HUMAN INFULUENCES ON THE AQUATIC

ENVIRONMENTOF LAKE WAMALA MITYANA DISTRICT

BY

WASWA SADIC BABYESIZA (07/ U /1311)

A DESERTATION SUBMITED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE

DEGREE OF BERCHERLOR OF SCIENCE IN

CONSERVATION BIOLOGY OF MAKERERE UNIVERSITY.

JULY, 2010

DECLARATION

I, WASWA SADIC BABYESIZA declare that the work presented in

this document is entirely based on findings carried out by

me and has never been submitted in to any institution for

the award of a bachelor of science degree in Conservation

Biology.

Student: WASWA SADIC BABYESIZA

Signed:………………………………

Date:…………………………………

This report has been submitted for examination with my

approval as university supervisor

Supervisor: DR. G. MUTUMBA

Signed:………………………………

Date:…………………………………

Department of Botany

Makerere University

DEDICATION

This book is dedicated to my beloved mother Miss Harriet

Mukasa, my late father Mr. Abraham Babyesiza, my brothers,

sisters, and all my class mates.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would also like to take this opportunity to thank my

supervisor Dr. G. Mutumba for all the academic assistance

rendered to me during the research period.

I also wish to convey my sincere gratitude to Makerere

university herbarium department for all the assistance given

to me during plant identification, especially Mr.

Rwaburindore Protase.

I would also want to acknowledge the government of Uganda

for all the support given to me during my stay at Makerere

University through their government sponsorship program of

which I have been part. Through that scheme money used in

this research was provided in form of faculty allowance.

Last but not least I wish to dearly thank my mother Miss

Harriet Mukasa and all my family members for all the

emotional, spiritual and financial support given to me

during my stay in university.

ABSTRACT

Macrophytes on Ugandan lakes have been greatly affected by

human activities however no much research has been done to

document how human activities affect the environment around

our lakes.

Macrophytes serve an important role in the ecology of

wetlands. However over the years macrophytes around lakes

have been severely affected by human activity making many

lakes greatly silted hence reducing their productivity. This

research was done to identify the activities that are

affecting macrophytes and identify alternatives for the

local people.

The sample included all vegetation growing Lake Wamala in

Butebi and Bukanaga landing site. Plant pressers, polythene

bags, tape measures and soil auger were some of the

instruments used in data collection.

Two sites with different levels of human activities along

the shores of Lake Wamala were used as study areas (Butebi

active site and Bukanaga less active site). Sample plots

were randomly put along the shore from which data was

collected.

It was discovered that Butebi landing site has little

macrophyte families as compared to Bukanaga landing site

Agriculture has affected the diversity of macrophyte along

the shores of Lake Wamala this is because most land is

usually cleared to establish farming plots.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Back ground Information

Much of Mityana districts land is occupied by wetlands that

is 3.58% coverage of the districts land surface area.

Permanent wetlands cover 273.6 hectares while seasonal wet

lands cover 250.11 ha. In addition, a total of 117.04 of

wetlands, mainly seasonal have been reclaimed for

agriculture representing 0.8% of the districts land area.

They are divided into the following categories, lake areas

and riverine swamps. Cyperus papyrus dominates most wetland

herbaceous vegetation flooded either permanently or for most

parts of the year. They occur on the edges of Lake Wamala.

Topography

The district is characterized by isolated flat-topped hills

with steep slops, often merging abruptly into long and

gentle pediments which are usually dissected by relatively

broad valley. Mityana district is divided into two main

topographic zones, the lake Wamala zone and high land zone.

Climate

The climate shows small variation of temperature, humidity,

winds. The district experiences rain throughout the year,

with heavy rains in march-April and September- November. The

annual average rain fall is 930mm. the high altitude ensures

favorable climate with medium annual temperature ranging

from 17.2 degrees to 29 degrees centigrade.

Geology and soils.

Mityana district is underlain by both old and recent rock

systems, which include precambrian, Cenozoic and laterites.

All the three major divisions of rocks that is to say

sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic Are represented. The

Cenozoic rock extend towards lake Wamala.

The soils are generally highly productive and are mainly

sandy clay soils. The dominant soils types are red gravely

loamy with occasional murrum, raddish brown sandy loam, red

clay loam and yellowish sands with quartz gravel. The in

wetlands include gray sands whose parent material is

alluvium and hill wash, gray coarse sand from lake deposits,

black and grey clays from swamps streams and clay formed

from papyrus residue and river alluvium.

Water sheds are important sources of water for house hold

use, animal consumption and irrigation. Rivers and lakes,

play an important role in the hydrological cycle. Currently

many water sheds forests in the district especially on

private land have been degraded and deforested. This has

resulted into soil erosion, lowering of water tables,

decrease in stream and river flows silting of water bodies,

floods and reducing water quality.(district state of the

environment report Mityana 2007-2008)

Lake Wamala is one of the freshwater bodies located in

Mubende, Mpigi, Mityana and Mawokota districts of Central

Uganda, it covers a total area of 250 sq. km. It is dotted

by many islands  including  Lwanja, Mabo and Bagwe. It is

associated with several rivers and wetlands. The rivers

Nyanzi-kitenga, Kabasuma, Mpamujugu and Bimbye flow into the

lake, whereas river Kibimba drains westwards into Lake

Victoria. River Katonga coming from Lake Victoria flows into

Lake Wamala.

The vegetation surrounding Lake Wamala is dominated by

papyrus, other spectacular floaters and water based

vegetation. There are also trees such as Raphia and other

palms. There exist remnants of a variety of species such as

sitatunga, wild pigs, hippopotamus, bush bucks, waterbuck’s

velvet monkeys, baboons and a variety of birds such

as guinea fowls, turraco. Francolins in the forests, while a

diversity of water based birds are visible in the remaining

wetlands. Existing fish species include among others

tilapia, catfish lung fish and mud fish.

Economic activities

People along Lake Wamala mainly engage in two economic

activities, which are fishing and agriculture. Plants mainly

grown include; Sugar canes, Yams, Cassava, Sweet potatoes

and Maize

However most of the farming is subsistence besides a few

crops that are grown commercially like sugar canes and

maize. Fishing acts as the main source of revenue for most

people through sells to neighboring communities.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Macrophytes are aquatic plants which grow in or near water

they are classified into emergent, submergent, or floating.

They occur in all wet lands. Along lakes, emergent

macrophytes act as sieves for all toxic substances that try

to enter the lake through runoffs. In lakes macrophytes

provide cover for fish and substrate for aquatic

invertebrates, produce oxygen, and act as food for some fish

and wildlife.

Wetlands in Uganda have been severely affected through human

activities such as over fishing, agriculture (use of

artificial fertilizers), over extraction of resources,

deposition of untreated wastes into wetlands, use of

herbicides and clearance of vegetation for proper navigation

on the wet lands. In so doing this has greatly affected the

population of wetland vegetation (macrophytes) yet these

plants macrophytes play an important role in the ecology of

the wetlands that’s through water purification, provide

cover for fish, act as food for fish, prevent siltation of

the water bodies (lakes) and some are also medicinal.

However most of the research done by the district

environment officers, has not shown which macrophyte

families have been affected most and why? This research will

show the dominant macrophytes and abundance, activities that

greatly impact the lake ecosystem and their influence on the

soil characteristics (PH and moisture content).

1.3 Research question

What macrophytes found on Lake Wamala?

Which plant families are found on Lake Wamala?

What is the land use along the shore?

How dose land use affect soil pH?

What are the dominant plant families?

1.4 Hypothesis

Ho: Human activities have no effect on the macrophyte

populations of Lake Wamala.

1.5 Research objectives

Main objective

Asses the abundance of macrophytes on lake Wamala.

Specific objective

To examine level of cultivation 100 meters from the

lake shore.

To determine soil pH.

To determine diversity of macrophytes.

1.6 Scope of the study

Lake Wamala is one of the freshwater bodies located in

Mubende, Mpigi and Mityana districts; it’s about 51 000 ha

(25 000 ha open water)

Coordinates: 0°12 '- 0 °25 'N/31°41 '-32°02 'E

Altitude: 1290 meters above sea level

In this research, the researcher will determine the

influence of humans on macrophytes. This he will do by

comparing two sites; an active site Butebi landing site and

a less active site Bukanaga landing site. The researcher

will also look at the soil characteristics of Lake Wamala by

taking samples of soil PH and soil moisture content.

1.7 Significance of the study

Macrophytes participate significantly in the ecological

activities of wet lands, such as sediment filtration,

control of run offs, and preventing entry of toxic

substances from the lake. Over the years macrophytes,

especially emergent macrophytes (Cyperus papyrus) along lake

Wamala have been cleared for proper navigation and

agriculture this has led to siltation of the lake causing it

to shrink in size to almost 50% from1984 to 1995 (Highlights

of the Uganda Atlas of Our Changing Environment Wetlands).

There for more research needs to be done to identify the

activities that are affecting macrophytes and identify

alternatives for the local people.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Classes of macrophytes

According to Omondi and Mwende (2001) macrophytes can be

subdivided into four groups on the basis of their water

requirements and habitats. Submerged macrophytes are those

that are completely covered with water. These have leaves

that tend to be thin and finely divided adapted for exchange

of nutrients with water. Floating leafed macrophytes are

those that are rooted but have floating leaves while free

floating are those that float on the water surface. The last

group is the emergent macrophytes. These are rooted plants

with their principal photosynthetic surfaces projecting

above the water. Emergent macrophytes dominate the shoreline

flora while the middle and lower littoral zones supports

stands of floating-leafed macrophytes.

education programs may need to be changed to address the

cumulative impacts to North American lakes.

2.2 Diversity and distribution of macrophytes on Ugandan

wetlands

There are over 60 km2 of swamps associated with the waters

of Lake George, especially along the northern shore of the

lake; in most swamp areas up to 97 % of the plant biomass is

papyrus (Cyperus papyrus). Tentative estimates of the plant

biomass in these swamps range from 2.5 to 4.5 kg (d.m.) m-2

(Thompson, in Burgis et al. I973). Submerged macrophytes

(Cerato- phyllum, Nymphaea, Utricularia) occur only in the

mouth and lagoons of the Nsonge River, where the water is

clear; emergent vegetation, consisting mainly of the swamp

grass Paspalidium geminatum, is sparse and of restricted

occurrence (Lock I973). The floating Nile cabbage (Pistia

stratiotes) is particularly abundant in bays on the western

side of the lake; it has a clear- cut seasonal periodicity

probably related to its cycle of seasonal reproduction

(Thompson, in Burgis et al. I973).

Arccording to Esaet., Kasenene, Orjan and Obua (2008), the

diversity of major macrophytes was assessed in cultivated

areas in Bukasa and Kinawataka wetlands in Central Uganda.

One thousand and seventy-two (1072) plots of 1 × 1 m were

established in 69 cultivated areas. Data were collected on

species richness and abundance. Two-way analysis of

covariance (ANCOVA) showed how cropping regimes affected

macrophyte species richness and abundance. There were 127

plant species belonging to 37 families in cultivated areas.

Of the 127 species, 42 were macrophytes and of the 37

families, fourteen contained macrophyte species. Plant

species diversity was higher in the short-term cropping

regime areas (11.3 species per 1 m2) than in the long-term

cropping regime areas (9.3 species per 1 m2). However,

macrophyte species richness was similar in the short-term

(3.2 species per 1 m2) and the long-term (3.3 species per

1 m2) cropping regimes. The dominant families were Poaceae,

Asteraceae and Cyperaceae with more than ten species each.

The higher plant species diversity in cultivated areas than

in uncultivated was because of non macrophyte species, thus

cropping regime does not influence macrophyte species

diversity. Increase in diversity of non macrophyte species

in short-term cropping regime implies that the use of

wetlands for agricultural crop growing may alter plant

species composition and diversity during secondary

succession.

According to Omondi and Mwende, (2001), more species of

macrophytes were found at the river mouths and sheltered

bays. This was probably so because these areas have muddy

substrates suitable for attachment and the plant nutrients

from the rivers enriched the environment. Comparison of open

water station macrophytes and gulf station ones further

shows that the distribution of macrophytes, especially

emergents, is related to the type of substrate. Stations

within the gulf were dominated by Cyperus papyrus while those

in the open waters were dominated by Phragmites australis.

Sediment deposition from

2.3 Uses of macrophytes

Macrophytes have a vast variety of uses ranging from

ecological to sociological that’s why there degradation

should be perceived as a major concern. According to Muthuri

and Kinyamario (1989). Nutritive value of papyrus (Cyperus

papyrus), a tropical emergent macrophytes. Aquatic

macrophytes have food qualities either as raw materials for

leaf protein extraction or as fodder. Aquatic macrophytes in

swamps and marshes are increasingly being recognized as the

most productive plant communities (Auclair et al. 1976;

Westlake 1963, 1975). Much as their exploitation as a source

of animal feed has received little attention.

Papyrus is one of the most characteristic aquatic

macrophytes in tropical Africa, where it covers large areas

in Uganda and Sudan (Thompson 1976b) papyrus has been

documented to be among the most productive plants.

Economic importance of some macrophytes in Lake Victoria

basin (Lyaruu et al 2004)

Table 1: Economic importance of macrophytes

Littoral

wetlands

around Lake

Victoria

provide

nutrient and

pathogen

removal from

wastewater

and runoff

from

population

centres,

industry and

agricultural

areas

plant usesCyperus papyrus constructionNymphaea capensis medicinalPhragmites mauritianus constructionPistia stratiotes Medicinal, mulchingSesbania sesban construction,

firewood, fodderYosia cuspidata fodder Luffa cylindrica medicinalThelypteris totta Animalfood, soil

binderAeschynomene elaphroxylon constructionEichornia crassipes Fooder,manure,ornamen

talCyperus digitatus fodderCeratophyllum dermesum medicinalTrapa natans medicinalEchinochloa scabra fodderCommelina benghalensis fodderVernonia glabra fodderTypha capensis constructionIpomoea cairica fodder

(Kansiime and Nalubega 1999; Kansiime and van Bruggen 2001).

The ability of these wetlands to retain phosphorus and

nitrogen depends on the dominant vegetation structure and

the dispersion of runoff waters (Kansiime et al. 2003).

Under the Ecotools Project (a project that focused on

developing tools for wetland ecosystem resource management

in East Africa), an ecosystems approach was taken to

determine wetland related nutrient retention. This approach

examined the impacts of wastewater and surface runoff

entering three important Ugandan wetlands: Nabugabo, a rural

wetland in Masaka, Nakivubo in Kampala and Kirinya in Jinja.

The latter represent two urban wetlands experiencing

different anthropogenic pressures. For the urban wetlands,

the study also involved characterisation of the dominant

wetland plant species and the identification of wastewater

flow patterns within these wetlands. The urban wetlands were

further investigated through the identification of the in

situ nutrient retention capacity of the major wetland plant

species (those which naturally occur and those which are

planted for subsistence farming). This characterization

permitted the estimation of retention capabilities of

different wetland plants, the implications of replacing of

wetland vegetation by human activities and the use of

generated data for use in modelling by other work packages

of the project.

2.4 Loss of macrophytes in Ugandan wetlands

There quite a number of reasons that are attributed for the

alarming disappearance of macrophytes populations in wet

lands. Less than 20 of the 700 species of the macrophytes

are considered weeds (Triest 1993) as a consequence of there

prolific growth and production, macrophytes often interfere

with human utilization of water bodies in a number of ways.

Recent findings indicate that apart from interfering with

fishing and navigation, free floating mats of macrophytes

are a threat to biological diversity affecting fish, other

fauna, plant diversity and food chains. (Garry et al 1997).

Wetlands in Uganda experience different forms of human

pressure ranging from drainage for agriculture and

industrial development to over harvesting of wetland

products. In order to develop sustainable management tools

for wetland ecosystems in Uganda and the Lake Victoria

Region, water quality analyses were carried out in a rural

undisturbed (pristine) wetland (Nabugabo wetland in Masaka)

and two urban wetlands that are experiencing human and urban

development pressure (the Nakivubo wetland in Kampala and

Kirinya wetland in Jinja). Water quality was assessed in all

the wetland sites, and in addition nutrient content and

storage was investigated in the main plant species (Papyrus,

Phragmites, Miscanthidium and Cocoyam) in Nakivubo and

Kirinya wetlands. It was concluded that urbanisation

pressure reduces natural wetland functioning either through

the discharge of wastewater effluent or the degradation of

natural wetland vegetation. Nutrient status and retention in pristine

and disturbed wetlands in Uganda Kansiime, Kateyo, Oryem-Origa and

Mucunguzi, (2007)

2.5 Influence of human activities on macrophytes

Human activities have over the years affected the vegetation

of wetlands however not much work has been done to document

which macrophytes have been affected more. The vegetation

abundance along undeveloped and developed shorelines of

Minnesota lakes was compared to test the hypothesis that

development has not altered the abundance of emergent and

floating-leaf vegetation. Aerial photographs of clear-water

lakes dominated by centrarchids and walleyes (Stizostedion

vitreum) were analyzed for vegetation. Vegetative coverage

was estimated in 12 randomly selected 935-m2 digitized

photograph plots for both developed and undeveloped

shorelines of 44 lakes representing a gradient of

development. Vegetative cover in littoral areas adjacent to

developed shores was less abundant than along undeveloped

shorelines. On average, there was a 66% reduction in

vegetation coverage with development. The estimated loss of

emergent and floating-leaf coverage from human development

for all Minnesota's clear-water centrarchid–walleye lakes

was 20–28%. Significant correlations were detected between

occurrence of emergent and floating-leaf plant species and

relative biomass and mean size of northern pike Esox lucius,

Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) and pumpkin seed (Lepomis

gibbosus) using Spearman's rank correlation, P < 0.05. Paul

and Timothy (2001).

The wetlands of Nyamuriro and Doho were surveyed for their

flora during the period August 2001 and May 2002. These two

wetlands are highly degraded through cultivation. The plants

in these areas were documented with a view to determining

their richness and conservation importance in Uganda. Two

hundred and eight species were recorded in 140 genera, 63

families and 37 orders in Nyamuriro while 184 species, 109

genera, 39 families and 27 orders were recorded in Doho.

Although there are no species of global priority

conservation concern, these wetlands harbour reasonable

numbers of plant species, some of them rare, for their size.

Nyamuriro has five species of restricted range in the

country occurring in only one of the four floristic regions.

The flora of highly degraded and vulnerable wetland ecosystems of Nyamuriro

and Doho. Kalema and Ssegawa. (2006).

2.6 Soil pH

Soil PH testing is of great importance, since all the plants

show different pH preferences. The pH of the soil directly

affects the quality of nutrients that the soil offers to the

plants. Soil pH can influence many factors such as

availability of nutrients in the soil, soil life and the

susceptibility of plants to various diseases. 'Soil life' is

the term used to define various micro-organisms that are

responsible for decomposing complex compounds into simpler

organic forms, Thereby enriching the soil. Some micro-

organisms thrive in alkaline soil, while others prefer

acidic soil. Soil testing helps you to determine the pH of

the soil so that you can make amendments to improve it.

Ashwini Kulkarni Soil Testing - How to Test Soil pH, www.vl-pc.com (2009)

CHAPTER THREE

METHODS AND MATERIALS

3.1 Study area

The research will be carried out on Butebi and Bukanaga

landing site of Mityana district on Lake Wamala. Lake

Wamala, with Coordinates: 0°12 '- 0 °25 'N/31°41 '-32°02 'E.

is one of the freshwater bodies located in Mityana districts

of Central Uganda; it covers a total area of 250km2. It is

dotted by many islands including Lwanja, Mabo and Bagwe. It

is associated with several rivers and wetlands, such as

Nyanzi-Kitenga, Kabasuma, Mpamujugu and Bimbye which flow

into the lake, whereas river Kibimba drains westwards into

Lake Victoria. River Katonga running from Lake Victoria

flows into Lake Wamala.

Butebi

This is one of the landing sites on lake Wamala. It is one

of the most active landing sites on the lake it accommodates

about 20-30 fishermen with some using engine boats. Fish

caught here are consumed by the local people or are taken to

the nearest towns of Mityana and Kampala.

The other activity carried out on this landing site is

farming with people setting farming plots up to three meters

from the lake shore.

Bukanaga

This is another landing site on the lake however this not

active since most people depend more on agriculture farming

compared to fishing. It accommodates about 5-10 fishermen.

3.2 Research design

The research is basically a qualitative one. It will involve

plants identifying and counting the different plant species

collected from the different sites. Soil and water PH

testing.

3.3 Sample size

My samples will include all vegetation growing along lake

Wamala in Butebi and Bukanaga landing sites.

3.4 Sampling procedure

Line transects will be used, and sampling plots will be put

along the transects. Each transect will be selected randomly

using simple random sampling. From these plots also soil

samples will be collected for testing soil ph and soil

moisture content. This procedure will be repeated with

another site were there is minimum human activity.

Procedure

The researcher will first introduce him self to the local

officials of Lake Wamala using an introductory letter from

the department of botany Makerere University. He will then

look for a person willing to help during the period of data

collection. After that, the researcher will lay a transect

of three hundred meters (300) along the shores of lake

Wamala. On this transect he will put six (6) plots each

separated from the other by a distance of 50 metres. Form

the six plots, he will randomly choose three. This will be

done by giving the points numbers of up to six then toss a

die thrice to select the points from which he will put

transects of one hundred fifty (150) meters up stream. On

the transects running upstream, the researcher will put

plots of one meter by one meter (1mx1m)separated by 50

meters from which plant and soil samples will be collected.

This will be done on two sites, that is one that is strongly

influenced by human activities and one that has little human

activities. PH will be tested using a PH paper. This will be

done by mixing soil samples collected from different plots

with distilled water. Then PH papers will be dipped in the

solution and the colour changes compared with the scales

provided by the manufacturer. Soil moisture will be detected

by observation using a scale of low, medium and high.

3.6 Data Presentation and Analysis

Data presentation

Basically, data were presented in graph and table form

Data analysis

Data that was collected was largely Quantitative and

descriptive.

Jaccard Index

The Jaccard coefficient measures similarity between sample

sets, and is defined as the size of the intersection divided

by the size of the union of the sample sets:

Where A= Butebi landing site

B=Bukanaga landing site

n=Intersection between A and B

U= Union of A and B

The Jaccard distance, which measures dissimilarity between

sample sets, is complementary to the Jaccard coefficient and

is obtained by subtracting the Jaccard coefficient from 1,

or, equivalently, by dividing the difference of the sizes of

the union and the intersection of two sets by the size of

the union:

Shannon index

The Shannon index will be used to determine diversity in the

different areas. The Shannon index, also known as the

Shannon-Wiener Index ( ), is one of several diversity

indices used to measure diversity in categorical data. It is

simply the Information entropy of the distribution, treating

species as symbols and their relative population sizes as

the probability.

The advantage of this index is that it takes into account

the number of species and the evenness of the species. The

index is increased either by having additional unique

species, or by having greater species evenness.

Computing the index

Where;

ni = The number of individuals in species i; the abundance

of species i.

S = The number of species. Also called species richness.

N = The total number of all individuals

In= Natural log

pi =The relative abundance of each species, calculated as

the proportion of individuals of a given species to the

total number of individuals in the community:

It can be shown that for any given number of species, there

is a maximum possible , Hmax = lnS which occurs when all

species are present in equal numbers.

Relative Abundance

Relative abundance for macrophyte families was calculated as

a sum of relative frequency of the macrophyte families

collected.

Relative abundance for the macrophyte families= No. of

individuals seen/ Total No. of macrophyte families collected

X100

To compare abundances, eight most abundant macrophyte

families from both sites were tabulated and the results used

in chi-square to compare abundance of both Butebi and

Bukanaga landing site

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

Introduction

The following data on macrophyte species diversity, soil pH

and agricultural practices was obtained from the research

carried out in Butebi and Bukanaga landing sites of Lake

Wamala from first March to the last week of April

Species Diversity

Lake Wamala has a very high diversity of macrophytes as will

be shown bellow. However the diversity of macrophytes has

been influenced by human activities mainly fishing and

farming. The plants seen and identified include Achyrantes

asepera, Ludwigia stolonifera and Conyza floribunda. Others included

cultivated plant species such as Phaseolus vulgaris, Zea mays,

Ipomea batatus and tomatoes.

A total of 25 plant species were collected in Butebi landing

site while 39 plant species were collected at Bukanaga

landing site.

A full list of all plant species collected at Bukanaga

landing site and Butebi are shown in Appendix Ia and Ib

A total of 24 cultivated plant species were collected from

Butebi representing 71% of the total population sampled

around the lake. 10 macrophyte plant species were collected

representing 29% of the total population sampled around the

lake.

A total of 6 cultivated plant species were collected from

Bukanaga landing site representing 13% of the total

population sampled around the lake. 33 macrophyte plant

species were collected representing 87% of the total sampled

species.

Figure 1: Pie chat showing percentage cover of different

cultivated plants

Sugar canesSweet potatoesCassavaYam sTom atoes Others

Shannon Index,

Shannon index was used to calculate the diversity of

macrophytes families in the two habitats, and the following

results were obtained;

Macrophytes families’ diversity at Bukanaga landing site is

2.154

Macrophytes families’ diversity at Butebi landing site is

1.500

Plant families’ diversity at Butebi landing site is 2.301

Plant families’ diversity at Bukanaga landing site is 2.469

Bukanaga landing site is more diverse in macrophyte plant

families (2.154) as compared to Butebi which has 1.500

macrophyte families diversity. The diversity of overall

plant species collected from the two site is still high in

Bukanaga at 2.469 and 2.301 in Butebi however the

diversities differ slightly.

Figure 2: Mean Number of species sighted in Butebi andBukanaga landing site

0

5

10

15

20

25

study site

mean number of pecies collected

Series1

From the figure 1 above, it is shown that the mean number of

species collected in the three plots (Bukanaga 1, Bukanaga 2

and Bukanaga 3) of Bukanaga landing site is higher than that

of Butebi landing site as shown by he three plots of

Butebi1, Butebi 2, and Butebi 3.

Relative abundance of macrophyte plant families

Table 2: Abundance of Macrophytes families at Butebi landing

site.

Average no

of

plant

families

Relative abundance

(%)

Compositae 0.3 30Cyperaceae 0.1 10Amaranthace

ae

0.2 20

Graminaea 0.1 10Polygonacea

e

0.3 30

The most abundant macrophyte families at Butebi landing site

are Compositae and Polygonaceae

Table 3: Abundance of Macrophytes families at Bukanaga

landing site.

Family Number

of

Relative abundance

(%)

speciesAcanthaceae 0.03 03Amaranthace

ae

0.03 03

Compositae 0.33 33Eurphorbiac

eae

0.06 06

Fabaceae 0.03 03commelinace

ae

0.03 03

Araceae 0.06 06Polygonacea

e

0.12 12

Graminaea 0.15 15Cyperaceae 0.06 06Solanaceae 0.03 03Malvaceae 0.03 03Onagraceae 0.03 03

Abundance along Bukanaga landing site is still dominated by

Compositae at 33% and Gramineae at 16 % followed closely by

Polygonaceae at 12%.

Table 4: Abundance of the five common plant families in the

two study sites

Macrophyte

families

Buteb

i

Bukanag

a

Tot

al Compositae 03 11 14Cyperaceae 01 02 03Amaranthaceae 02 01 03Graminaea 01 05 06Polygonaceae 03 04 07Total 10 23 33

A chi-square test (x2) is used to measure the species

abundance.

Ho = Null hypothesis “Abundance more in Bukanaga, where out

of 100 families

60 are in Bukanaga while 40 are in Butebi”.

Table 5: Calculation of chi square

Classes Observed(O) Expected(E) O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E (x2)

Butebi 30.3 40 -9.7 94.09 2.35Bukanaga 69.7 60 9.7 94.09 1.37

x∑ 2 = 3.72

Degree of freedom = n-1 which is equal to one

However, the chi square value at the confidence limit of

0.05 with 1 degree of freedom is 3.84, greater than the

calculated chi-square value of 0.12.

Therefore, accept the null hypothesis that is abundance of

macrophyte families is more in Bukanaga.

Land use along the shore

Land use along the shore is mainly farming (subsistence and

large scale farming). Crops grown for domestic consumption

include beans, maize, yams and cassava while sugar canes and

potatoes a cultivated on a large scale.

At Bukanaga landing site most of the land along the shore is

still intact with the exception of a few areas were people

have put gardens of yams and potatoes.

Picture 1: A garden of sweet potatoes along the shores of Lake

Wamala at Butebi landing site.

When asked, most farmers declined the use of herbicides and

artificial fertilizers claiming that there land is fertile

and even such inputs are very expensive. However some large

scale farmers admitted use of herbicides and fertilizers.

Interview schedules were done to ask people about use of

herbicides and fertilizers.

Herbicides commonly used

Figure 3

PIE CHART SHOW ING PERCENTAGE USE OF AGRICULTURAL INPUTS IN

BUTEBI

Organic fertilizersInorganic fertilizersHerbicidesNone

Figure 4

PIE CCHART SHOW ING PERCENTAGE USE OF

AGRICULTURAL IN PUTS IN BUKANAGA

Organic fertilizersHerbicidesNone

PH levels for soils in Butebi and Bukanaga

The average PH at Bukanaga landing site is slightly bellow 7

that is (7.5) as compared to that of Butebi which is at 5.3

Table 6: Bukanaga

pl

ot

PH averag

e1 6

6.72 73 7

Table 7: Butebi

pl

ot

PH averag

e1 5

5.32 53 6

Soil moisture

This was determined by observation using a using a

quantitative scale of low medium and high in all the sampled

plots

Table 8: Bukanaga

Plo

t

Moisture

content

averag

e1 High

Medium2 Medium 3 Medium

Table 9: Butebi

Plo

t

Moisture

content

averag

e1 Medium

Low 2 Low 3 Low

Jaccard’s Similarity index

Testing similarity using JACCARD’S INDEX using datagenerated relative abundance table

Where A=Butebi and B=Bukanaga.

|A| = 23

|B|=27

|AnB|=48

|AUB|=60

J (A, B) =48/60

= 0.8

It is less than the tabulated value at 0.05 meaning that the

value is statistically significant

CHAPTE

R FIVE

DIS

CUSSIONS

Lake Wamala is a fresh water body supporting a variety of

life forms and providing a habitat to a number of animal and

plant species (macrophyte). Bukanaga and Butebi landing site

have a great diversity of macrophyte families, and other

plant families in general. This is mainly due to the still

low population in the area in that most of the land is still

intact or with little manipulation by humans. Back wardness

could also be another factor in that, even in cultivated

areas people use primitive methods of farming.

The diversity of macrophyte plant families is low in Butebi

as compared to Bukanaga landing site. This is due to the

fact that most of the land in Butebi landing site has been

turned in farming grounds. In so doing vegetation along the

shores is often cleared to prepare land for farming.

Farming at Butebi landing site

Since most people in this area are leaving bellow the

poverty line. This means they solely depend on the

environment for resources.

The main economic activity on this landing site is mainly

fishing however its followed closely by farming. Most of the

land along the shore has been turned into farming grounds.

Most people practice subsistence farming of plants mainly

food crops like beans, maize, cassava, yams and bananas.

Usually farmers want to place their gardens next to the lake

shore claiming that the land there is very fertile unlike

the soils upstream.

In Uganda, cultivation of wetlands has increased because of

increasing human population around wetlands. Many valley

bottoms are used for smallholder rice (Oryza sativa)

production and in urban areas cocoyams (Colocasia esculenta),

sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum ), sweet potatoes (Ipomoea

batatus) and cabbages (Brassica oleracea) are important wetland

crops (NEMA, 1998).

Picture 2: A boy cultivates a garden of cassava along the shores of Lake Wamala

on Butebi landing site

Some people however practice large scale farming of mainly

sweet potatoes and sugar canes. This acts as a source of

income for these people. They sell these products to the

near by trading centers of Mityana town. Such type of

farming is usually done by people who own large chunks of

land and since they are few, very few people practice such

kind of farming.

land ownership along the shore is mainly private ownership

meaning people do as they please with there properties most

people look at off shore vegetation as useless compared to

the tangible benefits that can be obtained through farming.

Picture 3: Sugar cane plantations along the shores of Lake Wamala on Butebi

landing site

Economic activities of Bukanaga landing site.

The main economic economic activity of Bukanaga landing site

is mainly fishing which is also done on a lower scale since

people still practice primitive methods of fishing. Fish

caught mainly include; mud fish, lung fish and tilapia. Very

few people practice subsistence farming growing mainly food

crops.

Diversity of plants on Butebi and Bukanaga

Plant diversity is high in Bukanaga landing site as compared

to that in Butebi landing site. This is mainly because most

of the ecology along the shores of Lake Wamala in Bukanaga

landing site has not been interfered by man. Lack of

interference means that organisms interact freely, natural

systems are still in play which provides a suitable

environment for a variety of plant species.

Plant species diversity is low in Butebi landing site. This

is because most of the natural habitats and systems have

been interfered and influenced by human activities such as

farming and fishing. This means that plant species that can

survive in such disturbed environments are dominant and

hence loss of diversity.

Picture 4: Picture showing land cleared of its vegetation to

prepare for farming.

The other reason owing to the loss of diversity in Butebi

landing site is the fact that most of the vegetation having

a diversity of plant species have been cleared by man and

replaced by plantations with one type of plant species hence

loss of biodiversity. And since people do not understand the

ecological importance of macrophytes along the shore, this

means that people clear shore line vegetation with no

consciousness. According to (Kinzig & Pacala, 2001), one of

the greatest challenges to biodiversity conservation is the

need to understand patterns and processes that influence

biological resources. Environmental degradation because of

human activities is causing loss of biodiversity and affects

the livelihoods of communities that depend on it either

directly or indirectly.

Diversity of macrophytes in Butebi and Bukanaga

Macrophytes diversity is high in Bukanaga as compared to

Butebi. This is because, most of the vegetation along the

shores in Bukanaga has remained intact that is undisturbed

giving a chance to macrophytes to survive and perform their

ecological duties. However in Butebi most of the vegetation

has been disturbed by human activities that include farming,

fishing and settlement leading to a great loss of

macrophytes species much as disturbance is necessary in

natural systems, the frequency of disturbance becomes a very

influential factor. In that more frequent disturbances

affect ecosystems severely. (Grime, 1973; Connell,1978;

Sousa, 1979) Disturbances that re-occur frequently influence

propagule availability by destroying individuals before

maturity and thus affect ecosystem attributes. It has been

established that along disturbance gradients, species

richness is often highest at intermediate levels. However,

other studies have reported species richness increase

(Tilman, 1983) or decrease (Wilson & Tilam, 1991) along

disturbance gradients. The few macrophytes recorded in

Butebi, are those that can with stand disturbance and those

that existed along the shore line.

.

Picture 5: Picture showing plantation of sweet potatoes a few

meters from the shores of Lake Wamala.

Relative Abundance of macrophytes families

It was observed that some macrophytes families were more

abundant than others and this is attributed to the level of

human activities along the shores of Butebi and Bukanaga

landing site. The more abundant species are probably less

affected by human disturbance or have adapted to the human

activities and presence.

According to J Esaete, J M. Kasenene, O Totland and J Obua

(Macrophyte species diversity in formerly cultivated

wetlands in Uganda), In frequently cultivated areas, the

subordinate species consist of a few annuals and relatively

short-lived perennials. Although cultivation in the first

stages of disturbance eliminates all plant species, in the

long run its effect on vegetation becomes selective and

result in either increase or decrease in species diversity.

The effect of frequency of cultivation on macrophytes

species diversity is most observable in wetland areas with

contrasting cropping regimes. Cropping regimes define

cultivation on the basis of crop type, maturity period of

the

The relative abundance of macrophytes families in Butebi

landing site were lower than the relative abundance of

macrophytes families of the same species in Bukanaga.. While

some families had higher relative abundances in Butebi than

in Bukanaga landing site.

This is because of the limited disturbance in Bukanaga gives

chance to natural interaction between species hence

preventing dominance by a few more adapted families. In

Butebi, the macrophytes families that have adapted to

disturbance by human activities are more dominant.

Cultivation affects macrophytes diversity in the following

forms. It usually results in clearing of macrophytes through

digging to break up the soil, planting and weeding. The

process of digging to break up the soil causes more soil

disturbance than weeding.

According to J Esaete, J M. Kasenene, O Totland and J Obua

(Macrophyte species diversity in formerly cultivated

wetlands in Uganda) Digging for replanting in wetlands is

done 1–3 times a year for crops such as cabbages (Brassica

oleracea) and sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatus) that take less

than 6 months to mature (short-term cropping regime). In

wetlands where sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) and cocoyams

(Colocasia esculenta) are grown, digging for replanting takes

place once a year (long-term cropping regime) because these

crops take more than 6 months to mature. As disturbance

regimes are described in terms of frequency, cropping

regimes present a potential surrogate to study the impact of

cultivation on macrophytes species diversity.

Generally the relative abundance of Compositeae is highest

in both the study areas though the relative abundance is

higher in Bukanaga landing site than Butebi landing site.

The high relative abundance of the Compositeae family is

probably due to the fact that most of its species are more

adaptive and occupy a wide range of habitats.

Soil pH

Soil pH was measured using pH papers. Soil pH is generally

acidic in both sites however it’s more acidic in Butebi

landing site. Soil pH is also determined by how the parent

rock material was formed and the constituent elements.

It is there fore important to realize that the mineral

constituent of the parent rock material determines the pH

ranges of the soil, that is to say, Ca, Mg and K are base

cations, (cations of strong bases) and strong bases are

fully dissociated at the pH-ranges occurring in most natural

waters. However, as the soil solution pH is dependent on

mineral weathering, and mineral weathering increases pH by

releasing Ca, Mg and K, a soil which is rich in easily

weatherable minerals tends to have both a higher pH and

higher soil solution concentration of Ca, Mg and K.

The other factor that affects soil pH is the influence of

acid rain which also adds hydrogen ions to the soil hence

increasing soil pH.

Also application of artificial fertilizers and herbicides by

farmers increases the concentration of ions and cataions in

the soils. This intern influences the pH of the soil as

explained above. Since most of the land along Butebi landing

site has been agriculturalized, there has been increased use

of agricultural inputs hence increase in acidity of the

soils.

pH also increases as one goes down stream along the shores

of Butebi landing site. This is because; most of the

vegetation has been cleared meaning that soil erosion

carries the ions and cataions down stream.

Soil moisture content

Soil moisture content is relatively high in Bukanaga landing

site as compared to Butebi. This is because most of the

vegetation in Butebi landing site has been cleared for

farming. This exposes the ground to direct sun heat leading

to high rates of evaporation hence loss of soil moisture.

There is also reduced sinking of water when it rains since

there is no vegetation to reduce the flow of running water.

Unlike Butebi landing site, in Bukanaga the vegetation

reduces the speed of running water giving it a chance to

sink in the ground hence increasing soil moisture. Also the

vegetation prevents excessive evaporation from the ground

hence maintaining soil moisture content.

CHAPTER

SIX

CONCLUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCULUSION

Human activities have greatly impacted the ecology of Lake

Wamala especially along the most active landing sites were

human activity has increased over the years. There has been

notable loss of biodiversity in areas of increased human

activities resulting from destruction of natural habitats.

Loss of vegetation through macrophytes clearance for

navigation along the lake shore and for agricultural

purposes has led to increased soil erosion. This has in turn

led to siltation of the lake. The continued siltation of

Lake Wamala has consequently led to its reduction in size

and reduction in quality of fish caught. The fact that

people depend on farming as one of the main economic

activity, and since they still practice poor methods of

farming, means that they will go on to in habit even the un

disturbed parts of lake as their soils lose fertility.

Most land along the shore is occupied by sugar cane

plantations which are long term regime plants that is

digging for replanting takes place only once a year. This

gives chance to a few adaptive macrophytes such as those in

Polygonaceae and Compositeae families to grow.

Loss of vegetation has also led to the increased reduction

in soil quality, that is, in areas were vegetation has been

cleared, the soils have dried up through moisture

evaporation. There has been loss of nutrients and top soil

through continued soil erosion when it rains.

The standards of leaving along the shores are still very low

due to the extreme levels of poverty. This implies that

people have to depend on the environment for resources. This

has made and will make conservation of biodiversity

extremely hard.

RECOMMENDATIONS

This research took place for a period of one and half months

a period not enough to sample enough areas around the lake

in order to come up with conclusive evidence of the effect

human activities on the diversity of macrophytes families.

However this research is going to act as base line for

further studies.

People leaving along the shores need to be sensitized and

educated about the need to conserve and protect lake shore

vegetation. This will involve providing information such as

the importance of macrophytes to the ecology of the lake.

The government should also gazette land of up to 50 meters

from the lake shore in order to conserve the few remaining

vegetation of macrophytes and also give a chance for the

regeneration of the lost macrophytes

Village committees need to be set up to over see how people

use lake resources and also enforce by laws set to protect

the lake ecosystems.

District committees need to be set to monitor the state of

the lake and present monthly or yearly reports about the

state of the lake. This committee should also forge ways on

how to restore the state and biodiversity of Lake Wamala.

REFERENCES

Ashwini Kulkarni Soil Testing - How to Test Soil pH

www.vl-pc.com (2009)

Josephine, E., Kasenene, J.M., Orjan, T. and Obua, J.

Macrophyte species diversity in formerly cultivated

wetlands in Uganda (2008). African journal of ecology 46(4)

646 – 654.

Grime, J.P. (1973) Control of species density in

herbaceous vegetation. J. Environ. Manage. 1, 151–167.

Kalema, J. and Ssegawa, P. (2006)

Kansiime, F., Kateyo, E., Oryem-Origa, H. and

Mucunguzi, P. Nutrient status and retention in pristine

and disturbed wetlands in Uganda (2007)

Kansiime and Nalubega 1999; Kansiime and van Bruggen

2001)

Kansiime, F. and Van Bruggen, J.J.A. (2001).

Distribution and retention of faecal coliforms in the

Nakivubo wetland in Kampala, Uganda. Water science and

technology. 44 (11-12_: 199-206.

Kinzig, A.P. & Pacala, S. (2001) Successional

biodiversity and ecosystem function. In: The Functional

Consequences of Biodiversity. Empirical Progress and

Theoretical Extensions (Eds A. P. Kinzig, S. W. Pacala

and D. Tilman). Princeton University Press, Princeton,

Oxford.

Lyaruu, H.V. M. and Eliapenda, S. (2002) “the diversity

of aquatic macrophytes in selected ecosystems of the

lake Victoria basin and their importance in

biodiversity conservation.” Mahogo, S.B., Chande, A.I

and Katunzi E.F.B. (eds.) Biodiversity of Lake Victoria: its

conservation and sustainable use. pp. 49-62

Muthuri, F.M. and Kinyamario, J.I (1989). Nutritive value of

papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), A tropical emergent macrophytes. Economic

botany, 43(1), 23-30.

NEMA (1998) State of Environment Report for Uganda.

National Environment Management Authority, NEMA,

Kampala.

Triest, L. (1993) problems created by excessive

macrophyte growth in tropical freshwater ecosystems and

strategies for control.

Timothy, J.G. (2001). Consequences of human lakeshore

development on emergent and floating-leaf vegetation

abundance. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 21:46-

61.

Tilman, D. (1983) Plant succession and gopher

disturbance along an experimental gradient. Oecologia

60, 285–292.

Wilson, S.D. and Keddy, P.A. (1986) Species competitive

ability and position along a natural stress ⁄

disturbance gradient. Ecology 67, 1236–1242.

Wilson, S.D. & Tilam, D. (1991) Intereactive effects of

fertilization and disturbance on community structure

and resource availability in old-field plant community.

Oecologia 88, 61–71.

APPENDICES

Appendix I list of all species collected from all study

sites

(A) List of all plant species collected in Bukanaga landing

site.

Number Family Species

001 Acanthaceae Asystasia sp

002 Amaranthacea

e

Adyranthes aspera

003 Amaranthacea

e

Amaranthus dubius

004 Araceae Pisitia stratiotes

005 Compositae Bidens pilosa

006 Compositae Synedrella nodiflora

007 Compositae Conyza floribunda

008 Compositae Sonchus sp

009 Compositae Tithonia diversifolia

010 Compositae Galisonga parviflora

011 Compositae Agerantum conyzoides

012 Compositeae Crassocephalum

picidifolium

013 Compositeae Melanthera scadens

014 Compositeae Ethulia scheffleri

015 Compositeae Aspilia pluriseta

016 Compositae Synedrella nodiflora

017 Cyperaceae Cyperus papyrus

018 Cyperaceae Scirpus confusus

019 Commelinacea

e

Commelina baghalensis

020 Dioscoraceae Dioscorea alata

021 Euphorbiacea

e

Phyllanthus odontadenius

022 Euphorbiacea Ricinus communis

e 023 Fabaceae Crotalaria agatifola

024 Gramineae Digitaria abyssinica

025 Gramineae Pennisetum purpureum

026 Gramineae Echinochloa pyramidalis

027 Gramineae Zea mays

028 Gramineae Saccharum officinarum

029 Gramineae Brachiaria sp

030 Gramineae Pasparum sp

031 Malvaceae Hibiscus sp

032 Onagraceae Ludwigia abyssinica

033 Polygonaceae Polygonum salicifolium

034 Polygonaceae Oxygonum sinuatum

035 Polygonaceae Polygonum bequaertii

036 Polygonaceae Polygonum setosulum

037 Papilionacea

e

Arachis hypogen

038 Papilionacea

e

Phaseolus vulgaris

039 Solanaceae Datura stramonium

(B) List of plant species collected from Butebi landing site

Number Family Species 001 Amaranthace

ae

Adyranthes aspera

002 AmaranthaceAmaranthus dubius

ae 003 Amaranthace

aeAmaranthus hybridus

004 Amaranthace

ae

Amaranthus gangiticus

005 Compositae Conyza floribunda

006 Compositae Bidens pilosa

007 Compositae Synedrella nodiflora

008 Convolvulac

eae

Ipomoea batatus

009 Cucurbitace

ae

Cucurbito maxima

010 Cyperaceae Cyperus papyrus

011 Dioscoracea

e

Dioscorea alata

012 Dioscoracea

e

Dioscorea bulbifera

013 Euphorbiace

ae

Manihot eseculenta

014 Gramineae Pennisetum

purpureum

015 Gramineae Saccharum

officinarum

016 Gramineae Zea mays

017 Musaceae Musa sp

018 Musaceae Musa paradisiaca

019 Papilionace Arachis hypogen

ae 020 Papilionace

ae

Pisum lunutus

021 Papilionace

ae

Phaseolus vulgaris

022 Polygonacea

e

Oxygonum sinuatum

023 Polygonacea

e

Polygonum setosulum

024 Polygonacea

e

Polygonum salicifolium

025 Zyngberaceae

Zyngber officinale

Appendix II calculation ofdiversity indices of plantscollected in all study sites

(A) Diversity of plant

families at Butebi landing

site.

Family pi pi*ln*p

iCompositae 4 0.1

6

0.293

Euphorbiacea

e

1 0.0

4

0.129

Polygonaceae 3 0.1

2

0.254

Graminaea 5 0.2

0

0.322

Amaranthacea

e

2 0.0

8

0.202

Dioscoraceae 1 0.0

4

0.129

Cucurbitacea

e

1 0.0

4

0.129

Papilionacea

e

3 0.1

2

0.254

Commelinacea

e

1 0.0

4

0.129

Convolvulace

ae

1 0.0

4

0.129

Musaceae 1 0.0

4

0.129

Cyperaceae 2 0.0

8

0.202

2

5

H1= -

2.301

(B) Diversity of plantfamilies at Bukanagalanding site.

Family pi Pi*ln*p

iAcanthaceae 1 0.02

6

0.095

Amaranthace

ae

2 0.05

1

0.152

Compositae 1

1

0.28

2

0.357

Eurphorbiac

eae

2 0.05

1

0.152

Fabaceae 1 0.02

6

0.095

commelinace

ae

1 0.02

6

0.095

Araceae 2 0.05

1

0.152

Polygonacea

e

4 0.10

3

0.234

Graminaea 5 0.12

8

0.263

Cyperaceae 2 0.05

1

0.152

Solanaceae 1 0.02

6

0.095

Malvaceae 1 0.02

6

0.095

Onagraceae 1 0.02

6

0.095

convolvulac

eae

1 0.02

6

0.095

Dioscoracea

e

1 0.02

6

0.095

Gramineae 2 0.05

1

0.152

Appendix III. Calculation of diversity indices of

macrophytes families collected in all study sites

(A) Diversity of Macrophytes families at Butebi landimg

site.

Family Number

of

species

Pi Pi*ln*

pi

Compositae 03 0.3

0

0.36

Cyperaceae 01 0.1

0

0.23

Amaranthace

ae

02 0.2

0

0.32

Graminaea 01 0.1

0

0.23

Polygonacea

e

03 0.3

0

0.36

10 H1=1.5

0

(B) Diversity of Macrophytes families at Bukanaga landing

site.

Family Number

of

species

Pi Pi*ln*

pi

Acanthaceae 1 0.03

0

0.105

Amaranthace

ae

1 0.03

0

0.105

Compositae 11 0.33

3

0.366

Eurphorbiac

eae

2 0.06

1

0.171

Fabaceae 1 0.03

0

0.105

commelinace

ae

1 0.03

0

0.105

Araceae 2 0.06

1

0.171

Polygonacea

e

4 0.12

1

0.255

Graminaea 5 0.15 0.285

1Cyperaceae 2 0.06

1

0.171

Solanaceae 1 0.03

0

0.105

Malvaceae 1 0.03

0

0.105

Onagraceae 1 0.03

0

0.105

33 H1=2.15

4