UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

FACULTY OF ARTS DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY PRESENTATION TOPIC : DECENTRALIZATION AS A TOOL FOR

RESOLVING THE NATIONAL PROBLEM: THE ETHIOPIAN EXPERIMENT

Dr. Asmelash Beyene

Decentralization

Refers to as the transfer of powers from Central government to a lower levels in a political - administrative and territorial hierarchy (Crook and Manor 1998, Agrawal and Ribot 1999)

The dispersion or distribution of functions and power from Central authority to regional or local authority

Statutory granting of powers from the Central government of a sovereign state to government at a sub national level such as a regional, local or state level.

They enjoy autonomy from the centre. This means that any one level of government is not under any obligation to refer to or seek authority from the centre in order to make or implement decisions that fall within their exclusive jurisdiction.

However they must recognize that they are part of the larger state.

It’s a form of decentralization

Decentralization is a mechanism for accelerating development and enhancing participation at the grass root level

However, in spite of its promised benefits, many African governments have not enthusiastically embraced it.

The failure of the centralized state and the subsequent waves of democratization and administrative reforms undertaken by many governments appear to have revived interest in decentralization as an effective instrument of governance

For African states it has been rationalized on the grounds of administrative efficiency and effectiveness

Most have favoured decentralization measures rather than devolution, only Ethiopia a multi – national country which has embarked upon ethnic – based devolution strategy aimed, among other things at addressing its nationality problems

Ethiopia ‘s new promulgated federal constitution ,guaranteed to the disbelief of many the right of regions to self-determination including the right to secession

While multi- national nature of the state may contribute to cultural enrichment, politically could constitute a danger unless carefully handled

Nationalism has taken a form of ethnicity or tribalism and ethnic groups fight for power and in desperate cases, for survival(Schlesinger 1991:p21)

Multinational state live under threat of real potential conflict.

To avert this a policy of equality for all the nationalities inhabiting their territory is needed

In most African states the primacy of national unity is invoked at the cost of ethnic composition of the population

Ethiopia has been referred to as a nationality museum with over 75 nationalities of varying size

For centuries Ethiopia had a unitary system of government with the emperor, the king of kings at the apex of power.

Difficulties of communication and absence of a modern centralized administrative apparatus the king authority was more symbolic than real

He appointed the regional leaders and once they paid the assessed tribute for the upkeep of the imperial household, they enjoyed relative autonomy in the running of their local affairs

The regional leaders had almost abrogated all powers unto themselves with little or no control by Emperor ‘this period came to be known as the “Age of Princes” due to autonomy and anarchical

Country was virtually divided into different principalities with each regional leader enjoying control over his domain

On assumption of power, Emperor Tewdros( took it upon himself to re-assert the power of the center and unify the country under his rule

The untimely death of Tewdros left Menelik (1889-1913), his successor, with the task of bringing the whole country under a centralized rule

He laid the foundation of modern administration in Ethiopia by establishing central government institutions for the first time in the history of the country and the country’s current map crystallized under his rule

Menelik sent Governors from the center to administer the newly incorporated areas

The governors went with their troops to install themselves in towns or villages of their respective administration

Earning no salary the governors and their troops were maintained by a system which has in lieu of wages allotted each man over lordship of a certain number of tenants

Perham has remarked “the land was regarded in most part as confiscated to the crown, a varying proportion being allotted to the conquered chief and people and the rest to reward or maintain Amhara and especially Shoan soldiers, officials and notables. “As a result the conquered subjects became tenants and were subjected to all kinds of oppression (Perham 1969:pp295 – 296)

When Emperor Haile Selassie(1916-1974) came to power, he centralized power in himself for the first time in history

His 1931 constitution and subsequent administrative regulation as well as revised constitution of 1955 sheared power away from regional notables

They were reduced to government employees who were salaried and served at the emperor pleasure

The system of administration was modernized replacing the system of maintaining the administration through the “Gabar” system.

He ,however did not tamper with the land tenure system in spite of advise from loyal supporters and friendly governments from outside allowing regional governors and aristocrat to enjoy their loot

This left unresolved one of the major causes aggravating the tension around the nationality problem

State security apparatus was used to mercilessly crashed national groups, who, unable to withstand the oppression, challenged the system by taking up arms

This led to several uprising including The first and second Weyane Rebellion in 1943 in Bale a clash with Somalia and 1975 30 years war to liberate Eritrea

The Imperial system finally collapsed in 1974 without ever resolving the problem and the Derg(provisional administrative council, 1974-1991) to over the reign under Mengistu Haile Mariam

Before its collapse the Derg promulgated a constitution and provided for regional autonomy for some of the troubled areas

The autonomy envisaged self government within the framework of a unitary state for one or several regions with a distinctive mode of life, ethnic structure and a certain degree of economic integrity

Some semblance of autonomy was proclaimed for Eritrea, Tigrai, Assab (Afar) and Dire Dawa (Issa) and Ogaden

The Tigrean People Liberation Front (TPLF) forged an alliance with other nationality groups and formed the Ethiopian People Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF)

EPRDF succeeded in overthrowing the Derg in 1991

The EPRDF convened a peace conference of all nationality –based liberation fronts and parties, adopted a charter and established a Transitional Government in 1991

The Transitional period charter guaranteed Freedom of expression and political pluralism

Right of nations and nationalities to self – determination

Freedom of nation and nationalities to organize themselves in line with the principle enshrined in the charter

The right to develop their own social, historical, linguistics and cultural heritages

Freedom of expression and political pluralism

Develop and use their languages

The right to establish an independent judicial system

After the establishment of Transitional Government, the Council of Representatives of the Transitional Government proclaimed the National/Regional Self – Governments Establishment Proclamation No.7/1992 is

The Proclamation established 14 National/Regional Self – Governments, two of which were for the city of Addis Ababa and the town of Harar, the capital of the Harari Nationality

The National/Regional Self – Governments were to have legislative , executive and judicial powers in respect of all matters within their territories

Areas outside their jurisdiction (for Central Government ) were such matter as

Defence Foreign affairs Economic policy Conferring of citizenship Declaration of a state of emergency Deployment of army Printing of currency Establishing and administering major development Building and administering major communication network

After the Transitional government mandate expired, a constitution was drafted for the establishment of a federal Government

Elections were then held and a Federal Democratic Government was proclaimed in 1994

The Federal Democratic Government comprised of states, which are delimited on the basis of settlement patterns, identity, language and consent of the people concerned

The federal constitution elaborates the rights of the nations, nationalities and peoples

“Every nationality and people in Ethiopia has an unconditional right to self- determination, including right to secession. Right to speak, write and develop its own language, to express and to promote its culture and to preserve its history. Right to full measure of self- government in the territory that it inhabits and to equitable representation in regional and national governments”

Powers to determine self determination including right to secession

Division of revenues derived from joint federal and state tax sources

Determination of subsidy that the federal Government may provide to the state

Protect and defend the constitution

Formulates the Country’s policies in respect to overall economic and social development

Draw up and implement plans and strategies of development

Establish National standards and basic criteria for the evaluation of policies in public health, education, science, technology, culture as well as protection and protection of historical legacies

Formulates and executes the Country’s financial, monetary and foreign investment policies

Enact laws for the utilization and protection of land and natural resources, historical sites and objects

Establishes and administers national defense and public security forces as well as a federal police force

Administers the National Bank, prints and borrows money, mints coin and regulate foreign exchange and money in circulation

Determines conditions under which the states can borrow money internally

Formulate and implements foreign policy and negotiates and ratifies international agreements

Develops, administers and regulates air, rail, waterways and sea transport and major roads linking two or more states as well as postal and telecommunication services

Levies taxes and collects duties on revenue sources earmarked for the federal state and draws up, approves and administers the federal budget

Determines and administers the utilization of the waters of lakes linking two or more states or of rivers crossing the boundaries of two or more states

Regulates inter-state and foreign commerce

Determines and administers matters relating to nationality and citizenship, immigration and granting of passports, patents inventions and protects copyrights

Establish a state administration that best advances self –rule and a democratic order based on the supremacy of the law, and the protection and the defense of the Federal Constitution

Enacts and executes constitutions and other laws

Formulates and executes policies, strategies and plans for economic and social development

Administer land use of other natural resources in accordance to Federal laws

Levies and collects taxes and duties on revenue sources allocated to the states

Draw up and administers state budgets

Enact laws on administrative matters and on conditions of services of state employees

Establishes and administers a state police force, and maintains public order and peace within the state

State government has an executive body elected from the state council

It comprises of the president, the deputy and the secretary and other selected members from the council

The committee is responsible for policy making and major administrative decisions

It supervises the bureaus

The bureaus prepare their area activities, implement the plan and budget

Executive committee of the regional state assigns the members of the zone administration from the members of the regional council

The size ranges from 11 to 17 members. Exception is where there is minority group within the region, which will have 30 -40 members elected from the Woredas under the zones

Decides on the language to be used in the zones

Enforces the nationality’s right to speak, write, develop, protect its language, preserve and develop its history

Issues rules and directives applicable to its area

Enact zonal budget based on approval by the region

Elects the chairperson, vice- chairperson and secretary of the zonal executive committee

Establishes the zone’s higher court and appoints the judges

Appoints department heads in consultation with the executive committee

Establishes Woreda court

Appoints heads of the various Woreda offices

It has both legislative and executive organs

Its council is elected from the Kebeles

It issues directives and policies to the Woreda executive committee

The executive committee is elected from the council

The executive committee is accountable to the Woreda council and the Zonal executive committee

Approve the Woreda’s economic development, social services and administrative plans and programmes

Direct basic agricultural development activities and protect and administer the natural resources in the Woreda

Mobilize the Woreda residents for development activities

Elect the chairperson, vice-chairperson, secretary and other members of the Woreda council executive

Prepare its own internal regulations

Levy and collect land use tax, agricultural income and other service taxes

Use the revenue sources generated from the Woreda, save for those administered by the region and prepare and approve its budget

Issue directive to ensure the Woreda’s security and peace

Build and maintain minor rural roads

Administer primary schools and primary health centers

It’s a neighbourhood unit in the urban centers and resembles a ward in a municipality

It has a council, an executive committee, social courts and social, economic and security organs

Elected council serves for two years

Enforce plans and directives issued by the Woreda council and its executive committee

Issue social regulations specifically applicable to the Kebele

Elect its executive committee members, chairperson and secretary of the Kebele administration

Prepare detail implementation programmes for social and economic programmes issued

Issue additional plans of benefits to the Kebele residents

Mobilize Kebele residents for development, development and protect natural resources

Appoint judges selected by the executive committee to the social courts

Determine the work of the executive and other committees

Safeguard public safety and ensure observance of law and order

Policy formulation and planning Policy were formulated at the state level

Most responsibilities given to federal state

Bureaus operates independent of federal ministries

Planning is at different levels(refer to p12)

No participation of the people from sectoral level

Fiscal decentralization Many failures in decentralization has been attributed to inadequate funding

Genuine decentralization programme should try to clarify the fiscal relationship between the center and the units to whom power is being decentralized

Adequate resources should be available to effectively shoulder their responsibilities

The constitution provides for how to share revenue between federal government and the state(p16)

With limited revenue sources at their disposal, the regions are dependent on transfers from federal government to finance the expenditure

The weighted method is used to allocate grants to the regions

The formula includes three major variables namely

Population The budgeted regional government revenue I-distance indicator weighted by population

An equal 33.3% was assigned to each unit

This choice has been dictated by the desire to achieve interregional equity, against a background of uneven revenue-generating capacities

The population variable implies that every region has the same per capita expenditure need independent of the revenue-generating capacity

The use of revenue share is aimed at stimulating regional government revenue efforts

Made up of eight distinct variables Length of rural road Share of rural population in total population Per capita industrial production Per capita crop food production Density of pupils in elementary schools in relation total population

This formula had many short comings Less transparent I-distance indicator Lack of adequate and up-to-date information Lack of incentives for revenue generation by regions

Less weight for population (Fenta 1998 p.45)

Having recognize its shortcomings the weight given to the three major variables was changed with

population getting 60%

I-distance indicator 25%

Budgeted regional revenue 15%

Human Resource Management With devolution of many functions many regions found themselves saddle with activities for which they had no qualified staff

Fortunately, the establishment of regions coincided with government downsizing. Hence some were redeployed to the regions especially those who spoke local language

This did not serve the entire regions but mostly offices. Therefore lacking trained manpower to handle the new responsibilities

Most regions lacked qualified manpower who spoke local language hence most used Amharic as working language which enable assignment of personnel who do not speak the local language

The federal Civil Service Commission was restricted to extending training support

The other concern was lack of better remuneration to retain and attract competent civil servant from private sector

Capacity Building Need to endow most regions with capacity to shoulder the devolved developmental responsibilities

Most lack trained planners

The government embarked on a number of short term and long term capacity building initiatives

Established Ethiopian Civil Service College with training components in law, economics, accounting and municipal engineering and town planning

Ethiopian Management Institute was also involved in short training programmes for the regions

Stringent entrance requirements were loosen and curricula tailor made for specific regions need

Government opened a special school for the economically undeveloped region in Addis Ababa

Government also launched a distance education programme in collaboration with UK

Government launched training programme for the executive committee members of zonal and Woreda offices

In spite of inherent danger Ethiopia embarked upon a daring experiment of using ethno-linguistic criteria as a basis for its political decentralization

Mere declaration of the right to secession does not mean it will be exercised

By arresting ethnic conflict threat of disintegration will reduce

Decentralization has not trickled down to units like the Woredas, which are the focal center for development and hence logical units for enhanced popular participation (Due to lack of human power)

By recognizing the various nationalities rights to self-determination , right to develop their language, culture and teach in their respective languages have restored their pride and provide conducive environment for inter –regional competition in development

The rapid pace of decentralization has created some confusion administrative and resource constrains as well as duplication of institutional efforts. Most regions were not ready to shoulder the complex responsibilities of project planning and implementation, financial discipline and mobilization of popular initiative for development

Tendency of some states to jealously guard new won power to govern oneself to the extend of discouraging the free flow of goods and services

Revenue sharing still a challenge as it has created a vertical imbalance where more responsibility are with the state but more resource are with the Federal government

Genuine commitment to a political community where equality, democracy and justice prevail could ensure success in decentralization programme

Long term stability depend on enlarging the economic pie so that it is enough for everyone

The Ethiopian experiment is a step in the right direction and statesmanship should embrace devolution which suit their respective country situation and composition

Makes government more responsible

Facilitates participatory decision making

Brings the government closer to the governed

Accommodates and manages social diversity

It is an anti-dote for concentration of power

Balances economic development in the whole of the country

Can promote ethnicity May lead to exclusion It may Compound marginalization of minorities

Can inflate religious and cultural diversities

Can lead to decentralized authoritarianism Can lead to separation secession It may also create rigidity and slow down decision making- process

It can lead to Unnecessary duplicate of roles

It is expensive to run especially due to the diversity of roles