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Devonian shallow-water sequences from the North Gondwana coastal margin(Central and Eastern Taurides, Turkey): Sedimentology, facies and global events

A. Wehrmann a,⁎, I. Yılmaz b, M.N. Yalçın b, V. Wilde c, E. Schindler c, K. Weddige c, G. Saydam Demirtas d,R. Özkan e, A. Nazik f, G. Nalcıoğlu d, H. Kozlu e, Ö. Karslıoğlu b, U. Jansen b, K. Ertuğ e,R. Brocke c, N. Bozdoğan e

a Senckenberg Research Institute, Department of Marine Research, Südstrand 40, 26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germanyb Istanbul University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Geological Engineering, Istanbul, Turkeyc Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt, Germanyd General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration (MTA), Ankara, Turkeye Turkish Petroleum Corporation (TPAO), Ankara, Turkeyf Cukurova University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Geological Engineering, Adana, Turkey

a b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 13 May 2009Received in revised form 18 September 2009Accepted 29 September 2009Available online 17 October 2009

Keywords:Land–sea transitionBiostratigraphyPalaeobiogeographyHinterland processesBiolaminitesSabkha depositsAeolian sandstonesCarbonate build-ups

Turkey is an integral part of the Alpine–Himalayan orogenic belt with a number of tectonostratigraphic unitsstriking in an E–W direction. These belts consist of terranes of different tectonic settings, ranging from oceanicbasins to active and passive continental margins. The age of incorporated units of continental margin originranges from the Cambrian to the Cenozoic, and includes unmetamorphosed to low-grade Devonian rocks in thePontides, Taurides and on the Arabian Plate. This paper describes the detailed sedimentology, facies andbiostratigraphy of three 900 to 1200 m thick Devonian successions in the Central and Eastern Taurides (Eceli,Halevikdere and Kocadere). During the Devonian, the Central and Eastern Taurideswere situated at the northernmargin of Gondwana. The sediments described were deposited on this margin in coastal to shelf environments.Despite similar large-scale trends, regional differences in the sedimentary sequences can be distinguished,especially for the lower part of the Devonian. For the first time, sufficient biostratigraphical data have beenrecovered to allow the successions to be subdivided at a stage scale, permitting their approximate correlation andcomparison with the regional lithostratigraphy. The temporal development of sedimentary processes, facieschanges, and hinterland signatures recorded in the individual sections have been reconstructed, allowing theircorrespondence to global events to be recognized and discussed for the first time. The palaeobiogeographicdistribution of various organisms within these succession suggests a comparatively narrow sea (‘Rheic Ocean’)between Laurasia and Gondwana/Peri-Gondwana during the Devonian.

© 2009 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Turkey is part of the Alpine–Himalayan orogenic belt and itsgeological and tectonic framework is mainly the result of the AlpineOrogeny. The country comprises a number of tectonostratigraphicunits consisting of terranes that represent different tectonic settingsranging from oceanic basins to active and passive continental margins.The age of the units involved ranges from the Cambrian to theCenozoic (Şengör and Yılmaz, 1981; Şengör, 1985; Okay et al., 1996;Kozur and Göncüoğlu, 1998; Goncuoglu and Kozlu, 2000; Stampfli,2000; Bozkaya et al., 2006; Stampfli and Kozur, 2006; Okay et al.,2006; Moix et al., 2007; Elitok and Dolmaz, 2008).

The main tectonostratigraphic units in Turkey include, from northto south, the Pontides, the Sakarya Continent, the Menderes and the

Kırşehir blocks, the Taurides and the Arabian Plate (Fig. 1). These unitsrepresent continental terranes and are separated by suture zonescomposed of ophiolithic and volcanic rocks of oceanic origin (Ketin,1966; Şengör and Yılmaz, 1981). Thick Palaeozoic sedimentarysuccessions of the Pontides, Taurides and on the Arabian Plate(Fig. 1) contain unmetamorphosed to weakly metamorphosedDevonian rocks of different palaeogeographic origin and contrastinglithofacies.

In southern Turkey, Devonian rocks are widely distributed in theTaurides, although the entire Palaeozoic succession has been greatlydisrupted by later tectonic activities. The NE–SW Ecemiş andKırkkavak strike-slip faults form the present boundaries betweenthe Eastern and Central Taurides, and between the Central andWestern Taurides, respectively (Fig. 1). The successions of the Antalyaarea in the Western Taurides, the Silifke–Ovacık area in the CentralTaurides, and the Feke–Saimbeyli and Sarız areas in the EasternTaurides can be broadly correlated.

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⁎ Corresponding author.E-mail address: achim.wehrmann@senckenberg.de (A. Wehrmann).

1342-937X/$ – see front matter © 2009 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.gr.2009.09.011

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In this paper, the general geological setting, biostratigraphy,sedimentology and facies characteristics of three selected Devoniansuccessions in the Central (Eceli Section) and Eastern Taurides(Halevikdere and Kocadere sections) have been studied (Figs. 2–4)with special attention paid to hinterland processes, palaeogeographicaffinities, and the signatures of global events.

2. Geological setting

The continuousdeposition of the Palaeozoicunits of southernTurkeyat the northernmargin of northeasternGondwana ended as the result ofthe opening of the Neotethys Ocean at the beginning of the Mesozoic.The southeastern part of the former Palaeozoic terrane remained on thenorthern margin of the Arabian Plate to the south of this new ocean,while the Mederes-Taurus Block occupied a position to the north of it.Closure of the Neotethys Ocean by subduction and subsequent collisionled to imbrication of the Menderes–Taurus Block and many slices werethrust onto each other. Thus, collision-related tectonism resulted in thecomplex structure of the Taurides. The sedimentary characteristics andinternal stratigraphy of the sequences within these different tectonos-tratigraphic units were distinguished by Özgül (1976), who identifiedtheGeyikdağUnit, AladağUnit, BolkardağUnit, Bozkır Unit, AlanyaUnit,and Antalya Unit.

Most of the Palaeozoic units in the area studied are represented byCambrian to Lower Carboniferous successions of the parautochtho-nous Geyikdağ Unit, which is overthrusted from the north by theAladağ, Bolkardağ and Bozkır units, and from south by the Antalya andAlanya units (Özgül, 1976). The carbonate and siliciclastic sedimentswithin the successions were deposited in either terrestrial, shallow,or, occasionally, deeper marine environments (Tutkun, 1984; Metin,1984; Yılmaz, 2004). The Devonian sequences of the Geyikdağ Unitweremainly deposited in shallowmarine environments (Özgül, 1976;Gedik, 1988).

The sections studied (Eceli in the Central Taurides; Kocadere andHalevikdere in the Eastern Taurides) represent successions typical forthe Geyikdağ Unit. The Halevikdere Section is strongly faulted in itsmiddle part, whereas the other two sections are less disturbed.

2.1. Lithostratigraphy

2.1.1. Central TauridesWithin the Devonian succession of the Central Taurides, three

lithostratigraphic units are distinguished, the Sigircik, Büyükeceliand Akveren formations. The Sigircik Formation consists of alternat-ing shales, limestones and quartzitic sandstones (Demirtaşlı, 1984)with ripple marks and cross-bedding (Koç et al., 2005; Uguz andÖzden, 2005). This unit constitutes the lowermost 270 m of the EceliSection.

The Büyükeceli Formation is mainly composed of dolomites,dolomitic limestones and, in its basal part, sandstones (Demirtaşlı,1984). The dolomites and dolomitic limestones contain intra-formational breccia and biolaminitic beds that are typical of thisunit. In the Eceli Section, the interval between 270 and 840 m belongsto this unit.

Dark grey to black limestones (that are often reefoidal and/orfossiliferous) alternating with shales are typical of the AkverenFormation (Gedik, 1988; Koç et al., 2005) only the basal part of whichis exposed in the Eceli Section between 842 and 942 m.

2.1.2. Eastern TauridesDevonian deposits form the major part of the Palaeozoic in the

Geyikdağı Unit of the Eastern Taurides and three Devonian lithostrati-graphic units are distinguished: the Ayıtepesi, Şafaktepe, and Gümüşaliformations.

The Ayıtepesi Formation comprises beige to yellow, quartzitic,cross-bedded sandstones at its base, which alternate with grey, well-bedded, dolomitic layers towards the top; some shaly intervals alsooccur. In the Kocadere Section only 118 m of this formation isencountered since the section is bounded by a major fault at its base.In theHalevikdere Section, the formation reaches a thickness of 425 m,but a fault cuts off the top.

The Şafaktepe Formation (Demirtaşlı, 1967) consists of dark greyto black or dark blue, medium- to thick-bedded, partly reefoidallimestones, dolomitic limestones, a few quartzitic sandstones andsome dark coloured shales. In the Kocadere Section, the ŞafaktepeFormation has a thickness of 497 m (between 119 and 616 m) and is

Fig. 1. Geotectonic map of Turkey showing the main tectonic blocks and major faults. Devonian outcrops in red. In the Eastern and Central Taurides, the studied sections are marked(E: Eceli, K: Kocadere, H: Halevikdere).

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represented by a dolomitic facies in its basal part. In the HalevikdereSection, the formation is represented by a limestone-dominated facies(between 448 and 783 m), but the measured section here istectonically disrupted into several wedges.

Frequent alternation of limestones, shales, siltstones and someferrugineous sandstones is typical for the Gümüşali Formation.Towards the top, siliciclastic material increases, including a fewferruginous sandstones (Yılmaz, 2004). The Gümüşali Formation isoverlain by the Lower Carboniferous Ziyarettepe Formation, whichconsists of calcareous sandstones, marls, dark coloured shales andsiltstones. In the Kocadere Section, the Gümüşali Formation isrepresented between 616 and 1042 m (426 m thick). The uppermost35 m of the measured section to its top at 1077 m belong to theCarboniferous Ziyarettepe Formation. In the Halevikdere Section, the

Gümüşali Formation is only partly encountered, forming the topmostpart of the exposed succession.

3. Materials and methods

Three sections within the Taurides were selected along a SW-NEtransect (Fig. 1). The principal criteria for selection were that thesections: (i) should cover asmuch of the Devonian as possible in orderto reveal large-scale trends, (ii) include the boundaries to theunderlying and overlying systems as well as exposing the boundaryintervals of stages, and that they (iii) provide good fossil content forbiostratigraphic control.

The three selected sections were measured and sampled in detailwith respect to lithology, sedimentology, facies, geochemistry, and

Fig. 2. Lithology, stratigraphy and interpretation of the depositional environments of the Eceli Section. Position of A–L are indicated in the profile. (A) Thick-bedded shell limestoneswith distinct layers of more quartzitic matrix. (B) Evenly laminated fine- to medium-grained sandstone showing straight erosional surface (thick solid line) typical of (intertidal)foreshore deposits. (C) Small-scale oscillation ripples with straight, partly bifurcated crests. (D) Polygonal pattern of desiccation cracks within a set of thin-bedded inter- tosupratidal deposits of varying lithology. (E) Irregular wavy bedding surface of biolaminitic dolostones. (F) Lowermost Middle Devonian mudmound (17 m high) in the Eceli Sectionwith lateral onlap of well-bedded limestones. (G) Details of the irregular wavy lamination of the biolaminites. (H) Large-scale in-situ brecciation of the biolaminites. (I) Large-scalecross-bedding of well-sorted fine-grained sands indicating formation of aeolian dunes in a thick sequence of lagoon to sabkha deposits. (J) Rhodolith. (K) Ghost structure of largecoral colony in reefoidal limestones. (L) Irregular sedimentary surface colonized by a small dome-shaped coral colony (arrow).

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fossil content. For facies studies, polished slabs and thin sections wereprepared and studied macroscopically and microscopically. Addition-ally, XRD analyses were conducted with a Philips PW1729.

For purposes of biostratigraphy (Supplementary Tables 1–3,available from journal website), 720 individual samples were studiedfor relevant groups of organisms including brachiopods, foraminifers,conodonts, ostracods, tentaculitids and palynomorphs.

4. Sedimentary facies

The studied sections show a broad spectrum of sedimentary rocksthat can be grouped into superimposed facies units. These principalsedimentary facies do not correspond to the lithological classificationshown in Figs. 2–5, which is based on differences in grain size and thegeneral mineralogical composition (siliciclastic and calcareous rocks).The interpretation of their depositional environment is describedbelow and illustrated in Figs. 2–4.

4.1. Organic-rich shales

In all of the three sections, intercalations of massive to finelylaminated dark grey to black, sometimes silty and/or calcareous shalesare present. Thicknesses range from a few cm to several metres. In theEceli Section, comparatively few thin layers of dark shales have beenobserved, whereas such shales are more common in the Halevikdereand Kocadere sections. The fossil content mainly consists ofpalynomorphs, brachiopods, tentaculitids, ostracods and bivalves.

Some horizons of dark shale (e.g. in the Kocadere Section) containphosphate nodules, and some intervals are intensely bioturbated (e.g.in the upper Halevikdere Section). Organic geochemistry indicates“over-mature” conditions, precluding distinction of the kind oforganic matter in the shales. At certain levels the dark shales of thesections can be tentatively correlated to globally well-known blackshale events, especially in the Kocadere Section (see below). Owing totheir shaly nature, however, rocks of this facies often show tectonicmovement along slide planes.

4.2. Shale–marl/limestone alternations

A regular succession of lighter (mainly brownish) shales andmarls/limestones is developed repeatedly in the uppermost parts ofthe Eceli and Kocadere sections. The alternating lithologies oftencontain shell material (mostly brachiopods enriched in layers) anddispersed crinoid debris. The limestones are dominantly bioclasticwacke- to packstones and frequently have a micritic matrix with onlysmall detrital components. Sometimes, the micritic limestonescompletely lack internal fabric. In the topmost limestone beds of theEceli Section, horizons of colonizing corals can be present initiallystabilizing the fine-grained sediment surfaces. Besides the dominatingbrachiopods (which are sometimes colonized by foraminifers), awider spectrum of associated organisms is visible in this part of thesection, including ostracods, bryozoans, gastropods, tentaculitids,trilobites and even stromatoporoids. This section also includeslithoclasts and quartzitic material.

Fig. 3. Lithology, stratigraphy and interpretation of the depositional environments of the Kocadere Section. Position of A–I are indicated in the profile. (A) Different types of large-scale cross-bedding of well-sorted fine-grained sands indicating deposition of aeolian dunes and/or foreshore sediments. (B) Underside of small-scale (aeolian) ripples with sharpcrests. (C) Detail of a slump structure in well-sorted fine-grained aeolian sandstones. (D) Cellular dolostone. (E) Set of colonization horizons in lagoonal dolostones indicated bydolosparitic filled voids of the former organisms. (F) Frasnian coral thicket. (G) Dark shales of the Lower Kellwasser Horizon. (H) Zoophycos traces in silty sandstones of theFammenian. (I) Colonization horizon of productid brachiopods in Tournaisian siltstones.

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4.3. Vermiculites facies

A special type of medium- to thick-bedded calcareous silt- to fine-grained sandstones is found only in the lower part of the HalevikdereSection in the interval between 170 and 420 m. Internally, thesandstone is grey in colour, but shows a characteristic light brownweathering. Owing to intense but distinct bioturbation, bedding ishardly recognizable. The bioturbation is created by densely inter-spaced Vermiculites-type burrows, although Zoophycos traces aresometimes present. The Vermiculites burrows commonly have adiameter of 3 mm, whereas the Zoophycos whorls reach 10 cm indiameter and are up to 10 cm long. Other fossils (i.e., shell fragments of

brachiopods, echinoderms and ? foraminifers) are rare. The Vermicu-lites burrows are filled with finer-grained material.

4.4. Siltstone/sandstone–carbonate alternations

In the upper part of the Halevikdere and Kocadere sections,alternations of siliciclastic beds (sandstones, siltstones and silty shales)and limestones/marls (mainly bioclastic limestones) are developed. Thesilt- and fine-grained sandstones are often evenly laminated, partlywell-sorted and may show calcareous cementation. These sedimentscan be locally enriched in opaque ore grains. Individual sandstonebeds frequently show internal (ripple) cross-bedding, at least some of

Fig. 4. Lithology, stratigraphy and interpretation of the depositional environments of the Halevikdere Section. Fault-bounded blocks are arranged according to their stratigraphicposition, although the continuation of the measured section (in meters) has not been changed. Position of A–I are indicated in the profile. (A) Vermiculites traces— themost commonbioturbation structures in Lower Devonian silty sandstones. (B–D) Details of distinct colonization horizons of stromatoporoids (solid lines in B and C) in crinoidal limestones of theMiddle Devonian to Lower Frasnian. (E) Small domed bioherm formed by stromatoporoids. (F) In addition to numerous colonization horizons, in-situ reworking of frame-buildingorganisms is a common feature in this part of the Halevikdere Section. (G) Diverse fauna of frame-building organisms forming thicket-like structures. (H) Dome- to marmelon-shaped stromatoporoid colonizing fine-grained bioclastic carbonates. (I) Hummocky cross-stratified sandstone.

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which was generated by wave action, and hummocky cross-stratifica-tion (HCS). A diverse association of traces may be developed on thelower surfaces of individual beds and dewatering structures are alsopresent. The mostly detrital limestones are frequently rich in differentkinds of fossils especially corals, stromatoporoids, crinoids, brachiopodsand, less commonly, fish fragments, gastropods, trilobites, bivalves,foraminifers, homoctenid tentaculitids, ostracods, sea-urchin spines andalgae. Peloids are also present and, in some cases, iron-stained.

4.5. Crinoid debris limestones

In all of the sections, but especially in the middle and upper parts ofthe Halevikdere Section, and parts of the Kocadere Section, thick-bedded bioclastic limestones with abundant crinoid ossicles occur.Besides crinoid debris (often coarsely detrital), the limestones fre-quently contain other fragments of various organisms (e.g., brachio-pods, bryozoans, corals, foraminifers, gastropods, ostracods and sea-urchins).

4.6. Mud mound

A domed mound-like carbonate build-up of 17 m height occurs inthe middle part of the Eceli Section. The mound is massive and discretebedding occurs only on the flanks of the mound surface. Laterally,bedded limestones onlaponto themound structure. The onlappingbedsconsist of micritic to detrital (sometimes peloidal) limestones that areoften rich in various fossils (e.g., corals, bryozoans, stromatoporoids,brachiopods, and algae; more rarely trilobites, gastropods, andostracods). Some of them have been overgrown by algae or stromato-poroids. In some of the lateral beds, fenestral fabrics are present.

4.7. Reef carpets

Parts of the three sections are characterized by extended layers(carpets) of in situ frame-building organisms, especially stromato-poroids and corals that were colonizing and stabilizing large areas ofthe sea-floor. These carpets vary in thickness from several centi-metres to about 20 cm and often form discrete colonizing horizonswithin limestone beds. They include an abundant and diverseassociation of rugose and tabulate corals, stromatoporoids, bryozo-ans, brachiopods, crinoids, foraminifers and ostracods. Similarly, theso-called Amphipora beds in the Eceli and Kocadere sections formextended layers with an in situ preserved framework of branchedcolonial organisms that are often associated with the biolaminiticfacies.

4.8. Reefs

In the middle part of all of the three sections, massive reeflimestones are developed. The reefs are built up by large coloniesof tabulate and rugose corals as well as stromatoporoids, whichare associated with specialized brachiopods and gastropods. Stroma-toporoid growth forms range from low-domical to marmelon types.Besides baffling, encrustation and recolonization of larger (reworked)components occurs. The internal framework is composed of both, insitu and parautochthonous reef builders. Generally, reef formation islimited to smaller-sized reef bodies (mainly patch reefs), which donot exceed 5 m in thickness.

4.9. Fanglomerates

In the Halevikdere Section, poorly sorted conglomeratic beds,interpreted as a marine extension of fanglomerates, are developedbetween 160 and 260 m. The components are of gravel-size andpolymict composition, (i.e., fine-grained siltstones and micritic lime-stones). The fabric is clast-supported and the matrix consists of siltand fine-grained quartz and crinoid debris. The individual compo-nents are rounded to (sub-)angular, sometimes platy, and have amaximum size of 30 cm.

4.10. Biolaminites and associated sabkha deposits

In the Kocadere and Eceli sections, laminated, mainly dolomiticcarbonates are common. Their internal fabric shows irregularmillimetre-sized lamination (biolaminites) and internal brecciationis common. The biolaminites are occasionally associated with cellulardolomites, teepee structures and desiccation cracks. In parts of bothsuccessions, sandstones or bioclastic limestones and Amphipora bedsare intercalated. Emergence is indicated by aeolian sands (Kocadere)and desiccation cracks (Eceli), cellular dolomites indicate formerevaporites.

4.11. Coastal sandstones

Medium- to thick-bedded almost white to yellowish sandstonesdominate the basal part of the Kocadere Section. These sandstones arepredominantly fine- to medium-grained, well-sorted, and showdifferent forms of large-scale cross-bedding typical for aeolian dunesand beach deposits of coastal plains. Different forms of small-scale,sharp-crested ripple marks can be attributed to aeolian deposition orwind-induced wave ripples in extremely shallow depressions (e.g.,tidal pools and interdune settings). Up-section, the coastal sandstonesgrade into sabkha deposits and biolaminites.

5. Sedimentary sequences and their depositional environment

5.1. Eceli Section

The Eceli Section (Fig. 2) has a thickness of 933 m and comprises astratigraphic interval probably from the Upper Pragian to the Frasnian(Supplementary Table 1, available from journal website). In the lowerpart of the section a more-or-less rhythmic alternation of laminatednodular limestones and calcareous siltstones to shales of distal shelforigin is developed (up to 55 m above the base of the section). Abovethis, a decrease in thin-bedded carbonates and a simultaneousincrease of siliciclastic material indicates a change towards moreproximal shelf conditions (55–211 m). This interval corresponds tothe first proven record of Lower Devonian strata (SupplementaryTable 1, available from journal website) in the section. The shallowingtrend continues and is marked by a general increase in carbonateproduction represented by a mixed succession of bioclastic lime-stones, (silty) dolostones, and fine-grained dolomitic sandstones thatshow intertidal to supratidal indicators such as small- and large-scalecross-bedding (Fig. 2B-C, I), desiccation cracks (Fig. 2D), biolamina-tion (Fig. 2E), digging traces (pits), internal brecciation and cellularfabric. The carbonates mainly consist of brachiopod shells (Fig. 2A),crinoid debris and bryozoans, and varying amounts of siliciclasticmaterial (Fig. 2A, B). This lower part of the section is terminated (at

Fig. 5. Correlation chart of the three studied sections. Stratigraphic correlations are indicated where possible by black lines. Lowest and highest biostratigraphic evidence for seriesand stages aremarked by green or red arrows, respectively. Reference is made to boundary intervals and, where possible, to levels of global events (grey arrows). Further reference ismade to reef development and the ranges of biolaminite distribution, as well as to the onset and end of siliciclastic input. The following boundary intervals are indicated: L/M=Lower/Middle Devonian, M/U=Middle/Upper Devonian, D/C=Devonian/Carboniferous; L/P=Lochkovian/Pragian, E/E=Emsian/Eifelian, G/F=Givetian/Frasnian, F/F=Frasnian/Famennian. Remark: In the Halevikdere Section several tectonically isolated blocks are shown (for details see Fig. 4).

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335 m) by limestones and dolostones with in situ-brecciation andcellular fabric of lagoonal to sabkha origin.

Above a gap in exposure, the Middle Devonian (from 360 monwards) starts with in situ-brecciated limestones on which a domed(mound-like) carbonate build-up (17 m in height) is developed. Themound grades laterally into well-bedded bioclastic limestones(Fig. 2F). Samples from the mound show an impoverished suite oforganisms (a few crinoid ossicles and algae), whereas the beddedequivalents contain a rich and diverse association (corals, stromato-poroids, crinoids, brachiopods, foraminifers, bryozoans, ostracods,algae). The mound structure is overlain by a continuous succession ofbiolaminites (Fig. 2G) (up to 830 m) that indicate a longer period ofrestricted lagoonal conditions, except for the lower part which isdominated by limestones up to 468 m, they are dolomitic. Moreover,between 418 and 630 m in situ-brecciation frequently occurs(Fig. 2H). Between 612 and 656 m, the biolaminitic dolostones areintercalated by distinct beds of cross-bedded medium- to coarse-grained sandstones (Fig. 2I) and a limestone almost completelycomposed of the branching stromatoporoid Amphipora. Near theGivetian/Frasnian boundary (Supplementary Table 1, available fromjournal website), the biolaminites are repeatedly intercalated by darkmicritic limestones rich in gastropods, coralline algae (Fig. 2J) andcrinoid debris (up to 788 m). This lithology may reflect the global sea-level rise in the terminal part of the Givetian and basal Frasnian (?globalFrasne Event, e.g., Walliser, 1996). Above, calcareous and dolomiticbiolaminites of restricted lagoonal origin again dominate (up to 841 m).A deepening-upwards trend is represented by the occurrence of reefconstructions (colonial tabulate and rugose corals, stromatoporoids,gastropods, and brachiopods; Fig. 2K, L) extending to 861 m. The reefdeposits grade into biodetrital limestones and finally into an alternationof micritic to marly limestones and shales deposited in a more distal(deeper) position of the shelf.

5.2. Kocadere Section

The Kocadere Section (Fig. 3) has a measured thickness of 1077 m.Since the first dated level at 345 m above the base of the section is ofMiddle Devonian age (Supplementary Table 2, available from journalwebsite), the section probably starts in the Lower Devonian andcontinues into the Lower Carboniferous (Tournaisian). The lowestpart of the section (up to 118 m) is composed of well-sorted partlyaeolian sandstones characterized by large-scale cross-bedding, andaeolian ripple structures (Fig. 3A–C) deposited on coastal plains. Thereare a few intercalations of laminated and partly brecciated dolomitesthat probably indicate interdune sabkha conditions. Above, ongoingsabkha conditions with dolomitic biolaminites and occasional teepeestructures, occasional cellular dolomites (307 m, Fig. 3D), and in situ-brecciation indicate that evaporitic conditions prevailed until 400 m.At 280 m, the intercalation of a limestone bed built up by thestromatoporoid Amphipora indicates an episode of reduced salinity ina lagoonal facies. Deposition of prominent sandstone beds dies out at313 m.

The following part of the section represents the transition fromsabkha (limestones with teepee structures at 433 and 456 m) andlagoonal facies to more normal marine conditions characterized bythe occurrence of the first bioclastic limestones (with crinoids andleperditian ostracods at 403 m) and reefoidal facies with corals,stromatoporoids, crinoids, etc. However, this is followed by a return tomore restricted conditions represented by laminated limestones.

Above 491 m, there is a shift towards massive dolomitizedlimestones with strongly recrystallized large brachiopods (someresembling the Givetian index fossil Stringocephalus), corals, andAmphipora thickets. Frequent sparitic voids occurring in the upper partof these dolostones indicate recurring colonizing horizons (Fig. 3E).

The overlying succession (up to 660 m) grades into reef facies withnumerous frame-builders (mainly corals and stromatoporoids). A

marked facies change towards black-shale conditions likely representsthe global Frasne Event near the Givetian/Frasnian stage boundary.During the Frasnian, open marine shallow-shelf conditions prevailed,as indicated by reefal (Fig. 3F) and bioclastic limestones, shales and, toa lesser degree, hummocky cross-stratified sandstones yielding atypical shallow-water fauna (670–869 m). The lithology of thesuccession becomes increasingly heterogeneous up-section (shales,limestones and frequent sandstones — the latter showing numerousand diverse traces). After a reoccurrence of dominating limestones(debris limestones with reefoidal intercalations), a succession of darksilty shales likely represents an equivalent of the global LowerKellwasser Horizon (Fig. 3G, compare Karslıoğlu et al., 2008). An ageequivalence is supported by conodonts indicating the rhenana Zone(Supplementary Table 2, available from journal website).

The overlying section again yields mixed sedimentary rocks,predominantly comprising medium-bedded sandstones, local reefaldevelopments, biodetrital limestones and dark to black shales.However, the Upper Kellwasser Horizon prior to the Frasnian/Famennian boundary is not exposed. At the top of this interval (at926 m), coarse bioclastic input (fossil debris limestones) occurs abovea ferruginous sandstone layer with bioclasts (at 921 m). Further up,the sequence comprises alternating siliciclastic beds, marls andlimestones typical of a mixed shelf environment. Above dark toblack shales (up to 948 m), siliciclastic input becomes moreprominent due to an increase in hydrodynamic energy (sandstones,frequently showing bioturbation, e.g., Fig. 3H). Towards the top of theDevonian, alternating marly shales and marly limestones weredeposited (984–1039 m). In this muddy facies a moderate numberof typical shelf organisms have been found (e.g., brachiopods,trilobites, crinoids). As in many sections elsewhere in the world, theDevonian/Carboniferous boundary interval (Hangenberg Event) is notexposed. However, an 80 cm thick black shale (at 1041 m) mayrepresent an equivalent of the Hangenberg Shale (see e.g., Walliser,1996). Overlying dark carbonaceous shales and siltstones (Fig. 3I) areof Tournaisian age (Supplementary Table 2, available from journalwebsite) and include phosphatic nodules potentially representing anequivalent of those widely known from the Lower Alumn Shale Eventbeds (see Walliser, 1996 for discussion).

5.3. Halevikdere Section

The Halevikdere Section (Fig. 4) has a total thickness of 1197 mand a stratigraphic range from the Lochkovian to the Famennian.Although it is strongly affected by faults in the middle part of thesection (i.e., mainly cutting Middle and basal Upper Devonian strata),it can still be analysed for general depositional trends.

The lowermost part of the section (0–163 m above the sectionbase) is composed of four fining-upwards cycles with fine-grainedsandstones at the base grading into silty shales to black shales coveringmost of the Lochkovian up to the basal Pragian (SupplementaryTable 3, available from journal website). Such a succession ischaracteristic of fluctuating proximal to distal shelf settings, which issupported by well-preserved intense bioturbation (e.g., Zoophycos,Chondrites) and generally only relict bedding. The multiple cyclicitymay be due to fluctuating sea level. Nevertheless, the black shalesreflect phases of long-term stability with respect to hydrodynamicenergy, siliciclastic input and water depth.

The next major interval (163–260 m) has a heterogeneouscomposition of lithologies ranging from coarse conglomerates toblack shales, and including thin- to medium-bedded dark micritic tobioclastic limestones containing crinoids, solitary corals, and coloniesof tabulate corals (e.g., Favosites). The interval is especially charac-terized by conglomerates and has a basal fining-upwards cycle that issucceeded by two coarsening-upwards cycles. The backgroundsedimentation reflects a continuation of the previous shelf settingwith more short-term fluctuations. The character of the polymict

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conglomerates supports their interpretation as extensions of fanglo-merates onto the proximal shelf. Such situations occur in semi-aridto arid climates where flash floods extend into the marine realmand can transport coarse and badly sorted clastic debris acrossthe entire shelf. The dominant siliciclastic input is terminated by athick final coarsening-upwards cycle grading from silty shales tothick-bedded fine-grained calcareous sandstones (up to 376 m).These sandstones are again intensely bioturbated (dominantly Ver-miculites, Fig. 4A, and some Zoophycos). Increasing proximity of theshelf to the shore is indicated by sedimentary structures, such ascross-bedding.

The interval that follows (376–425 m) consists of pelmicriticlimestones containing brachiopods, trilobites, bryozoans, crinoiddebris and onkoids, and sandstones that are, once again, highlybioturbated (Vermiculites, Zoophycos). This marks a transition fromthe siliciclastic shelf succession to shallow marine carbonate deposi-tion, including reefs.

Despite the disrupted character of this part of the section byintense tectonics, an interpretation can be made because sufficientstratigraphic control exists (mainly by conodonts, see Fig. 4 andSupplementary Table 3, available from journal website).

Major carbonate production starts around the Emsian–Eifelianboundary as documented in the basal limestones of the first tectonicblock. The carbonates are thin- tomedium-bedded. Bioclastic deposits(e.g., crinoids, corals, foraminifers, brachiopods, bryozoans, trilobites,ostracods, gastropods, serpulids and styliolinids in a mostly pelmicri-tic fabric) frequently alternate with biostromal stromatoporoid-coralbuild-ups, thus reflecting repeated reworking and recolonizationprocesses under shallow-water conditions (Fig. 4B–F, H). In places,chert nodules occur in distinct layers.

The second tectonic block is of Middle Devonian age and consistspredominantly of thin to thick micritic limestone beds. In contrast tothe previous block, the limestones were deposited in more deeperdistal shelf areas as indicated by the small amount of bioclasts (mostlyfine-grained crinoid debris), even lamination, the formation ofhardgrounds, and the intercalation of (dark) silty shales.

The next tectonic block is characterized by a shallowing-upwardscycle. Sedimentation starts with 20 m of dark to black shales withvarying proportions of silt overlain by thick-bedded crinoidal lime-stones. The black shales must be a consequence of a period ofrestricted conditions that completely interrupted carbonate produc-tion. Towards the top, the bioclastic content in the carbonatesincreases. Frame-building organisms become more frequent, partlyforming small biostromes at the transition from the Middle Devonianto the Lower Frasnian.

The fourth and last tectonic block is composed of carbonatesintercalated with some siltstones and ranging in age from theGivetian/Frasnian boundary into the Frasnian. Most of the carbonatesare thick-bedded to massive and show sedimentary structuresindicating a shallow shelf environment.

The continuation of the unfaulted section occurs above 736 m ofthe measured section near the Givetian/Frasnian boundary interval asindicated by conodonts (Supplementary Table 3, available fromjournal website). Sedimentation is characterized by a three-foldshallowing-upwards cycle (up to 915 m), each of which starts withsilty shales frequently overlain by crinoid debris limestones andbiostromes and terminates in the development of small reefspredominantly constructed by main framebuilders such as rugoseand tabulate corals, and stromatoporoids often in growth position(Fig. 4G). The third reef cycle is of Frasnian age as documented bybrachiopods (Supplementary Table 3, available from journal website)and marks the end of main carbonate production in the HalevikdereSection. Following this, the sedimentary regime returns to adepositional environment dominated up to the Famennian (915–1197 m) by continuous input of siliciclastic material. Sedimentation ischaracterized by the deposition of thin to medium bedded siltstones

(containing thickets of delicate small corals) alternating with fine-grained sandstones and, to a minor extent, with limestones yieldingcrinoids and brachiopods. The depositional environment is inter-preted as a proximal shelf setting showing fluctuating input ofsiliciclastic material. This interpretation is supported by sedimentarystructures such as hummocky cross-stratification (Fig. 4I), interferingoscillation ripples, even to wavy lamination, and frequent bioturba-tion. Since a basal Famennian age is documented by conodonts at1002 m (Supplementary Table 3, available from journal website), theFrasnian/Famennian boundary is probably hidden in a gap of outcropfrom 986 to 997 m caused by road construction.

5.4. Comparison of depositional trends

In general, all three of the studied sections can be clearlysubdivided lithologically into three major parts, which reflect large-scale trends in the depositional environment and which have alreadybeen assigned to different lithostratigraphical units in both theCentral and Eastern Taurides (Kozlu et al., 2005, and Figs. 2–4). Thislarge-scale tripartite trend generally mirrors the chronostratigraphicsubdivisions of the Devonian, as well as major changes in the globalfacies distribution of the system (Fig. 5). However, detailed strati-graphic correlation is problematic in the lower part of the KocadereSection and the middle part of the Eceli Section due to the lack ofbiostratigraphic control in these restricted/extreme facies.

The middle part of the three sections is characterized by adominance of reefoidal and debris limestones, covering mainly theMiddle Devonian and lower parts of the Late Devonian. It maytherefore be more-or-less equivalent to the Büyükeceli Formation ofthe Eceli Section and the Şafaktepe Formation of the Halevikdereand Kocadere sections. In the Eceli Section, a thick (ca. 370 m)sequence of biolaminitic dolomites is sandwiched between thereefoidal deposits. The upper parts of the sections, which are largelyequivalent to the Akveren Formation (Eceli) and the GümüşaliFormation (Halevikdere and Kocadere), start with the onset ofsiliciclastic input and are composed of a mixed succession comprisingan alternation (sometimes rhythmic) of siliciclastic rocks and mainlydetrital limestones and marls. The upper parts start within theFrasnian in all three sections and cover the Late Devonian to a varyingextent at each site (Fig. 5). The D/C boundary is reached only in theKocadere Section.

The lower parts of the individual sections show the strongestdifferentiation. A mixed succession of siliciclastics and detritallimestones/dolostones is typical of the Halevikdere and Eceli sections,and can be compared to the Ayıtepesi Formation and the SigircikFormation, respectively. However, the two sections differ in detail. Inthe Halevikdere Section, limestones and marls are very rare; mostprominent are highly bioturbated calcareous silt- to sandstones withdistinct burrows, mainly of “Vermiculites”-type (Fig. 4A) with someZoophycos (Yılmaz and Demircan, 2005). In addition, there are severalconglomeratic beds. In the Eceli Section, a rhythmic succession offossiliferous fine- to medium-grained siliciclastics and fine-grainedlimestones grades into a less fossiliferous sequence of siliciclasticsand dolostones that show evidence of emergence (e.g., desiccationcracks, wave ripples, and biolaminites; Fig. 2G, H). In contrast, thelower part of the Kocadere Section, with its succession of aeoliansandstones followed by dolostones of sabkha origin (Fig. 3A–D), issomewhat different from the other two sections, but there is nobiostratigraphic control. Lithostratigraphically, it can be assigned tothe Ayıtepesi Formation. According to Yılmaz (2004), the lowermostpart of the Devonian is not represented here due to a major fault atthe base.

Although the basal parts of the three sections represent quitedifferent positions in a shallow shelf to coastal setting, the overalldevelopment leads to a more common trend above comprising firsta reefoidal/lagoonal facies followed by mixed shelf deposits. The

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differentiation of facies in the lower part of the sections is most likelydue to the regional development of small-scale tectonic units(blocks), each of which had an individual depositional history indifferent settings on the shelf. In contrast, the succession that followsin all three of the sections shows a pattern corresponding to the majorglobal sea-level trends (for overview see Walliser, 1996).

5.5. Signatures from the hinterland

Information about processes and environments of the hinterland(i.e., weathering, climate, tectonics, bedrock lithology and provenance)can be derived from specific signatures of the sedimentary sequencesin the three studied sections.

Most striking in all sections is the shift in sedimentation fromsiliciclastics to bioclastic carbonates and build-ups, followed by adepositional environment characterized by more mixed sediments(Fig. 5). These general shifts occur nearly simultaneously in all sectionsand may therefore have been controlled by large-scale geotectonicprocesses and/or relative sea level changes. The first shift occurs in theuppermost Lower Devonian and is marked by the end of sandstonedeposition followed by an increase in carbonate production and theformation of the first reefal build-ups. However, the overall trenddiffers slightly in each section due to regional differentiation.

In the Eceli and Halevikdere sections, the upper part of thesiliciclastic phase is characterized by minor amounts of detrital rutileandNa- to K-feldspars. In the Kocadere Section, detrital rutile ismissing.Reworked metamorphic quartz grains occur together with feldspars inthe siliciclastic lower part of all three sections. Additionally, reworkedopaquegrains are associatedwith rutile and feldspars in theHalevikdereSection. All these constituents can be assigned to physical erosion ofmetamorphic (to magmatic) rocks (Force, 1979) in the respectivedrainage basins of the hinterland. Following the terminology ofDickinson et al. (1983) and Dickinson (1985) their provenance shouldbe the interior of a craton. This would imply a source area south tosoutheast (i.e., North Gondwana) of the deposition centre. Thehinterland environment can also be characterized with respect toclimatic conditions. The different depositional environments in theLower Devonian of all three sections based on lithofacies as well asnumerous sedimentological structures, point to a semiarid climate asindicated by fanglomeratic gravel beds, aeolian dunes, sabkha deposits,algal mats and desiccation cracks. The input of lithoclastic materialended in the uppermost Lower Devonian andwas followed by the onsetof carbonate production. This general shift in lithology was most likelycaused by the cut-off of the coastal environment from hinterlandprocesses, which might have been tectonically induced. Owing to thislack of siliciclastic input, the Middle Devonian is dominated by theformation of reefs, biogenic build-ups, biolaminites and sabkha depositsindicating arid, subtropical to tropical climatic conditions. Around theMiddle/Upper Devonian boundary, recurrent influence of hinterlandprocesses is indicated by the increased input of siliciclastic materialalternating with carbonates. The occurrence of chlorite clay mineralsand ferruginous cements in the higher parts of the Halevikdere andKocadere sections again indicates weathering under semiarid to aridconditions.

6. Global events

Since each of the three studied sections covers most of theDevonian, the global events of this period should be recorded in thesuccessions (for overview compare Walliser, 1996). However, due tothe lack of outcrop and/or tectonic complications and the develop-ment of unfavourable facies, only some of these events can berecognized in the sections. The shallow-water environments, inparticular, are unsuitable for their detection.

In the Halevikdere Section, the Lochkovian/Pragian BoundaryEvent of Chlupáč and Kukal (1988) (the Lo/Pr Event of Walliser, 1996)

may correspond to a prominent sandstone package at about 120 m(Figs. 4, 5), which represents coarser deposits than the sedimentsbelow and may correspond to the worldwide regressive tendencyconnected with this event.

The best succession for detecting some of these global events is theKocadere Section (Figs. 3, 5). Although there is no stratigraphiccontrol around possible event levels in the lower part of the section,the middle and upper parts should allow some event levels to berecognized. The Givetian/Frasnian Boundary Event or Frasne Event(for various other event names see Walliser, 1996) is thought to belinked to a global transgressive phase. The lithological evidence of thisevent is documented worldwide by the deposition of black shalesfollowing a regressive phase. In the Kocadere Section, this is reflectedat around 660 m where massive reef limestones are abruptlysucceeded by black shales. A second interval that may represent anequivalent of a globally known event horizon is situated at about850 m where dark shales occur that resemble those of the LowerKellwasser Horizon (Karslıoğlu et al., 2008). A conodont sample fromthe limestone bed underlying this shale package places the bed in therhenana Conodont zone, supporting this suggestion. The Frasnian/Famennian Boundary Event or Upper Kellwasser Event, which isconnected to one of the severest mass-extinction events in Earthhistory, is not obvious due to incomplete record of the section. Itsposition, however, can be assumed at around 890 m. Similarly, theDevonian/Carboniferous (D/C) Event or Hangenberg Event is alsounexposed, but given the significant presence of black shales (typicalof the Hangenberg Event) above 1045 m, the lithological event can bepostulated to occur here. This is supported by brachiopod fauna ofTournaisian age in the overlying black shale succession.

The only event that may be present in the Eceli Section is located atabout 750 m (Figs. 2, 5). Here, the abrupt occurrence of blacklimestones terminating very shallow-water conditions likely reflectsthe Frasne Event.

7. Palaeobiogeography

The Gondwanan affinities of the Taurid Block are clearly indicatedby glaciomarine deposits of Ordovician age, which underlie theSilurian and the Devonian successions (Goncuoglu and Kozlu, 2000;Cocks and Torsvik, 2002, 2006). This is comparable to the situation innorthwestern Gondwana in the area of southern Tafilalt, the OugartaChaines, and the Hoggar Massif to the south (e.g., Hollard, 1967;Legrand, 1967, 1977; Michard, 1976). Furthermore, Lower Palaeozoictrilobites (Dean and Özgül, 1979) and Devonian brachiopods(Gourvennec, 2006) from the Taurides have been used to suggestPeri-Gondwanan affinities. The Devonian of the Taurides can beconsequently assigned to the northern margin of Gondwana.

Despite the fact that brachiopods from a nearby section show Peri-Gondwananaffinity (Gourvennec, 2006), the brachiopodsof the studiedsections do not allow an unequivocal assignment to either of the twosupercontinents of Gondwana or Laurasia. From the HalevikdereSection, Webster et al. (2008) described a new species of a crinoidgenus that has hitherto been known only from North America. Most ofthe ostracod genera and species, many of which were detected in theTaurides for the first time (Nazik et al., 2007), have previously beendescribed from different areas on the Laurasian continent, for example,the Rheno-Ardenne Massif of Germany and Belgium, the ArmoricanMassif and the Boulonnais area of Northwestern France, and fromBashkiria, or from intermediate areas such as the Montagne Noire inSouthern France and the Cantabrian Mountains and Celtiberian Chainsin Spain. But some taxa are also known from areas on the northernmargin of Gondwana (e.g., North Africa, Iran). All ostracod taxa presentin the Taurid sections are assigned to shallow-water environments.Although the conodont fauna consists mainly of shallow-water forms,they reflect a more-or-less cosmopolitan distribution. Among theforaminifers, which have also been investigated for the first time in

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the Taurid areas (Özkan et al., 2008), the taxa recognized showsimilarities to those of the Russian Platform and the Urals.

In parts of the sections, quite diversified assemblages of acritarchsand miospores are present. Most of the acritarchs are known to becosmopolitan, however, some taxa have exclusively been reportedfrom Gondwana or Peri-Gondwana. The majority of the miosporesshow affinities to Gondwanan, Peri-Gondwanan and Western Euro-pean assemblages.

Combining the palaeobiogeographic distribution of the variousgroups of fossil organisms indicates that no wide (Rheic) ocean waspresent between Laurasia and Gondwana/peri-Gondwana during theDevonian (Yalçın et al., 2008). At least the possibility of migrationmust have existed for the shallow-water organismsmentioned above.A relatively narrow sea, however, would be no distribution barriercutting off the connection between the southern margin of Laurasiaand the northern margin of Gondwana/Peri-Gondwana. Based onshallow-water ostracods, a similar result was obtained by Dojen(2009) from the Hazro Anticline in southeastern Turkey during theSilurian/Devonian transition, which in contrast, is generally consid-ered to be the period that the Rheic Ocean attained its maximumwidth (Nance et al., 2010-this issue).

8. Conclusions

In order to study the Devonian at the putative northern margin ofthe Gondwana continent, three representative sections were selectedin the Eastern and Central Taurides. Detailed sedimentologicalobservations in the field, supplemented by laboratory analyses, reveala threefold succession in each of the sections at Eceli, Kocadere andHalevikdere that can be compared to the existing lithostratigraphicsubdivision. Since the sections were also intensely sampled for micro-and macrofossils for the purposes of biostratigraphy, biogeographyand facies identification, they can be dated and correlated with eachother and with the regional lithostratigraphy, especially by palyno-morphs, conodonts, ostracods, foraminifers and brachiopods. TheLower Devonian and lower Middle Devonian part of the succession isthe most different in each of the three sections with a dominance ofsiliciclastic deposits of shelf to shoreline environments. The regionaldifferentiation most likely reflects their position on separate tectonicblocks on which different facies conditions developed due to differenttectonic movements. In accordance with the global trend, the MiddleDevonian to lowermost Upper Devonian is uniformly dominated bythe production of massive carbonates, mostly of reefoidal origin,although a thick intercalation of biolaminated carbonates in the EceliSection records a long period of restricted extremely shallow-waterconditions. The other two sections are characterized by a mixedsuccession of siliciclastic shelf deposits, but only the Kocadere Sectionextends into the Carboniferous. Owing to comparatively goodbiostratigraphic control, the sections can be checked with somesuccess for lithological and geochemical evidence of the well-knownglobal events of the Devonian. Despite some gaps in biostratigraphiccontrol and in the sections themselves, the study illustrates the greatpotential of detailed investigations for improving our understandingof the regional framework of sedimentological processes and faciesdevelopment in the Devonian near the northern margin of theGondwana continent, which would have corresponded to thesouthern shelf/coast of the postulated 'Rheic Ocean'. In Turkey,however, the different groups of organisms studied in the Devonianof the Taurides and of the Pontides, which is generally thought to havebelonged to the northern margin of the ‘Rheic Ocean’, do not supportthe existence of a wide ‘ocean’ between the major continents ofGondwana and Laurasia that would have had the effect of limiting theexchange of marine benthic organisms and confining their biogeo-graphic distribution to one or the other continental margin, as is thecase today, for example, in the Atlantic Ocean.

Acknowledgements

This paper is a contribution to DEVEC-TR, a project related to IGCPProject 499 ‘Devonian land–sea interaction: Evolution of ecosystemsand climate (DEVEC)’. The TÜBITAK and BMBF are kindly acknowl-edged for funding the project. Thanks are also due to the technicalstaff of the participating institutions (Universities of Istanbul, Adanaand Mersin, MTA, TPAO, Senckenberg Forschungsinstitute undNaturmuseen) for processing, preparing and analyzing the vastamount of samples taken during the two field campaigns. Commentsand remarks of two reviewers improved the paper and are gratefullyacknowledged. Alan Lord (Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut undNaturmuseum Frankfurt) is gratefully acknowledged for the helpfulcomments and linguistic improvements.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, inthe online version, at doi:10.1016/j.gr.2009.09.011.

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