Dialogical Nature of John's Prologue (Johnson Thomaskutty)

UNION BIBLICAL SEMINARYJOURNAL

UNION BIBLICAL SEMINARY JOURNAL

Publisher The PrincipalUnion Biblical Seminary

Editorial BoardRev. Dr. Johnson Thomaskutty, Chief EditorRev. Dr. V. V. ThomasDr. Asangla PaulRev. Dr. Paluri WilsonRev. Dr. Shekhar Singh

© Union Biblical Seminary and contributorsOpinions expressed in the Journal are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the publisher.

SubscriptionsThe Journal is published twice a year, in March and September.To subscribe please contact the chief editor or email [email protected] annual subscription rate is:• Within India: Rs. 150• Outside India: USD $ 15 (or equivalent)• UBS Alumni: Rs. 120Payment can be made by DD/MO in the name of Union Biblical Seminary.

The Journal invites articles and reviews, books for review and advertising.

Address all correspondence to:The Chief EditorUnion Biblical SeminaryPO Box 1425, BibvewadiPune, 411037, Maharashtra, IndiaE-Mail: [email protected]

For private circulation only.

This periodical is indexed in the ATLA Religion Database, a product of the American Theological Library Association, 300 S. Wacker Dr., Suite 2100, Chicago, IL 60606, USA. E-Mail: [email protected], www: http://www.atla.com.

Editorial ........................................................................................ iChief Editor

Dialogical Nature of John’s Prologue ........................................... 1Johnson Thomaskutty

Conceptualization and Analysis of Systemic Corruption ............. 18through Augustinian Doctrine of Original SinDavid Muthukumar

Being Light and Salt: Meaning and Mission of the Bible ............ 30 in Multi-cultural and Multi-religious Contexts of IndiaPraveen Paul

Living in the Perilous Times: An African Reading ....................... 38 of 2 Timothy 3:1-5Olubiyi Adeniyi Adewale

Mission in the Postmodern Era: A Pentecostal Perspective .......... 61V. V. Thomas

Christianity as a Movement: Mission for the 21st Century ............ 88 for a New World OrderS. M. Michael SVD

Envisioning God’s Mission in Civil Society Today ...................... 109Asangla Lemtur

The Cross versus the Market ......................................................... 121Crystal David John

Love, Music, and the Bible: In Praise of Interpretive Flexibility .. 129David Breckbill

Towards a ‘Nepal’ Christian Theology: A Proposal .................... 137Yeshwanth Bakkavemana

Book Review ................................................................................ 150

UBS JournalVol. 8.2-9.1

Editorial

The current issue of the UBS Journal presents a wide range of articles with dimensions from various disciplines such as Old Testament, New Testament, Music and the Bible, Theology, Ethics, and History and Missions. We remain thankful to all the contributors for their enriching and resourceful inputs toward this issue. The following ten articles are included in this issue: first, ‘Dialogical Nature of John’s Prologue’ by Johnson Thomaskutty; second, ‘Conceptualization and Analysis of Systemic Corruption through Augustinian Doctrine of Original Sin’ by David Muthukumar; third, ‘Being Light and Salt: Meaning and Mission of the Bible in Multi-cultural and Multi-religious Contexts of India’ by Praveen Paul; fourth, ‘Living in the Perilous Times: An African Reading of 2 Timothy 3:1-5’ by Olubiyi Adeniyi Adewale; fifth, ‘Mission in the Postmodern Era: A Pentecostal Perspective’ by V. V. Thomas; sixth, ‘Christianity as a Movement: Mission for the 21st Century for a New World Order’ by S. M. Michael; seventh, ‘Envisioning God’s Mission in Civil Society Today’ by Asangla Lemtur; eighth, ‘The Cross versus the Market’ by Crystal David John; ninth, ‘Love, Music, and the Bible: In Praise of Interpretive Flexibility’ by David Breckbill; and tenth, ‘Towards a Neapal Christian Theology: A Proposal’ by Yeshwanth Bakkavemana. Finally, Nyimang Chang offers a review of Robert D. Miller II’s title The Psalms as Israel’s Prayer and Our Own. We hope that these articles would help us to foster our faith both responsibly and intelligibly in a globalized context of ours. We are required to be “peacemakers” (cf. Matthew 5:9) in a world in which religious

UBS Journal, Vol. 8.2-9.1 i

fundamentalism, ghar wapsi and anti-conversion challenges, atrocities against lower castes and tribals, human trafficking, and other untoward ideologies are practiced. In today’s context, we should put into practice the aspect of “neighbour-love” and ‘walk the talk’ through reflecting the values and virtues of God’s reign. Thus we can become partakers in the missio Dei. We can pray, “Let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream” (see Amos 5:24).

The current issue of the Journal comes after a lapse in the publication schedule for which we, the editorial committee, apologize. Herewith, we are combining two issues and looking forward to the resumption of timely publication of future issues. At the same time, we are encouraged by your continued requests for issues and for your appreciation concerning the scholarly standard of the Journal.

Johnson ThomaskuttyChief Editor

ii Editorial

1Dialogical Nature of John’s Prologue

Johnson Thomaskutty1

It is widely recognized that Early Christianity had developed its theological motifs and literary characters with influences from traditional Judaism in particular and Greco-Roman culture in general.2 Johannine dialogues as a literary genre is not an exception for this fact. In recent years, there has been a growing perception that the Gospel writers were strongly influenced by the literary models and conventions of their day.3 George A. Kennedy opines, “The New Testament lies on the cusp between Jewish and Greek culture; the life and religious traditions it depicts are Jewish, its language is Greek”.4 Everything in the New Testament assumes and interprets the master narrative, the defining story of Jesus, sent by God, crucified and raised. The four evangelists have narrated the story of Jesus according to their own theological and literary concerns and in light of how they perceived the need of their readers. We might even say that the four

1 Johnson Thomaskutty (PhD, Nijmegen) is a New Testament Faculty and the Editor of Union Biblical Seminary Journal at UBS, Pune. He also serves as the Research Associate of Prof. Jacobus (Kobus) Kok in the research field of Mission and Ethics, in the Department of the NT Studies, Faculty of Theology, University of Pretoria, South Africa. This paper was presented during the Alumni Gathering of UBS in the year 2009.

2 David E. Aune, ed., Greco-Roman Literature and the New Testament, Society of Biblical Literature (Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1988), Introduction, 1.

3 See Richard A. Burridge, Where are the Gospels?: a Comparison with Greco-Roman Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

4 George A. Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation through Rhetorical Interpretation (Chapel Hill & London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 8.

Dialogical Nature ofJohn’s Prologue

2 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

Gospels are four “contextualizations” of the same story.5 “The Gospels”, as Dean Flemming says, “form an important piece of the total picture of how the Christian message is re-expressed for new audiences in the New Testament”.6 The principle that New Testament writings are with influence from its surroundings has to be taken seriously when we deal with the dialogical structure of John’s Gospel. Scholars continue to debate the extent to which John’s Gospel reflects the specific historical situation and needs of its readers.7 A specific treatment of the Johannine dialogues will provide us with greater insights of the overall content of the Gospel and will generate alacrity of the literary features that are embedded therein. David W. Wead opines that “since Henry James laid the foundation for twentieth century literary criticism, the point of view has become one of the most discussed areas of literary analysis”.8 Johannine dialogues conspicuously speak of the point of view of the author. Literary genres and forms are not simply neutral containers used as convenient ways to package various types of written communication. They are social conventions that provide contextual meaning for the smaller units of language and text they enclose.9 David E. Aune says, “The original significance that a literary text had for both author and reader is tied to the genre of that text, so that the meaning of the part is dependent upon the meaning of the whole”.10 Early sayings of Jesus seem especially to have been the nuclei of the development

5 Dean Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament: Patterns for Theology and Mission (Illinois: IVP, 2005), 234.

6 Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 234. Also see Richard Bauckham, “For Whom Were the Gospels Written?”, The Gospel for All Christians: Rethinking the Gospel Audience, ed. Richard Bauckham (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1998).

7 Cf. R. E. Brown, The Community of the Beloved Disciple (New York: Paulist, 1979); J. Lois Martyn, History and Theology in the Fourth Gospel, 2nd ed. (Nashville: Abingdon, 1979); R. A. Culpepper, The Gospel and Letters of John (Nashville: Abingdon, 1998), 42-61.

8 David W. Wead, The Literary Devices in John’s Gospel (Basel: Friedrich Reinhardt Kommissionsverlag, 1970), 1. Also see Percy Lubbock, The Craft of Fiction (1926), 59-91. Point of view shows the position where the author stands in relation to the events to his readers.

9 David E. Aune, The New Testament in its Literary Environment, ed. Wayne A. Meeks (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1987), 13.

10 Aune, The NT in Its Literary Environment, 13.


of literary genres like discourses and dialogues.11 A new paradigm of communication emerges in John, “a form of dialogue in which God speaks anew to ‘his people’, initially to the ethnic Israel he had called into being in the Hebrew Bible, but then beyond Israel to the larger humanity of the Gentiles. And in this new form of dialogue God speaks almost exclusively through the unique figure of ‘a Son’”.12 Reed shows how the dialogues of the New Testament engage both the New Testament canon and the Hebrew Bible, particularly in the “internal echoes or dialogic answering” within a book and between books and with the Old Testament.13 In the succeeding analyses, we will see how dialogue both as a literary piece and as a communication device is used in the larger framework of the Gospel of John.

John’s Prologue (1:1-18)According to Mikhail Bakhtin, “Life by its very nature is dialogic. To live means to participate in dialogue: to ask questions, to heed, to respond, to agree, and so forth”.14 Within this theory of dialogue, Bakhtin declares that the word or utterance is integrally dialogical in nature. Each word or utterance responds in one form or another to utterances that precede it. Moreover, the word or utterance is related also to subsequent responses. He further argues that the speaker is constructing an utterance in anticipation of possible responses, something he calls the “act of responsive understanding”.15

11 Helmut Koester, Introduction to the New Testament: History and Literature of Early Christianity, Vol. 2 (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980), 179. Cf. Alan Millard, Reading and Writing in the Time of Jesus, The Biblical Seminar 69 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000, 2001).

12 Walter L. Reed, Dialogues of the Word: The Bible as Literature According to Bakhtin (Oxford/New York/Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1993), 87f.

13 Reed, Dialogues of the Word, 99.14 Quoted in L. Juliana M. Claassens, “Biblical Theology as Dialogue: Continuing the

Conversation on Mikhail Bakhtin and Biblical Theology”, JBL 122/1 (2003): 127-44, 129. Cf. Mikhail M. Bakhtin, “Toward a Reworking of the Destoevsky’s Book”, in Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics (ed. and trans. Caryl Emerson; Theory and History of Literature 8; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 293. Michael Holquist, Dialogism: Bakhtin and His World (London: Routledge, 1990).

15 Mikhail M. Bakhtin, Speech Genres and Other Late Essays (ed. Caryl Emerson; Theory and History of Literature 8; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 94.


Thus, no word or utterance or text is ever spoken in isolation. It always calls to mind other words, utterances, or texts pertaining to the same theme. The dialogical character of the word or utterance has a profound effect on the discourses involved in the interaction. This basic argumentation helps us to view the entire Gospel of John from the dialogical perspective. A careful examination of the various functions of dialogues as a literary genre in John will enable the reader to see the point of view of the author with specificity. The prologue of John is not an exception in maintaining the dialogical character of the Gospel; it remains as an excellent threshold for the succeeding chapters. The prologue maintains several layers of dialogic characteristics in its overall function within the body of the larger biblical text. Some of them are identified in the following discussion.

Jesus, “the Dialogue in Flesh”According to Brown, “if John has been described as the pearl of great price among the New Testament writings, then one may say that the Prologue is the pearl within this Gospel”.16 The prologue introduces Jesus as the incarnation of the divine logos which was active in creation. His mission is to reveal the Father.17 It also establishes the antithetical norms which will be in conflict throughout the narrative: light and darkness, belief and unbelief, grace and truth and the law.18 In John, as D. H. Johnson says, “every occurrence of logos occurs in some syntactical sequence with Jesus or God”.19 Logos is a verbal noun from the Greek verb lego. The three basic meanings of the verb are: (1) Objective meaning: the rational ground or basis for something;20 (2) Subjective meaning: the power or faculty of reasoning

Bakhtin employs the terms “word”, “discourse”, and “utterance” interchangeably. For Bakhtin, the utterance is the real unit in speech communication. The utterance, which might be represented by a word, discourse, or text, is marked by a change of speaking subjects.

16 Raymond E. Brown, The Gospel According to John i-xii: Introduction, Translation, and Notes, The Anchor Bible (New York: Doubleday, 1966), 18.

17 Alan Culpepper, Anatomy of the Fourth Gospel: A Study in Literary Design (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983), 89.

18 Culpepper, Anatomy of the Fourth Gospel, 89.19 D. H. Johnson, “Logos”, Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, eds. Joel B. Green &

Scot McKnight (Illinois: IVP, 1992), 481-484, 481.20 This is often of a numerical or logical nature and functions as a principle of explanation.


or thought; and (3) Impressive meaning: thought or reason as expressed in speech or in writing.21 In his dialogues, Plato saw an association of logos with discourses or rational explanation. He generally identified thinking (dianoia) and rational discourse (logos); logos was the inward dialogue of the mind as it flowed from the mind through the lips.22 Depending on the context, logos has a wide variety of meanings: explanation, argument, theory, law or rule of conduct, hypothesis, formula or definition, narrative, oration, communication, conversation, dialogue, oracle, proverb or saying. The context here beckons us to see in Jesus the internal dialogue of God which later developed as a dialogue of God with the world. Hence Jesus is God’s dialogue in flesh. “This Logos”, as Kanagaraj says, “is the embodiment of God’s life, light, creative power, and glory, which is communicated to human beings”.23 Instead of using the term ‘Christ’, which would have aroused suspicion or a political understanding in the minds of his Jewish readers, John chose a familiar term that conveyed clearly God’s dialogue from within to the people of all religions and streams of philosophy.24 Jesus, the dialogue of God in flesh, became the core subject-matter for the narrator to describe various aspects like God’s dialogue within and its outward expression through sending the Son to the world and human synonymous dialogue through the expression of faith in Jesus (also antithetical conflict through rejecting the Son).

Rhythmical Responsive StyleThe Prologue maintains a rhythmical responsive style that is characteristic to the dialogic nature of the entire Gospel of John. “One of the most puzzling

See Jean Pepin, “Logos”, The Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol. 9, ed. Mircea Eliade (New York: McMillan Publishing Co., 1987), 9-15, 9.

21 The “speech” may be either vocalized or purely cerebral.22 Thomas H. Tobin, “Logos”, The Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol. 4, ed. David Noel

Freedman (New York: Do ubleday, 1992), 348-356, 348. Logos is something said (including the thought); by implication (the mental faculty) or motive; by extension a computation; specifically (with the article in John) the Divine expression (that is, Christ).

23 Jey J. Kanagaraj, The Gospel of John: A Commentary with Elements of Comparison to Indian Religious Thoughts and Cultural Practices (Secunderabad: OM Books, 2005), 38.

24 Kanagaraj, The Gospel of John, 38.


of the Fourth Gospel’s many puzzles” as Frank Thielman observes “is its peculiar style”.25 All through the Prologue, the author is not trying to present a text for single reading; rather a rhythmical reading where at least two readers are involved. As a responsive reading, in the Prologue, the author maintains the specific features of the rhetoric sayings chreia26. It is viewed that parts of the Prologue appear to come from an early Christian hymn, or at least from creedal or confessional material of the church. Carson says, “The term ‘poem’ can be applied to the Prologue only with hesitation”.27 According to him, “The most that can be concluded is that the frequency of such features in 1:1-18 enables us to speak of ‘rhythmical prose”.28 When we analyze the structure of John 1:1-5, there are four dialogical-responses.

25 Frank Thielman, “The Style of the Fourth Gospel and Ancient Literary Critical Concepts of Religious Discourse”, Persuasive Artistry: Studies in New Testament Rhetoric in Honor of George A. Kennedy: Journal for the Study of the NT Supplement Series 50, ed. Duane F. Watson (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991), 169.

26 Vernon K. Robbins, “The Chreia”, Greco-Roman Literature and the NT, ed. David E. Aune (Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press/SBL, 1988), 2-7. A chreia is a particular type of reminiscence. Rhetoricians distinguish between sayings chreiai and action chreiai. A saying chreia may belong to the “response” species rather than the “statement” species. There are at least four kinds of response species: (1) Some contains a question in the situation which may be answered simply by ‘yes’ or ‘no’; (2) Some contains an inquiry in the situation which requires the speaker to provide some kind of information beyond ‘yes’ or ‘no’; (3) Another kind includes an explanation, advice, or some such thing in addition to the answer to the question; and (4) Still another kind of “response” chreia contains simply a remark in the situation rather than a simple question or inquiry to which the response is made. Also see, Ronald F. Hock and Edward N. O’Neil (eds.), The Chreia in Ancient Rhetoric, Vol. 1: The Progymnasmata (Text and Translations 27: Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986); D. F. Watson, “Chreia/Aphorism”, Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, eds. Joel B. Green, Scot McKnight & I. Howard Marshall (Illinois: Inter-Varsity Press, 1992), 104-106.

27 D. A. Carson, The Gospel According to John (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1991), 112. It is important to ascertain whether the Prologue of John is a “poem” or a “prose”, a “rhythmic prose” or a “responsive dialogical literary piece”. Jacobus says, “the Prologue is a poem with a forward movement building up tension toward a climax at the end: ‘the-grace-and truth emerged through Jesus Christ’”. Also see, Frank Kermode, “St. John as Poet”, Journal for the Study of the New Testament 28 (1986): 3-16; Jacobus Schoneveld, “Torah in the Flesh: A New Reading of the Prologue of the Gospel of John as a Contribution to a Christology without Anti-Judaism”, The New Testament and Christian-Jewish Dialogue: Studies in Honor of Daniel Flusser, ed. Malcolm Lowe, Immanuel 24/25 (1990), 81.

28 Carson, The Gospel According to John, 112.


Whereas all the four ‘A sayings’ exist by themselves, the ‘B sayings’ are adjoined to the ‘A sayings’ by making use of the conjunction kai.29 In all these instances, a reader may be brought to the position of thinking about a ‘second reader’. When the ‘A readings’ are combined together, it presents to the reader a thorough-going flow of the mind of the narrator. It is this rhythmical-responsive style that invites the readers for participation in the act of reading. In a responsive-reading30 the latter reading can be seen as a ‘response’ to the previous. This basic aspect is well-maintained in the Prologue of John. If we consider the prologue as a responsive reading between A and B, the following format will well explain the structure of the pericope.

A. In the beginning was the Word

B. And the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was in the beginning

with God

A. All things came into being through him

B. And without him not one thing came into being

A. What has come into being in him was life

B. And the life was the light of all people

A. The light shines in the darkness

B. And the darkness did not overcome it

A. There was a man sent from God

B. Whose name was John

29 The Prologue is arranged in a responsive-style below. It is arranged in the fashion of an ‘A-B Dialogue’.

30 A ‘Responsive Rhetoric’ can be a stylistic feature adopted by the author to incorporate the community’s interactive features. It is a kind of ‘responsive reading’ that maintains the dialogical nature of a literary piece. The author of the Gospel of John attempts to sustain the dialogical feature of the entire document right from the beginning.


A. He came as a witness to testify to the lightB. So that all might believe through him

A. He himself was not the lightB. But he came to testify to the light

A. The true light... was coming into the worldB. Which enlightens everyone

A. He was in the world, and the world came into being through himB. Yet the world did not know him

A. He came to what was his ownB. And his own people did not accept him

A. But to all who received him, who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God

B. Who were born, not of blood or of the will of the flesh or of the will of man, but of God

A. And the Word became flesh and lived among usB. And we have seen his glory, the glory as of a father’s only son, full of grace

and truth

A. John testified to him and cried outB. ‘This was he of whom I said, “He who comes after me ranks ahead of me

because he was before me”’

A. From his fullness we have all receivedB. grace upon grace

A. The law indeed was given through MosesB. Grace and truth came through Jesus

A. No one has ever seen GodB. It is God the only Son, who is close to the Father’s heart,who has made him

know


The A readings are simple statements, and the B readings are embellishments on A readings. An orderly arrangement of the ‘A readings’ together will give the reader a nutshell of the message of the prologue; but the ‘B readings’ add further information to get a detailed grasp of it. The A Sections are the real content of the Prologue, and the B Sections are qualifications upon the A Sections. The author of the Gospel, as a profound composer of dialogues, employs his artistic skills innovatively right from the beginning.

Chiastic CommunicationThe prologue is not only responsive in style; but it also can be read as a chiasm.31 As Neyrey comments this chiasm is not merely ornamental but structures the communication.32 A chiasm places parallel words or phrases at the top and bottom of the passage (A & A`) and also includes subsequent parallels (B & B` and C & C`, etc.), thus signalling beginnings and endings, which frame the intervening communication. Scholars mark the parallels by labelling them as A, B, C and C`, B`, A`, which often draws attention to a central passage, “D”, which serves as the focus or climax of the rhetoric.33 The seven pairs of parallel narratives in the chiastic rearrangement of the Prologue provide a dialogic structure. There are at least two levels of parallelism, namely synonymous and antithetical.34 Synonymous Parallelism, where the second line supports the idea of the

31 A “chiasm” describes the conscious shaping of a passage according to an “X” shape (the Greek letter “chi” is X-shaped, chiasm). By providing clarity and focus, a chiastic structure draws an audience’s attention to significant materials both by means of repetitive parallels and by highlighting the centre of the figure, presumably the major thrust of the passage. This common form, moreover, was anticipated by audiences to aid in following the argument or narrative. Jerome H. Neyrey, The Gospel of John, The New Cambridge Bible Commentary (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 38. The pioneering work on the chiastic interpretation was done by M.-E Boismard in St. John’s Prologue (London: Blackfriars, 1957), 76-81; see also R. A. Culpepper, “The Pivot of John’s Prologue”, NTS 27 (1980), 2-7.

32 Jerome H. Neyrey, The Gospel of John (Cambridge: University Press, 2007), 39.33 Neyrey, The Gospel of John, 38. Also see Stibbe, Mark, 30. Neyrey arranges John 1:

1-18 by employing the style of chiasm: A & A` (1:1-2 & 18); B & B` (1:3 & 17); C & C` (1:3-5 & 16); D & D` (1:6-8 & 15); E & E` (1:9-10 & 14); F & F` (1:11 & 13); G & G` (1:12a & c); and H (1:12B).

34 Raymond E. Brown, The Gospel According to John 1-12: Introduction, Translation and Notes, The Anchor Bible (New York: Doubleday, 1966), cxxxii.


first is exemplified in 1:1-2 & 18 (A & A`), 1:3-5 & 16 (C & C`), 1:6-8 & 15 (D & D`), 1:9-10 & 14 (E & E`), 1:11 & 13 (F & F`) and 1:12 & 12c (G & G`). Antithetical Parallelism, where the second line offers a contrast with the first, is found in 1:3 & 17 (B & B`). The pivotal point of the chiastic dialogue is found in 1:12b (i. e., H). John’s usage of the device, chiasm, helps the reader in order to analyze the internal communication of the narratives in a symmetrical fashion. The internal communication of Johannine Prologue through the way of a chiasm is not without an intention. It has the power of interaction not only within the pericope, but also with the entire Gospel.

Tri-level Dialogical FunctionsJohn’s dialogues have multifarious layers which reflect through the interaction between the primitive Greco-Roman socio-historical backgrounds with the narrator; the narrator with his own community; internal structures, characters, themes and meanings in communication with each other; and the narrator with the current readers. All these together present a live representation of the content of the Prologue to every reader within a principle of ‘everywhere and ever’. This character of the book is eternal in duration and universal in application. Stibbe comments, “this magnificent overture has three functions: interactional, intra-textual and inter-textual”.35 All these functions are basically dialogical in nature. The interactional function is basically between the narrator and the readers in an eternal point of view. In interaction with the readers the narrator views Jesus-the Word from an omniscient perspective. Stibbe says, “The reader is given the impression from the start that the story is being told by one who views events from a transcendent and eternal vantage point”.36 The

35 Mark W. G. Stibbe, John, Readings: A New Biblical Commentary (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), 22. Also see E. S. Malbon, “Ending at the Beginning”, Semeia 52 (1991), 177. The interactional function concerns the communication between the narrator and the reader. The inter-textual function has to do with the relationship of Jn 1:1-18 with other literary texts. The intra-textual function of the Prologue is to introduce the reader to certain narrative qualities which will be ubiquitous in the Gospel.

36 Stibbe, John, 22f. The narrator seems to speak on behalf of a group or a community of people. The narrator employs more of a We-Thou than an I-Thou form of address.


Prologue is framed by employing rhetorical devices like inclusion, dualism, symbolism, irony, chiasmus and multivalence.37 These various linguistic components decide the polyphonic38 character of the Prologue. The text also reveals its function of intra-textuality,39 which means, within the Gospel itself. When scholars argued that the prologue was a wisdom hymn stitched by the author to the front of the Gospel to make it more acceptable to Hellenistic readers, it was judged to have little relationship to the rest of the Gospel.40 Now scholars stress the extensive relationship between prologue and Gospel, such that one might say that the prologue is a topic sentence, an overture, a summary of what is subsequently developed.41 Many of the central, thematic words of this Gospel are first introduced in these verses: life, light (1:4), witness (1:7), true (in the sense of ‘genuine’ or ‘ultimate’, 1:9), world (1:10), glory, truth (1:14). But supremely, the Prologue summarizes how the ‘Word’ which was with God in the beginning came into the sphere of time, history, tangibility—in other words, how the Son of God was sent into the world to become the Jesus of history, so that the glory and grace of God might be uniquely and perfectly disclosed. In essence this snippet is in dialogue with the rest of the book.42

37 Stibbe, John, 29-31.38 On one level, Bakhtin observes the “heteroglossic” character of language. On another

level, Bakhtin suggests that discourse is always “polyphonic”. Because meaning reverberate with and against each other upon their utterance, transmission, and reception, the making of meaning is itself a dialogical reality. See Paul N. Anderson, “Bakhtin’s Dialogism and the Corrective Rhetoric of the Johannine Misunderstanding Dialogue: Exposing Seven Crises in the Johannine Situation”, Bakhtin and Genre Theory in Biblical Studies, ed. Roland Boer, No. 63 (Atlanta: SBL, 2007), 133.

39 It is specifically dealt with in the seventh section, titled “Prologue in Dialogue with the rest of the Book”.

40 Neyrey, The Gospel of John, 41. Cf. J. A. T. Robinson, “The Relation of the Prologue to the Gospel of St. John”, NTS 9 (1962), 120-29; Warren Carter, “The Prologue and John’s Gospel: Function, Symbol and Definitive Word”, JSNT 39 (1990), 35-58; and Elizabeth Harris, Prologue and Gospel: The Theology of the Fourth Evangelist (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994), 1-25.

41 Neyrey, The Gospel of John, 41f. Also see George R. Beasley-Murray, John, Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 36 (Waco, Texas: Word Books Publisher, 1987), 3. The Prologue is considered as a foyer to the rest of the Fourth Gospel, simultaneously drawing the reader in and introducing the major themes. Carson, The Gospel According to John, 111.

42 Cf. Carson, The Gospel According to John, 111.


The significance of the Prologue, therefore, is that it determines how the entire Gospel should be read and understood.43 The Prologue is a work of immense assurance and literary power. It moves with measured steps from the creation to the climactic moment of the incarnation (vs. 14), and then indicates the fullness of revelation which results from it.44

Opening with an echo of Genesis 1:1, the prologue goes on to identify its protagonist as the “Logos”, the Word of God, and thus places the drama in a cosmic setting and against an Old Testament background. The narrator also sets up an inter-textual relationship between the story of Jesus and the story of Moses. Comparison between Jesus and Moses, and between Jesus’ death and the Exodus, recur throughout John.45 Stibbe says, “This network of Moses symbolism is initiated in the Prologue”.46 Moreover, the text interacts within itself. The interrelationship of Jesus-the Word with God (vv. 1-2), creation (vv. 3-5), John the Baptist (vv. 6-9), his enemies (vv. 10-11) and the community (vv. 12-16) is conspicuously narrated in succinct form. These diverse functions of the Prologue exemplify the multifarious dialogues of the text ‘within’, ‘between’ and ‘among’ an array of concepts, figures and texts. This character evidently projects the dialogic intention of the opening snippet of the Prologue.

Conflict and CharacterizationThe author uses various episodes skilfully to enrich the texture of the whole. While the dialogues slow down the action, they intensify conflict and characterization and provide space for thematic development.47 The effect of the narrative structure, with its prologue followed by episodic repetition of the conflict between belief and unbelief, is to enclose the reader in the

43 Cornelis Bennema, Excavating John’s Gospel: A Commentary for Today (Delhi: ISPCK, 2005), 22.

44 Lindars, The Gospel of John, 77.45 Stibbe, John, 23.46 Stibbe, John, 23. The narrator not only establishes an inter-textual relationship between

this story and the stories of Wisdom and of Moses, the same thing is also done with the opening of the book of Genesis. There is hardly a work of literature with more of a sense of a beginning than John’s Gospel.

47 R. Alan Culpepper, Anatomy of the Fourth Gospel: A Study in Literary Design (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983), 97.


company of faith. The gospel’s plot, therefore, is controlled by thematic development and a strategy for wooing readers to accept its interpretation of Jesus.48 The plot of the Gospel cannot be determined unless the readers comprehend the dialectical stature. In John’s Gospel, God incarnate in Jesus has a controversy with the world, the Jewish leaders who epitomize the world in its opposition to the Gospel (Jn. 5:16, 18; 6:41; 7:1; 10:31; 11:8). This tension is the real thrust of the Gospel, a dialogue between belief and unbelief, and the prologue establishes this fact right at the beginning itself. John 1:1-18 foreshadows the division between belief and unbelief so characteristic of the rest of the Gospel (1:10-11).49 By means of the prologue the author attempts to help Jews, Greeks, and other religious philosophers to understand God in His relationship with human beings.50 The Gospel is framed in a fashion in which the dialectical role of belief and unbelief moves antithetically. Mostly the discourse sections are fashioned by strategically inserting the ‘belief-unbelief conflict’. This hidden agenda of the story is the pavement of the Gospel’s dialogic structure. In the Gospel of John, the reader is alerted at the outset that the story of Jesus is the crucial manifestation of a cosmic struggle between light and darkness or belief and unbelief (1:5). The historic circumstances of Jesus in his time are the stage on which the ultimate cosmic drama is played out. Jesus’ victory (16:33) is not just a personal triumph, but the act in which the light finally overcomes the darkness and God’s plan of salvation for all humanity is achieved. John’s Gospel is carefully planned with a series of set pieces, each leading up to a dramatic climax. The presentation is controlled by the skilful use of dialogue, or dramatic monologue, to engage the readers on the side of Jesus and to confront them personally with the decision which is set before Jesus’ audience in the play. John’s writing has perennial power, and challenges the modern reader still.51

48 Culpepper, Anatomy of the Fourth Gospel, 98. 49 M. M. Thompson, “John, Gospel of”, Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, eds. Joel

B. Green, Scot McKnight & I Howard Marshall (Illinois: Inter-Varsity Press, 1992), 373.

50 Jey J. Kanagaraj, The Gospel of John: A Commentary with Elements of Comparison to Indian Religious Thoughts and Cultural Practices (Secunderabad: OM Books, 2005), 34.

51 Barnabas Lindars, Ruth B. Edwards & John M. Court, The Johannine Literature: With an Introduction by R. Alan Culpepper (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 35.


A Vertical Dialogic DramaThe Prologue is an abstract form in which the Heaven-Earth Drama is initiated. We notice that John is an artist with a strong feeling of drama. Barnabas Lindars rightly points out that “in fact the form and structure of the Prologue are in conformity with John’s discourse style”.52 This is not a fresh discovery, since many studies of the Fourth Gospel have drawn attention to its dramatic elements.53 Smalley says, “By considering the Fourth Gospel as a highly-wrought drama, moreover, we can determine John’s distinctive presentation of the gospel tradition, centered in Jesus, and appreciate further the evangelist’s theological understanding”.54 In the prologue it is conspicuous that the heavens come in dialogue with the earth. The scene is set in heaven (vss. 1-13), but moves swiftly to earth (vs. 14): with heaven in mind. In Prologue, we encounter John’s principal theological themes, and the chief characters in the drama: Jesus, John the Baptist and the disciples.55 Scholars such as Jo-Ann A. Brant, George Parsenios, and others have proposed that the Fourth Evangelist modelled his Gospel on Greek drama, especially tragedy.56 The Gospels are, however, too long for dramas, which maintained a particular length in Mediterranean antiquity.57

52 Barnabas Lindars, The Gospel of John, New Century Bible (London: Oliphants, 1972), 82.

53 Stephen Smalley, John: Evangelist & Interpreter, Second Edition (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1998), 141. George Mlakuzhyil describes Johannine Gospel in its totality as a ‘five-act theological drama, and identifies some of the dramatic techniques used in its composition: such as change of scenes, change of characters and double-stage action. Similarly, Ben Witherington III believes that John has drawn on the conventions of Graeco-Roman drama to present the story of Jesus ‘in a dramatic mode’. See G. Mlakuzhyil, The Christocentric Literary Structure of the Fourth Gospel, AnBib 117 (Rome: Pontificio Instituto Biblico, 1987); Ben Witherington III, John’s Wisdom: A commentary on the Fourth Gospel (Cambridge: Lutterworth Press, 1995).

54 Smalley, John: Evangelist & Interpreter, 142. 55 Smalley, John, 142.56 Refer to Jo-Ann A. Brant, Dialogue and Drama: Elements of Greek Tragedy in the

Fourth Gospel (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2004); George L. Parsenios, Rhetoric and Drama in the Johannine Lawsuit Motif (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2010).

57 Craig S. Keener, The Gospel of John: A Commentary, Volume 1 (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 2003), 10. Also see Burridge, Gospels, 225; Robert A.


They also include far too much prose narrative for ancient drama. Despite its inadequacy as a full-fledged generic category, however, the proposal has some merit in that it at least invites us to investigate elements of Mediterranean storytelling from this period that were borrowed from Greek drama. Some point out that John generally has only two or at most three active (speaking) characters at a time, which fits rules for staging in Greek drama, and he divides scenes in a manner similar to such works.58 Paul Duke regards John’s “dramatic style” as so similar to classical Greek drama that he believes the author shows some acquaintance with Greek drama.59

In the prologue John introduces the most important themes that he will develop in the rest of the work.60 The evangelist shows the progression from pre-existence (1:1-2) to creation (1:3), the time subsequent to creation but prior to the incarnation (1:4-5), the Baptist (1:6-8), and the incarnation and its results and benefits (1:9-18).61 The framework John wants us to adopt is as follows: this world is a world enveloped in spiritual darkness; it does not know God; but by divine initiative, God came to this world as a human being—Jesus.62 Thus the ‘world from above’ is in a dialogue with the ‘world from below’. More briefly it should be noted the way in which the gospel moves back and forth between narratives and discourses.

Spivey & D. Moody Smith, Anatomy of the New Testament: A Guide to Its Structure and Meaning (London: The Macmillan Company, 1969).

58 Keener, The Gospel of John, 10. Also see Koester, Symbolism, 36; Ellis, Genius, 8.59 Duke, Irony, 141.60 Andreas J. Kostenberger, John, BECNT (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Academic,

2004). This is why the prologue has also been called the “Proleptic Quintessence” (Harnack, A. von, “Ubes das Verhaltnis des Prologs des Vierten Evangeliums”, Zeitschrift fur Theologie und Kirche 2, 1982: 189-231); a “Microcosm” (Valentine, S. R., “The Johannine Prologue—a Microcosm of the Gospel”, Evangelical Quarterly 68, 1996: 291-304); and an “Adumbration” (Booser, K. D., “The Literary Structure of John 1:1-18: An Examination of Its Theological Implications concerning God’s Saving Plan through Jesus Christ”, Evangelical Journal 16, 1993: 13-29) of the entire Gospel.

61 J. G. Van der Watt, “The Composition of the Prologue of John’s Gospel: The Historical Jesus Introducing Divine Grace”, Westminster Theological Journal 57 (1995): 311-32; B. Lindars, The Gospel of John, New Century Bible (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans/London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott., 1972), 77.

62 Bennema, Excavating John’s Gospel, 27.


The interrelationship between narratives and discourses is a feature of the literary skill of the author.63 The reader has been told who Jesus is and what he has done, but an important question remains unanswered: how did this action of God in the human story take place? Only a Johannine story of Jesus can answer that question.64

Prologue in Dialogue with the Rest of the Book65

In Greek rhetoric, the introduction and statement of facts must come first in a speech. In the introduction to a forensic speech, one should state facts concisely so the jury will understand them, including arguments which anticipate the main arguments of speech. Yet such an introduction does not expound the main points; it merely introduces them; its “sole purpose” is to dispose the audience favourably to the rest of the speech or work. A prologue could not expound at any length, since it was to be kept short. As a formal preface, John’s prologue is thus “likely to reveal something of the author’s purpose, intentions and interest”.66 The narratives of the gospel are often told in a dramatic style. They progress in deliberate stages which constitute scenes and evoke a sense of suspense as the narrative moves forward. Such dramatic structure is typical of a series of longer narratives within the gospel. Among these are 4:1-42; 6:1-71; 9:1-41; 11:1-44; and 18:28-19:16. The narratives, however, are not exclusively of this longer variety. Punctuating the story are much shorter tales told with economy and clarity (e.g., 2:1-11; 2:12-25; 4:43-54; 12:1-11; 13:1-30).67 John 1:1-18 informs the reader that Jesus Christ is the incarnation of the pre-existent Word and that life, light, and divine filiations flow from an acceptance of the story of the unseen God revealed by the incarnate Word. This story

63 Kysar, “John, the Gospel of”, ABD, 916. 64 Moloney, The Gospel of John, 34.65 It is an extension of the arguments of the intra-textual connections of the Gospel.66 Keener, The Gospel of John, 338. Cf. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Lysias 24. Rhetorical

handbooks already insisted that the introduction should summarize the arguments the speech would use (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Thucyd. 19), though there were some exceptions in spoken rhetoric.

67 Robert Kysar, “John, the Gospel of”, ABD, ed. David Noel Freedman, Vol. 3 (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 916.


perfects the former gift of the Law given through Moses.68 The failure to link the Prologue with the literary and socio-historical contexts of the Gospel is evident in a brief examination of several significant contributions from previous scholarship.69

In John, the logos is narrated as a divine emissary in conflict with the world throughout the Gospel. Jesus, the emissary from above, has come into this world (1:9-10; 3:16-17, 19; 6:14; 10:36; 11:27; 12:46; 16:28; 17:18, 21, 23; 18:37). His mission was an expression of God’s love for the world (3:16). The coming of logos is expressed in terms of the coming of the light into the world as the light of the world (3:19; 8:12; 9:5; 12:46).70 J. Painter observes, “Only those who believe perceive the light of the world which has the power to transform those who belong to the world so that their lives are shaped by the light from above”.71 John’s logos, thus, permeates all through the Gospel as a focused theme. The coming of the logos is delineated as the coming of the ‘World from Above’ in dialogue with the ‘World from Below’. These features of Johannine duality in both synonymous and antithetical format enable the readers to look into the entire Gospel from a dialogical perspective.

68 Francis J. Moloney, The Gospel of John, Sacra Pagina Series, ed. Daniel J. Harrington, Vol. 4 (Collegeville, Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1998), 34.

69 Warren Carter, “The Prologue and John’s Gospel: Function, Symbol and the Definitive Word”, Journal for the Study of the New Testament 39 (1990), 35. Harnack concluded that the Prologue was a secondary addition. The exchange between Bultmann and Kasemann which has dominated the discussion of the Prologue since Harnack, was concerned primarily with its original form and provenance. J. A. T. Robinson similarly overlooked the literary and socio-historical context of the Gospel in arguing that the Prologue was a later addition to a Gospel. Cf. Harnack, “Ubes das Varhaltnis des Prologs”, ZTK 2, 189-231; E. Kasemann, “The Structure and Purpose of the Prologue to John’s Gospel”, New Testament Questions of Today (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1969), 138-67; and J. A. T. Robinson, “The Relation of the Prologue to the Gospel of St. John”, NTS 9 (1962-63), 120-29.

70 J. Painter, “World”, Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, 890.71 J. Painter, “World”, Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, 890.


Conceptualization and Analysisof Systemic Corruption through

Augustinian Doctrineof Original Sin

David Muthukumar. S1

IntroductionCurrent Indian political and social spheres are intensely gripped with the issue of corruption. Corrupt motives as conceived in the political corridors and executed through bureaucratic channels, favoring a few corporate entities or individuals for illicit benefits cause enormous loss to the government and hence deprivation of benefits to citizens in need. In the present scenario, corruption in the higher echelons of public offices has become so endemic, that has brought together the social activists, media and citizens for a concerted fight against corruption.2 Despite the overture efforts of the ruling government to protect the interest of the tainted “people’s representatives”, the Supreme Court ruling depriving them of any immunity against prosecution has been effectively enforced. Through such activism, a few individuals are put behind prison bars, who would have successfully outwitted the law by playing “VIP cell-bail-hospital” game. Through this paper, the author is to look at corruption beneath the surface level of few individuals’ moral corruption, to unveil the systemic

1 Lecturer of Christian Theology and Registrar, Union Biblical Seminary, Pune, India. 2 Media plays a major role in unearthing the major scams and keep public consciousness

from fading. Recent proactive participation of social activists like Anna Hazare and others has brought forward the need for an “institutional check and balances” through the lokpal bill. Yet the Government initially tried to water down this by excluding PM and Judges out of the ambit and then passing an ordinance to provide immunity to elected representatives.

19Conceptualization and Analysis of Systemic Corruption

corruption in the very scheme of Liberal Capitalism. 3 This will be done by looking first at the conception and critique of liberal capitalism as Adam Smith perceived it, in order to unveil the systemic corruption within liberal capitalism; then to move toward analyzing it on the basis of Augustinian doctrine of Original Sin to understand the conceptual errors that breed such systemic corruption.

Liberal Capitalism – Concepts & CritiqueWith the onset of Industrialization in the late Eighteenth century, the transition of a new world order was put into effect: from being a predominantly agrarian society, industrial society and its corollary, urban communities became the defining characteristics of the day. This change in the societal makeup radically altered the power relations between various segments of the people. The longstanding feudal societies of the erstwhile European communities gave way to the newly emerging bourgeoisie society. In this emerging context, the Scottish philosopher Adam Smith published his classic book on market economics: Inquiry into Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) and inaugurated the new market era. He remarked,

Political economy… proposes two distinct objects; first, to provide a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people, or more properly to enable them to provide such a revenue or subsistence for themselves; and secondly, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue sufficient for the public services. It proposes to enrich both the people and the sovereign.4

Smith was assured that this market based economy would benefit the state (monarchy of his time) as well as the participating citizens. Smith’s

3 Marxian critique on Capitalism has been the most preferred criticism since Karl Marx’s publication of Communist Manifesto. But Communistic criticism on Capitalism has lost its sheen as Communism has failed both as an ideology as well as practice with the crumbling of Communistic societies in former USSR, East Germany and other packets. Here, I am attempting an Emic perspective (from within capitalistic System) To this purpose, I will be basing my critique primarily on Adam Smith’s conception of Free Market Capitalism and its implications to the modern society. Also, a critique on neo-classical economy will be attempted to recognize the change in conception.

4 Adam Smith, An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Harriman House Ltd., 2007), 275.


conception was to provide an alternative to the feudal society where majority of the citizens had to live through the patronage of the feudal lords. He contended that the markets would provide the much needed opportunities and incentives for people to “work hard and accumulate capital”, mutually benefitting the society in the process.5 But how could this happen? He envisaged the force of “invisible hands”.

Self-Interest and Invisible HandSmith said, the rich

“are led by an invisible hand to make nearly the same distribution of the necessaries of life, which would have been made, had the earth been divided into equal portions among all its inhabitants, and thus without intending it, without knowing it, advance the interest of the society, and afford means to the multiplication of the species.6

As Ryan Patrick Hanley observes, Smith’s aim is to show that “the macroeconomic aim of the invisible hand – reconciliation of individual utility and collective benefit – is itself, in its obverse, the fundamental claim of Smith’s microeconomics: that individual humanity promotes collective utility”.7 In his attempt to reconcile the individual’s self pursuit with that of a larger society’s benefit, Smith assumed that self-attainment of individuals could invariably lead to the prospering of the respective societies. Being an Enlightenment philosopher, Smith typically gave weight to the role of human reason in regulating one’s passion for unrestrained wealth accumulation.8 He asserted, “It is reason, principle, conscience, the

5 Jerry Evensky, Adam Smith’s Moral Philosophy: A Historical and Contemporary Perspective on Markets, Law, Ethics, and Culture (Cambridge University Press, 2007), 153 It should be noted that smith was right to great extent as market economy has brought unprecedented wealth generation and prosperity to many nations. In the post-liberal scenario (post 1991) in India, social mobility has seen meteoric rise and a strong middle class segment has emerged in India. Yet the conspicuous disparity between “haves” and “have-nots” is not to be missed.

6 Adam Smith, Adam Smith: The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1st ed.; Cambridge University Press, 2002), 215.

7 Ryan Patrick Hanley, Adam Smith and the Character of Virtue (1st ed.; Cambridge University Press, 2009), 127.

8 Kent A. Van Til, Less Than Two Dollars a Day: Christian View of World Poverty and


inhabitant of the breast, the man within, the great judge and arbiter of our conduct”.9 This hyper-optimistic conception of human nature, being guided by an “invisible hand”, which Smith identified with human reason, became the cynosure for human conduct. And as Hanley notes, this assertion raised suspicion in the minds of several people, pondering whether Smith has “intentionally or otherwise, deflected, displaced, or deflated the traditional questions of how human beings might best live and best live together to a new question of how they might maximize profits, thereby substituting economics for politics as the central human concern.”10 This contention holds water as the system of capitalism functions primarily as per the dictates of the market’s reductionist logic of profit-loss motive .11 The fault-lines of capitalism and modern market economy evidently surface in this assertion and the seeds of corruption were sown when free market economy and its corresponding individual self-pursuit were legitimized and given autonomy. In the modern milieu, disparity between the rich and the poor is exponentially raising and this power differential further augments the self-pursuit of individuals and corporate agencies at the expense of their employees, society and ecosystem. This systemic corruption in the liberal market capitalism plagues contemporary society where the individual greed for material accumulation is pursued unashamedly to the detriment of human society.12 Thus Smith’s prophecy that such self-interest will “…thus without intending it, without knowing it, advance the interest of the society, and afford means to the multiplication of the species”13 is found to be untrue and has only proliferated disparity without addressing the issue of widespread poverty.

the Free Market (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2007), 15.9 Smith, Moral Sentiments, 137.10 Hanley, Adam Smith and the Character of Virtue, 6.11 Political policy-making definitely has its place in the modern economy. Yet, despite

such external forces, the internal dynamics of market are the real forces that shape and control the outcome of economy.

12 On a contrasting note Max Weber says ‘the summum bonum of this [Protestent] ethic, the earning of more and more money, combined with the strict avoidance of all spontaneous enjoyment of life, is above all completely devoid of any eudaemonistic, not to say hedonistic, admixture.’ See Max Weber and Stephen Kalberg, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Revised.; Oxford University Press, USA, 2010), 18.

13 Smith, Moral Sentiments, 215.


ConsumerismAnother conception of Smith that is very significant to the understanding of market capitalism is his notion about the priority of consumers in a market economy. He asserted that “Consumption is the sole end and purpose of all production; and the interest of the producer ought to be attended to, only so far as it may be necessary for promoting that of the consumer”.14 The consumption driven characteristic of a modern market economy was predicted in accurate terms by Smith. By conceding the center-stage to the consumer, the whole production process was made to revolve around the consumerist choices. The implications of this consumerist orientation is reflected in the materialistic culture where the “needs” are created in the minds of the consumers through the aid of advertisements and products are sold that are consumed through the disposable income of affluent segments while the basic needs of poor are left unattended .15 This is another systemic corruption in the liberal market economy that breeds materialism while remaining insensitive to the real needs of the people on the periphery.

Psychological CorruptionWhile such systemic corruption within the liberal capitalism has methodically alienated segments of the society, Adam Smith himself had launched a scathing attack on the vices of human “vanity”. In the Theory of Moral Sentiments Smith deplores the human urge for approbation. He asked,

From whence, then, arises that emulation which runs through all the different ranks of men, and what are the advantages which we propose by that great purpose of human life which we call bettering our condition? To be observed, to be attended to, to be taken notice of with sympathy, complacency, and approbation, are all the advantages which we can propose to derive from it. It is the vanity, not the ease, or the pleasure, which interests us. But vanity is always founded upon the belief of our being the object of attention and approbation.16

14 Smith, Wealth of Nations, 416.15 C.K. Prahalad in his book Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Eradicating Poverty

through Profits challenged this consumerist outlook and argued for an alternative to focus the production to meet the needs of people earning less than $2 a day. Many of the FMCG companies embraced this idea and repackaged their wares in sachets so that people in the lower rungs of the society can also afford.

16 Smith, Moral Sentiments, 61.


According to Smith’s contention, human self-pursuit in accumulating great wealth is ultimately to serve the purpose of his or her craving for recognition in the society. Hanley comments that for Smith the “psychological motives for commercial activity emphasize not love of ease or pleasure but love of recognition”.17 Smith further notes, “The rich man glories in his riches, because he feels that they naturally draw upon him the attention of the world, and that mankind are disposed to go along with him in all those agreeable emotions with which the advantages of his situation so readily inspire him”.18 Here Smith comes hard on the self-importance, the rich ascribe suo moto. Smith’s “departure point… is his observation that the desire for esteem and recognition is at once the animating passion of commerce as well as the origin of commercial corruption”.19 While conceding that self-pursuit after wealth will be the basic dynamic of market capitalism, Smith observes that it also implies the systemic corruption.20 The Merger & Acquisitions carried out by large corporate entities in search for enormous profit swallow up competitions and create powerful international cartels that vie for power, prestige and political leverage in the global arena. Growing instances of such tendencies witness to Smith’s consternation about rich persons’ fixation for status and recognition at all costs.

17 Hanley, Adam Smith and the Character of Virtue, 37. Smith wrote “Nature, when she formed man for society, endowed him with an original desire to please, and an original aversion to offend his brethren. She taught him to feel pleasure in their favourable, and pain in their unfavourable regard. She rendered their approbation most flattering and most agreeable to him for its own sake; and their disapprobation most mortifying and most offensive.” Smith, Moral Sentiments, 135. Also see D. D. Raphael, The Impartial Spectator: Adam Smith’s Moral Philosophy (Oxford University Press, USA, 2009), 32-42.

18 Smith, Moral Sentiments, 61.19 Hanley, Adam Smith and the Character of Virtue, 36. Also see20 In the later part of Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith balances his criticism on

capitalism by turning to the aid of reason. He uses the category of wise and foolish to distinguish between those who use the power of reason and those who do not. He says, wise man “… naturally desires, not only to be loved, but to be lovely; or to be that thing which is the natural and proper object of love. He naturally dreads, not only to be hated, but to be hateful; or to be that thing which is the natural and proper object of hatred. He desires, not only praise, but praise-worthiness; or to be that thing which, though it should be praised by nobody, is, however, the natural and proper object of praise. He dreads, not only blame, but blame-worthiness…”Smith, Moral Sentiments, 132.


Social Endowments as GivenCapitalism can be defined as “a system in which individuals or combinations of individuals compete with each other to accumulate wealth by buying the rights to use land, labor, and capital in order to produce goods and services with the intention of selling them in a market at a profit.”21 To participate in the market economy and to pursue one’s self-interest, one apparently needs certain basic endowments. “These initial endowments that facilitate participation may include things such as basic education, marketable skills, access to transportation, clean water etc.”22 In a broader societal structure, this could well include connection to sources of power (political) and accessibility to markets. But what proportion of the population is bestowed with such initial endowments. In India, where even primary education is not accessible to million of children, what sort of endowments they can carry in to participate in the market; it is utterly deplorable.23 The market which is supposed to offer level ground for all citizens becomes restricted space for many and individual pursuit for self-attainment becomes a distant dream. Amartya Sen understands individual participation in the market economy in terms of “Entitlement relations” by identifying the following:

“first, trade-based entitlement : one is entitled to own what one obtains by trading; second, production-based entitlement: one is entitled to own what one gets by arranging production using one’s owned resources; third, own-labor entitlement: one is entitled to own one’s own labor power; and fourth,

21 Michael P. Hornsby-Smith, An Introduction to Catholic Social Thought (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 25 citing Paul Saunders, Capitalism: A Social Audit, Buckingham: Open University Press, 1995.

22 Van Til, Less Than Two Dollars, 35.23 UNESCO report on Children Out of School: Measuring Exclusion from Primary

Education states, “Not surprisingly, India – the second most populous country in the world – has the highest absolute number of out-of-school children. According to the MICS 2000 survey, almost 27 million school-age children in India do not attend school, or one out of four. India alone accounts for 23% of the global total”. (UNESCO, Children Out of School: Measuring Exclusion from Primary Education, (cited 10/08/2011) online: http://www.uis.unesco.org/Library/Documents/c05-oosen.pdf. The context of politician-bureaucrat nexus, nepotism, cronyism all play prominent role in the current Indian context.


inheritance and transfer entitlement: one is entitled to own what is willingly given to one by another who legitimately owns it”24 All these entitlements to trade, produce, work or inherit assume certain social endowments as given and in the absence of such, liberal market system offers no scope to participate. This intrinsic corruption within the system allows the dominant segments of the society to maneuver market forces for their individual profit by shutting out the legitimate participation of others.25 Having observed in the preceding sections about the systemic corruption within the liberal market capitalism, a theological undertaking to analyze the aforementioned issue of corruption is warranted. This will be carried out through an understanding of St. Augustine’s doctrine of original sin.

Analysis through Augustinian Doctrine of Original SinContemporary society, characterized by the capitalistic priorities of pursuit of wealth accumulation, consumerism and obsession for self-importance has engendered insensitivity toward the suffering of the deprived human populations. Individualism, relativism and economic hegemony have become the order of the day. The binary of a minority rich and majority poor has emerged as the standard norm and the excessively rich are patronizing the depressingly poor through the “hobby” of philanthropy, which is. In the absence of any viable alternative, systemic corruption in capitalism continues unabated even as its emphatically anthropocentric approach has proved to be essentially non-egalitarian and any claim for the welfare of all humanity is a mirage.26 In such a context, a study on Augustine’s exposition of original sin will help to put things in perspective and understand and address the issue of this systemic corruption within in the capitalistic system. In the present day scenario, any mention of the

24 Amartya Sen and Jean Dreze, Amartya Sen and Jean Dreze omnibus. Comprising `Poverty and famines’, `Hunger and public action’, `India: economic development and social opportunity’ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 2.

25 2G scams exemplify such corruption. By effectively manipulating the tender criteria, special favor was shown to few companies, in lieu of heavy financial kick-backs.

26 The demise of communistic critique as an ideology and practice has virtually created a vacuum.


word “sin” will inevitably evoke an “overwhelmingly negative response”, even within the Christian community.27 Yet the world has failed to offer any other substantial categories through which we can attain a plausible understanding of human fallibility and all its effort to condone such an inherent limitation continues to corrupt social, economic and moral institutions. Christian theological anthropology expounds the perennial problem of human tendency toward evil in terms of a deformed human nature. Following the Genesis 3 narrative of “Fall” account, sin is understood as deformity of the original nature, innate in all human beings. This doctrine of original sin is powerfully explicated by St. Augustine of Hippo.28 While his opponent Pelagius argued that human beings already possess the innate ability to overcome evil and to choose good and that there is no need for any external impartation of grace, Augustine challenged this autonomy of human free will. Augustine asked, if the descendants of Adam could make themselves perfect by their self-attainment, why everyone should feel so wretched, “including even so great a saint as Paul?”29 He was obviously referring to Romans 7:14-20 in which Paul struggles with the dilemma of sin. Augustine discredited the pelagian conception of free will as having overlooked the reality of universal sin. Augustine utilized the fall narrative to show that “human beings’ congenital sinfulness” – sin that is inherited by every individual at birth because of Adam’s fall – is essential in order to understand human propensity to evil.30 But the “consumerist anthropology” of modern society is very much stained by the philosophy of individualism in which the “choice is determined exclusively by the will of the chooser”;31 this so

27 Ian A. McFarland, In Adam’s Fall: A Meditation on the Christian Doctrine of Original Sin (1st ed.; West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), ix.

28 Augustine’s understanding was characterized by his Soteriological priority that human beings need a Savior in Christ. He developed his arguments in response to Pelagius’ optimism about human free will.

29 Eleonore Stump and Norman Kretzmann, The Cambridge Companion to Augustine (1st ed.; Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 224 citing Augustine, De pecc. merit. et remis. 2.6–7, 12–17.

30 McFarland, In Adam’s Fall, 32.31 McFarland, In Adam’s Fall, 5.


called “freedom of will” is essentially pelagian in content. As observed in the critique, this “autonomy of free will” should be considered as a causality factor for the quandary of capitalistic vices. On the contrary, Augustine’s perception of the original “congenital sin” provides the much needed conceptual category to go beneath the surface of “actual sins” of individual immorality to understand the systemic corruption in the liberal capitalism.32 Augustine’s doctrine of original sin can be summarized as follows: first, Augustine is making an “ontological claim” that establishes the link (“in sin”) between the human progeny and the progenitors, traced to the first human beings Adam and Eve;33 second, also it is a “psychological claim that postlapsarian humanity is suffering from a congenital bondage… to sin”;34 third, and a “moral claim that all postlapsarian human activity unaided by grace is sin”.35 These three aspects of Augustine’s conception of original sin can be used as a framework to analyze the conceptual errors that beget systemic corruption as encountered in the critique section. As an ontological category, the concept of original sin stands counter to the Smithean notion of “invisible hand”. Conceding that the whole being of an individual is tainted by sin through its ontological association with Adam’s fall, any thought of human reason as an ultimate guide is superfluous; leave alone its power to regulate human self-pursuit of wealth accumulation. Smith’s Enlightenment rationality has never been the guide in the right sense; rather it has been an accomplice in the aggravated insensitivity of the rich. Thus, Augustine’s conception of original sin squarely addresses the systemic corruption of “autonomy of free will”- the bane of capitalism. His understanding of original sin as a psychological category, that has subjugated humanity, addresses the issue of human craving for self-importance. Being in “congenital bondage to sin”, the natural desire for approbation has been defiled into obsession for esteem

32 Sin in biblical hamartiology is understood as “original sin” - the human inclination to evil which every individual inherits at birth - and “actual sin” – the intentional as well as unintentional acts of human beings that are contrary to God’s will as revealed in the Scripture. (See McFarland, In Adam’s Fall, 19-22.)

33 McFarland, In Adam’s Fall, 35.34 McFarland, In Adam’s Fall, 35.35 McFarland, In Adam’s Fall, 35.


and recognition at the expense of others’ wellbeing. This systemic fault within capitalism has enabled the rich to pursue self-gratification without any remorse and Augustine’s conception of “congenital sin” exposes its true face. Original sin as a moral category captures the issue of consumerism and disregard for the poor and marginalized within the capitalistic system. While the markets were given autonomy, a relative priority was accorded to consumerist preference that has reached its limits in its total abandon for the needs of people on the fringes of society. Channels of participation are banned for these people who lack “social endowments” and are left to the mercy of the rich and powerful. Finally, Augustine emphasizes the impartation of divine grace to overcome human inclination to evil. He categorically states that “all postlapsarian human activity unaided by grace is sin”. Taking the fall of Adam and Eve as the dividing line, he claims that all human activities are prone to evil in the postlapsarian state. As any amount of human good will and intention will not be sufficient to ameliorate this dilemma – as significant portion of global population live in wretched poverty despite the generosity of billions of dollars through various foundations - Augustine posits that God’s grace has to be sought for a true redemption. The rich need God’s grace to rise above the enslaving consumerism and the poor need it to triumph over their lot of oppression and misery in the liberal capitalistic system. In other words, systemic corruption in liberal capitalism can be plugged up only through an attitudinal change effected through the inner working of God in human lives and society.

ConclusionAdam Smith, the much acclaimed “Father of Capitalism and modern Economy”, envisioned the liberal market capitalism as a panacea for the ills of the feudal society. Buoyed by the prospect of advancements in industrialization, science and technology, capitalism has then grown into a monolith and its after-effects are for all to see. Smith conceived that that the markets will provide the level field for all the citizens; but markets have become no-entry zones for majority segments of population who


lack “social endowments”. Also, the Smithean prophecy, “one person’s self-pursuit is another person’s benefit” has been found to be untrue as the greed of the rich induces them to pursue wealth accumulation, always at a great cost to fellow beings and ecology. Growing disparity between the rich and the poor, concentrated accumulation of global wealth in the hands of few individuals, poverty, oppression and alienation engendered by the consumerist culture of liberal capitalism pose serious challenge to human societies. Establishing “institutional checks and balances” are required to attenuate the negative forces of capitalism – as the recent appeal from all sections of Indian society for a stronger “Lokpal bill”; but these institutions are prone to falter. In this dilemma, Augustinian doctrine of original sin helps to analyze the conceptual errors in the market capitalism. Having exposed the conceptual error of autonomy of human freewill as an infallible guide for equitable distribution, Augustine posits the need of divine grace to humanity to overcome the narcissistic tendencies. Thus the systemic corruption in liberal capitalism as exploited by fallible human reason could be addressed through the restructuring of the system in the light of attitudinal transformation effected by divine grace.


Being Light and Salt:Meaning and Mission of theBible in Multi-cultural and

Multi-religious Contexts of IndiaPraveen Paul1

Christianity in India is as old as the beginning of Christianity. According to traditions gospel came to India with the coming of St. Thomas in the first century. However Christians in India are still a minority constituting only 4-5% of the total population. We must also acknowledge the fact that Christianity is an Asian religion since it was born in Asia. In fact the context of the Bible is also in and around West Asia. Yet Christianity in Asia and especially in India is branded as western religion. Who is responsible for this false propaganda? Or whether Christians and Christianity are really foreign and western in outlook and practice? Sadhu Sunder Singh once commented “You have given us Christianity in a western cup…. give it to us in an eastern cup and we will drink of it.” However Indian Christians and the churches have not done enough to contextualize the gospel. The disciples of Jesus Christ must resonate with the aspirations, struggles and cultural vibes of their own context. Christianity in India must come out of compounds of churches and institutions and be involved in the matters related to praxis, culture and ideology. The core of the Jewish scripture i.e. Pentateuch is embedded in the socio-cultural world of its time. We find that the stories of the fathers of Israel especially Abraham is preceded by long list of genealogies that embrace the whole humanity and the world.2 The concepts of blessings,

1 Rev. Dr. Praveen Paul is Assistant Professor of OT at Union Biblical Seminary, Pune, India.

2 Lucien Legrand, The Bible on Culture. Theological Publication of India: Bangalore,

31Being Light and Salt

covenant and promise are very much part of the culture and social construct of the ancient Semites. Thus the dealings of Yahweh with the patriarchs and their families are though particular in the outlook yet they have universal implications for the humanity surpassing the barriers of time and space. A re-reading of the Abrahamic covenant shows that Abraham was promised blessings (conditional) in order to be a blessing to the nations. “…I will bless you and make your name great; and you shall be a blessing… and in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed” (Gen 12:2-3).

Particularity and Universality of the Abrahamic CovenantIt is interesting to note that Yahweh while making a covenant with Abraham, dealt particularly with the immediate context of “bareness of Sarah” (Gen 11:30). God promises progeny and land to Sarah and Abraham which are integral to tribal culture and heritage. “I will make you a great nation… make your name great (Gen 12:2) and “to your descendants I will give this land” (Gen 12:7). Child bearing was an important feature of the oriental culture since the existence and progress of a tribe or a clan solely depended upon the number or individuals in that particular tribe or clan. The birth of a son, in the east, brought special joy and celebration to the father3 and the whole family. The promise of land too resonates with the socio-cultural need of the context of Abraham’s family where the identity of the people was connected with the land. The command to Abraham to leave his country, relatives and father’s house is immediately followed by the promise of progeny, possession of the land and becoming the father of many nations. It is neither ex-culturation4 nor in-culturation but it is God’s way of speaking with Abraham and Sarah in a way that they can understand. It is noteworthy that in the narrative of the call of Abraham, God does not condemn or over rules the then socio-cultural and political context but God gives a new meaning and vision to progeny and land by bringing it under the umbrella of blessing. Many of the commentators emphasize the role

2004, pp. 62-63.3 James M. Freeman, Manners and Customs of the Bible, Whitaker House: New

Kensington, 1996, p. 286.4 Lucien, The Bible on Culture, p. 63 calls movement of Abraham from his country,

relatives and father’s house “ex-culturation”.


of faith in the call narrative of Abraham5 but they fail to see the context of the call and the way in which God intervenes in the context and promises progeny and land to Sarah and Abraham. Faith does play a significant role in motivating Abraham to leave his father’s household and religion but this faith journey of Abraham begins with the crisis of childlessness and landlessness6. The call narrative of Abraham shows that Yahweh is a God who is culturally sensitive. God speaks and intervenes in order to address all issues of human existence and promises to transform and liberate. The story of Abraham must be retold and re-read in order to give hope to the childless and the landless people. However the traditional interpretation and homily on Abraham make him an epitome of faith and obedience. He is lifted so high that the ordinary people do not dare to come close to and see him as a fellow human being.

The Exodus ParadigmThe Exodus presents to us the plight of the sons of Jacob in Egypt. Exodus is history written from the perspective of the marginalized and the oppressed. It also describes the struggle of Moses who grew and was educated in Egyptian culture but was not assimilated by it7. He saw the oppression of the slaves by the dominant and took a proactive role in liberating them. The context of the call and commission of Moses is slavery in Egypt. When talking about slaves in Egypt one must not think that the slaves in Egypt comprised only of the descendents of Jacob. It is now widely acknowledged that the people who came out of Egypt under the leadership of Moses were not only the sons of Jacob but were a mixed group of people. This is very much reiterated by Moses in the historical creed “wandering Aramean was my father” (Deut 26:5). A re-reading of Exodus must stress the pathos of Yahweh and Moses for the suffering and helpless slaves and not the sons of

5 G. J. Wenham, Genesis 1-15. WBC, Word Books: Waco, 1987, 274.6 Childlessness and landlessness are universal problems faced by all human beings,

common to people of all cultures, religions and regions. More so in India not being able to bear children is a curse and not possessing land is an anathema.

7 Lucien, The Bible on Culture, p. 67.


Jacob alone. The historical intervention of Yahweh in the life of the slaves in Egypt was prompted by pain and suffering and not only by his promise to Abraham alone. Promise of progeny and land to Abraham does evoke Yahweh’s intervention into the context of the sons of Jacob but it does not exclude the other slaves in Egypt who are willing to make a new covenant with Yahweh to pass over to the Promised Land. The Exodus paradigm proposes wholistic liberation for whole humanity and especially those who are under bondage. The Bible promises liberation to all who are oppressed, outcasts, rejected and humiliated by the dominant culture. The phrase “…Let my people go…so that they may serve me… (Ex 7:16) echoes the passion and zeal of Yahweh for slaves who called unto him. Yahweh also honours and guarantees freewill, freewill of the slaves who choose not to serve Pharaoh but choose to serve Yahweh. These slaves become the people of Yahweh, the center of God’s actions and attention. The traditional interpretation of Exodus leads to a theology of exclusivism which is self satisfying and communal. However a re-reading of Exodus helps us to see the God Israel who participates in the struggle of the people and opens the doors of salvation and liberation for all those who choose to follow him. The wilderness journey is a perfect example of the adaptation and contextualization carried out by Yahweh. Yahweh becomes a pillar of cloud during the day for the people to give them shade from the scorching heat whereas He becomes a pillar of fire at night to give light and keep away wild nocturnal animals and reptiles. In their journey from Egypt to Promised Land the redeemed slaves experience a God who moves with them and watches over them. He is neither invisible nor unreachable but is just nearby, outside their tent. Yahweh does not “win over them” but guides, leads, protects, provides and struggles along with the people. Christians at times seem to have an attitude of “winning” (a colonial and militant idea) people of other faiths for Christ.8 Instead of having an attitude of a “soul winner” we should present the saviour who is willing to struggle by the side the people and redeem all “who are burdened and heavy laden”. We must stop condemning and disrespecting our own heritage and core

8 Dyanand Bharati, Living Water and Indian Bowl, Ispck: Delhi, 2004, p. 1.


cultural values in totality. But we must re-read and reinterpret the Bible that it can be understood in a multi-cultural and multi-religious context of India. The social order in India is multi-cultural, multi-religious and multi-lingual, nevertheless in this complex and varied social construct there is also a common culture of poverty, oppression, Casteism and corruption. This culture sees no bar of religion, culture, language and ethnicity. The Exodus paradigm challenges these evils and presents Yahweh as a God who is with the poor and slaves but is against the dominant oppressor. He is a God who loves and protects equality of all human race and justice. The story of Exodus has to be retold so that it gives hope to the millions of people who live under threat and are victims of slavery, poverty and social discrimination in India. It has been rightly pointed out that Christianity in India is dominated by western theology and philosophy however we have not been able to do much in order to indigenize Christianity. Except a few who tried to indigenize but were not successful,9 perhaps due to too much inclination toward in-culturation and uncritical adaptation of existing values and morals. We have to remember that the “bowl” can be Indian but the “living water” in the bowl must not be diluted. The Bibles is filled with stories where God interacts, intervenes and saves people while speaking their language and using signs, symbols and practices of their culture10. Culture is an integral part of our existence and identity11. Our perspective, ideology and understanding of God, to large extent are rooted in our culture. We need to celebrate the cultural diversity and continuously engage ourselves in making the Bible relevant for different people, allowing the Bible to speak to people and giving them space so that they can read the Bible for themselves.

9 Lalsangkima Pachauau, “Christian Mission in Asia: 1910-2010” pp145-160, Antony Kalliath and Ernest W. Talibuddin (eds), Mission in Asia: Paths and Paradigms, FOIM and ATC: Bangalore, 2011, p.152.

10 Defining culture is not easy. Can we segregate culture and religion? In India culture and religion are so much intertwined that it is difficult to ascertain what is culture and what is religion?

11 Harriet Hill and Margaret Hill, Translating the Bible into Action: How the Bible can be Relevant in all Languages and Cultures, Piquant editions Ltd: Carlisle, 2008, p.32.


Prophets in the midst of diversity of Cultures and ReligionsThe OT prophets were the messengers of God, literally “mouth piece of God” who communicated the message of God to the people in their language addressing issues related to their culture, politics, religion and society. Each prophet has a unique message for the people of God and each of them specifically address various concerns that are correlated with the socio-cultural, economic and political state of affairs of the people. They were not only well aware of the internal affairs of Israel and Judah but were also acquainted with the politics and struggle for power in ancient west Asia and Egypt. Along with knowing what is happening in the international political arena they also had a good understanding of the cultural practices, religion and theology of the Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians and other neighbours of Israel and Judah. Since they were well informed of the daily affairs of the people and the surrounding nations, they spoke according to the need and occasion. Amos declares that Judah and Israel are morally and ethically as corrupt as Damascus, Philistia, Tyre, Edom, Ammon, and Moab (cf. Amos 1:3-2:16). He declares that Yahweh is righteous and just God and He will not allow wickedness to go unpunished. Alongside Isaiah, Amos acknowledges the “universality of the kingship of Yahweh”, who is God of all people and He will judge all people with the same yard stick. Yahweh cannot be appeased by celebrations, festivals, offerings and sacrifices but He delights in righteousness, peace and justice. If people do not practice righteousness, their religious festivities and sacrifices are an abomination to Him (Amos 5: 18-27). Amos seems to be a champion of social justice and spokes person of the poor. The Bible does have “preferential option for the poor” (which has been stretched too far by the liberation theologians12) yet that is not the only motif of the prophets and the gospel. Amos’s dirge against injustice, unrighteousness and false reliance on religiosity is derived from his understanding of God who loves justice, righteousness and equality of all human beings. On one hand Amos raises the cause of corruption and social justice during 8th century Israel on the other hand

12 Anthony R. Ceresko, The Old Testament: A Liberation Perspective, St. Pauls: Mumbai, 2009, pp.13-15.


Hosea speaks against social injustice (Hos 4:1-2; 12:8) but also of proclaims God’s unfailing love for Israel. Though both were contemporaries yet there is marked difference in their perspective and theology. However both emphasize that righteousness, justice in the society and complete obedience are prerequisites for a true worship of Yahweh. They attacked the institutionalization of the temple and the sacrificial system because these became hindrance for the poor and the marginalized. Institutionalization of the church in India has given rise to hierarchy, power politics, corruption and communalism/denominationalism. In order to be a light to the nations the church needs to have very high moral and ethical standards. Our context in India needs the light of justice and the saltiness of righteousness and equality. Are Christians in India salt and light for the people around them?

Motif of Jesus Gospels and the New Testament proclaim that the disciples of Jesus Christ will constitute and establish the kingdom of God which belongs to those “… who have been persecuted for the sake of righteousness...” (Matt 5:10). Jesus interacted and served all groups of people. The socio-cultural and religious context of Jesus may not have been as diverse as we have in India but He did proclaim the gospel to Romans, Greeks and others. His way of communication was simple in which He used metaphors, words and examples from mundane affairs of life. He presented the humane aspect of God not only through stories, discourses and parables but also by means of healing sicknesses, providing food, liberating from social and spiritual bondage and by being by the side of the needy, poor and afflicted. Jesus’ ministry was more “doing” than “proclaiming”. In Luke 4:18-19 Jesus proclaims that He has come to preach the gospel to the poor, set captives and down trodden free, give sight to the blind and to declare the beginning of the era of God’s grace and mercy for all. Many of the kingdom precepts initiated by Jesus were opposed by teachers of the law and the high priest because Jesus condemned their false religiosity and hypocrisy. Jesus began His mission first by weighing and evaluating the religion and theology of His own people. He reminded them of the purpose for which God made a covenant with Abraham “you shall be a blessing to the nations”. The


coming of Jesus renews and gives new dimension to the initial covenant that God made with Abraham. The sacrifice and death of Jesus on the cross enables anyone who believes in the Him to receive the right to inherit the kingdom of God. He brings a paradigm shift in the theology and thinking of the Jewish religious leaders by saying “…go and learn what it means ‘I desire compassion and not sacrifice’ for I did not come to call the righteous, but sinners” (Matt 9:13). The scripture authoritatively tells us that it gives preferential option not only to the poor but also to the sinners or those rejected as unholy and unworthy by the society. The scripture focuses on the tax collectors and sinners. We know that tax collectors were well-known for corruption and extortion. While sinners were those whose occupation rendered them religiously unclean and untouchables (in the view of the Pharisees). But Jesus dines with the tax collectors and sinners. He was called their friend. We need to emphasize this aspect of the life of Christ and the gospel. By dining with the tax collectors and sinners, Jesus proposes a theology of participation which brings liberation and transformation from within and not from outside. Salt becomes useful and gives taste only by dissipating in the food; it gives life by imbibing its surrounding environment and thus completely transforms it. Salt is not of much use if it remains aloof and refuses to be dissolved. The light too shines when it falls on something. The nature and character of light is to brighten its location.


Living in the Perilous Times:An African Reading of

2 Timothy 3:1-5Olubiyi Adeniyi Adewale1

IntroductionA meaningful reading of the second epistle to Timothy should begin with the placement of the epistle in Paul’s life and ministry. It must also be borne in mind that this epistle, along with 1 Timothy and Titus, that is, the Pastoral Epistles, has been rejected by some scholars as a genuine Pauline epistle. Though without what can be considered a watertight argument, those rejecting Pauline authorship of 2 Timothy has done so on the basis of historical, linguistic, theological and ethical circumstances of the epistle (Adewale, 2006). Even among scholars who have accepted the Pauline authorship of 2 Timothy, there are those who still deny Pauline authorship but agree that the epistle is allonymous, that is, it was put together by a later compiler, who arranged Pauline traditions and materials (Marshall, 1999). For the purpose of this paper, the writer marries two pro-Pauline authorship positions to uphold the Pauline authorship of 2 Timothy. The first position is the early church tradition based on 1 Clement 5:7 that Paul had two Roman imprisonments. This position sees the imprisonment recorded in the book of Acts as the first Roman imprisonment from which Paul was released. The tradition went on to assume that after his release

1 Olubiyi Adeniyi Adewale (Ph.D) is Associate Professor of Biblical Studies at The National Open University of Nigeria, Lagos.

39An African Reading of 2 Timothy 3:1-5

Paul continued active missionary work which probably covered the areas indicated in the Pastoral Epistles. The second position is one that is rarely found among scholars which says “neither Acts nor the letters give us a full chronology of Paul: Acts gives us only a selective and highly stylized rendering of Paul’s travels, while the letters provide only fragmentary bits and pieces of information” (p. 425). Thus, against all arguments, Pauline authorship of 2 Timothy is upheld.

The Situation of 2 TimothyInternal evidences offer a great deal in understanding the circumstances leading to the writing of 2 Timothy. In 1:8 Paul described himself as “our Lord’s prisoner” and according to our acceptance of the early church tradition; this would be the second Roman imprisonment. It is also important to point out that some passages in the letter actually depict an imprisonment different from that of Acts. 2 Timothy 1:16 and 2:9 implies that he was certainly put in chains asHendriksen (1957:234) says; he was in a “dismal underground dungeon with a holein the ceiling for light and air” unlike the Acts account which depicts a house arrest. It is also clear from 4:16-17 that the preliminary hearing of the case had already takenplace and Paul was awaiting the full trial. It is clear also that Paul anticipates theresult of the trial to be condemnation (4:6-8). Commenting on the circumstances ofthe surrounding the writing of 2 Timothy, Stott (1973:18) writes:

Shortly before he died, during his further and more severeimprisonment, Paul sent this second message to Timothy. Hisexecution seemed to him imminent, so that he was writing under itsshadow. Although it was an intensely personal communication to hisyoung friend, Timothy, it was also – and consciously – his last will andtestament to the church.

One can actually view the letter as a hand over note from the last of the apostles’generation to a trusted co-worker who now has the mandate to carry on the‘apostolic doctrine’ without corruption in the face of the wide-spreading heresy thathas swept other co-workers away.


An African Reading: What does it entail?The coming of the African reading of the scriptures is based on the premise that “there has never been an interpretation that has been without references to or dependent on a particular cultural code, thought patterns, or social location of the interpreter” (Adamo, 2001:1). At the beginning, African hermeneutics had no existence of its own as everything was an appendage of Western civilization. In fact, the early African theologians and scholars were mostly brainwashed to believe that there was nothing positive about the African life. They were trained to see everything African as demonic. The attitude of early Western missionaries and anthropologists was aptly captured by Oosthuizen (2000:278) when he opines that, “everything African was considered as of no significance and their achievements were attributed to someone else. Their social systems were considered not worth maintaining. African life was also described as irrational”. It was this attitude that was carried over into the mainline Western oriented churches in Africa (Adamo, 2005). The emergence of African hermeneutics can be traced back to about 1956. “This was the period when many African nations were achieving independence from the colonial masters and African culture and self-determinism were in the air” (Okoye, 2009:95). On this same vein, Krog (2005:18) says “political freedom created a new sense of national (and continental) identity, which stirred within the heart of many men and women a need to rid Africa of ‘western ideology, replacing it with one that is African in nature, expression and application”. This spirit of negritude led to the 1966 Consultation of African Theologians Conference which was held at Ibadan, Nigeria. At the conference which had the theme “The Bible and Africa,” scholars compared and contrasted African beliefs and biblical concepts. This conference, though a theological conference, had a profound influence on hermeneutics because in the words of Onwu (1984:36), the conference revealed that “biblical studies are no longer the exclusive monopoly of Euro-American scholars”. Consequently, the decades after the Ibadan conference “has been one of the most dynamic and rewarding periods of biblical studies in Africa” (Ukpong, 2000: 14). It is thus clear that “born out of deep


resentment and accompanied by a new-found identity, Africa embarked on a quest to re-interpret Scripture to conduce to ‘Africa-ness,’ referred to as ‘Afro-centricism’ or ‘Afro-centric Hermeneutics’” (Krog, 2005:19). Though usually debated, it is also clear that the African Indigenous Churches were the forerunners in promoting and utilizing the African Hermeneutic approach. From this beginning however, which could be said to be somehow inferior, culturally biased and at times full of disregard for the cardinal principles of hermeneutics, African hermeneutics have grown to the point of self-identity. Commenting on the state of African hermeneutics today, Adamo (2005:3) has this to say:

Although the majority of African biblical scholars today are beneficiaries of the Western biblical interpretation as a result of access to the Western education, they are not passive receivers of Western biblical interpretation. African biblical scholars have recognized that the value of any biblical studies depends on its relevance to the life of members of the communities where it is applied.

One of the factors that stimulated the development of African Indigenous Churches is the similarity between the Jewish life as portrayed in the Old Testament and the African life that has been observed by the leaders of the religious revolution. This similarity can be traced, to the possibility of the African descent from the Jews. Adamo (2005:1) says that “the Falashas from Ethiopia, the Lemba in South Africa who have been recently genetically confirmed to be orthodox Jews attest to the fact that Africans could be Jews”. Apart from this, one of the early historians of the Yoruba people traced the progenitor of the Yoruba people to the Middle East (Johnson, 1921). It is on the basis of this history that Bamidele (2003) states that “the Yoruba people occupy the South-Western part of Nigeria, they account for about 20% of the population of the country. They are believed historically to have migrated from the Middle-Eastern part of the world during the medieval period.” This being true, it means that Africans stand a better chance to have an adequate grasp of the messages of the Scriptures because they belonged to the same cultural milieu as the Jewish people from whom the Scriptures emerged.In reading 2 Timothy 3:1-5


from the African perspective therefore, prominence would be giving to the context, the cultural parallels that would colour the interpretation as well as the use of language. The final issueto address in African hermeneutics is the controversial subject of heterogeneity of African hermeneutics. Though the existence of multiple people groups in Africa with different cultures makes it impossible to talk of a homogeneous African hermeneutics, the similarity in the experience of the people is enough as well as the existence of some beliefs that can be said to cut across the continent. As a result of this, when I speak as a Yoruba man, I would speak from the Yoruba viewpoint despite the fact that it is also an African viewpoint.

The African View of the Last WordsThe basis of the African view of the last words of the dying or the dead is the African belief about death and the hereafter. It is believed predominantly in Africa that the last words of a dead person are sacrosanct. They must be held in the imperative; believed and upheld. The living, especially the ones that are given instructions and warnings dare not deviate from the instructions. It is also believed that refusal to obey these words is likely to spell doom for the family and if the dead person has the status of a king or hero, the consequences may affect the whole community. Consequently, the general tendency is to obey such words (Dopamu, 2006). That such belief is prevalent in Africa is buttressed by Magesa (1997) who states that:

Old age and death have important roles in African understandings of the vital force…. It is expected that old people must demonstrate courage and heroism when faced with death. Such behaviour increases their honour and influence of their vital force in the eyes of those they leave behind. As a result, the words a person utters at the moment of death have utmost significance. The prestige of the aged in death has been frequently enhanced by the significance attributed to their ‘last words’ (154-155).

Apart from confirming the prevalence of the belief in the significance attributed to the last words of the dead, the above quotation brings out the following important points: first, it is the words of those who died at old


age that are held important; second, apart from the fact that they died at old age, they must have also demonstrated courage and heroism when faced with death; and third, the prestige of the dead would definitely enhance the significance attributed to their last words. It is important to note that this prevalence belief of attaching significance to the death is not just the repository of the African society alone. Some accounts in the scriptures present some facts that this belief is also prevalent among the Jews, though one must accept that the presentation of the belief is not given in-depth. The following are examples of the belief: First, in Genesis 49, Jacob, when he was about to die, summoned all his children and actually gave predictions of what would happen to each one of them. Beyond this, he gave certain instructions for them. Verse 29 says, “he charged them and said to them, “I am about to be gathered to my people; bury me with my fathers in the cave that is in the field of Ephron the Hittite”. The phrase “and was gathered to his people” shows that the children took these words serious, and left Egypt for Canaan to bury Jacob as he had instructed them, the inconveniences not notwithstanding. The burial train is described in Genesis 50:1-14. Second, Genesis 50:24-26 records the story of Joseph as he was also about to die. In his own case, though he did not object to being buried at his death in Egypt, he made the children of Israel to swear that when they would leave Egypt, they should not leave his bones behind in Egypt. Exodus 13:19 confirms that Moses took the bones of Joseph out of Egypt when they were leaving. If the children of Israel were in Egypt for 400 years, the fact that Moses knew about the charge would have shown the seriousness the children of Israel have attached to the wish of Joseph and have kept the tradition alive for such a long period. We also need to note that close to the time of their death, Moses and Joshua also called the children of Israel together and spoke to them. All these are proofs that the Jews also believe in the veracity of the last words of the dead, especially the aged and the heroes of their race.

Last Word Interpretation or Rhetorical InterpretationIn Western hermeneutics, there are two prevalent approaches to the second epistle to Timothy. The first approach is to see the letter as “the popular


format of a ‘last testament’ or ‘farewell speech’ (Powell, 2009) such as the ones found in the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs or Acts. Most exponents of this approach liken the epistle to Paul’s farewell speech to the elders of the church when he was about to depart Ephesus. Taking the epistle as a farewell address however is to overlook the main issue giving force to the epistle because it is more than a farewell address. The second approach which has currently gained attractiveness is to use Greco-Roman rhetorical categories in reading Pauline epistles. Those who are using this approach have taken the epistle as an epistoleparainetike, that is, a letter written to ‘exhort someone advising them to pursue something and to abstain from something’ (Johnson, 1999:433). In explaining this, 2 Timothy has been compared with To Demonicus:

In actual parenetic discourses such as Pseudo-Isocrates’ treatise To Demonicus, the form is followed exactly: the presentation of a model and appeal to memory (Dem 3-11) is followed by a series of moral maxims often expressed antithetically (12-49) and at the conclusion there is a representation of models for imitation (50-51). So also in 2 Timothy we find the elements of memory, model and maxims (Johnson, 1999:433-434).

Johnson (1999) goes further to give the structure of 2 Timothy as a parenetic epistle as follows:

Presentation of Paul as a model 1:3-2:13Maxims for Timothy as a teacher 2:14-4:5Representation of Paul as a model 4:6-18

It has to be stated however that the widespread acceptance of this approach notwithstanding, it is not without controversy. For example, even in the early church, the use of such approach is suspect. Jerome wrote, “what has Horace to do with the Psalms, Virgil with the Gospels, Cicero with the Apostle” (Ep. 22:29). Tertullian also said, “where is there any similarity between the disciples of Greece and the disciples of heaven?” (Apol. 46). In recent scholarship too, this position has been maintained. For example,


Kern (1998) argued that the setting and the style of rhetoric presented in Greco-Roman handbooks does not match Paul’s epistle in terms of subject matter, venue, audience and style as well as contextual setting. This is also why Bird (2008) agrees that “rhetorical criticism is at best an ancillary tool to be utilized in an eclectic and pragmatic approach to studying Paul’s letters” (p. 375). This is also the position of this writer that would have Paul used Greco-Roman rhetorical style in the process of encodinghis message taking the context of his recipients into consideration? The position of this writer is that though memory, model and maxims are found in 2 Timothy, they should not be taken as elements that make it a parenetic discourse but rather see it as elements of last words that include the following steps: first, opening Prayers; second, review of state of affairs; third, blessings for the children; fourth, call for Revenge against enemies; fifth, call for Protection for those who have assisted; sixth, burial instructions; seventh, methods of sharing inheritance and declaration of assets as well as liabilities; eighth, straightening of family history; ninth, future expectations either positive or negative; and final Greetings. Note however that these steps do not flow chronologically neither are they all expected to be in one last word, but depends on the one speaking. In other words, some elements may be omitted.Let us examine the last words of Jacob and Joseph as presented in Genesis 49 and 50 respectively. Two elements are the only ones reflected directly in Genesis 49. The first is the prayers or blessings for the children, however, this section is mingled with character analysis of the children (which can be taken as a review of the state of affairs) and the expected future of each child (which can be taken as future expectations and they are rightly negative and positive). This is found in Gen. 49:1-27. The second is the burial instruction which is found in Gen. 49:29-32. The last words of Joseph actually reflect only the burial instruction element as reflected in Gen. 50:24-25. It must however be noted that these last words found within the pages of the scriptures may have been edited content-wise and might not reflect the entire speech as was given by Jacob and Joseph. Using the elements of the last words, the structure of 2 Timothy would look thus:


1. Opening Prayers 1:1-72. Review of state of affairs 1:8-2:263. Future expectations either positive or negative 3:1-4:84. Call for Revenge against enemies 4:10-165. Call for Protection for those who have assisted (1:16-18)6. Final Greetings 4:17-22

Apart from the structural resemblance that is demonstrated above, using Megasa’s criterion for those whose words at the point of death can qualify as last words that need to be accorded significance, Paul cannot be pushover. Firstly, as an apostle who lived up to old age, his last words would be held important by Timothy who was his son in the faith. Secondly, Paul, like the dead whose words are taken as important, demonstrated courage and heroism when faced with death. Internal evidence shows that Paul was not afraid of death and has thus demonstrated courage. Finally, on the issue of prestige that is expected to enhance the significance of the last words, Paul as the last of the Apostles and the undisputed apostle to the Gentiles, has a high prestige within the church.

The Immediate Context of 2 Timothy 3:1-5From the structure of the epistle, it is clear that the entire epistle is the immediate context of 3:1-5. This is made clear with the use of dèe in the first verse. With this, 3:1-5 can be said to be placed as a contrast to the passage immediately preceding it, namely, 2:20-26 which in itself is also introduced by dèe, which links it with the earlier verses of chapter 2. Chapter 2 is also introduced by the Greek word o&un, which is usually used inferentially, because “what it introduces is the result of or an inference from what precedes” (Ardnt & Gingrich, 1957) and this is why it is usually translated ‘therefore’. Thus, to have a good understanding of 2 Timothy 3:1-5, a brief analysis of the message of 2 Timothy 1 and 2 is essential. In his analysis of the second epistle to Timothy, Stott (1973) identifies the core message of chapter one to be the charge to guard the gospel, giving 1:14 as the key verse. The verse says, “guard the truth that has been entrusted to you by the Holy Spirit who dwells in us”. Though this


can be said to be right, Paul started building up the argument to that climax from verse 5, where he mentioned that the sincere faith dwelt in Timothy. He then went on to remind Timothy in verse 7 that since God has not given us a spirit of timidity, he should join (note that the verb do not have the direct object, ‘him’) in suffering for the gospel with a caveat that God is able to guard that same Gospel. Two important charges given in chapter one are: retain the standard of sound words and guard the treasure that has been entrusted to you. Undoubtedly, these two actually refers to the word of God, the message and the faith. In the first charge, it is important to look at the words ‘standard’ and also the phrase ‘sound words’. The Greek word translated ‘standard’ is |upotéupwsin. It is important to note that the emphasis is on this word as it occupies the first position in the Greek. Most lexicons have translated this word as outline, sketch, model or pattern. However, for the purpose of this paper, Arndnt and Gingrich’s (1957) translation as ‘prototype’ would be adopted and it would be explained as Guthrie that it is ‘such that an architect might make before getting down to the detailed plans of a building”. In this regard then, it means that Paul is asking Timothy to make his teachings the prototype of his own handling of the word of God. And this is what is suggested by the next word which would be translated ‘hold’ in the sense of holding something safely, that is, preserve or keep. The second phrase,‘sound words’, translates the Greek |ugiainéontwn léogwn. From the context, it is clear that léogwn refers to the ‘word’ of God or the teachings that have been passed on by the apostles. |ugiainéontwn on its own can be translated ‘to be in good health’. Though, it is meant to be used for physical health, it has been used here metaphorically. Balz and Schneider (1993) agree that in this passage |ugiainéontwn in the metaphoric sense in reference to Christian teachings. In this usage, the sound or healthy words is contrasted to false teachings that deviate from the received teachings. Thus in the first charge, Paul is charging Timothy to ensure that the words and the teachings of the gospel that he has received from Paul in their healthy and sound state does not become defective and sick in his hands, that is, the word does not get paralyzed by the virus of heresy and false teachings.


The second charge is “guard the treasure” and it is stated in verse 14. This charge can be said to be a parallel to the first charge in that it means exactly the same thing but said in a different way. When this happens in an African discourse, the repetition is for the purpose of emphasis. Receiving the emphasis in this verse is tèhn kalèhn paraqéhkhn, which though in the accusative has come to the first position. The noun here is paraqéhkhn, which has been qualified with an adjective and thus described as good. Paraqéhkhn has been defined simple as “property entrusted to another” (Balz & Scheneider, 1994:22) and this simple meaning might have informed KJV’s rendering of the phrase as “that good thing” since in its meaning, it is an undefined property. It is important to note however that in this context, the good thing would have referred to the word of God that Timothy has been asked to hold fast in the previous verse. It is in this vein that Ardnt and Gingrich (1957) note that in the pastorals paraqéhkhn is used to mean the spiritual heritage entrusted to the orthodox Christian. This understanding may have been the basis of NASB‘s rendering of the word as “treasure”. It is this treasure that Timothy has been charged to guard. The Greek word used here again is féulaxon. The basic meaning of the verb is to guard, to watch over or to preserve. Therefore, the second charge to Timothy is that he is expected to watch over and to guard the word of God that has been entrusted to him. Thus, this aligns with Stott’s (1973) position that “there were heretics abroad, bent on corrupting the gospel and so robbing the church of the priceless treasure which had been entrusted to it. Timothy must be on the watch” (p. 44). The core of the message in chapter 2 is the charge to suffer for the gospel. This is why the second chapter is full of imageries depicting the suffering and the discipline of the Christian life. Since the ones that are called to suffering are the soldiers of Christ, who are expectedly the workmen for Christ, the latter half of the second chapter concentrated on the person and the ministry of the workmen. This then dovetails into the third chapter: the essential thing for the workman to know.


2 Timothy 3:1 (NASB) 2 Timothy 3:1 (SBLGNT)

But realize this, that in the last days difficult times will come.

Following the structure of the last word, the third chapter contains the description of the state of affairs to come and the way to combat it. The chapter opens with the phrase ‘but realize this’. In the Greek, the demonstrative accusative pronoun takes the first position, thus signifying that it carries the emphasis. Its function is to draw Timothy to pay strong attentionto the instructions that follows. He is to pay attention to the fact that in the last days, perilous times will come. The Greek phrase translated in the last days is \en \escéataiv /hméeraiv. In the last few decades, the teaching that has infiltrated Africa is to see the last days in an eschatological dimension. However, true biblical usage of the phrase does not imply any future dimension. For example, as far as the New Testament writers are concerned, the coming of Jesus Christ has ushered in the last days. This is why Peter confidently referred to the Pentecost experience as the fulfilment of the Joel prophecy (Acts 2:14-17). Again, the writer of the book of Hebrews made the same apparent usage of the phrase in 1:1-2 when it reads that God in times past spoke to our fathers in different ways but in these last days, he has spoken to us in His Son. Thus as Stott (1973) say that “Paul depicts the whole period elapsing between the first and second coming of Christ” (82). Thus, the true meaning of the last days would include the period that Paul wrote as well as our contemporary days. Thus unlike popular fundamental teaching, the last days is not a period in the future, but a period we are also passing through now. What is important about Paul’s instruction to Timothy is that the days would difficult and hard to bear. It is important to also know that the difficulties of these last days is not going to be due to the activities of some

To%uto dèe géinwske, oti\ en \escéataiv |hméeraiv \en stéhsontai kairoèi calepoéi:


demons, or principalities and powers as current fundamental theology apt to teach but as a result of the activities of human beings as written in verse two.


For men will be lovers of self, lovers of money, boastful, arrogant, revilers, disobedient to parents, ungrateful, unholy,

\éesontai gèar o|i\é anqrwpoi féilautoi, filéarguroi, \alazéonev, |uperéhfanoi, bléasfhmoi, gone%usin \apeiqe%iv, \acéaristoi, \anéosioi,

The function of gèar here is not that of a simple conjunction, but that of a “conjunction used to express cause, inference, continuation” (Arndnt, 1957:151) and thus with this causative conjunction, Paul gave the cause of the perilous times that the church will fall into, namely men will change from what they are supposed to be. The following words in verse two describe Paul’s characterization of these men.

Lovers of Self (féilautoi) The Greek word is a combination of phileo and the nominative masculine pronoun and is literally translated “lovers of self”. This thus means that these men would place their affection first on themselves. The result is that they would not care about the feelings of others as long as they are satisfied. In African societies, where high value is placed on brotherliness and communal life, the society tends to dislike and disregard people in this category and actually try to avoid them because they are seen as capable of doing anything to please themselves.

Lovers of Self (filéarguroi) This is also a combination of phileo and éarguroi, a masculine nominative plural noun, thus literally would translate “lovers of money”. Some lexicons use ‘fond of money’ and Ardnt (1957) also use the word ‘avaricious’. According to Merriam Webster dictionary, avaricious means “greedy of


gain” or “excessively acquisitive socially in seeking to hoard riches”. Another dictionary says it means immoderately desirous of wealth or gain. Again, in the African societies, people are wary of such characters because they tend to behave immoral in their inordinate desire for riches.

Boastful (\alazéonev)The Greek word here is used for someone who is an empty boaster. Delling (1992) defines it as “one who makes more of himself than reality justifies” (226). Naturally, someone who loves himself and who is greedy would also be boastful. This is another character that is looked down upon with disgust in the African society.

Arrogant (|uperéhfanoi)Merriam Webster dictionary defines arrogance as “an insulting way of thinking or behaving that comes from believing that you are better, smarter, or more important” than others. It has to be noted that the last three characters are the natural fall out of the lovers of self and the lovers of money.

Revilers (bléasfhmoi)The word has been rendered variously by translations. Some render it as ‘abusive’ and the KJV render it literally as blasphemous. It has to be noted however that the usage of blasphemy in the New Testament owes its origin to the Jewish usage. Beyer (1974) argues that blasphemy always has reference to God and it includes disputing his power, desecrating his name, violating his glory. In the Christian concept, blasphemy includes doubting the claim of Christ or deriding him. Rather than adopt simple words such as ‘abusive’ for its meaning, even in the African society, those who are lovers of self and lovers of money would easily blaspheme God and Christ. Thus, the Jewish meaning and its Christian nuances are to be adopted as the correct meaning.

Disobedient to Parents (gone%usin \apeiqe%iv)The next set of words which are somehow related to the family life, started with the phrase ‘disobedient to parents’. In the contemporary society, from


the West to the East and even in Africa, the general tendency is for young people to disobey and dishonor their children. In their claim to civilization, which they think their parent lack, they follow the crude and sinful ways of life and tend to talk back at their parents when they are reprimanded.

Ungrateful (\acéaristoi)To be ungrateful according to most dictionaries is said to mean not feeing or exhibiting gratitude, thanks or appreciation. Because this word is preceded by disobedient to parents, it is easy to conclude that the ungratefulness as used here would mean children’s ungratefulness to their parents. In the contemporary world, it is generally becoming scarce to see children that would show gratitude when their parents do what they are expected to do. The slang they use is that it is their parents’ duty to take care of them.

Unholy (\anéosioi)The two prevalent meaning for this word is unholy and wicked. When people are unholy, it follows naturally that they would be wicked because they would not regard anything holy but that which is unholy.


unloving, irreconcilable, malicious gossips, without self-control, brutal, haters of good,

Unloving (\éastorgoi)As the scriptures confirm, the whole of the law rests on love for God and love for humanity. Humanity these days, however, seem to lack this basic human characteristic. This is why the New Testament in Modern English renders the word as lacking in normal human affections. When people lack normal human affection, it then become easy for them to undertake all form of atrocity like murder, kidnapping and slavery that is the order of the day in the contemporary world .

\éastorgoi \éaspondoi diéaboloi\akrate%iv \anéhmeroi \afiléagaqoi


Irreconcilable (\éaspondoi)Conflicts are escalating in the world today because human beings are becoming too selfish and reluctant to shift grounds, thereby allowing peace. Most peace agreements are broken and truces are defiled because they are not ready to give peace a chance.

Malicious Gossips (diéaboloi)The Greek word διάβολοι is very interesting. It is rendered as malicious gossips (NASB), false accusers (KJV), slanderous (NIV and GNB) and scandal-mongers (NEB). It is important to note that this is the Greek word for the devil or satan who is described as the accuser or the adversary. This does suggests that those who gossips about others or slander others can be described as devils in human skin. They have become the instruments through which the devil accuses the brethren.

Without self-control (\akrate%iv)Self-control is the ability to control one’s emotions, behavior and desires. When human beings lack self-control, order eludes the society because they can undertake the unimaginable.


treacherous, reckless, conceited, lovers of pleasure rather than lovers of God,

prodéotai propete%iv tetufwméenoi filéhdonoi m%allon \éh filéoqeoi

Treacherous (prodéotai)Balz and Scheneider (1994) translate this word as traitor or betrayer. This thus means that men would become unreliable and untrustworthy.



holding to a form of godliness, although they have denied its power; Avoid such men as these.

The above verse contains the last character these men would be display. This is the denial of the power of the form of godliness they hold. This thus means that many of these people would profess to believe in God. They might even go to the church and hold ministerial positions but that religion would not have any salvific impact upon their conduct in the society. To live and live successfully during the perilous times, Paul offered two major instructions: one, to avoid those men that would be the harbinger of the perilous times and two, to retain the standard of the sound words that has been received from the Apostles. It is in the light of these two injunctions that the African church would now be highlighted.

The African Church in the Light of 2 Timothy 3:1-5As had been asserted earlier that the concept of ‘last days’ was not something waiting for an eschatological days but that which actually included the days of Paul as well and stretches to the days immediately preceding the second coming of Christ, it is important to examine the contemporary African church in the light of the passage. This position is reinforced by the fact that even Paul was convinced that the activities he was drawing Timothy’s attention to was already in existence. Using the Nigerian church as an example, let us examine the contemporary state of the church in line with 2 Timothy 3:1-5. The church in this regard would be examined from two angles: financial and the moral angles.

The Church and the Love of MoneyThe Nigerian church today has, rather than turn away from lovers of money and lovers of pleasure rather than the lovers of God, brought them into the fellowship and has turned them to saints within the church. Some clerics

\éecontev méorfwsin e\usebeéiavtèhn dèe déunamin a\ut%hv\hrnhméenoi: kaèi toéutouv\apotréepou.


have pointed this out. Examples are Tunde Bakare who accused church leaders of Nigeria of aiding and abetting corruption by receiving ill-gotten money (Nigerian Watch, 2013). Another cleric that pointed this out is Idowu-Fearon who also said that politicians aided and abated politicians to pilfer the nation’s treasury (The Punch, 2014). Not only is the church accepting and celebrating lovers of money and lovers of self, some ministers too have already contacted the love of money virus. This is manifested in two ways: the undue emphasis on prosperity in the church and the self-indulging lifestyle of the ministers. Commenting on this, Adewale (2005) say:

The Church has run amok with the idea that that every true believer of God must be prosperous. It is also appalling that the craze for material wealth is blinding the Church leaders to the means by which such wealth is accumulated. Apart from building of members who are in error about the proper relationship to material wealth, the Church itself has also become a victim of her own theological worldview. Many men and women of God are no longer building spiritual centers that care for the spirit and the soul of men and women but large financial empires that bear their own names and are registered in their own names.

On the same vein, Akin John also describes these churches as follows:

The pastor is usually a good preacher, orator and a successful businessman. He functions as C.E.O. of the church and runs it as a business empire. The weakness of this approach is that materialism, worldly mindedness and financial lucre of members makes them earthly okay but heavenly useless.

Kingston (2011) finds out that “the establishment of multiple branches of the same church enables each branch to operate a separate bank account in various banks facilitates the splitting of huge criminal assets into small units for easier concealment by the churches” (p. 36) thereby aiding money laundry. The love of money has brought the church to a ridiculous level in the country. Jubril (2013) says that because of the love of money exhibited among ministers, “most church members have been led into believing that there is nothing wrong in acquiring wealth by hook or crook as long as they pay tithe on such money”. It is apparent that the church through emphasis on prosperity theology has made the word become unhealthy. Scholars like Obiora


(1999), Ude (2000), Ituma (2000) and Iheanacho (2010) have identified the neo-Pentecostal practices of marathon offertory sessions, seed sowing, arranged miracles and mandatory offering of the January salary every year in the name of first-fruits as part of the manifestations of the church’s love for money. Finally, through the acceptance of lovers of money into the church and giving them places of honor, the injunction to avoid such men have also been violated. Consequently, as it is believed that when the last words of the dead are disregarded, there would be chaos, the church has come into a tragic period.

Moral Decadence in the ChurchIn the recent past in Nigeria, the newspapers have been awash with unpalatable news of moral decadence in the church, which usually involve the church leadership and also other members of the church. The following are examples of such newspaper reports: first, daily Sun of August 9, 2012 carried the story of the arrest of a prophet called TundeAdeyinka who was arrested by the police during a robbery operation at Ogbomoso, Oyo state of Nigeria; second, daily Sun of May 3, 2012 carried the story of a prophet called Eze who was arrested by the police during a robbery operation at Eket, Akwa-Ibom state of Nigeria; and third, Sunday Sun of August 25, 2013 carried the story of one Pastor Emmanuel Onu who not only impregnated a female member of the church but also sold off the baby in collaboration with an hospital. He was later arrested by the police. Apart from these stories, there abound all other types of immoral issues coming forth from the church. These are pointers to the fact that turbulence the last days have indeed come upon the church.

RecommendationIt is clear that the contemporary church is sick; she no longer possesses the healthy words that have been handed down from the Apostles. The inability of the church to keep the words sound, call for a radical reorientation. There is the need for a concerted effort on the part of all the churches and all the ministers to fight this scourge before heresies destroy the church. This can be done in two ways: first, ministers must decide to preach a


balanced message. While prosperity theology is not actually unbiblical, the undue emphasis is what is dangerous. I would suggest like Jubril (2013) to balance prosperity messages, “ministers of God should form the habit of preaching messages of judgement against believers who have unbridled desire to acquire ill-gotten wealth”. Second, Ministers must question the source of suspicious wealth. Unlike the current habit of the church to accept whatever money brought into the church in the form of tithes, offerings and special donations, ministers must question them. For example, if a person is earning two million per annum and is paying a tithe of fifty thousand per month, the ministers should call the person and ask questions about the source of the extra money unaccounted for. Failure to do this would mean that the church is encouraging corruption; and third, the study of the second epistle to Timothy must be made compulsory in the last semester of all students in bible colleges, theological schools and seminaries across the continent. They must be made to the solemn instructions in the last words of Paul to the church ministers as represent by Timothy. They must be made to see that their failure as ministers to preach the whole Gospel for any reason whatsoever is a disservice to God, to the members of the church and to their calling as well. If Moses would know the last wish request of Joseph, over 300 years after the death of Joseph, it meant that the last words of Joseph were kept alive from generation to generation. The church needs to imbibe this and pass on the last words of Paul through a systematic study of the second epistle to Timothy not as an academic exercise but as a devotional and spiritual exercise that would make all pastors know their responsibility in keeping the word safe and sound.

ConclusionIn accordance with the Jewish and African tradition, when Paul was sure of his imminent death, he wrote his last words to Timothy, the beloved son and gave him two major instructions on how to cope with the perilous times that was then beginning in his time and which was to get fiercer as the days go by. These instructions are: the preservation of the truth of God’s word and the avoidance of the men that would be the perpetrators of the evils of the last days. Unfortunately, the church in Africa, albeit in the


whole world has contravened these two injunctions thereby bringing the church to disrepute. The onus rests on us to rekindle the fire and become serious in keeping the charge that the church might not be swept away by the evils of the last days.

ReferencesAdamo, D. T. (2001).Explorations in African biblical studies. Eugene: Wipf& Stock Publishers.

Adamo, D. T. (2005).Reading and interpreting the Bible in African indigenous churches. Benin City: Jeco Press and Publishers.

Adewale, O. A. (2005). A contemporary Afrocentric application of the parable of the rich fool (Luke 12:13-21).TheologiaViatorum, 29(1), 1-30

Adewale, O. A. (2006). Pastoral Epistles.An Encyclopedia of the arts, 10(3), 154-162. Lagos: Lagos State University.

Ardnt, W. F. & Gingrich, F. W. (1957).A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Balz, H. &Scheneider, G. (1994).Exegetical dictionary of the New Testament, Vol. 2. Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans.

Balz, H. &Scheneider, G. (1994).Exegetical dictionary of the New Testament, Vol. 3. Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans.

Bamidele, (2003).The history and traditions of the Yoruba people.In Panorama, an internet journal available on www.tigweb.org/youth-media/panorama/article.

Beyer, H. W. (1974).blasphemeo. In G. Kittel& G. Friedrich (eds.) Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans.

Bird, M. (2008). Reassessing a rhetorical approach to Paul’s letters.The Expository Times, 119(8), 374-379.

Delling, G. (1974). alazon. In G. Kittel& G. Friedrich (eds.) Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans.

Dopamu, A. P. (2006). Change and continuity: The Yoruba belief in life after death. Paper presented at the Continuity and Change: Perspectives in Science and


Religion in Philadelphia by Metanexus Institute (www.metanexus.net)

Hendricksen, W. (1957).The epistles of Timothy and Titus. London: Baker Book House.

Iheanacho, N. N. (2009). A critical look at contemporary Nigerian Christian.International Journal of Theology and Reformed Tradition, 1, also available on www.academicexcellencesociety.com/journals_ijtrt.html.

Ituma, E. A. (2008). Jesus political party ideology and political poverty system in Nigeria: A New Testament hermeneutical approach. Andah Journal of Cultural Studies, 1.

Johnson, Luke Timothy (1999). Pastoral letters: 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus. In The writings of the New Testament: An interpretation. London: Scripture Christian Movement.

Johnson, S. (1921). The history of the Yorubas. Lagos: CMS.

Kern, P. (1998). Rhetoric and Galatians: Assessing an approach to Paul’s epistles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kingston, K. G. (2011). Churches and private educational institutions as facilitators of money laundering in Nigeria.African Jouranl of Education and Technology, 1(1), 30-38.

Krog, L. (2005). African hermeneutics: The current state. A term paper submitted for CHL4400 at the South African Theological Seminary.

Magesa, L. (1997). African religion: The moral tradition of abundant life. New York: Orbis Books.

Marshall, I. H. & Towner, P. H. (1999).A critical and exegetical commentary of the Pastoral epsitles. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.

Obiora, F. K. (1979). The Devine Deceit: Business in Religion. Nimo: Rexcharles& Patrick Ltd.

Okoye, J. C. (2009). “African Theology” an internet article available on http://theo.kuleuven.be/insect/page/95 retrieved on 22/06/2011.

Onwu, N. (1984). The current state of biblical studies in Africa.The Journal of Religious Thought, 42(2), pp. 35-46.


Oosthuizen, G. C. (2000). “The task of African traditional religion in the church’s dilemma in south Africa,” in African spirituality: Forms, meanings and expressions, edited by Jacob Oluponna. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company.

Stott, J. R. W. (1973). The message of 2 Timothy. Leicester: Inter Varsity Press.

Ude, F. (2000).History, activities and problems of Pentecostal Fellowship of Nigeria (PFN) in Anambra State. Onitsha: Skumax Company.

Ukpong, J. S. (2000). “Developments in Biblical Interpretation in Africa: Historical and hermeneutical directions” in The Bible in Africa: Transactions, trajectories, and trends. Dube, M. W. and West, G. O. (eds)., New York: E. J. Brill.

Wilfred, Jubril. (2013). Opinion: The church is guilty of aiding corruption in the land. An internet article found in http://www.ynaija.com/opinion-the-church-is-guilty-of-aiding-corruption-in-the-land/

61Mission in the Postmodern Era

V. V. Thomas1

IntroductionThe main purpose of my paper is to probe into the understanding of mission among the Pentecostal Churches in general and India in particular in the contemporary postmodern era/period. In order to understand the topic in its proper perspective let me raise a few questions with regard Pentecostalism and Mission. Is there such a thing called Pentecostal Missiology? Pentecostal and Missiology -- are they two different concepts or are they synonymous terms? How do Pentecostals understand the concept of mission? What is the place of missiological education among the Pentecostal Churches in India? What do the Pentecostal Churches teach about mission in their Churches? What is their understanding when they talk about the ‘mission of the Church’? Is mission different from evangelism or are they one and the same? Is there a difference between mission and social work or are they same? What are some of the major mission ‘dynamics’ among the Pentecostals? Attempts will be made to answer these above questions as well as related questions in this paper. However before we try to find answers to these above questions a word of caution must be said here in the form of certain limitations in developing a Pentecostal perspective/ theology

1 Professor, History of Christianity, Union Biblical Seminary, Pune, 411037, India. Email: [email protected]

Mission in the Postmodern Era: A Pentecostal Perspective


of mission. Since Pentecostal are known as ‘doers, rather than ‘reflective thinkers’, they do not have a lot of educational / theoretical teachings on mission in their Churches. Talking about worship services in different Churches someone has said “Roman Catholics have a see-service, the Protestants have a hear-service and the Pentecostals have a do-service”. This is true also of their mission as well. There is a whole range of possibilities to do mission from a Pentecostal perspective. The character of Pentecostal missiology has been more experiential than intellectual, more activist than reflective. In fact according to Gary B. McGee a well-known American Assemblies of God scholar, the emergence of Pentecostalism in the early part of the twentieth century is all about missiology.2 Max Warren is of the opinion that ‘two groups who never ask about mission but get on with it are the Pentecostals and the Roman Catholics. While others spend conference after conference (or consultation after consultation like what we are doing right now!!!) asking what it is, and setting up committees to tell us, they [Pentecostals and Catholics] speed forth’ 3 Therefore it will be right for us to say that the Pentecostal experience has stimulated a lot of missionary activity and has not put much emphasis on theological reflections. Of course there have been some adverse results of this and one such issue is that the Pentecostal mission theology developed slowly. However over the past years, as the missionary activities developed, there has emerged a felt need for a Pentecostal theology of Church mission that would direct and inspire the Church’s global ministry. Another limitation is that there are not many Pentecostal Missiologists in India4 who have

2 Gary B. McGee, Pentecostals and their various strategies for global mission: A Historical Assessment cited in Murray A, Dempster, Byron D. Klaus and Douglas Peterson, (eds.) Called and Empowered: Global Mission in Pentecostal Perspective (Massachusetts: Hendrickson , 1991), p. 203

3 Minutes of the International Missionary Council of Ghana 1958 as quoted by Johnston ‘World Evangelism and the word of God’ p. 239, cited in R.E. Hedlund Roots of the great debate in Mission, ELS, Madras, 1981, p. 84.

4 In order to get some information’s on Indian Pentecostal missiologists I have contacted Dr. T.P Abraham of the Sharon Fellowship Church which is one of the leading Pentecostal Churches in Kerala. T.P Abraham has a Ph.D. from Fuller Theological College. Although his specialization is in anthropology, he is also a known Pentecostal missiologist. There are a few others whom Abraham has mentioned like Dr. John Thannnnikal, the president of New Life Bible College in Bangalore, Rev. Samuel


proved their scholarship through scholarly books or articles/papers and therefore it is difficult to know what exactly Pentecostals mean when they talk about the mission of the Church. Therefore I am afraid whether I will be able to do full justice to the topic ‘Mission in the Post-modern Era: A Pentecostal Perspective. At the same time I will try my best to make clear what are some of the mission dynamics/ understanding of mission among the Pentecostal Churches in our contemporary world. Brief Understanding of the Modern Pentecostal MovementThe modern Pentecostal movement5 has a long story behind it, which goes back to the early part of the 18th century. As a matter of fact there is no one or “the” definition that we can give to the term Pentecostal/ Pentecostals/

Mathew of Believers Church in Kerala, and Rev. Valson Abraham of the Indian Pentecostal Church in Kerala. I am sure there may be others in other parts of India.

5 The Modern Pentecostal movement was started in 1906 although there are differing views on the exact origin of the movement. There are basically two views on the year of its origin. The most known dates are the years 1901 (Topeka, Kansas) and the main person behind the movement was Charles Fox Parham, a White American as its founder and secondly 1906 (Azusa Street, Los Angeles) and the main person here was William Seymour, a Black Afro-American as the founder. The author of this article goes with the second view basically because some of the basic elements of Pentecostalism have been embodied in the Azusa Street revival that was started in 1906. For the works that describe and analyze these two differing views the following books will be helpful: Robert Mapes Anderson, Vision of the Disinherited; Frank Bartleman, Azusa Street (Plainfield, NJ: Logos International, 1980); Nils Bloch-Hoell, The Pentecostal Movement: Its Origin, Development and Distinctive Character (London: Allen & Unwin, 1964); Edith L. Blumhofer, The Assemblies of God: A Chapter in the Story of American Pentecostalism, 2 Vols. (Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing, 1989); Charles W. Conn, Like a Mighty Army moves the Church of God 1986-1995 (Cleveland, TN: Pathway Press, 1996); Cox Harvey, Fire From Heaven (New York : Addison-Wesley,1994 ); Donald W. Dayton Theological Roots of Pentecostalism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987); Walter J. Hollenweger, The Pentecostals (ET: London: SCM Press, 1972); Walter J. Hollenweger, Pentecostalism (Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1997); William W. Menzies, Anointed to Serve: The Story of the Assemblies of God (Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing, 1971); Vinson Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement in the United States (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971); Grant Wacker, ‘Pentecostalism’ in The Encyclopedia of American Religious Experience, edited by Charles H. Lippy and Peter W. Williams, Vol. II (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1989),933-945; Stanley M. Burgess & Eduard M. Van Der Maas, The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal Charismatic Movement (Michigan: Zondervan, 2002).


Pentecostalism/ or even Pentecostal movement because doctrinally Pentecostalism is not a consistent whole, still less if one includes under Pentecostalism the various independent non-white indigenous Churches and Charismatic movements all over the world, mainly in the Third World countries that come under the banner of this movement. According to Hollenweger, Pentecostalism has five roots, consisting of catholic, evangelical, critical and ecumenical roots and the Black roots.6 According to William Menezis, a well-known Pentecostal historian, in the earlier years anyone who believed in the possibility of the gifts of the Spirit, described in the New Testament as being available to believers today, was considered to be a Pentecostal.7 In a condensed form one can say that Pentecostalism is that segment of Christianity which believes that there is a unique aspect of the Spirit’s manifestation, namely baptism in the Spirit and the initial physical evidence of the Spirit’s baptism is speaking in tongues. They also believe that this baptism in the Spirit is normative for every Christian believer. They believe that the New Testament record of the event of Pentecost is not merely a “record of what happened in one generation, but a blue print of what should happen in every generation until Jesus returns again.8 Pentecostals claim that they are a community of Restoration movement as they claim to restore the Apostolic elements such as holiness, Baptism in the Holy Spirit, the gifts of the Holy Spirit and so on. They also say that they are a Protest movement because the other Churches according to the Pentecostals have left behind important elements from the apostolic teachings and added those things which were rather part of the tradition and not of the scripture such as historical episcopacy, infant baptism, papal authority etc. It also claims to be a movement of Liberation since they try to break open the silence of the subaltern, the caste barriers and other

6 Walter J. Hollenweger, “The Black Roots of Pentecostalism,” in Journal of Pentecostal Theology Suppliment Series-15, edited by John Christopher Thomas, Rickie D. Moore, Sreven J.Land (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), 33-47.

7 Willaim W. Menzis, “Reflections of a Pentecostal at the End of the Millennium: An Editorial Essay,” in Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies, No.1 (1998), 7.

8 David Duplessis, “Pentecost,” A Quarterly Review of World-wide Pentecostal Activity 30 (Dec 1954): 17.


oppressive structures in the society. It is interesting to note that most of the adherents of the Pentecostal faith all over the world are from the lowest strata of the society. People, who were economically and socially weak, have found identity in the Pentecostal movement although it has changed in the present situation.

Pentecostal Beginnings in India As noted already the modern Pentecostal movement emerged in the 20th century out of the revivals that took place in the United States of America. In India it was no different. Therefore it is difficult to say when exactly the Pentecostal movement started in India. As noted above this is because it is closely associated with the Protestant revival movements of the 19th century. If speaking in tongues, which is the main symbol of the movement, should be taken as the beginning of the Pentecostal movement, then it has already been seen in many of the revival movements that were growing in the various parts of the country in the early part of the 20th century. To cite McGee again, the first Pentecostal experience was manifested among the Christian and Alliance mission’s missionaries at Akola, Maharastra in 1906 but this was not documented.9 Another incident of speaking in tongues was witnessed among the girls at the Mukthi mission run by Panditha Ramabai a Brahmin convert to Christianity. This was a result of the revival of which an eye witness, Minnie F. Abrams reported that “there was weeping, long prayer, confession of sins, and visions.”10 However classical Pentecostalism in India appeared through the efforts of the Western Missionaries who were part of the Azusa Street revival in 1906 in United States. The first Pentecostal missionary to come to India with the Pentecostal message that represented Azusa Street was A.G Gar who came in the year 1907 to Calcutta. The others include Thomas Barrett (Norway), George Berg, Robert F. Cook, and Mrs. Mary Chapman who was the first Assemblies Missionary to India who came to Madras (Chennai) in 1915.11

9 Garry B. McGee, Selected documents on the early history of the Assemblies of God in India, Spring field 1991.

10 Minnie F. Abrams, How Pentecost came to India, Pentecostal Evangel, May 1945, p 4.

11 J. Edwin Orr, Evangelical Awakening, New Delhi: CLS, 1970, p,96


The Understanding of Mission from aPentecostal Perspective

From the very early days of the modern Pentecostal movement mission has been at the very heart of the movement. The famous Azusa Street revival of 1906 led by William Seymour is often regarded as the birthplace of the modern Pentecostal movement which is also sometimes known as the “Azusa Street Mission”.12 Seymour’s admonition to people who took part in the famous revival clearly indicates his understanding of mission. His admonition was ‘ Now do not go from this meeting and talk about tongues, but try to get people saved’.13

Pentecostals say that their understanding of mission comes from the scriptural teachings on mission which according to them is “winning souls” for the kingdom of God by witnessing to the reality of their new life in Christ. The prime concern for the Pentecostals is an experience with the risen Lord, which moves them to share that experience with others. “… that which we have seen and heard we proclaim also to you so that you may have fellowship with us” (1 John 1:1-3) has been the motto of Pentecostals. They believe such an experiential approach is closer to the biblical tradition as well as the Indian religious traditions.

Although like their other counterparts in the evangelical segment of Christianity Pentecostals have been involved in the service of humanity through education, medical services, and other social aspects, the main concern was/is to ‘win souls’ for Christ. However, of late the Pentecostals have been making efforts towards a church ministry, which is capable of integrating programs of evangelism and social concern into a unified effort in fulfilling the church’s global mission. Over the decades, as the Pentecostal missionary enterprise has expanded, there has emerged a felt need for a Pentecostal theology of Church mission that would direct and inspire the Church’s global ministry. Murray Dempster, a Pentecostal theologian says

12 Stanly M. Burgess &Gary B. McGee, eds; “ Introduction” in Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, (Michigan, Zondervan Publishing House, 1990) p. 3.

13 Quoted in Stanley H. Frodsham, With Signs Following: The Story of the latter-day Pentecostal Revival (Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House, 1946) p.38, cited in Murray W. Dempster,. et.al. The Globalization of Pentecostalism: A ReligionMade to Travel. Oxford: Regnum Oxford, 1999, p.35.


that from an eschatological perspective, the mission of the Church is to witness the truth that the kingdom of God which still belongs to the future has already broken into the present age in Jesus Christ and continues in the world through the power of the Holy Spirit. From an ethical perspective, the mission of the Church is to witness to the reality of what life looks when humans respond to God’s eschatological reign.14 The eschatological kingdom has a normative structure reflective of God’s own ethical character. Jesus taught, therefore, that where God reigns, a new redemptive society is formed in which brothers and sisters enjoy an affirmative community; where strangers are incorporated into the circle of neighbor love; where peace is made with enemies; where injustices are rectified; where the poor experience solidarity with human family and the creation; where generous sharing results in the just satisfaction of human needs in which no one suffers deprivation; where all persons are entitled to respect, are to be treated with dignity, and are deserving of justice because they share the status of God’s image bearer. Such actions and social practices that embody love, justice, and shalom constitute the normative moral structure in a social ethic reflective of God’s kingly rule.15 Dempster says that within this context of Church mission, ministry programs of both evangelism and social concern are needed in which they (evangelism and social concerns) might be integrated into a holistic theology of Church ministry grounded in the kingdom of God and empowered by the Spirit. According to him in order to accomplish this aim the three fold traditional ministry of the Church, namely Kerygmatic ministry which is proclaiming the kingdom of God in spoken word, the Diakonic ministry which is manifesting the kingdom in moral deeds and Church koinoniac ministry which is picturing the kingdom in social witness are to be brought together in a holistic manner. 16 According to Orlando. E. Costas, who speaks about Jesus’ kingdom theology, “the true test of mission is not whether we proclaim, make disciples or engage in social, economic and political liberation, but

14 Murray A. Dempster,. Called Empowered: Global Mission in Pentecostal Perspective, Massachusetts, U.S.A: Hendrickson Publishers, 1991.p 24

15 Ibid. 16 Ibid pp. 24-39.


whether we are capable of integrating all the three in a comprehensive, dynamic and consistent witness”.17 A kerygmatic ministry of evangelism, a koinoniac ministry of social witness, and a diakonic ministry of social justice are all needed if the Church’s global mission and ministry are to be carried out in the memory of Jesus of Nazareth, the One who was anointed by the Holy Spirit to inaugurate God’s reign of love, justice and shalom.18

Understanding of Mission and its Relationship to SalvationThe understanding of mission in Pentecostals Churches cannot be studied as an independent entity. Their understanding of mission is closely connected to several other aspects like their concept of salvation, the Church, the role of the Holy Spirit in mission, the role of personal experience etc. The understanding of salvation by the Pentecostals has important bearings on their concept of mission. Mission for Pentecostals is to lead them into the salvation of the souls. Pentecostals polarize the whole world into those who are saved and others who are ‘lost’. To be saved means to accept Jesus Christ as personal saviour; to change one’s way of life. At the same time it may be said here that while Pentecostals talk about “salvation” they mean primarily in terms of atonement, forgiveness of sin, reconciliation with God, yet in their every day practices, they reach out to things that are beyond the ‘born again” experience of salvation. Their salvation experience is very much related to the life in the ‘here and now’ which also promises them a better life in the ‘here after.’ Many people have joined with the Pentecostal Churches because they felt that in their former Churches the “born again”19 experience of the Pentecostal Churches was missing. Pentecostals in general and Dalit Pentecostals in particular are eager to say that they have a “born again” experience. They

17 Orlando E. Costas, The Integrity of Missions: The inner life and outreach of the Church (San Francisco: Harper &Row, 1979), p. 75.

18 Murray A. Dempster, op.cit., p. 39. 19 The term “born again” is used by most Pentecostals and charismatic groups to refer

to the experience of their personal encounter with Christ. The fact is that many of these people who were part of other Churches and had some Christian experiences in those Churches are now left behind and they claim that they have a higher and a new experience which they call it as “born again” experience.


often tell the date and time when that had happened. However, as I have already mentioned, this salvation experience is not something that is only related to the life after death. It is very much related to the life in the here and now. The concerns include the need for physical healing, financial and economic problems, problems related to marriage, various needs in the family, deliverance from the habit of drunkenness, need for a house, deliverance from demonic attacks, the desire for social mobility, and the list can go on. These were the day-today needs of the people irrespective of their age. During my doctoral research many Dalit Pentecostals in Kerala have said that they have received solutions to many of their problems on embracing the Pentecostal faith. Therefore for the Dalits in Kerala their “born again” experience is part and parcel of the life in the here and now and it cannot be divorced from existential needs. The Saviour in this sense is not only the one who saves from the curse of sin, but also he is the one who helps them in their day to day existential needs. Therefore we can say that the Dalit Pentecostals have a dual-faceted conception of salvation, incorporating “this worldliness” and “other-worldliness.” The point here is that the Dalit Pentecostals understand salvation as something that relates to the existential here and now, while it is equally related to in the hereafter. But there is no hereafter without the here and now. The experience of salvation not only prepares the “born again believers” for the “celestial city” in the hereafter, but also it is perceived as the key to abundant life or salvation today. Out of the many Dalit Pastors with whom I corresponded for understanding their concept of salvation, most of them have said that it involves mainly three things. 1. It is deliverance from a sinful life. By this most of them meant that there is a change that comes to a person through his/her ‘born again’ experience. It comes in the form of certain changed habits and life style from the earlier one. It is a new life lived in the here and now in a changed manner. 2. It is a life lived in the power of the Holy Spirit. By this it is meant that they are filled with the Holy Spirit and speak in tongues. This experience, they believe give them a different identity from other Christians 3. It is a life lived in the here and now with the grace of God which prepares them for a life in the world to come eternally. By this they mean that there is life to come and salvation will be fully realized


only after the second Coming of Christ. The above concept of salvation by the Pentecostals, especially the Dalit Pentecostals, is reflected very much in their concept of mission and the way they do mission.

Church and Mission: Their RelationshipIt is a fact that, while the commission of Christ to preach the Good News of His kingdom to the ends of the earth is an undeniable responsibility, it has been done not in a lone model throughout the ages. According to Donald Senior, one’s understanding of church has a profound impact on one’s concept of mission -- and one’s understanding of mission shapes one’s understanding of what the church is meant to be.20 Senior makes a very important observation which can be seen throughout history. When we study the history of the church through different centuries, it becomes clear that the self-understanding of the Church by its members in a given age and the way they formulated their mission had close relationship. Mission in each age was an indicator of the different understanding of the identity of the Church. Therefore there has been a close relationship between the Church and mission. This is true of the Pentecostal Churches too.

According Miroslav Volf, a Pentecostal scholar from the former Yugoslavia “A Church is a community of people who congregate in order to call on, to testify and to confess Christ the liberator…. They do not need to be characterized by a certain grade of personal or social holiness in order to be called the Church. The Church…. Lives solely on the sanctifying presence of Christ, who promised to be wherever people congregate in His name…. The Church is therefore not a club of the perfect but a community of people who confess to be sinners and pray: debita dimitte (forgive us our sins). Any group which gathers around the one Christ, around God in His salvific devotion to men, who celebrate in him their liberator and Lord, who is open to all people and where all people have the same dignity, such a group is a Church because Christ has promised

20 Donald Senior, correlating images of Church of Mission in the New Testament, Missiology Vol. XX11/1, 1995, PP.3-16,


to be present among them.21 In fact, where do we find today the Church -- the body of Christ here -- on the earth? Is it in our beautiful chapels? Is it in our air conditioned cathedrals? Is it in our air-conditioned posh Churches? I believe the true, the real Church is present outside the official Church, where it stands with those on the pavements beside the poor, the sick, the homeless, the orphans, the elderly, those suffering injustice, and those looking for truth. Early Pentecostal missiology has been based on such an understanding of the Church and that is the reason why one can find ‘all kinds of fish in the Pentecostal net’. While describing the mission of the Church, G. Raymond Carlson of the Assemblies of God says that the primary reason for being of the Assemblies of God was determined to be threefold: 1. Ministry to the Lord; 2. Ministry to the saints; 3. Ministry to the world.22 The ministry to the Lord is expressed in and through our worship of and fellowship with the Lord. The ministry to the saints is to build a community in the image of Jesus Christ. The ministry to the world is primarily preaching the Gospel and bringing them to the saving knowledge of Jesus the savoir. Other activities such as educational, philanthropic, medical and other social activities are also undertaken as means of bringing people to the love of Christ.

Holy Spirit in Pentecostal Mission As I have already mentioned, the Pentecostal movement was not born as a theological movement and this is one main reason why Pentecostals were known as ‘doers’ rather than ‘reflective thinkers’. Pentecostals believed that the pouring out of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost came as empowerment to witness Christ to the ‘uttermost part of the earth’ in the last days before the return of Christ.23 This is true of Pentecostalism in India also.

21 Miroslav Volf, “Human work, Divine Spirit, and New Creation: Toward a Pneumatological Understanding of Work” Pneuma, 9/2, Fall 1987, pp173-93 as cited in Walter J. Hollenweger in ‘Pentecostalism: Origins and Developments Worldwide’ (Hendrickson: Massachusetts, 1997), p. 264.

22 R. Raymond Carlson, ‘Our mission’. The Assemblies of God in Mission (Gospel Publishing House, Spring field Missouri, 1970), p.17

23 Murray A, Dempster, Byron D. Klaus and Douglas Peterson, (eds.) Called and Empowered: Global Mission in Pentecostal Perspective (Massachusetts: Hendrickson , 1991) p. 3.


One of the major contributions/ challenges Pentecostalism offers to the understanding of mission today is the emphasis it places on the role of the Holy Spirit in mission. Pentecostals believe and teach that their authority to preach/ teach and to do mission comes from the Holy Spirit. The ‘ordination’ for mission is not given by a Church or a hierarchy. It is from the Holy Spirit. One of the interesting features is that the gift of the Spirit can fall as easily on the illiterate as on the educated, and glossolalia can bless an ordinary member of the Church as effortlessly as the gifted singer in the Church. Thus one can notice that individuals are brought into the community of the Church rescued from a life of abandonment and with a new hope of recovering their dignity opening up before them. It is not done often through ‘educated or qualified’ missionaries appointed by the Church authority or a hierarchy’ but by the ordinary members of the Church whose authority comes from the Holy Spirit. In Pentecostal Churches every believer is an ‘evangelist’ in his/her own capacity. According Melvin Hodges, a leading Pentecostal missiologist, “the faith which Pentecostal people have in the ability of the Holy Spirit to give spiritual gifts and supernatural abilities to the common people… has raised up a host of lay preachers and leaders of unusual spiritual ability -- not unlike the rugged fishermen who first followed the Lord”24

For Pentecostals the work of the Holy Spirit in all aspects of one’s life including mission is in their basic understanding. In fact Pentecostals are sometimes known as ‘evangelicals with a plus’. The work of the Holy Spirit according to the Pentecostals is for one’s empowerment to get ready the believer for evangelism of the world and they believe that without the Holy Spirit no one can attain the goal of world evangelism. Donald Gee says that the gift and the grace of the Holy Spirit are tools that equip the believer for evangelism of the world. It is for this reason that the Pentecostals continue to give so much emphasis to the baptism of the Holy Spirit as a real experience for all believers….” 25 The Pentecostal

24 Gary McGee, This Gospel Shall be preached: History of the Assemblies of God Foreign Missions to 1959, Spring field Mo: Gospel Publishing House, 1986 as cited in Walter J. Hollenweger in Pentecostalism: Origins and Developments Worldwide (Hendrickson: Massachusetts, 1997) p. 299.

25 Lauri Ahonen, Missions Growth: A Case Study on Finnish Free Foreign Missions


understanding of mission therefore is so much linked to the baptism of the Holy Spirit. Another aspect of the role of the Holy Spirit is that, like what happened on the day of Pentecost, the Holy Spirit enables to have signs and wonders in the mission field. It should be noted that for Pentecostals signs and wonders are inseparable part of their mission. There is also a special emphasis on healing. In fact a number of Pentecostal Church members are people who have experienced divine healing in their lives and have become members of the Pentecostal Churches.

Personal Experiences and Mission Pentecostals have brought personal experience into their mission arena, which is sometimes missing from other mission agencies. The Pentecostal Churches (particularly the Dalit Pentecostal Churches) are built out of its own resources and efforts. Most of their pastors/evangelists are trained for the work in the field without attending graduate or postgraduate level theological seminaries which offer degrees. The pastors/ evangelists go through a short-term course which do not last more a year or two and they go to the field. It thus seeks to break down the barrier between the so-called “qualified” pastoral workers and ordinary Christians. All believers are equipped to preach and evangelize by their experience of the baptism of the Holy Spirit.

Pentecostals go to the mission field mostly after having a personal experience with God. This “encounter with God” comes in different ways. Sometimes there can be a personal crisis in life or a family struggle that caused the person to commit their lives to full time ministry. While such experiences can become a motivational factor for the person to enter into the mission field, there can be a danger if there is undue dependence on such experience especially when it becomes unquestionable.

The Descriptive Nature of the Pentecostal Mission Unlike the abstract theological elements that have dominated the worship and witness in other churches, Pentecostals and specially the Dalit Pentecostals prefer a narrative expression of their theology and witness.

(William Carey Library, California 1984) p.18.


For them God is more than a concept. God is an experience for them. There is a thirst among them for the God-experience. During my research one of the questions that I have asked a number of Dalit pastors and believers was, ‘what has Pentecostalism meant to you’? A good number of them said that while they were bound by written worship liturgy and abstract concepts of God, Pentecostalism provided them with an experience of God in their everyday life. They experience God when their children are healed, when their financial needs are met, etc. In fact the Dalits are not at home with carefully written theology and dogmas, which are usually made by the so-called ‘learned’ people. They would rather like to narrate their experiences of God and that gives them a lot of satisfaction. I have witnessed this in many Dalit churches where one can observe people testifying, praying spontaneously, preaching without written manuscripts but with lot of ‘theology’ in it that relates to the everyday lives of the people, their struggles, their agonies, and their burdens. People find these kinds of worship and preaching a satisfying experience. Some of the best preachers in the Pentecostal movement in Kerala have come from the Dalit background.26 In fact in the area of communication, the Dalit Pentecostals possess elements and forms which are close to the Indian values and ways.

Dynamics of Pentecostal Mission Education

The narrative nature of Pentecostal MissiologyIt may not be wrong to say that knowingly or unknowingly mission theology in the past has over emphasized doctrinal formulations, which, of course, is characteristic of western theological traditions. While the Bible gives us a narrative theology with a beginning, middle and an end, the west reshaped it into an organized set of ideas about God in the form of systematic theology which the common man finds hard to grasp. It is here that the narrative nature of Pentecostal mission theology plays

26 Lazar V. Mathew, John Chacko, O. M. Rajukutty are a few examples of some of the known contemporary Pentecostal preachers in Kerala.


a great role. The Pentecostal mission theology is less occupied with the theological jargons of the west. The major concern is to share their experience of Christ with others in narrative form. The commandment of Jesus to go and preach the Gospel to all nations is taken literally and they do everything to obey it. This is true of the Pentecostal mission. They share the Gospel in simple terms and mostly through their experience in life.

The importance given to the personal experience of ChristThe strong emphasis on personal experience of Christ, which is at the heart of the Pentecostal movement, certainly attracts individuals in to the movement.

Total commitmentOnce they are into the movement and into the mission field, Pentecostal missionaries are totally committed to their task. We have several examples of missionaries from the Southern part of India going to the North after the 1950’s with no promises or persons behind them to support. Some of them have much number of Churches and believers all over North India as a result of their commitment to Christ and to His call for ministry.

Praxis oriented MissionPentecostals are more pragmatic in their mission work. For them a God who only speak and promises but does not act, perform miracles, and heal people is not a missionary God. This is an important aspect of Pentecostal mission.

The open-minded mentality of Pentecostal missionFor Pentecostals the Holy Spirit is the leader. They often say ‘the Spirit told me’ the ‘Spirit led me’. So for them the Holy Spirit leads. As a result of this mentality one can find different forms of Pentecostal worship, mission, and pattern of Church service. In other words they are not tied up by any one single mode either in their mission activities or in their Church life. If someone is looking among the Pentecostals something like the Vatican II document or the Lima document on Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, he/she may be disappointed because there is no international body for all Pentecostals around the world to formulate and articulate the exact definition of either a


Pentecostal theology or missiology. While this may be seen as a lacuna of Pentecostal missiology, at the same time, it is also a ‘blessing in disguise’ because, depending on different cultures and forms, the Pentecostals try to make their message applicable and acceptable to the people.

Pioneering indigenous ChurchesIn the context of the ministry of the word, it may be mentioned to the credit of the Dalit Pentecostals that they have shown more cultural adaptability than many other Churches. They have been successful in creating indigenous Churches, which incorporate unique local cultural forms.27 The story telling form which is a popular Indian medium of communication, and preservation of traditions is a common form through which Dalit Pentecostals have formulated their ‘theology’ and communicate it to others more clearly than through the carefully written theology and dogmas. It is further noted that “Pentecostalism has appeared in cultural settings that range from high pontifical masses in St. Peters in Rome to African outdoor services that meet under trees where the faithful dance before the Lord to the rhythmic throb of African drums.”28 In the situation of the Pentecostal Dalits in Kerala this cultural adaptability is seen in a clear manner. Due to the belief that the Holy Spirit confers gifts and callings directly upon believers apart from their associations with the ecclesiastical institutions, Dalit Pentecostals have been able to contextualize their Church worship to a great extent. While the so-called selected specialists like trained pastors and theologians carry out much of the mainline Pentecostal theology and worship, the Dalit Pentecostals challenge this by their participatory and indigenous worship model.

Missiological Education amongPentecostal Churches in India

Though systematic missiological education may not be strongly visible in many Pentecostal churches, there has been a burning desire among them,

27 Vinson Synan, “Pentecostalism: Varieties and contributions,” Pneuma: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies, 9 (Fall, 1986) p. 41.

28 Ibid., p.42.


especially in the area of evangelism, church planting and church growth. Large numbers of Pentecostal young men and women are on mission fields in particular in the following areas.

• Cross-cultural ministry: Many of the mission leaders and church planters are from the Pentecostal-charismatic type groups.

• Emphasis for reaching the un-reached based on Great commission teaching

• Focus of church planting in their own cultural and cross-cultural situations

• Emphasis on Holy Spirit ministries leading to missiological focus. Holy Spirit is the director, controller and administrator of the mission of the church.

• Emphasis on ‘saving souls’ and bringing them from the kingdom of Satan to the Kingdom of God.

If systematic missiological teachings had given in the Bible Colleges and seminaries the impact would have been great.

Challenges Facing the Pentecostal Movementin the Present Time

The Tension between Ministry as a “Call” and “Profession”When Pentecostalism started in the early part of the 20th century, the movement was filled with people who had a sense of call from the Lord. However as time went by the “call” began to diminish and more of “professionalism” began to emerge. Today the question must be asked: Is it the call or the profession -- which is the driving force behind the Pentecostal Churches or Pentecostal ministry? It must be said here that ministry is basically a calling and in that sense it is not a carrier or a profession that we do. There is a vast difference between a career and a calling. A career is something that I choose for myself whereas a calling is something that I receive. A career is something that I do for myself but a calling is something that God does through me. A career promises status,


power, money and positions and many other things whereas a calling involves difficulties, pain, suffering but at the same time it gives me an opportunity to be used by God. A career is all about upward mobility where as in calling you decrease and allow the Guru to increase in your life. Career is what you are trained for but calling is something that you receive from the Lord. Pentecostals should not look at ministry as something that they can perform but something that becomes part and parcel of their life, an extension of their life. Ministry should not be something that we do for God, but something God does through us. It may be observed that the above struggle of ministry as career and calling is seen mostly among the younger generation of Pentecostal scholars. I fear that very often minor things have taken over our major concerns which are our life and relationship to God. The catch words in the movement today are ‘faster, higher, and stronger, words which we have borrowed from the contemporary society. Pentecostal Movement has gone through several changes. From being a movement, Pentecostalism has moved into a structured, institutionalized and established organization/s. So much so that today there is a tendency among the Pentecostals to promote their ‘Church’ than promoting the founder of the Church and His Gospel. There is a false understanding of evangelism because many Pentecostals today attempt to promote the Church building or the organization, without realizing the fact that the Church as a building or denomination has the poorest appeal of all to ‘sinners’. According to Bishop F.D Washington of the Church of God in Christ says that ‘most of the sinners do not go to Church. Yet the fantastic fact remains that the person of Jesus Christ -- when he is presented right -- has the greatest single appeal to the human heart in this world’.29

The Danger of “Prosperity Theology” Another serious concern is with regard to the so called ‘prosperity theology’ that many Pentecostal preachers’ propagate today around the world. Prosperity theology has emerged from some quarters of the Pentecostal

29 Bishop F.D Washington at the 62nd convocation of the Church of God in Christ 1969 (Holy Convocation, ed. J.O Patterson, n.p. 1969) as cited in Walter J. Hollenweger, Pentecostalism (Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1997), p. 28.


and charismatic movements. At the same time a few highly responsible Pentecostal leaders have been very critical of such newer developments within Pentecostalism. Basically prosperity theology is a North American phenomenon. The socio-economic and political background of North America is the context of its development. Now it has been spread to different parts of the world especially among some Pentecostal and charismatic movements. It is basically a ‘theology of success’ It asserts that material prosperity is God’s will for every Christian. Unfortunately some popular contemporary Pentecostal preachers are the proponents of such a theology. Many of these preachers advocate piety and prayer to be secured against dangers and harms in life and as criteria for material blessing. It is a kind of an ‘insurance’ theology. Yet the question that has to be answered is: how can success be at the center and prosperity the goal of the Christian faith and mission whose central symbol is the cross and the son of God hanging on it, forsaken even by God? I am afraid that some of those proponents of the prosperity theology forget the fact that the distinguishable mark of the spirituality and ministry of the Church throughout the ages has been the crucified Christ and His cross and not the success oriented Western theology and mind set. The Pentecostal Church and their leaders must learn to ‘live simple so that others may simply live’. In the present day context of our country where around 45% of the people are below the poverty line, where even after 66 years of independence the poor mass is still oppressed politically, economically, socially, and religiously, where the majority are deprived of drinking water, housing, health care, where in the name of development the poor tribal people and the farmers are dislocated in mass, where caste system continue to hold the Dalits and other marginalized groups under darkness, where women and children are treated in dehumanizing ways, what is the mission and ministry of the Church? I believe the ministry of the Church must be one of incarnating into the lives of people and their situations. Incarnation is to identify with the pains and sufferings of the people so that ‘death is at work in us and life in the deprived ones of our country’. It should be life and life abundant. Therefore there is an urgent need for Pentecostal missiology to go back to its roots when it was known as a ‘religion of the empowered poor’ where there was no discrimination based on any kind whether wealth/class/ education etc.


The Tension between “Quantity Vs “Quality” Another aspect that needs serious re-thinking in Pentecostal missiology is its concept of quantity or the craziness for adding more members to the Church. Today there is a ‘mega Church’ concept that has crept into the Pentecostal Churches and its mission thinking. Very often this craziness for the number game is at the cost of quality and compromising many vital values. There is a big ‘hue and cry’ about souls being lost without Christ. According to Rene Padilla, a former Associate general secretary for the Latin America of the International fellowship of Evangelical students made the following significant statement “There is no place for statistics on how many souls die without Christ every minute if they do not take into account how many of those who die, die victims of hunger.”30 No doubt there is a lot of influence of globalization that is influencing such above thinking. Globalization projects an ideal culture that is mostly the culture of the West. The basic value of this culture is consumerism and profit. The idea is that you have to make your product appealing. This kind of culture has begun to influence the way Christians/ Pentecostals do ministry. The Gospel is seen as a ‘product’ which the preacher must ‘sell’. The more he sells, the more he becomes famous. According to Gerloff, “When Reinhard Bonnke31 makes ten thousand people speak in tongues in half a minute or when he stages miracle after miracle in his services, then religion is marketed like a new shampoo or a disco song. That is neither the renewal of the Church nor of society.”32 Unfortunately some of the basic values of the Gospel like love, grace, mercy, relationship are now replaced under the influence of a marketing mentality with words like ‘prosperity’ and ‘success’. In the urge to become famous some ‘laborers’ of the Gospel use whatever means that are available at their disposal. For many, the end justifies the means, not knowing (or intentionally ignoring) that in God’s

30 Walter J. Hollenweger, Pentecostalism (Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1997), p.305.

31 Reinhard Bonnke is a popular itinerant German evangelist who attracts tens of thousands of people for his evangelistic crusades all around the world but mostly in African countries.

32 Roswith I.H. Gerloff, “Afrikkanische Diaspora” as quoted by Walter J. Hollenweger in ‘Pentecostalism: Origins and Developments Worldwide’ (Hendrickson: Massachusetts, 1997) p. 364.


kingdom the means also matters. What we see here is a commoditation of the Gospel, human relationship and values. A lot of emphasis is laid on Church growth, not realizing the fact that all that grows is not the Church.

External ChallengesWe are living in a historical moment, for it is a new millennium and a new age. We are faced with a number of challenges from the world around us and no responsible Christian and more so the Pentecostals can run away from the realities that they face. In the last three or four hundred years we have had several significant developments taking place in the world that have affected human relationships and values. In the first place the whole concept of Modernism and then Postmodernism in the last few decades has challenged human thinking and values. (What I mean by modernism here is nothing but a scientific rationality or reasoning.) At the same time modernism also brought a crisis along with the challenges. As a result of modernism there began to emerge a critical spirit; this meant that people did not accept traditional thinking in its totality. They began to question the traditional way of thinking. Pentecostal tradition was not free from this challenge of modernism, which definitely influenced their concept of mission. This is also true of postmodernism whereby the whole concept of truth in itself was questioned. In the modern period if one could prove the reality of truth, then that was accepted. But in the postmodern era the understanding was that there was nothing called truth, leave alone proving what is truth. Truth was a social construct and there is nothing called absolute. In such context, there emerged a critical scholarship. It had both positive and, mostly, negative impacts upon church and society. The second issue is the change in the social systems in our society. In the past century a lot of development has taken place in the industrial world. Industrial development has given way to a large extent to the agricultural way of life. Therefore we have had structural changes taking place all around the world which pose a challenge to the mission of the Church. The market began to control our life in the society. Everything was affected through the market concept including the mission of the Church.


Thirdly the whole issue of globalization that we have today is another development which poses a great challenge to the mission. It is primarily an economic process, and unfortunately this whole economic process is now being controlled by a few international/ multinational powers. There is a global market, which is controlling us. As I said in the above paragraph in the traditional society we controlled the market, but now the market is controlling us. The market decides what product we need. Globalization has become a reality today. There are also other realities in the Indian society like poverty, pluralism, castesism, political instability, environmental degradation, which have become great challenges to the mission. No responsible Christian can ignore such realities and do mission. The consequence of the above developments has its own impact and implications for the mission in India. There is an ever widening gap between the rich and the poor. The poor are becoming poorer and the rich are becoming richer. There is an ever-growing migration of people for security and economic reasons to ‘other’ places. There are ever growing internal conflicts and disintegration of communities. There is communalism, which is also a great challenge for mission. As a result of environmental degradation all sorts of disasters are taking place. People are turning to be militants and terrorists because their raised hopes and expectations are not being fulfilled. All these are great challenges to the mission of the Church in India today. Yet the fact remains that the Churches have not been able to provide adequate alternatives or answers to some of these burning issues in the society. Pentecostal Churches are not exempted from these failures. What are some of the reasons for the above mentioned failures in the Pentecostal movement or in other Churches? I would like to identify a few and welcome other friends to identify other reasons. In the first place, as I have mentioned already, the whole issue of prosperity has saturated the movement today. There was a time when the movement was known as a ‘religion of the poor’. However that label is fast disappearing and there is a lot of emphasis laid on ‘blessings’ meaning mostly the material blessings. What has happened or is happening to the


many Pentecostals today is similar to what had happened to the Israelites when they entered into the land of Canaan. Once they entered the land of Canaan they almost forgot the warning that was given to them through Moses while they were in the wilderness that there was every chance for them to forget the Lord when they get into the land of Canaan flowing with milk and honey. In fact what was feared has come true in the lives of the Israelites. They were no more in ‘need’ of the Lord because unlike in the wilderness where they had to wait for the water from the rock, they now had wells to draw their water from; now they had their own defense while in the wilderness the Lord fought the battle for them; I feel this is almost what has happened to the Pentecostals in India and especially in Kerala!. There was a time when they were very low in their economical status in the society. Like the Israelites in the wilderness, the Pentecostals had to depend fully on the Lord for their provision for each day. Now that situation is over and they are well paced in the society. The second problem I see among the Pentecostals today is that they have found many substitutes for God. In the beginning of the movement they felt the immediacy of God. They felt the nearness of God but once they crossed certain hurdles on their journey, they began to distant themselves from God. For the third or fourth generation Pentecostals, the concept God, Church, revival etc have become ‘fussy.’ There was a time when God was so near but where is that God today? Their so called “ministry” became their priority than the one who gave them the ministry. The approval of God is not the main aim in the lives of many Pentecostal leaders and members. I fear our ‘busy work’ for God has taken us away from reflecting his characteristics like holiness, integrity, justice, selfless love etc. The third reason I find for the failure of Pentecostals is the kind of ‘casual attitude’ that crept into the Church. In the early years of the Pentecostal movement they felt the clear guidance of the Lord. They were ‘on fire’ for God. Like the Israelites saw the presence of God through the clouds that followed them, the Pentecostals literally experienced the presence of God (at least claimed to have experienced) in their lives. However now there is lot of nominalism. The original vision seems to have dimmed. Worship, preaching, and other ministries of the Church have become very superficial.


Another dangerous situation is that we have a lot ‘satisfying symbols’ in our Churches. Symbols are good but when it takes the place of the reality of God it is dangerous. Worshipping God from the heart should not take the place of making some noise or words like “Halleluiah” or “Praise the Lord.” Such words should not become a symbol or it should not replace our love for God. Another reason for the failure can be our ‘give and take attitude’ or going after the worldly pleasures. In the history of the Israelites, we see some of them seeking after the blessing of Baal. It is high time for the Pentecostals to see what the areas that they have compromised with the world are. Pentecostal ministers must always remember that like Disciples of Christ, they are primarily called to be with Him and then sent by Him for the ministry. We must always remember that unless we continue to abide in Him we cannot bear fruit for Him. What is the level of our consistency of being with Him? Sometimes we are so close to Him but at other times we are far away from Him. What is the level of our nearness to Him? Are we improving upon our level of knowledge of Him? Apostle Paul writing to the Philippians says that “I want to know Him.” All that I have known about Him is only little. I want to know more of Him. The closer we get to Him, we understand His demands better. However for many Pentecostals Christ is someone to follow at a distance because His demands are not in line with their agenda. Who is the real me or who is the real Pentecostal or more so who is the real disciple or Christian is an urgent question that each of us need to answer.

ConclusionAs I conclude this paper let me make some concrete suggestions for the Pentecostal Churches in India, be it classical Pentecostal Churches, Charismatics, or Independent groups to give some consideration so that they can move forward. In the first place I suggest that the Pentecostals go back to the earlier emphasis on purity of life and transparency in one’s relationship with God and with one another. The life of the Apostolic Church was embodied by truth and purity. That was also true of the early Pentecostals.


Secondly there is a need to move from the concept of ‘personal piety’ to a Trinitarian community of discourse; let us learn to look at truth not as only a personal affair between God and me but a community based relationship. Let us learn to look at truth not as power but as love; let us learn to look at God as a communion and not as a power monger. Let us learn to look at the creation relationally and not as something that we can use to achieve our purpose. Let us not try to fix our problems by our own strength but listen to God so that He may instruct us as to what to do and how to go about resolving our problems. The people of God in Babylon under captivity could not fix their problem but had to listen to God who fixed their problem. Prophet Isaiah had to tell them that it is only those who wait upon the Lord shall renew their strength and not those who think that they can do it by themselves. Thirdly I suggest that instead of looking at people as commodities, let us learn to look at people from the perspective of God. Today we see everything as commodities. Let us learn the fact that if we want people to know the love of God, it can only be done through the love that God has shown to us through the cross of Christ. What is evangelism? I believe it is making a bridge between our hearts and the other persons’ hearts so that Jesus can walk into their hearts and take possession. Fourthly I suggest that we move from individualism to covenant practices, practicing hospitality whereby we welcome the stranger. Today there is this fear of others. However let us learn the fact that welcoming the stranger is the biblical way. Hospitality is the practice of an established community. Let us learn that welcoming the stranger begins with our own conversion to the Gospel. Let us do away with such signs like ‘beware of dogs’ in front of our beautiful gates and begin to welcome people. In the fifth place may I suggest that we take a journey from future to memory. In Deuteronomy chapter 8 we see God reminding the people of Israel through Moses to go back to their memory and see how the Lord led them through the wilderness through their forty years of journey. Israel only exists because of its memory. Without memory Israel becomes ‘not my people’. Only by living in the memory of God’s mercy do we become his people. Erasing the memory is to forget God and become no people of God.


The sixth area is that we must truly make every attempt to present an Indian Church that would reflect Indian cultural values and heritage. It was in this context that the Indian Church History Association came out with a new approach to the very writing of Indian Church history. The Church History Association of India (CHAI), especially through its publication Indian Church History Review, encouraged Indian church historians to write their history from a nationalistic prospective. It was said that “History of Christianity in India is viewed as an integral part of the socio-cultural history of the Indian people rather than as separate from it. The history will, therefore, focus attention upon the Christian people in India, upon who they were and how they understood themselves; upon their social, religious, cultural and political encounters, upon the changes which their encounters produced in them and in the appropriation of the Christian gospel, as well as in the Indian culture and society of which they themselves were a part.”33

The seventh suggestion is that they come out of their superiority complex. Here I suggest that we see ourselves not ‘over against other religions, other denominations, but in relation’ to our friends from other faiths and traditions. The identity of the Church must be relational or else we can become like ‘frogs in the well’ whereby we do not see anything outside the ‘well.’ Pentecostal witness must avoid the language of ‘you’ and ‘them’ but must become a language of ‘we’ and ‘us.’ When we go to a new culture or community, let us leave our cultural baggage behind and should be willing to ‘take off our shoes’ for the ground we stand may be a ‘holy’ ground. Last but not the least; Pentecostal mission must once again include a program to promote the poor, the unwanted, the rejected people of the society where the Church stand with the poor, the landless people, those suffering at the hands of the powerful land lords etc. No responsible Christian missionary can ignore the fact of such issues. Our mission in India today should also give emphasis to transforming human situations. The challenge of mission education today is to take every effort not only in word but in

33 Mathias Mundadan, History of Christianity in India Vol.1, (Bangalore, TPI, p. 7) 1984.


deed that contributes towards the transformation of sinful human hearts and unjust social order according to the plan of God which should constitute the elements of mission and evangelism. Our perfect model for this kind of a mission is our Lord Jesus Christ himself. God’s kingdom according to the Gospel values means the community of all people in God’s all embracing and all pervading love, which will renounce any form of discrimination, domination, exploitation on social, radical, economic or political grounds. Transformation of humanity and empowering the weak has to take priority over every other agenda because that was/is the main agenda of the Lord of mission during His earthly sojourn and should be continued through His followers.


Christianity as a Movement: Mission for the 21st Century for

a New World Order1 S. M. Michael SVD1

In the globalized world of today, Christianity faces many challenges. It is stagnant and under attack. It faces the challenges of secularization and relativization of faith, and lack of credibility and witness from the scandal of sexual abuses from some clergy and religious. All these have brought lack of clarity, confusion and consequent lack of commitment to the Christian mission. The Church is over burdened by non committed structures which either lack the original charism for which they came into existence or have compromised themselves with the current trends of the world. How will we face the future? In which direction shall we move? Christianity in order to transform the world today, must rediscover its movement character of the apostolic times and ignite and revitalize its structures to inspire and rejuvenate the original vision and charisma much

1 Presented at the Annual Kline memorial Lecture on 27th of Feb. 2014 at Union Biblical Seminary, Bibvewadi, Pune-411037. S.M. Michael (Sebastian M. Michael) is Emeritus Professor and Adjunct Faculty of Cultural Anthropology, University of Mumbai. He was a former Director of the Institute of Indian Culture, Mumbai. Among his several books, the edited volume Dalits in Modern India: Vision and Values (1999) has been translated into several languages. Other books by him are Anthropology as a Historical Science (1984; co-edited with Mahipal Bhuriya), Culture and Urbanization (1989), Globalization and Social Movements (2003; co-edited with P.G. Jogdand), Cultural Challenges to Christian Mission for the 21 st Century (2008; co-edited with Kuriala Chittattukalam), Dalit’s Encounter with Christianity (2010), (Integral Anthropology (2012; co-edited with Bernd Pflug). He is a Consulter to the Pontifical Council for Culture and Inter-Religious Dialogue, Rome. He is also the Zonal Coordinator of the Society of the Divine Word for the Asia Pacific Zone for the animation of Mission Work.

89Christianity as a Movement

more than bureaucratic structure (which necessarily compromise what the Church is about). This paper elaborates the characteristics of Christian mission as a Movement for our contemporary times.

Christianity as a Movement

Two Essential Characteristics of a MovementThe English Word “movement” derives from the old French word “movoir”, which means to move, stir or, impel, and the Medieval Latin “movimentum”. The General English usage of “movement” is to designate “a series of actions and endeavors of a body of persons for a special object” (Oxford Dictionary). The movement concept is very closely linked to the concept of culture. The language, ideas, and styles of movements inevitably reflect wider cultural changes and can often be found to be important in themselves as agencies of cultural changes. As there are two sides to a coin, there are two essential components to any movement, namely a vision and an organization. A movement must take forward the original vision of a movement by a “Charismatic” appeal among its followers as well as among the people whom it wants to mobilize to its fold to bring about transformation in a society. While “Charisma” gives vitality and direction to a movement, it needs to be formalized in organizations to give stability to a movement. Both “Vision” and “Organization” work together to make a movement effective and to achieve its long term goals. The vision of a movement, though, has a priority over the organization, even if both are essential component of a movement. If any one of the components loses its `movement character’, then there will a decline in the achievement of goals. A movement, to succeed and bring transformation in the lives of people, must have its vision taken forward by the people in general and the leaders of organizations in particular. The leaders in a movement must be filled and permeated by the vision and its ideals. An important thing to be noted here is that a movement must expect counter movements from its adversaries because every movement aims to bring change and transformation in the existing social order and its culture. Hence there will be opposition. The leaders of a movement must inspire and create appropriate responses to counter the adversaries.


Communication and resources also play a tremendous role in the success or a failure of a movement.

The Christian MovementIf we apply these theoretical notions of movements to Christian mission, then we will discover the power and motivation for the Christian Movement emerges from the historical event of Jesus’ Resurrection which the apostles experienced and which made them to recall the very life of Jesus, His Passion and Death. This historical event (fact) and experience ultimately transformed the apostles to be the agents of Jesus Movement. Hence, the vision of Christian movement is the proclamation of the historical Jesus who died on the cross and rose from the dead, and the very meaning of His Death and Resurrection. The apostles who came from the Jewish tradition understood the identity of Jesus as God and Saviour from His Resurrection. This became the Vision of the original Christian Movement. This Christian movement is represented by the two apostolic pillars of the Church, namely St. Peter and St. Paul. One represents the structural or to put it in movement terms, the “organizational” dimension of the Church and the other the “charismatic” or “visionary” dimension. As we pointed out earlier both are two sides of the same coin, the Christian mission. This is well explained by St. Paul in his letter to the Ephesians,

“You are part of a building that has the apostles and prophets for its foundations, and Christ Jesus himself for its main cornerstone. As every structure is aligned on him, all grow into one holy temple in the Lord; and you too, in him, are being built into a house where God lives, in the Spirit” (Eph. 2:19-22).

After the cruel and defamed death of Jesus on the cross, the discouraged, bewildered, and frightened and cowardly disciples of Jesus got a new life with the Resurrection of Jesus and His comforting and encouraging presence. They recalled their life with Jesus, His teachings, His miracles and the very meaning of His Death and Resurrection. This gave them the courage to cross seas, climb mountains and encounter all kinds of difficulties, even death in proclaiming the Good News of salvation in Jesus. The Christian


Movement was taken forward both by the processes of Christian Vision and Organization in the then existing world. In those apostolic times, what kind of world they encountered? History tells us that at that time, Israel was a nation at the crossroads of empires and civilizations. In the first century, the eastern Mediterranean was part of a much wider network of cities and civilizations that stretched across the ancient world. This urban network connected several broad, overlapping cultural regions on three continents in a continuous flow of politics and trade that streached from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans. On the western end was the Mediterranean basin was a civilization that had incorporated a multitude of ancient cultural traditions including Egyptian, Ethiopian, Greek, Jewish, Mesopotamian, Persian and Latin. Usually referred to by scholars today as Greco-Roman civilization, by the time of Jesus it had become unified by the diffusion of a common Greek language and culture, under the imperial rule of the city of Rome. East of the Mediterranean basin, ancient political dynasties had succeeded in uniting the various lands and peoples from the Euphrates River to the Himalayan Mountains into a more or less unified civilization. Centered politically in the region today known as Iran, the Persian Empire incorporated a multitude of cultures and traditions, including Greek, Jewish, Mesopotamian, Iranian and Indian ones. The dominant religion of the Persian world was Zoroastrianism, but other faiths including Judaism were found among the population as well. Like the Greco-Roman world, the Persian world was dominated by cities and was tied together by commerce and trade as much as by the military power of its various imperial regimes. At the time of Jesus it was under the rule of a Parthian dynasty from northern Iran. A third cultural field extended east and south of Persia, encompassing the Indian subcontinent and sections of Southeast Asia beyond it. This was the civilization of India, home of many religious traditions. India’s languages, religions and cultures had been formed through the creative interaction of descendants of ancient invaders from Iran and the vast array of indigenous people. At the eastern end of this urban belt of civilization, across the Himalayan Mountains and Tibetan plateau, was China, the fourth great cultural complex.


The first Christians emerged from this crucible. The apostles faced a foreign and a hostile world. The early history of Christianity is one of continuous reformulations and re-appropriations of this ancient Israelite covenantal faith in new and varying political-cultural contexts (White, 1985). By the end of the first century, a new generation of church leadership was emerging from these apostolic forebears. To the new generation of leaders fell the major portion of the task of remembering, interpreting and handing on the memory of Jesus. Crucial for the transmission of this memory was the composition of books we call gospels. The early Christians were involved in a movement spreading the gospel message. The only binding force for this movement is Jesus. These Christians had an internal solidarity and unity which is so important in a movement, but in passing well beyond their Jewish roots lacked common blood or land which normally binds people.

Unlike other communities in the ancient Mediterranean world (including the Jews), Christians had no homeland, no place of national origin that they could say they came from. It was the homeland that typically gave people their name, their culture, their religion and their identity. Christians followed Jesus, who had been rejected by many of his own people and executed by Rome. In a world where religion, culture and identity were found in the land of origins, Christians looked forward to a land that was their destiny. It is a striking admission, made over and over in their early writings, that wherever they found themselves, Christians considered themselves paroikoi – strangers, sojourners or displaced people without a home (Irvin and Sunquist, 2004: 69).

Because Christians were strangers, aliens or a people without a nation, their religion was illegal and their identity illegitimate in the eyes of the Roman authorities. So, they were foreigners and they were not wanted and persecuted. In spite of this the Christian Movement was gaining numbers in the cities of Asia Minor and Greece because of the Christian witness. The Christian Movement had to fight to keep its original message in the context of several Christological controversies. According to Dale T. Irvin and Scott W. Sunquist, traditional histories of Christianity focus on its consolidation in the West and then its subsequent export to the rest of the


world. But the history of the World Christian Movement shows that from the beginning Christianity has been a world religion, informed and shaped through the interplay of gospel and varied cultures, the church and a wider world than often thought (Irvin and Sunquist, 2004). The Christian vision and organization went side by side in its movement as it encountered adversaries. Irvin and Sunquist explain this:

“One common theme we encounter in the second-century letters and treatises written by leaders of the churches concerns the immediate threat perceived to be made by false teachers in the region. The network of leadership among churches was strong. The bishops knew one another’s names, wrote to one another, and analyzed one another’s interpretation of apostolic traditions. The network they formed across the region as successors of the apostles provided the churches with a sense of both community and continuity. By the same token, however, as groups of bishops determined that one or another church leader was wrong, or heretical, in his teachings, they did not hesitate to name names and expose the errors. The rhetoric was often strong, for Christian truth was considered a matter of utmost moral and spiritual concern. Many of these disputes spread across great geographical expanses and involved the churches in continuous controversy over generations” (Irvin and Sunquist, 2004: 73).

Rediscovering the Movement Character ofChristianity Today

As before, Christianity faces a tremendous challenge even today from the so called traditional Christian lands like Europe and America. The process of secularization and hedonistic values expressed in excessive consumerism and atheism undermining Christian values in today’s world. A series of startling Post-modern books like Da Vinci Code; The End of Faith; Breaking The Spell; The God Delusion; God is Not Great; The Good Man Jesus and the Scoundrel Christ have triggered a tidal wave of dissent against Christianity. The offensive launched by the New Atheists is now being buttressed by a growing tribe of liberals, secularists, humanists who are targeting Christianity. These post-modern atheists challenge and


ask “Between fact and faith, where do you stand?” (The Times of India, June 5, 2010). In this context, the need of the hour is to rediscover the original Christian impetus which made the early Church to be a movement as explained in the Acts of the Apostles and in the lives of St. Peter and St. Paul. The challenge to Christianity is not only from the traditional Christian countries in Europe and America, but also from other parts of the globe. In Asia, Christianity remains as a minority religion today; its members are under pressure from governments and other faiths. In some countries Christianity even faces the threat of extinction. In several countries where Islam is dominant religion Christians face persecutions and they are forced to follow shari’a law. The burning, destruction and closure of churches is not uncommon.

All these conditions point out that in order to be dynamic and achieve its God-given mandate the Christian mission must rediscover its movement character for our contemporary times. To do that Christianity as a movement must first take stock of the present predicaments of the world. We need to have a clear understanding of the socio-political and ideological make-up of the present world. As Christian leaders, we need to objectively and critically look at the present world and analyze the logic of the present predicaments and think creatively in order to look ahead and bring the meaning of Christ to today’s world.

The Present Context: Prospects and Challenges to Christian Mission

We live in a Globalized and Multicultural WorldWhether we like it or not, globalization is the determinant material and social force of our times. Globalization refers to the expansion of global linkages, the organization of social life on a global scale, and the growth of a global consciousness, which leads to the consolidation of a world society. In the context of the end of the Cold War era and the collapse of the Soviet Union, Francis Fukuyama rhetorically and smugly put forth the thesis of the “End of History” (1992), celebrating the triumph of the West-


driven free market system, democracy and individualism. Fukayama felt that globalization is the embodiment of rationalism, efficiency, material abundance and liberal democratic values. It is supposed that the world has no other choice but to imitate these values in the course of its history. Thus, the process of globalization is said to be the impact of the rapid transformation of cultures currently underway in the world, effecting, churning and bringing simultaneous and complexly related processes at all levels of society – economic, political, social, cultural, technological, environmental, and so forth (Giddens, 1994: 4). Globalization produces new understandings of culture, nationality, environmental relations and many other aspects of social life. All these affect our traditional ways of living and managing world affairs. Globalization excludes a whole lot of unskilled groups of people, giving rise to the impoverishment of many people. Due to privatization, there is a loss of guaranteed employment. Many people are in uncertain position with regard to their secure and worthwhile future. The globalization project is based on the principles of modernity of the 18th century Enlightenment philosophy. The proponents of Enlightenment had supreme confidence in Man as a rational being and believed in a rational, scientific approach to religious, social, political, and economic issues. They promoted a secular view of the world and a general sense of progress and perfectibility. Such ideas of civilization dominated the thinking of the intellectual world during much of the 19th and 20th centuries and fed into globalizing processes. Science and technology were becoming increasingly powerful. Secularization was accepted as the natural and inevitable process in the development of human society. All the same, a close look at the process of globalization will show that the triumphalism and complacency of globalization is proving to be premature and myopic. The supreme confidence in Man and his rationality came to be questioned during most decades of the 20th century. With the immeasurable devastation and consequent misery of the two World Wars and the increasing depletion of resources and environmental problems of the contemporary world many thinkers began to question the assumptions of the globalization process. Science and technology have failed to give


meaning in both the personal and occupational lives of individuals, and have failed to resolve some of the institutional problems of global society. They have also failed to provide a guide to the human quest for ultimate meaning. In a lecture delivered at Georgetown University in the United States in the late 1990’s, Zbigniew Brzezinsky, the former US national security advisor wryly remarked:

“Democracy has won. The free market system has won. But what in the wake of this great ideological victory is today the substance of our beliefs? What is the human being in the democratic West now truly committed to? Is it to hedonistic relativism? …. I think this emptiness, this potential emptiness, if not yet the reality is dangerous” (quoted in Acham 2000).

The rise of nation-states in Asia and Africa after World War II, moreover, and the ever expanding communication system, with the migration of people from one cultural area to another have led to Multicultural societies. Migrations and population shifts in the wake of wars and natural catastrophes as well as new job opportunities in technologically developed countries have become a common phenomenon. This has added a new dimension to the debate on multiculturalism among Western scholars. In the U.S.A., England, and the rest of Europe the population composition is undergoing rapid change. A few years or decades ago the Western worlds consisted mainly of Whites with a common civilization and were Christian by religion. But today the situation is fast changing. Immigrants from Asia and Africa are settling down in U.S.A., England and other Western countries. The racial and religious composition of the population and the socio-cultural components of these countries are no longer the same. This is a new situation in America and in Europe, which were traditionally rather mono-cultural. For example, in England today there are a substantial numbers of Indians, Bangladeshis, Pakistanis and Afro-Caribeans. The internal make-up of the country is undergoing transformation. As Bhikhu Parekh points out, “Today you have a landscape with as many mosques as churches. As a result, the Brits are beginning to ask themselves: What are we? Who are we likely to become?” (Parekh, 2001:5). They are being confronted with the new situation of multiculturalism. The subject of


multiculturalism is often in the headlines in the Western media at this time.As multiculturalism increases in many parts of the world, each culture and religion claims space and autonomy. They compete with one another as the best culture or religion for the future. As a result, the modernist’s quest for a universal culture is under doubt. This has given rise to a Post-Modern cultural trend in thought and approach to things.

We Live in a Post Modern and Relativistic WorldPostmodernists question the philosophical assumptions of Modernism, namely rationality, positivism and empirical methods in science for knowing reality. Postmodern culture sees doubt as a form of health. It often derives meaning or excitement through experiments with sensation, sex and drugs, and if confronted with the teachings promoting traditional values or Wisdom of the Ages it often proudly rejects them as outdated and no more relevant to contemporary humanity. One of the things that characterize the times we live in is the breakdown of absolutes - in morals with sexual anarchy; in metaphysics doubt; and in epistemology confusion and ambiguity. Symptoms of this cultural and intellectual malaise are everywhere discernible. Postmodernism doubts any grand theories and generalizations. A coherent general understanding across cultural boundaries is seen as virtually impossible (Bhargava, 1999). Key analytical categories are seen not to be as universally applicable as we once imagined under modernism. Paul Heelas explains this by:

“The cultural becomes disorganized; less black and white. The distinction between high and low fades away. The claim that one tradition should be adhered to because it, and it alone, is valid, is rendered invalid. And rather than authority and legitimacy resting with established orders of knowledge, authority comes to rest with the person” (1998:3-4).

In the words of James Beckford, post-modernity consists in a “willingness to abandon the search for over-arching or triumphalist myths, narratives or frameworks of knowledge” (as quoted in Paul Heelas). Post-Modernism is a revolt and a reaction against Modernism. Post-modernism is imbued with the sense of a “collapsed signification and challenged humanism”. It


is amorphous, eclectic, pluricultural and ideologically and aesthetically not clear cut. The implication of the postmodern understanding of “truth” in a wider cultural perspective has been that all is relative, nothing is sure, not fixed, all is in a flux. Post modernity goes against certainty and objectivity. It rejects order and certainty. It is skeptical about categories and any idea of a stable meaning. Instead, ambivalence, variation, fragmentation and emotion are celebrated as guidelines for how we should understand the social world. Sometimes, post-modernism stresses instincts and the drive for pleasure as central to how an individual should function. Post-modernism believes that meaning is not universal and fixed, but precarious, fragmented and local. Post-Modern ideas and values are projected in the powerful media. The media has a tremendous impact on the young. In recent years, television has begun to dictate terms in our homes. Children often remain glued to the television and a serial in the evening often replaces the normal conversation in the family. Today, a large number of world populations, more particularly the youth, are affected by Post-modern culture and its value system. Post-Modern liberal ideas hold that what is morally sound and desirable is to be determined by each individual and that one should not judge the actions of other people in terms of one’s own moral values. Thus liberalism inherently entails moral relativism. Karl Acham points out that the root cause of the cultural crisis in the Western world is related to this moral relativism, leading to exaggerated individualism (Acham, 2000).

The Christian Response as a Movement

To be a Counter-Cultural and Witnessing CommunityGlobalization has both positive and negative potentials as well as dangerous consequences. It is a double-edged sword. It has exciting possibilities and it can usher in unprecedented miseries. Positively, it avails the scientific, medical and other innovations available to all. Unjust laws in some nation-states have been challenged by international law. Local cultures are exposed to ideas such as human rights, notions of social justice and democracy. For example, the Dalits challenged the Indian State for violation of human


rights in international forums such as “World Conference Against Racism, Xenophobia and Discrimination” held in Durban in 2001. In almost every sphere of activity there are a growing number of transnational organizations, including social movements like Greenpeace, Women’s Movements, Concern for Empowerment of Local Communities and Indigenous People. They are becoming ever more relevant, linking people in transnational relations (see Cohen and Rai, 2000). The widespread network of international governmental organizations, combined with international non-governmental organizations (NGOs), provides the conditions for global governance. Globalization process also enhances interactions between large humanitarian and charitable operations such as Red Cross, Caritas, Oxfam, Action Aid, Human Rights Watch, Christian Aid, etc. Similarly, scientific and professional bodies like the International Association of Nutritional Sciences linkup their concerns and ideas globally. The negative consequences of globalization are growing unemployment due to the inability of smaller industries to compete with international industrial firms, loss of livelihood for traditional artisans and craftsmen, and migration of people from their original environment hoping for a better livelihood. Since globalization takes the whole world as a single market, labour is losing its voice; national governments are losing their power and there is corporate insecurity and volatility of financial capital. Inequality is rising. Unskilled labour in rich countries has little prospects of employment. Globalization excludes a whole lot of unskilled groups of people giving rise to further impoverishment. Due to privatization, there is loss of guaranteed employment. Many people fail to see how they can they have a secure and worthwhile future. Therefore despair stimulates them to withdraw into their community shells, often attracted by anti-social elements. All this has given rise to ethnic strife, religious conflicts, social unrest and wanton violence. Another important negative consequence of globalization is environmental degradation. Much environmental damage has assumed global dimensions. Acid rain, global warming and deforestation have adversely affected the whole ecosystem of the earth and can only be solved at a global level.

100 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

The phenomenal expansion of cities, the unprecedented pace of technological and social change and the increasing heterogeneity and diversity of urban population across the world have heightened anonymity, impersonality and alienation. Several social scientists and commentators have pointed out that, by and large, today human society is faced with fracture, fragmentation and atomization. It is manifested in mindless and compulsive consumerism and hedonism, in the breakdown and disintegration of human relationships, in the growing feelings of insecurity, vulnerability and uncertainty, and in a pervasive existential vacuum. There is fracture in the heart of families, in which it is becoming increasingly difficult to educate and spend time with one’s children given current working patterns. Another problem that affects family life is that of the growing awareness of the issue of gender equality, a subject that leaves many men confused about how to take on a more equal role in the family, and in turn leads to a rise in violent forms of behavior. The real threat to the stability and cohesiveness of societies according to Acham comes from a growing deterioration in human relationships (Acham 2000). Exaggerated individualism has a direct bearing on apathy, indifference and a lack of social commitment, which in turn have contributed to the breakdown and disintegration of the family, erosion of social bonds, loss of faith in public institutions, drug abuse, and the spurt in crime and delinquency in many societies. In Britain, one-third of all marriages end in divorce and nearly 20 per cent of British children witness the divorce of their parents before they reach the age of 16. It is anticipated that this trend will grow and that in a few years only 50 per cent of British children will experience a normal, conventional family life (Bocock and Thomson 1992; Ahrono and Rodgers 1987). In recent years, the United States and many European countries have experienced a dramatic increase in the divorce rate. A survey of marriage in more than 30 European countries revealed that living together without the formality of marriage is becoming increasingly common in all European countries. There is a steady increase in the number of people living alone as well as people who express feelings of loneliness. As Alvin Toffler points out “Unless man quickly learns to control the rate of change in his personal affairs as well as in society at large, we are doomed to a massive adaptational breakdown” ( Toffler, 1970:15).


The high crime statistics that are seen among those living alone in the world points out the rise in stress levels as well as the increasing number of people turning to sects to feel a sense of belonging, acceptance and to be given a clear code of conduct. It is very significant that in the same countries where mainstream religions are on the decline, there has been a marked increase in the number of sects, therapy groups, self-help groups, etc. So what is at the axiological root of these various problems of society today? Or in other words, what are the values that guide our lifestyle, and structure our community that have made these divisions occur? According to several social scientists the main cause of these multiple fractures appearing in our increasingly globalized world is so-called social atomism. This atomism, a theory that asserts the importance of the individual in relation to all around him, is encouraged by our growing individualism and our lack of a sense of community, a situation that is becoming more and more common in the modern world. Symptoms of this atomism could be: feeling like we are islands in the midst of many people, a disintegration of our links with others, no more worrying about what is happening to their neighbor, the fact that we are becoming less and less involved in what is happening to those around us. The theory that is at the heart of atomism is that the individual can be fulfilled, and happy (in the sense of having things and enjoying life) without needing others. We could perhaps explain this better if we were to say that the only purpose of other people lies always in how they can contribute to their own personal fulfillment (see Carrera, 2007:5-7). In this context of breakdown of community values and the consequent problems of humanity is that Christians, and more especially the religious groups, must form a Counter-cultural community of witnessing to the communitarian values of the Kingdom. We need to protect the sacredness of the family and one’s responsibility towards the community. The need of the twenty first century is that in complementing the liberal understanding of men and women as individuals with rights, we need to restore communitarianism. This means we need to conscientize both society and individual lives into a specific community which holds common, shared values for all its members. This model of the community can take

102 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

on many shapes, as a family, religious community, village community or a parish community or a country. From within this communal standpoint it is then possible to become aware of the value of others in relation to one’s own personal self-fulfillment. This sense of community emphasizes the fact that, as well as having rights, we also have duties and obligations to others. It is in this primary community environment where we gain our ethical values. In the globalized and post-modern world of ours, it will not be easy for Christians to follow such communitarianism, because mindless and compulsive consumerism and hedonism linked to global market will unconsciously pull people to individualism and atomism. Rising prosperity and affluence and our `comfort culture’ lead people to be autonomous. In this context, Christians need to be a counter cultural community which stands for communitarian values as a priority. The strengthening of Small Christian Communities (SCC) in every parish and diocese may help towards building up of community values. Active participation in various Parish Associations by Christians can be also of a great help towards building up of communitarian values. House visits by priests and religious is another way of building solidarity and communitarian values. In a recent survey on the “Increasing the Participation of the Laity in Our Parishes” by the Bombay Catholic Archdiocese ( APC Secretariat, 2008) showed that many Parish Pastoral Councils have said that there is a great need for the priests to visit the houses to build and activate parish communities. In short, in the globalized world, Christians need to be a Counter Cultural Group which does not compromise with the values of the market or get swayed away by the Post-Modern trends, but remain deeply rooted in their faith. In practical terms, our Christian life should become authentic and witnessing.

Moving Beyond Ethnocentrism and Relativism inChristian MissionToday Christian message is caught between the forces of globalization and Post-Modern ideas of relativism. Influenced by relativistic thought today many believe that all religions are the same and we should not compare


and make value judgment about other religions. To hold that any religion is intrinsically better than another is felt to be somehow wrong, offensive, and narrow minded. The attitude of relativism leads to ambiguity, confusion and lack of commitment to an ideal. Cultural and religious relativism leave an individual as separate islands of subjective being. If truth cannot be found and if everything is relative, why should one take pain to adhere to one’s own tradition? He/she might just as well look for alternative ways to find meaning to one’s life. If faith has to be effective it has to be believed and acknowledged to have absolute value. If a given value system were not accepted as objectively valid, it would soon lose its effectiveness as a motivation for conduct. And this is what happening with many Christians today. On the basis of what is happening to the Christians in the world, the important point to be kept in mind is that relativism has its limitation. Although the term “god” is used by different religions, it seldom denotes the same thing. For example, the concept of god in Hinduism is different from the concept of god in Christianity. The moral and ethical implications of the concept of god in Hinduism and Christianity are widely different. The Christian concept of God implies a certain moral and ethical attitude which is basically different from a Hindu ethical understanding. Untouchability and rebirth are justified in Brahmanical Hinduism on the basis of its philosophical ideas of “karma”, “dharma” and “punerjanma”. But such an understanding is unacceptable to Christianity. In the context of relativism, we may say that if the absolute claims for Christ are not objective truths, but only the claims of faith, then we have nothing to hold on to. Christianity will then be reduced to a purely subjective experience. We may say that what we believe in should be true independent of our belief or experience. It implies, the claims to uniqueness for Christ must be a matter of fact and not merely a confession of faith. Some people object to this. One can understand such anxiety, but the view takes little account of actual human limitations on the one hand and the nature of absolute truth on the other. Truth in the absolute is beyond anyone’s grasp, and we should not say that the Christian claims about

104 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

Jesus are absolute because St. John, St. Paul and the scriptures make them. There will be others who make similar claims based on authorities they set for themselves. Such claims to absolute truth lead only to intolerance and arrogance and to unwarranted condemnation of each others’ faith-perspectives. On the other hand, there is no reason why one should not make a full and sincere commitment based on a faith-claim or a truth-claim based on faith. That is the essence of having “faith”. It is based not on certain knowledge but on the certainty of faith itself. Hence today there is an urgent need to go beyond relativism in Christian theology and missiology. The confusion, which cultural and religious relativism have caused, has given rise to two responses. Some sensing the void of relativism have turned back looking for certainty in more subtle forms of fundamentalism. Others look ahead in search of deeper foundations beyond. The sociologist Peter Berger’s metaphor may be helpful. When we enter the river of pluralism, the water rises to our necks. Some retreat in fear to the solid bank behind them. Some proceed and are swept away by the river. Some swim to the firm bank beyond. What is that bank beyond? For Christians certainly it is the Christian faith and all its cultural and religious implications. The confusion, which cultural and religious relativism has caused, may be overcome within the confines of the theistic worldview of Christianity. Jesus has been revealed as Christ and God and this is the permanent basis for values for people with a Christian outlook. To communicate this fact and these values to humankind will always remain the ultimate goal of the Christian mission. Much wisdom could be ours if Christians approached the different cultures of the world with sensitivity and respect and were guided in their understanding by the teachings of the Gospel and of the Church. If Christianity has to be relevant today, it must rediscover its foundation. It needs to dialogue with the present world. The Church’s dialogue in the Post-Modern world needs to be two-fold: it is a challenge to openness, but also a challenge to its orthodoxy. Living in the Post-Modern world which does not believe in any absolute truth; rediscovering the historical roots and foundations of Christianity and adhering to this faith is the future hope for Christianity.


Solidarity with Social Movements to Build a New SocietyThe problems of poverty and injustice in the globalized world are so enormous that the Church alone cannot tackle this single handedly. In the process of technological and scientific advancement, we need to place the priority of the human over all other considerations. In the globalized world of today we need to ask ourselves what globalization means for the poor, oppressed and the marginalized. Are they able to experience a sense of common humanity with the rich and the affluent? Or is globalization the luxury of the rich and the powerful? As Christians we need to be concerned about human dignity and social justice for all people. In the context of globalization, we need to give a direction to globalization in such a way that the poor and the downtrodden receive the attention and care that is due to them. As concerned Christians we need to ask what globalization means for the poor, the Dalits, tribals and other weaker sections. Within the dreams and aspirations of these marginalized groups there lingers the hope of fairness and justice that humanity could offer in the world of globalization. Such a humanistic globalization has to be pursued with the active collaboration of lay people with people’s movements that have similar objectives. All Christians should be encouraged to get involved with people’s movements in the issues of justice, equality, fraternity and ecological questions. Christians must be active in the civil society. Christian intellectuals should collaborate with secular humanist intellectuals in brining to light the history and cultural traditions of tribals, Dalits and other marginalized people. This would be a constructive move towards a holistic and integral development in the process of globalization. But this is not an easy task. It requires a constant struggle and an on-going formation of Christian community.

ConclusionToday Christianity is in the midst of globalization and Post-Modern Culture. It faces the challenges of relativism, secularism and consumerism. Societies are faced with fracture, fragmentation and atomization. It is manifested in mindless and compulsive consumerism and hedonism,

106 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

in the breakdown and disintegration of the family, neighbourhood and community. The market values are undermining the Christian meaning of life. As a result, it is facing stagnation and lack of dynamism both in the traditionally Christian countries as well as other parts of the world. As Christians we are engaged in the reconstruction of the contemporary world on the solid foundations of life-giving values. This is our mission. Jesus came that we may have life and have it to the full (Jn 10:10). Today discipleship demands sacrifice and taking risks. The Christians of today need to be rooted in the Risen Lord and at the same time be open to what is good, true and holy wherever they are found. The signs of the times points out that today the most disturbing trend is the exaggerated individualism and fragmentation and atomization of human society. There is a loss of communitarian values. In this context, a reassertion of community values is very essential. Christians need to be a counter-cultural community that witnesses to the values of the Kingdom. The Post-Modern Culture creates confusion and ambiguity with regard to certainty of knowledge. Relativistic attitudes blur and confuse the essentials of Christian faith. In order to counter the spiritual disorientation and moral confusion of values found in relativism, the committed Christians will have to reflect daily on the essentials of their faith; otherwise they shall no longer be the “salt of the earth” or provide a living alternative to the vague, syncretistic religious feelings of many who are influenced by the post-modern and multicultural ideas of New Age, and who can no longer clearly distinguish between the just and the unjust, true and false, right and wrong, the beautiful and the ugly. These are problems not so completely different from the syncretism, confusing culture-religious varieties and disorientations of the time when the original Christian Movement was born. As then, so now the task is not easy, but it is an ongoing process. Christianity is a Movement. References1. Acham, Karl (2000), “Social and Cultural Problems in Contemporary

Europe: On Recent Challenges to Liberal Ideas”, in The Meaning of Liberalism: East and West. Zdenek Suda and Jiri Musil, (eds.) Budapest:


Central European University Press, pp. 123-137.

2. Ahrono, C. and R. Rodgers (1987), Divorced Families. London and New York: Routledge.

3. Alegre, Xavier and others (2008), What is Happening in the Church? Barcelona: CJ Booklets No.129.

4. APC Secretariat, Mumbai, (2008 June) “Increasing the Participation of the Laity in Our Parishes” Mumbai: Archdiocesase of Bombay.

5. Bocock, R. and Thompson, eds. (1992), Social and Cultural Forms of Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press.

6. Carrera, Joan I Carrera (2007), Identities for the 21st Century. Barcelona: CJ Booklets No.127.

7. Cohen, Robin and Shirin M. Rai Eds. (2000), Global Social Movements. London: Athlone Press.

8. Fukuyama, Francis (1992), End of History and the Last Man. New York: Free Press.

9. Giddens, Anthony (1994), Modernity and Self-Identity. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

10. Giri, A.K. (1988), Global Transformations. Post-Modernity & Beyond. Delhi: Rawat Publications.

11. Heels, Paul (1998), Religion, Modernity and Postmodernity. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

12. Heredia, Rudolf C. (2013), “Hermeneutical Suspicions towards Renewal and Reorientation. II”, Vidyajyoti Journal of Theological Reflection, Vol. 77/6, June 2013, pp. 405-422.

13. Irvin, Dale T. and Scott W. Sunquist (2004), History of the World Christian Movement. Bangalore: Theological Publications in India.

14. Toffler, Alvin (1970), Future Shock. London: Pan Books.

15. Parekh, Bhikhu (2001), “In Britain Today, the Landscape Holds as Many

108 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

Mosques as Churches”, The Sunday Times of India. August 26, p.5, Mumbai: Times of India.

16. The Examiner – A Catholic Newsweekly (2010), “Council for NewEvangelisation”, The Examiner, Mumbai, Vol. 161, No.27, July 03, 2010, p.26).

17. The Times of India (2010), “Does God Exist?”, The Times of India, Bangalore Edition, June 11, 2010, pp.10-15.

18. Weber, Max (1947), The Theory of Economic Organization. London: William Hodge and Co.

19. White, J. Leland (1985), Christ and the Christian Movement. New York: Alba House.

109Envisioning God’s Mission

Envisioning God’s Missionin Civil Society Today

Asangla Lemtur1

IntroductionGod’s mission is testified by the long story of Israel’s call and pilgrimage that arrived at its climax in the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Jesus’ event brought about reconciliation of humanity with God and heralded the inbreaking reign of God in heaven and on earth2 and through the gift of the holy spirit empowered the formation of the witnessing community to continue making known this good news of God’s action to the ends of the earth3. This witness is intended to reach out across all cultural, ethnic, and social boundaries in the expansion of the called and sent people of God as the ecclesia or the assembly of people. This article intends to envision God’s mission in civil society today. Civil society is an important platform to address and bring about rights and justice in the society. It provides a common platform for the representation of common interest in the public and is distinct from government instruments and business. It is a non-governmental organization and institution that brings about the interests and wills of the citizens and an instrument that

1 Dr. Asangla Lemtur is Asst. Professor at Union Biblical Seminary Pune. She teaches Theology and Christian Ethics.

2 Mathew 28:18. 3 Acts 1:8.

110 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

empowers the voiceless of the local communities. It plays an important role for promoting good governance and reflecting on political weakness and to enable the voiceless and the unorganized communities’ welfare to be represented. Yet, in reality it is only the prominent or men in the society that controls the roles and functions of civil society. Women’s roles are still limited only to women sectors. I begin with a basic question: Does it include the voices, visions, aspirations, and hopes of the marginalized and especially the women? What should be our mission paradigm today?

Christian ethical reflection on Civil societyCivil society is about citizens and their interaction with each other and government.4 It is a web of autonomous association where the citizens are bound together in common concern and has effect on public policy. It is the self-organization of society outside the stricter realms of the state power and market interests. For Jurgen Habermas, civil society is made up of more or less surprisingly created associations, organizations and movements. It takes up, condense, and amplify the resonance of social problems in private life, and pass it on to the political realm or public sphere.5 For Gramsci, civil society was a terrain of struggle between class forces contesting for political dominance, in which the media, schools, unions and other social and cultural institutions provided an ideological environment conducive to the maintenance of the capitalist mode of production.6 It is a web of autonomous association which consist a network of independent relation in the state where the citizens bound together in the common concern and through their action could have an effect on the public policy.7 Therefore, civil society consist of public life which involves in getting and using

4 Wendy Powell, ed. Word Power Dictionary (Cape Town: The Reader’s digest Association, 1996), 130.

5 Helmut K. Anheier and Regina A. List, “Civil Society” (in) A Dictionary of Civil Society, Philanthropy and the Non-Profit Sector, (London: Rutledge, 2005), 54.

6 Mark Robinson, “Civil Society and Ideological Contestation in India” (in) Civil Democracy and Society, ed., Carolyn M. Elliot (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006), 357.

7 Charles Taylor, “Invoking Civil Society”, (in) Contemporary Political Philosophy, An Anthropology, ed., Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit, (Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2006), 88.


power that effects the decision of the country for public good. It empowers a democratic society for common good, equity, dignity and human rights and environmental rights. Yet when we critically look from a feminist ethical perspective we understand that women continue to remain dormant in a civil society. Feminist ethics is a conviction that is opposed to any discrimination on the basis of gender. It opposes any ideology, belief, attitude, or behavior that establishes or reinforces discriminations. The word ‘feminist’ generally describes the aspiration to eliminate women’s subordination and marginalization. A ‘feminist’ is one who seeks justice and equality for all people, while especially concerning it with the fate of all women, in the midst of all people. Such a definition addresses issues pertinent to racism, classism, and ecology, as well as peacemaking, as part of the interest and range of feminism.8 Although the tools and approaches of feminist scholars may differ from each other, the essence of feminist perspective is the empowerment of women and all those who are oppressed by bringing out new interpretation and removing the concepts that marginalize them. It is a challenge for marginalized to use whatever means necessary to recover the voice of the oppressed.9 It addresses women’s resistance to their multi-dimensional oppression as well as their self-affirmation and will to survive with dignity under dehumanizing and social- historical conditions. A Christian feminist ethical perspective is based on the mandates of the bible. The Bible gives us strong indications of social justice for political and civic engagement and to administer social justice to the community. God gave empowerment in the form of collective and spirit-filled leadership for their social and economic well being by resolving issues as they arose in the community. From time immemorial or at least beginning from the Greek philosophical tradition ethics or morals was the domain of men. In the whole discourse of ethics and morality women were either left out or

8 Katharine Doob Sakenfeld, “Feminist Perspective on Bible and Theology: An Introduction to Selected Issues and Literature”, Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology XL 11/1 (Jan. 1988), 5.

9 Renita Weems, “Reading her way through the struggle: African American Women and the Bible”, Stony the Road, We Trod: African Biblical Interpretation, ed., Cain Hope Felder (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991), 73.

112 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

silenced. Women were believed to think less, irrational, and hence not able to judge with clarity on what is right or wrong, or good and bad. These concepts on the inferiority of women were so gigantic that very less or no discourse on the ethics of civil rights has taken place from a women or a feminist perspective. Until recently many feminist ethicists have emerged who could engage critically on all philosophical and civil rights discourses. Today women have begun to articulate their own faith, knowledge, rationality, and engage critically in all discourses on ethics and civil society. Thus it is important to revision mission from a feminist ethical perspective. Our mission today should work towards alternative conceptions of public spheres or civil society for the marginalized groups especially women. It should work towards a rethinking of civil society and reconstruction of a critical conception of inclusive public opinion or civil society. Mission should address the hegemonic dominance and exclusion in civil society. Fraser claims that the bourgeois public sphere discriminated against women and lower social strata of society and stipulates a hegemonic tendency of the male bourgeois public sphere, which dominated at the cost of alternative publics (for example by gender, social status, ethnicity and property ownership), thereby averting other groups from articulating their particular concerns. Nancy Fraser proposed a counterpublic where oppressed individuals can safely discuss ideas and strategies without any intervention from other publics.

Empowerment of the subaltern counterpublicsFraser calls subaltern counterpublics which represents ‘parallel discursive arenas where members of subordinated social groups invent and circulate their counter discourses based on oppositional identities, interests, and needs’10 . Our country witnessed the upsurge of communal and sectarian movements like the systematic saffronization of state and civil society. Amidst the existence of such uncivil social elements within the civil society, the ‘subaltern counterpublics’ have been successful in carving out a space for themselves and widening the scope of democratic participation.

10 Nancy, Fraser. ‘Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy’, Social Text, No. 25/26.


Our mission should be for the subaltern classes and their ideologies of discontent and resistance in reshaping the state. This will continue to prevent the bourgeois in instituting its hegemony over civil society. We need to take into account the growing socio-political mobilizations and large-scale transformations in the society and polity and examine the changes in the nature of democracy in India. Passive citizens should turn into active citizens. An active civil society movement emerges at the grassroots level which transforms the nature of democracy. 11 Therefore, our mission should focus on subaltern empowerment against dominant hegemony.

New Mission Paradigm in Civil SocietyThe new mission paradigm should identify the fact that marginalized groups are excluded from a universal public sphere, and they formed their own public spheres. Our mission should deal with this hegemonic domination of the public sphere. Among the marginalized group in India, the public sphere is also regarded as men’s domain whereas women were supposed to inhabit the private sphere. Civic engagement in civil society has been increasingly recognized as one of the resources that empower the lives of the poor. Yet not much attempt has been made to empower women in civil society. In the patriarchal ordering of society, the relegation of women to the private sphere of family based on compassion, affection, emotion and unreflective loyalties are in sharp contrast to the rational-critical principles of public sphere. They are denied of equality and agency in the public sphere of civil society. The purdah system denies women of Muslim community from the public space. Women are considered as the symbols of the private. The disparity between male and female is very high in terms of religious, economic, political, and cultural status. Violence acts as a weapon through which society exercises its power and keeps a section of the population excluded from the public sphere.

Mission for social justiceThe prophets’ advocacy for the rights of the poor were frequently directed toward those political and religious leaders that trampled the poor into the

11 Ajaya K. Sahoo, ed.,“Civil Society, Citizenship and Subaltern Counterpublics in Post-colonial India” (in) Sociological Perspectives on Globalization, (Delhi: Kalpaz Publication, 2006), 57-88.

114 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

dust of the earth by neglecting to provide equal justice for them The leaders failed to provide social justice in obedience to the word of the Lord. Amos called people to execute justice and righteousness like rivers and streams so that life might flourish in the society.12 Prophets such as Isaiah rejected the sacrificial offerings during his time and called the people to stop wrongdoing. Rather they should do justice by encouraging the oppressed and defending the rights of the poor and the widows. Isaiah prophesied to the political and religious institutions of his day, that when the Spirit-filled Messiah came, he would execute justice for the needy and the poor and bring release and freedom for the oppressed.13

Mission for empowerment of the PoorJesus identified himself with the poor. Jesus’ model of calling his disciples from various socio-religious traditions demonstrates his willingness to work with all kinds of people in order to actualize the life and values of the kingdom of God in society. Following the model of ancient prophetic tradition he called his disciples from various groups of people - the marginalized, the Zealots, Roman employees, and religious people. Jesus’ ministry to the poor is also shown in his incarnational ministry. In his teaching with special reference to the eschatological banquet, the poor are invited to the feast, along with the crippled, the blind, and the lame all of whom are recipients of divine grace and will inherit the kingdom of God.14

Mission for empowerment of marginalized womenReligion, culture, customs, age-old prejudices, etc. have put Indian women in a subservient and exploitable position in many domains of life. Low rates of participation in education, lack of economic independence, value biases operating against them, etc, have resulted in the women being dependent on men folk and other institutions of authority like the family, neighborhood and the society. They are usually ignorant of their rights and even if they are not, they do not have easy access to justice. The issues

12 Amos 2:7 & 5:24.13 Isaiah 1:17; 11:1-2, 4; 42:1-2 & 61:1.14 Luke 3:21-22; 7:16, 39; 8:7-9, 18-19; 14:21 & 16:19.


related to women are being raised and discussed in various platforms, in the recent times. But despite the existence of civil society, the enactment of laws, formulation of reformative legal processes, provision of legal aid to the needy, extensive use of the provision of public interest litigation, conduct of family courts, women and family counseling centers etc., women in India have a long way to go in concretizing their constitutional goals into reality. There is a need today to re-enforce the focus of civil society on women who are marginalized. Jesus’ mission in the Bible was not only for the poor and oppressed, but for women. The scripture authoritatively tells us that it gives preferential option not only to the poor but also to the sinners or those rejected as unholy and unworthy like the women by the society. The scripture focuses on women who were rejected, the tax collectors and sinners. Jesus called many women to be apostles, disciples, missionaries and co-workers in his ministry. Women were in fact the first missionaries to proclaim the risen Lord.

Participatory mission in civil societyCivil society should be made up of people in need or marginalized who should be engaged in holistic need consisting of religious and socio-economic political issues that arise within the society. The church should be a part of the civil society bringing social awareness of the local and national issues. The church must integrate socio-political realities in its Bible studies, preaching, and other discipleship programs in order to develop holistic awareness. Since the primary message of prophetic ministry, as exemplified by Old Testament prophets, is centered on the promotion of social justice and the denunciation of systemic evils in the society, civic engagement in civil society must work to defend the rights of the poor and women. The mandate to participate in the socio-political struggle of society is imperative for every one. The ministry of Jesus Christ is characterized by participatory engagement both in his incarnation and in his ministry into the world. The task of positioning the local church as a center for social concern should be practiced and implemented within local churches. Local churches should not be understood as mere caretakers and dispensers of spiritual truth and values;

116 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

they should also be educating their members to participate creatively in the regeneration of their local communities. In the same manner, theological schools have a crucial role in empowering people to take their part in civil society. It is the task of every Christian and church mission to creatively engage in his or her community through empowered ministry, and address the complex issues found there. The local churches should remain at the cutting edge of Christian mission if they work collectively to promote the common good of the community in which they are called to serve. The act of Paul to exercise his citizenship rights affirms our role as citizens while of earth to exercise them and to safeguard them from abuse by evil men in society. Paul is exercising his right for a fair trial before punishment which is his rights under Roman law.15 This principle of making a claim for one’s citizenship rights in modern day society can also be applied to a wide range of rights and obligations of the citizen on his/her government which is to be the servant for common good. Therefore knowing one’s rights and duties is imperative. Exercising them is most critical and being effectively equipped for these tasks from a biblical perspective even more essential.

Contextualization of mission in civil society Christianity in India is as old as the beginning of Christianity. According to traditions gospel came to India with the coming of St. Thomas in the first century. However Christians in India are still a minority constituting only 2-3% of the total population. We must also acknowledge the fact that Christianity is an Asian religion since it was born in Asia. In fact the context of the Bible is also in and around West Asia. Yet Christianity in Asia and especially in India is branded as western religion. Who is responsible for this false propaganda? Or whether Christians and Christianity are really foreign and western in outlook and practice? Sadhu Sunder Singh once commented “You have given us Christianity in a western cup…. give it to us in an eastern cup and we will drink of it.” However Indian Christians and the churches have not done enough to contextualize the gospel. The disciples of Jesus Christ must resonate with the aspirations, struggles and cultural vibes of their own context. Christianity in India must come out

15 Acts 16:37-39 & 22:22-29.


of compounds of churches and institutions and be involved in the matters related to civil society.

Holistic paradigm of mission in civil societyExodus is history written from the perspective of the marginalized and the oppressed. It also describes the struggle of Moses who grew and was educated in Egyptian culture but was not assimilated by it. He saw the oppression of the slaves by the dominant and took a proactive role in liberating them. The historical intervention of Yahweh in the life of the slaves in Egypt was prompted by pain and suffering and not only by his promise to Abraham alone. The Exodus paradigm proposes holistic liberation for whole humanity and especially those who are under bondage. The Bible promises liberation to all who are oppressed, outcasts, rejected and humiliated by the dominant culture. Our mission should not have the attitude of “soul winning” (a colonial and militant idea) people of other faiths for Christ.16 Instead of having an attitude of a “soul winner” we should present the saviour who is willing to struggle by the side the people and redeem all “who are burdened and heavy laden”. We must stop condemning and disrespecting our own heritage and core cultural values in totality. But we must re-read and reinterpret the Bible that it can be understood in a multi-cultural and multi-religious context of India. The Bibles is filled with stories where God interacts, intervenes and saves people while speaking their language and using signs, symbols and practices of their culture. Culture is an integral part of our existence and identity17. Our perspective, ideology and understanding of God, to large extent are rooted in our culture. We need to celebrate the cultural diversity and continuously engage ourselves in making the Bible relevant for different people, allowing the Bible to speak to people and giving them space so that they can read the Bible for themselves. In this way we will be able to address the issues and struggles in civil society and bring about a holistic liberation.Participatory mission in Civil SocietyJesus interacted and served all groups of people. The socio-cultural and

16 Dyanand Bharati, Living Water and Indian Bowl, (ISPCK: Delhi, 2004), 1.17 Harriet Hill and Margaret Hill, Translating the Bible into Action: How the Bible can

be Relevant in all Languages and Cultures, (Piquant editions Ltd: Carlisle, 2008), 32.

118 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

religious context of Jesus may not have been as diverse as we have in India but He did proclaim the gospel to Romans, Greeks and others. His way of communication was simple in which He used metaphors, words and examples from mundane affairs of life. He presented the humane aspect of God not only through stories, discourses and parables but also by means of healing sicknesses, providing food, liberating from social and spiritual bondage and by being by the side of the needy, poor and afflicted. Jesus’ ministry was more doing than proclaiming. Jesus proclaims that He has come to preach the gospel to the poor, set captives and down trodden free, give sight to the blind and to declare the beginning of the era of God’s grace and mercy for all. By dining with the tax collectors, women and sinners, Jesus proposes a theology of participation which brings liberation and transformation from within and not from outside.

Responsible and proactive citizens in civil societyThe Bible provides us with a holistic undergirding for national development and transformation through the civil society based on scripture. The Bible teaches on participation and involvement in the affairs of the nation in the various systems of government that existed or emerged with a dominant approach of monarchy and of dictators of that time. The leaders in civil society should uphold morality, justice and fairness, not corruptible, preference for the poor, women and disadvantaged people and communities. These leadership principles and good governance values and in being accountable to God and man have universal relevance and application. Modern systems of government have emerged over time with democracy and direct people participation as the most desired approach of government. However Christians have and continue to live in various systems of government which range from western liberal democracies to more autocratic and dictatorial type of government where fundamental rights are suppressed. These include that leaders must recognize that they do not have absolute power and for the people to recognize that they have a role in ensuring leaders serve with responsibility. The notion of the common good as the responsibility of civil society is central in the bible that should provid services to the people especially the ordinary people and the poor and women.


Transformational mission in civil societyChristian mission, church and theological institutions must motivate and mobilize the oppressed sections of the society for active engagement and partnership in civil society. Our mission should begin from the pulpit ministry, Sunday school and bible study programs which should include Christian understanding and exercising of rights and duties through the civil society. It must also address contemporary issues in the society and give appropriate response from the scripture. Christians working in different organizations and institutions at the national, regional and global levels should work towards bringing changes and transformations in the society. They need to know how the society functions and develops in order that they understand the problems and give sound biblical ethical responses. They also need to understand the fundamentals of democracy and human rights in the Indian constitution so that they contribute towards the achievement of civil society. Uneducated women in particular will benefit greatly through transformational mission.

ConclusionConference after conference, consultations after consultations we deliberate on doing missions yet half of the population (that is women) in civil society is out of the concerns of the approaches taken in civil society. In this mission paradigm that I am proposing, it is important to note that reflection comes from our experience of being left out, which leads to strategizing our focus in mission. It is a praxis-oriented mission that focus on the marginalized especially women in civil society whose voices are limited to women themselves. Issues like patriarchy, gender discrimination, preference of male child, dowry practices, honor killing, non representation in decision making bodies even in civil movements, sexual harassment, and female infanticide should be addressed by all civil societies, not only by women society or movements. This should then become our mission focus. We continue to see the on-going dialectic between theory and practice, a constant interplay of reflection and action. Therefore, it is a fact that reconciliation, restoration and re-affirmation of the marginalized in civil society cannot just take place in a vacuum. The

120 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

engagement between the four principled concepts of truth, mercy, peace and justice, as the process and the place where they meet is reconciliation. The four values are all interdependent, interconnected and interrelated. Mercy is of no value without truth, and peace has no meaning without justice.

121The Cross versus the Market

The Cross versusthe Market

Crystal David John1

IntroductionGlobalization is one great ongoing economic event. The IMF has described it as “the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through increasing the volume and variety of cross – border transactions in goods and services and of international capital flows, and also through the more widespread diffusion of technology.” In short globalization is nothing but the spread of economic liberalization. This paper deals briefly with the impact globalization has had on the peoples of the world – both in the developed and developing economies and then navigates through the problem to seek for solutions with a Theo - centric framework. In fact the major part of the paper attempts to actually look at the theology of globalization and investigate where mistakes have occurred, for the result, as we see is definitely not of the order of God’s agenda as set out in the Bible viz. the establishment of the kingdom of God.

Defining Globalization, Its Impact and Growth—a CritiqueAn exceptional facade of the present day is the growth of what folks call globalization. The term is often used to mean an economic set up of production consumption and distribution wherein people are supposed to

1 Head, Post Graduate Department of Economics, Stella Maris College(Autonomous), # 17 Cathedral Road, Chennai 600 086, Tamil Nadu, India

122 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

get the best of what is provided in the market, brought about by the positive results of an international division of labour. Taken by itself there is absolutely nothing wrong with globalization. How could a mechanism that leads to the betterment of all ever be harmful? The problem lies however in the fact that humans who are extremely solipsistic in nature deal with globalization in a manner that leads to an absolute unequal distribution of the fruits of the process. This is what is wrong with the whole method. The value system changes as it is founded on the concept of the survival of the fittest and the law of the jungle. In fact hardcore Economics actually has no ethics and no mercy! “The dignity of the individual and the demands of justice require, particularly today, that economic choices do not cause disparities in wealth to increase in an excessive and morally unacceptable manner.” (Pope Benedict XVI:49) But globalization has done just this! According to Joseph Stiglitz Globalization is nothing but modern day colonialism. In this system the poorer countries have no other way than to export primary products that they specialize in and purchase the finished goods from the more developed world. This has led to a systematic domination of the poorer countries and a total dependence of the latter on the former. The main mantra of globalization, in pure economic terms, is that the market must be rid of any type of ‘distortions’. The working of the price mechanism should be allowed to work independently with absolutely no controls from the outside. Controls of the market ‘distort’ the perfect picture and hence (for pure hard core positive economists) tarnish the pure working of the market! It does not matter whether some go hungry or thirsty or shelter less, all that matters in such a system is that the best alone must survive and win. Efficiency alone and not equality, quality and not quantity, greed and not need are the order of the day. Or else why should Economics be described as a science that studies human behaviour, where in the agent faces unlimited wants and limited means to acquire such wants! Why is it that the subject has never really looked at the limited needs of a vast majority of peoples of the world who have absolutely no means to acquire them? Well the answer is in the simple mantra of globalization viz. free the market of all its fetters and the best will be obtained! It is


nothing but the simple rule of the jungle ‘the survival of the fittest’ there is no place for differences, or diversity, there is no place for justice or equality, no place for the marginalized and poor, exploited overburdened men and women of an economy. No voice for the voiceless no rights for the powerless, only profits and cut throat competition. In fact the advocacy of globalization extol the working of the free market because this would allow the free movement of capital flows within and across nations and would bring about global welfare ( Rehaman, A. 2000:1). It is true that many gain from the impact and growth of globalization, but there are millions who are left out and the gap between the haves and the have - nots is only widening. Globalization has also created poor in the rich countries and rich in the poor countries, thus making the difference between the rich and the poor a visible reality. Such differences have in a way shown the poor all the luxuries available to the rich but not enabling them to purchase and enjoy the same. This has led to an increase in crime rates across the globe. Colonization has been largely responsible for impoverishing a large part of humanity in terms of economics politics and culture. In fact colonialism has led to great exploitation and the much awaited new world order was but a large fiasco. The same is expected of globalization, but history is repeating itself. Globalization as it now stands is nothing but re colonization of the economies of the world - especially of those countries that belong to the developing world. Globalization is doing what colonization did for 500 years viz. overpowering people’s psyche imaginations value systems and their entire life patterns. For globalization to actually make a difference for all in an equal manner there has to be a shaping of it to cater to all. The colonization hue of globalization has to be decolonized and this can be done if we recognize that the evil of colonialism is a double headed fiend. One head being the external exploitative order that is so harmful to a vast majority of people that it leaves them in a state of perpetual impoverishment, the other is the more potent form of the evil viz. the internal colony created by the internal colonizers. In fact colonialism has left people with colonized minds and in fact this has created a whole vast group of individuals who in turn act in a very similar manner as compared to the colonizers who were made to leave the country. These are

124 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

none other than the clones of the colonizers – the carbon copies and those who collaborate with the colonists in exploiting the citizens of the country. Decolonization is definitely not possible if this double headed hydra is not destroyed. Oppressive structures inherited during colonization should not be extended with the help of the internal colonizers, but this is what is actually happening. This has hence formed ‘fertile soil’ for globalization with all its exploitative methodologies to survive well. We must shape the globalization that takes our economies into control and not be shaped by globalization.

The Theology of GlobalizationIt is so clear that the creed of globalization and that of the Cross is vertically opposite! It is indeed so obvious that the Message of the Cross hits at the very root of the evils in the market system. “Market systems by their very nature, confront the question of fairness” (Yergin, D& Stanislaw, J.2008:410) Evil sets in via the market and hence if the church becomes a pawn in the hands of the market it is absolutely profane. In fact as professor Stiglitz has stated, “Globalization advances material values over other values, such as a concern for the environment or for life itself” (Stiglitz, J. 2000:9) What has the Bible to offer us regarding globalization? Is this economic process a part of God’s plan? Has globalization offered a method to bring the establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth? Well definitely not. Globalization has not united people, instead it has caused all kinds of divisions gender divides, income divides, status divides, rural urban divides, cultural divides, hunger divides ,divides between the old and the young, to name a few. There is also the fact that though the protagonists of globalization always claim that this implies a binding of peoples of the world together via the operation of one global market which leads to rapid economic and social advancement for all, this is not the case. As argued by Alan Rugman who by providing hard data has clearly elucidated that no economy is global and no market place is homogenous, in fact according to his study it is observed that today multinational manufacturing and service industries are based regionally and globally! The drivers of globalization


are the network of just 500 companies, and this in a way has led to the concentration of wealth and power only in certain regional blocks where in more than 80% of FDI and half the world’s trade is concentrated, these being the triad of North America, the European Union and Japan. (Rugman, A.2000: inner flap, 219) This has inevitably led to large inequalities in the distribution of wealth and hence powers the world over. Globalization is not human enough; in fact it is a sort of conspiracy against the poor, the voiceless and the marginalized. The costs of globalization are paid by the poor nations and the poor in all nations (Cheriyan, G.1998:66). Even if the benefit of doubt is given to the process of globalization, “even if the poor were to get just a little richer, this would not necessarily imply that the poor were getting a fair share of the potentially vast benefits of global economic interrelations” (Sen, A. 2008 : 22) Quite the contrary however the blue print we have in the Bible regarding the economy of God is completely different. The Bible does not justify any form of exploitation neither of humans nor of any resource on planet earth. The Gospel shows us God’s heart for his broken suffering world. The gospel must be drawn from the whole Bible, hence what is imperative to us is the message of the whole Bible. For century after century the God of the Bible has revealed His passionate concern for social issues political autocracy and economic exploitation. The message is so clear that the prophets of those days so emphatically condemned all of such evils. The psalmist regularly cried out against such acts. This message in the Old Testament is continued in the cross centered and Christ centered truth revealed in the New Testament. God’s ultimate mission is global in nature – viz. redeeming all the peoples of the world from slavery and evil. Global values are important in the context of globalization. If globalization stands for improving the living conditions of the human race then it must take the Bible as its almanac. However it is evident from data across the globe that globalization has created massive divides in the social fabric of the world. We face a whole lot of myths and counter myths that only lead to violence and a justification of the same. Globalization has actually created a whole host of idols in the from of the internet, the cyber world, new technologies, business politics, education etc. The Gospel must be

126 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

big enough to include all the marginalized, for the Biblical perspective is global: the grand vision of God unfolded in the creation of heaven and earth culminating in the creation of humankind in God’s own image (Gen. 1:26). Similarly, the Bible ends with the universal vision of new heaven and new earth (Rev. 21-22). However, the same Bible has become a tool in the hands of the exploiters to satisfy their unbridled thirst for power and pleasure at the expense of the right of fellow humans and the earth. A very powerful biblical teaching is that any economic system that relegates or marginalizes human life falls short of the divine standards. Each person is created in God’s image and thus worth and valuable for the Creator. The Kingdom values of God’s blueprint are totally an anti thesis of the fundamental principles of the market. In the market any individual, cast, class, nature, gender and the community are just regarded as an object whose values are determined by sheer market forces, and they are treated as a means to the end, not the end at all!

The Paradox?An interesting paradox however is that the centrality of the Gospel of Christ is Jesus’ teaching of the Kingdom of God. The Cross is a symbol of a Globalized world! Where in each person lives in harmony with the other and with the natural environment. Where no one exploits the other and there is respect for one another. This is the theology of globalization. It is so lucidly stated by Christ himself in the Lord’s Prayer “Thy Kingdom Come” however God’s Kingdom will never come so long as the human race is selfish and self centered, worse still where they extol the so called virtue of egocentricity as is done within the paradigm of Economics! In fact if one is not selfish then that person is not considered a rational agent within the discipline. The entire working of the market is based on the asset of narcissism.

In the Biblical principle of divine ownership of the land and all the resources on the planet, human beings are co-workers and stewards or to use the market jargon they are agents, and not absolute owners for the use of land is based on the fact that “the earth is the Lord’s and the fullness thereof” (Ps. 24:1). The responsibility of the human race is to conserve and


utilize the earth’s fullness astutely and intelligently for both the present and future generations. But this has not been the case as is seen from the myriad of problems both the planet and the people thereof face today. In fact the message of the Cross of Christ is nothing but globalization. It stands for the inclusion of all those who have never formed the part of popular society or economy. It stands for bridging the gaps between the haves and the have nots and between all types of divides. In fact the very cross is a visual symbol of both vertical and lateral equality so often spoken about and chased after by public policy makers. Only when we can see the divinity of God in the poor, the down trodden, and the exploited can we have the new heaven and the new earth. Our God is a God of diverse cultures and races. Plurality is an integral part of the Creator. No culture, no community is excluded from this God’s structure of creation. All are inimitable in their own ways and, therefore, no one has the right to dominate and repress the other. Therefore, a perspective change in theological and secular education to understand that resources are to be shared and the amassing of wealth by few is definitely not a positive approach. There has to be a new paradigm of pedagogy to theological and secular education. To be specific it is a clarion call to look into classical profit motivated economics and commerce, and rectify the archetype within the subject of economic theory.

ReferencesCheriyan, G (1998) “Globalization – A Conspiracy of the Rich against the Poor” in Globalization A Challenge to the Church, Association of Christian Institutes for Social Change in Asia and National Council of Churches in India – Urban Rural Mission, Chennai – Nagpur.

Pope Benedict XVI, ( 2009) Caritas in Veritate Charity in Truth, Encyclical Letters, Carmel International Publishing House, Trivandrum

Rahman, A. (2000) Globalization and the Emerging Ideological Structure, BIOS Public lecture, BIDS, Dhaka

Rugman, A. (2000) The End of Globalization, Amacom , New York

128 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

Sen, A. (2008) “How to Judge Globalization” in The Globalization Reader (Frank J. Lechner & John Boli eds.), Blackwell Publishing Oxford

Stiglitz, J. (2006) Making Globalization Work, Penguin Books, England

Wright, C.J.R. (2009) Global Conversation, Light of Life, Mumbai.

Yergin D. & Stanislaw, J. (2008) The Commanding Heights, Free Press, New York.

129Love, Music, and the Bible

Love, Music, and the Bible:In Praise of Interpretive Flexibility

David Breckbill

[1If I speak in the tongues of mortals and of angels, but do not have love, I am a noisy gong or a clanging cymbal. 2And if I have prophetic powers, and understand all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have all faith, so as to remove mountains, but do not have love, I am nothing. 3If I give away all my possessions, and if I hand over my body to be burned, but do not have love, I gain nothing.

4Love is patient; love is kind; love is not envious or boastful or arrogant 5or rude. It does not insist on its own way; it is not irritable or resentful; 6it does not rejoice in wrongdoing, but rejoices in the truth. 7It bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things.

8Love never ends. But as for prophecies, they will come to an end; as for tongues, they will cease; as for knowledge, it will come to an end. 9For we know only in part, and we prophesy only in part; 10but when the complete comes, the partial will come to an end. 11When I was a child, I spoke like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child; when I became an adult, I put an end to childish ways. 12For now we see in a mirror, dimly, but then we will see face to face. Now I know only in part; then I will know fully, even as I have been fully known. 13And now faith, hope, and love abide, these three; and the greatest of these is love.]

130 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

I Corinthians 13 is certainly one of the best-known passages in the whole Bible. In the United States, all or parts of it are frequently read at Christian weddings, and some sections of it are indeed beautifully appropriate for such occasions. But I hope that we are not blinded to the deeper meanings of this passage by restricting its application to the realm of intimate and romantic relationships. The love of which Paul here speaks is, in his estimation, greater even than such vital dimensions of our Christian life as faith and hope. In what way can love be understood so that Paul’s assessment of its centrality can be real for us? I have gained insight into this deeper understanding of love through my life and work as a musician, and I would like to outline briefly some of the ways in which my understanding of music helps me in attempting to follow Christ in life. All of us here at UBS are deeply involved and invested in an explicitly Christian community, but it is my prayer that a perspective from outside this context may illustrate an important way of thinking and behaving within it. I need to begin by describing the kind of music that has absorbed most of my attention. Throughout my life I have made use of my musical gifts in church, but my greatest interest and professional focus has been on what in America is called “Classical” music; in India it would better be called Western art music. Whether for reasons of genetics, background, exposure, experience, or training, music profoundly nourishes my spirit. Marcus Borg has defined a sacrament as “a means whereby the sacred becomes present to us…a vehicle or vessel of the sacred,”1 and according to such a definition I often experience music as not just vitally absorbing but also sacramental. Near the beginning of the UBS chapel service at which this paper was presented as a sermon (21 February 2014), my wife Anita performed a piece for solo flute by the French composer Claude Debussy. Syrinx is brief, and in some ways simple, but it is also very subtle and expressive, and it is only one of countless widely varying works produced in the Western art music tradition. This piece makes musical sounds like any other kind of

1 Marcus Borg, The Heart of Christianity: Rediscovering a Life of Faith (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 57.


music, but one of the fundamental features of Western art music is that it is “composed.” This means that a person who we call a composer imagines and works out a composition, whether brief or simple, elaborate or lengthy. Then, through the conventions of musical notation, he or she writes out instructions that other people, who are called performers, can follow in order to bring to life in sound the composition that has been developed. This notation is what we call a score. Just as the score is central to the life of the performer, so the Bible is central to the life of a Christian. In fact, to go even further, I propose for your consideration the following parallel: the relationship between composer, score, and performer is remarkably similar to the relationship between God, the Bible, and the disciple/believer. Allow me to spell that out a little more fully. We believe in God, who had and has a vision for the way all people, and especially those who call themselves God’s people, can and should live. God speaks to us through the Bible, which we study carefully for what to believe and how to behave. We justify much of what we do and believe as Christians by pointing to Biblical precedents, practices, principles, or pronouncements. Compare this with what I just said about Western art music: a composer develops a conception. He or she writes it out in musical notation, and turns this score over to performers, whose job it is to realize that conception in sound. The decisions performers make in preparing and giving the performance inevitably stem from, and are evaluated against, what the score indicates. But here is the startling thing about the musical side of this parallel, which has important implications for the Christian side: despite the specificity of the instructions in and content of the score, every performance of a given piece of music is different: the composer’s instructions do not and cannot ensure uniformity. No matter how carefully a performer tries to follow the letter of the score, or to realize its spirit, each performance creates a new revelation of the piece. Each flutist playing Debussy would shape the piece differently. One could also state this negatively: each performance contains details that could be improved, sharpened, or adjusted, at least for a specific context or audience or era. Stated more broadly, each performance confronts afresh the challenge and responsibility

132 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

of fully blending faithfulness and vision. With the twin temptations of complacency and willfulness always at hand, no performance can claim to offer a decisive and final realization of the composition being performed. I confess that when I was a young musician, I did not fully comprehend this situation. I loved listening to great pieces of music in the classical repertory, and I recognized what a difference an outstanding, inspired performance could make in bringing the work to life. From this realization it seemed to me (as it has seemed to many people) that there must be such a thing as a “best” or “definitive” performance of a piece against which all other performances can and should be judged. This kind of activity can be endlessly fascinating, and I have been involved in studying performances and issues of musical interpretation with great energy and joy throughout the last forty years. But in the course of my work, I have come to suspect that the idea of a definitive performance (or, in religious terms, orthodoxy) leads to a dead end. This suspicion emerges for a number of reasons. First, recordings reveal that the styles of performance employed fifty or a hundred years ago differ substantially from those used in performances given currently. Just as there are changes of fashion in clothing, or new developments in means of communication or travel, so too basic parameters and priorities in the art of performance change – and do so to such an extent that the work being performed can make a drastically different effect from one era to the next. Second, even contemporaneous performances can display noticeably different expressive aims and assumptions, yet on their own terms achieve coherent, convincing, even revelatory realizations of the work being performed. Such a phenomenon is possible because much music is greater than it can be performed – that is, the instructions in the score are so rich with implications that the very act of performing means that one has to adopt some possible options and neglect, disregard, or even contradict others. Third, sometimes friends and musicians I respect turn out to admire or create performances to which I do not immediately respond. Such occasions have caused me to examine my own assumptions, to give this other perspective the benefit of the doubt – and to learn that when I am honestly convinced of other musicians’ integrity, I can learn to


understand and appreciate not just their preferences, but new and important dimensions of the work being performed. And finally, as I have grown and continued to immerse myself in this music, I have come to recognize (or have finally become willing to admit) shortcomings in performances I once considered definitive, proving that they are themselves only provisional, partial realizations of the work in question. Conversely, I consider it to be one of the great achievements of my life that I have learned how to value and to respond with genuine enthusiasm to certain performances against which I initially reacted in an almost violently visceral way. This journey has clarified for me the difference between being a performer and being a listener or critic. A performer needs certainty in order to commit fully to the task of projecting a work to an audience; even if there are numerous valid options for realizing a certain passage or composition (and any thoughtful performer realizes this to be the case), one must be convinced of “being right” at the moment of performance in order to be successful. By contrast, a listener wants to be convinced by the performance in order to appreciate the work being performed, or the moment in which the performance takes place. Thus one needs to be able to don the correct hat at the proper time, for if a listener listens as a performer – that is, evaluates the performance on the basis of his or her own conception – or if a performer cannot set aside his or her own interpretation while listening to others, the conception has come to stand for the piece and has thereby sadly shrunk and compressed the composition’s possibilities, no matter how vibrant that conception may be. Only by coming to each performance eager to hear and learn what can be achieved with the composition in a fresh rendition, rather than by focusing on finding the ways in which it departs from or falls short of realizing a specific conception, can the height and depth and breadth of the composition and its meaning(s) be sensed Although I have couched this discussion in musical terms, I trust that you can translate what I am saying to our life as Christians. If ever a text offered the possibility of competing interpretations, it is the Bible! Attempting to balance its letter and its spirit causes one to realize that any coherent interpretation of the Bible practices what Northrop Frye calls “a grandiose neglect of portions of the text.”2 Surely no Christian who has

2 Frank Kermode, The Genesis of Secrecy: On the Interpretation of Narrative

134 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

ever lived or any church or denomination that has ever existed has felt equally drawn to or comfortable with every portion of the Bible. This is unavoidable – and yet failing to wrestle with those baffling or uncongenial passages not only limits our own awareness of God’s multifaceted nature and God’s ongoing capacity to surprise us with the realization that God’s ways are not our ways; it also means that we shut ourselves off from attempting to understand fellow Christians who find such passages and the perspectives they reveal to be spiritually transforming. Thus, using “the Bible says” as a rebuttal of a certain understanding or behavior begs the question of the basis on which that portion of the Bible is granted authority in this situation. Sadly, far too few Christians are aware of how and why the selection from the Bible on which they or their denomination construct their faith has been made. Consequently, at least insofar as I have observed, we Christians too often confuse our limited understanding of the Gospel with the Gospel itself – or, in the terms I have employed earlier, we listen as performers rather than as listeners. We need to become adept at both performing and listening, and to learn to recognize the right time for each of these activities. Against this background, let’s turn again to I Corinthians 13. Paul here mentions prophecy, tongues, and knowledge as things that will pass away even as love endures. In the framework I have outlined, prophecy might be understood as vision or insight, tongues as performance, and knowledge as certainty, as in the sense of “I just know I’m right.” Paul not only says that these things will pass away; he associates them with spiritual childishness. He insists that our knowledge is provisional (“now we see in a mirror, dimly”) or incomplete (“now I know only in part”) but equally insists that a transforming reality stands behind those provisional or incomplete glimpses. A radical musical analogue to this insight might be that offered by American composer Charles Ives, who once provocatively asked, “What does sound have to do with music?” This suggests not just that the inevitable difference between performances, but that actual sound, the very medium through which music is perceived, is something that inhibits

(Cambridge, MA/London: Harvard University Press, 1979), 20.


and prevents the full realization of what music is. How much greater than music is God! And how many ways we Christians and our churches find of distorting the perception of the reality of God, of making God conform to the limits of our own understandings, and of having things so well worked out for ourselves that God has no place to grow in our lives. May God forgive us all! God calls us to testify joyously and with zeal to a new reality which is the transforming work of God. As fallible human beings, however, we too often confuse or conflate the concrete manifestations of that in-breaking with the essence that inevitably takes different forms in the lives of others. May God endow us with the grace and love that will permit us to identify and rejoice in the working of God’s spirit in the lives of fellow Christians. As one Mennonite patriarch of years gone by used to say, “the secret of being a good Christian is to be strict with yourself and lenient with others.” May it be so in our lives. My understanding of the parallels between musical interpretation and Biblical interpretation, and of how my musical understandings can be of help to my life as a follower of Christ, is something I have developed during the course of many years of thought, study, and reflection, but more recently I have become aware that there are a number of Christian writers and theologians who come to similar understandings solely within the Christian realm. Richard Rohr has written a book (Falling Upward: A Spirituality for the Two Halves of Life)3 in which he describes the purpose of the first half of life as that of creating a container for one’s identity and beliefs, and then goes on to claim that the second half of life cannot begin until that container of certainty is broken, thereby creating room for God’s healing work—which means that people who are too certain of themselves never reach this stage of spiritual understanding. I can only testify that I have found the breaking of my musical container to be liberating, and that I continue to try to apply the lessons of that experience to my Christian walk. James Carse has written a book that posits a fundamental difference between belief systems and religions (The Religious Case Against Belief); although many true believers treat Christianity as a belief system by erecting

3 Richard Rohr, Falling Upward: A Spirituality for the Two Halves of Life (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2011).

136 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

rigid boundaries, asking yes/no questions, and practicing willful ignorance of things that lie outside the boundaries, the religious operate with horizons that change as they move, with genuine questions of meaning, and with a higher ignorance that sees “the unknown everywhere, especially at the heart of our most emphatic certainties.”4 Finally, only within the last year or so have I joyfully rediscovered the work of the great German-American theologian Paul Tillich, who formulated what he called the Protestant principle, that is, “the principle in which the church in its essence…protests against the church in its existence.”5 This principle requires the ongoing duality of both tradition and reformation—a process that ultimately undoes any orthodoxy.

Similarly, for Tillich, agape love is not only Christian love that accepts the unacceptable but is the one unconditional criterion, the negation of every law. It is unconditional because nothing transcends love and nothing less than love is sufficient. But what love is in the concrete moment is open to the creative understanding of the situation and does not have the character of a law we can define and obey.6

This valuation of love supports Paul’s assertion of its primacy, and Tillich’s recognition of the need to apply love abundantly but flexibly resonates with my hard-won realizations concerning musical interpretations and those who offer them. I pray that I and we can love in this way within the church, the body of Christ, in order to offer a powerful and desperately needed witness to our increasingly polarized world.

4 James P. Carse, The Religious Case Against Belief (New York: Penguin Press, 2008), 3.

5 Paul Tillich, The Irrelevance and Relevance of the Christian Message, ed. Durwood Foster (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 1996), 49.

6 Ibid., 38.

137Towards a ‘Nepal’ Christian Theology

Towards A ‘Nepal’1 Christian Theology: A Proposal

Yeshwanth Bakkavemana2

Introduction

Statement of The problemSocio–political background: It always has been difficult to communicate gospel in the multi–religious context of Nepal for several reasons. Firstly, Nepal was a closed land for the gospel until 20th century.3 Historically any attempts of evangelism were terminated by the autocratic rulers of Nepal.4

1 The other suggestions are ‘Nepali’ and ‘Nepalese.’ The former indicates linguistic identity and the later indicates national identity of the citizenry. The word ‘Nepal’ in this paper encompasses the geo–political, linguistic and national identity of the indigenous people living in and outside Nepal.

2 Yeshwanth Bakkavemana is serving as an academic dean at Nepal Ebenezer Bible College, Kathmandu, Nepal. He hails from Andhra Pradesh, South India. He has done his Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics department. He also has done Bachelor of Divinity at Union Biblical Seminary, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Currently he is involved in teaching and writing in the field of Old Testament studies.

3 Cindy Perry, A Biographical History of the Church in Nepal (3rd ed.; Kathmandu, Nepal: Nepal Church History Project, 2000), xi; Rajendra Rongong, Early Churches in Nepal: An Indigenous Movement, Till 1990 (Kathmandu, Nepal: Ekta Books, 2012), 9; Simon Pandey, Christianity in Nepal: Unity in Diversity (Kathmandu, Nepal: Nepal Churches Fellowship of Nepal, 2003), 17.

4 However, the Malla kings allowed Jesuit fathers to stay and even gave them permission to profess their faith between ca. 1661–1774. For a detailed study on the

138 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

Secondly, Nepal has been experiencing political instability. The monarchy was replaced by oligarchy and subsequently the country oscillated between monarchy and democracy. However, in 1956 an interim constitution was formulated based on democratic principles that include religious freedom. King Tribhuwan sided with the people to fight against the oligarchic rule of Ranas and to establish democracy. Nevertheless, it was during King Mahendra’s rule that the country returned to a monarchic, party-less and Hindu country. Minority religions like Islam and Christianity were deemed illegal.5 This scenario persisted until the restoration of democracy and abolition of monarchy on May 28th, 2008. The change has paved the way for the freedom of religion and thus contributed to the surge of church growth.6

The nature of missionary work: For these reasons the missionaries initially took up social action as means to communicate the gospel. They established educational institutions, hospitals and other programs to uplift the marginalized people, and their efforts proved to be effective tools of evangelism. It is because of stringent regulations by the government not to preach and proselytize, the missionaries had to adopt social service as one of their tools of evangelism. 7 Missions were thus recognized more as development agencies than as Christian missions.8 The critics of Christianity opine that it was because of the social service by missionaries that conversion and adoption of Christianity has been taking place.9 Unintentionally a dichotomized view between evangelical mandate and social mandate has emerged.

Significance of the problem: Western theologies have been helpful in providing a theological framework for the articulation of faith and social

first Christian entry and how it was abruptly stamped out, see Perry, A Biographical History of the Church in Nepal, 1–10.

5 Rongong, Early Churches in Nepal, 42, 108-109.6 During the period of persecution, the church grew rapidly because of certain

courageous and committed Nepalese Christians. 7 Rongong, Early Churches in Nepal, 58.8 Rongong, Early Churches in Nepal, 58. 9 Trilok Manjupuria and Rohit Kumar Manjupuria, Religions in Nepal (Kathmandu:

M. Devi Lashkar [Gwalior], 2004), 323.


welfare programs for the development of the society. However, at the practical and existential levels, they have not been able to communicate the gospel comprehensibly. There are three primary reasons for this. Firstly, western theologies address the struggles of their own context. Secondly, they did do not address the problems of syncretism and persecution in response to the perpetuation of faith. Thirdly, the Nepali language is intertwined with culture and religion which are not addressed by western theologies. The church movement in Nepal from its inception has been considered to be indigenous, with minimal western missionary involvement.10 Hence, Nepali church has been attempting to contextualize the gospel. This is evident in one of the guidelines for the foundation of Nepali Isai Mandali (Gyneshwor church),11 which emphasizes that the western way of observing sacraments should be replaced by the more locally suitable contextual method.12 However, contextualization risks syncretism. These problems illustrate the present need for a contextual theology for the Nepali Church.

Need for a Nepal Christian Theology: We need to address the question of why we need a Nepal Christian Theology (NCT). Firstly, because of Nepal’s distinct and unique context. To articulate Christian faith meaningfully in Nepal, one must understand its context. Cindy Perry points out that Nepal is a “mosaic of diverse cultures, languages, ethnic groups and religious practices.”13 Dr. Mangal Man Maharjan on Nepal, with C. V. Matthew remarks that Hinduism which is the major religion of the state that constitutes 89% of the population.14 The church constantly is thus challenged for its existence since it is a minority religion and needs to

10 Perry, A Biographical History of the Church in Nepal, xi.11 Nepali Isai Mandali was established in 1957. It is the second church in the

Kathmandu Valley, after Puthalisadak Bethshalom Chruch in 1953. For further details, see Rongong, Early Churches in Nepal, 63–69.

12 Rongong, Early Churches in Nepal, 69.13 Cindy Perry, “Nepal,” ed. Scott W. Sunquist, A Dictionary of Asian Christianity

(Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001), 593.14 C. V. Matthew with Mangal Man Maharjan on Nepal, “Hinduism” (ed. Scott W.

Sunquist, A Dictionary of Asian Christianity; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001), 334–35.

140 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

articulate its faith in a careful yet faithful way. Secondly, we need NCT for better interaction with other religions. It is imperative for Nepali church, to present the Christian faith comprehensibly to other faiths. This helps the non-Christian to understand the Christian faith in an understandable way. Thirdly, we need NCT for correct doctrinal beliefs. Fourthly, we need NCT because of the strong interaction between religion and culture. This interaction influences the thought patterns. In doing theology, we often encounter this interaction. In this context it is essential to explain Christian faith to the church (didactic) and proclaim Christian faith in a comprehensible manner (kerygmatic), and to give a defence (apologia). There is thus a great need for NCT for the Nepali church today.

Hypothesis I would like to propose the use of the contextual method to construct NCT because it is relevant and comprehensible to Nepal’s context without compromising its Christian essence.15 I would like to suggest a five–step approach: (1) define NCT, (2) set the goals that NCT should strive to achieve, (3) propose a relevant methodology to do NCT, (4) establish the parameters or limits in doing NCT, and (5) identify the sources for doing NCT.

Methodology16

The intended methodology is contextualization for a biblically–oriented theology which is consistent with fundamental Christian tenets set by the church in its first five centuries. I will discuss why and how this methodology is relevant to Nepal’s context. I will also discuss how this methodology serves the purpose of doing NCT in the paper subsequently. My hope is to enable you to face the challenges and share the gospel in a more winsome, and effective way. ethodology

15 It is not my intention to construct the doctrines because the foundational Christian tenants were already established in the 1st century.

16 The methodology that is proposed in this paper is in the beginning stages of its articulation and that the results are thus provisional.


Defining NCTThe preceding factors frame a Nepal Christian theology which can be defined thus: a systematic, contextual articulation of Christian faith in the pluralistic society of Nepal that explains Christian faith to the church (didactic), proclaims the same to the larger society (kerygma), and defends the same against objections from non-Christians (apologia).

The goals of NCTThe following would be possible goals of NCT. Firstly, it could empower the church to transform the society. The theology should consist of words of comfort and confrontation to Nepali Christians from the Word of God. It could also form a “creative theology,”17 that reflects a clear and correct Christian thought as well as deep, spiritual insight for the benefit of Nepali church and the church in the world at large. Thirdly, it could dynamically interact with the community of faith in teaching the correct doctrines and explain and defend the faith in the larger non-Christian society. It could additionally uphold its Christian essence while attempting to contextualize the Christian message. Fifthly, NCT should avoid parochialism—being overtly provincial.

Contextualization: A Biblically–based method

Defining contextualizationThe word “contextualization” made its debut in the World Council of Churches in 1950’s with reference to theological education in Southeast Asia.18 Subsequently the word was associated with funding and reconsidering cultural sensitivity of theological education in Southeast Asia.19 The focus and the meaning of the word have also been dichotomised between the text and the context by moderate evangelicals

17 Donald Leroy Stults, Developing An Asian Evangelical Theology (Manila, Philippines: Omf literature Inc, 1989), 38.

18 David J. Hesselgrave, Communicating Christ Cross-Culturally: An Introduction to Missionary Communication (2nd ed.; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1991), 133.

19 Hesslgrave, Communicating Christ, 133.

142 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

and liberals. The former emphasized on the text and the later focused on context. Besides evangelicals and liberals, radical evangelicals understood “contextualization” as an “activity of re-interpreting the gospel”—which suggests that contextualization is an attempt to understand Christian faith in one’s particular context.20 Now, we have a tripartite view between the text, context and the interpretation with reference to contextualization. What, then, should be a proper definition of contextualization? In order to define ‘contextualization’ for a biblically–oriented theology, we need to consider three components: Scripture, context, and the interpretation of the Scripture. Firstly, Scripture should get rightful primacy. According to Lesslie Newbigin, true contextualization gives gospel rightful primacy.21 Bible itself presents the patterns of contextualization. According to B. J. Nicholls the incarnation presents an “ultimate paradigm” for contextualization—the word became flesh i.e., translation of text into context.22 We can also see this pattern in the apostolic ministry of the apostle Paul in Athens where he tried to contextualize the gospel (Acts 17:22-31). Secondly, we need to consider the context of Nepal. The context of Nepal is a pluralistic society in which Christianity is one of the minority religions. On one hand Nepali church in the post–monarchic–oligarchic–Maoist regime, is struggling for an authentic national identity. On the other hand we need to consider the totality of human situation in Nepali context—increase in deprivation of human rights and discrimination based on Caste system, gender, class system and religious identity and unstable political system. Therefore, contextualization has to address the totality of human context in Nepal. Thirdly, contextualization involves careful and critical interpretation of the text in the context. The interpretation should be based on “time–honoured, grammatico–historical exegetical method.”23 Musasiwa notes

20 R Mausasiwa, “Contextualization,” ed. John Corrie, Dictionary of Mission Theology (IVP Reference Collection; England: Inter-Varsity Press, 2007), 66.

21 Lesslie Newbegin, The Gospel in a Pluralistic Society (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1989), 152.

22 B. J. Nicholls, “Contextualization,” ed. Sinclair B. Ferguson, Dictionary of Theology (IVP Reference Collection; Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 164.

23 Nicholls, “Contextualization,” 165.


that Bible itself is the “contextualized revelation” of the way God interacted with man in the totality of his context and therefore, contextualization must depend on careful exegesis of the Scripture.24 Contextualization for a biblically—oriented theology can be defined thus: a grammatico–historical process by which the meaning of the Scripture is determined in its own historical and literary contexts; while giving the Scripture the rightful primacy— by which the Christian truth is interpreted into the totality of human context without compromising the Christian essence.

Steps for doing contextualization for a biblically–oriented theologyThe task of contextualization for a biblically–oriented theology involves basically two steps. Firstly, I would suggest a grammatico–historical exegetical approach to the Scripture. Charles L. Echols basically suggests a five-step approach namely— (1) what is the text? (2) What does it say? (3) What does it mean? (4) What is its theology? (5) How does it apply? 25 Basing on this I would like elaborate this into eight stages. This exegetical process involves: (1) determining the text and the etymological meaning of the word/s26, (2) understanding the usage of the word/s in different contexts in the Bible, (3) identifying the genre in which the word/s frequently appears (4) analysing the current meaning of the word/s27, (5) analysing the theological significance of the word/s, (6)doing poetical analysis and identifying figures of speech, (7) determining the meaning of the chosen text according to its immediate and larger biblical contexts, and (8) determining the authorship and his/her socio–political and religious context, the intended readers, intention of the author. Second step involves application. In order to do this a careful social analysis is required. Social analysis comprises of understanding the

24 Mausasiwa, “Contextulization,” 67.25 Charles L. Echols, “A Guide to Basic Exegesis”, 2, [cited 27 August 2014]. Online:

https://www.academia.edu/1911937/A_Guide_to_Basic_Exegesis.26 Louis Berkhof, Principles of Biblical Inter-Pretation (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker,

1994), 67.27 Berkhof, Principles of Biblical Inter-pretation, 68.

144 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

socio–political, religio–cultural and economic situation of Nepali context. Once the biblical meaning of the text has been determined, the exegete should look for “dynamic equivalence”28 to meaningfully apply in his/her own context—by which the meaning of the text intended for the original readers should bring an equivalent meaning to the contemporary reader. The exegete should dynamically interact between the text and context—to a specific human situation. Therefore, a biblically–oriented contextualization should involve a grammatico–historical exegesis of the Scripture, transformation of the particular existential situation, and appropriately adapting the message of the gospel without losing the Christian essence.

Contextualization and languageWhile doing NCT we may have to use the vernacular language which is intertwined with religious culture of Nepal. We cannot avoid the relationship between religion, culture and the language. The biblical authors also faced the same problem to communicate God’s word in their hostile and pluralistic society. The early church had to borrow terms or frames of thought but gave them new meaning and content.29 One must seek “functional substitutes” by which the deeply rooted non-Christian forms are critically considered, taken over and given a new Christian meaning, content and purpose.30 God’s word itself presents us a pattern of indigenizing the same today in Nepal. For example John makes use of the Greek concept of “logos” but he gives it new meaning, content and purpose in–line with the revelation (Jh. 1:14). Therefore, the words that are borrowed need to be transformed by the way of adapting it to cultural equivalents. To do this, one must have a thorough knowledge of the original meaning of the word, and a clear picture of the contextual meaning suitable to the local context.

The focus and the nature of contextualization

28 Nicholls, “Contextualization,” 165.29 Athyal, “Towards an Asian Christian Theology”, 52.30 We can find some of the functional substitutes in the Bible itself. For example

the concept of logos is Hellenistic concept and other example include the concept of Covenant and the practice of sacrifice in the Old Testament (see Mausasiwa, “Contextualization,” 69).


The focus of contextualization should not be only on translating biblical message according to the context, but on every aspect of human life such as theology, Bible translation, life style, worship, evangelism, education (secular and theological), church (its life and organization) and all of human experience.31 The nature of contextualization should be open–ended.32 Contextualization should not be overtly provincial but also universal. This will avoid the danger of falling into syncretism.

Parameters or Limits in Doing NCTThere are two parameters or limits we need to set in doing NCT. They are namely syncretism and Dispensationalism.

Syncretism OED defines syncretism as “the amalgamation of different religions, culture, or schools of thought.” In Christian theology this term refers to amalgamation of different religions and culture with the Christian truth thus distorting the Christian truth. This often happens while contextualizing the gospel in any pluralistic society. Therefore, we need to be aware of dangers of syncretism. This syncretism can further be divided into three types. (1) Assimilative: in communicating the gospel, non-Christian elements are incorporated with the view that there is no essential difference between Christianity and non-Christian religions.33 (2) Accommodative: we tend to ‘arm-twist’ the interpretation to have the desired meaning from the context.34 (3) Situational: we tend to ‘read-in’ the experience from particular situation into the text. The danger here is a distorted view of the gospel.35

31 Hesselgrave, Communicating Christ Cross-Culturally, 140.32 Mausasiwa, “Contextualization,” 70.33 Rodrigo D. Tano, “Toward an Evangelical Asian Theology,” in An Evangelical

Perspective on Asian Theology (ed. Bong Rin Ro and Ruth Eshenaur; The Bible & Theology in Asian Context; presented at the 6th ATA Theological Consultation, Seoul, South Korea: Asian Theological Association, 1984), 99.

34 Bong Rin Ro, “Contextualization: Asian Theology,” in An Evangelical Perspective on Asian Theology (ed. Bong Rin Ro and Ruth Eshenaur; The Bible & Theology in Asian Context; presented at the 6th ATA Theological Consultation, Seoul, South Korea: Asian Theological Association, 1984), 71.

35 Rin Ro, “Contextualization: Asian Theology,”71.

146 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

Dispensationalism: periodization of ScripturesIn communicating the gospel, we tend to compartmentalise the Bible into two Testaments with a stark discontinuity. This may lead us into“modalism” in turn leads us into “tri–theism”—explaining God in three different modes. God the father as a Law giver in Old Testament times, God the Son in the New Testament times, and God the Holy Spirit in the present age. This view is very close to Hindu concept of tri–theism and hence we need to be cautious. While attempting to contextualize the gospel in Nepali context, one must keep these parameters in mind to avoid the dangers of falling into syncretism and the dispensational view of the Scripture.

Sources for Doing NCT36

McGrath speaks of four main sources for doing theology which were utilized in Christian tradition: Scripture, reason, tradition and experience.37 It is not possible to discuss the four in depth due to the limitation of the paper. However, it is sufficient to know that Scripture is the primary source in doing theology. Scripture is the revealed word of God. Hence it should be the foundation and the substance of theology. Regarding reason, like God, human beings are rational beings. Therefore, reason is to be expected to play a major role in theology. The role of reason is complementary to the Scripture. In other words, reason has a role of build on what has been already revealed.38 To ‘build upon’ means “to organize the facts as given, in this case by revelation.”39 Therefore, reason is to organize and systematize the revealed truth for a better comprehension. Regarding tradition, the Latin word ‘traditio’ which means “an

36 Different denominations have different perspective on the sources. For example Catholic Church places tradition on the same level with Scripture whereas Protestant church emphasises Scriptures as the primary source while regarding the other sources subordinate to it. I have presented the sources from an evangelical protestant perspective.

37 Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology An Introduction (2nd edition.; UK: Blackwell, 1997), 181.

38 McGrath, Christian Theology, 213.39 Leroy Stults, Developing An Asian Evangelical Theology, 63.


active process of reflection by which theological or spiritual insights are valued, assessed, and transmitted from one generation to another.”40 It refers to the traditional way of interpreting the scriptures. We cannot deny the 2000 years of tradition because it helps us not to fall into overtly individualistic interpretation of the Scriptures. Scripture has regulatory authority, in that traditions are to be tested based on Scriptures but not the other way around. Regarding experience, though it is catalogued as one of the sources, one must consider it with caution. There are two main streams in relation to experience and theology. One is the view that experience as a foundational source for theology. Second one is theology provides an “interpretative framework” for our experience to be interpreted.41 Our experiences may mislead our interpretation of the Scriptures. This aspect was very succinctly explained by Martin Luther. He points to the misunderstanding resulted out of disciples’ experience of Lord’s death. They experienced God’s absence. However, resurrection proved their experience wrong. Resurrection re–oriented them to a right experience of God’s hidden presence. Therefore, experience should not be taken as the source to interpret Scripture rather it has to be considered as something to be interpreted by Scripture.42 Therefore, Scripture should be considered primary and authoritative while reason, tradition and experience should be subordinate to the Scripture.

ConclusionThe socio–political situation of Nepal has largely prevented the gospel from making in–roads into Nepal until 20th century. Hence, the responsibility for the perpetuation of Christian faith has fallen into the hands of Nepali Christians with minimum missionary involvement. The church movements in Nepal from the beginning have been indigenous, and the attempt to contextualize the gospel has been made by the churches, though not fully realized. However, the contextualization presents a potential risk of syncretism.

40 McGrath, Christian Theology, 219.41 McGrath, Christian Theology, 225.42 McGrath, Christian Theology, 228.

148 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

The impending need for NCT arises out of the potential risk of syncretism and dispensational view of the Scripture in Nepal’s context and therefore there is a need to interact and present the gospel in a comprehensible manner while upholding its Christian essence. The above factors helped us to define NCT as a systematic, contextual articulation of Christian faith in the pluralistic society of Nepal that explains Christian faith to the church (didactic), proclaims the same to the larger society (kerygma), and defends the same against objections from non-Christians (apologia). The proposed methodology for doing NCT is contextualization for a biblically–oriented theology. The three components necessary to define contextualization are Scripture, context, and interpretation. Thus contextualization can be defined as a grammatico–historical process by which the meaning of the Scripture is determined in its own historical and literary contexts; while giving the Scripture the rightful primacy— by which the Christian truth is interpreted into the totality of human context without compromising the Christian essence. The two steps for doing contextualization that were discussed are grammatico–historical exegesis of the Scripture, and a careful social analysis. The focus of the method should on the totality of human context and the nature of the method is to be open–ended to avoid parochialism. One must have sensitivity for vernacular language and look for functional substitutes by which the words that are borrowed needs to be critically considered, clarified and should be Christianized. There are two parameters we need to consider—syncretism and Dispensationalism. These parameters are to be considered to avoid eisegesis. The sources of doing NCT are the Scripture which is foundational and primary source and has regulatory function in using other sources; reason which has a role to build on what has already been revealed; tradition which helps us to avoid overtly individualistic interpretation; and experience needs to be interpreted based on the Scripture. Finally NCT should be Scriptural, not merely an academic endeavour, missional; pastoral & prophetic; apologetical; contextual but


not provincial; systematic; developing resources and Nepali theologians. It is needless to state that Churches along with seminaries and training centres have a pivotal role in developing theologians and Christian thinkers thus contributing to the contextualization of the gospel while upholding its Christian essence. It should be noted that the future of NCT does not singularly lies in the hands of leaders behind the pulpit but also in the hands of laity on the mats of church floor who live their faith in the hostile world outside the church.

150 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

Book Review

The Psalms as Israel’s Prayer and Our Own. By Robert D. Miller II. New Delhi: Christian World Imprints, 2013. 102 pages.

This book is the work of one who has been recognized as an authority on Early Israel. In his introduction he laid out the manner in which he has dealt with his subject, by dividing the book into three chapters with index. In the book he has attempted to bring out the nature of Psalms and the forms they have taken in ancient Israel. Miller makes a persuasive claim that poetry existed in ancient Israel, and represents the Psalms as the religious poetry of Jews and Christians. He explains that in the Psalms the role of speaker has been reversed, because God is presented as “You” and the author and reader as “I”, making the Psalter different from the rest of the books in the Old Testament. He strongly argues in favour of the inspirational status of the book (2). He explains the number of psalms that exist in different ancient texts and claims that the discovery of the Dead Sea scrolls, beginning from 1948, has revolutionized biblical studies, enabling the scholars to get closer to the original form of the text (18-19). He also discusses its disorderliness in terms of its themes (19-20). Chapter 1: “The shape and story of the book of Psalms” (1-30). Here an attempt is made to give the book’s theological meanings. Miller acknowledges that he has confined himself largely to issues of the book of Psalms as the religious poetry of Jews and Christians. He reminds us that Psalms are lyrics for songs and that as we read any of the Psalms we are reading lyrics; he concludes that for Christians the best way to pray the Psalms is to sing them. He poses a question as to why would one pray in poetry?

151Book Review

Chapter 2: “Methods for reading the Psalms” (33-76): Miller begins his writing by posing three questions i.e., who is addressed, who is speaking, and what is the intent of the speaker in the Psalms? (33-34). He describes the theology of Psalms by asking who is God in relation to who is man (sic). He identifies God as creator, king, victorious warrior king, holy, merciful, both present and remote, immanent and transcendent (71-74). Chapter 3: “The Psalms as the Quintessential Prayers for today” (77-98). Here Miller deals with the Psalms and our prayer, stressing the reality of the divine presence. He discusses references to the Psalms in the New Testament and states that there are 55 citations of Psalms in the New Testament. He asserts that there are lament Psalms in the New Testament echoing the suffering of Jesus. He emphasizes that praying the appropriate Psalms shapes our own prayers. Therefore he is of the opinion that we should pray the Psalm that fits the prayer we need at a given moment by using form criticism to identify the genres. Dietrich Bonhoeffer who referred to the Psalter as “The Prayer Book of the Bible,” and the entire Old Testament books as the book of Christ, encourages us to consider that it should be read in the light of both the incarnation and the cross. To substantiate his claims, Miller quotes Bonhoeffer, St. Augustine and John Paul 11’s words. He emphasizes Christ who speaks in the Psalms (96). He concludes that, given the Church is the body of Christ, our biblical prayer should be an expression of the heart of the risen Son of God, and to be allowed to join with His prayer is a privilege (97). The book is designed for lay people to read, in order to enhance the prayerful reading of the Psalms, and it is valuable for pointing out the ideals of a Psalter suitable for public worship in a Christian context. The study of the Psalms has traditionally followed two major currents in Old Testament scholarship i.e., form criticism developed by Herman Gunkel and the cult functional approached by Sigmund Mowinckel. Miller slightly links his agreement with the theory developed by Herman Gunkel. While claiming the Psalms as a hymn book Gunkel placed his emphasis on the secondary use of the individual members of the collection rather than of the collection itself. The danger of reading the Psalms as a hymn book

152 UBS Journal, 8.2 - 9.1

is that one misses the theological meaning inherent in the whole book of Psalms. Therefore to understand the Psalter one is required to understand its canonical shape, so that its message is not disregarded. The book also lacks proper editorial work as there are spelling mistakes, (like ‘Bonhoeffer’ is written as ‘Bonheoffer’) (96); Egypt is not found in page 89 as indicated in the index but instead on page 88. Unfortunately, the book does not employ inclusive language. Nonetheless this insightful and beautifully written study is effective in helping to discover the songs of the heart in ancient Israel and how they should be used meaningfully in Christian worship today.

Nyimang ChangDoctoral Student (OT)

Union Biblical Seminary, Pune

Dialogical Nature of John's Prologue (Johnson Thomaskutty)

Documents

Transcript of Dialogical Nature of John's Prologue (Johnson Thomaskutty)