes of consu l , so at the proconsu lshipwas a continuation , thou h a modified one

,

of the consu lship. The rat time.when the

imperiumof a consu l was prolonged,was in

a. c . 327, inthe case of Q . Publi lius Philo.whose returnto Rome wo uld have been followed by the loss ofmost of the advthat had been gained in his camaign. hepower ofproconsu lwasconferred y a senatusconsu ltumand plebiscitum, and was nearlyequal to that of a regu lar consu l , fer he hadthe irnperium

.

and jurisdictio, bu t it difi'

eredinasmuch as i t did not extend over the ci ty

264 PROME THE IA.

and its immediate vic inity, andwas conferred ,without the aus ieta, by amere decree of thesenate and peOp e, and not inthe comitia forelections.When the number ofRoman provinces had

become great,it was customary for the con

suls, who during the latter period of the re

ublic spent the earof their consulshi at

a, to nude 3 at i ts close the co notof awar in a province, or its peacefu l admino

istration, with the title of proconsuls. Thereare some extraordinary cases on record inwhich a manobtained a province with thetitle of proconsu l without hav ing held theconsu lshipbefore. Thefirst case of this kindoccu rred ina. o. 21 1 , when young P. Cornelius Scipio was created proconsul of Spaininthe comitia centu riata.

PROCURA‘TOR,a person who has the

management of an business committed tohimb another. T us it is applied to a person w o maintains or defends anaction onbehalf of another, or, as we shou ld say, anattorney to a steward in a familyCALCULAT OR to anoflicer inthe rovinceslonging to t Caesar, who atte to thb

du ties discharmd by the quaestor in theother provinces [Paov mcu ]: to anofficerengaged in the administ rationof the fiscus[France]:and to various other ofiiceraunderthe empi re.PRODI

'

G IUM, inits widest acceptation ,denotes any sign by which the gods indicatedtomena fu tu re event, whether good or evil ,and thus includes omens and augun

'

es of everydescription . i t is, however, general ly employed ih amorerestricted sense, to sign ify somestrange incident or wonderfu l appearancewhich was supposed to herald the approachof misfortune, and happened under such circumstances as to announce that the calamitywas immnding over a whole commun ity ornation rather thanover private individuals.The word may be considered synonymousWith ostentum,monstrwn, portentum.

Since prodigies were viewed as directmanifestations of the wrath of heaven, it was believed that this wrathmight be appeased

Slywars and sacrifices du ly offered to theed powers. This being a matter which

deeply concerned the publ ic welfare, the necessary rites were in ancient times regu larlyrformed , under the direction of the pontices, by the consu ls before they left the city,the solemnit ies being ca l led procuratio pd Igt

'

PROEDRI.PROFESTI IES. i es.]PROLE T A

'

RII. [Caron]PROME T HBIA a

PROVINCIA .

celebrated atAthens in honou r ofProme theus.It was one of the five Attic festivals , whichwere held with a torch - race inthe Ce ramicus(comp. Lu rsoarnoau j, forwhich the gymnasiarchs had to su

ppl y the you ths from the

gymnasia. Promet eus himself.was bel ievedto have institu ted this torch-race, whence hewas called the torch-bearer.PROMULS IS . Conra

dPRO’

NUBAE , RO'

N BI. [MAT R I I O

NIDN,

6) . 214.

PR PER YRome T amu'

rni ij.PROP AE T OR. [Ph arompPROQUAESTOR. [Q uansrom]PRORA. Nn ts, p.

PROSCE'

lUM. [armament ]

PROS CRIPT IO. he verb‘

bmproperly sign ifies to exhibi t a thing for sale bymeans ofa bil l or advertisement. But inthetime ofSu l la it assumed a very differentmeaning, for he appl ied it to ameasure of his owninvention a. c . namely, the sa l e of thereperty those who were put to d ea th at

his command , and who were themselves ca lled proscripti. After thisex ample ofa prescriptionhad once beenset, i twas read ily adaptedb those in power during the civil commot ionsofsubsequent years, inthe prescriptionofAntonius, Caesar, and Lepidus (a. c . Ci.care and some of themost distingu ish ed Romans were t to death.PRO’ST TES (vr rim). [Li s aa

'

rua]PROVI ’NCIA. his word is mere ly a

shortened formof provideim'

a, and was frequently used in the sense of a du ty” or“matter entrusted to a person .

” But i t isordinari ly employed to denote apart of the Romandominionbeyond ltaly,which had a regmlar organ ization, andwas under Romanadministration. Livy likemse uses theword todenote a district or enemy’s country , whichwas assigned to a general

.

as a field of h is operations. before the establishment of any provincial overnments .

The manstate in its complete dev e lopment consisted of two arts with a distinctorganization, I talic and t

‘eProvewiae. Therewereno Provincias in this sense of the wordtil l the Romans had extended -their conqu estsbeyond i taly ;and Sic il y was the first co untry that was made a Roman .province S ardiniawasmade a revince s

ac. 235. T he Ro

manprovince of a llia Ulteriorinthe time ofCaesar was sometimes designated simp l y bythe termProvincia, aname which has beenperpetuated in themodern Provence.A conquered country received its provincial

organiz ationeither frpmtheRoman commander, whose acts requi red the approval of the

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266 PROXENUS.

gu i lty governor to the pun ishment that he doserved.

Wi th the establishment ofthe imperial power under Augustus, a considerable changewasmade in the administration of the provi nces.

Augustus took the,

charge of those provmceswhere a largemilitary forcewas requi red therest were left to the care of the senate and theRoman people. Accordingl we find in theolder ju rists the division 0 provii iciae intothose which were propriaepopuli

'

Romani, andthose which were propriae Oceania ; and thisdivision

,wi th some modifications, continued

to the third centu ry. The senatorian provinces were distribu ted among consu lares andthosewho had fil led the office ofpraetor, twoprovinces being given to the consu lares andthe rest to the praetorii : these governors werecal led proconsul“ , orpmesides , which latter isthe usual termemployed by the old jurists fora provincia l

fgovernor. The praesides had the

jurisdictio o the praetor u rbanus and the mator peregrinus ;and their quaestors ha thesame jurisdiction that the curu le aediles hadat Rome. The imperial provinces were governed by legati Carson

'

s , with praetorian power, the roconsular power being in the Caesarhimse and the is sti being hi s deputies andrepresentatives. he legati were selectedfromthose who had been consu l s or praetors,orfromthe senators. They held their officeand their

power at the pleasu re of the empe

ror;and e delegated to thembothmil itarycommand and juri sdictio, just as a roconsulinthe republican period delegated t ese pow.

era to hi s legati. These legati had also legatiunder them. No necators were sent to theprovinces of the aesar. Inplace of thequaestors, there were procurarores Caesaris ,who were either equ ites or freedmen of theCaesar. E

gypt was governed by aneques

with the tit e of praefectus. The{rocurato

res looked after the taxes , aid t e troops,

and generally were intmst with the interests of the fiscus. Judaea, which was a partof the province of Syria, was governed by arocurator, who had the powers of a legatus.t appears that there were also procuratoresCaesaris in the senatorian provinces,who collected certain dues of the fiscus, which wereindependent ofwhatwas due to the aerarium.

The lartaxes.as in the republ ican period ,were t e 11 tax and land tax . The taxationwas ounded ona census of persons and

graperty, whichwas established by Augustus.he portoria and other dues were farmed bythegublicani, as in the republican period.

P OVOCA'

T lO.

gerani um]

PROVOCATO'RE [G u ui i roas s ]PRO’

XENUS (wpéfevog). [HOBPIT I UMJ

PRYTANEUM.

PRYTANE’UM (yr raveiov), the publichal l or town~hal l in a reek state. The pry‘lama oi

'

the ancient G reek states and c i tieswere to the communities l iving arou nd them,what private houses were to the ' familieswhich occupied them. Just as the h ou se ofeach family was its home, so was t he to

neumof every state orcity the common omeof itsmembers or inhabitants. This correspondence betweenthe prytaneumor home oithe city , and the private home of a man'sfamily, was at Athens very remarkabl e . Aperpetual fire was kept cont inual l y bu rn ingon the publ ic altar of the city in the p ry tane~um, just as in private houses a fire was keptu onthe domestic altar inthe inner court0 the house.Moreover, the oi -of Athens exerc ised in

its prytaneumthe utica of hospita l i ty,both

to its own citiz ens and to strangers . Thusforeign ambassadors were entertained here

,

as wel l as Athenian envoys, onthei r re turnhome froma successfu l or wel l condu ctedmission . Here, too, were entertained fromday to da the successive prytanes or presi~den ts of t e senate

,together with those citi

z ens who, whether frompersona l o r ances.tral serv ices to the states, were honou redwith what was cal l ed the airflowév arpora

~

veto) , or the privilege of taking their mealsthere at the public cost. This was grantedsometimes for a l imited period , sometimes forlife , inwhich latter case the part ies enjoy ingit were cal led deforms Moreover

, fromtheeveroburning fire of the prytaneum,

or homeof a

‘mother state, was carried the sacred firewhich was to be kept bu rning in the rytah as of her colonies ;and if it happene thatthis was ever extingu ished

,the flame was re

kindled fromthe prytaneumof the pa rentcity. Lastly, a pr

ytaneumwas also a dis

tin ishingmark 0 anindependent state.

he prytaneumof Athens lay under theAcropolis onitsnorthern side (near the dyepé ), andwas, as itsname denotes, origina l lythe place of assembly of the p lanes intheearl iest times it probably sto onthe Aeropolis. Officers cal led

‘

pvyranes (npvravetg)were intrusted with the chiefmagist racy inseveral states ofGreece

, as Corcyra, Corinth,M iletus. At Athens the were in early timesprobably a magistracy o the second rank inthe state (nex t to the archon), acting as judgesinvarious cases (perha s inconjunction withhim), and si tting in t e prytaneum.

Thatthis was the case is rendered probable b thefact, that even in after times the fees ai intocourt by plaintifi

'

and defendant, hefgre theycou ld proceed to trial, and received by thedicasts, were cal led prytanes.

PUBLICANI. PUG lLAT U S .

PRYTANES . lPRYT ANE UN ;Boost ]PS EPHISMA. [BounmNo x orns '

rs

szflPS E RHU S (WWQ a ba l l of stone,u

by the Athenian dicasts in giving the i rdi et. [Canteens ] Hencemlé'wflatits various derivatives are

ézu so often to

Bi h i voting , determining , c.8PS iLl (wz l oi ARMA.)PUBES , P B TAS. (li tmu s ; lu

PAN&

PU LICA’NI, farmers of the public revenues of the Roman state (vectigalia) . Theirname is formed frompublican, which signi~fies all that belongs to the state, and is somet imes used b Roman writers as synonymouswith vectig The revenues which Romederived fromconquered countries, consistingchiefly of tolls, tithes, harbou r duties, thescriptura, or the tax which was paid for theuse of the public pastu re lands, ’and the dutiesaid for the use ofmines and salt -works (sa~’

nac), were let out, or, as the Romans expressed it , were sold b the censors in Romei tself to the highest bi der. This sa le genera l litook place in the month of Q uinctilis,

an wasmad e for a lustrum. The terms onwhich the revenues were let, were fixed bythecensors inthe ao -called leges censoriae. Thepeo ls or the senate, however, sometimes

ified the terms fixed by the censors, inorder to raise the credit of the publicani ;andinsome '

cases even the tribunes of the peopleof the people interfered in this branch of theadministration. T he tithes raised in the pro.

v ince of Sicily alone , with the exception ofthose ofwi ne, oil, and garden produce , werenot sold at Rome, bu t in the districts of Sicilyitself, according to a practice established byH iero. The personswho undertook the farm.

ing of the public revenue of course belongedto the wealthiest Romans, and du ring thelatter period of the republic they belongeda lmost exclusively to the equestrian o er.Their wealth and con uent influencemaybe seen from the factmat as early as the

second Punic war, after the battle of Canuae,when the'

aera riumwas entirely exhausted ,

the publicani advanced large sums ofmoneyto the state, on condition of repayment alterthe end of the war. The words equ ites and

publicani are sometimes used as synonymous.The publicani had to give security to the

state for the sumat which they bought oneor more branches of the revenue in a pro.vince ;but as for this reason the property ofeven the weal thiest individual must havebeeninadequate , a number of uites genera l ly united together, and fo a company(80633. society ,

or corpus), which was recogniz ed by the state. and by which they were

enabled to carry ontheir undertak ings upona large sca le. Such companies appear asearly as the second Pun ic war. The shareswhich each pa rtner of such a company tookinthe business were call ed perm, and if theywere smal l , particulae. The responsible person ineach company , and the one who contrusted with the state, was ca l led mancepc[Mas ons] ;but there was al so amagician» tomanage the busines s of each society, who re.sided at Rome, and kept anextensi ve cones.ondence with the a cuts in the rovinosa.

e seems to,have hel his oflice ony forone

year ;his representative in the provinceswascalled cubmagiu ro, who had to travel about,and superintend the actual business of colleeting the revenues.Nobody but a Roman citiz en was al lowed

to become amember of a company of publican i ;freedmen and slaves were excluded.

No Roman magistrate, however or governorof a province, was al lowed to taite any sharewhatever in a company of publicani, a regulation which was chiefly intended as a protecltionagainst the Oppression of the prov in

cms.The col lection of the taxes in the provinceswas performed by aninferior class ofmen,who were said operasg

ivblwam'

s dare, or canin opm

’

: ” cistern. T ey were engaged bythe publicani, and consisted of freemen as

wel l as slaves, Romans as wel l as provincials.

The separate branches of the public revenue inthe vinces (dccumae,

portoria sen

ture, and £20

revenues fromt e mines aridsal t-works) were mostly l eased to separatecompanies of publicani ;whence they weredistingu ished by names derived fromthat particular branch which they had taken in farm;e. g . dccwnani, pecuarii or x cri atri , :alinariiormancipesmlinanmt, 65C. scams ;PORroa i uu ;Sau nas ;Semproni

a] The

titans were not publicani proper y so calfgr

d,but only their servan ts engaged inexaminingthe goods imported or exported , and levyingthe customduties upon them. They belonged to the same class as the publicans of theNewTestament.PU

'

BLlCUM . [Pusmcwn]PUGILA ‘

T OS (roof . myflf]. mmryla ,

M YflOO'fivfl), box ing, was one of the ear ies

'

tathletic games among the Greeks, and is frequentl mentioned in Homer.In t i e earl iest times boxers (pugiles,mix

rac) foughtnaked , with the exception of a girdle (spa ) round their loins ;but thiswas notuse when boxingwas introduced at

O lympiaias the contests inwrestl ing and racin

been carried on there by persons entire y naked ever since Respect ing the leath

268 PUTEAL.

ern thongs. with whichKggilists su rrounded

theirfists , see Css'

rus,w re its various formsare il lustrated by woodcu ts.The Ionians, especial ly those of Samos,

were at all timesmore distingu ished pugi l iststhanthe Dorians, and at Sparta box ing is saidto have been forbidden by the laws of L cu r

ggs. But the ancients general l consi eredx ing as a usefu l training formi ’

tary purposes , and a part ofeducation no l ess importantthan an other mnastic exercise .

PUG LLA’R S. [Tasma n]PU’

G IO (pd arpa ), a dagger ;a two- edged

ltnife, common y of bronz e, with the handleinmany cases variously ornamented or annched.

PULLA’RIUS . Asu nc i on]

PU’LPITUM. HE AT RUMJPULVI’NAR, a couch provided with c ush

ions orpil lows on which the Romansplaced the statues of the gods at the Lectistcrm’

a. E runos as;Lscrtsrs amuu .] .Therewas a so a pulvinar, on which the images ofthe ode were laid . in the Circus.P PlLLA,

PUPILLUS , the name givento every impubes not in the power of theirfather, bu t subject to a guardian. fineness ;

PUPPIS.

PURIFICA lON. [Learns -no.)PU’TEAL , properly means the enclosu re

surrounding the Opening of a wel l , to protectpersons fromfalltn into it. I t was eitherround or square

,an seems usually to have

been of the height of three or four feet fromthe ground. Itwas the practice insome casesto su rround a sacred lace with anenclosureOpen at the top , an such enclosu res, fromthe great similarity the bore to putealia , werecal led by this name. here were two suchplaces in the Roman forum;one of thesewascal ledPuzsalLibom'

s or S criboa ianum, becausea chape l (med ium) inthat place had been

PYTHIA.

struck'

by lightning, and S cribonius Liho ex

prated i t by proper ceremonies, and erected aputea l around it, Open at the top. to prese rvethe memory Of the place. The formof thisutesl is preserved on severa l coins of thecnbomangens. This utes l seems to havebeen near the atriumof cats

,andwas a com

monplace ofmeeting forusu rare. The otherpu tealwas inthe comitium, onthe left side ofthe senateohouse

, and init were deposited theWhetstone and raz or of Attua Navius.

PUT I’

CULI. [FONU s, p.

PYANE’

l’S lA (mavétpra), a festival ce lerated atAthens every yea r on the seventh ofPyanepsion. in honou r ofApollo, said toh avebeen institu ted by Theseus after his retu rnfrom Crete. The festival , as wel l as themonth inwhich it took place, are said to havederived theirnames fromrrirayog, anotherformfor M oney. i. c. pu lse or beans, which werecooked at this season and carried abou tPYLA

'

G ORAE . [Aurmcrvonsa ]PYRA .

P‘

unus, pp. 159,PY

'

RRB CA . [Samar i a ]PY’THIA (midta). one Of the fou r grea tational festivals of the Greeks. Itwas celerated in the neighbourhood of De lphi, an

ciently ca l led Pytho. in honour of Apol lo, Diana, and Latona. The place of this solemn itywas the Crissaeanplain , which for this pu rpose contained a hippodromus or race -conrse ,

a stadiumof 1000feet in length;and a theat re ,inwhich themusical contests took place.

The Pythian games were, accordin tomos tlegends, instituted by Apol lo himsel Theywere original ly perhaps nothingmore than arel igious pane yris , occasioned by the oracleof Delphi , an the sacred games are sa id tohave been at fi rst on ly a musical contes t ,which consisted in singing a hymnto thehonou r of the Pythian god , with the accou»

paniment of the cithara. Theymust , onsecount oi the celebrity of the Delphic orac le,have become a national festival for all theGreeks at a very early period. and gradual !all the various contests were introduced whiooccu r in the O lympic games . [Ot v ttru J

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270 QUAESTOR.

they cou ld not dis ose ofanypart of the publicmoneywithout ingdirectedby the senate .

T heirdutiesconsequently consi sted inmakingthe necessary ayments fromthe aerarium,

and receiving t e public revenues. Cf boththey had to keep correct accounts inthei rtubules publicus: Demands which any onemight have onthe aerarium, and outstanding debts, were l ikewise re

‘ sterad oy them.

Fines to be paid to the pub te treasu ry wereregistered and exacted by them. Anotherbranch of their duties , which, however, waslikewise connected with the treasu ry, was toprovide the proper accommodation for foreignambassadors , and such persons as were connected with the republ ic by ties of publ ic hospitality.

In a. c . 421 the number of tors wasdoubled , and the tribunes tri to efl

'

ect, byanamendment of the law,

that a part (probably two) of the quaestores shou ld be plebeians. This attempt was indeed frustrated,but the interrex L. Papirius effected a compromise, that the election shou ld not be re

stricted to either order. After this lawwascarried , eleven years passed without any ple¢beian bein elected to the office: at last , inB. c. 409, t e of the fou r quaestors wereplebeians. A ersonwho had held the officeof quaestor ha undoubtedly, as in later times,the right to take his seat in the senate,nul ess hewas excluded as unworthy b

zthe next

censors. And this was probably t e reasonwhy the patricians so resolute] opposed theadmissionofplebeians to thie 0 cc. Henceforth the consuls

,whenever they took the

field against anenemy, were accompanied byone quaestor each , who at first had onl to

superintend the sale of the booty, the p uceofwhichwas either divided among the legion

,

or was transferred to the aerarium. Subesquently, however, we find that these quaestors also kept the funds of the army, whichthe had received fromthe treasury at Rome,an gave the soldiers their pay ;they wereinfact the pam of the army. Thetwo other quaestors, who remained at Rome ,continued to discharge the same duties as before, and were distingu ished fromthose whoaccompanied the consu ls b

fiothe epithet urbaé

m’

. In a. o. 265, after the mans hadmadethemselves masters of I tal y, and when, inconsequence, the admin istrationof the treasu ry and the raising of the revenues becamemore laborious and important, the number ofquaestors was a sindoubled to eight ;and it

Q UAT UORVIRI.

rumOstiensis , amost laborious and im rtantst , as he had toprovide Rome wi . corn.

esides the quaestor ostiensis, who residedat Ostia, three other uaestors were distributed in Italy, to raise t ose arts of the revenue which were not farmed y the publicani,and to control the latter. One of themrec

sided at Cales, and the two others probablyin towns onthe Upper S ea. The two remaining quaestors were sent to Steily.

Su l la, in his dictatorship raised the number ofquaestors to twenty, that he

’might havea lar number of candidates for the senate ,and Caesar evento fort

y. Inthe ear 8 . c.

49 no quaestors were e ected, Caesartransferred the keeping of the aerariumto theaediles. ' Fromth is time’

forward the t resenry was sometimes entrusted to the praetors,sometimes to the praetori i, and sometimesagain to quaestors. [As samese] Quaastors , however, both in the city and inthe provinces , occur down to the latest period of theem ire.

he proconsu l or praetor,‘

who had the administration oi a province, was attended by aquaestor. This quaestor had undoubtedly toperform the same functions as those who se

companied the a rmies into the field ; theywere in fact the same officers, with the excaption that the former were stations intheir province durin

gthe time of their 0 es ,

and had consequent y rights and duties whichthose who accompanied the armies cou ld nothave. In the provinces the quaestors bad thesame jurisdiction as the curu le aed i les at

Rome. The relation ex isting between a praetor or proconsul of a province and his quaestorwas , accordin to ancient custom,

rega rd.ed as resembling t at between a father and hisson. When a uaestordied in his province,the praetors h ,

the right ofappointing a pro

quaestor inhis stead, and when 'the praetorwas absent , the quaestor eu plied his place ,and was then attended by

‘

otora. In whatmanner the provinces were assigned to thequaestors after their electionat Rome, isnot mentioned , thou b it was probably byt, as in the case of t e quaestor ostiensis.

Q UAE S T O'

RIUM. [Cu rse ]Q UALU S . Canvass ]Q UART A

'

R US . [S inu s i ti s ]Q UAS ILLA

’

RJAE . [Cam-

runs ]Q UAS iLLUM . [Cau rnusQ UAT UORVIRI JURl Dic Do. [Co

Lorin,

se

tQUA U0 VIRI WARUM CURANDAisprobable that enceforth theirnumber con RUM , four officers who had the superintendt inned to be increased in proportion as the ence of the roads (vine), were first appointedempi re became extended. One of the eight afterthe war Wi th P rrhus, when so manyquaestors was appoinwd by lot to the Quacs pubhc roads were 0 by the Romans.

RAMNES.

SU INA'

RIU S . [DBNARI U SJU INCUNX. As .)

Q U INDE CIMV l. Dscs x vrar.

QUINQUATRUS or U lNQ UA RIA, a

festival sacred to M inerva, which was cele.

brated on the lgth ofMarch. Ovid says thati t was celebrated for five days, that on thefirst day no blood was shed , but that onthelast four there were contests of gladiators.I t wou ld a

ppear, however, that the first day

on ly was t e festival properly so cal led , andthat the last fou r were merely anadditionmade perhaps in the time ofCaesar to gratifythe ople

,who became so passionately fond

of adiatorial combats.n the fifth day of the festival, according

to Ovid, the trumpets used in sacred riteswere purified ;but this seems to have beenoriginal ly a separate festival cal led T abilaatrium,

which was celebrated , as we knowfrom the ancient calendars, on the 23d of

March, and wou ld , ofcourse , when the Quinqualms was extended to five days, fall on thelast day ofthat fest ival .There was also another festival of thisname, cal led Q uinquatrus Minusculae or Q uin

true M inutes, celebrated onthe idea of

one, on which the tibicines went throu hthe city inprocession to the temple of i

nerve.

QUINQUENNA’LIA , were games institaled b Nero, 1 . D. 60. inimitation of theGreek estivals, and celebrated l ike the Greeknevraerflpt

’

drcat the end of every four years :they consisted of musical , gymnastic, andequest rian contests.QUINQ p.

Q U INQQ U INQQUINQ

QUINTA’NA. [Casram]QUIRINA'LIA , a festival sacred to Quiri.

nus, which was celebrated on the 17th of

Februa on which day Romu lus (Quirinus)was sai to have been carried up to heaven.This festival was also cal l ed S tutterumfm

'

ae,

respecting themeaning ofwhich see FoamcALta.

Q UIRI’

T IUM JUS . [J0a ]QUIVER. [Paaaa

‘

ra

RACES .

RAMNES . [PAT RICIL]

RE PE T UNDAE. 271

RE CUPE RAT O'

RE S . [Joann]REDEMPTOR, the general name for a

contractor, who undertook the bu ilding andrepairing ofpublic works, private houses, &c.,

and in fact ofany kind ofwork. The farmersof the public taxes were also cal led M anp

RE DIMI'

CULUM afilletattached to the minutiae , diadema, mitt-a , or otherhead-dress at the occipu t, and passed over theshoulders

kzr

i

) as to hang on each side over thebreast. imicula were properly female or

naments.

RE G IFU’

G IUM orPU G A’

LIA, the kin’s

flight, a festival which was held by themans every year onthe 24ih of February, and,accordin to someancientwriters, incommemoration o the flight ofking T arquinius Superhus fromRome. The day is marked in theFasti as nefastus. In some ancientcalendarsthe 2i th ofMay is l ikewise cal l edRegifugium.

It is doubtful whether either of these days hadanything to do with the fl ight ofking T ar uinius: the may have derived their name mmthe syin lical flight of the Rex Sacrorumfromthe comitium;for this king riestwasgeneral ly not al lowed to a pear int e comitium, wh ich was destined or the transactionof pol iticalmatters in which he cou ldnot takepart. But on certain days in the year, andcertainl y onthe two days mentioned above,he had togo to the comitiumfor the pu rposeofoffering certain sacrifices, and immediatelyafter he had performed his functions there

,he

hastil y fled fromit ;and th is symbol ical flightwas cal led Regifugium.

RE LE G A'

T IO.

[)E x srLtU irJ

RE MANCIPA’

T I [Eni ncrru ro ]REMU’RIA . [Lancers ]REMUS. Navrs, p . 223

3RE PE T U DAE , orPEC NiAE REP EUNDAE , was the termused to designatesuch sums ofmone as the socii of the R0manstate or indivi uals claiined to recoverfrommagist ratus, judices , orpublicicuratoreswhich they had improperly taken or receivedinthe Provincias , or in the Urbs Roma

,either

in the discharge of their jurisdictio, or intheircapacityof judices or in respect of an other

pu l ic tinction. Sometimes the wo Repetundae was used to express the il legal act forwhich compensation was sought

,as in the

brass repetundanmi fnsimulari, dammm’

andgecuniaemeantnot onl ymoney , but anythingthat had value. The first lex onthe subjectwas the Cal pu rn ia, which was

fir

e-po

sedand

carried by the tribunus plebia alpurniusPiso By th is lex a praetor wasappointed for try ing persons charged with thiscrime. I t seems that the penalties of theLex

272 RE PE'

I'

UNDAE . RETE .

Cal purnia weremerel pecuniary, and at leastdid not comprise ex si ium.

Variou s leges de repetundis were passedafter the Lea Cal purnia, and the penal tieswere continual] made heavier. The Lex Junis was passed

y

pdrobsbly abou t a. c. 126, on

tilie

bproposal of Jumus Pennus, tribuna s

e is.pThe Lex Servil ia G lauciawas preposed and

carried by C . S ervilius G laucia.praetor, ii i thesixth consulship of Marius, s . c. 100. Thislex applied to anymagistratus who had im

pmper y takenor received money fromany

private person;bu t a magist ratus cou ld notaccu sed du ring the termofodies. The lex

enac ted that the p raetor peregrinus shou ld annually appoint 450 jud ices for the t ria l of thisofience : the judices were not to be senators.

The penal t ies of the lex were pecuniary andex silium;the lawal lowed a comperendinatio.

[Juns x ,p . ISL] Before the Lex Servi l ia, the

pecun iary sh al ty was simply restitu tion of

what had wrongfu l ly taken ; this l exseems to have raised the penal ty to double theamount of what had beenwrongfu l ly taken;and subsequent l

yi t was made quadruple .

E x ailiumwas on the punishment incase a

mandidnot abide trial .bu t wi thdrew fiomRome. The lex gave the civitas to any persononwhose complaint a

' personwas convicted of repetundae.

The Lex Acilia, which seems to be of

uncertaindate , was preposed and carriedby M . Acilius G labrio, a tribune of the plebs ,and enacted that there shou ld beneither empliationorcomperendinatio.

The Lex Cornelia was passed inthe dictatorship of Su l la. and continued inforce to thetime of 0. Ju l ius Caesar. lt extended thepenal t ies of repetundae to other il l egal ac tscommit ted in the provinces, and to

'

udices who received bribes , to those to w ose

hands themoney came, and to those who didnot give into the aerariumth

eir roconsular

accounts (proconndam rationes e praetorwho presi ded over this quaestio chose theJudges by lot fromthe senators , whence it appears that the Servi l ia Lex was repealed bythis l ex

, at l east so far as re lated to the cen Inth isnext figure the net is setup;at esclistitutionof the cou rt. Th is lex al so al lowed end of it stands a watchmanboldin a stall:

ampliatio and comperendinatio. The penal The net is S lippoi'ted by three To

ties were pecuniary (ms. aestimatt'o) and the d ispose the nets. inthis mannerwas'

called

aqua ct {p ic'

s interdictio. Under this lex were mmpm or read tenders.tried L.Dolabella,Cu. Piso, C. Verres, C .Ma

cer,M . Fon tains, and L . Flaccus, the two last

of whomwere defended by Cicero. IntheVerrine O rations Cicero complains of the comperendinatio or double beari ng of the cause ,which the Lex Cornel ia a l lowed. and refersto the practice under the Les Acil ia, accord

ing towhich the case for the prosecutiosnhedefence, and the evidence , were only heardonce, and so thematte r was dec ided.

The last lex de repetundiswas the Lex Jaiti.iéassed inthe first con

lsulship of C

thiufim

aesar, a. c. 59.

'

1 his'

ex repea led peeal ty of ex silium, but inadd itionto the asaestimatio, i t enacted that persons convictedu nder this lex shou ld lose thei r rank , andbcdisqualified frombe ing witnesses ,

'

udiceu r

senators. T he lex had been whenCtcero made his orationaga inst Pisa , s . c. $i

A . G abinius was convi cted unde r this lex.

Under the empire the ofience was punifiable w ith ex ile.RE PO

'

T IA. [Marnmo x wmp.

RE PU’

DIUM. Di vos 'ri ux .

RETE and RE S.dim. RE l’

CULL'

ll.

(dix rvov) a net. lnhu nt ing i t was usual toextend nets in a curved l ine of considerablel ength, so as inpart to su rro u nd a space intowhich the beasts ofchase we re dri v en throughthe Opening left onone side . This range tinets was flanked b cords, to wh i ch feathersdyed scarl et , and 0 othe r bright co l ours,weretied, so as to flare and flu t ter in the windThe hunte rs then sall ied forth wi th theirdogs.dislodged the animals fromth eir coverts, andby shouts and barking drove themfirst withinthe or

'mido, as the appara tus of st andfeat ers was cal led , and then, as th

r

él

ygwerr

scared with this appearancewvithinthe circuitof the nets. The accompanying woodcutsare takenfromtwo baa-re l iefs inthe col lectionof ancientmarb les at lnce -B lunde l l inLane»sh ire. Inthe uppermost figure three servantswith staves carry on their shoulders a la netwhig

bdis intended to be set up as d ruid;de

scri e

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274 ROMPHEA. ROSTRA .

whenand ou r ride. It was the commoncarriage used by the Romans for travel ling, andwas frequently made large enou h not onlyto containman persons, bu t a so baggageand u tensils 0 various kinds . The wordE pirhedium, which was formed by themans fromthe Greek preposition hr! andGal l ic rheda, is explained by the S choliasJuvenal, as : Omamentumrhedarumplaustrum.

”

RHYT ON (pvf év), a drinking-horn , (x 6pag) . I ts original formwas probably the hornof the ox , but one end of it was afterwardsornamented with the heads of various animals

mm.Drinkingofl ohis.

The Rh tonhad a smal l Opening at the bottom, whic the ersonwho drank put intohis mouth , and a lowed the wine to run in:hence it derived its name.RICA. Fla unt ]RICl

’Nl M , anart icle of female dress,appears to have been a kind ofmantle, witha sort of cowl attached to it, inorder to coverthe head. The mavortt'um,masorte. ormoversof later timeswas thought to be only anothername forwhat had formerly been cal led t icinium.

RlNGS . [As sume ]ROADS. Vim]ROBIG A A , a public festival inhonou r

of the 0d Robigus, to preserve the fieldsfrommi dew, is said to have been institutedb Numa, and was celebrated April 25th.

'Izbe sacrifices offered onthis occasion consisted of the entrails of a dog and a sheep,accompanied with frankincense and wine : aprayerwas presented by afiameninthe roveof the ancient deity , whomowd and olu

mel la make a goddess. A godBob us or

goddess Robi o is amere invention tomth

name of this estival , for the Romans paidnodivine honomrs to evi l deities.ROGA‘TIO. Ls x , p.

ROG AT O'

REROGUS. [Fatwa p. 162 ]K OMPHEA. [Has

'

rm]

K ORA’BII, a class of light-armed Roman

soldiers appear to have been ori'

nal!y sl ing~ers, and were takenfrom‘ the

,

ith c lass ofthe Serviancensus. inlate r times the namewas a pl ied to the light-armed hastati

, andsince this latter name so planted that of ro

r‘

ani, who. according to t a later constitu t ionoi

'

the army, no longer existed in it intheirorigina l capaci ty, the rotarii arenotment ioned inlater times .

ROSTRA , or The Beaks, was the nameapplied to the stage (mggcstus) in the Forum,

fromwhich the orators addressed the peop le.This stage was original ly cal led templum,

because it was consecrated by the augurs , bu tobtained its name ofRosrra at the conclusionof the great Latin war, whenit was adornedwith the beaks (rostra) of the ships of theAntis tes . The Greeks alsomu tilated gal l eysinthe same way for the urpose of t rophiesthiswas cal led by them pumptégcw. [Acsou

-s s ion]

The rostra lay between the Comi tiumor

place ofmeeting for the onries,and the Forumor place ofmeeting for the t ribes, so that thespeakermight tu rn either to the one or theother ;bu t downto the time ofC . Gracchus

,

even the tribunes in speakin used to fron tthe Comitium;he first turn his back to i tand spoke with his face towards the forum.

The rostra was a circular building,raised on

arches, with a stand or latformonthe t0p,bordered b a parapet ;t e access to i t beingby two iiig to of steps, one oneach side.

I tfronted towards the comitium, and the ro

'

strawere affixed to the front of it, just under thearches . I ts formhas been inall the mainpoints preserved in

,the amhones, or circu lar

pu lpi ts of themost ancient churches , whichal so had two iii hts . of steps leading up tothem, one on t e east side. by which thepreacher ascended , and another on the westside, forhis descent. The speaker was thusenabled to wal k to and fro

,while addressing

h is audience.

The suggestus orrostra was t ransferred byJu l ius Caesar to a corner of the Forum, butthe spot where the ancient rostra had stood

,

sti ll continued to be cal led Ros lra Valera,while the other was cal led Rostra Nova or

Rostra Julia . Both the ros tra contained statues of illustrious men. T he fol lowing cutcontains representations of the rostra fromRoman coins, bu t they giv e l ittl e idea of thei rform. The one onthe left hand is froma

denarius of the Laura gm , and is supposedto represent the old rostra ;and the one onthe nght is froma

'denarius of the S ulpc’

ciagens , and supposed to represent the newms.

SACERDOS.

R OSTRUM. [Navrs, p .

R OTA Cannes ]R OWER [NAV 18 , p.R U DD E R. [G oss amcuwulR U DlA

’

RlI. [Gnaota'roas s ]

R U D I S . [G awu ros x s ]

b ACE LLUM is a diminu tive of racer, ands ignifies a small p lace consecrated to a god ,conta ining anal tar, and sometimes al so a

s ta tue of the god/ to whomit was dedicated,b u t i t was wi thou t a roof. It was thereforea sacred inclosure surrounded bé

a fence orwa

il;and thus answered to the reek mp!

o c.flSA CERDOS ,

SACERDO’T IUM. As allth e d ifferent kinds of priests are t reated of

separate ly in this work , i t is ohlfienecessary

h e re tomake some general remarin comparisonW i th the civilmagistrates,

all p riests at Rome were regarded as homines

p rivati :though all of themas priests, were

s acerdotes ublici, inas far as their office( sacerdotiumwas connected with any worshiprecognized by the state. The appe l lat ionof

sacerdos was however'

ven princ i

pa l l y tot a chief pontiff and the amendial ia,who were at the same time the only priestswho weremembers of the senate by v irt ue oftheirotiice. All priestly offices orsacerdotiawere held forlife,withou t responsibi li ty to anc iv i l ma t rate , A priest was general l y a

l owed to old any other c ivi l ormi li tary ofiicebesides his

esriestly d ignity some p ries ts how

ever form anexes tion , for the du umviri,the re: sacrorum, an the fiamendialis werenot allowed to hold any state office , and werealsoex em fromsemce inthe armies . Thei r

priestly c aracter was , general l speaking,

i nse rable fromthei r person.as ong as theyliv hence the augurs and frat res arval esretained their character evenwhensen t intoexile, or when they were takenprisoners.

275

I t also occurs that one and the same personhe ld two or three priestly ofiices at a time.

Thus we find the three d ignities of pontifexmaximus, augu r, and decemvir sacrorumunited inone individual. Bodil y defects incapac itated a person at Rome , as among allar

gient nations, fromholding any priestly

0 es.

All risata were original l y patric ians, butfromt e year s . c. 367 the p lebeians alsobeganto take part inthe sacerdotia [Pu b es];and those priestly ofiices which downto thelatest times remained inthe hands of thepatricians alone , such as tha t of the rex sa

crorum, the flamines. sa l i i and others, hadnoinfluence it onthe ad

'

airs of the sta te.

As regards the ap ointment of priests, theancients unaniinous y state, that at first theywere appointed by the kings , but after thesacerdotta were once institumd, each coll egeof priests—fornearly all priests constitutedcertaincorporations ca lled collegia—had theriglht offil l ing up, l

l)!cooptatio, the vacancies

w ich occu rred. ONT I FE I J Other priests,onthe contrary , such as the vestal virgins,and the fiamines , were appointed (eapicbaw )by the pontifex max imus , a ,

ru le which apears to have been observed downto theates t t imes ;others again, such as the duumvi ri sacrorum

,were elected by the people, or

by the cu riae, as the curiones. But inwhatevermanner they were appointed, all pries tsafter theirappointment required to be inau »

gurated by the pontid'

a and the a rs, or bythe latter alone. Those priests w formedcol leges had original i as we have alreadyobserved , the right 0 cooptatio ;bu t inthecou rse of t ime they were deprived of thisri ght , or at leas t the .cooptatio was reducedto amere form, by several

- leges , call ed l egesde sacerdotiis, such as the Lex Domitia, r

nelia,and Ju lia ; their nature is descr

'

inthe artic le Ponrtrs x , and what is there saidinregard to the ap intment of pontifl

'

s appl ies equal ly to all t e other col leges.All priests had some external distinction, as

the a pex, tu tu lus, or galerus, the to praetexta, as wel l as honorary seats in catres,ci rcuses,

"

and amph itheatres. Most of thepriest ly col leges pou essed landed propertyand some priests had also a regu lar annualsalary (stipendium), wh ich was.

paid to themfromthe public treasury. Thi s is express l ystated inregard to the vestal virgins, the aogu rs, and the curiones, and may therefore besupposed to have beenthe caseWi th otherpri ests al so . The pontifexmanmua, the re:sacrorum, and the vesta l virgins had more

gvar a domus publica as their place of restence.

216 SACRlFlClUM.

SACRA. Th is word , inits widest sense.expresses what we call divine worship. Inancient times, the state, as well as all itssubdivisions, had their ownpecu l iar forms ofworship, whence at Rome, we find sacra ofthe whole Roman people, of the cu ries, genie

?Ifamilies, and even ofprivate individuals. Athese sac ra, however, were divided into twogreatMums, the publg

c

33d priv

tgte sacra

(sacrs’

et pnvata , t is, ey wereperformed either onbehalf of the whole nation , and at the expense of the state , or onbehalf of individuals, familiea, or gentes, whichhad also to defray their expenses. This division is ascribed to Nums . All sacra, ublicaas wel l as privata ,were superinte ed andre

grinted

Abfithe s.

AOR E N UM,themilitary oathwhich

was adrmnis'

tered inthe followm'gmanner:

each tribunusmilitumassembled is legion,and picked out oneof themen, to whomhe putthe oath, that he wou ld obey the commandsof his ral s, and ex ecu te them actual ly.The 0 rmenthencame forw one afteranother, and re ted the same oath, sayingthat th won do l ike the first .SAC A

'

RlUM was au

r

a?place in whichn

cred thingswere'

deposi and kept, whetherthis lace was a part of a temple or of a private ouse.SACRIFICES . S ACRfl lClU l JS ACRIFI’C IUM ( pstov), asacrifice. S ac

rifices orofferings formed the chief part of theworship of the ancients. They were partlysigns of gratitude, partly ameans of propitia.

ting the gods, and partly also intended to induce the deity to bestow some favour u nthe sacrificer, or upon those onwhose be alfthe sacrifice was offered. Sacrifices ina

wider sense wou ld also embracetheDONARIAinf:narrower sense sacrificia were things0 red to the gods , which merely afiordedmomentary gratification, and which wereburnt upon their al tars, or were believed tobe consumed b the gods. All sacrificesmaybe divided into loody sacrifices and unbloody

Bloody eacn'

In the earl y times ofGreece we fi mention of human sacrifices,but with a few exceptions these had ceasedhi the historical ages. Owing to - the influence of civilization. inmany casesanimalswere substitu ted forhuman beings inothers,a few drops of human blood were thoughtsufficient to propitiate the gods. T he customoi sacrificing human life to the gods arosefromthe belief that the nobler the sacrificeand the dearer to its

tpgssessor, the more

leasing it would be to gods. Hence theuent instances inGrecianstory of per

sons sacrificing their ownchildren,or of per

sons devoting themse lves to the gods of thelower world.

That the Romans also believed humansac.

rifices to be pleasing to the gods,minbeinferred fromthe story of Cu rtius fromthe selfisacrifice of the Dccii. T he symbolicsacrifice of human figures made of rushes a tthe Lemural ia [Lsuuni t u also shows tha tinthe early history of Italy umansacrificeswere not uncommon. For another proof ofthis practice , see Vanc nuu .

A second class of bloody sacrifices werethose of animals of various kinds, accord ingto the nature and character of the divin ity .

The sacrifices of animals were themost‘ commonamong the Greeks and Romans. Thvictimwas cal led lrpsiov, and in Latin hom

'

a

or aierina. Inthe early times it appears tohave been the neral customto burnthewhole victim(6 x avrsiv) uponthe a l tars ofthe gods, and the same was in some casesal so observed inlater times . But as early asthe time of Homer it was the almost genera lpractice to bu rn on ly the“

l egs (papal.ympia ,

wipe ) enclosed infat, and certain parts of theintestines , while the remain ing parts of thevictimwere consumed bymenat a festivemeal. The gods delighted chiefly in thesmoke arising fromthe burning victims, andthe greater the number of victims, themorepleasing was the sacrifice. Hence it was notuncommon to offer a sacrifice of one hund red

at once, thou h it must notbe suppo sed that a hecatomb ways signifiesa sacrifice of a hundred bul ls, for the namewas used in a general way to deai ate anygreat sacrifice. Such great sacri ces werenot less easing tomenthan to the gods, forin regar to the former they were in rea l i ty adonation ofmeat. Hence at Athens the partiality for such sacrifices rose to the highestdegree. The an imals which were sacrificedwerem‘plstly of the ldombgstic kind, as blulls,cows, e rains, am ts, iand horses

e

i)

and each god ad hig53000

5;animals which he l iked best as sacrifices.The head of the victim, before it was kil l ed,was inmost cases strewed with roasted barlemeal (ob ara or villager

-

ar) mixed withsalt (mold salsa). The persons Who ofl

'

eredthe sacrifice wore general ly garlands roundtheir heads, and sometimes also carried themintheir hands, and before they touched anything belonging to the sacrifice they washedtheir hands in water.

,The victimi tse lfwas

l ikewise adorned with'

lands, and i ts hornswere sometimes ilt. fore the animalwas

a bunch 0 hair was cu t fromits forehead, and throwninto the fire ss primitias

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B78 S ALll. SALT AT IO.

superior officers. [PALUDAHBNT U IL It isused in opposition to the toga orgarb 0 peace,andwe acco rdingly find.thatwhen therewasa war in Italy, all citizens put onthe sagumeven in the ci ty.with the exception of thoseof consu lar rank (sagam m,

ad saga ire, in8

0me sagumwas open in the front, and usuall y fastened across the shou lders by a claspit resembled in formthe paludamentum(seecut

,p. The cloak worn

'

by the generaland superior oflicers is sometimes cal led sa

gum, bu t the diminu tive «agains t ismore commoul y used in such cases .

0

The cloakwornb thenorthern nations ofE mma is also cal l sagum: see cut, p.fit,where three S arrnatians are represented Withsaga. The G erman‘

sagumis‘mentioned by

Tacitus .

SAILS. NAV IS , p.

SALAM I ' IA (aaMy ivla) . The Athenians fromvery early times kept for publ icpu rposes two sacred or state vessels, the oneofwhich was cal led Paralos (fidpal og), andthe other S alamim

’

a (cal amvla):T he latterwas also cal led Delia (Jul ia) or T heoria (Ocupig), because it was used to convey the - theori

'

(flrwpoi) to Delos, onwhich occasionthe shipwas adorned with garlands by the - priest ofApollo. Both these vessels were qu ick-sailing triremes, and were used for a variety ofstate- pu rposes : they conveyed theories, despetches, drc.

’

fromAthens, carried treasuresfrom subject countries to Athens, fetchedstate~criminals fromforei parts to Athens

,

and the like. Inbattles t ey were frequengivused as the ships in which the admi rals sailThese vessels and their crew were alwayskept in readiness to act, in case ofany ucceasity arising ;and the crew, al though theycou ld not for the greater art of the year beinactual se rvice, receive their regu lar ayof fou r obol i per day all the year round. henames of the two ships seemto point to a

very early period of the history of Attica,when therewasnonavigation except betweenAttics and S alamis, forwhich the S alaminiawas used , and around the coast ofAttica, forwhich pu rpose the Paraloswas destined. - Inlater t imes thenames were retained , al thoughthe shi were then principal ly destined to

serve t e pu rposes of rel igion , whence theyare frequent ly called the sacred ships.SA’L II, priests of Mars G radivus, said to

have been institu ted by Numa. They weretwelve innumber, chosenfromthe patricianseven in the latest times

, and formed anse

clesiastical co ration. They had the careof the twelve acilia ANCILE ], which werekept inthe temple of onthe Palatine

hil l , whence these priests were sometimescal led Sal ii Palatin i, to distinguish themfromthe other Salii mentioned below. T he dietinguishing dress of the Sal l iwas anembroidered t unic bound with a braz en bel t , th e trabea, and the a also worn b the Flamin es.[APBt .] E ac had a sword

é_his side , and

inhis right hand a spear or staThe festival ofMars was celebrated by the

Sal i i on the 1st ofMarch and for severa l successive days ;onwhich occasion they wereaccustomed to go through the city in theirofficial dress

,carryin the ancil ia in their

left hands or suspends fromtheir shou lde rs,

and at the same time singing and - dancing,whence comes their name. The songs or

hymns which they sang on this occasionwerecal led Ammonia, Assamenta or As ammta , andwere chiefly in praise of Mamurius Veturius ,general ly said to be .the armourer, who madeelevenancilia l ike the one thatwas sen t fromheaven [Arrows ], though somemodernwriters sup it to bemerely another name ofMars. he praises of the gods were alsocelebrated in the songs of the Salii. Inlatertimes , these songs were scarcely understoodeven b the priests themselves.At t e conclusion of the festival the S aln

were accustomed to partake of a splendid eutertainment in the temfle of Mars, whichwas proverbial for its excellence. Themembers of the collegiumwere elected by co6tation. We read of the dignities of prasanvates andmagister inthe col legium.

T uilus Hostilius established another col legiumof Sa lii , in fulfilment of a vow

’

whichhemade in a warW i th the Sabines. TheseSalii were al so twelve innumber, chosenfromthe patricians, and appear to have beendedicated to the service of Qui rinus. The ywere cal led the Sal ii Col lini, Agenales orAgonenses.

'

It is sup osed that the oldes tandmost i llustrious co le e, the Palatine S al ii, were chosen origins y fromthe oldes ttribe, the Ramnes, and the one instituted byTu l lus Hostilius, or the Q uirinalian, fromtheTities alone : a third col lege for the Lucereswas never established.

SALT-WORK S. VE CT IGALIAJSALI’NUM , a as t-cel lar. All Romans

who were raised above poverty had one of si lver

,which descended fromfather to son, and

was accompanied by a si lver plate , whichwasused together with the sa l t-cellar inthe domestic sacrifices. [Pu tnam] These twoarticles of silver were alone compatible with thesimlicityofRomanmanners inthe early timesof t e rep

ubl ic.SAL A‘TIO (dw arf, 6p d rug) , danc

ing. The dancing of the G rexezs as wel l as

SALT AT IO.

at the Romans had very l ittle incommon entertain a company. itwas alsowith the exercise which goes by that name inmodern times. i t may be div ided into twokinds, g innastic andmimeti c ; that is , itwasintends either to represent bodily activity

,or

to express by gestu res,movements , and attitudes , certain ideas or feel ings

, and also single events or a series of even ts , as inthemodern bal let. All these movements

,how

ever, were'

accomganied by mus ic ;but the

terms 6p 71mg an saltatio were used insomuch wider a sense thanou r word dancing,that they were ap l ied to designate gestures,even when the b y did notmove at all.We find dancin prevalent among the

Greeks fromthe ear iest times . Itwas origina l ly closel connected with rel igion . inallthe public estivals, which were sonumerousamong the Greeks ,

“

dancing formed a veryprominent art.

t imes that t e worship ofApol lowas connected with a religious dance, ca l led Hyporc/cema( inropx rma). Al l the religious dances . withthe exception ofthe Bacchic and the Corybantian ,were very simple, and consisted of gent lemovements of the body,with various turningsand windings around the al tar ;such a dancewas the G eranus (yépavog),which Theseus issaid to have performed at Delos on his returnfromCrete. T he D ionysiac or Bacchic , andthe Corybantian .were of a very different natu re. Inthe former, the l ife and adventu resof the god were represented by mimetic danc ing [Dro x v su ]. T he Corybantian was of avery wild character : it was chiefly danced inPhrygia and in Crete;the dancerswere armed ,struck their swords against their shields, anddisplayed the most ex travagant fu ry ; it wasaccompanied chiell by the flute. Respectingthe dances in the t eatre, see Cnos us .

Dancingwas appl ied to gymnastic ur osesand to training forwar, especial ly in theBoricstates, and was bel ieved to have contributedvery much to the success of the Dorians inwar

, as it enabled themto performtheir evolutions simultaneous ly and in order.There were various dances in early times,

which served as a reparation forwar;henceHomer cal ls the

.

$10 l ites apvl éeg, a wardance having been ca led rrm'

riltcby the Cretans. Of such dances the most celebratedwas the Pyrrhic rrvbbix q), of which therrpfiilzgwas probab y on ly another name. i t

was danced to the sound of the flute, and itstimewas very quick and l ight , as is shown bythe name of the Pyrrhic foot whichmustbe connected with this dance. Inthe nonDoric states itwas probably not practised as a menin Asiatraining forwar, but only as amimetic dancethuswe read of its be ing danced bywomeri to rhic, in whio

We find fromthe earliest

at Athens at the

uses by ephebi,who were called P rrhichists(mi fit wrai) and were trained at the expenseof t e c ioragus . In themoun tainous parts ofThessa ly and Macedon dances are performedat the present day bymenarmed withmuskets and swords.The fol lowing cut represents three Pyrrhi.

chists , two of whomwith shield and swordare engaged inthe dance, while the third isstandm w ith a sword. Above themis a female ba ancing herself on the head of one

, anda parentIy inthe act ofperforming a somerset;s e no doubt is taking part in the dance , andperforming a very artistic kind of tumbling(noflto

‘

r cry) ;for the Greek performances ofthis kmc surpass any thingwe canimagine inmo dern t imes. Her danger is increased bythe person below,who holds a sword pointingtowards her. A female spectator sitting looks

astonished at the exhibition.

besides the Pyrrs had arms, bu t

Therewer

280 SALT AT IO.

these seemto have been entirelymimetic, andnot rsctised with any view to training forwar.Suc was the Carpaea ( x aprraia) pecu liar tothe Aenianians and Magnetes, and describedby Xeq honinthe Anabasis. Such danceswere frequent ly performed at banquets for theentertainment of the guests :where al so thetumblers (v wrfipe were often introduced ,who in the cou rse 0 their dance flung themselves ontheir head and al ighted again upontheir feet. These tumblers were also accustomed to make their some'

rsets over knivesand swords , which was cal led v w'

rdv

pax alpag. We learn fromTacitus thatGerman youths al so

.

used to dance amongswords and spears pomted at them.

Other k inds ofdances were frequently performed at entertainmen ts, in Rome as wel las inGreece, by courtez ans,many of whichwere of a very indecent and lasciviousnature.

Amen the dances performed without armsone of t e mos t important was the Homes

(6p og), vvhichwas danced at Sparta by youthsand

“

maidens together : the youth danced firstsome movements su ited to his age, and of a

mi l itary nature themaiden fol lowed inmeas.ured steps and with feminine gestu res. Another common dance at Spartawas the bibasis

Wifiaotc) , in which the dancer sprang rapid lymmthe ground and struck the feet behind.

Dancing was common among the Romansin ancient t imes, in connection with religiousfestivalsand rites,because the ancients thoughtthat no part of the body shou ld be free fromthe influence of rel igion. The dances of theSa lii, which were performed bymenof patricianfami lies, are described elsewhere. [AHcru .] Dancing.however,was not performedby any Roman citiz ens except in connectionwith religion, and itwas considered disgrace

SANDALIUM.

ful for any freemanto dance. T he mimeticdances of the Romans ,which were carried tosuch erfectionunder the

‘

empire. are descri under Parx'rou tuos. The dance rs onthe tight-ro

ifie

lcfmmnbuh) under the em ire

uwere as ch as thgy

are inthe present a y.SALUTATO 'RE the name given inthelater times of the republic, and under the anpire, to a class ofmenwho obtained the iriving by visiting the houses of the wealtjhyearly inthemorning, to pay their respects

'

tothem(autumn), and to accompany themwhentheywent abroad. This arose fromthe visitswh ich the c lients were accustomed to pay totheir atrons, and degenerated inlate r titti esinto t a abovementioned practice such persons seem to have obtained a good livingamong the restnumber of wealthy and gainpersons at ome, who were gratified by thisattention. S ronrunaJS AMBU A (b a harp, was atorienta l origin.

'

I‘ e performances of m

baciatrice (afixfivx iorpzat) were

to the early omans as luxuriesfromAsia.

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S CRIBAE .

descended to the consuls,was surmounted

S CHOENUS (6, ax oi'

voc) , anE gypt ianand Persianmeasure, the length of which isstated by Herodotus at 60 stad ia , or 2 para

fangs. It was used especia lly formeasuring

anSCO ’RPIO. [T onnsn'

rma ]S CRlBAE public notaries or clerks,thegay of the Roman state. They were

chie y employed inmaking 0 the publ ic secounts, copying out laws, an recordingproceedings of the different functionaries ofthe state. The phrase scripfiun acne wasused to denote their occupat ion. eing verynumerous, they were divided into companiesor c lasses (Jamaica), and were assigned by lotto different magistrates. whence they werenamed Q uaestorii, Aedilicii,orPraetorii , fromthe oficers of state to whomthey were at

tached. The appointment to the oflice of asc riba” seems to have beeneithermade onthe nominationof ama '

strate, or purchased .

Horace , for instance ught for h imself a

patent place as clerlt ‘inthe treasu ry" (scriptumquaestorim comparas it). InC icero’s time,indeed , it seems that an one might becomea scriba or public cler by purchase, andconsequently, as freedmenand their sonswere eligible, and constituted a great portionof the public c lerks at Rome, the ofliee wasnot highly esteemed , though frequently heldby ingenui or fream c i tizens. Very fewinstances are recorded of the scribes beingraisw to the higher dignities of the state .On. E lavius , the scribe of Appius Claudius ,was raised to the omce of curule aedile in

S CUTUM.

tioned .

now]As a uare measure, it was the Mdivision0 the jugerum, which contem 288scru

gula.

Hosanna .)

S U'

FU A the Roman shield,wornby the heavy-armed infantry , instead ofbeing round , like the Greek Caressa , wasadapted to the formof the humanbody, bybeing made either, oval or.of the shape ofadoor (013m), which it also resembled inbeingmade ofwood orwicker-work.and fromWhich

gratitude for his mak in

g]public the various

arms of actions, which ad,

previousl y beenthe ex clusive property of the patricians [AcT i o] but the re turning oflicer refused to so

quiesce inhis election. till he had givenup hisbooks and left his profess ion.

S CRl’

NlUM. CAPS A.

SCRIPTA DU '

DE CI}Lmnuncum.

S CRIPT U’

RA that part 0 the revenue 0

the Romanrepublic wh ich was derived fromletting out

,

the ager pucul tivation.

BE LLA .

Santa, Shields.SCY’TALE okurdln) is thename s pl ied

to a secret m e of writ'

by whic theSpartanephors communion with their kingsand generals whenabroad. Whena king orgeneral left S parta, the ephors we to hima

s taff of a definite length and t'

ckness. andretained for themselves another of preciselythe same size. Whenthey had any commu~nications tomake to him, they cut themateria l uponwhich they intended to write intothe shape of anarrow riband, wound it roundtheir staff, and thenwrote uponit the message which they had to send tonim. Whenthe stri ofwriting materia l was takenfromthe sta nothing but single letters appeared ,and inthis state the stri p was sent to theanernl, who after having wound it roundfiis staff,was able to read the communication.S E 'CTIO, the sale of aman’s property bythe state This was done inconsequence ofa condemnatio, and for the purposeof repayment to the state of such sums ofmoney as the condemned personhad impwpe rl y appropriated ; or in consequence of a

proscnptio. Sometimes the things sold wereca l led sectio. Those who bought the propertywere cal led u ctom. The property was soldcub haste .

SECTOR. [S t orm]BE CU

'

RIS (éfivr) , Nah um) an ax e or

hatchet. The are was either made with a

s ingle edge. or with a blade or head oneachside of the haft, the latter kind being denommated bipennis . The ax ewasused asonofwar chiefly by the Asiatic natiwas a part of the Romanfasces. [Fascss ]S E CUT O

'

RE S . [Gu ms -

rous e, p.SE LLA, the general termfor a seat or

cheir ei any description. 1 . S u mCensu s,the chair of

, state. Curu lis is derived by theancient writers frommm , but itmore probabl contains the same root as curia. Theas ] a curulis is said to have beenused at

Rome froma very remote period as anemblemof kingly power, having beenimported ,along with various Other insi gnia of royalty,fromEtru ria. Under the republic the rightofsitting uponthis chair belonged to the consuls, praetors , curule aediles and censors ;to the fiarnendialia;to the dictator, and tothose whomhe deputed to act under himselfas themagistereqmtum, since hemight be saito comprehend ll magistracies Wi thinhimself. After the ownfall of the constitution,it was assigned to the emperors a lso

, or to

their statues intheir absence ;to the augustales, and, perhaps, to the praefectus urbi.It was displayed uponall great public occasions, especial ly inthe circus and theatre ;and it was the seat of the praetor whenheadministered justice. Inthe provinces itwasassumed by inferior magistrates, whentheyexercised

vproconsular or propraetorianeu

thority. e find it occasional ly exhibitedonthemedals of foreignmonarchs likewise

,

for itwas the practice of the Romans to present a curule chair , anivory sceptre, a togapraetexta, and such like ornaments, as tokensof respect and confidence to those rulerswhose friendship they desired to cu l tivate.

The sells curulis appears fromthe first tohave beenornamented with ivory ;and at a

later period it’

was "

overlaid w ith old. Inshape it was extremely plain, close y resemblingacommonfoldin camp - stool with crooltcd legs. The form0 the sel la curulis, as it

is commonly represented uponthe denaru ofRomanfami lies , is giveninp. 151. In

the following out are represented two

284 BELLA.

bronze legs, belonging to a sells curulis, andlikewise a sella curulis itself.2. Bi ss tnwn. Theword is found inno clas

sicsl author except Varro, according to whomitmeans a sea t large enough to containtwopersons . Two bronze bissel lia were discovered at Pompeii, and thus all uncertaintywith regard to the formof the seat has beenremoved. One of themis here represented.

3. BELLA G esrnoau , or Fs a'roau , a as

»

danused both in town- and country , and byma x as we l l as by women. I t is expresslyd istinguished from the Lsc'

ri ca, a portablebed or sofa, inwhich the personcarried layina recumbent position

,whi le the u lla was

a portable chair, inwhich the occupant satupright. lt difl

'

ered fromthe cathedra al so ,but inwhat the difl

'

erence consisted , it is noteasy to determine. [CAT HE DRA.] It appears not to have beenintroduced until longafter the lectica was common, since wescarcely, if ever, find any al lusionto - it untilthe period of the empire. The sel la wassometimes entirely open, butmore freg

uentlyshut in. I t was made sometimes 0 plainleather, and sometimes ornamented w ith

it afforded a healthfu l exercise .

4. Chai rs for ordinary domestic purposeshave beendiscovered inex cavati ons,

taken

SENATUS.

a painting at Pompeii.

fai rs, as at Sparta and inearly Rome,

t

k ing had l itt le more thanthe executive . LAsenate inthe early times was alwaysed as anassembly of elders, which is

themeaning of the Romansenatus, as setmSpartan(yrpovoia), and its members wereelected fromamong the nobles of timemm .

The number of senators inthe magnum!

publics always bore a distinctnumber of tribes of which thenationmcomposed . [Bevan Hamil;the earliest times, whenRome son: at

senate consisted cf“

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286 S ENATUS .

resentin the people, as formerly it had repre

sented e pOpulus, and downto the last century of the re oblio the senatorial d ignitywasonly regard as one conferred by the people.But notwithstanding thi s apparent ly popularcharacter of tea senate, itwasnever a pepularora democratic assembly, fornowitsmembers belonged to the nobi les , who were as

aristocratic as the atricians. [NewHoniNE 8.] The oflice princeps senatus, whichhad become independent of that of praetor urbanus wasnowgivenby the censors, and at

first always to the eldest among the ex -censors, but afterwards to any other senatorwhomthey thoughtmost worthy and unlesstherewas any charge to bemade against him,

he was te-elected at the next lustrum. Thisdistinction, however, great as itwas. affordedneither power nor advantages. and did notevenconfer the privi lege of residing at themeetings of the senate, whio only belongedto thosemagistrates who had the righ t ofcony oking the senate.During the republ icanperiodno senatorialcensus existed , although senators natural lyalways belonged to the wealthiest classes.The insti tutionof a census for sen’ators helongs to the time of the empire. Augustusfirst fixed it at sesterces, afterwardsincreased it to double this. sum. and at lastevento sesterces. Those senatorswhose propert didnot amount to this sumre

ceived grants mmthe em ror tomake it up.

As regards the age atw ich a personmightbecome a senator, we have no express statement for the time of the re ublic, although itappears to have beenfixed y some customorlaw, as the aetas senatoria is frequentlymentioned , es

pecia l ly during the latter period of

the repub ic. Butwe ma by inductiondiscover the probable age. e know that, according to the lex annalis o f the tribune Vill ius, the age fixed forthe quaestorship was 31.Nowas itmight happenthat a quae’stor wasmade a senator immediately after the expirationof his office. we may presume that theearliest age at which amancould become a

senator was 32. Augustus at las t fixed thesenatorial age at 25, which appears to haveremained unaltered throughout the time oftheem ire.

o senator was allowed to carry onanymercantile business. About the commencement of the second Punic war some senatorsappear to have violated this lawor custom,

and inorder to preventi ts recurrence a lawwas passed , with the vehement 0 positionofthe senate , that none of itsme rs shouldbe permit ted to possess a ship ofmore than300amphorae intonnage, as this was thought

sufliciently large to conveyto Rome the pro

duce of their estates shroe I t is c lea r, however, that this lawwas frequently violated .

Regularmeetings of the senate (m a mlegitimus) took place during the repub lic, andprobably during the kingly period a lso, onthecalends ,nones, and ides of everymonth : extraordinarymeetings (senate: M ona )mightbe convoked onan other day, with the exceptionof those w

'

oh were atri , and thoseonwhich comitia were held . The righ t ofconvoking the senate durin

gnt

a

he kingl y periodbelonged to the k ing or to vicegerent, thecustos urbis. This ri t was during the re.

public transferred 'to t e curu le magi st rates,and at last to the tribunes al so. If a senatordid not a er

.

ona da ofmeeting, he wasliable to a as , forwhicha pledge was takengig

-sari: caprio) unti l it was paid. Towardse and of the republ ic itwas dec reed

,that

during the wholemonth ofFebruary the senate should give audience to foreignambassadors onall days onwhich the senate cou ldlawful ly meet, and that no othe r ma ttersshould be discussed unti l these affai rs weresettled.The places where themeetings of th e sen

ate were held curiae,senacula) were a lwa s

inaugurated by t e augurs. [T supwm] Tmos t ancient placewas the Curie Hos ti lia, inwhich alone original ly a senatus -consu ltumcou ld bemade. Afterwards , however, severaltemples were used for this purpose, such as

the temle ofConcordia , a placenea r the temple of ellona

gnomes]. and one near the

ports Capena. nder the emperors the senate a lso met ia other

dplaces : under Caesar,

the Curia Jul ia, a boil ing of immense sp lendour, was commenced ; but an uentlymeetings of the senate were frequent y heldinthe house ofa consu l .The subjects laid before the senate be l ongedpa rtly to the internal affairs of the state

,pa rtly

to legislation, and partl to finance ;and nomeasure could be broug t before the popu luswithout having previously beendiscuss ed andprepared by the senate. The senatewas thusthemediumthrough which all affairs of thewhole government had to pass : it conside redand discussed whatever measures the kingthought proper to introduce, and had, ontheother hand , a perfect control over the assem.

bly of the Opulus, which cou ld only acceptor reject w at the senate brought before rt.Whena king died, the royal digni ty, unti l asuccessor was elec ted ,was transferred to theDecemPrimi, each of whominrotationheldthis dignity forfive days.Under the republic, the senate had at first

the right ofproposing to the comitia the can

S ENATUS .

didates formagistracies , but this right wassubsequently lost : the comitia centuriata he.

came quite free in re to elections , andwere no longer depenent uponthe preposa lof the senate. The curies only sti l l possessedthe right of sanctioning the‘ election;but inthe yeara.o. 299they were compel led to sanctionany electionofms istrates which the comitia might make, be ore it took place , andthis soonafter became lawby the Lex Mae

nia. Whenat last the cariesno longer assembled for this empty show of power, thesena te stepped into their place, and henceforthinelections, and soonafter inmatters of legis lation, the senate had previous] to sanctionwhatever the comitiamight deci e. AftertheLex Hortensia a decree of the comitia tributabecame law, evenwithou t the sanctionof thesenate. The original state of things had thusgradual ly become reversed , and the senate hadlost very imortant branches of its power,which had a beengained by the comit ia tributa . inits relationto the comitia centuriata,however, the ancient rul es were st ill inforce,as laws, declarations of war, conclusions ofpeace, treaties, drc.were brought before them.

and decided by themonthe pr0posal of thesenate.The were ofthe

’

senate, after both orderswere p aced upona perfect equality,may bethus briefly summed up. The senate continued to have the supreme superintendence inallmatters of religion;it determined u nthemanner inwhich a warwas to be conucted , famnunJ eli

‘

x ortunatumquc sir

what legions were to be placed at the disposa l Q idritibus , aof a commander, and whethernewones wereto be levied ;it decreed into what provincesthe consu ls and praetors were to be sent[Pnovmcu ], and whose imperiumwas to bep roloned. The commissioners who weregenera ly sent out to settle the administ rationof a newly-conquered count were alwa sappointed by the senate . A embassies orthe conclusionofpeace or treaties with foreignstates were sent out by the senate, and suchambassadors were general ly senators themselves,and teninnumber. The senate alonecarried onthe negotiations with foreignembassadors, and received the complaints ofsubjcet or allied nations , who always regardedthe senate as their commonprotector. Byvi rtue of this office of rotector it also settledall disputes whichmig t arise among themunicipia and colonies of l tal y, and punished allh eavy crimes committed inltaly , whichmightendanger the

public peace and security. Even

inRome itacl theJudices towhomthe praeto rreferred important cases , both public and private,were takenfromamong the senators , andinextraordinary cases the senate appointed

287

especial commissions to investigate them;butsuch a commission, ifthe case inquesti onwasa capital offence committed by a citizen, required the sanctionof the people. Whentherepublicwas indanger, the senatemight confer unlimited wer uponthe magistrates bythe formu la, ideanlm a ke, us quid raspubli

'

ea

detrimenti capiat, which was equivalent to a

declarationof martial law with inthe c i ty.This genera l care for the internal and externalwelfare of the republic included , as before,the right ofd isposing of the finances requisitefor these purposes. Hence all the revenueand ex penditi i re of the republic were underthe di rect administrationofthe senate , and thecensors and quaestors were only itsministersor agents . (Ca isson;Q uasaron.) Al l theexpenses necessary for the maintenance of

the armies required the sanctionofthe senate,before anything could be done , and itmighteven revent the triumph of a returning general, y refusing to assignthe money necessary for it. There are, however, instances ofa general t riumphing without the consent ofthe senate.

~How manymembers were required to bepresent inorder to constitute a lega l assembly, is uncertain, though it appears that thereexisted some regu lations onthis point , andthere is one instance onrecord , inwhich at

least one hundred senators were required tobe present. The

presidingmagistrate Opened

the business wit the words Quad barium,Romano

thenlaid before t e assembly(rq e

,relatin) what he had to propose. T o

wards the end of the republic the order mwhich the questionwas put to the senatorsa

ppears to have depended uponthe d iscretiono the presiding consul , who cal led uponeachmember by pronouncing his name; but heusual ly beganwith the princeps senatus, orifconsules designatiwere present,with them.

The consu l genera ll y observed all the yearround the same order inwhich he had commenced onthe first of Januar A senatorwhencal led uponto speakmight do so at fulllength

,and evenintroduce subjects not di

rectly connected with the int at issue. I tdepended uponthe presi ent which of theOpinions expressed he would put to the vote,and which he wou ld pass over. Themajorityof

‘votes always decided a question. Themajority was ascertained either by numeratioordiscess i

'

o that is, the president either counted the votes, or the members who voted onthe same side separated fromthose who votedotherwise . The latter mode seems to havebeenthe usual one, What the senate determined was cal led m au sonmlmm, be

288 S ENATUS .

cause the consul, who introduced the business , was said mutant consulat e. in the

enacting part of a lex the pOpulus were saidjubere, and ina plebiscitumwire ; ina senatusconsultu

’mthe senate was said camera.Certa in forms were observed indrawing

up a senatusconsultum, of which there isanexamIs inCicero : S . C. AnctoritatesPridie. al. Octoh. inAede Apollinis , scribendo adfuerunt L. DomitiusCn. Fi l iusAhenobarbus

,dz c. Q uod M . Marce l lus Consul

V. F. (vcrbafccit) de prov . Cons . D. E. R. I . C.

(de ea re ita cemummt Uti, .4 T he namesof the persons who were Wi tnesses to thed rawing up

-oi the senatusconsultumwerecal led the auctoritatu , and these auctoritateswere c ited as evidence of the fact of the persons named inthembavin beenpresent atthe drawing up of the S . There canbeno doubt that certain pe rsons were r uir

'

edto be present scribendo, but others mig t assist if they chose , and a personinthis wamight testi fy his re ard foranother onbeha fofwhomor with re erence to whomthe S . C.

was made. Besides the phraseadeu c, there are u se ad acribendumandmidadmmam Whena S . C .was made onthemotionof a person, itwas said to bemadeinmutation; ejes. "

'

t he S . C. was carried ,it was written on tablets and -placed intheAerarium.

1 k’

were,proper Y 0 8 1118s

laws, forit is clear that the senate hgg legislative power even inthe republicanperiod ;btit it is diflicult to deterrmne howfar theirlegislative power extended. A decretum of

the senate was a ru lemade by the senate as

to somematter which was strictly within itscompetence. and thus differed froma u namconsultam,

whichwas a law;but these wordsare oftenused indiscriminately and with littleprecision. Many of the senatusconsulta of

the republican period wereanly determina

tions of the senate. which came leges bybeing carried inthe comitia. One instanceof this kind occurred on the occasionof thetrial of Clodius for violating the mysteriesof the Bona Dea. A rogatio on the subjectof the trial was proposed to the comi tia ex

senatusconsulto, Wt h is also spoken of as

the auctoritas of the senate.

A senatewas not al lowed to be held beforesunrise or to be prolonged after sunset :onextraordinary emer encies , however, this regulationwas set as

'

e.

During the latter part of the repnblic thesenate was degraded invarious ways bySul la, Caesar, and others, and onmany occas ions it was only an instrument in the

hands et themeninpower. Inth is way it

became prepared_

for the despotic governmentof the emperors, whenitwas alto

ge the r the

creature and obedient instrument 0 the p rino

ceps . T he emperor h imse lf was ge neral l yalso prince s senatus , and had the powe r ofconvoking th ord inary and extraord ina rymee tings , although the consu ls , praeto rs andtribunes continued to have the same right.T he ordinarymee tings

,according to a regu

lation ofAugustus, were held ,twice ineverymonth.

In the reign of Tiberius the elec tion ofmagistrates was transferred fromthe peo pleto the senate, which, however,was en

'

o inedto take especial notice of those ca idateswhowere recommended to it b

ythe empe ror.

At the demise of anemperor t e senate hadthe right of appointing his successor, incaseno one had been nominated by the empe rorhimself; but the senate very rare ly had anOpportunity ofexercising th is right, as it wasusurped by the soldiers. T he aera rium at

firsts till con tinued nominal ly to be unde r thecontrol of the senate , but the emperors g radually took it under their ownexclusive management, and the senate retained noth ing butthe administration of the funds of the c ity(armpublica), which were distinct both fromthe aerariumand fromthe fiscus. Au stusordained thatnoaccusations shou ld any onbe brought before the comitia, and instes ofthemhe raised the senate to a high cou rt ofjustice, uponwhich he conferred the right oftaking cognisance of capita l offences committed b senators, of crimes agai nst the stateand t e pe rson oftheemperors;and of c rimescommitted by the provincial magistrates inthe administrationof their rovmces . Re

;pecting the

Brovinces of t e sena te , see

sovwcu . nder the empire, senatusconsu l ta began to take the place of leges , properly

r so called , and as the senate was,with

the exception of the emperor, the onl y legislating body, such senatusconsu lta are frequently designated by the name of the con.suls inwhose yearof odios they were passed.T he distinctions and privileges enjoyed by

senators were : I . T he top ics with a broadpurple stripe (lama clavus ) in front , whichwas woveninit, andnot, as is common ly believed, sewed uponit. 2. A k ind of shortboot, with the letter C. onthe front of thefoot. This C. is erally supposed tomeancentum, and to re or to the original number oflOO(cmtum) senators. 3. T he right of si tting inthe orchestra inthe theatres and amphitheatree. This distinctionwas first procured forthe senators by Scipio Africanus Major, 194

4. Ona certain day inthe ear a sac

rifice was oflered to Jupiter int capitol,

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M S E RVU S.

and could acquire roperty.

‘

Such were theHelms of Sparta gam es], and the Penes~tse of T hemlfl as sau lt T he othe r species of slavery consisted 0 domestic slavesacquired by purchase , who were entire ly theproperty of thei r masters, and could be disposed of linke an other goods and chattel s :these were the ofilot properly so called , andwere tbe kind of slaves that existed at Athensand Corinth. incommercial cities slaveswere very numerous. as they performed thework of the artisans and manufacturers ofmodern towns. Inpoorer republics,

‘

whichhad litt le orno capital, and which subsistedwholl b

l;agricul ture, they would be few:

thus bocia and Locris there are said to

have beenoriFinally no domestic slaves . T he

majority of s aves was purchased ;few comparatively

were born inthe family of themaster, part y because the numbe r of femaleslaves was very smal l in comparison withthemale, and partly because the cohabitationof slaves was discouraged , as it was considered cheaper to purchase than to rear

I t was a recognized rule of Greek nationallawthat the persons of those whowere takenprisoners inwarbecame the property of theconqueror, but i twas the ractice for Greeksto give li berty to those 0 their ownnationonpayment of

0

a ransom.,Consequently al.

most all slaves inGreece , with the exceptionof the serf above-mentioned, were barbarians .

T he chre supply seems to have come fromthe Greek colonies inAsia M inor, which hadabundant Oppo rtunities ofobta ining themfromtheir ownneighbourhood and the in te rior ofAsia. A considerable number of slaves al socame fromThrace, where the parents frequentl sold their child ren.At thens, as wel l as inother states , therewas a regularslave-market, ca lled themild er,because the slaves stood round ina c ircle.

They were also sometimes sold by auction ,and were then placed on a stone. T hesame was also the practice inRome, whencethe phrase homo dc mm. [AucrroJAt Athens the n r of slaves was fargreater thanthe free po lation . . Eventhe

at ci tizenhad a s ave for the care of

“household. and inevery moderate es‘

tablishment many were emNoyed for all

21‘

s occupationa,'

as bakers,cooks

, taiiors c.Slaves either worked ontheirmasters

’

se

count or_

their own(inthe latte r case theypaid thei rmasters a certainsumit day) ;orthey were let oii t by theirmaster onhim,

ei ther for themines or any other kind of la‘

hour. or as hi red servants for wages. T he

rowers onboard the ships were usua lly slaves,who either belonged to the sta te or to p riva tepe rsons,who let themout to the sta te onpayment ofa certainsum. I t ap t ha t a con.siderablenumber of pe rsons ept la rge gangsof slaves merely for the pu rpose of le ttingout, and found this a prontable mod e of ihvesting their capi ta l. Great numbe rs werereguired for the mines , and inmost cases themine- lessees would be obl

’med to h ire some ,

as they would not have sufficient cap ital topurchase asman as they

.

wanted .

T he rights 0 pmess ionw ith rega rd toslaves ditl

'

ered inno respect fromany otherproperty ;they could.

be givenor tak enas

pledges. T he cond i tion, however , of G reekslaves was uponthe whole be tter than thatof Romanones , with the exceptionpe rhapsof S where, according to Pluta rch , it isthe t place in the world to be a freeman, and the worst to be a s lave . AtAthens especially the slaves seem to havebeenallowed a degree of liberty and in~dul ence, whichwas never granted to th emat ome .

The life and personof a slave at A t henswe re also protected by the law: a pe rsonwho struck ormaltreated a slave was l iableto anaction;a slave too could not be u t todeath without legal sentence. He coul e ventake shelter fromthe cruelty of h is masterinthe temple of Theseus. and there c laimthe privilege of beamso ld by lnm. Th e personof a slave was, of course, not c ons ideredso sacred as that of a freeman: his cu

‘enceswere punished With corporal ch‘ast isement,which was the las t mode of punishment in.

flicted ona freeman‘p he

.

was not be l ie vedU ponhis oath, but hi s evidence incourts ofjustice was always takenw i th torture .Notwithstanding the generallymi ld treatment of slaves inGreece, the i r insurrection

was notnnfrequent: but these insurrectionainAtticawere usua l ly confined to theminingslaves, who were treated with more se veritythanthe others .Slaves were sometimes manumitted atAthens, thoughnot so trequently as at Rome.

Those who weremanumi tted (dwel etiflepor)did not become ci tizens, as they migh t at

Rome , but passed mto the conditiono f met .oiei They were obl iged to honour their formermaster as theirpatron(wpoqrd g), andto fu lfil certain(10t towards him, t e neg.

lect of which rendered theml iable to the

dim) dwoomofov .by “find ! they migh t againbe sold into slavery.Respecting the publi c slaves at A thens

,

see Dx nostt.It appears that therewas a tax upons lave:

S ERVUS .

at Athens , which was probably three oboli ayear for each slave.2. ROMAN. The Romans viewed l iberty as

the natura l state , and slavery as a condit ionwhichwas contra to thenatural state. Themutual relation slave and master amongthe Romans was expressed by the terms S ervus and Domimu ; and the power and interestwhich the dominus had over and intheslavewas expressed by Dominium.

Slaves existed atRome inthe earliest timeso f which we have an record ;but they donot appear to have ennumerous underthe kings and inthe earliest a es of the re

public . The different trades an themechanical arts were ch iefly carried onb the cl ientsof the patricians. and the small rms inthecountry were cul tivated for themost part

“

bythe labours of the proprieter and of his ownfamily . But as the territories of the Romanstate were extended , the patricians obtainedpossessionof large estates out of the a erpublicus , since it was the ,practice of themana to deprive a conquere d people of partof the ir land. These esta tes probably re

quired a largernumber of hands tor th'

eir cultivationthancould readily

be obtained amongthe free population, an since the freemanwere constantly l iable to be cal led away fromtheir work to serve inthe armies, the landsbeganto be cultivated almost entirely by slavelabour. Through war and commerce slavescould eas ily be obtained , and at a cheap rate,and theirnumber soonbecame so reat, thatthe poorer class of freemenwas t rownal

mos t entirely out of employment. This stateof thingswas oneof the chiefarguments peedby Licmius and the Gracchi for l imiting thequantity of publ ic land which a personmightpossess . in S icily, which supplied Romewith so great a quantity of corn, the numberofagricultural slaves was immense : the Op?pressions to which they were exposed drovethemtwice to openrebel l ion, and their numbers enabled themto def fora time the R0manpower. The firs t 0 these servile warsbeganina. o. 134 and ended ina. o.

“

132,the second commenced ins. c. 102, anded a lmost four years .Long, however, after it had become the

tomto em loy large gangs ofslaves inthe cultivationo the land , the number of thoseserved as rsonal attendants sti l l continuedto be sma 1. Persons in ood circumstancesseemusuall y to have ha one onl to waituponthem, who was enerally cal ed by thename (iiii

l

el

dmaster vgt the word par that is,

) a to it, as aipor, Lucrpor’

arcipor,

$fiq’

alipat , etc. But during the latter times 0 the republ ic and under the empi re

291

the number of domestic slaves greatly increased , and ineve family of importancethere were so arate s eves to attend to all thenecessities 0 domestic life. i t was considered a reproach to a mannot to keep a considerablenumber ofslaves. The first questionasked respect ing a person's fortune was

servos.“Howmany slaves does he keepl”

Penslaves seem to have beenthe lowestnumber which a rsoncould keep inthe ageof Augustus ,w

'

a roper regard to res ta

bility insociety.'

lQhe imrnense num r of

prisoners takeninthe constant wars ofthe republic, and the increase ofwea lth and luxuaugmented the number of slaves to a pr i

gious ex tent. A freedmanunder Augustus,who had lost much property in the civilwars, leftat his death asmany as Twohundred was no uncommonnumber for onepersonto keep. Themechanical arts, whichwere formerly inthe hands ofthe clients ,werenow entirely exercised by slaves : a naturalgrowth of things

, for where slaves performcertainduties or practise certainarts, suchduties or arts wil l be thou ht degrad ing to a

freeman. I tmust not be orgotten, that thegames of the amph itheatre required animmense number of slaves trained for the pur

goes . [G u nru oas s ] Like the

.slaves in‘

ici ly, the gladiators ini ts?rose in 73

against thei r 0p ressors, an under the ablegenera lship of partacus, defeated a Romanconsular army , and were not subdued tilla. c. when of,themare said to havefa l leninbattle.A slave cou ldnot contract amarriage. Hiscohabitationw ith a womanwas eonlubernium;and no lega l relationbetweenhimand hischildrenwas recognized.A slave could have no property. He wasnot incapable of a uiring property, but hisacquisitions belong to hismaster.S laves werenot only em loyed inthe usualdomestic ofiices and inthe abouts ofthe field ,but also as factors or agents for thei rmastersinthe management of business , and as mechenies, artisans, and inevery branch of ihdustry. I tmay easi ly be conce ived that , underthese circumstances, especial ly as they wereoften entrusted with property to a largeamount, theremust have arisena practice of

al lowing the slave to consider part ofhis gainsas his own;thiswas his Peculium, a termalsoapplicable to such acquisitions ofa filiusfamilias as his father al lowed himto consider ashis own. [PAT RIAPerseu s.) According tostrict law, thepeculirm:was the prope rty of themaster, but according to usage, itwas considered to be the pro erty of the s lave. Some»times itwas betweenmasterand slave,

992 Seems;

that the slave should pu rchase hiswith his peculiumwhenit amounted to a certainsum.

A runaway slave gitivus) could not lawful l y be received or arboured . The masterwas entitled to pursue himwherever hepleased and itwas the duty of all authoritiesto give himaid inrecovering the slave. I twas the object of various laws to check therunning away of slaves inevery 'way

, and secordin y a runaway slave cou ld not legal lybe an0 Ject of sale. A class of persons cal ledFugitivarii made it their business to recovermi

sway slaves.

l l;personwas a s ave ett er re gentiumorhi re civi li . "Under the republic

?the chief sup

ply of slaves arose fromprisoners taken inwar, who were sold by the quaestors with a

crownontheir heads (subcorona veniremenderc),and usual ly on the spot where they weretaken, as the care of a largenumber of captiveswas inconvenient. Consequently slavedealers usual ly accompanied anarmy, and rtequently after a great battle had beengainedmany thousands were sold at once;whentheslave-dealers obtained themforamerenothing.The slave tradewas al so carried onto a greatextent, and after the fal l of Corinth and Carthage, Deloswas the chiefmart for this traffic.Whenthe Ci licianpirates had possessionofthe Med iterranean"

as many as slavesare said to have beenimported and sold thereinone day. A largenumber came fromThraceand the countries in the north of Europe,but the chief supply was fromAfrica, andmore especial ly Asia whence we frequentlyread of Phrygians, Lycians, Ca padocians.ace. as slaves . T he trade of s ave-dealers

images“ ) was considered disre

fputable ;but

t was very lucrative, and'

great ortuneswerefrequently realised fromit.Slaves were usual l y sold by auction. at

Rome. They were placed eitherstone (hence de l {dcmm), ora raised platform(comm). so t at every onemight see andhandle them, evenif they did

’not wish to pur~chase them. Purchasers usuall took careto have themstrippednaked , for s ave-dealershad recourse to as many tricks to concealpersonal defects as the horse -jockeys ofmoderntimes :sometimes purchasers ca l led intheadvice of medical men. Néwly imortedslaves had their feet

'

whitened with cha k , andthose that came '

fromthe East had their earsbored

,which we knowwas a signof slavery

among many easternnations. The slavemarket, like all othermarkets was under thejurisdictionof the aediles , who made manyregulations by edicts re ting the sale ofslaves. T he character the slave was set

scrol l (titulus) hanging around hisneck , whichwas a warranty to the pu rchase r:the venderwas bound to announce fairl y al.his defects , and if he vs a false account hadto take himback wit insix months fromthetime ofhis sale, ormake up to the pu rchaserwhat the latter had lost through obtaining aninferior kind of slave to what had beenwarranted. The chief points which the venderhad to warrant , was the health of the slave ,especia l ly freedomfromepilepsy.and that hehadnot a tendency to thievery, running away,or committing snicide. Slaves sold w ithoutany warranty were at the time of sa l e a cap(pileus) upontheir head. Slaves newl y imported

'

were general l preferred for commonwork : those who ha served lon were conBidered artful (veteratores ) ;and t e pertnessand impudence of those bornintheirmas te r’shouse, cal led vernae, were proverbial .The value ofslaves depended ofcourse u pontheirqualifications ;but under the empire theinc rease of luxu ryand the corruptionofmora l sled urchasers to pay immense sums forbeautiful

)

slaves or such asministered to the caprice or whimof the purchaser. Eunuchsalways fetched a very high price, and Ma rt ialspeaks of beautiful boyswho sold forasmuchas or sesterceseach (8851. 83 .4d.

and 17701. 163 . Slaves who posse sseda knowledge of any art which might bringinprofit to their owners, a lso sold for a la rgesum.

“ Thus literary-men and doctors fre

uentl fetched a high price, and al so slavesfi tted or the stage.Slaves were divided into many various

classes :the first,divisionwas into public or

private..The former belonged to the s tate

and publ ic bod ies, and thei r conditionwasreferable to that of the common slaves.P['

hey were less liable to be sold, and under

less control thanord inary slaves : they al sopossessed the privilege of the testamentifac

'

tio to the amount of one half of theirproperty, which shows that they were i sarded ina different l ight fromother slaves.ublic slaves were employed to take care ofthe public buildings, and to attend uponmagistrates and priests.A body of slaves belonging to one person

was cal led amilis, but two were not consid

ered sufiic cut to constitute a familia . Private slaves were divided into urban(familia

wel l as inthe townhouse ;so that the wordsurbanand rustic rather characterized thenature of their occupations thanthe placewhere they served. - Slaves were al so '

ar.

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294 SESTERTIUS .

considered to put anend‘

to the distinctionbetweenslaves and freemen. Slaves weresometimes evenbu ried with their maste rs,and we find funera l inscri tions addressed tothe Dii Manes of slaves Manch u ).S E S CUNX. As.]S E S T E

’

RT I a Roman coin, whichro rl belonged to the sil ver coinage , in1?t t itwas one -fourth of the denarius, andtherefore equa l to 2} asses. Hence thename, which is anabbreviationof semi: terti iu(ac. nummus ) , the Romanmode of expressing

The word nummu: is oftenfound expressed with sestcrl i

'

iu , and oftenit standsalone,meaning antenna .

Hence the symbol H S or I l S , which isused to designate the sestertius. I t standseithe r for L L S (Libra Libra ct S emis ), orforI l S , the two l’smerely forming thenumeraltwo (se. (me: or librac), and the whole beingineither case equivalent to duponth

‘

u: ct semis.

Whenthe sewas reduced to halfanounce,and thenumber of asses inthe denarius wasmade sixteeninstead of tenAs, Damai us].the sestertius was stil l i of t e denarius, andtherefore contained no longer but 4 asses .T he old reckoning of toasses to the denariuswas kept , however, in paying the tr00ps.After this change the sestertius was coinedinbrass as wel l as insilver ;themetal usedfor itwas that cal led aurichalcum, which wasmuch finer thanthe commonan

,of which

the assesWere niade.The sumof 1000martini was cal led t ester

tr'

um. This was also denoted by the symbolH S the obvious ex lanationof which is“ I I Q (2) he seslertiumwas al

ways a sumofmoney,never a coin,

u sed inthe payment of large sums was thedenarius.According to the va lue we have assigned

to the DE NARIU S , up to the time ofAugustus,we have

0

a. d . forth .

the sestertius = 0 0 2 5

the sestertium=8 17 1

after the reignofAugustusthe sestert ius 0 1 3-5the sestert ium=7 16 3

The sestertius was the denomination of

money almost always used inreckoning considerable amounts. There are a very fewexamples of the use of the denarius for this pure. The mode of reckoning was as fol

owsS cslerrius= sesrem'

u:nummus mimmus .

Sums below 1000 armrl i'

i'

were expressed bythe numera l adjectives joined with either ofthese forms .The sumof 1000 ses tertii : mills sa lami :

SEXTARIUS .

Mmtcrtium(for reaterlt'

orum)= M nummi=Mnummum(form m ) M sestcrlr

'

i'

nummi'=M ra tertiumnummum=mtertiunn T h es eforms are used with thenumeral ad '

ectives below 1000 sometimeswillia is it instea d ofcumin: sometimes both words are omittedsometimes m m or scetertium is added .

Forexample , sestertii=sesceara sex ta

lia= scscenla millia=mcmta=mcmta ca ter

For sums ofa thousand ecsta tic ( i. c. amill ion:estern'i) and upwards , the numera l adverbs inie: dccie: undecies

, vicies, 4c.) are

used , with w ich the words cmrena millio (ahundred thousand)must be understood . Withthe se adverbs theneuter sinular sa tertiumisJoined inthe case required y the construction. Thus, deci“ ses lertirrm= dcciu mum

Coleus, containing 960

Amphora 48

Urns 24

Congius 6

SextariusHeminaQ uartarius °

2477Acetabulum”CyathusLigu la

t estermz : sestertii 1000 sestertiamil/it:H S =millia centena millinsestertiuma thousand times one hundred thousand ses

tertii=‘

aestcrtii= 100,000 emu-

tia .

When the numbers are writtenincyphe r ,it is often difficult to know whether mrcrtiiorseam-tia aremeant. A distinctionis sometimesmade by a line placed over the numeralwhen su lertia are intended. or inother words ,when thenumera l is anadverb inin. Thu s

HS . M . C.=1100 sestertn, butHS . M . C .=HS mil l ies centies

sestertiasestertii.

S et ters: is sometimes used as anEngl ishword. If so, it ought to be used on l y as thetranslation ofcom . never ofmtertium.

SEVIR. E om'

rs s, p .

S E X S U RA’

G IA. [Boon-u . p. 1372]

S E XT ANS u As ]S E XT A

'

RIU a Romandry and liquidmeasure . It was one-sixth of the cong wa,and hence its name. It was d ivided , inthesamemanner as the As, into partsnamed mucia, cartons , quadrant , trims , qm

'

ncunx ,m inis ,d—c. T he uncia

,or twelfth part of the sexta

rius,was the Cu rri es ;its swamwas therefore two cyathi, its quadrant three, its trim

its gram five, dtc.

S IBYLLIN I .T he preced ing table exhibits the principal

Roman l iquid measures, with their contentsinthe English imperialmeasure. T he drymeasures, which are nearly the same, aregivenunder Mourns.SHIELDS. (Cu rses;Pu n ;Pam-

t ;S CUT UN

gSHIP [Nana ]SHOES:

IECALCE UsJ

S lBYLLi'

l LIBRI . These books are

said to have beenobtained inthe reign ofT arguinius Prisons, or according to other accountsinthat of T arqu inius Superbus, whena Sibyl( E ifivl l a), or prophetic woman presentedherself before the king, and alterednine booksfor sale. Uponthe lung refusing to pu rchasethem, she went and burnt three, and thenteturned and demanded the same rice for theremain ing six as she had done or the nine .

T he king a sinrefused to purchase them,

whereupons e burnt threemore.and demanded the same sumfor the remain ing three as

she had done at first forthe nine the king's

curiositynow became excited , so that he purchased the books, and thenthe S ibyl vanished. These books were probably wri tten inGreek , as the later ones undoubted ly were .

They were kept ina stone ches t under groundinthe temple of Jupiter Cspitolinus, underthe custod

£eof certain officers, at first on ly

two innum r, but afterwards increased successively to tenand fifteen, of whomanac

count is given under Daceuvrnt. T he pub

licwere not al lowed to inspect the books, andthe were only consul ted by the officers ,whohad

9the charge of them, at the special com

mand of the senate. They were not consulted , as the Greek oracles were, for the purposeof getting light concerning future events ;butto learn wnat worship was uired by the

s,when they had menifee their wrath

ynational calamities or prodigies. Acccor

dingly we find that the instruction they giveis inthe same spirit;prescribing what honourwas to be

paid to the deities al ready recog

niz ed, or w atnewones were to be importedfromabroad.

0

Whenthe temple ofJupiterCapitohnuswasburnt ina. c . 82, the S ibyll ine books pe rishedinthe fire ;and inorder to restore themambassadors were sent to various towns inlta ly,Greece, and Asia M inor, to make fresh collec tions, which on the rebuilding of the temle were deposited inthe same place that theormer had occu ied .

T he Sibyl line ks were also cal led FateS ibylline , and Libri Fatal“ . Along

‘wnh the

S ibyl line books were preserved , under theguard of the same ofl‘icers, the hooks of the

two prophetic brothers, theMaren, the E trus~

SIGNA .

csn rophecies ofthenymh Bygoe, and thossofA una orAlbunea of ti1m. Those of theMarcii , which had not been placed there atthe time of the batt le of Cannae,were writteninLatin.S lCA, dim. S ICILA, whence the English

sickle, a curved dagger, ada ted by its formtobe concealed under the clot es, and thereforeca rried by robbers andmurderers. S immaybe translated a scimitar

,to distinguish it from

P00 10, which denoted a dagger of the commonkind. S icarr

'

us , thou h properlymeaninone whomurdered with t sica,was appiitomurderers ingenera l. Hence the forms dcsicariis and inter s icarios were used inthe criminal courts inreference tomurder. Thus jadicia» : inter stew-ica, a trial formurder de

fenders inter s icarios, to defend against a

charge of.murder.”S iG lLLA

'

RlA. [S AT URNALIL ]§ IGNA M ILITA

’RIA (mimic. ounatat),mi l 1tary ensigns or standards. T hemost anc ient standard employed by the Romans issaid to have beena handful of straw fixed tothe top of a spear or pole. Hence the company of soldiers belon g to it was cal ledManipulua. T he bund e of he or fernwassoon succeeded by thefigu res 0 an ima ls, viz .

the eagle, the wolf, theminotaur, the horse,and the boar. These appear to have corresponded to the five divisions of the Romanarmy as shown onp. 146. T he eagle (aqtdla)was carried by the aquilt

'

fer inthemidst of thehastati, andwemay ao pose the wolf to havebeen carried among t e principa , and so on.Inthe second co nsu lship ofMarius , e. c . 104,the four quadrupeds were entirely laid asideas standards, the eagle being alone retained.I twasmade of silver or bronze, and with expended wings, but was probably of a smallsize , since a standard -bearer (signifer) underJulius Caesar is said incircumstances ofdanger to have wrenched the eagle from

‘

its stafl'

,

and concealed it inthe folds ofhis gi rd le.

Under the later em rare the eaglewas carried , as it had been ormany centuries, withthe legion, a le ionbeing on that accountsometimes cal l aquila , and at the same timeeach cohort had forits ownensignthe serpentor dragon(draw, dpdxwv), which was wovenona square piece of cloth, elevated on a gi l tstafi

'

. towhich a cross -barwas adapted forthepurpose, and carried by the dram arius .

Another figure used inthe standards was aball (pile), supposed to have been emblematicof the dominion ofRome over the world andforthe same reasona bron z e figure ofVietowas sometimes fixed at the tap of the stag(S ee the woodcut.) Under the le or otheremblemwas oftenplaced a head 0 the reign

SIGNAing em ror, which was to the army the ob

ject of dolatrons adoration.T he minor divisions of a cohort, cal led

centuries , had also each anensign , inscribedwith the number both of the cohort and _

ofthe centu ry. By this provision every sold ierwas enabled with the greatest ease to takehis lace.

The standard of the caval ry, properl y cal led

S lPARlUM

S ignMiami ,military S tandards.

T he imperial standard fromthe time ofConstantinewas cal led labor-um:on it a fi

gure or emblemof Ch rist was woveningo duponpurple cloth;and this was substitutedfor the head of the emperor.Since the movements of a body of troops

and of every portion of it were regu lated bgthe standards, all the evolutions, acts, anincidents of the Romanarmy were expressedphrases derived from this circumstance.

us signs inmemeant to advance, reme

to retreat , an conwnm to face about ; srre,

or castris vellere, to march out of the camad coast-airs. to re assemble. Notwit

stan mg some obscu rity inthe use of terms,1t

.

appears that, whilst the standard of the la81011 was properly cal led aquila, those of thecohorts were ina special sense of the termcal led signs , their bearers being sigmfm

’

, andthat those of themanipo li or smal ler divisions

of the cohort were denominated vex illa, theirbearers bein

gIn"time 0 peace the standards were keptintheAaaa swu , under the care of-the Q uane'roa .

S ILICE'

RNIUM. (Fortes, p.

S ILK . Santana]S lLVE As s ert -rum].S iPA

’

Rl a piece of tapestry stretchedona frame, which rose before the sta ofthe theatre, and consequentl y answer thepurpose of the drop-scene with us, although ,contrar

yto our practice, it was de reseed

whent e play began , so as to go be ow thelevel of the stage (aulaeam um ), and wasraised again when the performancewas con~cluded (tolltmfur). I t appears that humanfigures were represented upon it, whOse feetseemed to rest upon the stage when thisscreenwas drawnup. These figures were

M ilan,was a square piece of cloth ex andcd upona cross -inthe manner alrea

'

y iadicated

, and perhaps surmounted by somefigure.

T he first cut represents Trajangi ving akin to the Parthians :sevenstandards '

are

hel by the soldiers. T he second . containifive standards, represen ts the performance 0

the sacrifice cal ledmod aurilia .

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'rnunrms. T he precedincut represents a’

balloon[M inus], who is ancing inslippers.

80 0 I (cuppaxm). Inthe early times,when Rome formed equal al liances with anyof the surrounding nations, these nationswere cal led S ocii. After the dissolution of

the Latinleague, wherr the name Larini, orNames Latinum;was artificial ly applied to a

greatnumber of Italians, only a fewofwhomwere real inhabitants of the old Latin towns,and the majo rity of whomhad

“beenmadeLatins by the wil l and the law of Rome,there necessaril y arose a difl

'

erence betweenthese Latins and the Socii, and the expressionS ocii Nemn Latinum is one of the oldas data, instead of S ocii at Nome};Latinum.

T e Italianall ies againmust be distinguishedfromforeignal lies. T he I talian al lies consisted, for the most part , of such nations as

had either beenconquered by the Romans, orhad come under theirdominionthrough othercircumstances. When such nations formedanal liance with Rome, they general ly te

tained their ownlaws ;or if they were notal lowed this rivilege at first, they usuall yobtained it an quentl y. T he condition of

the I talianal lies varied , and many de endedU ponthe manner inwhich they he comeunder the Romandominion; but inrea litythe were always dependent upon Rome.

8 fol lowing are the nncipal dutieswhich the ItalianSocii he to performto

they had to send subsidies int roops,money;corn, ships, and other things,wheneverRome demanded them. T henumber of tr00ps requisi te

“

for completing or

increasing the Roman armies was decreedeve

e?t{ea

rby the senate, and the consuls

fix e amount which each al lied nationhad to send, inproportion to its po alationcapable of bearing arms, ofwhich eac nationwas obliged to draw up accurate lists, cal ledformulae. T he consul also appointed theplace and time at which the troops of thesocii, each part under its ownleader, had tomeet himand his legions. T he infantry ofthe allies ina consular army was usual lyequal innumbers to that ofthe Romans ;thecaval ry was general ly three times the numberof the Romans ;but these numerical r0«

portions were not always observed. heconsu ls ap inted twelve raefects as commanders o the socii, an their power answered to that of the twelvemilitary tribunesinthe consular legions. These praefects,who were probably takenfromthe a l liesthemselves, and not fromthe Romans

,se

lected a third of the caval ry, and a fifth oftheinfantry of the socii, who formed a select de

1 tachment for ex trao rdinary cases, and who

were called the ex traordinarir'

. T he remaining body of the socii was then divided intotwo parts, cal led the right and the left winT he infantry of the wings was , as usua l , to

vided into cohorts , and the caval ry intoturmae. In some cases al so legions wereformed of the socii. Pay and clothing weregivento the al lied troups by the states ortowns to which they belonged , and whichappointed quaestors or paymasters for thispurpose :but Rome furnished themwith p ro~visions at the expense of the republic ; theinfantry received the same as the Romaninfentry, but the caval ry on l y received twothirds ofwhat was given to the Romancavalty. Inthe distribution of the spoil and ofconquered lands they frequent ly received thesame share as, the Romans. They werenever a l lowed to takeup arms of their ownaccord, and disputes among themwere set

tied by '

the senate. Notwithstand'

allthis, the socii fe l l gradual ly under the ar it ta

Howie of the senate and the magistrates ofme;and after the year a. c. 173, it even

became customary formagistrates , when theytravel led through Italy, to demand of the au

thorities of' allxed towns to pay homage tothem, to provide themwith a residence, andto furnish themwith beasts of burdenwhenthey continued their

'

ourney. T he on l yway for the al lies to o tain any protectionagainst such arbitrary proceedings, was toenter into a kind ofclientele with some influcatial and powerful Roman. S ocii who re

volted against Rome were f uently punished with the loss of their frs om, or of thehonour of serving inthe Roman armies. Suchpunishments however varied according to circurnstances.

Afterthe civitas had beengranted to all theI talians by the Lex Julia de Civitate

the relationof the I tal ian socii toceased . ButRome had long before this eventappl ied thename Socii to foreignnations al sowhich were al lied with Home, though themeaning of the word inthis case differed fromthat of the Socii l tal ici. There were twoprincipal kinds of al l iances with forci nat ions ; 1 . foedus aequwn, such as mig t beconcluded either after awar inwhich neitherparty had

iained a decisive victory

,or with a

nation wit which'

Rome had never beenatwar;2.

.

afoedus um, whena foreignnat ionconquered by the Romanswas obliged toformthe al liance on any terms proposed bythe conquerors. Inthe latter case the foreignnationwas to some extent subject to Rome,and obl iged to com

gly with anthing that

Rome ml ht deman But all oreignsocii,whether t ey had anequal or unequal alli

SPECULUM.

ance, we re obliged to send subsidies introupewhenRome demanded them;these troops,however, did not, l ike those of the Ital iansoc ii, serve inthe line, but were employed asl ight armed soldiers, and were cal led utilizes

m iliam, auriliarii , aux ilia, or sometimes aucilia u terus . Towards the end of the repub.lic all the Roman al lies, whether they werenations or kings , sank down to the cond itionofmere sub

'

sets or vassals of Rome , whosefreedoman independence consisted inno.t hing but a name. [Compare FOBDI RATAlC tvrra'

rssgrSODALI IUM . [As s t

-

rue.)SOLA'R IUM. Hoaomowm]S OLDIERS. x aacrrus.

SO'LEA was t e simplest ind of sandal[S ANDALI UM]. consisting of a sole with littlemore to fasten it to the foot thana strapacross the instep.

SO 'LIDUS. Anson.)S OLIT AURI

'

IA. S i carrrcwu , p . 277

Lus‘raa'

rro , 206;a wood-cut onp. 296.

S OPHRO IS T AE . [v msruia]SORTES , lots. It was a frequent prac

tice among the Ital ian nations to endeavourto ascertaina knowledge of future events byd rawing lots (sorter) inmany of the ancientI ta l iantemples the wi l l of the godswas consulted inthisway, as at Praeneste, Csere, etc.

These sortes or lots were usual ly l itt letablets or counters,made '

of wood or othermaterials, and were commonl y throwninto a

si tel la or urnfilled with water, as is explained under S trum. T he lots were sometimesthrownlike dice. T he name of sortes wasinfact givento anything used to determmechances , and was also a

pplied to any verbal

response of anoracle. arious things werewri ttenuponthe lots accord ing - to circumstances, as for instance, the names of the

rsons using them,&c. : it seems ’

to havena favourite raetics in later times to

write the verses o il lustrious poets uponlittle tablets, and to draw themout of the

'

nrnl ike other lots , the verses which a personthus obtained being supposed to be applica

{i 127.PLO ATO'

themovements of the enemy.Under the emperors there was a body

'

of

troo s cal led S peculatores, who formed partof t e praetorian cohorts, and had the especial care of the emperor's person.SPE

'

CULUNI (x drorrrpov , egorr‘

rpov, Evo

a'

rpar), amirror, a looking-

glass.

S PIRA.

T he lookin lessee of the ancients wereusuall made 0 metal , at first of a composition 0 tinand capper, but afterwards moreI uently of silver.

e ancients seemto have had lassmirrors also like ours, consistin ofa g ass platecovered at the back with a t leaf ofmetal.T heyweremanufactured as early as the time

of P,

'

ny at the celebrated glass-houses at S idon, but theymust have beeninferior to thoseofmetal, since theynever came into genera luse, and arenevermentioned by ancient writers among costly pieces of furniture, whereasmeta lmirrors frequently are.

Looking leases were general ly small, andsuch as cou d be carried inthe hand . Insteadof thei r being fixed so as to be hung againstthe wall o r ta stend uponthe table or floor,they were general ly held by female slavesbefore their mistresses whendressing. T he

genera l formof looking-

g lasses is showninthe following wood-cut.

M. [Ha rm]SPINDLE. [Fusua ]SP]RA (01rd the base ofa column. fill!

the Tuscanan the RomanDoric the baseconsisted of a single tom , sometimes sur

mounted by anastragal. Inthe Ionic andAttic it commonl y consisted of two tori, dlvided bya acetic, and inthe Corinthianof twotori divided by two

,sooti

‘

ae. T he upper toruswas oftenfiuted , and surmounted by anastragal, as inthe left -hand figure of the followmgwood -cut. which shows the formof the baseinthe tonic or Attic temis of Panopa ontheI lissus

‘

. T he right-hen figure inthe .samewood-cut shows the corresponding part inthe

sou S POLIA. STADIUM.

temple of Minerva Polias st Athms. In this army stripped ina field of battle fromthethe upper torus is wrought with a platted or leader of the foe. Plutarch ex presslya ssertsnament, perhaps designed to represent s ‘

rope that '

Roman history up to hrs owntime afor cable. forded but three exam lea of the spolia ion.

T hefirst were said to ve beenwonby mulus fromAcre, king of the Caeninenses , thesecond by ~Aulus Cornelius Cossus fromLarTolumnius, kin of the Veientes, the thirdby M . Claudius arcellus fromViridomarus,lung of the G aesatae. In‘

all these cases, inaccordance with the ori inal institution, thespoils were dedicated to upiter Feretrius.

SPONSA , S PONS U S , SPONSA’LIA.

[Ms ra xuomomp.SPO’RTU LA. Inthe days ofRomanfree

dom, clients were inthe habit of testifyingrespect for their patron by thronging his striumat anearly hour, and escorting h imtoplaces of

public resort whenhe

_

went abroad .

As anac nowledgment of these courtesies,some of the number were usuall invited topartake of the evening meal. A er the ex

ti tionoflibert , the resanes ofsuch guests,w 0 had now

,

ost a l political importance ,was soonregarded as anirksome restraint ,wh i le at the same time many of the nobleand weal thy were unwil ling to sacrifice thepompous display of at numerous body of reternera. Hence the practicewas introducedunde r the emmre ofbestowing oneach c lien t ,whenhe presented himself for his morningvisi t , a certainportion. of food as a substitu teand compensationfor the. occasional invi ta

S PO ‘LIA . Four words are commonly em

glloyed to denote booty taken inwar, Freeda ,

a m bs'

ae, E x treme, Spoh'

a. Of these, Pracdabears themost comprehensivemeaning, beingused for

plunderof every desc ription. Menu

bs’

aewond seemstrict] to signif

y,that r

tionof the spoil which ell to e are 0 thecommander-m-chief, the proceeds of whichwere f uently appl ied to the erection ofsome pub

'

c building. E u nice indicates anything stripped

l

fromthe person(hf a foe

gewhile

Spoke,”

roper y spealun’

g, oug t to confined togrmour and was s, although bothwords are applied loose y to trophies, suchas chariots, standards,beaks of shi s, and thelike ,whichmight be preserved an displayed.Spoils col lected onthe batt le-field after anengagement , or found ina captured town,were employed to decoratethe temples of thegods, triumphal arches , po rticoes, and

.other

places of public resort , and sometimes intheour ofextreme need se rved to armthe peo

ple but those which were.

gained by ind ividual prowess were considered the undoubtedproperty of the successful combatant, andwere exhibited inthemost conspicuous partof his dwel ling, being hung up inthe atrium,

suspended fromthe door-posts, or arrangedinthe vestibulum, with:gpropriate inscriptions. They were regard as peculiar] sa

cred , so that evenif the hoov

es so thenewpossessor was not permit to removethem. But while onthe one hand it wasunlawful to remove spoil s so itwas forbiddento replace orrepair themwhenthey had fal lendownor become decayed th rou h age ;the

t of this regulation being btless to

go a

lfainst the frauds of fal se pretenders.sposls the most important were the

opium, a termapplied to those onlythe commanda -m-chief of a Roman

Q5.

éi

tionto a regularsupper (coma recto), and thisdole, bemg

bcamed off ina l ittle basket pro

vided for t a purpose, received the name ofsportula. For the sake of convenience it soonbecame common to give anequivalent inmoney, the sumestabl ished by eneral usagebeing a hundred quadrantes.

g'

I‘

hegdonationinmoney, however, didnot entirely su reedethe s ortols giveninkind, forwe 6 inJo .

)

vena a l ively description of a great man’svestibule crowded with dependents

, each attended

.

by a slave bearings portable ki tchen,

to receive the viands and eep thembutwhile'

they were carried home. Under the empiregreat numbers of the lower orders de rivedtheir whole sustenance , and the funds forord inary expendi ture, exclusiv fromthissource, while even the highborn id not ecru .

ple to increase their incomes b takin adqvantage of the

‘

ostentatious pro usion therich and vain .

s'

xra'nwm(aordd and rd

Greek measure of lengt and the chief one.used for i tinerary distances. I t was equal to600 Greek or 625 Roman feet , or to 125 R0 3

manpaces ;and the Romanmi le contained 8'stadis. llence the stadiumcontained GOQ

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STIPENDIARI I.greater value of silver inancient times thannow.

STATIO’NE S . [Caecus , p.STATOR

, a publi c servant , who atteonthe Romanmagistrates inthe rovinces.T he

‘

S tatores seemto havederived t eirnamefromstanding by the side of themagistrate,and thus being at hand to execute all hiscommands ;they appear to have beenchieflyemplo ed incarryin letters andmessages .ST LUS or STY US is inall probability

the same word with the Greek orfil oc, and

conveys the general idea of anobject taper

ing like anarchitectural column. It sigui1

1. Anironinstrument, resembl ing a pencd insize and shape, used forwriting uponwaxed tablets. At one end it was sharpenedto a point for scratching the characters uponthewax , while the other end, being flat andcircular, served to ' rsader the surface of thetablets smooth again, and so to obliteratewhat had beenwritten. Thus, serrate stilum

S ty lus.

means to erase, and hence to correct. T he stylus was also termed graphium, and the caseinwhich it was kept graphiarium.

2. A sharp stake or spike placed inpitfal lsbefore an entrenchment, to embarrass theprogress of anattackin enemy.STIPENDIA'RII. he stipendiariae ur

bes of the Roman rovinosa were so denominated, as being an)ect to the payment of afixed money- tribu te, ctipmdium, incontradistinctionto the‘

vectigales, who paid a certainportionas a tenth or twentieth of the produceof their lands , their cattle, or customs. T heword '

stipendiumwasneed‘ to signit

’

the tributepaid , as i twas original ly imposed or and afterwards a propriated to the purpose of fu rnishing the mansoldiers with pay. T he conditionol

‘

the urbes stipendiariae is generall ythought to have beenmore honourable thanthat of the vectigales, but the distinctionbe

STOLA.

tiveenthe two termswasnot alwa observed .T heword stipendiafins is also app ted to a per:‘

sonwho ’receives a fixed salary or pay , as a

stipend ian'

us miles.

STIPE 'NDIUM ,a pensionof pay, fromcri

pm and because before si lver wascoihed at ome the cupper'money inusewasaid by weight andnot by tale. Accord ing toiv the practice of giving ay to the Roman

sol iers was not introduce ti l l a. c . 405, onthe occasionof the taking of T arracina orAnx ur. I t is robable , however, that they received

!pay b

’

e ore this time , but since it wasnot pai regu larly, its first institutionwas teferred to this year. lns . c. 403 a certainamount of pay was assigned to the kni

ght;also, or E our'rns, p . 139. This , however,

reference to the citizens 'who possessed anequestrianfortune, but had no horse (equus

gnaw ) assigned to them the state, for itad always beencustomary or the knights ofthe 18 centuries to receive pay out of the commontreasu ry, inthe shape ofanal lowance forthe purchase ofa ho rse, and a yearly pensionof 2000 asses for i ts keep. [Airs E quss'

rnn;Ass Hoausaato Inthe time of the re

public thepay of a legionary soldier amounted

to two obo i or 3} as ses ;a centurionreceiveddouble, and aneques orhorsemantriple. Po

b ius states, that foot soldiers also receivedincorneverymonth anal lowance (demmmn)of3ofanAttic medimnus , or abou t 2 bush(els ofwheat the horsemen7medimni of barls and two of wheat. T he infantry of theal

'

es received the same al lowance as the R0man:the horsemenl lmedimni ofwheat and5 of barle

y. But there was this difi

'

erence,that the al iad forces received their al lowancesas a gratui

ty;the Romansoldiers, onthe con.

trary, had educted fromtheir pay themoneyvalue of whatever they received , incorn, armour or clothes . There was indeed a lawassed b C . Gracchus , which p rovided thatides t ir pay the soldiers shou ld rece ive

fromthe treasury anal lowance for clothesbut this lawseems either to have beenrepea ledor to have fal leninto disuse . T he pay wasdoubled for the legionaries by Jul ius Caesarbefore the civilwar. He al so gave themcornwhenever he had themeans

,without an re

strictions. Under Augustus i t a pears to ve

beenrai sed to 10 asses a day ( t ree times theori inal sum). I t was stil l further increasedby mitian. T he rsetoriancohorts receivedtwice asmuch as t e legionaries.STOLA , a female dress wornover the tunic;it came as lowas the ancles or fee t, andwas fastened round the body by a gi rd le, leav

anj

‘

above the breast bread folds. T he tunicnot reachmuch below the knee, but the

STRATEGUS .

essential distinctionbetweenthe tunic andstole seems to have been, that the latter always had anincl ita orfiounce sewed to the

bottomand reaching to the instep. Over thestole the pal la or al l iumwas worn[Pa tnox ], as we see int e cut annexed .

S tole, f emale Dress.

T he was the characteristic dress ofth e Romanmatrons , as the toga was of theRomanmen. Hence themeretrices werenotal lowed to wear it , but only a dark -colouredtoga ;and accord ingly Horace speaks of thematrona incontradistinctionto the (agate. For

the same reason,womenwho had beendivorced fromthei r husbands onaccount ofadultswerenot allowed to wear the stola, but 0 ythe toga .

STOVES . Domes, p. 121 ]STRATE'G general. This

ofiice and tit le seem to have beenmore es

pecially uliar to the democratic states ofancient reece:we read of them,

for instance,

at Athens, Tarentum, Syracuse , Argos , andT hurii ;and whenthe tyrants of the Ioniancities inAsia Minor were deposed by Aristagoras, he established strategi inthei r room,

to act as chiefmagistrates.T he strategi at Athens were insti tuted

after the remodel l ing of the consti tutionbyClisthenes to discharge the duties which hadinformer times been rformed either by theking or the archonpo emarchus. They wereteninnumber. one for each of the tentribes,and chosen

’

the suffrages (x ergoroviat of

the people. fore enteringont eirduties,they were required to submi t to a docimasia ,orexaminationof their character andno onewas el

' "

ble to the ofice unless he had legitimate c ildren, andwas possessed of

. landedproperty inAttica. They were, as thei rname

S UFFRAG IUM.

but his col leagues hadcounci l ofwar.T he mil itary chiefs of the Aetolian andAchaean leagues were also called strategi.T he Achaeanstrategi had the power of convemng a general assembly of the league onext raordinary occasions.Greek wri ters onRomanaffairs gi ve thename of strategi to the praetors.STRENA.a present givenona fes tive da

and for the sake of good omen. Itwas chie yappl ied to anewyear’s gift, to a presentmadeonthe calends of January. inaccordancewith a senatusconsultum,newyear’s gifts hadto be presented to

'

Augustus inthe capitol,evenwhenhe was absent.S T RlG lL. Bannsuu. p.S T RO

’

PHl M (ra wta, rqwfdrov, ( W6drawing). a girdle or be l t worn by womenround

O

the breast and over the inner tunic orchemise. I t appears to have beenusual lymade of leather.STUPRUM. AnuursnqS UBS IG NA’N privileged soldiers inthetime of the emire, who fou ht under a standard by tasmas Ves, and d

'

not formpart ofthe legion. They seem to have beenthesame as the vee illan

’

r’

.

S U FFRA'

G IA S E X. [E qur'

rss. p. l37.]S UFFRA

’

G IUM, a vote . At Athens thevoting in

.

the popular assemblies and thecourts of justice was either by show of hands

denotes, entrusted with the command onmil.itag

expeditions, with the superintendenceof l warl ike preparations, and with the regulationof allmatters inany way connectedwith the wardepartment of the state. Theylevied and enl isted the soldiers, either personall y, orwith the assistance of the taxiarchs.They were entrusted with the col lectionandmawement of the property taxes (elmopal)rai for the purpose ofwar;and also preg

sided over the courts of'

natice inwhich anydisputes connected wit this subject or thetrierarchy were decided. They nominatedfromyear to ear ersons to serve as trierarchs. They ad t e power ofconvening extraordinary assemblies of the people incasesofemergency . But the irmost important t rust

the command inwar, and it dependeduponcircumstances to howmany of thenumber it was given. At M arathonall the tenwere present , and the chief command came toeach of theminturn. T he archonpolemar

also was there associated with them.

304 S UPPLlCA‘

T lO. SYCOPHANTES .

(x etporovta) or by ballot Way). I t is commea ly supposed that at ome the peo lewere always polled inthe comitia by wortfofmouth, ti ll the g of the leges tabellariaeabout the middle of the second centu be.

fore Christ, whenthe bal lot bymeans 0 tab

ellae was introduced. [T ABBLLM ] it appears , however, that the popular assembliesvoted b bal lot, as we l l as b word ofmonth,long be ore the passing of t e Is as tabella'

rise. but that instead of using ta llae, they

mloyed stones or pebbles (the GreekWiper).that each voter rece ived two stones, onewhite and the other black , the former to beused inthe ap rovsl and the latter inthecondemnationo ameasure . T he voting byword ofmouth seems to have beenado ted

ine lections and trials, and the use of peb lesto have beenconfined to the enactment andrepea l of laws. T he word sufl

'

ragiummaypossibly be al l ied with as age, and have signified originally anank e-bone or knucklebone. Onthe passing of the leges tabellariaethe voting with stones or pebbles went out ofuse. For further particulars with respect tothe voting inthe comitia, see Counts ;Drni ai 'ros s s ;S trum;Tsas t u ;Las sa T as s t u au s .

Those who had the jus or theright of voting inthe comitia, as we 1 as thecapacity

‘

of enjoying magistraciea were citi~zens mo ure.

80 GE T U S ,means ingeneral any elevated place ‘made of materials heaped “

1p

Tub and gem), and is specially appl ied :o the . stage or pu lpit fromwhich the orators

addressed the pea la inthe comitia. [RosT BA.] 2. To the e evationfromwhich a gen.

eral addressed the soldiers . 3. To the ele

vated seat fromwhich the sniperor beheldthe public games, also called “ beam [CUswowu .)SUN-DIAL. Hoaosoo i um]S UOVE T AU l

'

LlA. [S ACRD’IOIU I , p.277 ; Loan s

-no, p. 206;and wood-cut onp.S U

' PARUM. [Navmp. 224.

SUPPER. Cosna ;Da nton.

SUPPLICA l0, a,solemnthanksgiving

or supplicationto the gods. decreed hy . thesenate, whenall the temples were Openedand the statues of the gods frequently p lacedinpublic uponcouches (paleinaria), to whichthe people ofl

‘

ered up thei r thanksgivings.

andre ers. Lserrs'rnmore] A euppbcatwErasydecreeId for two different reasons.

1 . As a thanksgiving.whena great victoryhad beengained : it .was usuallyd ecreed as

as ofhcial intel ligence of the victory hadbeenreceived by a lettar fromthe general in

command. T henumberofdays during whichit was to last was proportioned to the import»ance of the victory. Sometimes it was decreed for on

?! one day , but more commonly

for three or re days. A suppl icationof tendays was first decreed inhonour of Pompeyat the conclusion

‘

ofthewarwithMithradates.and one of fifteendays afte r the victo overthe Belgae by Caesar, an,

honour whio hadnever beengranted to any one before. S ubsequently a supplicatio of twenty dayswas decreed after his conquest of Vercingetorix . Asupplicatio was usually regarded as a pre ludeto a triumh, but it was not alwa s fol l owed

one. his honour was c erred uponicero onaccount of his su

ppressionof the

conspiracy of Catiline, whio ad never beendecreed to any one before ina civil capacitywa s ).2. Ampphcario, a solemnsuppl icationandhumi l iation,was al so decreed intimes of publ ic danger and distress , and onaccount ofprodi

'

es. to avert the anger of the gods.S ORDS. G uanine.)SYCOPHAN ES At an

early period inAttic h isto ry a lawwasmadeprohibiting the exportationof s. Whetheri twas made ina time of deart or th roughthe fool ish p01

'

of preserving to thena tivesthe most value le of their productions , wecannot say . I t pears , however. that thelaw continued inorce long after the cause ofits enactment, or the generalbelief of i ts u tiloity, had ceased to

'

ex ist ;and Attic fig-

growers ex ported their fruit inspite of prohi bi tion.and penal ties. To informagainst a manforso doingwas considered harsh and vex sas all people are apt to think tha t obso ete

statutes may be infringed with impunity.Hence the termevx ooovrsiv, which originals ignified to lay rminformation uins:another

or q portr’

ng 8 , came to be app to all illnatured ,ma

'

ous, groundless, and vexatiousac

cgusations.

"

h f Arist phycophcnus in t e time 0 o anceand Demosthenes deai ated a personof a

pecul iar class,not

‘

ca 10 of being desc ribedy any sinle word inour language, but wel l

unders and appreciated by anAthenian.He had notmuch incommonwith our syco

plumt, but was a happy compound of thecommonbarretor informer pcuy

’

ogger bu sybody ,rogue, liar, and launder-en

.

T he Athenianlawpermitted any citizen(rbv fiovl opcvov) togive informationagainst public offenders, andprosecute themincourts of justice. It wasthe policy of the

.legislator to encourage the

detectionof crime, _and a reward ( such as

half the penal ty) was frequently givento thesuccessful accuser. Such a power, with

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306 SYNTHESIS .

(coma);which they frequentl y prolon doringmany hours, inthe later times 0 the re

publ ic and under the empire‘. Thei r customs

SY’NDICU S anadvocate, is ire

quently used as synonymous with the word

Te

gnm (omniyopot ), to denote any onewho

p es s the cause of another, whether ina

court of justice or elsewhere,butwas pecu

liarly applied to those orators who”

were sentby the state to plead the cause of their countrymenbefore a foreignt ribunal. Aeschines,for example, was appointed to plead beforethe Amphictyonic council onthe subject ofthe Daliantemple ; but a certaindiscoveryhaving beenmade,not very creditable to hispatriotism, the court ofAreOpa 3 took it onthemse lves to remove him, an appoint y

perides inhis stead. There were other syndc

’

a‘

, who acted rather asmagistrates or'

udges

thanas advocates , thou h they probe ly derived their name fromt e circumstance oftheir being ap luted to protect the interestsof the state. hese were extraordinary functionaries. created fromtime to time‘

to ezercise a jurisdictionindisputes concerning confiscated wetly.SY’N ESIS

,a garment frequently worn

at dinner,and sometimes also onother occasions. As it was inconvenient to wear thetoga at the table, onaccount of itsmany folds ,it was customs to have dresses especial lyappropriated to t is purpose, cal led su res coemitori'ae, or cornatoria , accubiton

’

a, or syntheses.

T he synthesis appears to have beena kind oftunic, anindm enrumrather thananamictus .

[Anic'

ros ] That it was, however, ansassand comfortable kind of dress, as we shoul

SYRINX.

connected with drinkin differed li tt le fromthose of the Greeks, an have beeninci dental ly noticed above.

Panv lfll lm

say, seems to be evident fromits use at tableabovementioned, and also frpmits beingwornby all c lasses at the Samari tans seasonofuniversal relaxation and enjoyment More

thanthis re ting its formwe cannot sayit was usu y d

ied with some colour, and

was not white , li a the toga.

SYRINX (ofiptyf), the“ Pan’s pipe , or

Pandeanpipe, was the appmpriate musicalinstrument of the Arcadianand other G ucianshepherds , and was regarded by themas theinventionof Pan, their tutelary god. Whenthe Romanpoets had occasiontomentionit,

called itfistula. I t was formed in

SYSSITIA.

eral of sevenhol low stems of cand or reed,fitted together bymeans ofwax , hay ing beenpreviously cut to the proper lengths, and ad

justed so as to formanoctave but sometimesnine were admitted,

‘giving anequal number

ofnotes. A syrinx o eight reeds i s represent

had beenintroduced at Sparta.

Inmost of the Cretancities , the expensesof the syssitia were defrayed out of. the revenues of the public lands, and

.

the tribute aid

by the perioeci , themoney ansmg fromw ich

was applied part ly to the service of the gods,and partl to themaintenance of all the Ci tizens, bot male and female ;so that inthisrespect theremight beno diderence betweenthe rich and the poor.

.

T he Spa‘rtansyssitia were inthemain'

so

s imi lar to those of Crete , that onewas said tobe borrowed fromthe other. They differedfromthe Cretaninthe fol lowing respects.T he expenses of the tables at Sparta werenot defrayed out of the public revenues, bute very head ofa fami lywas obl iged toc ontribu te a certainportionat his own cost andcharge : those who werenot able to do sowere excluded fromthe publ ic tables. T he

guests were divided into companies , generallyof fifteen persons each

,and all vacancies

were fil led up b ba l lot, inwhi ch unanimousconsent was i ispensable for election. No

rsons, not eventhe kings, were excusedmmattendance at the public tables, exceptfor some satisfactory reason, as’whenengagedina sacrifice, or a chase, inwhich latter case

TABELLA.

TABELLA , dim. of T ABULA , a bil let ortablet, withwhich each citizenand judex voted inthe comitia and courts of justice. Inthe comitia, if the business was the passingofa law, each citizenwas rovided W i th twotabe l lae , one inscribed V. i. c. Uri Ra as ,“ I vote for the law,

”the other inscribe A .

r'

. e. Antiq uo,“ I amfor the old law.

”If the

businesswas the e lectionofamagistrate, eachcitizenwas suppl ied with on] one tablet, onwhich thenames of the candi ates were written, or the initials of their names ;the votern laced amark tum) against the onew omhe voted , w ence puncra are spoken

of inthe sense of votes. Forfurther partienlars respect ing the voting inthe comi tia

,seemutati ons and S trum.

T he jud ices were provided with three tabel lae :one of whichwasmarked with A. i. e.Absoloo

, I '

acqu it the second with C. r a.

Condemns , l condemn and the ' third wi thN.L. i. e. NonLiquct,

“ I t is not c lear tome.

”

T he first of these was cal led T abella absolute

ria,and the second T abella damnoton'

a , andhence Cicero calls the former limo saluroris ,and tlie latter limo trialis. [Laoas TABE LLA

RIAE .

T he annexed cut is takenfroma coin. inwhich amanis re resented inthe act of placoing a tabe l la,mar ed with the letter A ( i. e.absolve), inthe cista.

the indivi dualwas required to send a present tohis table. Each pe rsonwas suppl ied with a

cup ofmixed wine, which was fi lled againwhen uired : but drinking to excess wasprobibi at Sparta as wel l as inCrete. T herepas t was of a plainand simple character,and the contributionofeachmember ofamesscarding)was settled b law. T he principa lh was the black brot WM;(meg), wi thrk. Moreover, the entertainment was enivened by chee rful conversation, though onpublicmatters. Singing also was frequentlyintroduced. T he arran ents were underthe superintendence of t e polemarchs.

308 TABULAB.

T ABE LLA’

RIU S , a letter-ci rrier. As the

tablets fastened together inthe above -mentionedmanner. T wo such tablets were cal led dr

'

ptycli o (dlrrrvx a), which merely means“ twice-folded” (from c ream.) “ towhence we have irrvx rr

'

ov , or with the r

Omitted, mmrlov. T he Latinword pugillarec

, which i s the name frequentlygivento

tablets covered with wax , may r sps beconnected with the same root. t ough it isusual ly derived fromw ill“ , because thewere smal l enough to be held inthe henThree tablets fastened together were cal ledrriptycho inthe same waywe also read ofpeiuaplycha, and of po! tyclia or multiplies:(mac

j. T he ages of t ese tablets were frs

uent y cal l by the name of w as alone ;t uswe read of prima cero, allera cero, firs t

page.

” Intablets containingimportant legal documents, especial ly wil ls ,the outer edges were ierced through Withholes (fam ine), throug which a triple thread(harem) was passed , and uponwhich a sealwas thenplaced. Thiswas intended to guardagainst forgery, and if it was not done, suchdocuments were nul l and void.Waxentablets were used amon’

the R0.

mans for almost every cies 0 writing,where great length was required. Thus

TALARIA.

letters.were frequentl writtenupon them

which were secured y being fastened to:gatherwith packthread and sealed wi th wax .

Legal documents, and especial ly wil ls , werealmos t always writtenonwaxen tablets.Such tablets were alserused for accounts, inwhicgda rsonentered what he received and

axpe (tubules or codes accep ti ct aspen:

whence some tabulae meananaboli tionofdebts either wholly or inpart.T he tablets used invoting inthe comitia

and the courts of justice were al so called tabulae, as wel l as tabel lae. [TmsLu JT ABU LA

'

RlUM, a place where the ublicrecords (tabulae publicus) were kept. ess

records were of various kinds, as for instancesenatusconsulta, tabulae censoriae , registersof births, deaths, of thenames of those whoassumed the tOga viril is, etc. There werevarious tabularia at Rome, all ofwhich wereintem les ;we findmentionmade of tabu laria int e temples of the N mphs, of Luc ina,of Juventus , of Libitina, o Ceres, and moreespecial ly inthat of

‘Saturn, which was alsothe public treasury.TAGUS (rayég), a leader or general , wasmore especia lly thename of themi l i tary leaderof the Thessal ians . He is sometimes calLed king (Bumb ag). His command was of a

military rather thanof a civil nature, and heseems onl y to have been appointed whenthere was a war or one was a prehended.wlfig

o

bnotTlmow the extent 0 the pov

lv

ler

w'

c t e agus possessetl constitutionsnor the time for which he held the oflice

y;

probably neitherwas precisely fixed. and depended onthe circumstances of the times andthe character of the individua l.TALA’RIA , smal l wings fixed to the an

kles of Mercury, and reckoned among hisattributes. Inmany works of ancient art

theyare represented growin fromhis ank lesas i f they were a part of is bodily frame ;but .more fr uently they are attached to himas a part of is dress, agreeahl to the descriptionof the poets ;and this

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alo TAMIAE.

T he numbers onthe four sides of the fourbones admitted ofthirty-nve difl'erentcombinations. T he lowest throw. of allwas four aces(volton

'

os quatuor). But the value of a throwwas not inall cases the

,sumof the four num

hers turned up. T he highest invalue wasf that called Venue , orjactus Venereus , inwhichthe numbers cast up were all diderent, thesumof thembeing only fourteen. I t was byobtaining this throwthat the king of the feastwas appointed among the Romans [Summer

on], and hence it was al so cal led Bas ilica .

Certainother throws were cal led by particularnames, takenfromgods , il lustrious menand; women, and heroes. Thus the throw.

consisting of two aces and two trays,makingeight, which number, l ike the jactus Venereus

,could be obtained only once, was de

nominated S tes ichorus.

T A’MIAE (raptor), the treasurers of the

temIce and the revenue at Athens. T he

we thiset of all the temples at Athens wasthat ofMinerva inthe Acropolis.the treasuresofwhich were under the guardianshi of tentamiae

,who were chosenannual ly by ot from

the c lass of pentacosiomedimnt, and afterwards, whenthe distinctionof classes hadceased to exist, fromamong the wealthiestofAtheniancitizens. T he treasurers of theother gods were choseninl ikemanner ;butthey, about the9otbOlympiad , were all unitedinto one board, wh ile those ofM inerva remained distinct. Their treasury, however, wastransferwd to the same lace as that of M inerva, viz .,

to the opisth mus of the Parthenon, where were he t not only all the treasures be longing to t e temples, but also thestate treasure (data

‘

pa ra , as contra-dis

tingu ished from[spit under the care of the

treasurers of M inerva. All the funds of thestate were considered as be ing ina mannerconsecrated to M inerva, while onthe otherhand the people reserved to themse lves theright ofmakin use of the sacredmone s, aswelt as the ot er prope rty of the temp es, ifthe safety of the state should require it. Paymentsmade to the temples were received bythe treasurers inthe presence of some memhers of the senate, just as publicmoneys wereby the Apodectae : and thenthe treasurersbecame responsible for their safe custody.T he treasurer of the revenue (rapid; or

lmpelmv);rficnew?) 1rpo odov ,was amore

important personage .t ant ose astmenti oned. He was not a me re keeper ofmoneys,like them,nor ame re receiver, like the apo

dectae ;but a neral paymaster, who re

ceived through t e apodectae allmoneywhichwas to be disbursed for the purposes of the

administ rationexcept the property - taxes,

which were paid into thewar-s ilica, and thetribute fromthe al lies , which was paid to thehellenotamiae [Hsnt snou uu s ], and thendistributed it insuch manne r as he was re

quired to do by the law: the surplus (if anyhe paid into thewar- ofiice or the theoric fuAsthis rsonknew all the channel s inwhichthe pub ic money had to flow,

’

and exe rc iseda general superintendence over the ex pendi.ture, he was competent to give advice to thepeople uponfinancia l measures, with a viewto improve the revenue, introduce economy,and prevent abuses : he is some times ca lledraping ,

dtotxficwg, or 6 b ri dtourr'

rorac, may be regarded as a sort ofministeroffinance. He was elected by vote (Xfl ‘

rovia), and held his office for fou r years,ggt was capable of being reelected . A law,

however was passed during the administrationof Lycuig

us;the orator, rohibiting te

election;so at Lycué

-

i

gus, w o is reported

to have continued ino ce for twe l ve years,must have held it for the last eight ea rs underfictitious names. T he power 0 th is 011i.cerwas bynomeans free fromcontrol inasmuch as any individual was at l ibe rty to propose financial measures

,or institute c rimi

nal proceed ings for malversationorwaste ofthe public funds :and there was an(mi

-

type177;dtourr

'

zoeug"appo inted to check the

accounts of hi s superior. Ancient ly therewere persons called Parietae (noptarat ), whoappear to have assisted the tamiae in somepart of thei r duties:T he money di sbursed by the treasu rer of

the revenue was somet imes paid direct ly tothe various persons inthe employ of the govcrament, sometimes through subord inate payoffices. Many publ ic functionaries had theirownpaymastersfl vhowere dependent onthetreasurer of the revenue, receivin thei r fundsfromhim, and thendistributing t minthe irrespective departments . S uch were thenu

Zporrowt

’

. rstx orrowf, ddorrowt, raepomuot'

,

a cyclnrai veapiu v. who received th roughthei r own- tamiae such sums as they uiredfromtime to time for the prosecution the irworks. T he payment of the judicial feesw a made by the Colacsetae (x u l ax péra t).w ich, and the providing for themeals inthePrytaneum, were the only duties tha t re

mained to themafter the establishment ofthe apodectae by Clesthenes. T he tamiaeof the sacred vesse ls ( 1771;Il apdl ov and nicZ ahap tvt

’

ag) acted not only as treasurers,but as trierarchs, the expenses (amountingfor the two ships to ether to about six teenta lents) being provi ed by the state . Theywere elected by vote. Other trierarchs hadtheir ownprivate tsmiae.

T E ICHOPOII.

T hewar fund at Athens (independentl y ofthe tribute) was provided fromtwo sources ,first , the property-tax (elmopd), and secondly , the surplus of the yearly revenue, whichremained after defraying the expenses of thecivil administration. Of the ten strategi,who were annual ly elected to preside overthewarde artment,onewas cal led orpamybc6 ea

‘

g tou rism to whomthe management o thewar fu was entrusted. He had

underhima treasurer, cal led the rapldc raw

erparwrmdv , who gave out the pay of the

t roops , and defrayed all other ex penses jne ident to the semce.

Somuch of the surplus revenue as wasnotrequired for the pu rposes of

war, was to be

paid by the t reasurer of the revenue into the

theoric fund ;of which , after the archons‘

lgpof Euclides , specialmanagers were crea

[T Hscarce ]Lastly, we have tonotice the treasurers ofthe demi (617v raid er), and those bf thet ribes v2.01:rapier), who had the care of

the in belonging to their respective communities, and performed duties anaIOgous tothose of the - state t reasurers. T he demi, aswel l as the tribes.had their commonlands,which were usually

'

let.

to farm. T he rentsof these formed the principal part of theirrevenue.

TAXES Athenian[Tu es], Roman[V8 0'ri o i t i i , ni aurou} .T AXIARCHI (raflapxm) ,mi l i tary otiicers

at Athens,next inrank to the st rategi .were teninnumber, l ike the st rategi ,each tribe , and were elected b voterovla) . lu

‘ war each comma ed th

t ry of his .owntribe , and they, were frequentlyca l led to assist the strategi wi th their adviceat the war-council. inpeace

.they assisted

the strategi inlevying and enlistingIsoldiers ,

and seemed to have also assisted t e strategi

inthe discharge ofmany of thei r other dtJties .

T he taxiarchs were so cal led from theircommanding tax -cia which were the

principaldivisions of the hopl ites in the

Athenianarmy. Each tribewvl ri) formed amin. As there were ten tribes. there wereconsequent ly ina complete Athenianarmytenlas er

'

s , but the number of mencontainedineach would of course va according to theimpo rtance of the war. mong the otherG reeks, the tes t is was the name of amuchamal lerdivisionoftr00ps. T he locker (Mx og)among the

'Athenians was a subdiviswnof

the tax is, and the lachugi (2:01 am) were probabl a inted by the taxiarchs.

0

T [SWOPOII magi stratesat Athens, whose business it was to buildand keep inrepair the pub lic wal ls. They

TELA . 311

appear to have beenelected b vote (Siam.

rovia), one fromeach tribe, an probe fora ear. Funds were put at theirdisposa forw ich they had their treasurer (raping) deendent on the treasurer of the revenue.

hey were l iable to render anaccount (reddwy) of theirmanagement of these funds, andalso of their genera l conduct, like othermaistrates. Th is office has beeninvested wipecul iar interest inmodernt imes , onaccountof its having beenheld by Demosthenes , andits having givenoccasionto the famous prossentiou of Ctesiphon, who proposed that Demosthenes shou ld receive the honour of a

crownbefore“

he had rendered his accountaccording to law,

TELA (Emir), a loom. Although weavingwas among the Greeks and Romans a dis

t inct trade, carried onby a se arate class ofpersons (dddvra i . res-tom an res-tribes, tinteones), yet every considerable domestic establishment, especial ly inthe country, containeda loom, together with the whole apparatusnecessary for the working ofwool (lanifia

’

mn,rah oimrailaa iovp ia). [G u anine ] Theseoccupations were all supposed to be carriedonunder the protectionofAthena or M inerva,s iall

fldenominated E rgam (

’E yévfl).

hent a farmor the palace was suflfcientlylarge to admit of it, a portionof it cal led thehiston(ioribv) or cu rt iam , was devoted tothis purpose. T hework was there principally carried onby female slaves (quasillariae),under the superintendence of themistress ofthe house.

Every thing wovenconsists of two essent ial parts, the warp and the woof, cal led inLatinstamenand sublcgmen, subumen, or trama inGreek 01-i3v and x pox r} . T he warpwas cal led stameninLatin(fromstars) onaccount of its erect posture inthe loom. T hecorresponding Greek termerr

-

flaw . and l ikewise oréf have evidently the same derivation. For the same reason, the very first operationinweaving was to set up the loom(lorbv o

‘rfiaaadar) and theweb or cloth, be

312 TELA.

fore it was cut downor “ descended” fromthe 100111 , was ca lled ecstis pcndm orpendula(d o, because it hung from the transversebeam, or These particulars are allclearly ezhi ited

fi

in‘

the picture of Circe’sloomgiveninthe foregoing cut.We. - observe in the preceding wood -cut,

about the middle of the a paratus, a trans.verse rod passing throng the warp. Astraight cane was wel l adapted to be so used ,and i ts application is clearly expressed byOvid inthewords stamcnsecerm'

t arundo. inplainweaving it was inserted betweenthethreads of the warp so as to divide themintotwo portions

,the threads onone side of the

rod alternat ing with those onthe other sidethroughout the whole breadth of the warp .

‘

One of themost ancient forms of the loomwith which we are acquainted , and wh ichprobably differed litt le fromthe one used bythe Greeks and Romans, is rep resented intheannexed cut.

We obseive underneath the juguma rol ler,which is turned by a handle, and onwhichthe web is wound as the .work advances.T he threads of the warp

,besides being sepa

rated.

by a transverse rod or plank, are divided into thi rty or forty parcels , to each ofwhich a stone is suspended for the purpose ofkeeping the warp ina perpendicu lar position,and allovving thenecessary play to the strokes

of the spatha, which is drawnat the side“the loom.

Whilst the comparativel y coarse ,

and much - twisted threa’

d designed

warp was thus arranged inpara Iel lines, thewoof remained upon the spindle [Fuses],forruing a spool, bobbin. or peng

rim) . Th iswas either

”

conve ed through a warp without any addition contrivance, or it wasmadeto revolve ina shuttle (radius ). This wasmade of box brought fromthe shores of theEuxine, and was pointed at its ext remi ties,that itmight easi ly force its way through thewarp. All that is effected by the shut tle isthe conveyance of the woof across the warp.T o keep every thread of thewoof ini ts p roperplace, it is necessary that the threads of thewar should be decussated. This was doneby t

[e leashes , cal led inLatin“cia, inGreek

fliTOt. By a leash we are to unde rstand a’

thread having at one end a loop , th rough

which a thread of the warp was passed , 0

other end being fastened to a stra ight rod called and inGreek x avdm. T hewehaving beendivided by the arundo, as a l res ymentioned , into two sets of threads, all thoseof the same set

‘

were passed through theloops of the corresponding set of leashes , andall these leashes were fastened at the ir o therend to the same woodenrod. At leas t oneset of leasheswasnecessary to decu ssa te thewarp, eveninthe plainest and simplestweaving. T henumber of sets was increased ac.

cording to the complexity ofthe patte rn,whichwas cal led bilia orrriIilr, dip i rog. rpiru rog, oriroMmrog, according as thenumbe rwas two,three, ormore.

T he process ofannexing the leashes to thewarp was cal led ardiri telam, also licia (d oe cddu e, or adnecrere. I t occupied two womenatthe same time, one of whomtook inregu la rsuccessioneach separate thread of the warp,and handed it over to the other ;the othe r, asshe received each thread, passed it throughthe loop inprOper order.

-

S u posin the warp,to have beenthus ad

just and t e penor the shuttle to have beencarried through it, it was thendecussated bydrawing forwards the proper rod , so as to

carry one set of the threads of thewarp acrossthe rest, after which the woof was shot backagain, and by the continual repetitionof thisroccas the warp and woof were interlaced .

n the second cut we observe two staves,

Which are occasional ly used to fix the rod s insuch a positionas ismost convenient to assistthe weaver indrawing her woof across herwarp. After the woofhad beenconveyed bythe shuttle through the warp, it was drivensometimes downwards, as is represented in

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314

lands, fines, and confiscations. T he publicdemesne lands, whether pasture or arable,houses or. other buildings

,were usual ly let by

auctionto private persons. T he conditions ofthe lease were engravenonstone. T he rentwas payable by prytaneias.

These various sources of revenue produced,accord ing to Arist hanes, anannual incomeof two thou sand ta cuts inthemost flourishing period ofAthenianempire.

T cl eiv si ifies to sett le, commets , orperfect,” hence to settle anaccount,”and general ly to pay.

” Thus T él og comestomeanan payment inthe nature of a taxorduty. Tgewords are connected with z ahleninGermen,aud the old sense of tale inE nglish,and the modernword toll. Though f i l o;may sig

nify any payment inthe nature of a

tax or uty, it ismore commonly used of theordinary taxes, as customs, eac.

’Iaorél eta

signifies the right of be ing taxed onthe samefoot ing, and having other priv ileges, the sameas the citizens ;a right sometimes granted toresident aliens . ’Aréllera signifies anex emptionfromtaxes, or other duties and services ;anhonour very rare ly granted by the Athenians. As to the farming of the taxes, see T aLong s.TEMPLE. [Ter es ina]T E MPLUM is the same word as the Greek

T ama ra (réyevog, fromremar, to cut 03 )for was any place which was circumscribe and separated by the augurs fromtherest of the land by a certainsolemnformu la.

T he technical terms for this act of the nu~gurs are hberm and ari, and hence a templumitselfis a locus

‘

at cm. A placethus set apart and hallowed y the augu rswas always intended to serve rel igious pur

po

‘ses, but ch iefly for taking the auguries.e place inthe heavens withinwhich the

observations were to be made was l ikewiseca l led temlum, as it was marked . out andseparated the rest by the stafl

'

of theaugu r. Whenthe augerhad defined the templumwithinwhich he intended to make hisobservations, he fixed his tent ini t (tabernaclehuncapers), and this tent was likewise calledtemplum, or more accurately, templummenu .

T he place chosenfor a templumwas general ly eu eminence, and inthe cit it was theon, wh

ere “1

18

392nof a tentt

’ecges ”

liter-2p.

pear to ave necessary, use a

place ca l led auguraculumwas once forall consec reted for this purpose.

Besides thismeaning of the word temluminthe lan age of the augurs , it also h that0a temp s inthe commonacceptation. Inthi s case. too, however, the sacred

TEMPLUM.

temple itself was cal led wh o orneck .

and at i ts entrance fonts (rrepr vrriptc )were nerally placed, that those who entared e sanctuary to pray or to offer sacrificesmigh t first purif themselves. T he actof consecrati on, by w ich a temple was ded

precinct icated to a god, was ca lled wpvex . T hewi thinwhich a temple was built, was always character of the early Greek temples

a locus liberoma cf alus hy the angufe, thatis, a templumor a fanum; the consecrationwas completed b the pontitfs, and not untilinauguration an consecration had takenplace , cou ld sacra be performed ormee t ingsof the senate be held init. It was necessarythenfor a temIs to be sanctioned by thegods, whose w

'

l was ascertained by the au

gurs, and to be consec rated or ded i cated bythe wil l

-

ofman ntifl'

s). Where the sanctionof the gods ad not beenobtained , andwhere thewere set ofmanhad consecrateda place to the gods, such a place was only asacrumscorer

-ium,ormed ium. T he ceremony

performed halthe augu rs was essent ia l to a

temple as e consecrationby the pontifl’

s

took place also inother ”sanctuaries .wh ichwere not temple, but mere sacra or sodasame. Thus the sanctuary of Ves ta wasnot a templum, but anaedes sacra and thevarious curiae (Hostilia, Pompeia, .lu l ia ) teuired . to bemade temple by the augu rs be.fore senatusconsulta cou ld bemade

,int hem.

It is impossible to determinewith ce rta inty inwhat respects a templumdiffered froms

delubrum.

Temples appear to have existed inGreecefromthe earl iest times. They were sepa ratedfromthe profane land around them( 7 6mg[3198a or rd fife

/flu), because every onewas allowed to w k inthe latter. This separationwas inearl

gtimes indicated by very

simple means, suc as a stnng or a rope.Subsequently however, they were surrounded bymore e

“

cient fences, or evenby a wall(p o rrspifiol og). T he whole space enclo insuch a are/31801 0 was cal led remar.or sometimes is andcontained , besidesthe temple itsel other sacred buildings

, andsacred ennd planted with groves

, drc.

Withint e precincts of the sacred enc losureno dead were general ly allowed to be buried ,though there were some exceptions to thisru le, and we have instances of persons beingburied inor at least near certain temples.T he religious laws of the island of De l os d idnot allow any corpses to be buried withinthewhole ex tent of the island

,and whenthis

law had beenviolatedfla part of the island

was first purified by Pisistratus. and subsequently the whole is land by the Ath enianpee le.

he

TEMPLUM.

dark and msterious, for they had no windows, and t ey received light onlythe door, which was very large,lamps burning inthem. Architecture intheconst ructionof magnificent temples, howe ver,made great progress evenat ane arliert ime thaneither painting or statuary, andlong before the Persianwars we hear of temp les of extraordinary grandeur and beauty:All ternlea were bui lt either iri anoblongorrou form, and weremostly adorned withcolumns. Those of anoblong formhad columns either inthe front a lone Cprod ylus), inthe fore and back fronts (amphi

groc

gém), or

onall the four sides (pm‘

ptmu specting the original use of these porticoes seePoartcus. T he friezes and mstopes wereadorned with various scat tures, and max

pense was spared'

inembe ishing the abodesof the gods. T he l ight, which was formerlylet inat the door, was nowfrequently let infromabove through anopening inthemiddle.

Most of the great'

temples consiawd of threeparts : I . the 7rp6vaog ornpédopoc, the ves

tibule ;2. the calla (vadc, crank);and 3. the

bawdddopog. T he cells was the most im'

portant part. as it was, properlyspeaking, the

temple or the habitationof t e deity whosestatue it contained. Inone and ' the saniecells there were sometimes the statues oftwo ormore divinities, as inthe Erechtheumat Athens the statues of Neptune, Vulcan,and Butas. T he statues always faced .

‘

the

ent rance , which was inthe centre of the

prostylus. T he place where the statuestoodwas cal led blog, andwas surrounded bya ba lustrade or rai lings. S ome ~temples alsohad more thanone cells , inwhich case the

one was enerally behind the other, as inthetemple 0 M inerva Pol ias at Athens. Intemples where oracles were given, or where theworship was connected with mysteries, thecells was cal led cider-av. ,uéyapov , or {twisropov, and to it only the priests and the

ini t iated had access. T heomaflédonog wasa bui lding whichwas sometimes attached tothe back front of a temple, and served as a

place inwhich the treasures of the templewere kept , and thus supplied the place of011601) I,which were attached to some temples.ndependently of the immense treasures

contained inmany of’ the Greek temples,which were either utensils orornaments, '

andof the tithes of spoils, &c., the roperty of

temples, fromwhi ch they deriv a regularincome, consisted of lands “CW”eithe rfields, pastures , or forests. hese landswere nerally let out to farm, unless theywere,5

6

some curse which lay onthem, pre

vented rombeing takeninto cultivation.

TERM INALIA . 315

Respecting the rsons entrusted with thesuperintendence, eeping, cleaning, are.weulter

ior.

l’

h bent e ear iest tunea t ere a pear to ve

beenvery few temples at lfema, and inmanges

e

pots the worship of a certaindivinihad It established fromtime immemowhile we hear of the building of a temple forthe same divinity at a comparat ive ly lateperiod. Thus the foundationof a temple tothe old I tal ian divinity S aturnus, on theCapitoline, did not take place ti l l a. c .inthe samemanner, Q uinnus and Mars hadtemples built to themat a late period . Jupiter also hadno temple til l the time ofone Martins,

“

and the one thenbuil t wastainly ve insignificant. We may thereforesuppose at the places ofworship among theearliest Romans were inmost cases simplealtars or sacel la. T he Roman temples oflater times were constructed inthe Greek

aty e.

As regards the property of temples, it isstated that inearly times lands were assigned to each temple, but these lands were probably intended for the maintenance of thepriests alone. [Su mmon]T he so reme su rintendence of the tem

ples of ome, an of all thin connectedwith them, belonged to the co legs of pontifi

'

s. Those persons who had the immediate care ofthe temles were the Annu al.

T E PIDA'

RIU (Bu nsen, p.TERMINA’LIA , a festival in honour of

the god Terminus, who presided over boundaries. His status wasmere ly a stone orpoststuck inthe ad to distinguish betweenproperties. nthe festival the two ownersof adjacent property crowned the status

with garlands, and raised a rude al tar, onwhich they offered up some corn. honeycombs, and wine. and sacrificed a lamb or asucking pig. They concluded with singinthe praises of the god. T he public festivinhonour of this god vvas celebrated at thesixthmile-stone on~the road towards Laurentum

,doubtless because this was original ly

the extent of the Romanterritory inthat ditaction.

T he festival ofthe terminal iawas celebratedonthe zard of Februa onthe day beforethe Regifugium. T he erminalia was celebrated onthe last day of the old Romanyear,whence some de rive its name. We knowthat February was the lastmonth of the R0man year, and that whenthe intercalarymonth Mercedonius was added, the last fivedays of February were added to the intercal.arymonth.making the zad of February thelast day of the year.

316 TESTUDO.

TERU'NCIUS. [As. ]TESS E RA (x éflog), a square or cube;a

die ;a token.

T he dice used ingames of chance weretesserae. smal l squares or cubes , and werecommonl y made of ivory, bone, or wood.T hey were numbered onall the six sides,like the dice stil l inuse ;and inthis respectas wel l as intheir formthey dilfered fromthetali. [Tswa ] Whilst fou r ta l i were usedinplaying, only three teaserae were ancientlyem loyed .

bjects of the same materials with dice.

and either formed like them. or of anoblongshape, were used as tokens for different purposes. T he (assem hospitalia was the tokenofmutual hos itality} and is spokenof underHoseta . his tokenwas probably inmanysaw ofea rthenware, having the head of Ju

piter Hospitalis stamped uponit. T easer-as

fiumentariae and s ummaris ewere tokens givenat certaintimes by the Romanmagistrates tothe poor, inexchange forwhich they receiveda fixed amount ofcornormoney.Fromthe applicationof this te rmto tokens

of various kinds, it was transferred to the

word used as a tokenamong soldiers . Thiswas the teams militaris , the cévd wa of the

Gre eks. Before’

oiniu battle it was givenout and - passed t roug the ranks, as amethod by which the soldiers might be able todistinguish friends fromfoes .TESTU’

DO 8 tortoise, was thename

1givento several other objects .

1 . o the Lyra, because it was sometimesmade ofa tortoise- shell .2. To anarched ‘or vaulted roof.3. To a mil ita machine moving uponwheels and roof over, uwd in besiegingcities, under which the soldiers worked inundermining the wal ls or otherwise destroyin them. I t was usual ly covered with raw

as, or other mate ria ls which could notM y be set onfire. T he battering-ram

SAa ts s]was frequentl y placed under a testuo of this kind, which was thenca lled T ests

4. T he name of testudo was also ap‘pl ied

to the coveringmade by a close body 0 soldiers who placed their shields over thei r headsto secure themse lves against the darts of theenemy. T he sh ields fitted so close ly togetheras to present one unbrokensurface W ithoutany interstices betweenthem, and were alsoso firmthat mencould walk uponthem, andevenhorses and chariotsbe drivenover them.

A testudowas formed testwiim fucm eitherinbattle to ward o the arrows an Othermissiles of the emmy, or, which was morefrequently the case , to forma promotionto

advanced upon themto attack theuponthe wal ls. T he Romans weretomad to formthis kind '

of testudo, as

fou r tetrarchiea. each rulmSome of the tribmof Syriatetrarchs, and several of the

T aramcns s.

the soldiers whenthey advanced to the wa llsor gates ofa townfor the pu rpose of a ttackin%them.

ometimes the shields were d’

insuch a way as to make theT he sold iers - ih the first l ine stood up t,those inthe second etoo a l ittle, and eachl ine successivel y was a ittle lower thanthepreceding downto the last , where the soldiers rested onone knee. Such a dispom

’

fl'm

of the shields was ca lled [magma tmde, asaccount of their sloping l ike the rod d a

building. T he advantages of this planwereobvious :the stones andmissilmthrownuponthe S h lelds ro lled oh

'

theml ike water froma

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318 THEATRUM.

s s s s s e eae s s

ru a em rmThe entran

ces

rid, the seatsd

”of!r

igsstators were part y u ergroun:go

the lowest rows of benches, while theu per rows must have beenaccessible from

s.

2. The orchestra'

o'

rpa)was a circularlevel space a wnmng’i/rtivfmnt of the epactstors, and somewhat be low the lowest row. ofbenches. But it was not a complete circle,one segment of it being appropriated to thestage . The orchestra was

.

the place for thechorus, where it performed its evolutions anddances , forwh ich urpose itwas coveredwithboards. As the c orus was the element outof which the drama areas. so the orches trawas original ly the most important part of atheatre it formed the centre around which allthe other parts of the building were grouped .

Inthe centre of the circle of the orchestrawas the tit ls (Oupél fl). that is , the al tar ofBacchus ( which was of course nearer tothe stage thanto the seats of the spectators,the distance fromwhich was precise ly thelength of a radius of the circle. Ina wider parasosnim (wapaox émov).

the stage thetators , through which the

chorus onto the orchestra. T he chorusmoral ly arranged itself inthe ace betweenthymele and the stage. he thymele

itselfwas of a square form, and was used forvarious put

-

pom, according to thenature ofthe different pla s, such as a funeral monument, ana ltar, c. It wasmade of boards,and surrounded onall sides with steps. Itthus stood upona raised platform,

which wassometima occu ted by the leader of the chorus, the flute-

p ayer, and the rhad phori.The orchestra, as well as the firearms , lay

finds]the opensky ;a roof isnowhere men

on3. T he stage. S teps led fromeach side of

the orchestra to the sta e, and by themthechorus probably ascend the stage wheneveri t took

_

a real part inthe actionitself. Theback side of the stage was closed by a wal lcal led the some (a fromwhich oneachside a wing pwjec which was cal led the

The wholedepthsense the orchestra also comrised the broad of the

.

stage was not very great. as it onlyM . 3) on side, between comprised a segment of the circle of the or

THEATRUM.

chestre. The whole space fromthe sceneto the orchestra was termed the proscenium

gmox i‘vwv), and was what we wou ld ca ll

'

e rea stage. That part of it which wasnearest to the orchestra, and where the actorsstood whenthey spoke, was the la eium(l oy sZov), also cal led scribes (ex pifiar inLatinpulpt

'

tttm, wh ich was of course raised abovethe orchest ra and probably ona level withthe thymele. The scene was , as we havea lready stated , the

(wal l whicl} t

hisstage ( promnmn'

an logst'

rmi ) mm inIt represented a sui table background , or thel ocali ty inwhich the actionwas going on.

Before the play beganitwas covered wi th a

curtain(naparréraoitmrrpoo consumer).Latinoutset: or riparian. hen the play

this curtainwas let down, and wasrol up ona roller underneath the stage.The prosceniumand logeiumwere neverconcealed fromthe spectators. As regardsthe scenery represented onthe scene , itwasd ifferent for traged comedy, and the satyricd rama, and for ese of these kinds of poetrythe swne must have beencapable of variousmodi cations, according to the character of each individual play ;at least that thiswas the case with the various tragedies, isevident fromthe scenes described inthe tra

fiies still extant. In the latter however

t ba h-ground (scam) inmost cases '

represented the front of a palace with a door inthe centre (0whichwas called the royal door.This palace general ly consisted oftwo stories,and uponits flat roof the re appears to havebeensome elevated place fromwhich personsmight observe what was going onat a distance. The palace ted oneach side aprojecting wing, eac ofwhich had its separate entrance. T hese wings general ly represented the habitations of guests and visitors.All the thre e doors must have beenvisibleto the spectators. The gonistes alwaysentered the stage throng themiddle or royaldoor

,the den iates and tritsgonistes

throu h those onthe right and left wings. Intrage ies like the Proinetheus,

-the Persians,Phi loctetes, Oedipus in.Coloiius, and others,the back-ground did not represent a palace.There are other pieces againinwhich thescenamust have beenchanged inthecourseof the performance, as inthe E umenules of

Aeschylus and the Ajax of Sophoc les. Thedramas of E u

s’

gides r aired a great variety

of scenery ;a if inidd i i' ionto this we re

co llect that several iecea were layed inone

g‘ay, it ismanifest t at thf

mecpa

rt:fstage performance, at east int ys

E uripides , must have beenbrought.

to gmatperfection. The scena inthe satyric drama

319

appears to have alwa re rssented a woodydistrict with hills mil» ;incomedy thescans re resented, at least inlater times, thefronts 0 pri vate dwellings or the habitationsof slaves. The

.

art of scene- paintingmus thave been‘appl

ie

dlong before the time of

Sophocles, t ough Aristotle ascribes its ihtroductionto him.

The whole of the caves inthe Attic thestremust have contained about spectators. The places for generals, the archons,priests , foreignambassadors, and other distinguished persons, were inthe lowest rowsof benches, and nearest to the orchest ra, andthe appear to havemensometimes coveredWi t a sort of canopy. The rows of benchesabove these were occupied by the senate of500, those next insuccessionb the e hebi,and the rest b

fiathepeople

of At ens. glut itwou ld seemt t they not sit indiscriminate! but that the better laces were let atamier price thanthe oi ers, and that no

one ad a right to take a place forwhich hehadnot id.

.The usual fee fora place wastwo obo which was subset

buently givento

the poorer classes by a lawof ericles. [T usoaica.] Womenwere allowed to be presentduring the performance of tragedies , but notof comedies.The Romansmust have become usintedwith the theatres of the Ita lianGree at anearly period, whence they erected their owntheatres insimilar ositions uponthe sidesof hil ls. This is at 1 clear fromthe ruins ofvery ancient theatres at Tusculumand Faesulae. The Romans themselves, howeverdid not a regular stone theatre untila very to

.

period ;and al though.dramatic

representations were very popu lar inearliertimes , it appears that a woodenstage waserected whenmess

ing, and was afterwardspu l led downagain, the lays of Plautusand Terence were rform onsuch temporary M oldinga. the meanwhile,manyof theneighbouring towns of Rome had thei rstone theatres, as the introductionof Greekcustoms and manners was less strongly

wed inthemthaninthe city ofRome itse f.oodentheatres , adorned with themost pro

fuse magnificence, were erected at Romeevenduring the last period of the republic.ina. c. 55 On. Pompey buil t the first stonetheatre at Rome,near the Campus Martins.i twas of great beauty , and is said to havebeenbuilt after themodel of that ofMytilene ;it contained spectators.The censtructionof a Romantheatre resembled , onthe whole, that of a G reek one.The principal differences are, that the seatsof the spectators, which rose inthe formof

see THENSAE. T HE ORJCA.

anamphitheatre around the orchestra, didnot formmore thana semicircle ;and thatthe whole of the orchestra likewise formedonly a semicircle, the diameter of which formed the front line of the stage. The Romanorchestra contained no thymele, and was notdestined for a chorus, but contained the seatsfor senators and other distinguished persona,such as foreignambassadors,which are calledmy subsd liorm'

ordo. inI . c. 08 the triOtho‘

carried a law which

T HE NSAE onT E NSAE . highly ornaa the i lrlver took the rains inhis left hand , itmeri ted sacred vehicles, which, inthe so lemnwas necessary to recommence the procespomp of the Circensiangames, conveyed the sion, and for one of the attendant boys to letstatues of certain

,deities With all thei r deco or to stumble, was p rofana.

rations to the pu lvinaria, and after the sportswere over bore themback to their shrines .

We are ignorant of thei r preciseknow that they were drawnby horses , andescorted (dcdncm) by the chief senators inrobes of state, who, along withmi laid hold of thetraces, orperhaps assisted to drag the carriagebymeans of thongs attached for the purposeand hence the urposed derivationfromred ogo sacred was iihis duty considered, that Ao

)

g ustua, whenlabouring under sickness, deemed itnecessary to accompany the tarmac inalitter. lf one of the horses knocked up, or

regulated theglu es inthe theatre to be ac

cupied by the id'

erent classes of Romancitiz ens: it enacted that fourteen ord ines ofbenches were to be assigned as sea ts to theequites. Hence these Qu

‘

atuordecim ordinesare sometimesmentioned without any fu rt he raddition, as the honorary seats of the equ i

o

tes . They were undoubted ly 'close belnndtheseats of the senators andmagistra tes , andthus consisted of the rows of bedistely behind the orchestra.

The only gods distinct! named as carriedin tenses are Ju iter an Minerva, thoughothers appear to ave had the same honourpaid them.

THE 0PHA'NIA (Oeocpdwa) , a festival eelebrated at Delphi, onthe occasionof whichthe Delph inus fil led the huge silver craterwhich had beenpresented to the Delphic godby (h oesns.

T HEO’RM .

T HE O’

RlCAat Athenswere c

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THESMOPHORIA.

tival, inrevival of the ancient Ionianone, ofwhich Homer speaks. The expense of theseembassies was ’

defrayed partly by the stateand part ly by weal thy citizens. to whomthemanagement of themwas entrusted ca lledArchitheon

’

(dpmfléopm). chiefs of t e embassy. This was a sort of l i turgy, and fre

auently a very costly one;as the chief conuctor represented the state, and was expected to a

ppear with a suitable degree of

splendour ; or instance , to wear a goldencrown, to drive into the city with a handsomechari ot, retinue, a c.

The Salaminian, or Dalian, sh ip was alsocalled deopicwork .and was principal ly usedfor conve ing embassies to Delos , though ,hi s the aralus, it was employed onother

t ime besides.

HERMAE. [Bu nsen]T HE S E IA (Gnarls ), a festival celebratedby the Athenians inhonour of their nationalhero Theseus, whomthey believed to havebeenthe author of their democratical formofverament. Inconsequence of this belieftions of bread andmeat were '

vento ther wople at the T heseia, whic was thus

or thema feast at which they felt no want,and might fancy themselves equal to thewealthiest citizens. The day onwhich thisfestival was held was the eighth of ' everymonth (dydéat) , but more especial ly theeighth of Pyanepsion, whence the festiva lwas sometimes cal led dydédwv. I t is probable that the festival of the T heseia was notinstituted till a. o.W , whenCimonbroughtthe remains of T hemus from Scyros to

Athens.THESMOPHO’RIA (060 pm). a great

festiva l and mysteries , cel rated inhonourof Ceres invarious parts of Greece, andonly by women, though some ceremonieswere also performed bymaidens. I t was ihtended to commemorate the introductionof

the laws and regulations of civilized life,which was ,

universs lly ascribed to Ceres.

The Attic thesmophoria probably lasted onlythree da s, and beganonthe 11th of I’mpsion, w h day was cal led dvodocor s lidedog, because the solemnities were opened bythe womenwi th a processionfromAthens toEleusis. inthis processionthey carried ontheir bu ds s acred laws (véiufii

o

c

t Btfil ot ordemi), the introductionof w h was as

cribed’

to Camera and otherls of civi

'

life. awomanspentnight at Eleusis incelebrati themys

teries of the goddess. T he ”0033day. ca lled was a day ofmou rning, durinwhio the womensat onthe ground arounthe statue of Cam, and tool: no other

THBONU S .

food -thancakesmade of sesame and honey .

Onthis day nomeetinlgs ei ther of the senate

or the people were he d. I t was probably inthe afternoonof this day that thewomenhe lda processionat Athens, inwhich they walkedbarefooted behind a we n, upon whi chbasketswithm tical sym ls were conv edto the thesmop orion. T he third day , onledx al iltyéveta , from the circumstance thatCeres was invoked under this name , wasa day ofmerriment and rai l lery among thewomen themselves, in commemora tion oflambs , who was said to havemade the goddess smile durin her rief.T HE SMO

'

T ETA [Aacnom]THETES .

OESCarrsoq p. 73

1THOLOS l op, also cal ed wrote), a

name givento any round building which terminated at the top ina point, whateve rmightbe the purpose for whi ch it was used. AtAthena the name was inparticu lar app liedto the new round rytaneumnear the senate-house, which ould not be confoundedwith the old prytaneumat the foot of theacropolis. I t was therefore the place inwhich

fiethlgdp

took their commonmealsand o t eir sacrifices. I t was adomdwith some smal l si lver statues, and near itstood the tenstatues of the Attic E ponymi.THORAX. [Loarca ]THRACES. Gnauu roaasJT HRANl

’

T A [Navrs, p.T HRONU S a throne, is a Greekword, for which the proper Latin termisS olium. T his did not difl’er froma chair(naflédfia ) “31 1 8 3 08 1 ; S u m)"except in

being igher, larger, and inall respectsmoremagnificent. Onaccount of its elevationitwas alwaysnecessaril y aecom bya footstool (“ M ia-tn, immrédtov, pévtov). T heaccompanying cut shows two gilded throneswith cushions and drapery, intended to be thethrones of Mars and Venus, which is ex

onthe one and the

'

l‘

HYRS U S .

The fol lowing wood -cut froma fictile vaseinthe Museo Borbonico at Naples , representsJuno seated ona splendid throne , which iset

‘

evated ona basement . She holds inhertea hand a sceptre, and inher right the a ple,which Mercury is about to convey to Igariswith a view to the celebrated contes t forbeauty onMount Ida. Mercury is distinguishlsd by his taldria , his caduceus , and his petasusthrownbehind his back, and hanging by a

string. On the right side of the throne isthe representationof a t igress or panther.

Throws, T hrow.

THY’

MELE . [Ta smania p .

THYRSUS (Bi pcog) , a pole carried by Bacelh i s , and by Satyrs , Maenadea, and otherswho engaged inBacchic festivities and rites.Drom’

q It was sometimes terminatedy the apple of the pine, or fir-cone, that tree( s eem) being dedicated to Bacchus inconsequence of the use of the turpentine whichflowed fromit, and also of its cones. inmaking wine. T hemonuments of ancient .art,

however, most commonly exhibit, instead ofthe pine-apple , a bunch of vine or ivy leaves,with grapes or berries , arranged into the formof a cone. The annexed cut shows the headof a thyrsus composed of the leaves and hert ies of the ivy , and surrounded by acantbuswaves . The fabulous history of Bacchusrelates that be converted the thyrsi carriedby himself and his followers into dangerouswas as, by concealin anironpoint inthehas of the lmves . ence his th us is

called “a spear enveloped

.

invine eaves,”and its pointwas thought to inci te tomadness.

'

l'

lAliA.

TIA 'RA or TIA'RAS (ruipa or fl dpagAlt. x v aaLa a hat with a large high crowmThis was the sad-dress which characterizedthe north -westem Asiatics

, and more aawcially the Armenians, Parthians, and Persians,as distinguished fromthe Greeks and Romans

,whose hats fitted the head, or bed onl y a lowcrown. The king of Persia wore anerecttiara, whilst those of

,his subjects were soft

ex ible, falli onone side. The Persianfor this reg head-dress was eidam.

324 TIBIA. T lR0.

T I'

BlA (abhor), a p’

the commonest kind ofmuaic apprOpriate to eaeh :tibia'

o

musical instrument of$3Greeks and Ro buc, i.e. with pipes inthe samemode ;rimmans. I t was very frequently a hollow cane, paribus, pipes indifl'

erent modes ;tib. daabu[orated with holes inthe p

agper places. deem} , two pipes of low pitch ;tib. par. des

other instances itwasmade some kind tm’

c ct aim’mis , pipes inthe samemode, and ofof wood , especially box , and was bored Wi th both low and high pitch.a let. T he uae of the pipe among the G reeka and

hena single pipe was used by i tself, the Romans was threefold , vi z . at sacrificesperformer uponit, as wel l as the instrument, (tibiae sacrifice entertainments (M m e),was cal ledmomma”. Among the varieties of and funeral s. he pipewas not confined ah

,

fisingleihilip

e t

r

l‘iemost remag

t

cfli le were

$23ge

iitly,32;it is wi th us,

t

t

iii '

me male sex, butpi pe ormer onw was ca or fema le icines, were very

atrium» or dox aulnficand the «36 comfnr

grli .

no:or a l aylav w h, as its name im T IME 'MA (WJM [Dwat]plies, had a mout - pipe inserted into it at T lNT lNNA' £

0

(madam). a bel l.ht t umBanwas the reputed inventor Bellswere of various forms among the Greeksthis of tibia as well as of thefistula or and Romans , as among us. Various speci

‘yfi’w [S vntrtx ]. mans of themare giveninthe annexed cut.But among the Greeks and Romans itwasmuch more usual to play ontwo pipes atthe same time. Hence a performance onthis instrument evenwhenex

ecuted by a single person.was ca l led comorM ore tibia} . This act is exhibited inverynumerous works of ancient art, and .often

’

insuch away as to make it manifest that thetwo pipes were perfectly distinct, and notconnected, as some have supposed , by a commonmouth T he mouth-pieces of thetwo pipes passed through a capistrum.

(S ee cut,(pThree ifl

'

erent kinds of pipes were originally used to roduce music inthe Dorian,Phrygian, an Lydianmodes. lt ap ears,also, that to produce the Phrygianm e thepipe had only two holes above, and that itterminated ina hornbending upwards. I tthus approached to the nature of a trumpet,and produced slow, grave, and solemntunes.The Lydianmode was much uicker, andmore varied and animating. florace men.tions

lyl

rdianpipes”as a proper accompaniment, w onhe i s celebrating the praise of

ancient.

heroes. T he Lydians themselvesused this instrument inleadin their troo sto battle ; and the pi emp o ed for t e

purpose are distinguis ed by erodotus a smale and female,” i . e. robably base andble, corresponding to t e ordi y sexualerence inthe humanvoice. T e corres

ponding Latinterms are tibia deatra and sinu tra the respective instruments are sup

to have beenso cal led, because theormer was more properly he ld inthe hthand and the latter inthe left. T he “ ti iad uty-a

”was used to lead orcommence a pieceofmusic, and the ainistra” followed it is asanaccompaniment. The comedies ofT orehaving beenaccompanied b the pi thefillowingnotices are prefixedto exp ainthe

T IROCI’NIUM . [T rim]TIRO

,the name gi venby the R

newly enl isted so ldier, as opposed to estersmu , onewho had had experience inwar. T hemode of levy

ring troops is described under E x

x aoi'rus. be age at which the liability to

mi litary service commenced was 17. F romtheirfirst enrolment the Romansoldiers.whennot actual l y serving against anenemy , were

firpetually occupied inmil itary exerc ises.

ey were exerc ised every day, the tirones

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TOG A.

worn[

lggenerals intriumphs [Tamra

and u or the emperors by the consu ls,by the meters when they celebratedgames. fitwas also called Capitoline . Thetags palmata was a kind of toga picta. Thetogapraetsz ta had a

,broad pu le border. It

was wornwith the Beau , y childrenof

both sexes. I twas alsowombymagistrates,both those of Rome, .and those of the colo

flies and municipia;by th

re

a

dsacerdotes , and

persons engaged inone ri tes or ayingvows. Among those who possessed t e justogas prosta tes habmdes, the following maybemore particularlymentioned : the dictator,the consuls, the praetors (who laid aside thepraetexta whenabout . to condouina Romancitizento death), the augurs (who, however,are sup by some to have wornthe trahes), t decemviri sacris faciundis, the

aedi les , the triumviri epulones, the senatorsonfestiva l days, the magistri collegii, andthemagistri vicorumwhencelebrating games.Inthe case of the tribuni plebia, camera, andguaestors, there is some doubt uponthe subect.JThe toga praetexta is said - to have beenderived fromthe Etruscans, and to have beenfirst adapted, with the latus clavus Cu vos

L une], by Tul lus Hostilius as e royalrobe, whence its use by the magistrates inthe republic. The toga praetexta and thebulls some were first givento boys inthecase of the sonof T arquinius Prisons, who,at the age of fourteen, inthe Sabine war,slew anenemy wi th his ownhand . Respecting the leaving all

”

of the toga praetexta, andthe assumptionof the virilis, seamstressand Corvus Lu '

us. he occasionwas celebrated with great rejoicings by the friendsof the youth , who attended himina solemnprocessionto the Forumand Capitol. Thisassumptionof the toga virilis was called tire:ciniwnfon

’

, as bem the youngman’s intro~ductionto public 1 e. Girls wore the praetexta ti ll theirmarriage.The trabeawas a tags ornamented with purple horizontal stripes. There were three kindsoftrabea ;onewholly ofpurple, whichwas sacred to the gods, an

'

other of arple and white,and'

another of purple a saffron, whichbelonged to augurs. The purple and whitetrabeawas a royal robe, and is assigned to theLatinand early Romankings, especial ly toRomulus. Itwaswornby the consuls in uh

lic solemnities, such as opening the temp e ofJanus. T he equi tes wore it at theW atts ,and inother public solemnities. Hence thetrabea ismentioned as the badgeo f the equestrianorder. Lastly, the to worn by theRomanemperors was who y of purple. I t

lastly, as

[Vrrwm

TORMENTUM.

appears to have beenfirst assumed by Julius

aesar.The material of which the togawas commonly made was wool. I t was sometimest

gick emetimes thin

itm'l‘

hegormerwas

t e toga or new toga ,with thenap neither wornof nor cut c lose ,

was cal led pos e, to which is opposed the trita

orma, wh ichwits used as a summer dress .

409, b.

TORMENTUM (demi ta cva) , ami litary engine, so cal led from) théepl'wistin

géw

do) of hairs, thongs, and vegetable res.

he principa l mil itary engines were the bah

’

sta and camps ite. The enlists (rrsrpoflél oc)was used to shoot stones ; the catapults ( irararrél ‘mg. x ararrgl rt to project darts, eso

pecially the falarica ABT A], and a kind ofmissile, Q ‘

feet long, cal led trifaz . Whi lst inbiasieegiing a!

city the ri

li

l

m Antes] we;fp o in estroyin’

g t e ower partwa the balistawas used to overthrow thebattlements

(pi-W anda, éiral felg), and the

catapu lt to 8 out any of the besieged who appenrod betweenthem. The forms of thesemachines being adapted to the objects whichthey were intended to throw, the catapultwaslong, the balistanearly uare. Instances arerecorded inwhich the ba ista th rew stones tothe distance of a quarter of a mile. Somebalistae threw stones weighing three hundred weight.Of the scorpt

fo or onager, which was alsoa ies of tormentum, we know next tonot g.The torture orquestion(w as as applied

to criminals orwi tnesses , was c led toma to

am the Romans, and (wow theG reeh

bz. T he executionergas call

‘

edbytom,

T RlBULUS . TRIBUNUS . 327

and among the instruments emplged for the ing before themcal trops, which necessari ly

p u rpose were the whee l and e cculm. laywith one of their four sharp points turnedAmong both the G reeks and Romans, no upward , or by buryin

tg the caltmp w ith one

f reemenwere put to the to rtu re, but only int at the su rface 0 the ground . T he fols laves , whose evidence was for that reason owin wood-cat is takenfroma bronze calo ftenconsidered ofmore value thanthat of trop fi

g

gu

TORQUES orT ORQ U IS (or card; ano rnament of gold , twisted spiral y and atinto a circular form, which was wornroundthe neck bymenof distinctionamong thePe rsians, the Gau ls, and other Asiatic andnorthernnations.I t was b taking a col lar froma G allic war

rior that Manhus obtained the cognomenof T argueras .

T orques,~whether inthe formof col lars or

b race lets no doubt formed a considerableart of the wealth of those who wore them.

ence theywere animportant portionof thespo il , whenany Celtic orOriental army wasconquered, and they were. among the rewardsof velour bestowed after anengagement uponthosewhohadmost distinguished themselves.

TORTURE. Tox insTOWERS. BRIBJTRA’BEA.

TRA'G ULA. [Basra ]T RANST RA.

{Nans

ipmldT RANS VE

’

CT O E Q lT U [EQ U Irss.

TglALS , G reelt [Di os ’] Roman[ACT !0;Joosx .

TR! '

Rll. Erasers-os, p .

TRIBES . T a i sus.

T RI’BULU (rplBoloc), a caltrop, al so

called mum. Whena placeWas beset Wi tht s. the one party . endeavoured to impedetmavalwof the other party,either by throw

T ributes, Caltrop.

TRIBUN AL. a raised platform,the praetor and judices .sat inthe Basilica.

[Bu ni on]There was a tribunal inthe camp , which

was general ly formed of tu rf, but sometimes,ina stationary camp, of stone, fromwhich thegeneral addressed the -soldiers , and where theconsul and tribunes of the soldiers adminis~tared justice. Whenthe general addressedthe army from the tribunal, the standardswere planted infront ofit, and the army placedround it inorder. The address itselfwas called Altos-uric.

TRIBU 'NUS , a tribune. This word seemsoriginal ly to have indicated anoflicer connected with a‘ tribe (tribes ), or who represented a tribe for certain rposes ;and th is isindeed the character the officers who weredesignated by it inthe earliestM es ofRome,and may be traced also inthe later officersof this name.1 . T RTBUNl B or a n: 'ni an u seum

rai ses. At the time whenall the Romancitizens were contained inthe three tribes ofthe Ramnes. Tities , and Luceres, each ofthemwas headed by a tribune, and thesethree tribunes represented their respectivetribes inall~ civil , religious, and mi litary affairs ; that is to say.they were inthe cit themagistrates of the tribes , and perfor thesacra ontheir behalf, and intimes ofwartheywere theirmilitary commanders. The tribe.

TRIBUNOS .

m u lcrmnwss the commaderofthe ederes,the convoking themeetings of their tribes , andking’s body ard. andnot the tribune of the maintaining the prmleges granted to th embytribe of the es. as is supposed by some k ing Servius, and subsequently by the Va l emodernwriters. Inwhatmannerthe tribunus rianlaws. ,But . this protectionwas .

ve ry ihcelerumwas a pointed , is uncertain, but it is adequateagainst the insatiable ambitionandrobable that he was elected hy the tribes ; usurpat ions of the patricians. When the

or we find that whenthe iinperiumwas to plebeians, unpovenshed by long wars , andbe conferred uponthe king. the comitia were crue l ly oppressed by the patric1ans, at las theld under the presidency of the tribunos os acceded ina. 0. to the Mons Sace r, thel erum;and inthe absence of the king, to patnctanswere obl iged togrant to the p lebe iwhomthis otficerwas nex t inrank, he con ans the

,right of a

pgomting tribunes ( tribuni

y oked the comitia :itwas inanassembl of placin) Wi th more e cient ,powers to protectthis kind that Brutus proposed to deprive sr thei r ownorder thanthose wh ich were pos

fiuinius of the imperium. A lawpassed unders presidency of the tribunos celerumwas

ca lled a las tribunicia , to distinguish it fromone passed under the pres idency of the k ing.The tribunes of the three ancient tribesceased to be ap ointed when these tribesthemse lves ces to exist .as politica l bodies;and whenthe atricians became incorporatedinthle local t s of Servius T u llius. ~[T iti~

nos.

2.

2.a

'

gmcms or runS a

vi

au s

ggsi ss s

or, . 1'

cm or) . en rvius‘

‘Iéiflliusx dividepd thgpcxommonalty into thirtylocal tribes, we a find the tribune at thehead of these t The duties of thesetribunes

,who were without doubt the most

distinguished persons intheir respective disct i lote, appear to have consisted at firs t inkeeping a register of the inhabitants ineachdistrict, and of their property , for, purposes oftaxation, and for levying the troops for thearmies. Whensubsequently the Romanpeople became ex empwd fromtax es the mainart of their business was takenfromthem,

t they stil l continued to exist. T he rribimi’aerarii

,who occur downto the end of the re

public , were perhaps only the successors oft

li:tribunes

gff the tri bes.

(m30.

t custom giving pay to t esoldiers was introduced , each of the tribuniaerarti had to collect the tributuminhis owntribe , and wi th it to

gay the soldiers ;and in

case they didnot ful I t his duty , the soldiershad the right of pignoris capio against them.

Inlater times their duties appea r to have beenconfined to col lecting the tributum, whichtheymade over to themilitary quaestorswho

psi the soldiers. Q unsrom] T he LexAurelia, a . c. 70

,cal ed the tribuni scramto

the exercise of Judicial functions, along withthe senators and equites , as these tribunesrepresented the body of themost respectablecitizens. But of this distinctionthey weresubse

’fiuently drip

rived by Ju lius Caesar.3. niacin i.

sessed by thé heads of the tribes. T he pur

pose forwhich they were appointed was onlyto afford

‘protectionagainst any abuse on the

part of t e patricianmagistrates ; and thattheymight be able to afl

‘

ord such protect ion,their personswere declared sacred and inviolable, and itwas agreed thatwhoever invadedthis inviolabi lity should be anoutlaw, andthat his

'property

should be forfeited to thetemple 0 Ceres. A subsequent law enactedthatno one should Oppose or interru pt a t ri obune whil e addressing the pea lo, and tha twhoever should act centre to t ordinanceshould give bail to the tri nose for the payment ofwhatever fine the shou ld adix to h isoffence inarraigning him fore the commonal ty ;if he refused to .give hail , his life andproperty were forfeited. The tribunes werethus enabled to afi

‘

ord protectionto any onewho appea led to the assembl y of the commonalty or required any other assistance.They were essential ly the representativesand the organs of the plebeianorder, andtheir sphere

(ofactionwas the comitia tributa.

With the p atricians and their comitia theyhadnothing to do. The tribunes themse lveshoweverwere -not judges and could inflictno punishmen but cou ld only pro ose theimpositionof a no to the som e t (andmmirrogare). The tribunes were t us inthei r originonly a protecting magistracy ofthe plebs, but inthe course of time their power increased tosuch a degree that itanthat ofallothermagistrates, and the housethenbeca

gie amagistracy for$

1

:whole It

o‘manpe0p inoppositionto senate anthe oligarchical part in neral, althoughthey had nothing to 0 .wit the administrationor the government. Du ring the latterperiod of the republic the became t ruetyrants, andme be comps to thenationalconventionofFiance during the first revoluAt first the number of the

,tribunss was

t s i s (denapx oi , the 06 00 only two, but soonafterwards they were iadqg

ap a). The ancient tribunes of the ple creased to five, one being takenfromeach ofbe u tribes had undoubtedly the right of the five classes, and subsequently to ten, two

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TRIBUNU S .

confirmed by a lawof M .

.he tribes now also included the patriciansand their clients, the tribunes might nati rally be asked to interpose onbehalf ofany citizenwhether patricianer plebeian.

Hence the patrician ex -decemvir, AppiusClaudius , implored the protectionof the tribunes. About this time the tribunes al so ac

quired the ht of taking the aus ices intheassemblies o the tribes. They assumedagainthe right , which they had exercised before the time of the decemvirate, of bringingpatricians who had violated the rights of thelebeians before the comitia of the tribes.y the Lex Valeria passed inthe ComitiaCenturiata (s . c. was enacted that aplebiscitum, which beenvoted by thetribes, should bind the patricians as well .Whi le the col lege thus gained outwardlynew strength every day, a chan took placein its internal organization, w ch to someextent paralyzed its powers. Before394, every thing had beendecided inthe collegs by amajority ;but about this time, wedo not knowhow, a change was introduced,whichmade the opposition( intercessio) ofonetribune suflicient to render a resolutionofhis colleagues void . This new regulationdoes not appear inoperationti l l 394 and 393a. c. ;the old one was stil l applied ina c.

421 and 415. Fromtheir right of appearinginthe senate, and of taking part inits discussions, and fromtheir be '

the resentetiy es of the whole people, ey _

ually ohtained the right of intercessionagainst anyactionwhich a ma rate might undertakeduring the time of ofiice, and this evenwithout giving any reasonfor it. Thus wefind a t ribune preventing a consu l fromconvoking the senate, and preventing the proposa l ofnewlaws or elections inthe comi tia ; they interceded against the officia lfunctions of the censors ;~and evenagainst acommand issued by the praetor. Inthe samemanner a tribune might place his veto uponanordinance of the senate ; and he .couldthus either compel the senate to submi t thesubject to a fresh consideration, or could raisethe session. Inorder to

propose a measure

to the senate theymight t emselves conveneameeting, orwhenit had beenconvened bya consul they might make their proposaleven'in 01) itiou to the consul, a rightwhich no ot r magistrates had inthe presence of the consuls The senate, onthe other hand, had itself, incertaincases , recourseto the tribunes . Thus, ina. c. 431, it re

quested the tribunes to comel the consuls toappoint a dictator, incomp

'

ance with a decree ofthe senatennd the tribunes compelled

the consuls, by threatenirligthemwi th

prisonment, to a point A. oetumiu s T ubertus d ictator. rom this time forwardmeet wi th several instances inwhi ch thetribunes compelled the consu ls to complywi th the decrees of the senate, si ttersm ent ismicrof ilm sanctua, and to

’

execute its commade.

,In their relation to the sena te

change was introduced the PlebiscinmAtrium, which ordained t a tribune, byvirtue of his ofice, should be a senator.Whenthis p lebiscitumwas made is uncertain;but we know that in it wasnot yet inoperati on. it . probably originatedWi th 0.Atinius, whowas tribune inn. c. 132.

But as the aestorship.-

at least in latertimes, was t e office whi ch persons heldpreviousl to the tribuneship, and as thenecators ip itself conferred u one persont righ t of a senator, the law Atinius wasinmost cases superfluous .

Inthei r relation to other magistrates wemay observe, that theright of intercessio wasnot confined to stoppingmmagis trate inhisproceedings, but theymight evencommandtheir viatores to seize a consul or a censor, toimprisonhim,

or to throwhimfromthe T ar

peianrock. Whenthe tribunes brough t anaccusationagainst an one before the peop le,they had the right prshmde, but not theright ofeoeatio that is, theymight commanda personto be dragged by their Viatores before the comitia, but they could not summonhim. They might , .

as inearli er times, propose a fme to be inflicted u nthe personac

cused before the comitia, t insome cases

they dropped this p roposa l and treated thecase as a capital one. The college of triburi es had also the power ofmaking edicts.Incases inwhich onemember of the collegeOpposed a resolutionof his colleagues nothingcou ld be done and themeasu rewas dropped ;but this useful checkwas removed by the example ofTiberius Gracchus, inwhich a precedent was givenforproposing to the isthat a tribune obstinate p ersistingmveto shou ld be deprived his omes .

Fromthe time of the Hortensianlaw thepower of the tribunes had beengradua ll y rising to such a hei ht that at length it was euperior to every at or inthe state. They hadacquired the right of proposing to the comitiatributa or the senate measures onnearl y allthe im rtant affairs of the state, and itwou ldbe e to enumerate the cases inwhichtheir powerwasmanifested. Their proposalswere indeed usual lymade ex auctori tate senama

egr

bhad bfi

enconimuniciii

uterti1

t

tg‘

and zi

p;rev it'

ut cases inw c e pe0pitself hails direct such as a general

TRIBUNUS .

legal re lation, granting of the franchise, achange fu

nthe duties and powers of amagi s

trate, and others,might bebrought before thepeople, without their having previously cormmunicated to the senate, though there are

also instances of the contrary. S ub ects be.longing to the administrati oncou l not bebrought before the tribeswi thout the tribuneshaving previously recei ved through the cone

su ls the auctoritas of the senate. Th is, however

,was done very frequentl y, and hence we

have mentionof a number of plebisci ta onmatters ofadministration. it sometimes evenoccurs that the tribunes brought the questi onconcerning the conclusionof peace before thetribes , and then

'

compelled.

the senatetorati fythe resolution, as expressing the Wish of thewhole people. Sulla, inhis reformof

.

theconstitutiononthe early aristocratic principles , left to the tribunes only the ins aux i liand i, and deprived themof the right ofmakinglegislative or other proposals, ei ther to thesena te or the comitia, wi thout having previous ly obtained the sanctionof the senate. Butthis arrangement didnot last, forPompey restored to themtheir former rights.During the latter period of the republ ic,whenthe office of quaestorwas inmost casesheld immediately before that of tribune, thetri bunes were generally elected fromamongthe senators, and this continued to be the caseunder the empire. Sometimes, however, 01

tes also obtained the office, and therebycamemembers of the senate,where they wereconsidered of equal rank Wi th

.

the quaestors.Tribunes of the people continued to exi stdownto the fifth century of our era, thoughtheir powers became natural lymuch limted ,es pecial ly inthe reignof Nero. They continned however to have the right of intercessionagainst decrees of the senate, and onbehalf of injured indiViduals.4. T RXBUNI matroncoir consumer ro

ras'

u'rs . Wheninn. c. 445 the tribune C.

Canuleius brought forward the rogationthatthe consulship should not be confined toeither order, the patricians evaded the at.

tempt by a chan inthe consti tution; thepowers which he hithertebeenunited intheconsul ship were now divided betweentwonewmagistracies, viz theT ribunimi li tant cumconsulari pota to“ and the censors. Consequent ly, ina.

‘

o. 444, three mi l i tary tribunes,wi th consular power, were appomted , and tothis offi ce the plebeians were to be equal lyeligible with the patri cians . For the yearsfol lowing, however, the p

oo le were to bet l 'bert

, onthe pr 0 the senate todecide ghether consuls were to be electedaccording tothe old custom, or consular, tri

TRIBUS. 331

buries. Henceforth, for many years, sometimes consuls and sometimes consular triburi es were a pointed, and the number of thelatter varied three to fou r, unti l ins . c.

405 itwas increased to six , and as the censorswere rega rded as their colleagues , we havesometimes mentionof eight tribunes. Atlast, however, inn. c. 367, the office of thesetribunes was abolished by the Licinianlaw

,

and the consulshipwas restored.sular tribunes were elected inthe comitia ofthe centu ries, and undoubtedly with less solemnauspices thanthe consuls.5. T a i suu i Mi s inaas (gains or) were

ofiicers inthe Romanarmies. ir numher ina legionwas original ly four, and theywere appomted by the generals themselves.Ina. c . 363, it was decreed that henceforthsix of these military tribunes should alwaysbe appointed inthe comitia, probably the comitia of the centuries. Those who were ap

painted by the consuls were distinguishedromthose elected by the people (comitiati)by the name of R iffl

’

uti. The number of triburi es ineach legi onwas subsequently iacreased to si x , and their ap intment wassometimes left altogether to t e consu ls anpraetors, though subsequently we find againthat part of themwere appointed by the people. Their duties consisted inkeeping orderamong the soldiers inthe camp, insuperintending their mi litary exercises, inspectingoutposts and sentinels, procuring provisions,settl ing disputes among soldiers

,superintend

their heal th dtc.

‘

RlBU Smic» ,was), a tribe. 1 . G u n.

Inthe earliest times ofGreek historymentionis made of 0ple bein divided into tribesand clans. omer spea of such divisionsinterms wh ich seemto imply that they wereelements that entered into the compositionofevery community. A personnot included inany , clan(Mpflf u

q), was regarded as a va

grantor.outlaw. hese divisions were rathernatural thanpolitical , dependin onfami l yconnection, and arisin out of t ose tunes

,

wheneach head of a mi ly exercised a paitsmembers.

,

The bondigious communion, sacriwhich all the family or

and at which the chief

TRIBUS .

two last fromPamphylus and Dymasgwhoare said to have falleninthe last expedi tionwhenthe Dorians took possessionof the Peloponnesus. The Hylleantribe was perhapsthe one of highest dignity ;but at Spartathere does not appear to have beenmuch d istinction, for all the freemanthere were bythe constitutionof L curgus ona footing ofuality. To these t ree tribes others weregilded in different laces , either whentheDorians were jo

'

by other foreignallies,orwhensome of the old inhabitants were admitted to the rank of citizensh ip orequal priyileges . Thus the CadmeanAegeids are saidby Herodotus to have beena great tribe atSparta, descended (as he says) fromAegeus,grandson of Theras, though others havethought they were incorporated Wi th thethree Doric tribes .The subdivisionof tribes InlOPhW (opo

Toiat) or patres gens (y ew) , tnttyeadi e. appears to have prevai led in

various places. . At Sparta each tribe ”con

tained tenoboe (difla i), a word denoting a local divisionor district ;each obo containedtenMasada (rpié x adeg,

communi ties containing thirty families. utvery li ttlciappearsto be knownof these divisions, howfar theywere local , or how far genea logical. Afterthe time ofCleomenes the olduystemoftribeswas changed ;new ones were created corresponding to the diflerent quarters of the town,and they seemto have beenfive innumber.The first Attic tribes that we read of are

said to have existed inthe reign, or soonafterthe reign, of Cecrops, and were cal led Cccropit (K erponighfiutochtlwng

arages » .Actaea

and Parah‘

a apa ia ). Inthereignof a subsequent k ing, Cranaus, thesenames were chan to Crmai

‘

s'

(K pavaig)Ant i: (th em. no (Mrooyai o), andDiacri

'

s (Atax plfg. A rwards we find anew

set of names ; Athmai's (’Afhrmic).Poseidonias (Hooecdwvrdg), and Hepliacs

5“ (‘

Hdawruich evidently derived fromthedeities who were worshipped inthe country.Some of those secondlymentioned , ifnot allof them, seemto have beengeographical diy isions ;and it isnot improbable that , ifnotindependent communities, they were at leastconnected by a very weak bond of union.

But all these tribes were so erseded by fourothers , which were probab y founded soonafter the ionic settlement inAttics, and seemto have beenado ted by other Ionic coloniesOnt of G reece. enames G olcontcs (Pal fov

‘

rer).Harlem Anode:0p

fig),Aeg icores (Alyuropelg), are said by He

otus to have beenderived fromthe sonsof lon, sonof Xuthus. Uponthis, however,

marry doubts have been,

thrownwriters. The etymology of thenames would seemto suggest , that the ‘

tribeswere so called from the occupatibns wh ichtheir respectivemembers fol lowed ; t he H oplem being the armed men, orwarriors ;theArgades , labourers or husbandmen th e Aegicom, goatherds or shepherds. But wha teverbe the truth with respect to the originof thesetribes , one thing is certain, that before thetime of Theseus , whomhistorians agree inrepresenting as the great founder of the Atticcommonweal th , the variou

zdpeo ls who in

habited the country continu to disuni tedand split into factions.Theseus insomemeasure changed the te

lations of the tribes to each other, ixint ro

ducing a gradationof ranks ineach ; y idingthe people into E upan-i

'

dac (E onarpida i ), G eomon (I

‘m/topaz and Dmi iurgi (A1)of whomthe rst were nobles, t e secondagricu l turists or yeomen, the third labou rersandmechanics. At the same time, inorderto conso lidate thenational unit he enlargedthe city

,

of Athens, . with whio he incorpb~rated several smal ler towns,made it the seatof government, encouraged thenobles to re

side there, and surrendered a part of the ro ya lprerogative in their favour. T he tribes orphylae were divided, either inthe age of Theseus or soonafter, each into three phratriac(dparpi

'

a z , a termequivalent to fraterni ties,and analogous inits political relationto theRomancuriae). and each into th irtygene (yew) , equivalent to RomanG enres),themembers of a gem (yévog) being ca l ledmeta! evvfirat) or homogalactc: (6 o

reg). sch genes was distinguishedu

g a

particular'name of a patronymic form, whi ch

was derived fromsome hero ormythi c ancestor. Thes'e divisions , though the namesseemto import fami l y connection, were infact artificial ;which shows that some advance hadnowbeenmade towards the establishment of a closer political union. Themembers of the phratriae and gene had theirrespective reli us rites and festival s , whichwere preserv long after these communitieshad lost thei r olitical importance , and perhaps preven themfrombeing al togetherdissolved .

After the age of Theseus. the monarchhaving beenfirst limited and afterwards aished , the whole power of the state fel l intothe hands of the E spatridae or nobles, whoheld allcivi l offices, and had besides themanagement of religious afl

'

airs , and the interpretatienof the laws. Attics became agitatedby feuds, and we find the people, short ly before the legislationofS olon, divided into three

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T RIBUT UM.

Publilius Philo and Sp. Postumius increasedthe number of t ribes to twenty-nine, by theadditionof the Mum'

s and S copes . In3 18 the Ufeuina and Falm

'

na wereadded . In299 two others, the Aaiensi: and T erm»

ties , were added by the censors , and at last,ins o. 241, the number of tribes was augmeri ted to thi rty-five , by the additionof theQuirina and Veh

‘

ua . E ight new tribes wereadded upon the terminationof the SocialWar, to include the Socii;who thenobtainedthe Romanfranchise ;but they were afterwards incorporated ainon the old 35 tribes ,which continued to be t 9 number of thetribes to the end of the republic. Whenthetribes, intheir assemblies , transacted anybusiness , a ceitainorder (ordomom ) wasobserved , inwhich they were cal led upontogive their votes . T he first inthe order ofsuccessionwas the S uburana, and the lastthe Arniensis. Any personbelonging to a

tribe had inim rtant documents to add tohis ownname at ofhis tribe, inthe ablative

Whether the local tribes, as they were es

tablished by the constitutionof Servius T ull ius, contained onl y the plebeians , or includedthe patricians also, is a point onwhich thespan ofmodernschola rs are d ivided :buti t apx rsmost pmbable that downto the decemvirah legislationthe tribes and their assemblies were entirely

lebeian. Fromthetime of the decemvirs lggislation, the patri~cians and their c lients were undoubtedlyincorporated in the tribes. Respecting theassemblies of the tribes,. see Cont'ri a T aros ors .

T RIBU'

T UM, a tax which was partly a

p.

pl ied to cover the expenses ofwar, and part ythose of the fortifications of the city. T heusual amount of the tax ~was one for everythousand of a man’s fo rtune, though inthetime ofCato it was raised to three ina thou ;

sand. The tributumwasnot a prope rty taxinthe strict sense of the word , for the ac«

counts respecting the plebeiandebtors clearlyy, that the debts were not deducted inthe

va nationof a person’s property. so that -hehad to pay the tributumu ponproperty whichwas not his own, butWhich he owed , and forwhich he had consequent ly to pay the iaterest as well . I t was a di rect tax uponob

fkcts without any regard to their produce,e a land orhouse tax . which indeed form~

ed themainpart of it. That which seems tohave made it most Oppressive, was its constant fluctuation. I t was raised according tothe regions or tribes instituted by , ServiusTullius, and by the tribunes of these tribes,subsequently cal led tribuni aerarii. It was

TRICLINIUM.

not, lilie the othe r branches of the pu bl ic revenue, let out to farm, but being fix ed inmoney it was raised by the tribunes , unle ss (aswas the case after the customof g iving payto the soldiers was introduced) the so ldiers

,

like the kinhts, demanded it from the persons the ves who were bound to [a

x

/y it.

[As s sooner“ and noans snq henthis tax was to be paidfiwhat sumwas to beraised, and what portionof every tho usandasses of the census, werematters uponwhichthe senate had to decide alone. But whenit

impowd according to the discretiono f theem rors.

especting the tributnmémid by conquero

ed countries and ci ties , see x enon“ .

T RlCLl'

NlUM, the dining- roomof a Romanhouse, the positionof which , re lativelyto the other

Earls of

'

the house, is seeninthe“ house of t e Tragic poet

”(see p. It

was of anoblong shape , and was twice as

long as it was broad .

A warm nerallir contained three

couches , and as e usua number of pe rsonsoccupying each coach was three , the tricliniumafforded accommodat ion{or a part ofnine. Some times, however, as many as our

lay oneach of the couches . Each maninorder to feed himse lf lay flat uponhis breastornear] so, and stretched out his hand to

wards 6 table ; but afterwards, when hishunger was satisfied, he turned 0

“

nhis leftside, leanin onhis elbow. T o t is Horacealludes in escribing a personsa ted with a

dish , and turning inorder to re»

pose uponhis elbow.0

We find the relative posi ti ons of two persons who lay next tomem ber, commonly

by the prepositions super, or supra,A passage of Livy, inwhich hecruel conduct of the consu l L.

TRIERARCHIA.

Q uintius Flaminius, shows that ”V” “

film:cubore was the same as in:r'

nu olicujusand consequent] that each pe rsonwas considered as below

'mto whose breas t his ownhead a preached . Onthis principle we are

cash] to explainthe denominations boththe three couches, and of the three places oneach couch.

Supposing the annex arrangement to represent the

Klanof a tricliniurn, i t is evident

that, as eac guest reclined onhis left side,the countena

’

nces of all wheninthis posi tionwere di rected. fi rst, fromNo. 1 towards No.

3, thenfromNo. 4 towards. No 6, and lastl y,fromNo. 7 towards No. 9;that the No.

I lay , inthe sense explained , above 0. 2, No.

3 below No. 2, and so of the rest ;and that ,going inthe same direct ion, the couch to theright handwas above the others, and the couchto the left hand below the others. It wi l l befound , tha t ina passage inthe eighth sat ireof the second book of Horace, the guests areenumerated inthe order of their accubationanorder exhibited inthe anne x ed diagram.

T RIDE NS . [FoscmAJT RI E NS . As .]T E IE RA

'

R HIA (rpmpapx ia) ‘

0118.

Of ih

extraordina ry war se rv ices or hturgtes_

at

Athens,the object of which was to prOt e

for the equipment and maintenance of the

ships of war belonging to the.

state. T he

personshv

s

vho were char)gedfilth

It

gere called

trierarc (r tfipagxm as mg t e captains

of tri remes, tphoug thenamewas alsdapplied

to personswho bore the same charge inothervessel s. I t existed fromvery early times in

connectionwi th the forty-eight naucraries ofS olon, and the fifty of Clis thenes : each ofwhich corporations appears to have beenobliged to

gluip and mana vesse l. [NAU

cas s u .

L. nder the constitutionof Clis

thence t e tentribes were at first several lycha rged with five vessels. This charge wasof course superseded by the later forms of thetrierarchy. T he state furnished the ship, andeither the whole or part of the ship's riggingand furniture, and also pay and provisions forthe sailors. T he trierarchs were bound tokeep in repair the ship and i ts furniture,andwere frequently put to great expense inpaying the sailors and supplying themwithprovisions , when the state did not su pplysuflicientmoney for the purpose. Moreover,some trierarchs, whether fromambitious or

patrioticmotives, put themse lves to unneces¢sary ex use infitting out and r

igging their

ships, omwhich the state deriv anadvanta e.

5The average expense of the trierarchy was

50minae.

Inancient t imes one pe rsonbore the whole '

charge of the t rierarchy, afterwards it wascustomary for two persons to share it, whowere thencal led :yntrierarchs tovvrptfipopor) . When this practice was first introduced isnot known, but itwas perhaps aboutthe year 412 s . c . , after the defeat of theAthenians inSicily, whenthe unionof two

as for ‘ the choregia was first permitted.be syntrierarchy , however, did not entirel ysupersede the older and

_ single form, be ingonymeant as a re lief incase of emer en'cy,whenthere was not a sufficient num r oiwealthy citizens to bea r the expense singl y.Inthecaseofa syntrierarchy the two trierarchscommanded their vesse l inturn, six monthseach, according as they agreed betweenthemse lves.T he third formof the t rierarchy was connected with, or suggested by, the syntrierarchy. lns . o. 358, the Athenians were unable to procure a sufficient number of legall yappointed trierarchs, and accord ingly theysummoned volunteers. Th is, however, wasbut a temporary expedient;and as the actuala

gatemwas not adequate to the public wants,t ey determined to manage the trierarchysomewhat inthe same way as the propertytaxes (W 0

12,namely, b classes or sym

moriae, acco mg to the ,

aw~of Periander

passed ins . c . 358, and which was the.pri omar

iand original enactment onthe subject.

W'

t this view 1290 syrueleis (m rel elc) orpartners were ap omted, who were probablthewealthiest in

'

viduals of the state, accoing to the census or valuation. These were

ass TRIERARCHIA.

divided into 20 (av (at) or class.es ;out ofwhic anumber 0 persdns (separa) joined for the equipment or rather themaintenance and management of a ship,under the title of a synteleia (ovvrél ew) orunion. T o every shi there was genera

dlil‘y

assigned a synteleia o fifteenpersons offerent degrees ofwea lth , as wemay suppose,so that four ships only were provided for byeach symmoria of sixty persons.It appears, however, that before Demo»sthenes carried a new law onthis subject(a. c . it had beencustomary for six teenpersons to unite ina synteleia or company fora ship, who bo re the burdenin ual shares.This being the case, it fol lows eit er that themembers of the symmoriae had beenby thattirne - rab ed from1200 to 1280, or that somealterations had takenplace intheir internalarrangements, ofwhichno account has comedown to us. T he superintendence of thewhole systemwas inthe hands of the 300wealthiest members , who were thereforecalled the leaders of the yr:

péveg ramovpgoptavoonw omthe bu ens

of the trierarc y chiefly fel l , Or rather oughtto have fal len. T he services 'performed byindividuals under this systemappear to havebeenthe same as before : the state stil l ro

vided the ship’s tackle, and the only duty t enof the trierarchs under this systemWas tokeep their vessel s inthe same repai r and order as they received them. But evenfromthis theymanaged to escape ;for,

the wealthiestmembers, who had to serve for their synte leia, let out their trierarchies for a talent,and received that amount fromtheir partners

so that inrea lity they paid nextto nothin or, at any rate, not what theyought to ave done considering that the tris tarchy was a ground of ex emptionfromother l iturgies. To remedy these abusesDemosthenes carried a lawwhenhewas theemer-(2m;f or“;varmx oj), or the superintendent of the Atheniannavy, thereby introducingthe Fourth om of the trierarchy. T he pro~visions of t e lawwere as follow : T henavalservices required fromevery ci tizenwere todepend

'

uponand be proportiona l to his proerty, or rather to his taxable capital , as regifiterad for the symmoria of the property taxes,the rate being one tri reme forevery tentalentsof taxable capital , up to three tri remes and oneauxil iary vesse l ( immémw) for the largestpro rties ; i. e. no person. however ri ch,cond be required to furnish more. Thosewho had not tentalents intax ablecaprtalwere to club‘ together insynteleiae ti l l theyhadmade up that amount. By this lawgreatchanges were effected. All persons paying

‘

I‘

RlPOS .

taxes were rated inproportionto theirert so that the poor were benefitedan the state l ikewise : for, as Demostsays, those who had formerly contributed onesixteenth to the trierarchy of one ship werenow

”

trierarchs of two, inwhich case theymust either have served b proxjy

, or doneduty insuccessive ears . {i s ad a, tha t theconsequences were ighly beneficial .We do not know the amount of prope rt ywhich rendered amanl iable to serve a t rierarchy or s ntrierarchy, butwe read of no instance of isbility arising froma propert y ofless value than500minae.

T he apgointment to serve under the first

and secon forms of the trierarchy wasmadeby the strategi, and incase any personwasa pointed to serve a trierarchy, and thoughtt t any one else not called it n) was betterable to bear it t anhimse lf, e offered thelatter anexchange of his pro tty [Ammosrsl

'

subject to the burdenof t e trierarchy.Incases of extreme hard ship, persons became sup liants to the people, orfled to theal tar of ans at Munychia . If not readyintime, they were sometimes l iable to im

Enson

' ment. Onthe contrary, whoever .

gotis ship ready first, was to be rewarded Wi ththe crownof the trierarchy so that inthisway considerab le emulationand competi tionwere reduced. Moreover, the t rierarchswere fl atworm, or l iable to be cal led to secount for their expenditure ;though the applied thei r ownproperty to the service thestate.

T he trierarchywas a ground of exemptionfromthe other liturgies

,any of which, in

deed , gave anexamtionfromall the res tduring the yearnext ollowing that of its servi ce.

T RINU'

NDINUM.

£Nurrnrrum]

TRIO'

BOLON (Tpt Bokov ) , the fee ofthree obols, which the Atheniandicasts re

inthe same iece.

.

3. A bronze altar not differing pro 1 ini ts origina l formromthetal l t ri cal onal ready described. Inthisform, ut with additional ornament,we see

it inthe left-hand figure in the annexedcut.

T he 6 re onthe right hand represents themwhich the P thian riestesa at

i gave responses. he ce'

ty of thisproduced innumerable imitations of it

,

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338 T RIUMPHUS .

ous soldiers being considered indispensableina t riumph .

0

T he senate claimed the exclusive right ofdeliberatin uponall these points, and ivingorwithhol g the honour sought. a theyforthemost part exercised the pri vi lege without question, ex ce t intimes of great poli tical exci tement. he sovereignty of ti

fageo

ple, however, inthis matter was asse at

a ve early date, and a triumph is said tohave voted by the tribes to Valerius andHorat ius , the consuls of s . e. 448, indirect

wh im to the resolutionof the fathers ;ina similarmanner to C . Marcius Rutilus,

thefirst plebeiandictator;while L.PostumiusMegellus , consul a. c. 294, celebrated a trioumph, slthou h resisted by the senate andsevenout of e tentribunes . Naymore,weread of a certain

.

Appius Claudius, consula. c. 143 who having persisted incelebrat

a

igga triumph indefiance of both the senate

people, was accompamedby his daughter (orsister) G laudia, a vestal virgin, and by her interpositronsaved frombeing dragged fromhischariot by a t ribune. A disappointed general ,however, seldomventured

.

to resort to suchviolent measures, but sati sfied himself withgoing th rough the forms onthe AlbanMount,a practicefirst introduced by C.PapiriusMaso.

i f the senate gave their consent, they at

the same time voted a sumofmoney towardsdefraying thenecessary expenses, and one ofthe tribunes as cucton

’

tatc mists: appl ied fora plebiscitumto permit the imperator to re

tainhis impigfigmontheday whenhe entered

the city.0

last formcou ld not be disused wi th either inanovationor a triumph ,use the immriumconferred by the comi

tia curiata did not include the cit itself, andwhena genera l had once as fort paludatus,hismilitary power as soonas he reenterad the

‘gates , unless the general lawhad

beenpreviously suspended b a special enactment ;and inthis manner t e resolutionofthe senate was, as it were, ratified by theplebs. For this reasonno one desiring a triumph ever entered the cit until the questionwas dec ided since by so oing he would ipsofacto have forfeited all claim. We have a

remarkable ex amme of this inthe case ofCicero, who after h is returnfromCilicia l ingaroed inthe viciait of Rome day after day, anddrag ed about is lictors fromone lace toano Wi thout entering the city, in vainhaps of a triumph .

n later times these pageants were marshe lled Wi th extraordinary pomp and splendour, and presented amost gorgeous ta

cle. Mwate details wou ld necessarilag

ed“.

farant accord ing to circumstances , ut the

general arrangements were as fol low. T hetemples were all thrownopen, garlands of

flowers decorated eve ry shrine and image,andincense smoked onevery al tar. Meanwhi lethe im rator

’

called‘

anassembly of his so ldiers, s l ivered anorationcommending the irvalour, and concluded by distributing rewa rdsto themost distin iehed, and a sumofmoney to each indivi ual, the amount dependinonthe value of the spoils. He thenascendehis triumphalcarandadvanced to thePorta ’

l‘

ria

umhal is, where hewasmetby thewhole bodyof t e senate headed

t

lgthema '

strates. T heprocessionthendefi l inthe ollowing order.

l. T he senate headed by the magistrates .2. A body of trumpeters. 3. A trainof car

riages and frames ladenwith spoils, thoseartic les which were especial ly remarkableeither onaccount of their beauty or rari tybeing disposed insuch amanner as to be seendistinctly by the crowd. Boards were homealoft onferonla, onwhich were painted in

238 letters thenames of vanqu ished nationscountries. Here , too , models were ex

hibited inivory or wood of the cities and fortscaptured ,and pictures ofthemounta ins,rivers,and other great natural features of the subju~

asted region, with appropriate inscriptions.old and silver incoinor bullion, arms,weap

ons , and horse furniture of eve desc ription,statues, pictures, vases , and ot er works ofart, rac iona stones, elaborate] wrought andric

. {embrmdered stuffs, every objec t

whic cou ld be regarded as valuable or curious. 4. A body of flute players. 5. T hewhite bul ls or oxendestined for sac rifice ,with gilded horns, decorated with infulae andserta, attended by the slaughtering riestewi th their implements , and followed y theCamil l i bearing intheir hands

.paterae andother holy vessels and instruments. 6. E le

phants or any other strange animals, nativesof the conuered districts. 7. T he arms andinsi h is 0 the leaders

.

of the foe. 8. T helea ers themselves , and such of their kindredas had beentakenprisoners, followed \by thewhole band of inferior ca tivsa infetters. 9.

T he coronae and other tri utes of andratitude bestowed onthe imperator y alliedings and states . 10. T he l ictors of the imperator insingle fi le, their fasces wreathedwith laure l. 1 1 . T he imperator himse lf ina

ci rcular chariot of a peculiar form,drawnb

four horses , which were sometimes, thongrarel y, white. T he circular formof the chariot is seeninthe fol lowing cut, copied fromanancientmarble. Hewas attired ina goldemhroidered robe (toga picta) and floweredtunic (tunica palmara) :he bore inhis right~hand a lau rel bough , and inhis left a sceptre;

T RIUMPHUS .

torches andof citizens.T he whole of the

pipes, and

t, and the t r00ps verynumerous, a l or

riod was required for the ex hibitionfifndthus the triumph of Flaminius continued forthree days insuccession

.

But the glories of the imperator didnot endW i th the show, nor evenwith his l ife. it

Q

was customary (we knownot if the practicehis brows were encircled with a wreath of was invariable) (0 provide himat the l bIlC

Qelphic bay, inaddition to which, innu expense W i th 3 site fOf a house, OUCh mancient times, his body was painted bright red .

83011 8 ‘

q i '

s

tj’led "implici t: domus. After

He was aecom nied inhis chariot b y his (l9ath his l.

" red were rmitted to depositchildrenof tener years, and sometimes by his aflheh W i th"! the W8 8. and bay-wreathvery dear or hi hly honoured friends, whi le 9d 818 th“ standing erect i" triumhal cars,behind hima a public slave, holding over di splayed In the vestibulumof the familyh is head a goldenEtruscancrownornament 01808100. transmi tted his fame to posteri ty.ed with

'

ewels. T he presence of a slave in.

A T atusi enos Nanci e appears to havesuch a p ace at such a t ime seems to have dlflhred Inno “3829“ fromanordinary “ibeenintended to avert invidia and the h ilt» umph.except that i tmust havsp eenupona

ence of the evil e e, and for the same purpose smaller E 918 .{and wou ld be characterized bya fascinum, a l itt a be l l, and a scourge were the h l hi hlfiOh

.

Of beaks Of ships and othera ttached to the vehicle. Tertul liantel ls us, h ah tJCfl l trophies. T he earl iest Uponrecord,that the slave ever and anonwhispered inthe W8? granted to 0 Dmllius,who laid the founear of the imperator the warning words Re (lationof the

.

supremacy Of Rome by sea in45“ p03:is, homing”;memento a , but this state the first Puni c war;and so elated was hement is not confirmed by an earlier writer. by his 8000088 , that during the rest Ofhis l ife,.12. Behind the chariot or out e horses which whenever he returned home at n

‘ ht fromdrew it rode the

grown-up sons of the imperar supper, be caused flutes to sound torches

.tor, together wit the legati , the tribuni, and to be borne before him. A second naval t ri'

the equites, all onhorseback. 13 . T he rear umph was celebrated by Lutatius Catuluswas brought up by the whole body of the in for his victory off the lnsulae Aegates , s . c.

fantry inmarching order, their spears adorned 241 ;a third by Q . Fabllls Labeo, B. c. 189,with bay, some shoutin Io T riumhe, and over the Cretans, anda fourth by C . Octavius‘

ainging hymns to the g 8

,while ot are over K ing Perseus, Wi thout captives and withre

hla imed t e praises of thei r leader orindullzfi'ed ou t spoils.

,ih keensarcasms and coarse ribaldry at isexpense ,

~ for the - most perfect freedomof

speech was granted and exercised.Jnet as the pomp was ascending the Capi

tol ine hil l, some of the hostile chiefs wereled aside into the ad

‘ ’

ning prisonand put todeath , a customso rharous that we coulds carce ly bel ieve that it existed ina ciVi liz edage, were it not attested by themostnuquesz

tionableevidence. Pompey, indeed , refrained;fromperpetrat ing this atroci ty inhis thudtriumph , andAurel ianonlike occasionspared

.T a i ux eims CAS T RRNS I S was a processionof the soldiers through the camp inhonourof a tribuana or some offi cer inferior to thegeneral , who had performed a bril liant exp Oit.After the extinctionof freedom, the em

peror being conside red as the commander-in.chief of all the armies of the state everymilitary achievement was understood to beperformed under his auspices, and hence, according to the forms of eventhe ancient con.

stitutmhe al one had a legitimate claimto

34h TRIUMVIRI . TROCHUS .

a triumph. This principle was soonful lrecognized and acted upon; for slthougAntonius had

granted triumphs to his le sti,

and his cx amp e had beenfreely follow byAugustus inthe early part of his career, y etafter the year s . c. 14 be entirely discontinuedthe raetics , and fromthat time forward triump s were rarely, if ever, conceded to anyexceptmembers of the imperial fami l But

to compensate insome degree forw atwasthentakenaway, the customwas int roducedof bestowin what were termed T riwnpha liaOrnamenta, t at is, permissionto receive thetitles bestowed uponand to appear inpublicwith the robes wornby the immratores ofthe commonwealth when they t riumphed,and to bequeath to their descendants trinmphal statues. T hese tri

'

u [c ommentsare said to have beenfirst stowed uponAgrippa or uponTiberius , and ever afterwere a commonmark of the favour of theprince.

T RIU'

MVIR I. or T RE ’

S VIRI, were sither ordinary magistrates or oflicers , or e lseextraordinary commissioners, who were frsquently appointed at Rome to execute anypublic office. T he fol lowing is a list of themost important of both classes:l . T arouvrsr Aoao Divmunno. [T itinirvrarCommas DanucssnssJ2. T a i onvuri Cu rrants were regularmagistrates , first a pointed about 292.

They were elected y the le, the comitiabeing held by the praetor. ey succeededto man of the functions of the Q uaestoresFerrici

'

i. [Q uas srom] I t was thei r dutyto inquire into all capital crimes , and to receive informations respecting such

,and con

sequently they'

apprehended and committedto prisonall criminals whomthe detected .

Inconjunctionwith the aediles ,‘

t ey had toreserve the

'

ublic ace, to prevent all unawful assem lies, c. They enforced thepayment of fines due to the state. T he badthe care of public prisons;and carri intoeffect the sentence of the lawuponcriminals.Inth ese points they resembled the magistracy of the Elevenat Athens.4. T a iuuv i a i Commas Danucsnms

were persons ap inted to superintend theformationof a co ony. They are spokenofunder Cowivu , p. 91. Since they had besides to superintend the distributionof theland to the colonists,we find themalso callT riumm’

n’

Colonies ‘

Deducendae Agroque Dividundo , and sometimes simply M ani AgraDando.

5. T a i ux vmr E eunonss. [Brown s ]6. T awnv i ar EnvironT uau i s Racon

Noscirnni ,orLaosnprs EnvironDt cua i i s,

weremagistrates first appointed by Augustusto revise the l ists of the uites , and to admitpersons into the order. his was formerlypart of the duties of the censors.

T a iunvi arMsnsaarr. [ME NSAR I I

T iiwirv i s i Monsu ns. [Mona-

rs .

9. T a i ci i vmtNoe -

ronivmveremagistrateselected annual ly, whose chief duty it was to

prevent fires by night, and for this purpose

they had to go rou the city'

during thenight(vig ilias circumire). i f they neglected thei rduty, they ap r to have beenaccused before the peop c by the tribunes of the plebs.T he time at which this odies was inst itutedis unknown, but itmust have beenpreviouslyto the ear 304. Augustus transferredtheir uties to the Praefectus Vigilum.

[Pai srsc'

rns V i enna]10. T iiwi i v i i i i Ru rcrs xms Asoi sos, ex

traordinary officers elected inthe ComitiaTributa inth

gdtii'ne ohthe second

Punic war.

were appoint or t e purpose 0 repa iring

and rebuilding ce rtaintemp es .

l l . T ai uuv i iu Ra i pusu q u Cons'

ri'

ro

znma. When the supreme power wasshared between Caesar (Octav ianns). Antony, and Lepidus, they administered the affairs of the state under the title of T riumm‘

riReipublicae Constituencies . This office wasconferred upon them in s . c. 43, for fiveyears ;and onthe expirationof the term, in8 . c . 38, was conferred U ponthemagain, in

37, for five years more. T he coa litionbetweenJulius Caesar.Pompey, and Crassus,inn. c . 60, is usual ly cal led the first triumvirate , and that betweenOctavianus,and .Lepidus , the second ; but ithome inmind that the formernever bore thetitle of triumviri, norwere invested with anyoffice under that name, whereas the latte rwere recognized as regularmagistrates underthe above-mentioned title.

12. T a i uuv i a i S i cai s Cononi asnni sDonrsous Pas s i onanoi s. extraordinary officers elected inthe Comitia Tributa inthetime of the second Punic war, seemto havehad to take care that all property

‘

venor

consecrated to the gods was appli to thatpurpose .

13. T a i onv i a i Saunas Laos‘

ivnr weremagist rates appointed by Augustus to admitpersons into the senate. Thiswas previouslythe duty of the censors.

T he GreekTROCHUS (rpox ég) a hooboys used to exerci se themwrves , l ike ours,with trundling a hoo

p23I twas a bronze rin

g,

and had sometimes lls attached to it. twas impel led by means of a hook with a

wooden handle cal led clavis and char-

t

r

ip.

sFromthe Greeks this custompassed to

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342 TRUTINA.

and restored by Ju lius Caesar,.

must havebeen inthe city. Inthe later t imes of there oblio, and under the em ire, the erectiontriumphal arches was t 6 most common

way of commemorating a victory , many 0

which remainto the present day. [Aacua ]T he. preceding cut contains a representationofa trOpaeuin, which Victory is engainerecting. T he conqueror stands onother side of the trophy, Wi th his browscircled with bay.

TROPHIES.

T RO'

S S ULI.

TROUSERS .

such a ladle.

T he mills s iaan’

s seems to have beena

species of colander [COLU I ], used as a winestrainer.

TRUMPET. [Buccmy Coa itu Li

a l ti'

v my), a genera erm,- ii i

clud ing both libra , a balance, and statu s, a

stee lyard:Payments were originally made

by weighing, not by.

counting. Hence a balance (trutina) was reserved inthe temple ofSaturnatRome. be followin

gwood-cut rep

resents a remarkably beautifu statera, whichinthemuseumof the Capitol at

TUBA.

T UBA’wdlmyf), a bronz e trumpet , dis:

tinguished fromthem by- being straight,

while the latter was cu rved .

T he tuba was employed inwar for signalsof every desc tion, at the ames and public festivals, an also at

,the set rites to the

dead : those who sounded the trumpet at ihne rals were termed d licinu , and used aninstrument of a peculiar form. T he tones ofthe tubs are represented as of a barsh andfear- inspiring character.T he mventionot

'

the tube is usual l y as

cribed by ancient writers to the E truscana.I t has beenremarked that Homernever introduces the oélmyf inhis narrative but incomparisons only, which leads us to infe rthat , although knowninhis time, it had beenbut recently introduced into Greece ;and itis certainthat,notwithstand ing its eminentl ymartial character, i twas not unti l a later period used inthe armies of the leading statm.

By the Greek tragedians its Tuscanoriginisfullyrecogniz ed. According to

.one account

it was first fabri cated for the Tyrrhenians byM inerva.who inconsequencewas worshippedby the Ar

lgives under the title of E dilmyf.

while at me the w a rms» , or purinestionof sacred trumpets, was performed onthe last day of the Q uinquatrus. [Q q ua

'rnus.

There appears to have beenno essentialdifference informbetween the Greek andRomanorTyrrheniantrumpets. Both were

TUNICA.

long, straight, bronze tubes , gradual ly inc reasing ih d iameter, and terminating ina

be l l-shaped aperture. They present precisel ythe same appearance onmonuments of verydiffe rent dates, as may be seenfromthe cutsannexed.T U BILU

’

S T RIUM. [Osmosi s-nus.)TULLIA'NUM. [CARCE RJT UMULT UA

'

RII. [Torrance ]T UMULT U S , the name givento a sudds

ordangerous war inItaly or Cisalpine G auand the word was anposed by the ancientsto be a contractiono timer M u . I t was,however, sometimes applied to a suddenordangerous war elsewhere ;but this does notappear to have beena correct use of theword.

b icero says that theremight be awarwithouta tumultus, butnot a tumu ltus without awar;but itmust be recollected that the word wasa lso applied to any suddenalarmrespectinga war;whence we find a tumul tus oftenspokenof as of

.

less importance thana war,because the resul ts were of less consequence,though the fearmight have beenmuch greater thanina regular war.

Inthe case of a tumul tus there was a ces

sat ionfromall business and all

citizens were obliged to .M ut rs

being had to the exemptions (vacations ) ommi li tary service which were enjoyed at othert imes. As there was not time to enlist thesoldiers inthe regu larmanner, themagistratewho was appointed to command the armydisplayed two banners (m ills ) fromthe ca

gx

tol, one red, to summonthe infantry, and t aother green, to summonthe caval ry, and saidui rempublicamsolvent vult,m¢ scqualw. Thoset t assembled took themili tary oath together, instead of one by one, as was the usualpractice, whence they were called conjuredand their service conjurotio. Soldiers enl istedinthis way were termed M ultaarii or S abi

T U'

NlCA (x i i-div, dim. x twviox oc, x tré

vtov) , anunder rment.1 . GRE E K .

'

l he chitonwas the only kindof évdvpa . or under- garment, wornby theGreeks. Of this there were two kinds, theDorianand Ionian. T he Dorianchiton, aswornby males , was a short wool lenshirt,without sleeves ;the Ionianwas a long linengarment, with sleeves. T he forme r seemsto have beenoriginall y wornthroughout thewhole ofGreece ;the latterwas brou ht overto Greece by the Ionians ofAsia. T e Ionicchitonwas commonl y wornatAthens bymenduring the Persianwars, but it appears tohave entirel gone out of fashionfor themaleas: about t e time

.

of Peri cles , fromwhichtime the Dorianchi tonwas the under-gar.

343

ment universally adopted bymenthrough thewhole ofGreece.

T he distinctionbetweentheDoric and Ionicchitonstil l continued inthe dress ofwomen.T he Spartanvirgins only wore this one garment,andhadnoup

perk indofclothing,whence

it is sometimes cal ed HimationPALLl lnl] aswell as Chasm

.

They appss inthe com

EM ?ofmen

.

Wi thout any farther covering ;ut themarried womennever did so withoutwearing anupper garment. This Doric chitonwasmade. as stated above, ofwoollenstufl

‘

;it was without sleeves, andwas fas tened overboth shou ldersby clasps or buckles (7r6p1rai ,irepévat ), which were oftenof considerablesiz e. I t was fre uentl y so short as not toreach the knee. t was only joined togetheronone side, and onthe other was left art lyopenor

_

slit up tardy xii i

-div to a ow a

freemoti onof the imbs. he ollowin cutrepresents anAmazonwith a chiton thiskind some parts of the figure a r incomplate, as the original ismutila

pea

T he Ionic chiton, onthe contrary,was a

long and loose garment, reaching to the feet(nodfipng), W ith wide sleeves sopar) , andwas usual ly made of l inen. he sleeves,however, appear genera lly to have coveredonly the upper part of the arm;for inancientworks of art we seldomfind the sleeve ex

tending further thanthe elbow, and sometimesnot so far. T he sleeves were sometimesslit up, and fastened together with anelegantrow of brooches . T he Ionic chiton, according to Herodotus, was original ly a Cariandress , and passed over to Athens fromlonia,as has beenal read remarked . T he womenat Athens origins y wore the Doric chiton,but were compe l led to change it for the Ionic,after they had killed with the buckles or

344 TUNICA.

clasps of their dresses the single Athenian Greeks towearanbimation, orouter garment,who had returned al ive fromthe ex edi tion over the chitonbut frequent ly the chitonagainst Aegina, because therewereno uckles

or clazgs required inthe Ionic dress. T he

annex cut represents the Muse Thwearing anIonic chiton.

fa l lenoff herleft hand.

Both kinds of dress were fastened0

with a girdle, and as the Ionicchi tonwas usually longer thanthe body, partof it was drawnu so that the dress mightnot reach further t anthe feet, and the partwhich was so drawnup overhung or overlap the gi rd le, and was ca l led x okrroc.herewas a pecul iar kind of dress, which

seems to have beena species of double chiton,cal led Diploi

’

s (Jud aic),Diploi'

dion(outl awiov), and Hmidi

‘

ploi‘

dion(bptdurl otdtov). I tappearsnot to have beena separate article ofdress , but merely the upper part of the clothforming the chiton, which .was larger thanwas required for the ordinary chiton, andwastherefore thrownover .the front and back .

T he followin cuts will give a clearer ideaof the form0 this garment thanany descrip

skin;but females were accustomed to weara chemise crimson) under their chi ton.

It was 0 practi ce among most of the

alone . A’ personwho wore only a

chitonwas cal led povox imv (olox lmv inHomer} ,anepithet givento the Spartanvir

gins. nthe same way, a personwho woreonly anhimation, orouter garrnent, .was cal leddx tmv. T he Athenianyouths, inthe earl iertimes, wore only the chi ton, and whenit hecame the fashion, inthe PeIOponnesianwar,to wear anouter garment over it

,it was re

garded as amark of etfeminac'y .

2. Roru ir. T he T ank s 0 the Romans,like the Greek chiton, was a woollenundergarment, over which the togawas worn. I twas the Indmsntrrmor Induces

, as op oecd tothe Anions

,the eneral termfor t e toga ,

pallium, or any er outer rment. Amorum] T he Romans are to have ad noother clothing ori ginall y but the toga; andwhenthe tunic was first introduced , i t wasmerely a short garment without sleeves, andwas called Colobi

'

am. I t was considered a

mark ofefl‘

eminacy formentweer tunics withlong sleeves (manicatae) and reaching to thefeet (Micros).T he tunicwas girded (citrate)with a belt orgird le around the waist, but i t was usual lyworn loose, withou t being girded, whena

personwas at home, orwished to be at hisease . Hencewe find the terms a ‘

ncrus. e

cmtsrs’

and swarm s

upplied

, like the reeksi

’

i og, to anactive a diligent rson, anddiscisctus to one whowas id le or issolute.

T he formof . the tunic;as wornb men, isrepresented inmany woodc uts in is work

.

Inworks of art it usual ly terminates a littleabove the knee ; it has short sleeves, coveringonly the upper part of the arm, and is gird

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3M TYRANNUS .

towers , and all other fortifications of the be ch iet'

. Inthe first two or threecenturies'

t'olo

sieged place. They were divided into stories(ubulu s or tests ), and hence they are cal ledturns contabtdalae.

T he sides of the towers were pierced withwindows, ofwhich therewere several to each

2The use of the storieswas to receive theengines of war (lormenta). They containedbahstae and catapults, and sliners and archerawere stationed intheman onthe taps

of the towers. Inthe lowest story was a

battering-ram Antes] ;and in the middleone ormore b ges (ponies)made of beamsand planks, and protected at the sides by hurdles. Scal ing- ladders (scales) were also carried inthe towers, and when- the

‘missileshad cleared the wal ls, these bridges and led

aera enabled the bears

“

gem to rush uponem.

These towers were laced uponwheels(general ly 6 or that t ey

'mi t be broughtup to the walls. These whee were placedfor security inside of the tower.TUTOR. CunaroaJTY’MPAN M (rrimravov), a small drumcarried inthe hand. Of these, some resembled ia all respects amoderntambourine withbel ls. Others presented a flat circular diskonthe upper surface and swel led out beneathlike a kett le-drum.

sented inthe cuts below. Tympana were

ox en, or of asses ;were beatenwith a stick, orwith the hand;and weremuch employed inallwild enthusiastic rel igious rites, especially the orgies ofBacchus and Cybele.

2. A solid whee lwithout spokes , for heavymgons, such as is showninthe cut onp.

TYRANNUS (rdpawog). Inthe heroicage all the governments inGreece weremonarchi cal , the king uniting inhimself the func'ttonnof the priesg the judgs and military

war various causes wereto the abol iti

fignhingwere

distribute

d ;hewas ca

flled Ar

wv omits x doflog orinstead of Basileus (Baum

and his c ateeterwas chaned no less thanhisname. Noble and wealt y families beganto be considered ona footing of equal ity withroya lty ;and thus inprocess of time sprangu

poligarchies or aristocracies, which most

0 the governments that succeeded the eu

cientmonarch ies were inpoint of fac t , thou hnot as yet cal led by such names. These 0

garchies did notpossess the elements of aocial happiness or stability. T he p rincipalfamil ies contended with each other for thegreatest share ofpower, and were onl unanimona indisregarding the rights thosewhose stationwas beneath their own. T he

ple, oppressed b the privileged classes,ganto regret the oss of thei r old pate rna l

formof government ;and were ready to assistany one who wou ld attempt to restore it.Thus were Opportunit ies offered to ambitiousand designing mento'

raise themse lves,by

starting upas the champions of popular right.Discontented nobles were soonfound to prosecute schemes of this sort, and they had a

greater chance of success, if descended fromthe ancient royal family. Pisistratus is anexample

.

he was themore acceptable to thepeople of Athens, as being a descendant ofthe family of« Codrus. Thus inmany citiesarose that species of monarchy wh ich theGreeks cal led fyrmmi

'

s (rvpavvlg), whichmeant onl y a despotism, or i rresponsible dominion of one man;and' which f uentl ywas nothing more thana revival of t s ancient government, and, thou h unaccompaniedwith any reco niz ed her itary title, or thereverence attac ed to old name and long prescription, was hailed b the lower orders ofpoo Is as a good cx c ans, after sufl

'

e'

rinuner the dominationof e oligarchy. Ar curries, however. werenot so acce table tot emajori ty ;and sometimeswe tin the nobles concurring int he elevationof a despot,to further their owninterests. Thus the S yeracusanG amon

'

, who had beenexpel led bythe populace, onreceiving the protectionofG alen, sovereignof Gela and Camarina, enabled himto take possessionof Syracuse , andestablish his kingdomthere . Some times theconflicting parties inthe state, bymutua l con

TYRANNUS.

bent , chose sdme eminentman, inwhomtheyhad confidence, to reconci le their dissensionsinvesting himwith a sort ofdictatorial powerfor that purpose , either for a limited periodor otherwise . Such a person they calledA a (clavflvf/fvr)

e tyrannusmust be d istinguished, ontheone hand , fromthe aesymcta , inasmuch as

he was not e lected by general consent, butcommonly owed his elevationto some violentmovement or st rata m, such as the creationofa body-guard for by the ple, or theseizure of the citadel;and ou t e other hand,fromthe ancient king, whose right depended ,not onusurpationbut aninheritance and trad itionary acknowledgment. T he power of ak ingmight bemore absolute thanthat of atyrant ; as Phidonof Argos is said to havemade the re prerogative greater than‘ itwas under h predecessors ; et he was stillregarded as a k in ;forthe di rence betweenthe two names epended ontitle and origin,and not onthe manner inwhich the powerwas exercised. T he

‘name of tyrant wasoriginall so far fromdenotin a personwhoabused his power, or t rea his sub

'

setswith cruelty, that Pisistratus is prais for

the moderationof his government. Afterwards, whentyrants themselves had becomeodious, the name also wto be a word ofreproach, just as reardi amon the Romans.Among the early tyrants 0 Greece thosemost worthy ofmentionare;Clistheues ofS icyon, grandfather of the AthenianClisthones, inwhose fami ly the government cont inned for a century since its establishmentb Orthagoras, about a . c . 672 :Cypselus ofCyorinth, who expe l led the Bacchiadae, s . c.

656, and his sonPriander. both remarkablefor their cruelty ; their dynasty lasted betweenseveri ty and eighty ears ; Proclesof Epidaurus ;Pantaleonof is who celebrated the thirt -fourth Olympi deprivingthe E leans of t e presidency ;Thea cries of

Megara, father- in~law to Cylonthe At enian;Pisistratus, whose sons were the last of theearl tyrants .onthe Greciancontinent. InS ici y

,where

Tam", most flourished , the

p rincipal were halaris ofAgrigentum, whoestabl ished his power ina. o. 568 ; Theronof Agrigentum; Gelon, al ready mentionedwho

, inconjunctionwith Theron, defeatedHami lcar the Carthaginian, onthe same dayon. which the battle of Salamis was fought ;and Hieron. his brother; the last three celebrated b Pindar. T he followin also are

worthy 0 notice : Polycrates Samoa;Lygdamis ofNaxos ;Histiaeus and linea gems ofMiletus. Perhaps the last mentionedcanhardly be classed among the G reek ty

rants , as they were connectedsianmonarchy.T he general characteristicswere, that

'

itwas bound by no laws,no recognized l imi tation to its authori ty,however it might be restrained inw bythe good dispositionof the

if” if

,

by fear, or by the spirit of t age. It wascommonl most odious to the weal thy andnoble, w om the t

yrant looked uponwith

Jas ion as a chec uponhis power, andwhom e oftensought tog

et rid of by sendin theminto exi le or putt ng themto death.T e tyrant usual ly kept a body-guard of forei mercenaries, by aid ofwhomhe controllegnthe people at home;but he seldomven

tured to make war, for fear of giving anapportunity to his subjects to revolt.T he causes which led to the decline ofarmy smo

g?the Greeks were

partly the

egeneracy the tyrants themse ves, cor

ruptedo

by power, indolence, flattery , and badeducation;for evenwhere the father set agood example, it was se ldomfol lowed by theson; partly the cruelties and excesses of

parti cu larmen, which brought themall intoisrepute ; and l

athe growing a irit of

inquiry among t e reek people, w 0 be

ganto specu late uponpolitical theories, andsoonbecame discontented with a formofgovernment, which had nothing intheory,and l ittle inpractice, to recmnmend it. Fewd nasties lasted beyond the third generation.0st of the tyrannies , which flourished be

fore the Persianwar, are said to have beenoverthrownby the exertions of Sparta, jealous. probably, ofany innovationuponthe oldDoric constitution

,especially ofany tendency

to ameliorate the conditionof the Perioeci,and anxious to extend herowninfluence overthe

o

states of Greece bymeans of the benefitswhich she conferred. Uponthe fall of tyranny , the various rep

ublicanforms of government were establis ied, theDorianstates generally favouring oligarchy, the Ioniandamocrac

(if the tyrants of a later period, the mostcelebrated are the two Dionysii. T he corruptionof the S racusana, their intestine discords, and the earof the Cartha inianinvaders

,led to the appointment of ionysius to

the chiefmilitary command with unlimitedpowers ;bymeans ofwhich he raised himselfto the throne, a. c. 406, and reigned for 38years, leaving his sonto succeed him. T heyounger Dionysius, far inferior inevery respect to his father, was expelled by Dion, afterwards regained the throne, andwas againexpe lled by Timoleonwho restored libertyto the various states ofSicily.

348 VALLUM. VANNUS.

VACAT IO. [E x x scrrtmp . 145;E MEii i

'rt .

VA lMO’

NlUM, VAS . [Ac'rto Pan'

s ]VAGI'NA. [Gamma ]VALLUM

, a termappl ied either to thewhole or a portionof the fortifications of aRomancamp. I t is derived fromvallus (astake{,and roperlymeans the palisadewhich

rana ong t e outer edge of the agger, but itvery frequently includes the agger also. T he

vallum, inthe latter sense, together with thefou r: or ditch which surrounded the campoutside of the vallum, formed a complete for.tification.

T he valli“

(x dpax sg), of which the vallum,inthe former and more limited sense, wascornposed, are described by Polybius andLivy, who make a comarisonbetweenthe,

vallumof the Greeks an that of the Romans ,very much to the advantage of the latter.Both used for valli young trees or arms oflarger trees, with the side branches onthem;but the valli of the Greeks weremuch lar er

and hadmore branches thanthose of the o

mans, which had either two or three, or atthemost four branches, and these general lyonthe same side. T he Greeks laced theirval li inthe agger at considerab e intervals,the spaces betweenthembe ing fil led up by thebranches ;the Romans fixed theirs close together, andmade the branches interlace, andsharpened thei r points careful l Hence theGreek vallus could easily be t onhold of byits large branches and pul led fromits place,and wheni t was removed a large Openingwas left inthe val lum. T he Romanval lus,on the cont presented no convenienthandle, requ i very great force to pul l itdown, and evenif removed left a very smal lopening. T he Greek valli were cut onthespot ; the Romans prepared theirs beforehand, and each soldier carried three or fourof themwhenonamarch. They weremadeofany strong

wood,but oakwas preferred.

T he wo vallus is sometimes used as

equivalent to vallum.

In the Operations of a siege, whenthe

place couldnot be takenb storm, and it hecame necessary to establis a blockade, thiswas done by drawing defences similar to thoseofa camp round the town, which was thensaid to be circumvallatwn. Such a circumvallat ion, besides cutting off all communicationbetweenthe townand the surroundin country, formed a defence against the as lies ofthe besieged. There was oftena double l ineof fortifications

,the inner against the town,

and the outer against a force that might at

tempt to raise the siege. In this case thearmy was encamped betweenthe two 1ofworks.This k ind of circumval lation, wh ich theGreeks cal led daorstxwpé

xg,and a spi res/[ t

a 6g,was em loyed by the eloponnesians int siege ofP ataea

'

e. T heirlines cons isted oftwo wal ls (a

pparently of turf) at the distance

of 16 feet , w ich surrounded the cit in theformof a circle. Betweenthe we s werethe huts of the besiegers. T he wall had battlements (émil fetc), and at eve tenth bat»tlement was a tower, fil ling up y its de pththe whole space be tweenthe wal ls. Therewas a passage for the besiegers through themiddle ofeach tower. Onthe outside ofeachwall was a ditch (rdqipog). This descriptionwould almost exactly answer for the Romanmode of circumvallation, of which some ofthe best examles are that of Cart

fige by

Scipio,that of umantia by Scipio, that

of Alesia by Caesar. T he towers in suchl ines were similar to those used inattackingfortified places, butnot so high, and of coursenotmoveable. URRIBJVALVAE . mum]VANNU S (l inger

;l ix vov), a winnowingvan, i. e. a broad ket, into which the cornmixed with chafl

'

was received after thrashing, and was thenthrowninthe directionofthe wind. V irgil dignifies this . simple imlen

ment b call ing itmystics variants Iaccli i. herites o Bacchus, as wel l as those Of Ceres,having a continual reference to the occupa»

tiOns of rural l ife, the venue was borne inthe processioncelebrated

'

u honour of boththese divinities. Inthe cu annexed the iafant Bacchus is carried ina vannus by twodancing bacchantes c lothed inskins.

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sso VENAT IO.

tains were used inprivate houses as coverings variety of'

animal s was collectedfl

frou‘i allover doors, or the se rved inthe interior ofthe house as aubst tutes for doors.Intemples, curtains servedmore especiall yto veil the statue of the divinity. They weredrawnaside occasional ly , w as to d iscoverthe object of worship to the devout . T he

annexed woodocut is froma has- rel ief representing two females engaged insupplicationand sacrifice before the statue of a dess .T he al tar is adorned . for the occ on, andthe certainis drawnaside and supported by

2. Valiant. andmore commonly its derivativesalesman, denoted the vei l wornby women.

That wornb a bride was s ecifically calledi rnmomvii .A sai l. [NAVIQ , p .

NA’TIO, hunting was'

the name givenamong the Romans to anexhibitionof w i ldbewtswwhich fought with one

'

another andwithmen

,These exhibitions originally form

ed part of thegames of the circus. Jul ius

Caesar first bui t a woodenamphitheatre forthe exhibitionof wild beasts, and otherswere subsequently erected ;butwe frequently read of venationes inthe circus insubseuent times . T he ersons who fought withe beasts were eit er condemned criminalsw captives, or individuals who did so for themks of pay, and were trained for the purpose,[Besrraa tt ]T he Romans were as

’

eastely fond ofthis ente rtainment as the exhibitions of

parts of the Romanworld for thegratificationsof the people, and many thensan were fre

quently slainat one time. We do not knowonwhat occasiona venatiowas first exhibit

of any thin of the kind‘

is ia the ear 9 . c .

251, when Metel lus exhib ited int e sirens142 e lephants, which he had brought fromSicily after his victory over the

’

Carthagin»

ians . But this canscarce! be regards as

aninstance of a venatio as t was understoodinlate r t imes, since the elephants

,

are

fit:to have beenonl y ki l led because the

mans did not know what to do with thm.

and not for the amusement of the people.

There was , however, a venatio inthe latersense of the word inB.q. 186, inthe - gamescelebrated by M. Fulvius infulfillment of thevow which -he hailmade inthe Aetolianwar;inthese games l ions and panthers were ex hibited. it ismentioned as a proofof the growing magnificence of the age that inthe ludici rcenses, ex hibited

'

by the curu le aediles P.

Cornel ius Scipio Nasica and P.Lentulns, a. o.

168, there were 63 Africanpanthers and 40bears and elephants . Fromabout this him“

combats with wild"

beasts probably formed a

regu lar part of the indi circenses, and manyof the curu le aed iles made great efl’orts toobtainrare and curious animals, and put inrequisitionthe servi ces of their friends. E le

phants are said to have‘

first foe t inthecircus inthe cur ule aedileship

' o ClaudinePulcher, n. c . and twenty years after»

wards, inthe curu le aedileshi p of the twoLuculli, they fought aga inst bo lls. A hhn~

‘

dred l ions were exhibited by Su lla inhispraetorship, which were dest royed by javelimmensent b king Bacchus for the purpose.This was t e first W e that Itemwere ai

VENE FIOIUM.

inthe guinea ex hibited J. Caesar inhisthird consulship, a. o. 45, t venatio lastedforfive days , and was conducted with extraordinary splendou r. Cameleopards or giraffeswere thenfor the first time seeninItaly.The venationes

‘seem to have beenfirst

confined to the ludi ci rcenses, but during thelater times of the republic, and under the em4pire, they were frequent ly ex hibited onthece lebrationof triumphs

, and onman otheroccas ions, with the view of pleasing e people. The passionfor these shows continuedto increase under the empire, and thenumberof beasts sometimes slaughtered seems almos tincredible. Under the emperors we read of aparticu lar kind of venatio, inwhich .the beastswerenot killed by bestiarii, but were givenupto the people, who were al lowed to rush intothe area of the circus and carry away what

pleased. Onsuch occasions a number

V E NE FI'

CIUM, the crime ofpoisonin is

frequentlymentioned inRemanh i story. 0

menweremost addicted to it:but i t seemsnot improbable that this chargewas frequentl ybrought against femal esWi thou t sufiicwnt eyidence of their guil t, like that ofWi tchcraft inE urope inthemiddle ages. Wefind femalescondemned to death for this crime inseasonsofpestilence ,whenthe people are always inanexcited stateofmind , and ready toattribute thecalamities under which the sufi

'

er to the artsof evi l-di sposed persons. s the Athenians,whenthe pestilence raged inthei r ci ty during

the PeIOponnesianwar, supposed the wel ls tohave beenpoisoned by the PeIOponnesiansand similar instances occur inthe history ofalmost all states, Sti l l however the crime ofpoisoning seems to have beenmuchmore frequent inancient thaninmoderntimes and thiscircumstancemould lead personsit incases whenthere wasno realthe suspicion.

The first legislative enactment especial lydirected against poisoning was a law of thedictator Sul la—Lex Cornelia de . S icariis et

Veneficis- passed ins . o.82, which continued

of large treeswhich had beentornup by theroots,was planted inthe circus, which thusresembled a forest, and none of themore savage animals were admitted into it. One ofthemost ex traord '

venationes of this kindwas that given by us

, inwhich therewe re 1000 ostriches, 1000 stage, 1000 boars,1000 deer, and numbers of Wi ld goats, wildsheep, and other animals of the same kind.

The more savage anima l s were slainby thebestiarii inthe amphitheatre, and not inthecircus. Thus , inthe day -succeeding the senatio of Probus

'

ust mentioned , there wereslaininthe amp

'

theatre 100 lions , and thesame number of lionesses, 100 Libyanand100 Syrianleopards, and 300 bears.Inthe has-reliefs

.

onthe tomb of S caurusat Pompeii there are representations oficombats w ith wi ld beasts, which are copied in

352 VESTALE S .

ia'

force, with some alterations, to the latesttimes. It contained revisions a at all

so d,f

0

oras

pomon or t e pu rpose 0 pOisomng. epunishment fixed by this lawwas probablythe interdictio a use et ignis.VE R SACR M le

pév). It was a

customamong the earl y Ita iannations, esIly among the S sbines, intimes of great

nger and distress, to vow to the deity thesacrifice of everything borninthenext spring,that is, betweenthe first of March and thelast day of Apri l, if the calamity under whichthey were labouring shou ld be removed . Thissac rifice inthe early times comprehended bothmenand domestic animals, and there is littledoubt that inmany cases the vowwas reallycarried into efi

'

ect.‘

But inlater times itwasthought cruel to . sacrifice so many infants,and accordingly the fol lowing expedient wasadOpted. The childrenwere al lowed to growup, and inthe 3 ring of their twentieth ortwentyofirst yeart ey were with covered facesdrivenacross the frontier of theirnative count ry, whereupontheywent .whithersoeverfortune or the deitymight lead them. Many acolony had beenfounded by

pfmns driven

out inthis manner ;and -the amertines inSicily were the descendants of such devotedpersons. Inthe two historica l instances inwhich the Romans vowed a ver sacrum, thatis, afier the battle of lake Trasimenus and atthe close of the second Punic war, the vowwas confined to domestic animals.

[FUNUG ,p.

VESTA’LES , the virgin priestesses of

Vesta, who ministered inher temple andwatched the eternal fire. Their existence atAlba -Longa is connected with the earliestRoman traditions, for S ilva the mother of

Romulus was a member of the sisterhood ;their establishment inthe city, incommon

almost all othermatters connected withstate religion, is general ly ascribed to Numa,who selected four, two fromthe .T itiens

‘

es

and two fromthe Ramnes ; and two morewere subsequently added fromthe Luceres,by T arquinius Pri sons according to one au

thority , by Servius Tu llius according toother. Thi snumber ofsix remained unchangedto the latest times. .Their chief office was to watch by turns,They were original l y chosenca

pers is the night and da the everlasting fire which

technica l word) by the k ing, an uring the blazed upont e altar of Vesta, its extinctionrepublic and empire by the pontifexmax unus. being considered as the most fearful of all

Itwasnecessary that themaidenshou ld notbe under six nor above tenyears of age , perfect inall her limbs, inthe fu ll onoyment ofall her senses, patrima etmatrima Parana] ,the daughter of free and freeborn ents whohad never beeninslavery ,who ollowed nodishonourable occupation, and whose homewas inItaly. The Lex Pa is ordained thatwhena vacancy occurred , '

t e pontifex maximus s hou ld name at his discretion twentyqualified damsels, one of whomwas public l y( incondom) fixed uponby lot, anexemptionbeing grante dinfavour of such as had a sistera l ready a vesta l, and of the dau hters of certainpriests of a high class.

'

l‘ e above law

a

ppears to have beenenacted inconsequence

o the unwill ingness of fathers to resignallcontrol over a child , and this reluctance was

manifested so .strongly inlater times, that inthe a

ge of Augustus libertinas were dec lared

eligib e. The casting of lotsmoreover doesnot seemto have beenpractised if any respectable rsoncame forward voluntaril y , andutter a daughterwho fulfilled the necessaryconditions. As soonas the electionwas concluded , the pontifex maximus took the girlby the hand and addressed her e ina solemnform. After thiswas ronounced, shewas

'

ledaway to the atriumof ests , and l ived thenceforward withinthe sacred precincts, underthe special sti rintexidence and control of thepontificial colThe period 0 service lasted forthirty years.During the

‘

first tenthe priestesswas engagedinlearning hermysterious duties. bein termed discymla, during thenext teninpa orming

them,uring the last teningiving instructions

to thenovices, and so long as she was thusemployed she was bound by a solemnvowofchastity. But after the time specified wascompleted, shemight, if she thought fit, throw05 the emblems of her office, unconsecrateherself (ermtgurarc returnto the world, andevenenter into t a marriage state. Fewhowever avai led themse lves of these privileges ;those who did were said to have l ivedinsorrow and remorse (as might indeed havebeenexpected fromthe habits they bad formed) ;hence such a proceedinwas consideredominous, and the priestesses orthemost partdied , as they had lived, inthe service of thegoddess .The senior sisterwas entitl ed Vestali‘s Ma:

mm, or Virgo Max imo, and we find a lso theexpressions Vestalt

'

umverned-saints and tu sma:

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VESTALES .

dress called ' a fflibuhtm, consisting of a ieceof white cloth bordered with pu rple, 0 longinshape, and secured by a clasp . indressand general deportment they were requ i redto observe the u tmost siinpliCi ty and decorum,

any fanciful ornaments intheme or levity inthe other being always regarded with disgustand suspicion. Thei r hai r was cut 06, probably at

‘the period of their consecrat ionwhether this was repeated fromtime to timedoes not appear, but they are never represented with - dowing locks . The first of the following cuts represents the vesta l Tuccia who,

whenwrongfii ll accused , appealed togoddess to vinicate her honour, andpower

1gi

vento her to carry a sieve ful l of

water mmthe Tiber to the temple.formof the 0p r ga rment is well shown.

The second is mma denarius of the gensuponthe reverse a fea simpuviuminher.hand,

and bearing the legend VE S T ALIS ontheobverse is a head of Flora, with the words 0 .

CLODlU S C. F. Two vestals belonging tothis gens were ce lebrated intheRomanAhrifl e.

VESTI’BULUM. Donna, p .VE T E RA

'

NU S . i ao.]XlLLA’

Rll , veterans inarmy,militaillum)themore severe battles.

VIA.

thaninthe rudus, cemented with lirne, andsix inches thick. Uppermost was the pavimentunnlarge polygonal blocks of the hardeststone (sales ), usually, at least inthe vic inityofRome, basal tic lava, irregular inform, but

fitted and )omted with the greatest nicety ,so as to present a perfectl y evensurface, asfree fromgaps or irregu larities as if the wholehad beenone sol id mass . The general as

pglct wi ll be understood fromthe cut givenow.

S treet at the entranoe ofPompsiL

T he centre of thewaywas a little elevated ,so as to permit the water to ranoff easil y.Occasionall at least incities, rectangularslabs of so er sto

'

ne were em loyed insteadof the irregu lar polygons of s

'

ex , and hencethe d istinctionbetweenthe phrases silica sterner: and am quadrato stemm.

Norwas thi s all. Regu lar foot-paths (margines , crepz

’

d i'

nec, umbones) were raised uponeach sideand strewedwith gravel,thedifferentparts were strengthened and bound togetherwith gompIu

'

orstone wedges , and stone blockswere set up atmoderate intervals onthe sideof the foot-paths, inorder that travel lers onhorseback might be able to mount withoutassistance.

0

Final ly,Cains G racchus erectedmi le-stonesalong the whole extent of the great hi hways,marking the distances fromRome, w ich appea r to have beencounted fromthe gate at)which each road issued forth ;and'

Augustus,

whenappointed inspector of theme around

the city, erected inthe foruma gilded column(millian

'

wnaureum), onwhich were insc ribedthe distances of the principa l points to whichthe visa conducted .

During the earlier ages of the republic theconst ructionand general superintendence ofthe roads wi thout, and the streets w ithinthec ity.were committed , like allother importantworks, to the censors . These duties, whenno censors were inoffice, devolved upontheconsuls, and inthei r absence onthe praetorurbanus. the aedi les, or such persons as thesenate thought fit to appoint. There werealso under the republic four ofl

‘

icers,ca l l

ed quatuorm’

n’

vianmi , for superintending thestree ts withinthe city, and two cal led cumtomm’

arum, forsuperintending the roads without. Under the empire the curators: aiarumwere ofiicers of high rank.The chief. roads which issued fromRome

are - l . The Vi i Ann. the G reat S outhRoad. I t issued fromthe Pork:Capeaa , andpassing through Arier

'

o, Tn: T aber-nae, Appi i'

Forum, T arracina, Fundr'

, For-mies, M intumae,

S imona, and Cas ilinum, terminated at Cabutwas eventual ly extended through C doand G audiumto 13m m , and final ] fromthence through c u

‘

ia , T arentum, an U ria,

to Bnmdis ium. 2. The VIA LA'N NA,from

the Ports Capena, another great l ine leadingto Beneventum,

but keeping a course fartherinland thanthe Via A pia. Soonafter leaving the city it sent 0 a short branch (VIAT uscou m) to Twmdum, and passing through0

Comptrum'

Anagnmum,

tF'

cr'

eri tmimi , M ao,

Fregellae, Fabrateri'

a, Aquimrm, Cacinum, VeM frum, T emwm, Allg

'

fae, and T elesia , joinedthe Via A at Em A cross- roadcal led the IA HADRIANA, running fromM intumae through S ua ca Ara

-mica to T eam ,

connected the Via A with the Via Latina.

3. Fromthe ~Porta issued the VIALABIOANA, which passing Labicumfel l intothe Via Latina at the stationad Bivimm, 30mi les fromRome. 4. The VIAPRAE NE S T INALoriginal ly the VIA GABI NA, issued fromthesame gate with the former. Passin

‘gthrough

G abi? and Preemie, it joined the i'

a Latinajust belowA 5. The V i a T rsoa'

rrtva

which issued romthe Porra T iburtina , andproceeding N. E. to T ibur, a distance of about20miles, was continued fromthence, inthesame di rection, under the name of the VIAV itamins , and traversing the count of theSabines passed through Coma h

’

and rfim’

amto Alemum, onthe Adriatic , thence to Adria,and so along the coast . to CastrumTwentimun

,where it fel l into the Via S alon'

s . 6.

The Vu Nous ir'u m. anciently Frccmvx rvsi s, ranfromthe Porto Collins , crossed the

356 VIATICUM.

Ania to Nomsntwn, and a little beyond fellinto the Via S alaria at E rstum. 7. T he V i aSamara, also fromthe Ports Collins (passingFEdema and Crus tumerium) rannorth and eastthrough S abinumand Picenumto Rests andAsa dumPiccrmm. At .CastrumT rumtinumitreached the w t, which it (

followed unti l it'

oined the Via Flamim'

a at Ancona. 8. ThenFu mma, the G reat North Road, carried

u ltimately to Arjmirwm. I t issued fromthePorts Flomim

’

s , and proceeded nearly northto Ocriculamand Narnia inUmhria. Here a

b ranch struck 03, making a sweep to theeast through Intercoms and Spolm

'

wn, and fel lagain into the main t runk (which passedthrough Masonic at Fulginis . I t continuedthrough

'Fanum M imi and NM Whereit againdivided , one line running nearlystraight to Forum:Fortunes onthe Adriaticwhile the other diverging toAm continuedfromthence along the coast to ForumFortunae, where the two branches uniting passedon to Ariminum through Pisdurm. Fromthence the Via F'

lsminia was extended underthe name of the Via ABI ILIA, and traversedthe heart ofCisal ine G aul through Beneath ,Malina, Parana, lactatio .(where it crossedthe P0), to Mediolsnum. 9. The VIA Aus stn, the G reat Coast Road, issued original l yfromthe Ports Jauiculemis , and subsequent lyfromthe Ports Aurelia. I t reached themost

atAlsiwn, and followed the shore of the lowersea along Etruria and Li ria b G enoa as

far es ForumJulii inG au . Int e timinstance it extended no farther thanPin. 10.

The V“.Poarusnsrs kept the right bank ofthe Tiber to Par-tus Airgu n

“

. 1 1. The VuOsri xns ts original ly passed through thePorta T rigemina, aflerwards through the Ports Ostiemis , and kept the left bank of the T iber to 0stia , Fromthence it was continuedunder the

lS

‘

nrmrtu rut ti lting the

coas t sout w roug Laurentm,ation,

and Circsci, t il l it joined the Vis A at

T orracina. The Via Lauann'rma, ead

gggdirect to 'Laurmtum, seems to have brancofffromthe Via Ostimir at a short distancefromRome. 12. The Vu Aansa'

rrru fromRome to Ardca . According to some thisbranched 05 from the Via A is . and thusthe circuit of the city is com eted .

Via‘

T lCUM is, properly speaking, everythingnecessar

zfor a personsett ing out ona

journey,and t as comprehends money; ro

visions, dresses, vessels, dtc. Whena 0

manmagistrate, praetor, proconsul , or quaestorwent to his province, the state rovidedhimwith all that was necessary for is Joo roneya But as the state inthis as inmest 'ether cases of expenditure preferred paying a

VICUS .

sumat once to having any part inthe actualbusiness, it engaged contractors (redemptoru )who fora stipulated sumhad to provide thd Jmagist rates with the viaticum, the principa l

Karts ofwhich appear to have beenbeasts ofunionand tents (muh

‘

. et tabemscula). Aogustus introduced some mod ificationof thissystem, as he once for all fixed a certainsumto be givento the proconsul s (probably toother provincial magistrates a lso) onsettingout to theirprovinces,so that the redemptoreshad nomore to do with it.ViA

’

T OR a servant who attended u onand executed the commands of certainitotnanmagistrates , to whomhe bore the samerelationas the lictor did to ethermagistrates.Thename ste amwas derived fromthe circumstance of the i r being chiefly employed onmessa s either to cal l uponsenators to attend t 6 meeting of the senate, or to summonpeople to the comiti etc. Inthe earliertimes of the republic we nd viatores asministers of such magistrates also as had theirlictors ;viatores of a dictator and of the consuls arementioned by Livy. Inlater times,however, viatores are onl mentioned wi thsuchmagistrates as had ony potestas andnotimperium, such as the tribunes of the people,the censors , and the aediles .V l

'

CT lMA. [S ACRlPlCl UN, p.VlCE

’

S lMA, a tax offive per cent. EveryRoman, whenhemanumitted a slave, had topay

to the state a tax of one- twentieth of hisv 06, whence the tax was ca l led oicesima

Th is tax was firs t imposed bthe Lex Manlia (a. c . was not aished when all other im sts were doneaway with inRome and Its y.A tax ca l led v icest

'ma ha sditsriumct l

ictor-tun

was introduced by A stus (Lao uiia Vicesimart'a) it consists of five per cent ,which every Romancitiz enhad to pay to theaerariummilitare, uponany inheritance orlegacy left to him,wah the ex ceptionof suchas were left to a citizenby his nea rest relativas, and such as did not amount to above acertainsum. it was levied inI taly and theprovinces by procuratores appointed for thepurpme .

lCOMAG lS T RI. Vi ces ]VICUS , the name 0 t he subdivisions into i

which the four regions occupied by the fourcity tribes of Servius T ulliua were divided,while the country regions, according to an 4

institutionascribed to Numa, were subdivided into pagi. This divi sion, together withthat of the four regions of the four city tri bes,remained downto the time ofAu stus, whomade the vici subdivisions of t e fourteenregions into which he divided the city. In.

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358 VINUM.

their operations, either by undermining thewalls, and thus opening a breach, or by em

battering-ram(cries).(olvog). The general termforthe

fermented '

uice of the grape .In the omeric poems the cu l tivati onofthe grape is represented as familiar to theGreeks. I t is worth remarkin that the onlywine uponwhose excel lence omer dilatesina tone approaching to hyperbole is repre

sented as having beenproduced onthe coastofThrace, the re iontromwhich try andcivilizationsprea into Hel las, an the sceneof several of themore remarkable ex loits ofBacchus. Hence -we might infer t t thePelasgians introduced the cu lture of the vinewhenthey wandered westward across theHel lespont, and that inl ike manner it wasconveyed to the val ley of the Po, whenat asubsequent stied theymade theirway roundthe head 0 the Adriatic. It seems certainthat wine was both rare and costly intheearlier ages of Romanh istory. As late as thetime of the Samni te wars, Papirius the dietater, whenabout to joininbattle with theSamnites, vo

'wed to Jupiter onl a smallcupf

'

ul (vim’

positivist) if he shoal gainthev ictory. In

‘.the times of Marius and Sul la

foreignwines were considered far so r tonative growths ;but the rapidity withwhichluxu spread in this matter is wel l i l lustrat by the saying ofM. Varro, that Lucullus whena boy never sawanentertainmentin his father’s house, however splendid, at

which G wek wine was handed round morethanonce, but wheninmanhood he returned fromhis Asiatic conquests he bestowed onthe people a lar ess ofmore thana hundredthousand cadi. ourditferent kinds ofWineare said to have beenpresented for the firsttime at the feast givenby Julius Caesar inhis third consulship 46) these beingFalernian, Chian, Lesbian, and Mamertine,and not unti l after th is date were themeritsof thenumerous varieties , foreignand domestic, accuratel knownand fully appreciated .

But during t e reignof Augustus and hisimmediate successo rs the study of wines he.

came a passion. and the mos t scrupulouscare was bestowed uponevery process connected with their productionand perservation. Pl iny calculates that the number ofwines inthe whole world deserving to be ac.

counted of high quality (nobilia ) amounted toeightv.ofwhich his owncount ry could claimtwo- thirds ;and that 195 distinct k indsmightbe reckoned up, and that if all the varietiesof these were to be included inthe computation the sumwou ld be almost doubled.

The process followed inwinemaking was

essentially the sameamong the G reeks and theRomans. After the grapes had beenga thered, they were firs t troddenwith the feet ina

vat (l flvég, torcular) but as this process didnot press out all the juice of the grapes, theywere sub ected to themere powerful pres su reof a this and heavy beam(prefum) for thepurpose of obtaining all the juice yet re.maining inthem. Fromthe press the swee tunfermented juice flowed into another larvat, which was sunk below the leve l of t epress, and therefore cal led the underwhic-oat,inGreek enal évtov , inLatinlocus.

A portionof the must was used at ones ,being drunk fresh after it had beenclarifiedwith vinegar. Whenit was desired to p reserve a quantity inthe sweet state, anemphora was takenand coated w ith pitch

-withinand without, and corked so

,

as to be perfeetly air-ti ht. i t was thenimmersed ina

tank of co d fresh water or buried inwetsand, and al lowed to remainfor six weeks ortwo months. The contents after this process.were found to remainunchanged for a

year, and hence the name dsi yl aimog, i. c.

scmper manum. A considerable quanti ty ofmust fromthe best and oldest vines was innspissated by boiling, being thendistingu ishedby the Greeks under the eneral names of

Numa er while t e Latinwritershave various terms according to the extent towhich the evaporationwas carried. Thus,whenthe must was reduced to two- thirds ofits original volume. it became comm , whenone-half had evaporated defini tion, whentwothirds sapa (knownalso b the Greek namessiraeumand hepscma) , but t se words are fraquently interchanged. S imilar reparationsare at the present time cal led inIts ymumcotto

and, and inFrance robe. The processwas

carri oninlar e caldrons of lead (m a dc

frularia over a s ow fire of ,ch ips, onanight

whent ere was no moon, the scumbeingcareful ly removed w ith leaves, and the liquid constantly stirred to

.

prevent it fromburning. These grape -jel l ies , for they werenothing else, were used extensive ly forivieg body to poor

,wines and making them

cept, and entered as ingredients into many

drin s, such as the burrnm'

ca polio, so ca l ledfromits red colour, which was formed bymixing rape withmi lk.The whole of themustuui not employed forsome of the above purposes was conveyedfromthe locus to the cells einaria , anapartment Onthe ground -door or a little below thesurface. Here were the dolia (a lder), otherwise cal led w ise oroupae, long bel l-mouthedvessels of earthenware

,very careful ly formed

of the best clay, and lined Wi th a coating of

VINUM.

pitch . They were usuall sunk cu d ,

defosra, demsrsa) one-half ort oo thiigdd

s

qiii the

gonad ;to the former depth , if the wine tocontained was likel to prove strong, to

the latter ifweak . Int ese dolia the processof fermentation took place, which usual lylasted for about nine days, and as soonas i t

had subsided , and the mustumhad becomevinwn, the dolia were closely covered. Thelids (opercula doliorum), were takenoff aboutonce every thirty

-six days, and oftener inhotweather, inorder to cool and give air to thecontents, to add an

ypreparationrequired to

p reserve themsoun an to remove any impurities thatmight be thrownup.

The commoner sorts of Wine were drunkdi rect fromthe dolium, and hence

‘

draught

winewas cal led vinumdoh‘

are or vinumdccupa,1 but the finer kinds were drawnoffSl

dtf undere,mmmm), into mphm’

ac. Ont e outsidethe tit e of the wine was ainted, the date ofthe vintage beingmarked y thenames of theconsuls then inoffice. Ax PHORaJ Theamphorae were thensto up inre ositories

$apoihecae, horrca , tabulata), complete y distinctrom the calla v inaria, and usual ly placed inthe upper etc of the house whence dc.scende, testa, an deripers horreo in orace), fora reason

‘explained afterwards.I t is manifest that wines

(pre ared and

bottled inthemanner describe a ovemusthave contained a great quantity of drags andsediment, and it became absolutelynecessaryto separate these before it was drunk. Thiswas sometimes effected by fining with yelksof eggs, those of pi ons being consideredmost appr riate b t e fastidious ;butmorecommonly y simp y straining through smallon - like utensi ls of silver or bronze perforawith numerous smal l holes. O ccasional.

ly a piece of l inencloth (cam p, saccus ) wasplaced over the colum, and the wine fil teredthrough. The use of the saccus was consid

ered objectionable for all delicate wines,since itwas believed to injure , ifnot entirelyto destroy their flavour, and inevery instanceto diminish the strength of the liquor. Forthis reasonitwas employed by the d iss ipatedinorder that theymight be able to swal lowa greater quantit without becomin .

intox i

os ted. The dou le pu ose of cooing andweakening was efl

'

ectua ly accompl ished byplacing ice or snow inthe fil ter, which under

5 such ci rcumstances becameor saccus nivarms.

Inall the best wines hi therto descri bed the

grapes are supposed to have beengathered assoonas they were ful ly ripe, and fermentationto have runits ful l course. But a great variety of sweet Wines were manufactured by

checking the fermentation, or by partial l ydryingthe grapes , or by converting them

comp etely into raisins. Pram or rail inwine was made fromgrapes dried inthe sununtil they had lost half their weight ;or theywere plunged into boiling oil, which reduceda similar effect ; or the bunches a r theywere ripe were al lowed to hang for someweeks uponthe vine , the stalks being twisted ,or anincisionmade into the pith of the bearing shoot , so as to put a stop to vegetation.The stalks and stones were removed, theraisins were steeped inmust or good wine,and thentroddenor subjected to the gentleactionof the press. The quantity of juicewhich flowed forth was measured , and anequal quantity of water added to the pul

gyresiduum, whi chwas againpressed, and t eproduct employed foraninferior cal led secundarim. The passumo Crete wasmost prized , and next inrank were those ofCi licia , Africa , Italy, and the neighbouringprovinces. The kinds knownas Psy tlu

'

umand Melaniprythium possessed the peculiarflavour of the grape and not that of wine.The grapes most suitable for passumwerethose which ripened early, es ially the vac

A bczrpula‘

and mina.

The dreeite recognized three colours inMM ) » whi“:

VINUM.

our (l evx'

and brownor amber-col(Wag). he Romans distinguishedalbus , answering to M x éc,fulvus to rubber,whi le lie). is subdivided into congres ses andnigcr, the ormer bein doubtless apg

lied to

bright glowing wines e Tent and urgent

lijy, whi le the m

’

gcr or nter wou ld resembleort.We have seenthat wine intended for keep

i ngwas ‘racked of fromthe dolia into amphorae. Whenitwas necessary inthe first instance to transport it fromone place toanother,orwhencarried by travellers ona journey ,

.

it

was contained in be made of goat-sk in(riasat, ulu s) well pitc ed over so as tomakethe seams perfectly tight"As the process of winemaking among the

ancients was for themost part conducted inanunscientific manner, it was found neces

spissated must . 5. Aromatic herbs , spices,and gums ;and these were used either awglor cooked up into a great variety of compcated confections.Butnot only were spices and gums steeped

inwine or incorporated during fermentation,but eventhe precious perfumed essential oilsungucnta ) were mixed with it before it wasrunk Min,mankind ).Of t ese compound beverages the mostpopular was the m arch (olvops l t), of the

G reek the midsum of the Romans. Thiswas 0 two kinds ; inthe one honey wasmixed with wine, in the other w ith must.The former was said to have beeninventedby the l ndary hero Aristaeus, the first cultivatoro bees, and was consideredmost perfeet and palatable whenmade of some oldrough (aus lcrum) wine, such as Masaic orFalerman(although Horace objects to the latterfor this purpose), andnewAttic honey. Theproportions were four, bymeasure, ofwine toone of honey, and various spices and perfumes,such as myrrh, cassia oostum,malobathrum,

nard, and pepper,mi ht be added.0nd kindwasmade

The secmust evaporated to one ofnative wins at Athens was four drac mas

half of its original bulk , Attic honey beingadded inthe proportionof one to ten. This,therefore , wasmerely a very rich fruit syrup ,inno way allied to wine. M iriam was considered themost ap ropriate draught u onanempty stomach , an was therefore swa l owedimmediately before the regular business of arepeat began, and hence the whet (gmlatr

'

o)coming before the cup ofmulsumwas cal ledthe emulsis. M ult an!was givenat a t riumphby t e imperator to his soldiers . M ulcum sc.

m'

num) or ocnomcli (olvénel t ) largerfectly i8~

tinct frommulsa (sc. aqua ). e . latter, or

mad , being made of honey and water mixedand fermented , is the melt

'

cratovi

or It romeli (édpépsl t ) of the Greeks.T e ancients considered old wine not onl ymore grateful to the palate , but also morewholesomeand invigorating. General] speaking, the Greek wines donot seemto have te

?)uired a long time to ripen. Nestor in thedyssey, indeed ,drinks wine tenyears old butthe connoisseurs under the empire ronouncedthat all transmarine wines arriv at a moderate degree ofmaturity insix orseven. Manyof the ltalianvarieties, however, required tobe kept for twent or twenty-five ycars beforethey were drinks is (which isnowconsideredample for our stro t ports), and eventhehumble growths of abinumwere stored upfor fromfour to fifteen. Hence it became amatter of importance to hasten, if possible,thenatural process. This was attempted invarious ways, sometimes by elaborate condiments, sometimes by sinking vessels containing the

‘must inthe sea ,25which anartificial

mel lowness was induc (pram ectustas)and the wine inconsequence termed Mala:sites but more usual ly by the applicationofheat . Thus itwas customary to expose theamhorse for some years to the ful l fervourof the sun's rays, or to construct the apoducaeinsuch amanner as to be exposed to the hotairand smoke of the bath- furnaces, and hencethename

ff'

umaria applied to such apartments ,and the p rasesfumosos ,fumwnbibcrc, uli

'

g inetestes, inreference to the wines. If t e orationwas not conducted with care , and t eamhomenot sto pered downperfectly tight,a greeable e ect would be produced onthe contents .Ini tal y, inthe first century of the Christianera, the lowestmarket price of themostordinary quality of wine was 300 sestercesfor40 urnae, that is, 15 sesterces for the emhora, or 6d. a gal lonnearl At amuch earier date, the triumh of Metel lus durinthe first Punic warFe. O. Wine was sol

at the rate of 8 asses the amphora. The rice

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383 VITRUM.

Latiumand Campanis, alt h somewhatharsh ;and the G w oms romt ridge above

Bsiae and Puteoli , produced insmall quantit but of very high uality , .full-bodied, andk . Inthe same c are to be included

the CalermmfromCales , and the FundmnrmfromFundi. The Calammwas light and better forthe stomach thanFalernian;the Fundarmmwas fu l l-bodied and nourishing, butapt to attack both stomach and head therefore l ittle sought after at banquets. This listis closed by the Velitumr

'

num, Privematimrm.

and S ignr'

num, fromVelitrae, Privernum, andS igais , towns onthe Volscianhil ls ;the firstwas a sound wine. but had this peculiarity,that it always tasted as ifmixed with someforeignsubs tance ;the second was thinandpleasant ;the last was looked upononly inthe light of amedicine valuable for its astringent qualities. We may “ (sla

m-inginone

more, theFormiammnfromthe ulf o Caieta,associated by Horace with the Caecuban,Falernian, and Calenian.

T he fou rth rank contained theMomem'mmt,fromthe neighbourhood of Messana, firstbrought into fashionby Julius Caesar. Thefinestwas sound , light, and at the samenot without body.VI

’

RG INE S VESTA’

LES. [Venu esVra ornasjVlS . Leges were passed at Rome for the

mm of preventing acts of vio lence. The1 Plotia or Plautus was enacted against

those who occupwd public places and carri ed

arms. The lex proposed .

y the consul Q.

Catulus onthe subyect, wi th the assistanceof Plautius the tribunus, a

lrigears to be the

Lex Plotia. There was a 1 Julia of thedictator Caesar on this subject, which imposed the penal ty of exile. Two Juliss Legeswere psssed as to thismatter inthe time of

Augean, which were respectively entitled

De i Publica and De Vi Private.

VIS CE RA’T IO. [Forump .

Vl'

l‘

lS .

M[Crrrrr

'

varoJViT RU (dol or). lass. A story has been

p reserved by Plinfi, t glass was first dis

covered accidenta y by somemerchantswho,having landed on the Syriancoast a t themouth of the river Belus, and being unableto find stones

.

to support their cooking-pots,fetched for this purpose fromtheir ships someof the lumps of ultra which composed thecargo. Th is

.being fused by the heat of thefire, united w ith the sand uponwhich it rest.ed, and formed a st reamof vitrified matter.No conc lusioncanbe drawnfromthis tale,eveni t

'

true, inconsequence of its vagueness ;but i t probably originated inthe fact, thatthe sand of the dtstrtct inquestionwas os

teemed peculiarly suitable for glass-making,and exported ingreat quantities to the workshops of Sidonand Alexandria, long themostfamous in the ancient world. A lexandriasustained its reputationformany centuries ;Rome derived a great portionof its suppliesfromthis scumand as late as the reignofAurel ianwe themanufacture still flour

There is some difliculty in decidinga?what Greek author glass is first mention

because the termdol or unquestionably denotesnot only artificial glass, but rock -crystal, or indeed any transparent stone or stonelike s ubstance. T hus t he of Berodotus, inwhich the Ethiopians encased the bodies of their dead, cannot be glass, forwe areexpressly told that itwas dug inabundanceout of the ea rth ;and hence commentatorshave conjectured that rock-crystal or rocksalt. or amber, or oriental alabaster, or somebituminous or gfi

i

e

mmgep

roduct,might be iadicated. Butw nt same historian, inhisaccount of sacred crocodiles

,states that they

were decorated with ear- ringsmade ofmelt~ed stone, wemay safely conclude that he intends to describe some vitreous ornament forwhich he knewno appropriatename. Glassis, however, first mentioned with certaintyby Theo hrastrus. who notices the circumstance al uded to above, of the fitness of thesand at themouth of the river Belus for thefabricationof glass .Among the Latinwriters Lucretius appears to be the first inwhich the word vimoccurs ;but it must have beenwel l knownto his countrymen l ong before , for Ciceronames it along with paper and linen, ss a

commonarticle ofmerchandize brought fromE gagg

t. Seeurne. inhis aedi leship (a. c.m a display of it such as was never witneesed eveninafter- times ;for the scene ofhis gor eous theatre was divided into threetiers, which the under portionwas ofmarble, the upper ofgilded wood, and themiddlecompartment of glass. Inthe poets of theAugustan age it is constantly introduced ,

bot directly and insirniles, and insuch termsas to prove that itwas anobject with whi chevery onemust be familiar. Strabo declaresthat inhis day a smal l d rinking-mp of glassmight be purchased at Rome for ha lf anas

an so commonwas it inthe time of Juvenaland Martial , that old menand womenmadea livelihood by trucking sul hurmatches forbrokenI nts. When lin wrote

,manufactories ad beenestablish not onl inItalynbut inS and Gaul also , and ass

drinking-cups d entirely superseded timesof gold and silver ;and inthe reignof Alex

VI'

I‘TA. UMBRACULUM.

ander S everus we find s itrean‘

s‘

ranked alongwith carriers, coachmakers, goldsrniths, si lversmiths, and other ordinary artificcrs whomtheem ror taxed to raisemoney for his thermae.as he numerous specimens transmi tted tonsprove that the ancients were well acquaintedwith the art of imparting a great variety ofcolours to their glass ; they were probablylees successfu l intheir attem

pts to render it

perfectly are and free froma 1 colour, sincewe are to that itwas considered most valuable inthis state. It was wrought accord

sing to the different methods nowpractised,b eing fashioned into the required shape bgt he blov ipe t wtv as we term it, slthoug

ground (la-itar) is ,

a more accurate phrase ,na whee l , and engraved with a sharp toole silver. The art of etching uponglass ,

nowso common,was entirely unknown, sinceit depends u nthe p rties of fluoric acid,a chemical iscovery the last century.The following were the chiefuses towhich

g lass was applied.1. Bottles, vases , cups, and cinerary mm.

2. Glass pastes, presenting fac-simi les eitherin relief or intaglio of engraved preciousstones. 3. lmitations of colored preciousstones , such as the carbunc le, the sapphire,the ameth st , and , above all, the emerald .

4. Thick 3 sets of glass of various coloursappear to have been laid downfor pavingfloors, and to have beenattached as a liningto the wal ls and cei l ings of a artments indwell ing houses. just as se

xiuols is fre»

quent ly employed inI ta ly, a occasionallyinour owncountry also. Rooms fitted u

i“mi"7”mm”M

s“

?“

Ee s vitreus uc was t edecorationintroduced by Sesutos for

the scene of his theatre ;not columns nor pillars ofglass, as some ,norhas- reliefs , as othershave imagined . 5. Glass was also used forw indows. [Donna p. 127.

or plural VlT ’

l AE,a ribbonor

fillet , is to be considered , 1 . As anordinaryport ionof female dress. 2. As a decorationof sac red persons and sacred things.i 1 . Whenconsidemd as anord inary portion

of female dress, itwas simply a band encircl ing the head , and serving to confine thetresses (crinalu vince) , the ends, whenlon(longae zamia vittas hanging downbehind . twas wornbymai us , and bymarried womenalso ; the v i tta assumed on the nuptia l daybeing of a different formfromthat used byVl f ins.

he Vitta was not wornby libertinae evenof fair

.

character, much less bymeretrices ;hence i twas looked uponas aninsigmpudori:and, together with the stola and institu , servto oint out atfirst s i ht the freebornmatron.

.

he colourwas pro bly amatter ofchoice ;wh i te and purple are bothmentioned .

When‘

emplo ed forsacred purposes, itwasusual ly twist round the infula [ l awn],and held together the loose flocks of wooUnder this formit was employed as anornament for (l .) Priests, and those who offeredsacrifice. Priestesses, especial ly thoseof

,Vest

r’

a,

25nd hence

;omega sa

gerdos

far a ves

ta an my. mp ate a poets ,whomay be

éiggarded as priests and inthis

case the vittae were frequently intertwinedwith chaplets ofolive or laurel . Statuesof deities. Victims decked for sacrifice.

Alters. Temples. The beer-15pmof suppliants.The sacred vittae, as wel l as the infulae,were made of wool , and hence the e ithetslanes and mous . They were white shame)or pu rple (pwticeac), or azure (can-

ulu s) whenwreathed round anal tar to themanes.ULNA.

UMBI'L I US . [Li s s a ]UMBO.

ECLIPE UsJ

UUMBRA’

ULUM, MBELLA (elu cidatov, omidwv , ca ndies a parasol, was usedby Greek and Roman adies as a protectionagai nst the sun. They seemnot to havebeencarried general ly by the lad ies themselves , but by female slavesWho held themover theirmistresses. T he daughters of thealiens (péromoc) at Athens had to carry ara

sols after the Athenianmaidens at the anathenaea, as is mentioned under RYOK MPuoau . T he parasols of the ancients seemto have been'ex actly like our own rasols orumbrellas inform, and could be a ut up andOpened like ours.It was considered amark of efi'

eminacy formentomake use of parasols. The Romanladies used theminthe amphitheatre to defend themselves fromthe sunor some passing shower, whenthe wind or other circumstances did not al low the velariumto be extended . [Amrm'

rnsu aum] T o hold a parasol over a lady was one of the commonattentions of lovers, and it seems to have been

364 UNCIA.

very commonto give rasola as presents.Instead ofparasols, the reek womeninlatertimes wore a k ind of straw hat or bonnet,cal led 11:a (Galli c). The Romanswore a hat with a broad brim(paw ) as aprotectionagainst the sun.

U N C I A 6 aria, of) aria, or') in), the

twelfth part 0 As or was , is erived byVarro fromenue, as being the unit of the divisions of the as.

lts value as a weight was 433 666 grains ori of anounce and 1056 6 grains avoirdupois.[LXBRL ] Itwas subdivided into

G ra

2‘ semunciae, each 107 46

3 deuellae 351 2

4 sicilici 1084 16

6 sex tulae 72 277

24 scrupula 18069

144 siliquaeInconnectin the Romansystemofweights

andmoney wit the Greek. another divisionof the uncia was used.

_

Whenthe drachmawas introduced into the Romana stemas

uivalent to the denarius of 96 to e pounds ru atus ;Daaomu the uncia contained

8 drachmae, the drac ma 3 scrupula, thescrumm2 oboli (since 6 obolimade up thedrac and the obolus s siliquae (x eparla).Therefore the unciawas divided into

VOLONE S .

8 drachmae, “ Ch24 scrupula 18069

48 oboh 9934

144 siliquae 3 01 1

Inthis divisionwe have the originmodernitaliansystem, inwhich the pound isdivided into 12

_ounces, the ounce into three

drama, the draminto three sc ruples, and thescruple into 6 carats. Ineach of these systems 1728 x eparla, siliquae, or carats,maltsup the pound.The Romans applied the uncial division

to all kinds ofmagnitude. Inlengththe uncia was the twelfth o a foot. whencethe word inch [Pas inarea the twelfth of ajugerum[Joanna incontent the twelfthof a sextarius [S en-u rns ; Cru s oe] ;intime the twelfth of anhour.UNCIA’

RIUM PENUS . [Fauna ]UNCT O

’

RE S . [Bu nsen]UNGUENTA , omtments, orls, or selves.

The applicationof un ents inconnectionwith the bathin and at letic contests of theancients is sta under Bu nsenand Ara b su s . But although their original objectwas sim

gly to preserve the heal th and elasti

city of t a humanframe, they were inlatertimes

.

used as articles of lux ury. They werethennotonl y employed to impart to the bodyor hair a particular colour, but also to give tothemthe most beautiful fragrance ible ;they were,moreover,notmerely app aftera bath, but at any time, to .rsader one’s appearance or presence more pleasant thanusual . Inshort,they were used thenas oilsand pomatums are at present.At Rome these q uriea did not becomevery genera l ti l l towards the end of the re

paui c, while the Greeks appear to have beenmiliar with themfromearly times. Theweal thy Greeks and Romans carried theirointments and

genomes with them, es ially

whenthey bat ed , insmall boxes 0 costlmaterials and beautiful workmanship, whicwere cal led Nartlrsca

’

a. The traffic whichwas carried oninthese ointments and perfume inseveral towns of Greece and southernItaly was very considerable. The persons engaged inmanufacturing themwerecal led b the Romans Ur

gumlarit’, or, as they

frequent y were women. M arine, and theart ofmanufacturin themUngumtun

'

a . Inthe weal thy and e eminate c

gof Capua

there was one great street cal l the Seplesia, which consi sted entire ly of sh0ps inwhich ointments and perfumes were sold.VOLO’

NES is synonymous wi th Valium-6

(fromsolo), andmight hence be ap lied to allthose who volunteered to

.

serve inthe Romanarmies without there being any obligationto

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388 Z ONA.

Z A’G ORI. [Ax orrua]Z E T E

'

T AE wereextraordinaryAthenians tocrime against the state, and bring themtojustice. They were more fr

auently ap

pointed to search for confisca pgaperty,

the goods of condemned criminals a statedebtors ; to receive and gi vea ainst any persons who concealed, orassistinconcealing them, and to deliver anin

ventory ofall such goods (drroypdecw) to thepro er autho rities.ONA , also ca l led CI

’NGULUM (Camry,£23 a , Cw r a gird le or zone, wornabgut thglgiqi s

flliypgoth sexes.

The chief use of this article of dress wasto hold up the tunic (Cé vvvoflat), which wasmore especial l y requisite to be done whenpersons were at work , ona journey, or engaged inhunting. Hence we see the loinsgirded inthe cuts of the boatmanat p. 148,of the sh ipbuilder at p. 25, and of the goatherdat p.m. The z one is also represented inmany ancient statues and pictures ofmeninarmour as wornround the cuirass. The girdle,mentioned by Homer, seems to have beena constituent part of the cuirass, serving tofastenit bymeans of a buckle, and also affording anadditional protectionto the body,and having a short kind of petticoat attachedto it, as is showninthe figure of the Greekwarrior inp. 203. The cut at p. 3 showsthat the ancient cuirass did not descend lowenough to secure that part of the body,whichwas covered by the ornamenta l ki l t or petticoat. T o supply this defect was the designof themitra (p irpa) , a brazenbel t lined pm.

bably onthe inside with leather and stufi'

edWith woo l, whichwaswornnext to the body.

A

h w'

l

Menused their gird les to hold money iastead of a pu rse.As the gi rd le was wornto ho ld u the garments for the sake of business or9 work requiring despatch , so it was loosened and thetunic was al lowed to fa ll downto the feet toindicate the Opposite condition, andmore seially inpreparing to a sacrifice{finminae), or funm ri te s (disciacti

'

, iacind er).A girdlewas wornby young women, evenwhen their tunic was not girt u and re

onthe da ofmarriage , an therefore(dim;nap ems/7. The statue of Flora,annexed cut, shows the appearance of

the girdle as wornby young women.

INDEX OF G REEK WORDS .

dtrrl oidwv,

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“090769

INDEX OF GRE EK WORDS .

WORDS .

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