Culture as agenda in Development paradigms : A close look in the context of Kathmandu Valley.

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Cultural Continuity, Adaptation and Conservation 1 of 12

Culture as agenda in Development paradigms A close look in the context of Kathmandu Valley.

Introduction

Culture being an image of people‟s way of life, it is taking wider space in development discourse after the realization of the shortcomings of outcome of modernization paradigm. Surfing the development trends in global context swiftly, an attempt for scrutiny has been made to relate this trend in context of Kathmandu valley probing in the culture and local knowledge regarding urban development and management and establish the imperatives to acknowledge these cultural dimension in new development policies for continuity, harmony, efficiency and justice.

Development Scene of Nepal

After establishment of democracy in 1951, different development tools were exercised to constitute the modern Nepal. Along with the global wave, Nepal also adopted several development instruments either under aid assistance or by native development initiatives. It succeeded to improve some of the development indices but most of these practices could not embrace cultural pluralism and ethnic communities. For example, in the name of national identity, the state was declared „Hindu State‟ and the predominant language („khas‟) was established as the national „Nepali‟ language undermining the local scripts, languages and literatures. The ruling elites remained constantly of past economic elites and from very few ethnic groups. In this mode, concentration of development was made contrastingly high in Kathmandu Valley only. This resulted in high influx of population, not only from the rural area but also from the small towns out side the valley. Urbanization took such a rapid pace that different urban problems have become the characteristics of the Kathmandu City. Disparities and power imbalance aroused the social movements culminating to armed conflicts and huge loss of lives demanding the rights and access to power. Nepal is under transition to a new constitution. Unprecedented considerations regarding inclusion, cultural diversity, ethnic revival, secularism of state are under debate as formative agenda of state. This essay attempts to look at the theoretical concept of cultural continuity, conservation and adaptation with relation to some examples from the context of Kathmandu Valley.

Definition of Culture “Culture is the fundamental condition for collective existence; it is the unconscious universal frame of reference, which becomes specific only in confrontation with other cultures. This in turn starts a process of objectification and reification which changes both the content and function of culture” Hettne (1995, pg 201)

Culture is the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization or group (Wikipedia).

It encompasses wide range of subjects such as local indigenous knowledge, music, visual arts, theatre, poetry, song, eating habits, clothing, rites and rituals, beliefs, language, education, communication, creativity etc.

Culture and City

Culture is the factor which enlivens the space. It is attached meaning to the space to become place. It is identity of the place, the result of amalgamation of space, nature and people. Hence, City is constituted by physical space and cultural dimension. Herbert & Thomas (1990, pg-143) connoted “City in space: City as Place”. He provided the subjectivist approach to view city within society - “the city is most spectacular outcome of social, political and economic processes. It is a microcosm.” Young (2008) has termed importance of culture in development context, first as it consists of the ways-of-life of an entire society; second, culture includes history and intangible heritage; and third, culture encompasses most of the environment in the form of tangible heritage and cultural landscapes

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Development Trends: Culture in crisis:

Globalization, regionalization, modernization accelerated cultural change so rapidly that majority of population lagged behind for catching up. Rather than reaping the benefit those trends, they lose their status losing their ownerships and entitlements while adopting in new situation. From early Colonialism to neoliberal development paradigm, culture has been undermined. Colonialists adopted their policy of domestication imposing foreign language, religion, mode of entertainment and ridiculing the local one as inferior and uncivilized. Its imprint did not get wiped out in later development trends. The suppression and development in favor of elite minority remained in different forms of Neo-colonialism.

Functionalist principles of development threatened ecological system as well as local culture. Nationalist approaches tend to identify nation belong to the predominant ethnic group establishing „National Culture‟ in which one sub-national culture is elevated as National culture – leads to ethnocide (Hettne Björn, 1995 pg 201). Moreover, as Pieterse (2001) discusses „development‟ as ideology and its political leaning, it has been a tool for retaining hegemony of the powerful over powerless. So, the culture of powerless was always intended to undermine in development politics. From all these trends, the back side of development turned out to be disastrous to majority of population losing their identity and freedom and control over resource. Such homogenizing, westernizing and Eurocentric mode of development contributed more to poverty, environmental crisis and ethnocide. Consequences of these resulted in war and conflicts

1, invasion and

displacement or extinction of those weaker groups. Conventional concept of development is hence in question that led to post-development thinking interpreting development as disaster and state as authoritarian engineering. (Pieterse, 2001).

Shift in development thinking

The former development thinking basically originated from European/Western economic and social models bears legacies which seeks to deal with quite concrete agendas like, lack of housing, poor education, inadequate health care, unemployment, etc. But after their first two International Decades for Development

2,

UNESCO initiated a World Decade for Cultural Development from 1987. It organized UNESCO World Conference on Cultural Policies, 1982, Mexico City Conference

3. Discourse on cultural policies took its pace

since 1970s. INCD (2002) elucidates the shift from “Development impacts upon the culture” to “the culture impacts upon the development process.” Later, UNCED

4 1992, placed culture as defining role in

sustainability through „Agenda 21‟. Similarly, European Commission‟s (EC)5, the UNESCO-World

Commission on Culture (WCC)‟s report “Our Creative Diversity” in 1995, UN‟s Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity in 2001 and World Bank

6 recognized culture as important element of development.

(Young, 2008). These global waves have been manifested also in National scene. In the new shift of the development paradigm, indigenous culture and knowledge has got a central concern. Neo-colonialist, Euro-centrist development thinking is being turning to cultural multi-polarity (Bjønness, 2009 pg-5).

Culture and Urban Development in Kathmandu Valley

Kathmandu Valley possesses unique culture rooted in the territorial base which built on since ages coping with nature, opportunities and risks. The Newars, the indigenous population are endowed with rich culture in urban pattern and life, architecture and art, construction material and technology, music, food, literature, language, rites and rituals and way of behaving and thinking etc. These indigenous people have developed numerous cultural norms and practices related to the urban development and management. Some of such features are listed below:

Land Use and Urban Form

1. All the traditional settlements are placed in the higher land where irrigation is not feasible or difficult and fertile low land was left for agriculture.

2. City‟s limit to growth: Religious cultural rituals were devised to ensure everybody not to dare trespass the limit boundary. The Temples of mother goddesses ware one of the derivatives of these strategies. In case of inevitability of expansion they have either shifted these temples in consultation with priests and astrologers or they settled satellite towns leaving adequate open agro-lands in between. Figure-1 illustrates this morphology of the Khokana settlement where the built up area is compact and the settlement boundary is still clearly visible.

3. Within the settlement, mixed commercial residential housing fabric with alternate large community open spaces and squares adorned with artistic temple structures. The urban form is characterized by compact high density either with interlinking courtyards or row houses facilitated with necessary urban

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infrastructures. Figure:2 & 3 illustrates the tradition squares bounded by the temple structures, palace and residences

Infrastructure

1. Strategic road layouts have been laid out in cosmic mandala form as prescribed by ancient text on Vastushastra.

2. Stone water spout called hiti were constructed using canal networks and ponds. The hiti constructed in 5

th century CE is still serving with the fresh drinking water. (Figure: 4)

3. Several ponds were constructed to collect storm water, to avoid flooding and to recharge ground water.

4. Public rest house called pati, community buildings called chapa and digi, religious structure etc are other public infrastructures provided by state or the community institution.

Socio-Cultural Practices

1. Different festivals are celebrated with the ritual and reverence to nature. These occasions are also marked for maintenance and cleaning of the public infrastructure.

a. Paha chahre - for cleaning private residential composting sites

b. Sithi nakha and nag panchami – cleaning wells and neighborhood open spaces

c. Varsha Vardhan – birthday of the structure

Local skill and knowledge

1. The local craftsmen are veteran in creating creative carvings and build forms. Moreover, they are well aware and learned of the earthquake resistant construction technology. The 72 feet tall nyatapola is the testimony of this expertise as it didn‟t collapse in the greatest known earthquake in Kathmandu. Figure: 8 illustrates wooden horizontal bands in Basantapur Palace, Kathmandu as remarkable example of using earthquake resistant technology.

2. Several climate responsive design solution has been developed over time such as roofing details, wedge shaped brick and details in brick etc. (Figure 7)

These are only some testimonies. Vast local knowledge in the form of culture can be learned by scrutiny of the valley urban form and its urbanism. Shah (2006) concluded „the medieval planners were essentially preoccupied with similar considerations as today. In the traditional city, the three principal considerations of urban planning: Land-use, infrastructure and urban form were established with a deep understanding of the following: Economic possibilities; The socio-cultural frame provided by the architectural character, size, distribution, and access/control of urban space; Environmental and ecological issues with respect to installation and long-term management of infrastructure, patterns of energy consumption; Strategies and tools for urban management were carefully instituted into the socio-cultural practices. Together, these factors led to the evolution of culture of place.‟ Similarly, Tiwari (2006) pointed out different aspects of sustainable urban development practice in historic cities of Kathmandu which he claims could be a profound knowledge for modern urban planning. Self-sufficiency; preservation of hinterlands; bounded urban structure but interacting urban – rural system; social cohesion in multicultural urbanism; community ownership and participation; management of infrastructure including sewer management, water supply with cyclical maintenance system and recycling policies; rites, rituals and religious principles exploited for development control etc were part of local urban culture which has contributed in sustainability of the city for over millenniums. In this context, Tiwari (n.d.) defines „urban culture‟ as an endogenous knowledge of sustainability which is pervasive in the way of life of inhabitants. It is a summary of interaction or balancing dialogue between nature, economic pursuits and social relationships.

In the wave of modernistic development, these cultural heritages are under threat of extinction. The new urban planning and development practices are in question whether they are aware of the territorial knowledge and lifestyle. In the wake of the new development paradigm which calls for recognizing cultural identity and values, are the development practices in Kathmandu Valley still sticking into westernizing, modernizing and homogenizing mode of development?

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Cultural continuity as the New Value for Development

Cultural continuity, a phenomenon of cultural reproduction, is the transmission of existing cultural values and norms from generation to generation which results in social reproduction. Respect for cultural diversity, inter-cultural exchange of knowledge, conservation of the local knowledge and traditions, inclusion of cultural varieties in the development mainstream are some of the strategies which fulfill the issues of culture and development.

Cultural continuity as strategy in urban planning and development refers to continuation of knowledge as it is discussed above in relation to the building society. Cultural continuity is not hostile to change, but change should be positive and linked to general agreed values related to prime areas of settlements development: equity, sustainability and the building of civil society (UN reports cited in Bjønness 2001).

Local knowledge base are mainly of territorial of nature linked directly with use of resources of the place for improved and sustainable livelihood conditions and inter-generational transfer of knowledge which is essential for survival (Jigyasu,2002 cited in Bjønness,2009). Another form of culture related development paradigm is ethno-development which advocates that the development should be within the framework of cultural pluralism, shaped by specific needs, values of particular ethnic groups and their self-determination. Development initiatives inspired by the respect of cultural dimension have twofold benefit. Firstly, the legacy of centuries continues and secondly, the development derived from within the territory would be easy to accept and cope by the local population. This new values of cultural continuity can be well manifested in Conservation paradigms. .

Shift in Conservation Paradigm- Inclusion of Eastern Values

Rodwell(2008) elucidates the development of Modern architectural conservation as it is considered to be started since Italian Renaissance (14

th-16

th CE). Later The Age of Reason (or Enlightenment) in 18

th CE

Europe, Picturesque Movement (1840 to 1900), Romantic Movement and emergence of Nationalism, Post-French revolution (1789–99 AD) reconstruction

7, Anti-restoration movement

8, Post-World War II

reconstruction contributed remarkably in production of theories of Conservation. Urban conservation project is pioneered by France in 1962 establishing the legal and financial basis for protected areas in Marais Quarter

9 in Paris as Museological Approach. Buchanan Report 1963 aggressively raised concerns about

environmental capacity and the threat of the new infrastructure development to the historic cities. In addition to this, Gordon Cullen‟s treatise „Townscape‟ and Donald Insall‟s „Chester: An Approach to Conservation‟ of 1960s are other remarkable works. (Rodwell, 2008) Dominancy of Western values and exclusion of eastern values were often questioned in academic circle. Japan hosted Nara Convention on Authenticity which has tried to address these issues. Similarly, national charters like INTACH Charter 2004 speak about imperatives of multiculturalism in Conservation incorporating indigenous practices in mainstream. The notion of only material authenticity

10 expressed in

Venice charter other western values does not fit in most of the eastern values where perishable building material like mud, wood etc are widely used. Indigenous practices of restoration and conservation were never considered and mentioned in the mainstream paradigm. Periodic repair and renewal is an endogenous conservation practice of those places. Nara Document and recent conservation theories are more on the way to include these norms as mainstream. Conservation in context of Kathmandu Valley

Kathmandu Valley is endowed with rich heritage regarding architecture and urban culture. The historical evidences show that the practice of conservation was the integral part of the urban culture in Kathmandu. The structures are built of semi-perishable materials like wood, mud and bricks and are exposed to monsoon climate and subject to periodic mild or strong strokes of earthquakes. In addition the traditional rituals of worshipping causes frequent fire hazards. Many inscriptions and manuscript from as old as 5th century reveals that the Nepalese builder consider conservation practice along with the construction of any architectural structure. These structures get renewed or rebuild in every 200 years. In the course of recovery, replacement of the damaged structural member and also some innovation and evolution in design is apparent. And all these practices were carried out by family tradition of craftsmanship. Hence, concept of authenticity developed in west where permanent material is used for construction contradicts with the one of east. Also the structures are still the part of living tradition and are still in use by people for the purpose it was meant to. So, weathering and continuous repair and reconstruction is the part of tradition observing by the people.

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Looking at the historical chronology, Kirats (before 1st century AD) practiced with brick and wood. Lichhavis (1st to 9th century AD) came up with stone but still not in huge temples. Mallas (9th to 18th century AD) went back to the brick and wood. The structures made out of imperishable material are being taken care through since ages.

The construction of a structure is accompanied by establishing a trust called Guthi. Guthi is formed with an institution of guthiyars (members) endowed with land and other entitlements. Income from this is used for continuity of cleaning, performing rituals, repairing, renovating and reconstructing. It also evidently portrayed the civic engagement in conservation of the structures. The inscription dated back from 491 CE explains the grant of land for conservation of a temple; similarly many other evidences of donation by a person or endowing portion of feud by monarch etc are available (Tiwari, 2009). In this context, Tiwari (2009) defines the term „conservation‟ alternatively as 'perpetuity of actions' rather than merely preserving structures with old material. In Nepalese tradition, every structure have birthday called varsa vardhan. In this day the guthiyars come together to review endowment status, carry out cleaning, repairing and renewing the structure and perform their annual ritual and have feast. Tiwari (2009) illustrates conservation practice after 1934 AD earthquake. The earthquake pulled down the 55 windowed palaces. The local resource and local craftsmen reconstructed it with much alteration, like the projection of the 55 window and roof overhangs were decreased. In this reconstruction work, reuse of material and effort of simplification is apparent as a part of conservation. Because of constraint of limited resource for replacing everything by new material they had to trim the joists and rafters and reuse the same members which caused decrease in projection of windows and roof. They replaced some of the columns and the older one was found stored in some other place. When compared the original one with the replaced one, the motifs were in similar pattern but simpler.

Later in recent conservation project of this Palace, in which Prof. Tiwari himself is actively involved, the projection of roof and windows were increased as per the original one. The columns were replaced by columns with original motifs when there is enough money to afford it. Similarly, an image on the top member of main door was found worn out and nobody could identify what it is. Lastly, one of the craftsmen suggested an image and missing image was restored according to his knowledge. These acts in both first and second conservation of the palace could be called renovation, conjectural restoration from western perspective. But in traditional values in Nepalese context, authenticity lies on the continuity of acts rather than material one. Hence, Prof. Tiwari suggested that western knowledge and local craftsmen knowledge must be combined to form norms for material authenticity in the place. The traditional practice of the conservation has lot many things which could be the lesson to learn to revisit the current international norms. Similar variation can be found in different modes of the conservation. Adaption is one of the mostly debated subject in this regard.

Debates on Adaptation

„Adaptation‟ is adaptive reuse of cultural heritage to make them suited to present needs and realities. It also implies to make changes in technology and materials to make them safer. Adaptive reuse goes beyond pure renovation and reconstruction. Sensitive adaptive reuse would strive as much as possible to keep the original configuration and to prevent the useless destruction of structural features when installing contemporary conveniences such as air-conditioning, plumbing, etc. In ecological terms, adaptation represents in the recycling and harnessing of already existing resources. For town level conservation, Adaptation refers to the careful installation or improvement of public service facilities. (Washington Charter 1987) Adaptability is essence of living heritage as it continuously evolves according to changing needs and aspirations overtime, contrary to the conservative approach that seeks to preserve heritage for posterity.

INTACH Charter further suggests - adaptive re-use as effective and economically sensible strategy to conserve architectural heritage, particularly by using traditional craftspeople in the process. Any new use must be introduced only after studying its effect on the local context, and must conform to the carrying capacity and vulnerability of the architectural heritage. All changes should be preceded and followed by comprehensive documentation. Additions and alterations must respect the coherence of the whole, and must, to the extent possible, engage traditional materials, skills and knowledge in the process. For the least best, when it becomes necessary to modernize and comprehensively alter the original internal functional characteristics of the building or site, its external image must be retained. At the outset, the local community must be made aware of the changes envisaged and explained the benefits to be derived. Also other charters related to building conservation such as Venice charter, Burra charter has recognized adaption as an lower degree of conservation, whereas charters related to historic town and vernacular heritage such Washington charter, Mexico Charter has place this function as an inevitable function of conservation.

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Though it has been a part of conservation since early time, it was not a qualifying criterion for selection of World Heritage Sites. Several members of World heritage committee in 1978 in State Party Responses challenged the qualifying criteria posing their view that new functions often had to be adapted to other functions to ensure its preservation. It became a leap in the evolution of values of authenticity (Von Droste, Bertilsson, 1995: 3 cited in Stovel, 2007). Stovel(2007) has recommended in his new framework of authenticity analysis on continuity of function as „If the primary historic function(s) of an historic city (or architectural monuments and complexes) contribute to its Outstanding Universal Value (OUV), then every effort should be made to ensure continuity of function over time. Where these functions may now be obsolete, efforts should be in place to encourage compatible functions or at minimum those functions which do not obliterate the evidence of significant earlier functions. Some examples of adaptation practices in Kathmandu

In different international, state-led or local conservation initiatives in Kathmandu Valley, different forms of adaptation can be observed. Basically the shift in use can be found in two modes: Most of the state-led or international cooperation led conservation projects such as Bhaktapur Development Project (BDP), The Svatha Chowks Conservation and Development Project (SCDP), Conservation of Patan Museum etc has practiced adaptation mainly for touristic use. In BDP, traditional priest houses were converted into restaurants. A portion of Patan Palace is converted to Patan museum. a. Patan Museum: Changing and adding staircase, modifying the circulation, removing non-load bearing

walls, replacing mud floors with handmade terracotta tiles, replacing mud plaster by lime plaster, replacing some wooden posts by metal one, the old ruined building was creatively renovated and repaired to accommodate the museum. Now, it has been serving as educational as well as touristic purpose and getting popular as one of the most visited sites. This project has also faced flood of criticism regarding authenticity and conjecture. But anyway, the place is still live because of Adaptation.

b. BDP11

: has promoted adaptive reuse of the private residential house to bread and breakfast

accommodation for tourists, traditional priest houses to restaurants. Besides, BDP as a comprehensive urban conservation project, its implementation encompassed building conservation, support for local administration, water and sanitation, road construction, economic promotion esp. of local skills, community development.

Conclusion

Cultural has been is one of the agendas coming upfront in current development paradigms. Having close look to the conservation and adaptation practice in Kathmandu Valley, we tried to review how cultural agenda become a driving factor to reshape the development practices being grounded on territorial base. This approach calls for sustainability, inclusion, recognition through the cultural continuity as a development strategy.

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Figure 11: 55 windowed palace after 2nd conservation in 2007

Figure 10: 55 windowed palace after 1st conservation after 1934 Earthquake

Figure 9: 55 windowed palace after 1934 Earthquake

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Figure 4: Mani Hiti Patan, 5th Century AD

Figure 3: Traditional urban fabric – chain of open spaces

against built form

R

Figure 2: Patan Palace Square

Figure 1: Khokana settlement (Kantipur Daily, 2005)

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Figure 12: Patan Palace: now Patan Museum

Figure 13: Previously a math (priest house): Restaurant

Figure 8: use of earthquake resistant - wooden bands

Figure 5: Pimbaha Pond, Patan

Figure 6: Public rest house - Pati

Figure 7: wedge shaped brick – to avoid moisture in wall

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Notes:

1 UNESCO (1996) recommended the preparation of culturally sensitive development strategies as a solution

to the overarching internal conflicts. The report mentions about the changing nature of wars and conflict. As among the 89 conflicts mentioned in 1994 Human Development Report, 79 were internal conflicts. 2 UNESCO termed the previous decades of development (1960s-80s) as limited concept based primarily on

quantitative and material growth (INCD, 2002). 3 The Mexico City Conference of 1982 put forward with great conviction the idea that “culture constitutes a

fundamental part of the life of the each individual and of each community…and development…whose ultimate aims should be focused on humankind…must therefore have a cultural dimension.” 4 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

5 EC prepared European strategy for culture

6 The centrality of culture in relation to identity, development and sustainability was stated at the World

Bank‟s 1999 international conference 7 In Post-French revolution (1789–99 AD) reconstruction, the former practice of targeted destruction of

possessions of former ruler was denied and rather they were soon recognized as testimony to the past achievements of the people who had formed the French nation. 8 Anti-restoration movement in England and France in response to stylistic restoration prompted The SPAB

Manifesto of 1877, drafted by William Morris which is often cited as the formal basis for architectural conservation. 9 Designation of the protected area prompted preparation of comprehensive plan for the area which

encompassed town planning, architecture and conservation issues. 10

Venice Charter 1964 has defined authenticity as „materially original or genuine (as it was constructed) and as it has aged and changed in time‟. 11

Bhaktapur Development Project (BDP): And first urban conservation of historic city project implemented

in the period of 1974 to 1983 AD. The project led by Government of Nepal in Collaboration with the Government of Federal Republic of Germany. Financial and Technical assistance was provided through the GTZ.

Culture as agenda in Development paradigms : A close look in the context of Kathmandu Valley.

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