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UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI

CUBAN AND AFRO-CUBAN MUSICAL ELEMENTS IN THE CLASSICAL GUITAR COMPOSITIONS BY HECTOR ANGULO

By

Juan Antonio Pena

A DOCTORAL ESSAY

Submitted to the Faculty of the University of Miami

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctoral of Musical Arts

Coral Gables, Florida

December 2021

UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI

A doctoral essay submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Musical Arts

CUBAN AND AFRO-CUBAN MUSICAL ELEMENTS IN THE CLASSICAL GUITAR COMPOSITIONS BY HECTOR ANGULO

Juan Antonio Pena

Approved:

____________________________ ______________________________ Brian Timothy Powell, D.M.A. Rafael Padron, M.M Associate Professor of Double Bass Assistant Professor of Classical

Guitar

____________________________ ______________________________ Marysol Quevedo, Ph.D. Laura Sherman, D.M.A. Assistant Professor in Musicology Lecturer Professor of Harp and

Music Theory

____________________________ ______________________________ Dale W. Underwood Guillermo Prado, Ph.D. Professor of Saxophone Dean of the Graduate School

PENA, JUAN ANTONIO (D.M.A., Instrumental Performance) (December 2021)

Cuban and Afro-Cuban Musical Elements in the Classical Guitar Compositions by Hector Angulo

Abstract of a doctoral essay at the University of Miami.

Doctoral essay supervised by Professors Brian Timothy Powell and Rafael Padron. No. of pages in text. (132)

Héctor Angulo, one of the most versatile Cuban composers, had a musical style

that combines Afro-Cuban music elements with 20th and 21st century compositional

techniques. His musical discourse includes elements from the African musical heritage.

This paper proposes a conscious reconsideration of the approach to non-Western musical

traditions which require different analytical techniques. An analytical study will reveal

the musical content that defines both the Afro-Cuban and the contemporary styles. Some

of the analytical techniques used in this study include musical ambiguities (polytonal,

polyrhythmic, pitch ambiguity, bi-modal, Poly-meter, Dual texture, phenomenal and

agogic accents) and music temporalities which are defined by non-directed linear

dynamic, texture, timbre, density, range, progressions, and gestures. From a historical

background, the research provides a complete description of Angulo’s innovative musical

style, which comports with a Nationalist trend in Classical Guitar idiomatic writing. This

study explores the approach of a non-guitarist composer who brings new sonorities to the

guitar, transcending the range of musical options traditionally limited by standard

performance modes. Héctor Angulo’s musical compositions display an outstanding

balance between the premise of collective participation of the artist with his individual

artistic distinctiveness. The educational goal of this research is to provide a detailed

analysis of these works, offering alternative approaches to them and support for the

performer's musical choices. In addition, the author is opening the path for further

investigations into other Cuban guitarist and non-guitarist composers.

iii

Acknowledgments

My deepest gratitude to my advisor, teacher, and friend Professor Rafael Padron

for his trust and support during this journey. Special thanks to Dr. Brian Powell, chair of

the committee, and members Dr. Laura Sherman and Professor Dale Underwood for their

assistance on this project and on my doctoral recitals and exams. This project would not

have been accomplished without the valuable guidance of Dr. Marysol Quevedo,

committee member and my teacher in other courses. At this point in the journey, I want

to recognize those who dedicated endless hours teaching me how to place my fingers on

the guitar: Victor Pellegrini, Martin Pedreira, and those no longer with us - Marta Cuervo

and Dr. Kenneth Keaton. Thanks to Maestros Jesus Ortega and Leo Brouwer for being

vital axes of my education.

I am eternally grateful to my dearest daughters and family for being the source of

my inspiration and to my parents for their unconditional love. Thank you to my friends,

students, and those anonymous heroes that pass through our lives “trocando lo sucio en

Oro ….” (Turning the dirt into Gold).

iv

Table of Contents

Page

List of Musical Examples .................................................................................................. vi

Chapter

I: Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1. Review of Literature ........................................................................................ 6 2. Nationalism and Avant-Garde musical trends in Cuba before and after

the Revolution in 1959 .............................................................................. 16 3. Cuban cultural and socio-political context during Héctor Angulo’s

creative period ........................................................................................... 22 4. The Cuban Classical Guitar School and Cuban composers ........................... 25 5. Biographical information of Héctor Angulo, his career, musical

education, and stylistics influences ........................................................... 36

II: Cuban Musical Traditions ...................................................................................... 43 1. African origin ................................................................................................. 43

1.1 Yoruba Music ...................................................................................... 47 1.2 Congo Music ....................................................................................... 54 1.3 Abakuá Music ..................................................................................... 57 1.4 Characteristics of the vocal aspect of Afro-Cuban music ................... 65

2. Spanish origin: Country Music (Música Guajira) ......................................... 67 2.1 Spanish musical elements ................................................................... 67 2.2 The Son ............................................................................................... 69 2.3 The Décima ......................................................................................... 72

3. Afro-Cuba and Cuban rhythmic musical idioms ........................................... 74

III: Methods of Musical Analysis ............................................................................... 76 1. Vectoral Analysis, Pitch-class Set Theory, Musical Ambiguities, and

Musical Temporalities: explanation, justification, and application .......... 76

IV: Works for Classical Guitar by Héctor Angulo ..................................................... 78 1. List of works: ................................................................................................. 78 2. Selected works and historical context during the composition ...................... 78

2.1 Cantos Yoruba de Cuba ...................................................................... 78 2.2 Cantos para ir Juntos.......................................................................... 82 2.3 Son y Décima ...................................................................................... 83

2.4 Reception, performance, and recognition of these works within the classical guitar world ................................................................................ 83

v

V .................................................................................................................................. 86 1. Cantos Yoruba de Cuba: Analysis ................................................................. 86

1.1 Asokere I ............................................................................................. 86 1.2 Suayo ................................................................................................... 89 1.3 Iyá mi ilé ............................................................................................. 92 1.4 Borotiti ................................................................................................ 95 1.5 Asokere II ............................................................................................ 98 1.6 Iyá mo dupe ....................................................................................... 101 1.7 Yeye bi obi tosuo ............................................................................... 103 1.8 E Iekua .............................................................................................. 105 1.9 Asokere III ......................................................................................... 107

Chapter VI ................................................................................................................. 109 1. Cantos para ir Juntos: Analysis ........................................................................... 109

1.1 I ......................................................................................................... 109 1.2 II ........................................................................................................ 110 1.3 III....................................................................................................... 112 1.4 IV ...................................................................................................... 114 1.5 V ........................................................................................................ 115

Chapter VII ............................................................................................................... 120

1. Son y Décima: Analysis ............................................................................... 120 1.1 Son..................................................................................................... 120 1.2 Décima .............................................................................................. 121

Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 123

Bibliography .................................................................................................... 127

Discography ..................................................................................................... 132

Music Scores .................................................................................................... 132

vi

List of Musical Examples

Example 2.1: Canto de sacrificio en el rito mborimapá (Chant of sacrifice in the

rite mborimapá). ................................................................................................... 62

Example 2.2: Salida del berome (Exit of the berome)...................................................... 63

Example 2.3: Canto funeral del velorio enyoró (Funeral chant of velorio enyoró) ......... 63

Example 2.4: Entrada del berome (Entrance of the berome) ........................................... 63

Example 2.5: Canto del enyoró (Chant of the enyoró) ..................................................... 64

Example 2.6: Canto del entierro (Chant of the entierro) ................................................. 64

Example 2.7: Canto de la iniciación de los indíseme (Initiation chant of indíseme) ....... 64

Example 2.8: Clave de Son 3-2 ......................................................................................... 71

Example 2.9: Clave de Son 2-3 ......................................................................................... 71

Example 2.10: Cinquillo with a complementary measure. ............................................... 71

Example 2.11: The bass line follows this syncopated rhythmic pattern ........................... 72

Example 2.12: Ternary rhythm of the punto guajiro, 3/4 or 6/8. ..................................... 73

Example 2.13: Modal scales in the décima ....................................................................... 74

Example 2.14: Cuban Claves ............................................................................................ 75

Example 2.15: Other distinctive rhythmic elements ......................................................... 75

Example 2.16: The syncopated bass is responsible for the “swing” of Cuban music ...... 75

Example 5.1: Imitation at a slower pace by an inner voice .............................................. 87

Example 5.2: mm5: Quartal Chord. .................................................................................. 87

Example 5.3: mm 8: (Csus2/G) then (Csus4/G) ............................................................... 88

Example 5.4: mm 6: cinquillo ........................................................................................... 88

Example 5.5: mm 11: melodic polyphony ........................................................................ 88

vii

Example 5.6: mm12: metric change and unexpected (Csus(b2) ....................................... 89

Example 5.7: vertical chordal texture ............................................................................... 90

Example 5.8: arpeggiating chords..................................................................................... 90

Example 5.9: entrance to part B in harmonics .................................................................. 90

Example 5.10: mm9-21: pitch-set [E, F#, B] with its variations ...................................... 91

Example 5.11: (Esus2) suspended chord .......................................................................... 92

Example 5.12: irregular rhythmic cells ............................................................................. 93

Example 5.13: G as a pedal note throughout the piece ..................................................... 94

Example 5.14: chord on the second “weak” beat, then another rest ................................. 94

Example 5.15: mm19/23: distinction between two suspended chords ............................. 95

Example 5.16: Pitch-set [F, C, G] ..................................................................................... 96

Example 5.17: stress accent on the fourth beat ................................................................. 97

Example 5.18: new rhythmic motif .................................................................................. 97

Example 5.19: mm14: parallel-fifths motion .................................................................... 97

Example 5.20: [F, C, G] in chord form ............................................................................. 98

Example 5.21: upward two-voice chromatic movement at a different pace ..................... 99

Example 5.22: mm4-6 ..................................................................................................... 100

Example 5.23: mm11: metric magnetism ....................................................................... 101

Example 5.24: mm1: single-voice upward arpeggio on a Dm11/G chord increases

the amount of voice from one to four as it goes down back to G ....................... 102

Example 5.25: irregular rhythmic autonomy that is based on the pitch-set [G. C, F]

and its combinations ........................................................................................... 102

Example 5.26: two measures- motif and rhythmic structure of the lower voice ............ 102

viii

Example 5.27: mm 55/59: accents at the last subdivision of the measure ...................... 104

Example 5.28: mm 19: melodic intervals of fourths ....................................................... 104

Example 5.29: mm18: soothing the dissonance of a major 2nd ..................................... 104

Example 5.30: mm4: intervals of fourths against quartal trichords ................................ 106

Example 5.31: linear motion of irregular rhythms and several agogic accents. ............. 106

Example 5.32: mm11: quintal chord arrangements ........................................................ 106

Example 5.33: parallel fifths ........................................................................................... 107

Example 5.34: mm 10-11: upward arpeggio................................................................... 107

Example 5.35: pedal note G on the inner voice .............................................................. 108

Example 6.1: polyphonic and polyrhythmic (rhythmic schemes) in three voices. ......... 110

Example 6.2: mm 22/24: two against three rhythms ...................................................... 110

Example 6.3: Quartal and Quintal chords ....................................................................... 110

Example 6.4: mm 25-30: ascending and descending motion ......................................... 110

Example 6.5: vertical chordal texture, quasi homophonic, and polyphonic. .................. 111

Example 6.6: the pitch-set [E, A, D, G] .......................................................................... 111

Example 6.7: complex polyrhythmic texture .................................................................. 112

Example 6.8: mm21: imitative counterpoint .................................................................. 113

Example 6.9: Afro-Cuban polyrhythmic distinctiveness ................................................ 113

Example 6.10: mm 54: imitative polyphonic texture and hemiola. ................................ 114

Example 6.11: The melody in part A starts on the second beat: monophonic

texture ................................................................................................................. 114

Example 6.12: a polyphonic texture, and quasi monophonic ......................................... 115

ix

Example 6.13: mm 20: overlaps a triplet of quarters with a subdivided triplet of

eights. .................................................................................................................. 115

Example 6.14: quintal harmony ...................................................................................... 116

Example 6.15: chords on the offbeats or between the values of the melody .................. 116

Example 6.16: two against three marcato chords ........................................................... 116

Example 6.17: interval of sixths and thirds .................................................................... 117

Example 6.18: mm21-23: recurrence of the leading tone (F#) ....................................... 117

Example 6.19: anacrusis in the melody, as well as stress and agogic accent ................. 118

Example 6.20: conceptual unity ...................................................................................... 119

Example 7.1: mm 8: descending diatonic motif (C, B, A, G, F, E) ................................ 120

Example 7.2: The syncopated pulse of the Cuban Son ................................................... 121

Example 7.3: G plays a double role: the root of suspension and anticipation note ........ 121

Example 7.4: sequences at intervals of tenths ................................................................ 122

Example 7.5: melodic content is divided ........................................................................ 122

Example 7.6: “Andalusian cadence” ............................................................................... 122

Example 7.7: chromatic descending line (G, F#, E#, D#, D, C#) ................................... 123

1

Chapter I: Introduction

Musical works by non-guitarist composers have caused a substantial change

within the classical guitar repertoire. Music composed for performers such as Andres

Segovia, Julian Bream, and John Williams has made revolutionary changes in classical

guitar from both the musical and technical points of view. Classical guitar repertoire was

significantly enhanced by non-guitarist composers such as Alexandre Tansman, Mario

Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Federico Moreno Torroba, Joaquin Turina, Manuel Ponce,

Benjamin Britten, Joaquin Rodrigo, and William Walton. Referring to one of these

composers, Graham Wade says he came to the guitar “through the advocacy of Andres

Segovia, entering the legendary brotherhood of those who enriched the 20th century

repertoire. Without a knowledge of this composer's contribution, our awareness of the

evolution of the guitar over this century would remain rudimentary.”1 The works by these

composers impacted the guitar world to a great degree because their compositions

brought to the instrument the musical language of the 20th century.

The parameters established by guitarist-composers such as Francisco Tarrega,

Fernando Sor, Mauro Giuliani, and Dionisio Aguado were surpassed in terms of form,

musical content, and technique by those composers. In addition, guitarist-composers such

as Angelo Gilardino, Leo Brouwer, Agustin Barrios Mangore, Antonio Lauro, Héctor

Villa- Lobos, Nikita Koshkin, and Sergio Assad have played significant roles in the

development of guitar music. However, non-guitarist composers from Latin America

have not received enough scholarly attention.

1 Graham Wade. “The Relevance of Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco (1895 -1968).” Guitar Foundation of America: Soundboard, Volume 22. No1, (1995):.31.

2

There is a lack of analytical research on compositions for classical guitar by non-

guitarist Cuban composers. For example, despite the unique and well-crafted musical

content in pieces for guitar by Héctor Angulo (1932-2018), only one of his works for

guitar, Cantos Yoruba de Cuba, is known by some performers outside of Cuba. This

composition has received the attention of well-known guitarists such as Manuel

Barrueco, Marco Tamayo, Flores Chaviano, Rosa Matos, William Kanengiser, and Leo

Brouwer, who has performed and recorded it. However, no analytical studies have been

done on Angulo's music. His musical works for guitar deserve their own scholarly

research.

Some of Angulo’s compositions for guitar reflect the composer's modern

compositional style built upon his academic musical background and his close interaction

with Cuban and Afro-Cuban musical expressions. Works such as Cantos Yoruba de

Cuba, Cantos para ir Juntos, and Son y Décima are tangible examples of his writing

style.

There is one instance that has familiarized the world outside of Cuba with

Angulo. The song “Guantanamera,” was introduced to Pete Seeger by Angulo at Camp

Woodland's Twenty-Second Annual Folk Festival of the Catskills in Phoenicia, N.Y, on

July 15, 1962. Years later, the song became one of the most famous tunes, sung in many

different languages.

Héctor Angulo returned to Cuba after finishing his musical studies at the

Manhattan School of Music in New York. He became an active composer in Cuba,

working for a unique musical venue: “El Teatro Giñol para Niños” (Giñol Theater for

3

Children).2 Among other musical activities, Angulo devoted some time to writing for

classical guitar.

As a composer, he is known for his close connection to the Cuban popular

musical genres and Afro-Cuban musical traditions. Angulo combines these Cuban

elements with modern compositional techniques such as serialism, atonalism, quartal

harmony, and polymodality for classical guitar. His music depicts traits of nationalist,

neoclassical, neo-romantic, and postmodernist musical trends. This paper will present a

review of the literature dedicated to his works by these scholars and will hopefully serve

as a point of departure for future investigation. This paper will also focus on historical,

historiographical, and biographical literature related to the subject of study. This

examination of the literature will include dissertations on other Cuban composers with

some stylistic similarities. Writings about 20th and 21st century Cuban and Latin-

American music will be included to understand the local and global context in which the

composer produced his guitar works. Reviews of performances of Angulo’s music and

liner notes of CD recordings will be considered. Some ethnomusicological studies on

Afro-Cuban cultures are also essential for this research. Lastly, literature on analytical

techniques will be revised to find practical analytical approaches to the musical content

of Angulo’s compositions.

The use of Afro-Cuban and Cuban musical elements in contemporary writing

styles for classical guitar has been studied primarily through works by the Cuban

composer Leo Brouwer (1938-). Pieza sin Tíulo, Elógio de la Danza, Danza

2 This Puppet Theater for children was institutionalized by the Cuban government in 1963. It is financed by the government. The venue presents works by Marti, Guillen, Carpentier, Lorca, Cervantes, etc. It employs professional artists in drama as well as professional composers such as Hector Angulo. The Guinol theatre has branches in different part of the country.

4

Característica, among others, captivated the attention of the guitar world since their

premieres. Brouwer’s music has become an obbligato within the classical guitar

repertoire because of his unique style. His way of writing directly influenced the music of

Angulo; Héctor Angulo even studied harmony with Brouwer. Other guitarist-composers

such as Eduardo Martin, Ñico Rojas, and Yalil Guerra have partly achieved visibility

within the classical guitar world by performing and recording their own works. In

addition, they have been very active within the classical guitar network, including guitar

festivals, competitions, and master classes. On the other hand, Cuban non-guitarist

composers such as Angulo, Harold Gramatges, Tulio Peramo, Carlos Fariñas, and Jose

Ardevol are unknown to guitarists beyond the Caribbean Island.

Objectives

The purpose of this study is to provide analytical research on the fusing of Afro-

Cuban and traditional Cuban musical elements with advanced compositional techniques

present in works for classical guitar by Héctor Angulo. There are two main reasons why

this composer was chosen amongst others: First, Angulo’s compositions reflect three

essential aspects of Cuban musical production before and after the Revolution in 1959:

the presence of Afro-Cuban and Cuban folk traditions as part of Cuban nationalism, the

diversity of musical techniques and styles of 20th and 21st century; and the socio-political

influences in the creative process of composers within a Socialist socio-political system.

Secondly, as mentioned before, Héctor Angulo was not a guitarist, and this paper will

investigate the impact of compositions by non-guitarist composers on the range of

interpretive possibilities of modern guitarists, in particular, through the works of Angulo.

5

Héctor Angulo was a distinguished composer who received several awards and

recognition during his life in Cuba. His compositions include orchestra, piano, guitar,

instrumental chamber/music, vocal-instrumental/ensemble, and other genres. Cuban

popular music is recognized worldwide, but literature about classical Cuban composers is

scarce. Exploration of idiosyncratic aesthetics, religious implications of Afro-Cuban

music, and rhythmic complexities in the music of Héctor Angulo will provide detailed

and valuable information for performance of his music and music by other Cuban

composers with a similar style.

This analytical research will identify characteristics of Afro-Cuban music, such as

modal ambiguities, mixed meters, asymmetric melodic structures, texture diversity

(monophony, homophony, polyphony, and heterophony), polyrhythmic and rhythmic

irregularities, lack of functional harmony, minimalist content, spiritual and socio-political

connotations, and an unusual singing style with a distinctive inflection of the voice.

African music serves as an ideal platform to apply advanced compositional techniques

from the 20th and 21st centuries. Pitch collection, quartal harmony, and atonal musical

writing techniques are some of the modern compositional devices found in his music.

Angulo made use of these particularities in his compositions for classical guitar.

The development classical guitar school in Cuba stimulated the production of

musical works for the instrument. The role of non-guitarist composers was significant in

bringing to students and performers a modern language that required a higher level of

technique and expanded the interpretative possibilities of the instrument. Héctor Angulo

was one of these composers. His works for guitar combined contemporary writing and

distinctive facets of the Cuban musical identity. The Afro-Cuban aspect is one of them

6

but not the only one. Other popular Cuban musical expressions are depicted in his music.

This research will provide a detailed description of the facets of Cuban musical identity.

This research will expose Angulo’s music and the music of other Cuban composers.

It is vital to include in academic studies the musical output from composers

working in countries that have been historically omitted, where the limitation of

resources affects the promotion and recognition of their intellectual product. Cuban

popular music is recognized worldwide, but the literature concerning classical Cuban

composers is scarce. Despite this, as mentioned, the piece Cantos Yoruba de Cuba by

Héctor Angulo has been recorded and performed by well-known virtuoso classical guitar

players. They have found valuable qualities in Angulo’s musical writing. However,

scarce analytical studies and literature about the composer have been published.

This research will take as references previous studies about Leo Brouwer and

nationalism in Cuba. Furthermore, this study coincides with current academic debates

about the historically simplified and stereotyped syncretic relationships between Western,

African, and Indo-American cultures. This shallow discourse has reduced Western

musical heritage to a melodic and harmonic element, African heritage to a rhythmic

component, and the Indo-American to a pan-flute over a pentatonic scale. It disregards

musical complexities within each culture beyond those narrow narratives.

1. Review of Literature

The literature about Héctor Angulo mostly repeats the same information from

different online sources about his musical education, the generalization of his style, and a

catalog of his work. There is one dissertation, no books, and just a few articles about him.

7

In May 2021, James Gerard Cornolo researched the pedagogical use of Cantos Yoruba de

Cuba by Héctor Angulo.

Much is to be gained by the guitarist who endeavors to play these pieces in the areas of technique, capacity to interpret modern compositions and a more profound understanding of human culture…. The study of these pieces can traverse the artistic convergence of Europe, Africa, and the Americas, as well as the union of oral folk traditions with approaches that may be called highly Academic.3

Online articles from official Cuban government press-websites such Granma,

Juventud Rebelde, Bohemia, and Trabajadores have brought to this research the opinion

of governmental institutions but not necessarily the Cuban audience's perception of the

composer. This study does partially rely on these sources for information about the socio-

political aspects of the composer’s creative process inside a Socialist country.

Primary sources for analytical purposes were selected scores such as Cantos

Yoruba de Cuba, Cantos para ir Juntos, Son y Décima, Punteado, and Puntos Cubanos.

These pieces are based on Cuban musical genres, and their musical content resulted from

a cultural syncretism between European and African musical expressions that arose in

Cuba.

Another primary source for research were various audio recordings of these

pieces and other audio recordings of Afro-Cuban and Cuban music in their traditional

context. One could conclude that these sources illustrated the performer's level of

understanding of Angulo’s musical content. Recordings of Angulo's music by virtuoso

contemporary guitarists and the published reviews of these recordings also contributed

greatly to the impetus for doing this research. Cantos Yoruba de Cuba was recorded in

3 James Gerard Cornolo. “Idioms of Composition and Technique in the Guitar Works of Two Modern Cuban Composers." MM diss. Northeastern Illinois University, (2021).

8

1999 by Manuel Barrueco, in 2003 by William Kanengiser, and in 2004 by Marco

Tamayo and Rosa Matos. Jesus Ortega, a significant performer, and educator in Cuba,

recorded Cantos para ir Juntos in 1972, and it was re-recorded in 2001 by the German

guitarist Volker Höh.

Secondary sources included dissertations on similar topics, such as “The Afro

Cuban and the Avant-Garde: Unification of Style and Gesture in the Guitar Music of Leo

Brouwer” by John Bryan Huston in 20064. This analytical study provided detailed

information on Afro-Cuban and Cuban musical idioms. Huston’s research refers to a

nationalistic movement as part of Cuban identity and mentions some pre-revolution

composers. Still, he did not include the work of other composers that were part of that

movement. The writer omits the significant role of non-guitarist composers linked to the

Cuban Classical Guitar School development. However, this source contains essential

information on general studies of Afro-Cuban and Cuban music.

Clive Kronenberg did a similar study: “Cuban Artist, Leo Brouwer, and his Solo

Guitar Works: Pieza sin titulo to Elogio de la Danza, A Contextual-Analytical Study” in

20005. Kronenberg’s research goes into detail on Brouwer’s conceptual and

compositional approach to Afro-Cuban elements. Like other dissertations, works by non-

guitarist composers were not included, and the essential roles these composers played

within the Cuban musical scene was not discussed.

Two other dissertations on the music for guitar by Leo Brouwer discuss Cuban

and Afro-Cuban components within a modern compositional style. The works by Carlos

4 John Bryan Huston. “The Afro Cuban and the Avant-Garde: Unification of Style and Gesture in the Guitar Music of Leo Brouwer” DMA diss., University of Georgia, (2006). 5 Clive Kronenberg. “Cuban Artist, Leo Brouwer, and his Solo Guitar Works: Pieza sin titulo to Elogio de la Danza A Contextual-Analytical Study”. MM diss., University of Cape Town, (2000).

9

Isaac Castilla Peñaranda "Leo Brouwer's “Estudios Sencillos” for Guitar: Afro -Cuban

Elements and Pedagogical Devices" in 20096 and Paul Reed Century "Principles of Pitch

Organization in Leo Brouwer's Atonal Music for Guitar," in 19917 provided in-depth

analysis of the philosophical and aesthetic trends that influenced the musical product not

just by Brouwer but by other Cuban composers such as Angulo. The work by Reed

delivered an intense analytical study on 20th century writing techniques. Both writings

established a point of departure to argue the difference between the works by non-

guitarist composers and guitarist composers. Certainly, non-guitarists have enriched the

repertoire for classical guitar by demanding new approaches to the instrument by

performers. Also, these texts served as analytical models for further investigation on

works such as Cantos Yoruba, Puntos Cubanos, and Son y Décima by Angulo. Castilla

presents in his dissertation important concepts of postmodernism, universalism, and

nationalism from Brouwer’s point of view. His role as a premier ‘cultural ambassador’

for Cuban guitarists gives his words a gravitas that includes the entire Cuban artistic

landscape of the late 20th century. This is the landscape in which Angulo wrote his guitar

music. Brouwer was not the only composer in Cuba during this time but perhaps the most

influential in the Cuban guitar school.

Additional musicological and ethnomusicological literature was referenced to

describe Afro- Cuban musical and religious components. The list includes: Africanía de

la Música Folklorica de Cuba, Estudios Etnosociologicos,8and Los Bailes y el Teatro de

6 Castilla Penaranda, Carlos Isaac. "Leo Brouwer's “Estudios Sencillos” for Guitar: Afro -Cuban Elements and Pedagogical Devices." DMA diss., The University of Southern Mississippi, (2009). 7 Paul Reed Century. "Principles of Pitch Organization in Leo Brouwer's Atonal Music for Guitar." DMA diss. University of California, Santa Barbara, (1991). 8 Fernando Ortiz. Africania de la Música Folklorica de Cuba. Editora Universitaria, La Habana, (1965)

10

los Negros en el Folklore de Cuba9 by Fernando Ortiz, Afro-Cuban Rhythmic and Metric

Elements in the Published Choral and Solo Vocal Works of Alejandro García Caturla

and Amadeo Roldán by José Manuel Lezcano,10 and El Canto y el Tiempo11 by Argeliers

Leon. This thesis relies on these as well as other studies on Cuban music and African

influences.

Within this literature, the works of Lydia Cabrera were critical because they cover

the representation of different African cultures in Cuba. Her works also represent the

view of a researcher who has been challenged by new scholarship on Afro-Cuban studies.

Besides her intense studies of Cuban Yoruba culture, which includes Notas sobre África,

la negritud y la actual poesía Yoruba,12 and Rhythms and Songs for the Orishas,13 the

author also contributed to the literature on other Afro-Cuban cultures. Examples of these

writings are: Ritual y Simbolos de la Iniciación en la Sociedad Secreta Abakuá,14 La

Lengua Sagrada de los ñáñigos,15and La Sociedad Secreta Abakuá Narrada por Viejos

Adeptos.16 This literature is housed in the University of Miami’s Cuban Heritage

Collection.

9 Fernando Ortiz. Estudios Etnosociologicos. Editorial Ciencias Sociales, La Habana, (1991). 10 José Manuel Lezcano. “Afro-Cuban Rhythmic and Metric Elements in the Published Choral and Solo Vocal Works of Alejandro García Caturla and Amadeo Roldán.” PhD diss., Florida State University, (1991). 11 Argeliers León. El Canto y el Tiempo. Editorial Pueblo y Educación, La Habana, (1987) 12 Lydia Cabrera. “Notas sobre Africa, la negritud y la actual poesía Yoruba” Universidad Complutense Revista, Vol. 24, no. 95, Spain (1975). 13 Lydia Cabrera and Josefina Tarafa. “Havana, Cuba ca. 1957: Rhythms and Songs for the Orishas.” Washington DC: Smithsonian Folkways. CD 40489. (2001a- 2001b). 14 Lydia Cabrera. “Ritual y Símbolos de la Iniciación en la Sociedad Secreta Abakuá.” Journal de la Société des Américanistes, (1969). 15 Lydia Cabrera. La Lengua Sagrada de los ñáñigos. Miami: Ediciones Universal, (1988). 16 Lydia Cabrera. La Sociedad Secreta Abakuá Narrada por Viejos Adeptos. [1ª ed., 1959].

11

More specific scholarship on Yoruba music includes Kofi Agawu, “The African

Imagination in Music ''17, in 2016 and “African Rhythm. A Northern Ewe Perspective,”18

from 1995. Also, Sotunsa M Ebunoluwa's "Yoruba Drum Poetry and Popular Music,"19

from 2006, has information about the content of Yoruba musical practices. These were

helpful references for performers of music that includes elements from this African

culture. Finally, to this topic could be added J. H. Kwaben Nketia’s “The Music of

Africa,”20 published in 1994, and "Mode, Melody, and Harmony in traditional Afro-

Cuban Music: From Africa to Cuba''21 by Peter Manuel and Orlando Fiol published in

Black Music Research Journal 27 in 2007.

Essential to the studies of the Yoruba element in Angulo’s music was the book

“Yorùbá Music in the Twentieth Century: Identity, Agency, and Performance Practice”22

in 2012 by Bode Omojola. The author presents a perspective that includes the changes

over time of African practices from precolonial times to present-day contemporary

musical genres that reflect Western and Islamic influences. The narrative consists of

topics such as self-identity, social identity, and gender inequalities. Vocal and drumming

traditions are also examined by the writer.

Due to the presence of other African traditions in Cuba, it was necessary to

review the literature that describes the Abakuá and Congo musical practices. The

extensive work of Ivor Miller imparts some of this knowledge. In addition, “A Secret

17 Kofi.Agawu. The African Imagination in Music. New York: Oxford University Press, Oxford Scholarship Online, (2016). 18 Kofi.Agawu. African Rhythm. A Northern Ewe perspective. Cambridge University Press, (1995). 19 Sotunsa M Ebunoluwa. "Yoruba Drum Poetry and Popular Music." Culture Today 7, no. 1 (2006): 44-52. 20 Kwaben Nketia, J. H. The music of Africa. Nueva York: W. W. Norton and Company, (1994). 21 Peter Manuel and Orlando Fiol. "Mode, Melody, and Harmony in traditional Afro-Cuban Music: From Africa to Cuba." Black Music Research Journal 27, no. 1 (Spring, 2007): 45-75 22 Omojola, Bode. Yorùbá music in the twentieth century: identity, agency, and performance practice. Rochester, (2012).

12

Society Goes Public: The Relationship between Abakuá and Cuban Popular Culture,”23

"Cuban Abakuá Chants: Examining New Linguistic and Historical Evidence for the

African Diaspora,”24 and “Religious Symbolism in Cuban Political Performance,”25 all

by Miller, offer a vast perspective that includes the socio-political implication in the

assimilation of religious practices and their role in the construction of national identity in

communist Cuba.

Crucial literature for this research was the critical, musicological, and analytical

writings by Leo Brouwer. The collection La Música, lo Cubano y la Innovación which

includes articles such as “La Vanguardia en la Música Cubana” and “La Improvisacion

Aleatoria”26 are sources that provide scholarly conceptualization of the Cuban musical

development within the context of the contemporary musical world. In addition,

Brouwer’s writings presented his perspective as a performer, composer, and educator.

Local literature was also essential. In Cuba, Revista Clave is one of the most

prestigious periodical publications. In August 1988, the publication devoted some

attention to Héctor Angulo. Unfortunately, there were just two pages on which the

composer described some stylistic characteristics of his music, musical influences and

preferences, and future professional projects.

In 2009, Revista Clave published Mística de la Música Cubana: lo Religioso en la

Obra de Compositores Académicos.27 This article listed Cuban composers and their

23Miller, Ivor. “A Secret Society Goes Public: The Relationship between Abakuá and Cuban Popular Culture.” African Studies Review, vol. 43, no. 1, (2000):161–188. 24 Miller, Ivor. "Cuban Abakua Chants: Examining New Linguistic and Historical Evidence for the African Diaspora." African Studies Review, vol. 48 no. 1, (2005): 23-58. 25 Ivor Miller. Afro Cuba Web http://www.afrocubaweb.com/ivormiller/ivormiller.htm 26 Leo Brouwer. La Música, lo Cubano y la Innovación, Editorial Letras Cubanas, Havana, (1989). 27 Ailer Perez Gomez. “Mistica de la Música Cubana: lo Religioso en la Obra de Compositores Academicos.” Clave No 2-3 Instituto Cubano de La Música, Habana, (2009): 9

13

works with religious connotations. Cantos Yoruba by Angulo is one of those selected

works. In the article, Ailer Perez Gomez provided a brief musical analysis of his work

and a definition of some Afro-Cuban musical elements in his music. Other issues of

Clave provided valuable information about the Cuban musical scene from the 1950s and

1960s. That is the case of the publication of June 1989, where Clave presented aspects of

La Sociedad Cultural Nuestro Tiempo. This cultural society played an essential role in

the musical development of Cuba, and Héctor Angulo was part of it. The aesthetics of

these pre- and post-revolution times are covered through several issues of Clave. Under

the title Contrapunteo Estético en la Música Cubana del Siglo XX,28 Clara Diaz

presented a local view of 20th century Cuban music. This series was presented in the

publications of December 1999, April 2000, January 2001, and January 2002.

Considering Clave's reputation as the official publication of the Instituto Cubano

de la Música (a governmental agency), this source was useful for finding information

about the Afro-Cuban musical traditions. Under this topic, some issues of the magazine

provided valuable information. For example, those from January 1989 and March 1990

presented the article Aporte Yoruba a la Cultura Musical Cubana29 by Maria Elena

Vinueza and Ana Casanova. In it, the authors describe the socio-historical circumstances

that determined the Yoruba presence in Cuba during the 18th and 19th Centuries. Also,

they describe how this African tradition developed in Cuba by comparing rural vs. urban

conditions. In 2008, Clave brought a revision of some studies by Argeliers Leon on

28 Clara Diaz. “Contrapunteo Estético en la Música Cubana del Siglo XX” Clave No 2, Instituto Cubano de La Música, Habana, (1999-2002). 29 Maria Elena Vinueza and Ana Casanova “Aporte Yoruba a la Cultura Musical Cubana” Clave No.13 Instituto Cubano de La Música, Habana, (1989-1990)

14

African influences in Cuban music30. Finally, an exciting polemic is presented in Clave

No 3, 2008. In this issue, the musicologist Rolando Antonio Pérez Fernández, in his

article El Mito del Carácter Invariable de las Líneas Temporales31 says: “Mi propósito

es, pues, refutar las críticas de Acosta a esta obra,” referring to Leonardo Acosta who

criticized Perez’s work on African rhythms. This response to Acosta contains a deep

analysis of African and Afro-Cuban polyrhythms.

Studies about non-Western Music, particularly the ones in Latin America, have

intensified in recent years. Some musicologists are focusing more on the narrative about

the topic rather than its musical content. As a result, these debates have become the

center of specious definitions, stylistic conceptualizations, geo-political agendas, and

ideological forces. Part of this literature includes scholarly research such as “One

Hundred Years of Latin American Music Scholarship: An Overview”32 by Helena

Simonett and Michael Marcuzzi. The central topic is the development of Latin American

Musicology. In the introduction, the authors claim that a Westernized approach to Latin

America musicology generalizes the discipline as a whole. One of the important topics is

the incorrect use of research techniques and musical analysis that is based on European

musical traditions that do not always apply to Latin American music. The phrase “Latin

American” music is not a catch-all denoting a homogeneous musical product. Like all

artistic movements, Latin American music contains the ingredients of its own cultural

evolution. The cultural diversity in Latin America makes its narrative complicated.

30 Argeliers Leon. “Influencia Africana en la Música de Cuba” Clave No 1-2, Instituto Cubano de La Música, La Habana, (2008) 9. 31 Perez, Rolando Antonio. “El Mito del Carácter Invariable de las Líneas Temporales” Clave No. 3, Instituto Cubano de La Música, Habana (2008): 41 32 Helena Simonett and Michael Marcuzzi. "One Hundred Years of Latin American Music Scholarship: An Overview." In A Latin American Music Reader: Views from the South, edited by León Javier F. and Simonett Helena, 1-68. Urbana, Chicago; Springfield: University of Illinois Press, (2016).

15

Angulo’s music is not exempt from these complications. The musical content of his

compositions and the historical context in which they were conceived are attached to the

issues discussed by Simmonett and Marcuzzi. Some of the discussion topics were

constructed cultural identities, the authenticity of primary sources, “unevenness in the

Latin American music scholarship,” and the use of Western-based parameters of analysis

and research.

"Cubanness, Innovation, and Politics in Art Music in Cuba, 1942-1979"33 (2016),

by Marysol Quevedo, dives into the core of the musical product of Cuba. This

dissertation covers the pre-revolution and post-revolution eras in Cuba, historical periods

in which Angulo (1938- 2018), was active. This work by Quevedo presents all the aspects

of the artistic, social, political, ethical, and philosophical environments in which Angulo

developed as a person and as an artist. Quevedo brought a different view that challenges

the idea of two disconnected historical periods. On the contrary, she establishes the

connection between a politically controversial musical discourse before 1959 and the

negotiation of cultural agents with a new socio-political-economical system after the

Revolution. The artists who embraced the ideology of the new society with their

innovative styles are analyzed in this writing. Using interrelated concepts, Marysol

Quevedo organizes the Cuban musical product using these values:

“innovation/vanguardia,” “revolutionary/socialist,” “Cubanness/nationalism,” and

“internationalism.” In addition, the author references other studies on Latin-American

culture to identify the link of Cuban musical products with an outside network at different

33 Marysol Quevedo."Cubanness, Innovation, and Politics in Art Music in Cuba, 1942-1979." Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, (2016)

16

historical times. Also, she offers numerous musical analyses that support stylistic

definitions.

The literature about Héctor Angulo is scarce, at least out of Cuba. Perhaps, there

are some scholarly works about him and his music in Cuba. This research did access local

sources where possible; thus, this author’s hope is that this dissertation will increase the

available information on Angulo. The analytical approach provided a significant amount

of data that was obtainable from his musical scores. Writings about 20th and 21st century

musical styles combined with Afro-Cuban music brought substantial content for stylistic

definitions. Literature about the history of Cuban music provided the context to frame

this research. Socio-political narratives about Cuba were considered to present aspects of

the composer’s role in his society and his interaction with his audience. Performances of

his works for guitar and CD recordings demonstrated his music's excellent value.

In order to achieve the analytical goals of this dissertation, the author has chosen

three scores, Cantos Yoruba de Cuba, Cantos para ir Juntos, and Son y Décima.

2. Nationalism and Avant-Garde musical trends in Cuba before and after the

Revolution in 1959

Cuban composers of the last century have been significant for creating music that

echoes the national and contemporary musical language. There are distinctions of cultural

times between Cuba and Europe in terms of music.

Despite the same historical timeframe, in Europe the Expressionist-stylistic trend

boosted the inner expression of individuals (contrary to French Impressionism) and

channeled the apprehensions and fears of people around the First World War. Composers

employed a forceful musical discourse, with complex content and sophisticated structure.

17

In Cuba, the lyrical music of French and Italian operas triumphed and continued beyond

the War in its musical life. However, distinct ways of thought emerged, causing aesthetic

contrasts. Starting with the United States intervention (at the end of the Cuban-Spanish

war) in 1898 and continuing up to the mid-30’s, steady growth of a national

consciousness impacted all aspects of Cuban society.34

From the mid-30’s up to the 50’s, Cuba's historical period was characterized by

an intense and expansive process of commercialization of Cuban popular music. Due to

the political crises leading to the revolution, artistic growth in Cuba faced one of its most

critical periods. The Cuban bourgeoisie promoted its backward aesthetics and apathy for

the musical works of modern Cuban composers. Then, the triumph of the Revolution in

1959 marked another cultural period, which lasted to the 80s. This era brought changes in

all aesthetic and ideological concepts—these concepts derived from radical

transformations that occurred during the formation of a new society.35

The collapse of the socialist block and its effect on the Cuban economy brought

another epoch to Cuba. From the late 80s to the present, that carried a spirit specific to

the time. But then, social life faced an extreme crisis, when postmodernism and

globalization became the paradigm of the century, infused by Western thought.

The first two decades of the 20th century in Cuban music show a somewhat bleak

and backward panorama within professional concert music. Although not supported by

official or hegemonic culture, popular music flourished. Thus, the Cuban bourgeoisie,

still attached to the romanticism imported from Europe in the previous century, showed

34 Clara Diaz. “Contrapunteo Estético en la Música Cubana del Siglo XX” Clave No 2, Instituto Cubano de La Música, Habana (1999):40 35 Ibid

18

the national presence like brushstrokes, not integrating, essentially and organically, the

true expression of the autochthonous culture of the country.

The works of Amadeo Roldán and Alejandro García Caturla, among many others,

inspired aesthetic conflicts about the use of Afro-Cuban elements within symphonic

compositions in Cuban society. The establishment of the Symphony Orchestra in 1922

and the Philharmonic Orchestra in 1924 exposed Cuban society to two aesthetic musical

currents: one more conservative than the other. In addition, the organization Pro Arte

Musical, created in 1918, supported artistic production but was still attached to an archaic

musical taste. Alternatively, the Grupo de Renovación Musical (Musical Renewal Group)

and the admirable work of José Ardévol, skillful at modern compositional techniques,

had a strong influence on the composition program at the Municipal Conservatory of

Havana. Under Ardevol’s leadership, the Grupo de Renovacion Musical promoted the

European musical practices of the twentieth century while integrating the idiosyncratic

elements of Cuban music. As a student of the Municipal Conservatory of Havana,

Angulo felt pride in and awareness of national culture. But he also witnessed the conflicts

arising out of the performance of many of his teachers’ works.36

Under the tutelage of Harold Gramatges, in 1949, the National Institute of Music

and Sociedad Nuestro Tiempo prioritized supporting Cuban musicians. In 1959, the

revolutionary government established cultural institutions and organizations that would

guarantee the development of a new cultural policy, and led to the foundation of schools

of Art. In this respect, Marysol Quevedo affirms:

Education was considered not only a right, but also a social duty that all Cuban citizens had to fulfill. Education, which included artistic fields, was

36 Ibid

19

the primary tool for disseminating the values and ideology of the revolution, creating the hombre nuevo, the ideal socially and politically committed “new man” that contributed to society through hard work and self-sacrifice.37

In 1969, the Sound Experimentation Group of the ICAIC, under the guidance of

Leo Brouwer, searching for a musical syncretism in all orders, linking tradition with

experiment, electronics with drum, song, and dance, would demonstrate the restless spirit

of an ongoing task to establish new aesthetic concepts. Moreover, the Warsaw Autumn,

an avant-garde festival held in Poland in 1961, allowed young Cuban composers to

confront and learn about the new sonorities of the progressive language of modern

European music. Open structures, new harmonic concepts, recognition of the timer as a

vital element, and new searches for sound possibilities were some of the aspects

embraced by the Cuban musicians.

In 1977, as part of presentations of Cuban artists at music festivals in Europe,

Quevedo describes a concert at the Ostrogski Palace in Warsaw, Poland. This event

featured some works with strong Africa-Cuban influences:

The Warsaw concert also included works by José Ardévol, who employed atonality, polytonality, polyrhythm, the superimposition of different harmonies, modalism, and neo-classicism in his composition. The works presented in the Warsaw concert represent three aesthetic points of view that combine national and international aspects: Cuban nationalism (represented with Roldán’s work), folkloric internationalism (represented with Berroa and Brouwer’s works), and contemporary international new music (represented with Gramatges, Ardévol, Martin and Angulo’s works). …The list of works included: “Tres piezas para piano by Amadeo Roldán, Danza third movement from Sonata para guitarra by José Ardévol, Móvil I by Harold Gramatges, Primer cuarteto de cuerdas and Varaciones para guitarra by Edgardo Martín, Fuera del mundo by Jesús

37 Marysol Quevedo. "Cubanness, Innovation, and Politics in Art Music in Cuba, 1942-1979." PhD diss., Indiana University, (2016): 167

20

Ortega, Y te busqué by Héctor Angulo, Cinco canciones folklóricas by Jorge Berroa and Sobre un canto de Bulgaria by Leo Brouwer.38

Composers such as Leo Brouwer, Juan Blanco, Carlos Farinas, Héctor Angulo,

Roberto Valera, Jose Loyola, Harold Gramatges, and Argeliers Leon, among others, must

feature in any discussion about Cuban music and the melding of African traditions with

both Western and Cuban popular traditions. They created a new musical language,

assimilating the most contemporary and diverse elements, in terms of style and writing

techniques, The implicit nationalism of this language no longer infers the use of textual

quotations, neither in musical forms nor in elements of Cuban musical identity. The

concept of nationalism, in an unprejudiced way, became more deeply assimilated and

more open. However, the cultural agenda of the Cuban revolution revolved around multi-

directional pulling forces that, at the time, created strain between local objectives and

worldwide interests. Those forces in 1977 could be listed as: “(1) Cubanness, national

identity and reference to a national past and local traditions; (2) socialist-revolutionary

values, especially collectivism, work, and economic egalitarianism; and (3)

vanguardismo, which was tied to revolutionary and socialist ideology, as well as to the

artistic international avant-garde.”39

Héctor Angulo was one composer who found a balance between being an “artista

comprometido, the politically and socially committed artist,”40 and his individuality as an

artist. His music reflects a very personal integration of socio-cultural elements to which

he was exposed throughout his life at different cultural periods of Cuban history.

38 Ibid:215 39 Ibid:154 40 Ibid:156

21

Nevertheless, Angulo, like many other “revolutionary intellectuals, saw artistic creation

as intrinsically connected to the political and social conditions in which it was created.”41

The political and economic ties to the Soviet Union did not necessarily imply an

agreement on aesthetic musical concepts. While in Cuba, being creative, revolutionary,

experimental, and vanguardist echoed the hombre nuevo ideologic product of the socialist

Revolution, in the Soviet Union, it might be seen as a form of protest or “diversionismo

ideologico” (ideological diversion). “The composers visiting from the Soviet Union and

East Germany, staunch ideologues in their respective countries, were probably sent to

Cuba by the Soviet Union to promote aesthetically conservative compositional techniques

and to instruct Cuban composers on aesthetic matters.”42 The Soviet Union had a strong

influence in all areas of the Cuban society. Musical education was deeply impacted by

the relationships with countries under the communist ideology.

The economic crisis in the 90s dissolved artists' promotional options, creating a

prevalence of a new style of self-management. This style often violated the standards

prescribed by the communist government. During the last three decades of Angulo’s life,

the economic situation in Cuba played a role by exerting an influence on the aesthetics

and quality of the musical output from the island. The prerequisite of a “marketable

product” often impacted artistic content, compromising the fundamental prospects of the

artist’s creative process.

41 Ibid 42 Ibid :221

22

3. Cuban cultural and socio-political context during Héctor Angulo’s creative

period.

In his artistic life, Héctor Angulo witnessed the changes in the Cuban creative

process from before the Revolution in 1959 until a few years ago. He was a very active

composer up to his final days. Looking at the period from the time of his return from the

United States to his death gives us the scene in which his works were produced,

published, performed, and recorded. During the early years of the Cuban Revolution, his

affiliation with the Cuban vanguardia influenced his musical writing style in terms of

content, form, instrumentation, and aesthetic values. Leo Brouwer and the Cuban Guitar

School were significant influences in Angulo’s musical output.

Furthermore, the dynamics in Cuban society after 1959 exercised a determinant

influence on the path that he took as a composer. Angulo faced a moment in which the

solid academic preparation of the young generations of Cuban musicians, graduated and

dynamically inserted into the artistic life of Cuba, made thinner the boundary between

concert and professional popular music, creating, in fact, a progressively more

comprehensive synthesis of the distinctive elements of both categories of music. In the

field of music education, programs in music schools (strongly influenced by Western

educational models) did not follow this synthesis at the same speed. It took a little longer

for programs to begin to integrate genres from Cuban popular music.

In 1968, the Colectivo Nacional de Compositores was created to promote the work of the

Cuban composers along with the recording and publishing institution Empresa de

Grabaciones y Ediciones Musicales (EGREM) created in 1962.

Through their compositions and writings about music, composers responded to the revolution’s ideological agenda. However, they did not

23

present a monolithic, unified front or point of view. As we examine specific works in chapter five, we will see that their compositional approaches differed greatly from one another. Similarly, composers engaged with revolutionary rhetoric in diverse ways, and through their writings, justified and contextualized their approaches to composition in vastly different and at times paradoxical terms.43

Many composers became cultural agents by assuming a different role in creating,

teaching, performing, recording, promoting, and writing about their own music. Marysol

Quevedo affirms this statement by saying: “These ... composers placed themselves at the

end of a historical narrative of Cuban music, a narrative they constructed to present past

composers as proto-nationalists and revolutionaries and to legitimize themselves as part

of Cuban music history and as politically committed to the revolution.”44

Angulo wrote his Cantos Yoruba de Cuba in 1970 and it was recorded in 1971 by

Leo Brouwer. Brouwer wrote about the conceptual integration of essential elements from

Afro-Cuban practices with the European musical discourse found in the works of Cuban

academic composers. This text displays not just a thought that could be applied to this

piece by Héctor Angulo but to many of his works:

We should point out that in this century, when the greatest scientific advancements in the history of humanity arise, almost in an instant, when we arrive at the most radical social changes, the so-called inspiration either gives up or searches for new sources. Here is the root of the problem. The inspiration has changed its vesture: not only has it changed, but this has been split into two radically extreme phases: scientific rigor and open and overflowing fantasy on the other. From here, a man controlled by civilization returns to his primordial sources or elemental impulses.45

43 Ibid :226 44 Ibid: 228 45 Leo Brouwer, “La Música, lo Cubano, y la Innovación,” Cine Cubano (1970):29

24

In the search for local culture and national identity, many Latin American

composers have found in folklore, rituals, and popular traditions a source of elements that

define the recognizable cultural expression of a specific region. A current topic of

discussion is identity within contemporary academic music, including narrative,

compositional techniques, and interpretation. In many cases, the presence of religious

elements does not necessarily correspond to personal beliefs but to the inclusion of

traditions that define, on the one hand, a Cuban musical product, and on the other hand,

the Cuban academic musical world based on Western-European musical legacy.

Some Afro-Cuban musical elements used by Cuban academic composers have

become signatures of Cuban musical distinctiveness. Features include complex

polyrhythms from batá (set of Yoruba drums) music, the juxtaposition of different

meters, accent displacement and unexpected syncopations, and irregular rhythms

(cinquillo and tresillo). Often, they include intervallic relations borrowed from vocal

Afro-Cuban tunes that interact with modern compositional techniques in many Cuban

composers.

A year after Jesus Ortega recorded Cantos para ir Juntos by Héctor Angulo in

1972, Chucho Valdes created the group Irakere, which was experimental in linking some

forms of jazz with Afro-Cuban Music. His origin was in that Jazz Quintet, formed out of

the famous Cuban Orchestra of Modern Music. This new format offered broader

possibilities by combining a synthesis of the national musical patrimony with the most

diverse sonorities of universal music. Irakere absorbed a significant number of musical

idioms from jazz; its harmony and form of improvisation were compelling evidence of its

synthesis of elements. In addition, the African influences were visible in percussion and

25

its rhythmic base, and other Cuban styles in the treatment of brass and keyboards parts

that exemplify an amalgamation of authentic national components.

An example of the searching for new musical alternatives is noticeable in the LP

recorded by Leo Brouwer and Irakere in 1978. The record included classical music with

Afro-Cuban-Jazz arrangements. And one year later, in 1979, the Havana Jam took place

with the participation of American jazz musicians such as Jaco Pastorius and Weather

Report along with Cuban musicians.

This environment of diverse musical proposals served as a mirror to Angulo’s

musical concepts. Popular music and academic music were searching for new horizons

and revising the national musical heritage in which the Afro-Cuban traditions played a

crucial role. The sonic experience of Cuban composers was always linked to the

multicultural-stylistic sound from the streets, solares, clubs, music classrooms, concert

halls and dancing halls, radio, and television stations.

4. The Cuban Classical Guitar School and Cuban composers

The classical guitar in Cuba has a vast tradition of performers and composers. As

a Spanish colony, the island’s music was directly influenced by Spanish artists, dating

from the Renaissance. This influence did not end with the colonial era but continued until

the present time. The prevalence of Spanish guitar was notable during the period of the

conquest and colonization of Cuba. However, it is not until the second half of the

nineteenth century that a guitarist of some significance in the development of the

instrument appears: José Prudencio Mungol (1837-1890). At the end of the century, in

Santiago de Cuba, José (Pepe) Sanchez (1856-1918) was the initiator and promoter of the

popular troubadour movement. In the early 20th century, the school of Spanish master

26

Francisco Tarrega was introduced to the country by Pascual Roch, José Vallalta, and

Clara Romero de Nicola; the latter-initiated guitar studies at the Municipal Conservatory

of Havana; she also founded the Guitar Society of Cuba and Guitar Magazine.

Four guitarists mark the history of the instrument in the 1940s: Severino López,

who studied in Spain, José Rey de la Torre, Juan Antonio Mercadal, and Elias Barreiro,

who made classical guitar arrangements of music written for other instruments. 46

Leo Brouwer (1939-) although not the subject of study in this research, is

undoubtedly the most important figure in the Cuban classical guitar world. His

contributions to the field rise out of not only his work as a composer with an extensive

catalog that includes eleven guitar concertos and five sonatas, but also out of his work as

a performer. He inspired many generations of guitarists with his impeccable virtuoso

model of playing and his international acclaim opened the path to many young

performers to build a successful career. He exposed Cuban guitar students and the general

audience to great performers who came to Cuba through his Havana Guitar Festival and

Competition. As a Cuban artist, Brouwer assimilated the essence of the Cuban musical

identity and integrated it with the musical languages of his time. Today, his work

represents the most recognized contributions to guitar repertoire. Other composers also

made their contributions to the guitar repertoire. This research paper will bring to light

the work of these Cuban composers.

In the process of writing this paper, a lack of primary source information became

a critical issue. For many years, Cuban artists did not have a way to promote their work

without government support and consent, which has restricted access to much

46 Radames Giro. Leo Brouwer y la Guitarra en Cuba. La Habana, Cuba: Editorial Letras Cubanas, (1986):13-35

27

information. Luckily, other channels were available such as independent promoters,

guitar performers, and phone communication, to provide the content of this writing. This

research does not intend to present a formal analysis of the musical work of these

composers. Still, it will offer brief biographical information and a list of their most

relevant compositions.47

Efrain Amador (1947-) In his creations for guitar, Amador worked with different

thematic aspects and ventured into the realm of the tres (a Cuban string instrument), for

which he developed teaching methods. His performances include the collaboration of his

wife: the pianist Doris Oropesa. He wrote a book of enormous importance for

understanding Cuban music, that acknowledges the tres as the only stringed instrument

born in Cuba: “Universalidad del Laúd y el Tres Cubano”, 2005. “Un libro de enorme

importancia para comprender la música cubana toda vez que el tres es el único

instrumento de cuerdas nacido en Cuba”. (Tr. A book of enormous importance for

understanding Cuban music, acknowledging that the tres is the only stringed instrument

born in Cuba.) References to the tres are taken from the last century. There is some

information on a very rudimentary form of the tres, made from boxes used for packing

cod and a mast made of hardwood with wooden pegs and waxed ropes. There is a

legendary character, the oriental troubadour Nene Manfugás, who played one of these

instruments in 1892 through the streets of Santiago de Cuba. The instrument originated in

Baracoa; the first village founded by the Spanish in the sixteenth century. The tuning is

accomplished with three double steel strings (hence its name) in unison, two in one

47 EcuRed Website. https://www.ecured.cu/EcuRed:Enciclopedia_cubana

28

octave, and one an octave lower. It is played like the lute with a plectrum, made of

tortoiseshell, or, more recently, plastic.48

The Cuban laud’s tuning is (D, A, E, B, F#, C# (or D). It has the same appearance

as the Spanish laud and is built like the Spanish version: six sets of doubled strings but

with a different tuning. Sometimes the Cuban variety has a different body shape, with

two points instead of the lute-style or rounded shapes used for the traditional Spanish

variety. Some of Amador’s works include Cuatro Comentarios sobre Leo Brouwer, Suite

para un Cacique, Contrapuntos Cubanos and Guajira, Estudio para la Mano Derecha,

Dos Estudios para el Quinto Dedo, and Preludio Tumbao, Diferencias sobre tres Temas

Cubanos, Fantasía Son de la Mano Izquierda, Preludio Espirituano No I and II, and

Estudio en E Menor.

Eduardo Martín. (1956-) Guitarist, composer, and teacher. In 1985 he graduated

from the Instituto Superior de Arte de Cuba and earned a position as a soloist at the

National Concerts Center, leading him to make numerous tours. He has written works for

guitar, duets, trios, quartets, flute and guitar, flute and two guitars, and orchestra of

guitars. In addition, he has composed music for theater and film. His scores have been

published by Les Cahiers de la Guitare, La Revue Francaise de Guitare, Produciones

ABDALA (Cuba), Les Productions D'OZ (Canada), Tuscany Publications (USA), ARTE

Tripharia (Spain) and Henry Lemoine (France). His extensive production includes: 10

Piezas Fáciles, Canciones del Calendario, Pasajero en el Tiempo, Acrílicos en el Asfalto,

Preludio, Son y Allegro, Son del Barrio, etc.49

48 Ibid 49 Ibid

29

Tulio Peramo (1948-) Tulio Peramo Cabrera started his professional training as a

singer before turning to composition. Today he is one of Cuba’s leading composers, with

many works that have become integral to the chamber music and orchestral repertoire,

with regular premieres at the Havana Festival for Contemporary Music and the Havana

International Guitar Festival. He won prizes from the Cuban League of Artists and

Writers in 1987, the Agustín Barrios Competition for original pieces for guitar (Paraguay,

1994), and the Rodrigo Riera Competition (Caracas, 1997). Peramo Cabrera has

composed many pieces for solo guitar, chamber combinations with guitar, and two

concerti for guitar and orchestra, which had their world premieres in Munich, New York

City, Mexico City, Barcelona, Kansas City, and Salzburg. Many of his pieces have been

premiered and recorded by well-known guitarists like Eliot Fisk, Antigoni Goni, Richard

Hand, or Johannes Tonio Kreusch. Kreusch, a German guitarist with whom Cabrera had a

prolific artistic partnership, inspired much fine repertoire for guitar. He premiered many

pieces composed for him by Cabrera at important music centers such as Gasteig Hall,

Munich, and Carnegie Hall in New York. This fruitful collaboration includes a CD

entirely dedicated to the guitar music of Cabrera called “Portraits of Cuba.” At present,

Cabrera, in addition to his creative work, teaches composition, orchestration, and

harmony at the Conservatory in Havana. Among his works for guitar, Para Gershwin: A

Mid-Fall Morning Smile, Un Crucero Espacial, Pequeña Suite, Sonata, y Tocada

Habanera, En Tardes de Lluvia, and Canto de Septiembre are some of the most relevant.

Harold Gramatges (1918-2008) was a conductor, composer, pianist, and teacher.

He is considered one of the most important figures of 20th century Cuban music. His

teaching work has contributed to the musical education of Cuban musicians through six

30

decades. He studied composition with José Ardevol and Amadeo Roldán in Havana. In

the United States, he studied composition with Aaron Copland and conducting with Serge

Koussevitzky. His music for guitar includes: Fantasía, Siete Apuntes para La Dama

Duende, Móvil IV, Como el Caudal de la Fuente, Canti di Villa Grazieli, El Arpa

Milagrosa, Para La Dama Duende. Concierto para Guitarra, and Síntesis.50

Luis Manuel Molina was born in Havana, Cuba, on February 25, 1959. He

studied guitar at the Amadeo Roldan Conservatory and graduated with a Bachelor of

Music degree in guitar performance at the Superior Institute of Art (ISA) in Havana. He

attended master classes with important figures like Leo Brouwer, Alirio Diaz, Ichiro

Suzuki, Costas Cotsiolis, Manolo Sanlucar and Monica Rost. Some of his relevant works

for guitar are Romance para dos almas, Capricho Místico para una Guitarra Solitaria,

Serenata del Ángel, Tres Evocaciones Españolas, Externsteine, Bocetos de ultramar,

Oración y Tarantella Fantástica, Sonata No.1 "El Valle de los Templos", Adagio para el

Gentilhombre de Aranjuez, Poema Idílico, Balada para el Caballero, Sgt. Pepper`s

Fancy, Vals para una Ninfa, and Oricalco.

Martin Pedreira (1952-) is a recognized guitarist, composer, and teacher who

graduated from the Superior Institute of Art (ISA). He was a student of Isaac Nicola and

Leo Brouwer. He has participated in the Andrés Segovia Contest of Granada (1981), the

First Latin American Guitarists Festival, and the prestigious Guitar Festival of Havana.

He also studied related instrumental pedagogy and technical studies. His most significant

compositions are for guitar and are excellent pieces that show their Cuban roots. Some of

50 Ibid

31

his great works for guitar are: La Canción del Son, Suite Simple, Preludio y Son,

Divertimentos, Criolla a Adelita, and La Comparsa del Gallo.51

Yalil Guerra (1973-) Guerra studied two years at the "Instituto Superior de Arte"

(I.S.A.) He studied classical guitar with Jesús Ortega, Joaquin Clerch and Efraín Amador

Piñero. After some time in Cuba, he moved to Spain. Later he came to the US and studied

composition at California State University, in Northridge. Guerra was a nominee for the

XIII Latin Grammy Awards in the Best Classical Contemporary Composition category

for his work “Seducción,” 2010. In 2011, Guerra released his second album titled “Old

Havana. Chamber Music Vol. II.” Important works are: Amazona Express, Sofia,

Desvelado (“Sleepless”), Guitarra Latioamericana, Nostalgia del Guajiro, and Secretos

Prohibidos.

José Angel Perez Puentes (1951-) He began his studies at the Amadeo Roldán

Conservatory with Jesús Ortega, guitar, Domingo Aragú, percussion, and Justo Díaz,

composition, and completed them at the Instituto Superior de Arte, where he studied

composition with Roberto Valera. He was a student and disciple of the Spanish composer

Carmelo Bernaola. He was a teacher at the Amadeo Roldán Conservatory and the

National School of Art, where he directed the guitar orchestra. Perez Puentes was the

founder and director of several orchestras and ensembles of guitars around the world,

such as the Guitar Orchestra of the ENA 1980-1983. The National Conservatory of Music

of Quito conferred the title of Emeritus Professor on him. In 2005, the Academy of

Music, Arts, and Sciences "Johann Sebastian Bach" of Australia conferred on him the

title of Honorary Professor in recognition of his merits in the field of music and

51 Ibid

32

pedagogy. His most significant compositions are: Exponentes del Paisaje, Oda al Sol,

Pregoniana, para three guitars, Dos Preludios for two guitars, Taller, for two guitars, and

Variaciones sobre un tema Jamaiquino for guitar ensemble.

Ñico Rojas (1921-2008) José Antonio (Ñico) Rojas Beoto was born in Havana,

Cuba, in 1921. A civil engineer, guitarist, and composer, he is one of the exponents of the

so-called ‘Feeling’ trend in Cuban music, which revived Cuban popular songs in the

1940s and was highly influenced by jazz and blues. His works combine the sonority of

the guitar with the complex rhythmic and melodic elements of Cuban traditional music.

An improvisatory style defines his language, which is noticeable in re-expositions of

themes and in passages where the melody combines with a free rhythm. His earliest

influences were very diverse: Tárrega, Miguel Llobet (student of Tarrega), Segovia;

piano music of Chopin, Rachmaninov, Beethoven, and Cuban popular music, which he

listened to from childhood, (mainly Miguel Matamoros, Arsenio Rodríguez and the

danzones by Arcaño y sus Maravillas). These influences are reflected in his works.

Guajira a mi Madre, Homenaje a Bebo Valdes, Helenita y Jorgito, Saldiguera y Virulilla,

Lilliam, Retrato de un Médico Violinista, and Ritmico a mi Padre are some of his works

for guitar.52

The Guitar repertoire in Cuba before 1959 was enriched by works of both

composers and guitarists. Those who combine composition with their work as interpreters

have given the repertoire a vital boost. But composers that are not guitar performers such

as Jose Ardevol (perhaps the first Cuban non-guitarist composer who wrote for the

instrument) have brought to the instrument an innovative repertoire, such as his “Sonata

52 Ibid

33

for solo guitar”. Ardevol is among the composers who have left their mark on the Latin

American guitar repertoire.

Other composers - not guitarists - who also contributed to the repertoire for the

instrument are Natalio Galan (1917-1985) with his Suite for Guitar and Concerto for

Guitar and Chamber Orchestra; Julian Orbón (1925-1991) with Prelude and Tocatta;

Carlos Fariñas (1934-2002) with Music for Two Guitars, Tonada al estilo espirituano

for guitar and piano Canción Triste. Yet another non-guitarist composer who enriched the

repertoire for this instrument is: Jorge Garciaporrúa (1938-) with La guitarra es..., Tres

para guitarra y Maletín al hombro and Coloquio entre dos for guitar and piano. Aldo

Rodríguez (1955-) has a unique career as an interpreter and has composed several works

for guitar such as Aire brasilero, Canción y danza Canción y fuga en son, for two guitars,

La leyenda del juglar, Preludio, Retrato de mujer, and Veinte pequeñas piezas for the

guitar which introduced students to the sound world of polyphony.

Jesus Ortega (1935-) guitarist, researcher, and transcriber of early music,

performed, along with Brouwer, a vast trove of music for the instrument in concerts

organized by the Cine Club Vision (cinematography section of the Sociedad Nuestro

Tiempo); he has also left us Recitative and Fugue, Danza del adolescente ingenuo, and

Prelude, Puntos, and Picassiana no. 1. Ortega collaborated with many non-guitarist

composers, advising them about guitar writing and fingering, including Héctor Angulo.

Ildefonso Acosta (1939-) is a versatile guitarist and composer. Prelude, Poema y

Tu Nombre de Mujer, Samba, Regalo de papel, Tema del recuerdo, Zoila, Tema de la

montaña, and Suite del campo are works that show a mature creator with considerable

conceptual and technical skills.

34

We can say that two of composer Sergio Vitier's (1948-2016) qualities as an

interpreter were his formidable left hand and a powerful sound volume that he drew from

his guitar. As a composer, he did not write only for the guitar, but he inserted it in works

where batá drums are used, as in Raíces y Acerca de un tema Yoruba. Vitier was also

involved with the folklorist Rogelio Martínez Furé and created a musical ensemble called

Oru. Vitier was a member of the Grupo de Experimentación Sonora, ICAIC with Leo

Brouwer, who said about Vitier: "Su música sinfónica inserta siempre un elemento de lo

afrocubano ritual que no aparece de manera colorista; no es interpolación, no es la fuerza

que se convierte en dato exótico [...]. No es la sinfónica allá y unos tambores graciosos

para darle color. Esto es importante" (Tr: His symphonic music always inserts an

element of the Afro-Cuban ritual that does not appear in a coloristic (made up) way; it is

not interpolation; it is not the force that becomes an exotic element [...]. It is not the

symphony with some funny drums to give it color. This is important.)53

Born in Cuba but settled in Spain, guitarist, and composer Flores Chaviano

Jiménez (1946-), is a significant figure in the contemporary guitar world. He is one of

the guitarists who recorded Angulo’s Cantos Yoruba de Cuba. As an interpreter and

composer, his artistic works have been highly recognized by specialized critics, and today

he is considered one of the essential Cuban creators. He began his guitar studies with

Pedro Julio del Valle, with whom he continued in Santa Clara. Later, he moved to

Havana, where he was a disciple of Isaac Nicola at the National School of Art and the

Instituto Superior de Arte. He studied composition with José Ardévol and Sergio

Fernández Barroso. In 1981 he settled in Madrid, where he concluded his training with

53 Pedro de la Hoz “Cruce de caminos con Sergio Vitier” Granma, La Habana, (2014).

35

Demetrio Ballesteros and revalidated his credentials. As a teacher, he taught

contemporary guitar courses in Madrid, 1983; contemporary music in Salamanca, 1984;

and the Manuel de Falla Academy, Granada, 1985 and 1987. His many works for guitar

include: Seis Aires Populares Cubanos, Variaciones sobre el Yényere, Homenaje a

Victor Jara, Sonata (homenaje an Antonio Lauro), Sonata, Evocación y Boceto Concierto

for Guitar and orchestra, Espacio, Tiempo... Recuerdos, Cinco estudios de Grafía,

Textura I for guitar ensemble, and Seis Danzas Cubanas, for guitar quartet.54

Other Cuban composers might be unmentioned in this research paper (due to

difficulties accessing information on the island, among other reasons).

Leo Brouwer, Jesus Ortega, and their guitar teacher Isaac Nicola were the pillars

of the Cuban Classical Guitar School. These and other 20th and 21st century guitar

composers were the leading creators of an organized agenda aimed at taking the classical

guitar in Cuba to its highest level. This agenda was based on 1) the creation of a Classical

guitar educational system within schools of the arts. Guitar programs and teaching

methods were designed to produce generations of well-trained guitarists beginning at

early ages and continuing to college level; 2) the creation of spaces devoted to guitar

performance and pedagogy: festivals, local and international competitions, and concerts

designed to expose Cuban guitarists to a broader public and offering them the opportunity

to join an international network; 3) develop a unique guitar repertoire by pulling in non-

guitarist composers who could find, in this platform, interpreters and venues for their

compositions.

54 Ibid

36

Héctor Angulo was part of this group of Cuban composers, who have not been

able to easily promote their work because of limited access to resources. By providing

names, dates, and brief biographical information for several of the leading Cuban guitar

composers for whom information was available, and mentioning some of their works, the

author intends this research to be a useful source for performers and researchers. One of

the objectives of this paper is to serve as a point of departure for future dissertations.

5. Biographical information of Héctor Angulo, his career, musical education, and

stylistics influences

Héctor Angulo left an immense legacy that is tangible in the repertoire of many

performers. He was born in Santa Clara, Cuba, on September 3, 1932. “He began his

studies when his mother sat him down to play the piano, something he did by ear”55 and

undertaking musical studies in his hometown, which he continued at the Municipal

Conservatory of Music in Havana, and then, in 1959, at the Manhattan School of Music

in New York. Later he studied harmony with Leo Brouwer. Belonging to a generation of

composers including Carlos Fariñas, Calixto Álvarez, Jorge Garciaporrúa and Jesús

Ortega, Angulo was influenced by the aesthetics of Grupo de Renovación Musical to

which all of them belonged. He was also a student of Julián Orbón and Nilo Rodríguez,

and initially alternated his musical vocation with architecture studies and painting.

“Precisely, because of his closeness to Orbón, he (Angulo) identified with the creative

path of the Spanish Orbón, (the composer of the group Origenes.)”56 Origenes was

founded in Cuba in 1944 by musicians, poets, painters, and other professionals to

55 Guadalupe Yaujar Díaz, “Una Visita sin Anunciar” Radio Habana Cuba, La Havana, 2017. http://www.radiohc.cu/noticias/cultura/120201-una-visita-sin-anunciar 56 Pedro de la Hoz, “Héctor Angulo, Vanguardia y Raíz” Gramma La Havana, (2018) http://www.granma.cu/cultura/2018-04-23/hector-angulo-vanguardia-y-raiz-23-04-2018-20-04-45

37

promote Cuban arts and literature. After Orbón left Cuba for Mexico, then to the United

States, his works were for many years forgotten, unknown to the Cuban audience and to

the academic musical world inside. Recently, his musical works have received the

attention of some Cuban musicologists.

The celebrated composer, Alejandro García Caturla, had a remarkable influence

on Héctor Angulo, who defined himself as one who continued García Caturla's aesthetics.

Similarly, the musicians Amadeo Roldán, Heitor Villa-Lobos, and Béla Bártok were

crucial influences on his professional development. His works for voice have become an

essential part of the vocal repertoire in Cuba. His large body of work includes pieces for

piano, guitar, chamber orchestra, and works for the theater. As a result of transcriptions

of about 250 melodies by the folklorist, ethnologist, and researcher Rogelio Martínez

Furé, made in situ with the voices of Yoruba performers, Angulo wrote his Cantos

Afrocubanos for voice and piano in 1969. It is a lovely piece marked by an expression of

Cuban cultural identity. Nearly two decades later, he wrote the music for the movie

Papobo, filmed in the studios of Television Cubana, in which he echoed the character of

the 18th century pregoneros (street sellers who often sang as they worked and became

part of the national Cuban identity).

His role as musical advisor to the Guiñol Theater in Havana was a cornerstone in

his artistic career, when he created the music for the dramatizations, Las Máscaras, La

Soga en el Cuello, El Sótano, y Pedro y el Lobo, Tres Canciones sin Texto, Canciones

Infantiles, Un Son para Niños Antillanos, etc. Poetry was close to his heart, and it was a

source of continuous creativity. Many of his works were created from texts by Federico

38

García Lorca, José Martí, José Jacinto Milanés, Nicolás Guillén, Mirta Aguirre, Miguel

Barnet and Pablo Armando Fernández.57

Angulo was one of the most recognized Cuban composers and pianists of the

twentieth century. He died at 86 years of age in 2018. His compositions show the

influence of Cuban writers such as Nicolás Guillén, Miguel Barnet, Mirta Aguirre, and

Rogelio Martínez Furé, and musicians such as Ignacio Cervantes. Indeed, the

sophisticated and polished music of Cervantes brought home to Angulo the reality of

Cuban music.

Angulo was fascinated by the richness of the punto espirituano (another genre of

music from the Cuban countryside). Héctor Angulo once said to the press, as reported on

Radio Havana Cuba: “I love Silvio Rodríguez, Pablo Milanés, César Portillo de la Luz

and the Trova movement, from Sindo Garay to Pepe Sánchez (father of the bolero). I die

for the music of Samuel, Cervantes, and Caturla as part of our Cubanness”. However, he

wished to have more knowledge of orchestration. He studied the tradition of Afro-Cuban

music and the pregones of Cuban popular culture. Other of Angulo’s important works are

the chamber opera Ibeyi Añá, and Toque (homage to Amadeo Roldán)58 From Angulo’s

experiences as a student in the United States, Guadalupe Yaujar Diaz reveals the

composer’s anecdote:

I had very good teachers from that country, two of them Italian. I received complete training in composition, although limited in orchestral work. I knew that I couldn't be enthusiastic about writing for the school's Symphony Orchestra either.… I realized that the decision-makers of everything were businessmen. However, I wrote a sonata and various

57 Elaine Caballero Sabugueiro, “Héctor Angulo, la Música te Acompañará Siempre”, Trabajadores, La Havana, 2018 http://www.trabajadores.cu/20180421/hector-angulo-la-musica-te-acompanara-siempre/ 58 Javier Rivera, “Falleció Héctor Angulo, uno de los Principals Compositores Cubanos del Siglo XX,” Cibercuba, 2018 https://www.cibercuba.com/noticias/2018-04-14-u164415-e164415-s27315-fallecio-hector-angulo-principales-compositores-cubanos

39

other things. My time in the United States broadened my political vision, as I related to many Americans and Latin Americans who were sympathetic to our Revolution, people at a high political level, and contributors to my training in this area. I got to know and live capitalism there because I worked washing dishes to be able to add to the stipend sent by our government and pay for the increasingly high price of studies, which exceeded the budget agreed on with my country. On my return to Cuba, I composed several concerts dedicated to the Apostle José Martí, and I also wrote instrumental pieces with a revolutionary approach and others for children; and for them, I worked many years at the Guiñol Theater in Havana.59

Being a considerable erudite, Héctor Angulo, who spent his life next to the piano,

was profoundly impacted by the Cuban social context before and after the triumph of the

Revolution of January 1959. Yet, faithful to his time, he maintained a love for the

writings of Jose Marti (whose poetry Angulo used in his own compositions) taught him

by his parents. He also had a love for the writings of other intellectuals who exerted an

influence on his native land’s development.

Besides Cantos Yoruba de Cuba he wrote other valuable guitar pieces such as

Elegía a Calvert Casey, Cantos para ir Juntos (or “Difuntos”, inspired by the palero

rites), Son y Décima, Puntos Cubanos and Sonera for two guitars. However, his largest

body of compositions is for chamber and vocal music and for many years he wrote for the

theater. His Sonata for eleven instruments, Toque (piano and ten percussionists), Climas

(violin, cello, and piano), and Bucólica (saxophone and tape recorder) are significant and

merit greater notice from our performers. These compositions carry an avant-garde

experimental language.

59 Guadalupe Yaujar Díaz, “Una Visita sin Anunciar” Radio Habana Cuba, 2017. http://www.radiohc.cu/noticias/cultura/120201-una-visita-sin-anunciar

40

Together with Rogelio Martínez Furé, he contributed to the staging by Pepe

Camejo of Ibeyi Añá, based on a story collected by Lydia Cabrera, for the Guiñol

National Theater. Member of UNEAC, the National Union of Writers and Artists of Cuba

and an organizer of the “Havana Festivals of Contemporary Music,” Angulo wrote the

music for a play dedicated to the “Five Cuban Heroes (2013).”60 His convictions as an

“artista revolucionario” showed through many of his works and confirm his deep

attachment to the Cuban Revolution.

The presence of the Cuban elements in his creative work is exemplified by the

way he approaches rhythm, timbre, melody, and form. In the last years of his life, Angulo

incorporated aspects of Latin American music from Peru, Mexico, Venezuela, etc., which

were mixed with Cuban musical elements. Through the 1960’s, he was influenced by

Bartok, and the Quartetto #2, dedicated to Caturla, reflects this influence. He was also

influenced by the Brazilian composer Heitor Villalobos, especially in the melodic content

found in Angulo’s Evocasion.

In his work, Toque, for piano and Cuban percussion, the taste of Amadeo Roldan

is present. The piece is a tribute to Roldan. Angulo described how “el toque”, a sub-genre

normally found in Yoruba rituals, became a musical idiom in Roldan’s use of it. This

idiom, separate from Afro-Cuban practices, had characteristics of the Toccata.61 In 1969,

he became the musical advisor for the Puppets National Theater (Guiñol), and he

premiered his chamber opera Ibeyi Aña at the Guiñol. It was written the year before and

is based on a well-known tale from Yoruba tradition. Although he wrote music for adults,

60 Pedro de la Hoz, “Héctor Angulo, Vanguardia y Raíz” Gramma La Havana, 2018 http://www.granma.cu/cultura/2018-04-23/hector-angulo-vanguardia-y-raiz-23-04-2018-20-04-45 61 Jose Amer. “Que Esta Haciendo Hector Angulo Compositor” Clave No? Instituto Cubano de La Música, Habana, (1988): 16

41

Angulo expressed his preference and dedication for composing music for children. On

two occasions during his life, 1985 and 1986, he received the La Edad de Oro Award in

the children's music composition competition. He also received other awards, such as

Premio UNEAC in 1985.

But mining popular and folkloric Afro-Cuban music for inspiration was a constant

imperative for Angulo throughout his career. He wrote 22 “pregones' ' in the style of

those singing-sellers of goods on the streets of Cuba during the 18th century. And his

work for the Guiñol National Theatre’s drama En los Tiempos de Naña Seré again

showed the influence of popular Cuban culture on his compositions. The quality and

skillfulness of Angulo’s art is recognized across the many genres in which he worked,

including vocal and choral genres. Examples works in these genres are his five Poemas

Africanos for voice and piano and Tres Cantos for voice and orchestra. His choral music

is well known in Cuba and has been performed all over the country. In 1987 he

concluded the cycle of songs En Los Alamos Del Monte with the text of Jose Marti. The

last piece of this song cycle has a pianistic approach very close to the style of

Rachmaninoff.

In general, Angulo’s vocal works lie within the romantic and modernist styles, but

the harmonic content of these works correspond to 20th century writing styles. Angulo

was so prolific a guitar composer that not all his works were premiered in his lifetime. In

an interview, the composer mentioned that Puntos Cubanos (1984) for classical guitar,

was never premiered. Nor was La Llama for voice and string orchestra, piano, and

percussion.62

62 Ibid

42

Héctor Angulo died in April 2018 in Cuba after a life dedicated to art and music

and synthesizing both with the traditions and real lives of Cubans.

43

Chapter II: Cuban Musical Traditions

1. African origin

Studies of African music concern its evolution throughout the history of the

African continent. African music in Cuba corresponds to a specific historical time period.

Cultural elements from Africa such as religion, language, and music were brought to the

island during the Spanish colonization. To the evolution of these African imports, we can

add their dissemination, adaptation, and preservation, all of which were supreme

achievements. Historical circumstances influenced all these elements in Cuba differently

from in Africa. The imported Afro-Cuban traditions are archaic, not related to

contemporary ones.

The configuration of Cuban society was profoundly shaped by the amorphous

mixing of different African religions such as Yoruba, Abakua, Congo, Arara, and

Gangan with Western Catholic beliefs and by the mix of different African languages and

musical practices, with the participation of free slaves. The Africans in Cuba practiced

their rituals of divination, prediction, protection, and necromancy. This last was often

found among some groups of Bantu63 origin.

Paleros, associated with Congo religion, also called brujeros (witchcraft), play an

essential role in incorporating spiritism in the popular patrimony. African music arrived

in Cuba as part of the rituals and sacred ceremonies; it still has that function in Cuba.

However, as the Africans were in contact with a new society, cultural factors influenced

their way of playing their own instruments and those from other ethnic groups.

63 The term refers to a multiethnic group of people who speak Bantu languages which include hundreds of dialects from the Central and Southern part of Africa.

44

In many of the original African chants like those in Guaguancós, one form of the Cuban

rumba, the natural tendency of going from high pitches (effort) to low pitches (rest) is

evident. Within the descending motion appear the motifs of repeated notes within an

interval of a third (mi-mi, re-re, do). This melodic cell is typical of African music.64

Argeliers Leon offers some thoughts on the migration of music from its original home to

a new country:

From the possibilities offered today by the capture of sound, whether on disc or tape, ethnomusicology has isolated a very important element in the characterization of the music of a people: the peculiar quality with which both vocal and instrumental sounds are emitted. They have made themselves dependent on the somatic characteristics of each ethnic group without forgetting the series of economic and social causes that condition them. These have been justified according to the possibilities offered by the medium in terms of construction materials and the resulting qualities, without forgetting in this regard the influence exerted by vocal music on the instrumental. From the sound quality, certain very characteristic mannerisms emerge, then when a music emigrates, it acquires, in the new nucleus that receives it, certain peculiar accents. The travelers and chroniclers who left us their stories about the black of Cuba often tell us about these features of peculiarity, a certain "dengue". The same observation is made today to the music that reaches the Africans. And this phenomenon is, even more, marked the further we move away from the areas of greater cultural universalization.65

In this description, Leon pointed out specific characteristics of the African singing

style, reflected in the way Héctor Angulo approaches articulation in his instrumental

works.

The musical discourse in Latin American countries include forms and Euro-

Western musical concepts. Also, it involves musical analysis derived from the Anglo-

64 Argeliers Leon. “Influencia Africana en la Música de Cuba” Clave No 1-2, Instituto Cubano de La Música, La Habana, (2008) 9. 65 Ibid

45

Saxon, Spanish or Portuguese heritage: the diatonic system, functional-tonal harmony

and its modulation, major and minor modes, enhancement of the melodic and harmonic

content using chromatism, and thematic development with its horizontal implications.

However, within the diverse musical genres of African cultures in America, the core of

African genres possesses qualities of a unique music. Some characteristics of this

uniqueness are polymodal melodic content, overlay of irregular rhythms, and an unstable

pulse.

A complex process of assimilation of distinct cultures resulted in a deep

transculturation. Africa provided an amalgamation of multi-ethnic, multi-regional, and

original tribal elements. Western Europe also brought a multinational and multiregional

conglomerate of cultures grown out of profound socio-political and economic changes in

its history. Some features from these cultures were transferred easily, as they were more

adaptable or functional than others within each specific socio-historical environment.

It is helpful to define common denominators within each of the two pillars: the

European and the African. Discussing the morphological characteristics and language of

European music will allow an understanding of the components that determine its

structure. And a look at historical styles in music that had come to America with

colonization, and which occupied a significant space in the musical practice of the “New

World” would also be useful.

The axis of Western music was the thematic motif with its combinations of

pitches (melody) and durations (rhythm). The way the motif was horizontally treated and

developed, and how forms of organization were established are necessary identifiers and

tools of musical analysis. Motif, phrase, period, theme, development, re-exposition, and

46

subject, countersubject, episodes, and transitional periods are some devices that served as

the building blocks of the structure, organization, and development of Western musical

discourse. The melodic line evolved according to the psychological characteristics of

societies in different historical times, generating styles and musical genres.

The beat-dominated rhythm expresses a mono-metric and mono-rhythmic

construction. This narrow definition of rhythm was the result of Western musical

practices, filtered through cultural institutions that disregarded more rhythmically free

popular music.

Lastly, instrumentation follows texture with its horizontal monophonic,

polyphonic, or homophonic properties. Vertical relationships were ruled by a modulative

tonal harmony that decides the melodic content’s accompaniment, if any.

Components of Afro-Cuban musical output has, within their diversity, some

commonalities. Percussion instruments are arranged by their ranges and frequencies and

the variety of pitches, timbre, and accents triggered by the performer. This property

governs the language of individual horizontality, making accents and rhythmic mutuality

what determine the vertical language. It has a consistent rhythmic discourse that is often

derived from a polymetric and polyrhythmic texture, in which different points of

emphasis and rhythmic accents meld.

The character of African culture contains a philosophy of collective participation,

and this philosophy permeates both the performance and the creation of a musical

product. The toques are organized in multiple sections by changing the intensities and

tempo, which influence the rhythmic choices of the performers. Another significant

general trait of African music is the “democratization of the beats.” The “strong beat”

47

supremacy that dominates the Euro-Western organization of rhythmic pulses is

abandoned in Afro Cuban traditions. The definition of a musical genre is based on an

organized vertical structure. The overlay of rhythmic schemes defines the structure of

African musical verticality.

A feature rarely mentioned by African musical scholars is the metric modulation

(the appearance of new rhythmic elements used to modulate from one meter to another).

This can be seen in some Congo music in Cuba. The conception and structure of African

musical thought represent the value of a process of dynamic transculturation between the

more developed elements of each culture and its musical language. Afro-American, Afro-

Cuban, Afro-Caribbean, and Afro-Brazilian genres are a part of a complex process of

multiple transculturation. Many aspects of cultural interaction affect the assimilation and

use of musical elements. For example, some musicians with a robust knowledge of

African traditions have academic training at different levels and that training can

influence the creative process of combining academic and written musical traditions with

oral and popular ones. These performers integrate Western and African practices that

result in a mature, highly developed, and diverse musical product. This result blends the

music’s ancestral roots with a worldwide musical evolution and is reshaped by the music

industry and the media. This musical invention goes beyond the framework of a

geographical area, creating commercially viable musical products adopted by social

groups and markets that recognize the high musical content of this intercultural synthesis.

1.1 Yoruba Music.

Among the different African cultures that contribute to Cuban popular traditions,

the Yoruba group is highly significant. Specific historical circumstances led to the import

48

of Yoruba culture to Cuba during the 18th and 19th centuries. The development of the

colonial economy (more precisely the development of sugar production) played an

essential role in slavery. The sugar industry was the most crucial linchpin of the Cuban

economy at the end of the 18th century. The West’s demand for sugar sparked a need to

increase sugar production, and it was a workforce of slaves that accomplished this

increase. As a result, a tremendous number of slaves were brought to Cuba, particularly

from the African regions near the Niger river. From this area, Yoruba people were

captured as slaves, often by Dahomeyans who played an essential role in the traffic of

slaves to the Americas. Some Yoruba became slaves because of internal conflicts in the

region. Despite the suspension of slavery by England in 1809, other countries such as the

United States, Spain, France, and Portugal were active slave trading nations.66

The American continent imported the most significant number of African slaves

during the first half of the 19th century. Plantations in the South of the United States,

Cuba, and Brazil fulfilled their demand for labor by increasing the negro traffic, even

after it was declared illegal by Ferdinand VII, King of Spain in all his dominions in 1820.

In Cuba, African Yoruba ancestry was divided into 4 categories: Eyo, Lucumi,

Egguado, and Iyesa. Of these four, the Lucumi (an Afro-Cuban ethnic group of Yoruba

ancestry) exerted the greatest influence on Cuban society and grew deep roots there.

Their presence was noted in archives and ecclesiastic parishes, cabildos, and

brotherhoods, where their material and spiritual culture survived as part of Cuban

identity. Santeria practice in Cuba (a syncretism of traditional Yoruba religion,

Catholicism/Christianity, and Spiritism) combines objects, rituals, drums, and festivities

66 Maria Elena Vinueza and Ana Casanova “Aporte Yoruba a la Cultura Musical Cubana” Clave No.13 Instituto Cubano de La Música, Habana, (1989-1990): 10

49

adopted from the Lucumi and confirms them as a large contributor to the Yoruba

inheritance.67

There are areas in Cuba where other groups are also relevant. For example, the

province of Matanzas and Cienfuegos show elements of the Eyo legacy, while Iyesa's

descendants could also be found in the province of Sancti Spiritus. The coercive move of

slaves by traders and planters of the 18th and 19th centuries made the migration of the

Yoruba people chaotic and disruptive, as families were violently torn from their historical

and social contexts and inserted into a society where they (now slaved) became the

bottom of the pyramid. Whether placed in an urban or rural setting, African slaves

satisfied the social and economic needs of the dominant class. Living and working

conditions were different in different areas depending on practical factors, but always

carried a mandate of total exploitation.68 Maria Elena Vinueza and Ana Casanova

describe:

El profesor Manuel Moreno Fraginals ha definido como deculturación el proceso consciente mediante el cuaI, con fines de explotación económica, se precede a desarraigar la cultura de un grupo humano para facilitar la apropiación de las riquezas naturales del territorio en que está asentado y/o para su utilización como fuerza de trabajo barata, no calificada. En este caso, el proceso de deculturacion no implica la eliminación total de los valores culturales del grupo explotado -algo imposible- sino sólo aquellos elementos que obstaculizan el sistema de explotación establecido, al tiempo que estimulan la conservación de las diferencias culturales y de otros elementos que puedan contribuir a ese fin.69

(Tr. Professor Manuel Moreno Fraginals has defined as deculturation the conscious process by which, for economic exploitation purposes, the culture of a human group is uprooted to facilitate the appropriation of the natural wealth of the territory in which it is settled and for use as a cheap,

67 Ibid 68 Maria Elena Vinueza and Ana Casanova “Aporte Yoruba a la Cultura Musical Cubana” Clave No.13 Instituto Cubano de La Música, Habana, (1989-1990): 11 69 Ibid 14

50

unskilled labor force. In this case, the deculturation process does not imply the total elimination of the cultural values of the exploited group -something impossible- but only those elements that hinder the established exploitation system while stimulating the preservation of cultural differences and other elements. that can contribute to that end.)

This process of “identity cleaning” did not entirely sweep away Yoruba elements

from Cuba. However, African cultures in the United States did not share the same

destiny. Language plays a vital role in preserving cultural values, and, in America, except

for in some previously French-occupied territories in North America, most Africans were

forced to learn and speak English, while in Cuba, African slaves were freer to speak their

native languages. Religious conversion enforced by the Protestants in the United States

was more effective than by the Catholics in Central and South America. African

polytheism found less resistance in the Spanish, French, and Portuguese settlements,

allowing the continuation of some rituals, gatherings, language, dances, music, and

customs that supported the survival of these cultures.

The reconstruction or reproduction of African traditions was framed by the

interests of the dominant class. It consciously established mechanisms favoring

productivity. Conditions were created to integrate a multi-ethnic group, torn from its

historical and geographic origin, into a new society. Under a new sky, people from

different African regions shared the same social status and scripted fate. In addition, the

extramarital and less commonly occurring marital relationships between colonizers and

slaves played a significant role in the configuration of colonial Cuba. This particularity

reflects a more relaxed social interaction in Cuba compared with North America. Cuban

Criollos (descendants of Spaniards born in Cuba) were under the influence of a

transcultural process, encompassing not only ethnic differences but social ones. “El

51

Cubano, en la continuación de las tradiciones africanas reconstruidas, aportó sus

propios valores estéticos y filosóficos reflejando la realidad social y cultural cubana en

constante desarrollo.”70 (Tr. El Cubano, in the continuation of the reconstructed African

traditions, contributed its own aesthetic and philosophical values reflecting the constantly

developing Cuban social and cultural reality.) The adaptation of cultural traits from

Africa by Cubans includes preserving beliefs and rituals, assimilating different ethnic

groups, and incorporating the new elements of national identity from those born and

raised under the European and African amalgam.

In Cuban society of the 19th century, the lives of slaves centered on the

plantations. Here the ethnic diversity, unbalanced gender ratio, age mixture, unfamiliar

diets, habits and housing, and work enforcement produced a constant cultural adjustment

between the African traditions and the reality of life on the plantations of Cuba. The

difficulties of survival among the slaves provoked an inevitable unity, placing aside

historical rivalries and language differences. The hard labor on the plantation was relaxed

for one day of rest only: Domingo (Sunday), and it was called this regardless of the

actual day of rest. This day was used by the slaves to interact, and dance and music were

allowed and represented the diversity of mixed African practices to which all slaves of

diverse origins were exposed. Musical representations were shared, traded, and

collectively assimilated by this multiethnic population. The result of these musical

integrations forced the revision of original practices and was influenced by the evolving

aesthetics of the performers.71

70 Ibid 71 Ibid

52

In some places, Yoruba practices were more entrenched than those of other

African origin. In modern day Colon, a town in Matanzas, some inhabitants are direct

descendants of Lucumi slaves. Some families are guardians of the fundamentos, the

mythic-religious representation of Yoruba deities. For centuries Yoruba traditions have

been preserved according to African customs. Festivities and ritual ceremonies could

include music, dance, and occasionally, animal sacrifices. One of the surviving practices

is the Limpieza (cleaning), a ritual to remove any bad spirit the day before the sugar

milling starts. This “cleaning” process has migrated from rural areas into everyday life,

becoming a customary preliminary for other events and settings.

The urban settings in Cuba forced a great number of slaves to be concentrated in

the cities. Here, the dominant class commercialized the plantation’s product. Slaves were

tasked with domestic duties in addition to being the workforce for the sugar industry.

Despite their status as slaves, domestic workers’ lives and working conditions were less

severe than those on the plantation. In urban areas, slaves had more potential for

intercommunication. They were more exposed to a variety of ethnic, aesthetic, and social

values and different ideologies, political agendas, and religious beliefs. The chances of

obtaining freedom were higher, leading to the development of a social class of freed

slaves. These individuals received monetary compensation and enjoyed a more privileged

position in the social strata, but they were not exempt from racial and cultural

discrimination.72

One could conclude that Cuban society carried a multi-dynamic flow of cultures

during the second half of the 19th century. The Euro-Spanish conquerors, African slaves,

72 Ibid:6

53

Criollos, and freed slaves were constantly negotiating cultural values. The original

settlers were forced to make some concessions to have control over the slave populations

while maintaining the institution of slavery. The slaves had to accept the submissive

assimilation of imposed cultural values to protect their own. The Criollos asserted their

identity by embracing progressive Enlightenment ideas and relying upon their European

lineage to differentiate themselves from freed slaves, upholding their dominant social

position and advantages.

As a result of a “pretended '' social balance, cabildos (town councils) and

cofradias (religious fraternities) were established in various cities in Cuba. These

institutions served as organized social gatherings, cultural entities, religious-syncretic

establishments, aid organizations, and artistic agents. More significantly, these

organizations encouraged the participation of both white and black people. In addition to

cabildos and cofradias, the ile-Ocha, (Casa-Templo or Casa-Santo), a Lucumi house of

worship where Yoruba religious practices associated with an iyalocha (godmother) or a

babalocha (godfather) arose incorporating Lucumi music, dance, and handcraft

heritage.73 The freed slaves played an important role as a bridge between the African

musical practices and their popular character. In urban regions, many of them became

instrumentalists. Some members of this emerging social group in the 19th century

acquired academic education and were exposed to Western forms of culture. Race-mixing

in Cuban society was another determining factor in the formation of a Cuban musical

identity.

73 Ibid

54

1.2 Congo Music.

Unlike in other Latin American countries such as Brazil and Haiti, the Bantu

demographic in Cuba, with its own cultural and religious experience deriving from the

Bantu’s African ancestry, is complexly measurable. People from Africa were primarily

categorized in Cuba according to their origin. Although the ethnic classification was

based on the settlements on the African shore from which slaves left the continent rather

than on the people themselves, a long chain of names used through colonial times was

connected to the Kongo region. They were classified as follows: Motembos, Mumbona,

Musumdí, Mumbala, Mondongos, Cabenda, Mayombe, Masinga, Banguela, Munyaca,

Loango, Musungo, Mundamba, Musoso, and Entoterá. Moreover, in Cuba, cabildos

arranged communal societies on a racial basis. Slaves from these regions were grouped

together as from the Congo.

One of the earliest societies to appear was the Cabildo Rey Mago San Melchor in

1792, even though it had, perhaps, existed unofficially before the census. In the last

decades of the 19th century, cabildos were prohibited from performing public events, but

they continued to operate privately in the early twentieth century. In 1909, the provincial

government of Havana registered these cabildos as Congos Mambona, Congos Masinga,

Cabildo de Congos Reales, Cabildo Congo Mumbala, and Congo Mobangué.74

Some scholars who studied this subject connected it with Bantu influence in

Santeria (a Cuban practice that mixes African culture with Catholicism and spiritualism).

Erroneously, they thought that the beliefs, rites, and structure of the Paleros (sub-group

of African Bantu culture) were the same as those of the Santeros (practitioners of

74 Miguel Barnet. “On Congo Cults of Bantu Origin in Cuba.” Diogenes 45, no. 179 (1997): 143

55

Santeria). For some scholars, “The ritual vocabulary of the Paleros is not a mixture of

various Bantu languages and Spanish, but the result of a direct transmission and clear

preservation of Kikongo (one of the Bantu languages from the Kongo region) alone”75

But in fact, “Kongo” implies the people, linguistics, faith, and culture of a specific

African region; “Congo” refers to those brought to Cuba, along with their language,

customs, beliefs, mixed with their creolized character in Cuba.

While the tradition of Kongo origin can be found in Cuba, this does not imply that

it survived without transformations. To determine the distinctions between Africa and

Cuban cultures and to learn how they arose, it is necessary to look at descriptions of

Bakongo (a blend of peoples from the Kongo region with several dialects) practices from

when the slaves were brought to Cuba and then look at descriptions in recent Cuban

Ethnographic studies. The work of Lydia Cabrera is an important ethnographic

assessment of Congo culture in Cuba. Some characteristics distinguish Palo Monte

(practice characterized by the use of a totemic baton as an instrument of magical

conjuration) from the old Kongo religion. These differences correspond to the effect of

Catholicism on the old African faiths as they were practiced in Cuba. This effect of

Catholicism on African practices is noticeable in several forms of religious proceedings

and described in several academic studies. Christian influence was pervasive although

determining its effect is chronologically complex. Haitian Voodoo has also influenced

Palo Monte, although this fact is not universally recognized. This influence took hold

after Haitians began immigrating to Cuba.76

75 Erwan Dianteill, «Kongo à Cuba. Transformations d'une religion africaine», Archives de sciences sociales des religions, Volume 117 No 1, (2002): 59-80 76 Ibid

56

The history of numerous Congo communities in Cuba has left songs and

representational choreographies of Congo dances like the mani or the yuka. These dances,

customarily staged in the barracones (shelters) on Sundays, lifted the spirits of the slaves,

releasing them for a moment from the grueling twelve-hour or more workdays. The

dances are seen in mainstream Cuban culture today and can be found in commencement

rituals, feast-day festivals of specific deities, and rites guaranteeing the success of the

prenda (Congo talismans) or the nganga (Congo father). The mani is one of these dances.

It symbolizes man-to-man combat and is usually reserved to men. Still, some women

with the strength for it might take the risk. Lydia Cabrera explains:

People bet silver on the maniceros’ fists and their brutality, just as they bet on the cocks’ feet. Many women who were equal to the men in strength would participate in the game, doling out punches that could smash the skull of the toughest men. In the Mercedes Carrillo sugar mill, where the Congos and the Arara were mani enthusiasts, Micaela Menendez broke the jaw of a huge man in one swift blow. In Trinidad, this sport was so popular that stories about a mayor and his daughter who practiced it. It enjoyed similar popularity in the province of Pinar del Rio, in the heartland, then at Santa Clara and Camaguey and Oriente. Just a few years before I left Cuba, I was assured that a group of “black peasants” practiced the mani from time to time. I never had time to verify this claim. In Havana, the colored population still remembers the two famous “solares” (empty fields) inhabited exclusively by Africans: the “Palomar” and the” Solar de Guinea,” which was quite extensive; they attended mani performances at Marques Gonzales between Zanja and San Jose.77

Several other dances have filtered into contemporary Cuban culture from the

Congo. The macuta, an early, secret religious dance, is performed exclusively in the

munanso bela, a holy room. The palo is distinguished by brusque movements of the arms

and the chest in a forward direction, with heavy motions. The yuka is a rich dance,

77 Lydia Cabrera, Reglas de Congo: Palo Monte Mayombe, Ediciones Universal, (1979): 93

57

sacrilegious and erotic, using the banging of pans to denote the sexual act, and portraying

a woman taken by men.

Short melodies characterize the Congo songs, and they are constantly repeated.

The melodic content is simpler and less developed than that of the Yorubas, but their

rhythmic magnificence is unmatched. Lengthy recitatives also distinguish Congo musical

practices; a fair amount of these, and the songs themselves, are characterized by their

intentions. Many are used to make a talisman work; others are chants invoking mystical

powers or for the greeting of leaders. The macaguas or cantos de puya are the most open-

ended recitatives, with more room for improvisations. They were described by 19th

century travelers and used by adepts to parade and ostentatiously exhibit their skills.

Another element of this Congo culture is drawing. Congolese drawings have been

utilized in their original form or portrayed in artworks produced in Cuba. The drawings

are primitive and speak to their subjects’ existence in nature and in society. The symbols

regularly displayed in these signatures contain circles, arcs, arrows, crosses, horns, skulls,

suns, and moons, forms that the Palo priests have revered for centuries as sacramental

elements. The artistic and allegorical quality of their sacred language is transferred to

these magical signatures and have acted as motivation for many Cuban artists.78

1.3 Abakuá Music.

The Abakuá secret society goes back to the secret brotherhoods found in Calabar

and other parts of Nigeria and brought to Cuba in the 19th century by slaves. It was

founded on an ancient tale that tells of the daughter of the monarch Efor, Princess Sikán,

who was put to death for violating the Abakuá’s religious secrets. She discovered the

78 Miguel Barnet. “On Congo Cults of Bantu Origin in Cuba.” Diogenes 45, no. 179, (1997): 141–64.

58

sacred fish Tanze, the incarnation of the god Abbasid, and, having heard Tanze’s song,

imitated his sound using the consecrated drum Eku. The members of the Abakuá secret

society, the Ñañigos, are solely men. This distinction exemplifies how a disregarded

social group can practice male, sexist religious practices. The secret nature of this group

was used to elude oppression and deal with the cruelties of the slavers. The first Cuban

lodge was founded in 1841, and only black men were permitted; later it opened to

mulatos, and later still, white men were allowed into the society.

The Ñañigos practiced the African worship of ancestors, revered as spirits, ghosts

or wraiths of the dead, and little devils, ñañas or ñáñigos. Ñañigos rituals give these

ancestors the chance to return to earth. Palo Monte is a practice that includes graphic

signatures called Ekeniyó in its ceremonies. These symbolic signatures are divided into

three unique types called Sellos, signifying the Abakuá power, Gandos, used for

complicated rites, and Anaforuanas, used for blessings. They could be drawn with white

chalks to symbolize death or yellow to represent life. These are sacred and secret

traditions surrounded by mystery. There are some open practices, but they are limited and

may occur publicly while the secret part of the ritual unfolds in a windowless area known

as cuarto de los misterios (the room of mysteries), fambá, or butame.

The religious structure of the Abakuá secret society is based on Potencias

(groups), Plazas or Obones (Kings), like the Casa de Santo or Cabildos. The major deity

of the Ñañigos is Abbasi, the Supreme Being, who resembles the character of Olodumare

from the Regla de Osha (Yoruba) and Nzambi from Palo Monte (Congo). Other

significant gods for the Ñañigos are: Obandío, similar to Obatlá (Yoruba); Obebé,

Yiniko, Okón, similar to Babalú Ayé (San Lazaro); Onifé, similar to Shangó; Okandé

59

similar to Oyá; Yarina Bondá, similar to Yemayá; Sontemí, similar to Oshún; and Obiná /

Efizá, similar to Eleggua. While Abakuá is restricted to men, age and marital status are

not factors of participation. In the Abakuá culture, the concept of man is the essential

requirement of initiation.79

Abakuá signifies manhood, praises it, and applauds it in the form of the common

perception of manhood that Cubans hold. The Abakuá/Cuban concept of man is

straightforward. It concerns notions of masculinity that reject feminine qualities: strength,

skill at combat, and strict adherence to a sexual code. Some sexual behaviors are

prohibited to the male Abakuá. The erotic versatility of some cultures, easily accepted in

Europe, Asia, and Westernized countries, is abhorrent to a practicing Abakuá. The public

perception of the membership of Abakua society is one of machismo. Machismo is a

phenomenon not exclusive to the Abakuá but extends to all of Cuban society. Abakuá

initiation rituals are called "plantes." They establish a connection to ancestors, the world

of the dead, and the legendary origins of the cult. Shadows and light feature prominently

in Abakuá narratives. Ceremonies involve costume dancing, chanting, cleansing, drawing

with chalk to create Ekineyo (the previously mentioned symbolic signatures), singing,

toque de Tambor (the pledging of respect and faithful devotion) confirmation, parades,

dances, songs, and food.80

There are numerous untruths and myths knitted around the Abakuá practice. Some

refer to an unfounded idea of prerequisites for initiation: cut-off fingers, painful incisions

on the body, slashes, and human sacrifices. The misconceptions go further. Some say

79 María Argelia Vizcaíno. “Abakuá: Los Ñañigos y sus Secretos.” Website: Cuba, una identità in movimento http://www.archivocubano.org/ 80 Matos, Orlando. “RELIGION-CUBA: Afro-Cuban Brotherhood Vindicated” Inter Press Agency. Havana 2007. http://www.ipsnews.net/2007/01/religion-cuba-afro-cuban-brotherhood-vindicated/

60

that murder is a required initiation rite. Others say that violence against other Cuban

sacred sects is part of initiation into Abakuá. The Abakuá have been accused of having

connections with drug traffickers and other criminal activity. They are often misidentified

as Santeros and Paleros and further accused of engaging in Satanism and demonic

practices. Ramón Torres Zayas says about this issue:

Unlike other Afro-Cuban religions, Abakuá or Ñañiga, as it is also known, is selective and only for men, and it maintains rigorous silence about the mystery of its beliefs. This secrecy lent itself to the sect’s name being blackened with legends about bloody rites during its liturgies, and the code of conduct of its members was stigmatized as “male supremacist and violent.” The discrimination and prejudice against the Akabuá brotherhood had its origins in the colonial era when slave traders reviled its members as “ignorant criminals” in the attempt to dehumanize what they considered to be their “merchandise.81

While there are historical factors that may justify the misconceptions and their

perpetuation, they have led political powers to control and limit Abakuá society’s

autonomy. These misconceptions of Abakuá practices have done it an historical

disservice. Some believe that it will change over time. Contrary opinions can be found in

scholarly literature. María Argelia Vizcaíno in her article “Abakuá: Los Ñáñigos y sus

Secretos” describes:

The Ñáñigos, as the Abakuá is often said, swear Ekue as the santeros become Santo and the paleros are scratched. When an individual consecrates, he swears to fulfill his seven commandments, which are the articles of his law. If he breaches them within the Power, his justice condemns him. No matter what, thief or murderer while not sinning against his law. The transculturation process also affected the antisocial opportunists who took advantage of the basic principles of mutual aid and protection to escape persecution and nurtured their ranks of criminals. However, the sect has many honest adherents who sought in the

81 Ramón Torres Zayas.” Relación Barrio-Juego Abakuá en la Ciudad de la Habana”. Fundación Fernando Ortiz Habana, (2010)

61

organization a personal fulfillment that the society denied them. Among its members are many mayomberos, santeros, even they call themselves Catholics, because they do not need to depart from their original beliefs.82

Contrary Enrique Sosa, in his essay “The Ñañigos,” reports:

From the second half of the 19th century until well into the 20th century, Ñañigos were accused of being criminals – which in certain cases was true – and of witchcraft; they were feared, reviled, and surrounded withsensationalism which made a profit from the fear they aroused. This fearwas the result of ignorance about their beliefs and rituals, and alarmist,opportunist, shamelessly false and unscientific class interests.83

Internationally, a negative view of Abakuá gained ground in the 19th century. In

1862, 200 freed Cuban slaves who practiced Abakua were deported to Fernando Po. The

Spanish government in Cuba sent hundreds of slaves to Bioko to limit Abakuás support

of some rebel groups' activities prior to the Independence war. The Spanish press of the

time propagated a harmful image of Abakuá. Isabela de Aranzadi, in her research “Cuban

heritage in Africa: Deported Ñáñigos to Fernando Po in the 19th century,” presents

textual evidence of this distortion:

In the first decades of the twentieth century, the Spanish press continued the prevailing idea from the nineteenth century, in which Ñáñigos is synonymous with crime and witchcraft, or masonry. The Europeans have, for centuries, associated “blacks” with being “savage” and “obscene.” With regards to tango, it is said that in Cuba, “only blacks and mulattoes and especially Ñáñigos […] have danced it and that tango was an obscene dance”. In 1903 the American dance cakewalk was labeled as a dance of Ñáñigos. In the media, the anti-Spanish attitude was repeated, using the term Ñáñigos to insult “intellectual eunuchs, [...] Ñáñigos leash and poets [criticize] the Quintero Brothers (patriotic writers).” In 1949, La

82 María Argelia Vizcaíno. “Abakuá: Los Ñáñigos y sus Secretos.” Website: Cuba, una identità in movimento, http://www.archivocubano.org/ 83 Sosa, Enrique. “Los Ñáñigos.” Ediciones Casa de las Américas Havana, (1982).

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Vanguardia printed a poem that stated: “Girl do not leave home, be careful that the Ñáñigo does not take you.84

Jesus Robaina, the director of the Cuban Institute of Anthropology, confronted the

speculation on a Cuban TV program:

There is now political understanding of the need for this religion as part of our national values, and a participative process with Abakuá practitioners is being developed, contributing to demolishing the negative legends that surround them.” There is a great interest by the Cuban government in narrowing the relationship with the Abakuá community. Among the social roles of its affiliates, a significant part plays this African culture in the music and dance expression of the Cuban people. Numerous elements of the Abakua practices have been assimilated into the popular heritage: Dances, melodies, rhythms, instruments, and language are at the core of Cuban culture. “Today, the impact of the current economic crisis is evident in the tourist industry that has been created around Afro-Cuban religious culture. Within this unprecedented context, Abakuá (as well as Ocha and Palo Monte) ceremonial music is being commercially recorded.85

The music of Abakuá is little known, likely because of the mystery surrounding

much of the cult's business as well as limitations on access to Cuban research and

literature. However, there are some acknowledged Abakuá songs86:

Example 2.1: Canto de sacrificio en el rito mborimapá (Chant of sacrifice in the rite mborimapá).

84 de Aranzadi, Isabela. “Cuban heritage in Africa: Deported Ñáñigos to Fernando Po in the 19century.” African sociological Review, Vol 18, No. 2 (2014). 85 Miller, Ivor. “A Secret Society Goes Public: The Relationship between Abakuá and Cuban Popular Culture.” African Studies Review, vol. 43, no. 1, (2000): 177. 86 Cuba, una identità in movimento. Website, http://www.archivocubano.org/

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Example 2.2: Salida del berome (Exit of the berome)

Example 2.3: Canto funeral del velorio enyoró (Funeral chant of velorio enyoró)

Example 2.4: Entrada del berome (Entrance of the berome)

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Example 2.5: Canto del enyoró (Chant of the enyoró)

Example 2.6: Canto del entierro (Chant of the entierro)

Example 2.7: Canto de la iniciación de los indíseme (Initiation chant of indíseme)

Scholars such as Lydia Cabrera have shown that the Afro-Cuban cultural product

is greatly indebted to the many African slaves brought to Cuba and who brought with

them the history, traditions, religions, and art from their disparate places of origin. Cuban

culture became a great melting pot into which all these influences were stirred and out of

which came the blended cultural world that composers such as Angulo mined for their

work. As a result, more about the Abakuá, Congo and Yoruba societies and culture is

taking the global stage, grabbing the attention of historians, critics, and scholars with

narratives about colonialism, cultural identity, commercialization, and politicization of

cultural tradition. The multi-cultural survival through the agency of slavery carries all of

the African diaspora's past, present, and future. Isabela de Aranzadi summarized this idea

saying:

The dance and music of certain communities in Africa represent a living memory that can be considered in terms of a history that speaks of African

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voyages across the Atlantic during the slave trade and after abolition. In some cases, this memory was maintained through cultural elements that served as a form of resistance in the American continent; such cultural elements returned to Africa transformed by the slaves and their descendants.87

1.4 Characteristics of the vocal aspect of Afro-Cuban music

It is important to define the structural elements from African music present in

Afro-Cuban groups' music. First, the antiphonal style, where a soloist initiates the

singing, then the choir responds, is very common. In Africa, this dialogue is characterized

by different variants: maintaining unchangeable lines in both parts, changing the soloist

part but keeping the choir unaltered, and/or allowing the soloist to introduce the music to

the choir, then leaving the choir to repeat the music on its own. Occasionally, the refrain

detaches from the original solo and is adapted to make new solos. This phenomenon is

associated with some secular use of these songs that also incorporate new foreign

elements.

A strophic singing style is very common in Yoruba music with variants in

alternating soloist and choir. Specifically, in the music of mayombe-Bantu origin, the

sectional structure of this music implies polyphonic superimpositions that occur when the

choir responds to the soloist while the solo part continues. In Regla Mayombe, the choir

appears at an interval of 2nd, 5th, or unison. The movement of the vocal parts by parallel

intervals is an organizational component that is strongly rooted in Cuban music. But it is

not found in the precursor music. In urban folk and academic Cuban music, this

component has disappeared because of the integration of the harmonic and contrapuntal

87 de Aranzadi, Isabela. “Cuban Heritage in Africa: Deported Ñáñigos to Fernando Po in the 19century.” African sociological Review, Vol 18, No. 2 (2014).

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techniques of contemporary music. Nevertheless, both the antiphonal style and this one of

parallel lines reconcile their coincident points with the fundamentals from all the African

practices that arrived in Cuba.88

A close look at songs to the orisha Oyá of the Yoruba groups in Cuba indicates

that its structure is in a style called escalonada (staggered) melody; the melodies are

articulated in intervals that are combined from a starting pitch, then each melodic motif

rotates over a basic interval, not necessarily attached to a key. It is a system of melodic

construction dissimilar from the fluid, progressive melody line of Western music. As

African music in Cuba maintained its association with the old rituals, these characteristics

in the vocal lines prevailed. Still, once it moved to urban and profane musical practices,

the melodic thought engages the tonal influence.89

The melodic structure and the mode in which the sounds are emitted make the

Afro-Cuban singer place accents produced by a guttural blow, often on the “weak beats.”

Some accents are taken in a small upward inflection of the voice; that is the case in

chants of the Regla Kimbisa, of Bantu origin. It's common to use melodies where the

seven degrees of the so-called minor mode are at a whole tone distance from the eighth.

About the vocal style of African traditions, Argeliers Leon affirms:

This melodic construction, which appears in many primitive peoples, can be referred to as based on small motifs, which if we order them by joint degrees, do not constitute a scale as it is understood in Western European culture, but are small groups that are used in conjunction, superposition or disjunction – remember that the Greek theorists, starting mainly from the tetrachord, they distinguished between scales in which the tetrachords

88Argeliers Leon. “Influencia Africana en la Música de Cuba” Clave No 1-2, Instituto Cubano de La Música, La Habana, (2008):7. 89 Argeliers Leon. “Influencia Africana en la Música de Cuba” Clave No 1-2, Instituto Cubano de La Música, La Habana, (2008): 8.

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entered by conjunction or disjunction. These motifs have an analogous function to those tetrachords.90

The characteristics of the African singing style mentioned by Leon could found in

the way Angulo arranged the voices in some of his guitar compositions. In chapter V and

VI the musical analysis depicts this influence.

2. Spanish origin: Country Music (Música Guajira).

2.1 Spanish musical elements.

The Hispanic heritage in Cuba can be recognized in forms of the Spanish

Zapateado. This was antecedent to dances originating in countries such as Chile, Puerto

Rico, Mexico, and Argentina, among others. Some of these dances are Joropo, Zapateos,

Zamacuecas, and Jarabes. Along with the Zapateado, other dances of Spanish origin

came to America. Boleras, Polos and Gaditanas were danced by white Africans and

creoles. These rhythms came from different regions of the Hispanic peninsula. The

preponderant sonic features were the plucked string sound, the timber of guitars, lutes,

tiple, and bandurrias. This musical element is perhaps the most important inheritance

from the Hispanic culture. These instruments are heard and seen in the hands of both

African descendants and whites. During the 18th century, tiranas, boleros and seguidillas

were performed on these instruments—an important part of Cuban country music.

Another element from Spain introduced to and then developed in Cuba is la

décima, (a type of sung poetry) with its improvisatory character sung by countrymen in

Punto guajiro. It came to Cuba with Spanish theater. The décima was used in the

beginning by vocal groups called Claves and Guaguanco (a subgenre of rumba). In this

90 Ibid:9.

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form, improvisers were called decimistas. The cuarteta, a form of improvisation, was

more widely used in the popular tradition of Spain.

Tonadas have a significant place within the vast repertoire of Cuban country

music. Cuban areas such as Matanzas, Havana, and Pinar del Rio, fathered different types

of tonadas: tonadas de punto, which includes seguidillas, and tonadas simple. The

singing style of these tonadas was free, a piacere, and was accompanied by guitars, lute,

or Tres. In other areas of Cuba, such as Camaguey, the tonadas are more tied to the

rhythm tempo giusto. James Gerard Cornolo speaks of the difference between the

tonadas, also called Punto libre (free) and Punto fijo (fix).

This music is associated generally with the more Caucasian, Spanish-descended, rural population and has been in existence for centuries. Punto Cubano is felt in triple meter and is primarily a vehicle for the singing of poetry, often in the form of décimas, a specific style of poetry which is often improvised, is rooted in Spain, and exists in various forms throughout Latin America. Punto guajira is traditionally accompanied by the traditional guitar, the tres Cubano (a smaller, steel-stringed guitar having three courses of double strings), and the laud Cubano (even smaller steel-stringed instrument having six double string courses, related to the lute), along with percussion and sometimes upright bass or marimbula, a bass instrument consisting of metal tongues mounted on a resonating box, directly evolved from similar African instruments. Although the meter could be written as 3/4, as in all Cuban music, there is some syncopation, and through melodic and rhythmic accents, a 6/8 feeling is often implied, which also relates to the hemiola common in the triple meter Baroque dances from which this music most probably was adapted.91

The Romance was another Hispanic element introduced to the island. It is a song

style, used in children’s songs, lullabies, and tales narrated by elders, either in its poetic

91 James Gerard Cornolo. "Idioms of Composition and Technique in the Guitar Works of Two Modern Cuban Composers." MM diss. Northeastern Illinois University, (2021):15.

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form or in the form of the décima. In addition, the Spanish popular music tradition, the

Zarzuela, as well as operettas and danzas de salon from the rest of Europe, played

important roles in the development of Cuban musical culture that became richer as time

passed and as other waves of musical genres and writing styles came to the country.

Different cultural eras defined the European musical influences on the musical product of

Cuba. The melodic element played a decisive role in the construction of a national

product. European influences were blended into the new art forms in which musical

elements from other cultures shared the space. Armando Rodríguez Ruidíaz in his article

“El Punto y el Zapateo de Cuba” describes:

These styles of dance songs and poetic-musical improvisation arrived in Havana and later passed, following the path of population growth, to other cities and rural sectors (which in Cuba were always in close communication with urban areas) where they were modified, adopting specific regional characteristics that identified them as Creoles. In this way, two of the first autochthonous genres of Cuban popular music emerge into the public light, the punto and the zapateo.92

2.2 The Son

The Cuban Son is a musical genre which contains "a sound of voices and

instruments." It grew out of a historical context of cultural influences similar to those

from the rest of the Caribbean and Latin American countries. Europe and Africa provided

the two fundamental roots of the Son that converged in the establishment of a Cuban

national culture. But this did not happen without a mighty struggle among diverse

traditions, customs, and religious beliefs, which contributed to the creation of a national

identity. This phenomenon influenced all artistic forms, particularly music. The process

92 Armando Rodríguez Ruidíaz "El Punto y el Zapateo de Cuba" https://www.academia.edu/31268678/El_Punto_y_el_Zapateo_de_Cuba (2017): 2

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for the son to become a national product started early in Cuba’s history. Over time, the

mix of cultures inherent in its origins ultimately created authentic Cuban music.

By the eighteenth century, the first signs of what is called musical criollismo

appeared. During the second half of the nineteenth century, two genres emerged that were

responsible for further development of the Cuban Son: the contradanza and the danzón;

with them appear the first manifestations of the Son. In the Son’s development, Spanish

singing pivoted to the African rhythms which arrived at the beginning of the Conquest.

The Son was nurtured in Cuba and was then expanded by its interpreters to the rest of the

Caribbean and Latin America.93

“In Cuba, any melodic and rhythmic musical air was called Son but in its further

development, this word was changing to mean a style of song and dance, with a structure

of chorus-copla-chorus.”94 Like any popular musical genre, this music evolved from its

most primitive form to a more intricate arrangement. Any artist could participate and

provide new rhythmic, choral, and instrumental elements, many artists from eastern

provinces, where it had its origin. In Havana, it reached its most complex form;

instruments, such as the botija and the marímbula, were replaced by the double bass.

First, sextets normally performed them, then septets (by adding the cornet) and finally

octets (with the addition of trumpet). “Once the son is established in Havana, it assumes

the clave habanera as a rhythmic pattern, and the fixed instrumental format sextet, as a

basic musical group to sound it."95 The genre evolved into other variants such as guajira-

son, rumba-son, son-pregón, guaracha-son, bolero-son, etc.

93 Radamés Giro “Una Propuesta de Ruta para el Son Cubano”, La Jiribilla, Habana, (2021). 94 Ibid 95 Jose Reyes Fortun “Incidencia del Son Cubano en la Fonografia Musical” La Jiribilla, Habana, (2021).

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As the phrase indicates, the Son Montuno is the one that was always cultivated

and interpreted in the mountains or the countryside of Cuba, mainly in the eastern areas

where it arose. The Son Tradicional was an urban Son and was found in Havana and

other western capitals of the country. The Son Montuno uses slower cadences than the

Son Tradicional. Generally, the music is more accentuated, often by the bongo and the

double bass. With the double bass in pizzicato, the rhythmic-harmonic base of the Son is

established by the anticipated bass, or syncopation, Example: The Phrygian mode, with

its Andalusian cadences in minor modes, were popular in harmonic structure: (Im- VIIb7-

VIb-V7).

The clave is a rhythmic pattern found in both the Cuban Son and rumba. These

are some of its versions: Examples 2.8 and 2.9. (3-2 and 2-3) show variations of the

clave. Another distinctive rhythmic aspect of this genre is the use of cinquillo, Example

2.10, and tresillo.

Example 2.8: Clave de Son 3-2.

Example 2.9: Clave de Son 2-3.

Example 2.10: Cinquillo with a complementary measure.

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Example 2.11: The bass line follows this syncopated rhythmic pattern.

2.3 The Décima

The décima Iberica was born from Celtic, Greek, and poetic elements from Latins

(Indo-European people of the Italic branch), and Arabs. Originally, the décima consisted

of poetry set to music, sung, and danced, much as was the romance (a type of Spanish

poetry with octosyllabic structure) and other poetic traditions, like the chansons de geste

or cantus gestualis were in Medieval Europe. As part of the troubadour traditions of the

12th to 14th centuries, poetry continued to be sung in Europe, strongly influenced by Arab

culture in some Iberian areas. The genre is characterized by Greek, Andalusian, and

medieval European or Arab scales, which, in turn, came from countries such as Persia.

The décima cantada, a Spanish style dating from the 16th century, was practiced

in Europe and in most countries colonized by the Spaniards. This genre continued as part

of the popular art in several Hispanic areas, such as La Alpujarra (where it was known as

trovo), in Andalusia and in parts of Granada and Almería. Also, it is found in Cartagena,

Murcia, Malaga, and, in different forms, in the Basque Country, Valencia, and the Canary

Islands. To the list should be added Portugal, Italy, the Azores, Sardinia, and throughout

Latin America.96

One form of the Cuban punto guajiro, called espinela (a poetic form of ten

octosyllabic verses with consonant rhyme), uses the tenth. The name honors Vicente

Espinel, who fixed the form with a required pause in the fourth verse and four perfect

96 Martha Esquenazi Pérez. “La Décima Cantada en América Latina” Clave No. 1-2, Instituto Cubano de la Música, Habana, (2008): 64.

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rhymes (abbaa-ccddc) in 1591. The tonada (a folk music style of Spain) has the melody

fixed in tenths, establishing a specific musical shape by dividing the melody into two

couplets. The décima espinela repeats the first two: ababba – accddc, creating a musical

structure of six verses that repeat twice. Guitars, tres, lute, and, sometimes, marimba,

claves, tumbadoras, bongo, or pailas form the instrumental accompaniment. In the

Parranda espirituana or Avileña, a violin could be used. There are several styles of

interpretation of the Punto guajiro: Libre (free), fijo (fixed), and cruzado (crossed),

espirituano, parranda, or seguidilla. Each style is defined by the type of instrumental

accompaniment used. The rhythm is ternary. It can be performed in 3/4 or 6/8.

Example 2.12: Ternary rhythm of the punto guajiro, 3/4 or 6/8.

Improvisers have more creative opportunities in the punto libre (free). Because it

has no refrain, it became the preferred choice among all the styles of punto guajiro for

improvisers. The punto libre without chorus is characterized by an instrumental

introduction in 3/4 with tempo giusto; when the poet sings the décima, the tempo changes

to ad libitum and lays the groundwork for improvisation. Armando Rodríguez Ruidíaz, in

his article El Punto y el Zapateo de Cuba, explains:

We consider that it is also possible to attribute this peculiar effect to an intentional displacement of prosodic accents, which is carried out with the purpose of making the perception of rhythm more flexible, as can be found in the Spanish dance songs of the sixteenth century that we have already mentioned above. That dislocation of synchrony between the different planes that make up the musical texture is one of the most important characteristics of African music, which was already present in

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Hispanic music that served as an original model for the creation of the first Creole genres.97

In the meantime, the instruments follow the melody in homophonic imitation,

then return to the tempo giusto in the interludes between the décima and at the end. Also,

the tonadas often feature a refrain in the major mode, derived from the medieval

Mixolydian mode, in minor or based on the oriental Andalusian scale.98 Usually, the

Mixolydian structure (from G to G) is used for the major modality and the Phrygian

(from E to E) for the minor.

Example 2.13: Modal scales in the décima99

3. Afro- Cuba and Cuban rhythmic musical idioms.

The Cuban clave constitutes the foundation of most Cuban musical genres. This is

particularly true for genres such as Guaguancó and Conga. These are a few examples:

97Armando Rodríguez Ruidíaz “El Punto y el Zapateo de Cuba” https://www.academia.edu/31268678/El_Punto_y_el_Zapateo_de_Cuba (2017):6 98 Ibid:75 99 Argeliers León. “Del canto y del tiempo”. Editorial Pueblo y Educación. La Habana, Cuba, (1981):102.

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Example 2.14: Cuban Claves100

Other distinctive rhythmic elements are the tresillo and cinquillo, present in many

popular genres such as son, guaguanco, rumba, and Afro-Cuban practices from which

they derived. Both rhythmic patterns could have many variants based on the manipulation

of the rhythmic values within the pattern.

Example 2.15: Other distinctive rhythmic elements101

Example 2.16: The syncopated bass is responsible for the “swing” of Cuban music.

100 Marcos Valcárcel Gregorio. “Las Claves Ritmicas de la Música Cubana: El Problema de la Clave” from Percusión Popular de Cuba; sus instrumentos y sus ritmos, CreateSpace Publishing, (2016):2 101 Peter Manuel. "Rhythmic Structures in Latin American and Caribbean Music." In The Cambridge Companion to Rhythm, edited by Russell Hartenberger and Ryan McClelland, 283-97. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, (2020): 285.

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Chapter III: Methods of Musical Analysis

1. Vectoral Analysis, Pitch-class Set Theory, Musical Ambiguities, and Musical

Temporalities: explanation, justification, and application.

The main materials for this analytical research were musical scores of three pieces

for guitar by Héctor Angulo: Cantos Yoruba de Cuba, Cantos para ir Juntos, and Son y

Décima. For a comparative study, audio recordings of these pieces will be used and

reviews of performances. In addition, interviews of performers and scholars who were in

contact with the composer personally or professionally were used to obtain accredited

critical, analytical, and biographical information. Unfortunately, a trip to Cuba was not

possible to collect updated information about the composer’s last years.

This research used several methodologies to analyze the selected musical works.

A vectoral musical analysis served as a platform to structure the musical content. This

analytical technique divides the data as follows: historical background, overview,

structure and texture, orchestration techniques, basic techniques, vertical models,

horizontal models, and style. Each of these sections has subdivisions.

Other analytical techniques were used within the subdivisions to attain results

from different perspectives. Musical ambiguities, for example, is an analytical method

proposed by Deborah Stein in Engaging Music. Essays in Music Analysis and was useful

in describing musical content that does not fit within traditional parameters. Afro-Cuban

and Cuban traditional music contains musical content suitable for this type of analysis.

Musical complexities such as polytonality, polyrhythms, pitch ambiguity, poly-meters,

dual texture, and phenomenal and agogic accents are characteristics of musical works by

many modern composers. However, earlier composers like Schuman, Brahms, and Liszt

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searched for musical combinations beyond predictable ones like key schemes and

symmetrical structures, in their later works. Atonal music analysis, including pitch-class

set theory, was applied in areas required by the musical content.

Another analytical method that was helpful in the analysis of Angulo’s music was

music temporalities. This proposal by Johnathan Kramer in The Time of Music: New

Meanings, New Temporalities, New Listening Strategies, approaches the musical content

from a macro point of view. It identifies the use of elements such as dynamics, texture,

timbre, density, range, progressions, and gestures to achieve musical goals. As part of the

postmodern musical world, Héctor Angulo’s compositional style gives the listener an

important role within the musical analysis.

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Chapter IV: Works for Classical Guitar by Héctor Angulo

1. List of works:

• Punteado, 1956 • Son y Décima, 1964 • Elogio a Calvert Casey, 1970 • Cantos Yorubá de Cuba, 1970 • Cantos para ir juntos, 1972 • Sonera (homenaje al bongó), 1976, for two guitars. • Puntos cubanos, 1984 • Para Roberto y Clara, 1990, for two guitars. •Titiritera, 1996 2. Selected works and historical context during the composition.

Three specific works for classical guitar were selected from Angulo's production

to exemplify three facets of Cuban Nationalism in his music. In Cantos Yoruba de Cuba,

the author uses direct quotes from Afro-Cuban music. In Cantos para ir Juntos, the

composer presents a conceptualization of African music through sonic experiences, and

in Son y Décima, the composer explores Cuban popular musical traditions.

2.1 Cantos Yoruba de Cuba

Western musical tradition has maintained Western sacred genres as part of its

compositional practices, regardless of a composer’s religious beliefs. Despite diverse

aesthetics embraced throughout musical history, sacred music has maintained its

ontological functions. The presence of religious works within the European musical

heritage goes beyond genres traditionally associated with it, such as Masses, Oratorios,

Cantatas, etc. “The social relevance of this repertoire is subject, as a principle, to a

bipolarity – in relation with its meanings, uses, and functions - which debates between

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aesthetic references and rituals.”102 A complex relationship takes place in the musical

world in which artists and society interact under concepts that bring thoughts, feelings,

and values distant from religious traditions, while at the same time give space to mythical

content and the popular functions of these practices. It is easy to assume that ritual and

liturgic elements will be employed by 20th and 21 century composers. There are some

indicators of the presence of these elements in a musical composition (such as the title)

that often reflect the composer’s motivations: the text (in the case of vocal works or some

kind of program with explicit sacred content, genres, or forms associated with specific

religious practice), the presence of distinctive musical elements from a ritual, and

functional use of the work within a sacred event. Historically, these components have

been identified and associated with Catholic sacred music.103

Some Cuban academic composers have found an endless source of musical

content, emotional empathy, philosophical paths, and spiritual convergence in the Afro-

Cuban practices of language, identity, and religious rites. In Cuba, African cultures have

different destinies from the ones in North America. In Cuba, African traditions survived

the hegemony of European power and elements from Yoruba culture in Cuba became an

important part of society whether its citizens were or were not devotees.104 Héctor

Angulo embraced the rooted essences of the African heritage of Cuban society. Besides

some of his works in which the Afro-Cuban presence is evident, other ones carry its

components in a veiled way; that is the case of Cantos para ir Juntos for guitar (1972),

102 Ailer Perez Gomez. “Mistica de la Música Cubana: lo Religioso en la Obra de Compositores Académicos.” Clave No 2-3 Instituto Cubano de La Música, Habana, (2009): 9. 103 Ibid 104 James Gerard Cornolo. "Idioms of Composition and Technique in the Guitar Works of Two Modern Cuban Composers." MM diss. Northeastern Illinois University, (2021)

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Toque (Homage a Roldan) for piano and percussion (1980), and Sobre un Canto a

Changó, for two pianos (1965). These works merely allude to rhythmic and melodic

content from African music. In chapter VI, an analysis of Cantos para ir Juntos will

reveal this particularity.

In Cantos Yoruba de Cuba, written in 1970, Héctor Angulo used direct quotes

from Yoruba musical tradition. The melodic-rhythmic element is present in the way the

chants are sung to worship Yoruba deities. The Cuban musicologist Iván César Morales

in his article “...Arriba la Lira, Arriba el Bongó” points out that Angulo recognizes the

elements that these melodies contain.

Very distant from the previous proposals, it is Héctor Angulo's work “Los Cantos Yoruba de Cuba” (1975), original for guitar, in the version taken as a reference, from the CD ... as an angel and a devil, performed by Rosa Matos, in 2004, for voice and Afro-Cuban percussion instruments. This cycle of pieces, titled with original names of Yoruba songs (“Asokere,”“Suayo,”“Iyá mi llé,”“Borotití,” “Iyá mo dupé,”“Yeyé bi obí tosuo,”“Elekua asokere ”), refers the Afro-Cuban imaginary not only using the previous subtitles, but the "Textual" handling of melodic designs detached, into a great extent, of its customary rhythmic-accent framework; in addition to the small rhythmic effects of shaking, as symbolic references of setting. His proposal becomes a singular dismantling of the unidirectional vision that, about the rhythmic, has been established as a catalyst for any evocative attempt of the sonorous world of African ancestry. Through a speech of fine lyrical invoice, harmonic accompaniment with a colorful-expressive profile, and nostalgic character, the intention that the composer unveils it in these pieces, is to let you feel the real transcendence and artistic-musical expressiveness that carry I get these songs. However, his approach unprejudiced is remarkably direct, not there is in it any intention to mask or blur the inspiring element through stylizing resources, all of which is enough for him to conceive a speech of endearing artistic sense.105

105 Iván César Morales, “...Arriba la Lira, Arriba el Bongó”, Clave No. 1-2 Instituto Cubano de La Música, Habana, (2008), 13-19.

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The harmonic content and the timbre correspond to compositional techniques

from the academic musical practices. The dramaturgy organizes the movements within

the piece from the ritual festivities of the Yoruba cult. Angulo presents a clear re-

elaboration of this dramaturgy, using a chant, Asokere, to the Orisha Elegguá as a

recurrent element by placing it at the beginning, central, and concluding part of the cycle.

A formal analysis of the cycle reveals a Rondo form structure: the Asokere theme appears

three times in the piece, each time with a different character. From a metaphoric point of

view, this structure refers to the power and functions attributed to the orisha Elegguá

(Elegguá number is 3) in the original cult and shows how it is preserved within the

popular imagination.106

Elegguá is the deity that controls pathways, opening and closing them. It is not a

coincidence that Angulo places the Asokere chant at specific moments within the

piece.107 Taken together, the Yoruba, academic, and popular elements offer a wide range

of possible interpretations, limited only by the performer’s individuality. In such cases,

the original instruments, detached from their religious contexts, impact the structure of

the work’s dramaturgy.108 Some Yoruba music has an Antiphonal character; the melodic

alternation between soloist and chorus often reveals modal ambiguities (minor/major

modes). This is characteristic of non-Western modal systems that are often pentatonic.

106 Ailer Perez Gomez. “Mistica de la Música Cubana: lo Religioso en la Obra de Compositores Academicos.” Clave No 2-3 Instituto Cubano de La Música, Habana, (2009): 9. 107 James Gerard Cornolo. "Idioms of Composition and Technique in the Guitar Works of Two Modern Cuban Composers." MM diss. Northeastern Illinois University, (2021) 108 Ailer Perez Gomez. “Mistica de la Música Cubana: lo Religioso en la Obra de Compositores Academicos.” Clave No 2-3 Instituto Cubano de La Música, Habana, (2009): 9

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2.2 Cantos para ir Juntos

There is not much information about this piece, except that it was composed in

1972 and recorded the same year by the Cuban guitarist Jesus Ortega. That is the only

recording of the piece extant. There are a few concert programs of performances in Cuba

that feature this piece. Besides its title, nothing else explains Angulo’s source of

inspiration. The composer dedicated the work to his mother, and it is indicated on the

score. The different movements are titled in Roman numbers from I-VI.

In 2018, a few months after Héctor Angulo died, Pedro de la Hoz, a well-known

Cuban journalist, wrote an article published in Granma recognizing the death of the

Cuban composer. In the article, de la Hoz listed some of Angulo’s works, and he referred

to this piece as Cantos de Difuntos (Chants of Deceased). He asserts that it is based on

chants from Palero rites. Unfortunately, the author of this research has not yet found the

real story behind the two titles. But, considering the biased view of society toward

Congo-Palero practices, it would not be surprising if the societal view of Congo-Palero

practices negatively colored its view of the original title and occasioned the name change.

Given the lack of information about this specific work, this author listened to many

Congo tunes trying to corroborate the source. This particular mode of research yielded

information on two of the three of the movements which are now identified as Congo

chants.

The approach to the Afro-Cuban elements in this work of five movements

demonstrates Angulo’s versatility in the way he was able to depict the essence of how

Congo musical culture differed from Yoruba. The musical content is not a prayer to

Orishas (only Yoruba/Lucumi) but an evocation of the awakening of the underworld. The

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concepts of atemporality, dislocated pulses, autonomic voices (representing spiritual

entities within Congo-Palero culture), and an erratic interaction among all these elements

were important to the design of this work. This is one area in which African musical

qualities are congruent with avant-garde writing style.

2.3 Son y Décima

Son y Décima was written in October of 1964. It is dedicated to Jesus Ortega,

previously mentioned as a guitarist and pedagogue of the Cuban guitar school. It was

published among a set of pieces by other Cuban composers titled “Six Cuban Composers:

Ten Works for Guitar.” This compendium included works by Leo Brouwer, Jose

Ardevol, Carlos Fariñas, Harold Gramatges, and Edgardo Martin. No recording of this

piece has been found, nor has mention of its inclusion in any concert program. There is

no obvious reason that could justify this absence, but the content of this piece warrants

special attention.

The two movements are based on Cuban popular musical genres. Unlike other

works based on Afro-Cuban chants, creolized Cuban national products are its sources.

Despite the distinctions between the two genres, it is important to remember that both

derived from a Hispanic musical heritage. Both genres were cultivated by Cuban

musicians. Moreover, both genres can be found with variants in many regions of Latin

America.

2.4 Reception, performance, and recognition of these works within the classical

guitar world.

Evidence on the necessity of this research can be found in the exclusion of this

composer from academic guitar repertoire collections and programs such as The Royal

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Conservatory of Music Guitar Series from the Royal Conservatory of Music in Canada,

the Trinity Guildhall Guitar Series from Trinity College London in the UK, the Classical

Guitar Repertoire List from London College of Music at Thames Valley University in the

UK, the Guitar Program from the Conservatorio Profesional de Música “Mancomunidad

Valle del Nalon” in Asturias, Spain, and the Guitar Program and Repertoire List from

the Conservatorio de Música “Julian Aguirre” in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Yet,

surprisingly, in the “complementary” repertoire list from the Escuela Nacional de Música

at the Universidad Autonoma de Mexico, Cantos Yoruba de Cuba by Héctor Angulo is

included.

A poor and superficial description of a recording of Angulo’s music bears

evidence of a lack of research and a need for it. Only two sentences were dedicated to

Héctor Angulo in a CD description on Naxos Records’ website: “Another aspect of

Cuban music is heard in the Cantos Yoruba de Cuba by Héctor Angulo, who now enjoys

a very considerable reputation. These arrangements of melodies of African origin are an

important part of the Afro-Cuban legacy.”109

Peter Bates, another CD reviewer, writes: “This cycle is based on seven songs of

the Yoruba people, who came to Cuba as slaves from Nigeria. The short songs are often

slow with complex melodies that, once stated, dissolve into the mist.”110 Another review

109 Keith Anderson. In Naxos Records: “About this Recording: Guitar Music of Cuba” with Marco Tamayo (guitarist), Naxos 2004. https://www.naxos.com/mainsite/blurbs_reviews.asp?item_code=8.555887&catNum=555887&filetype=About%20this%20Recording&language=English# 110 Peter Bates. In Classical Net: Cuba! with Manuel Barrueco (guitarist), EMI Classical, (1999). http://www.classical.net/music/recs/reviews/e/emi56757a.php

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adds: “the settings by Angulo are thinned-out texturally to provide the listener with easy

access to their beautiful, simple melodies, without their customary complex rhythms.”111

After listening to several recordings of the piece, one could conclude that

something is missing from those interpretations, such as the Afro-Cuban character, the

sense of motion, the nuances of the chants, and their tempo instability. The intrinsic

polyphony through the polyrhythmic texture is blurred by standardized performance

parameters and a romantic Westernized approach. An earlier recording by Leo Brouwer

in 1971-1974 is more faithful to those elements of Afro-Cuban distinctiveness as is the

recording by Rosa Matos in 2004.

111 Notes and Editorial review on album Cuba! Arkiv Music’s website. https://www.arkivmusic.com/products/cuba-barrueco-233094

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Chapter V

1. Cantos Yoruba de Cuba: Analysis.

Cantos Yoruba de Cuba is a nine-movement work. Each movement functions as a

musical expression of a different Yoruba deity.

1.1 Asokere I is the first instance in which this chant to Elegguá appears within

the work. The agogics indication is tranquilo y lejano (tranquil and distant). The

composer specifically marked quarter equals 69. The entire first movement is dominated

by the dynamic range within the piano, holding the dynamic only between pianissimo and

mezzo-piano. It seems like Angulo wants to start the spiritual journey subtly. The deity

Elegguá, who opens the pathways, is calm and welcomes the listener to his domain.112

In the score, the indication beside some large chords implies a rolling movement

of the right hand that provides two results: first, a delicate touch avoiding a strike, and

second, the prominence of the highest pitch of the chord, which is part of the melody.

Cornolo, in his pedagogical research, points out the interpretative possibilities of

choosing to play these chords with flesh or thumbnail. He also recognized some tone

change indications such as sul tasto and natural sound in which the first one produces a

mellow tone, played close to the fingerboard and the second one by the sound hole of the

guitar. Although this explanation is accurate, the meaning of the term sul tasto indicates

the right hand's position and not a literal translation (sul tasto = “on the touch”) as

Cornolo stated. Tasto refers to the fingerboard (fretboard in fretted instruments) as a

group of tasti, or frets.

112 James Gerard Cornolo. "Idioms of Composition and Technique in the Guitar Works of Two Modern Cuban Composers." MM diss. Northeastern Illinois University, (2021) 33.

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The piece’s structure consists of two repeated phrases: (aa’ bb’). The tonal center

is G, but the absence of F# indicates a Mixolydian mode. The use of quartal chords in

harmony demonstrates the application of modern compositional techniques by the

composer.

The theme starts with upward motion in quarters (B, C, D) that an inner voice imitates in

half notes at a slower pace.

Example 5.1: Imitation at a slower pace by an inner voice.

The open-string chords at the beginning could resemble the idea of “open

pathways,” perhaps appropriated to hold the resonance of these chords. At measure 5, a

rhythmic and harmonic element appears that is found in many places throughout the

piece. The composer places a chord that displays the combination of the African and

European musical traditions. On the one hand, it is placed on the second beat of the

measure, which displaces the strong first beat (associated with Western rhythmic

structure) creating a characteristic rhythm of Afro-Cuban music. On the other hand, the

intervallic structure of the chord (quartal) corresponds to 20th century Western harmonic

practices.

Example 5.2: mm5: Quartal Chord.

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The composer included other chords such as suspensions (Sus 2nd/ 4th). In the

second phrase starting in measure 8, both variants are used in contrast: (Csus2/G) then

(Csus4/G).

Example 5.3: mm 8: (Csus2/G) then (Csus4/G).

In measure 6, there is a dynamic polyrhythmic passage in the inner voices. This

polyrhythm takes the form of two against three with the last eighth of the measure tied to

the first one of the next measures. Here the metric accent in the lower voices is audible,

and then the quartal trichord is placed on the second (“weak”) beat. Again, the presence

of the cinquillo (an Afro-Cuban rhythmic pattern) reflects its origins in African music.

Example 5.4: mm 6: cinquillo

In Measure 11, the driving force is not in the rhythm but in the melodic

polyphony.

The higher voice has the theme, a second voice has (G-G-A-G), a third voice has pedal C

in quarters, and the lower voice moves in intervals of major 2nds (G-F-G-F-G)

Example 5.5: mm 11: melodic polyphony

There is a metric change to 5/4 at measure 12, for just one measure: then a pause

with a poco fermata on the bass line. Here Angulo prepares a timbre change by

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presenting the motif in harmonics. Then, unexpectedly, with a p indication, a (Csus(b2)

chord, commonly used in Spanish Flamenco music, is on the second beat. It is followed

by the same motif with a mellow tone on another unexpected harmony: (C#7/B) on the

bass line that, if we take the resonance of the half note G from the melody, creates a

(C#7b5/B) chord. These harmonies respond to a clear avant-garde writing style. The

phrase ends on a (Csus4).

Example 5.6: mm12: metric change and unexpected (Csus(b2)

1.2 Suayo is a work in E Mixolydian mode with two parts demarcated by a tempo

and character change indication, A (Tranquilo) and B (Gracioso). Rhythm, timbre, and

the melodic motif in a lower register mark the distinction between the two parts. The

structure in part A is formed by two repeated phrases with some variations (ab, a`b`). As

in the first movement, this tune is linked with the Orisha Elegguá.113 In the first section

of this part, the theme, which is in the top voice throughout the piece, is supported by

lower voice in vertical chordal texture. In the second section, the lower voice creates a

sense of mobility by using arpeggiating chords.

113 Ibid 35

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Example 5.7: vertical chordal texture.

Example 5.8: arpeggiating chords.

This musical figure will be the base for part B in a more complex polyrhythmic

texture. Notes in harmonics prepare the entrance to part B.

Example 5.9: entrance to part B in harmonics

This three-note motif is subtly present in the entire second part and forms the

pitch collection that ends the piece. The composer's genius is in how he conceals this

pitch-set [E, F#, B] with its variations of the order of the intervals. This musical feature is

a common tool in the writing of 20th century music, and it places Angulo’s music within

the avant-garde and the Cuban vanguardist musical aesthetics.

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Example 5.10: mm9-21: pitch-set [E, F#, B] with its variations

Measure 9 Measure 11 Measure 15 (between two voices)

Measure 17 Measure 20 Measure 21

The key signature at the beginning of the piece indicates A major mode, but the

musical discourse is on the dominant E Mixolydian (V). The magnetic pole is B; the

composer used it to create and release the tension of the major 2nd dissonances in the

second voice. It is also used as part of the quartal chords. B is the pedal note in the first

eight measures and, curiously, the last pitch in all the measures of the piece with two or

three exceptions. This relentless presence of B emphasizes the tonality under the

dominant E (V-V).

The Afro-Cuban polyrhythmic complexity is obvious in the second part B

(measure 17). There are two introductory measures with a rhythmically regular ostinato-

arpeggio (eighth) in the lower voice. This feature creates a counterpoint with a

rhythmically irregular melody in the upper voice and includes tresillo, agogic accents,

and an anacrusis.

The last measure is the revelation of the pitch/harmonic secret behind the entire

piece: an (Esus2) suspended chord with its arpeggiated ending, on its highest pitch: B.

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Example 5.11: (Esus2) suspended chord.

James Gerard Cornolo in his study "Idioms of Composition and Technique in the Guitar Works of Two Modern Cuban Composers” provide some pedagogical uses and interpretative suggestions for this movement:

The guitar technique faux pizzicato may be employed to the supporting voice in both the second and fourth presentations. In this case, as each eighth note is played with the right-hand thumb, the thumb then quickly silences the note before playing the next, resulting in a detached, rather percussive effect, as opposed to the notes sustaining over one another, which is often done in guitar music. This is quite effective in contrast to the singing long notes of melody voice. The third instance of the theme is played entirely - both melody and accompaniment - with the conventional guitar pizzicato technique, which is achieved by partially muting the strings with the palm and/or side of the right-hand, muted enough so as to produce a percussive sound similar to a thumb piano, while retaining discernable pitch.114

1.3 Iyá mi ilé is a piece in two parts (A-B) in which the phrases are organized in

the same way: A (aaba) B(aaba). The boundary between these parts is marked by a

character change indication: first part Andante (rubato sostenuto) and the second part, at

measure 17, intense. In addition, the texture changes from horizontal, quasi recitative

writing in part A to a dense vertical chordal setting in part B. The antiphonal

characteristic of Afro-Cuban music is also present within the dialogue between the

phrases (a and b). This tune is related to Oshun, a female orisha who governs freshwater,

love, fertility, and healing115.

114 Ibid 115 Ibid 36

93

Phrase (a) has a sign for a pause every two measures, while phrase (b) has it every

four. These indications display an asymmetric structure of the phrase and bring the

tempo-instability notion from African music that is contrary to the rigorous steady-pulse

concept of Western traditions. At the same time, this particularity is congruent with the

atemporal-music experiments made by many academic composers of the 20th and 21st

centuries.

Another feature within the melodic content that connects the African and

European musical sources is its polymodal attribute. Modern composers have frequently

used modal ambiguity: in this case, Am pentatonic and G Mixolydian.

Time expands and contracts by using irregular rhythmic cells such as cinquillos

and tresillos (expands) and small regular values after (contracts). Then, it expands again,

representing the vocal/singing characteristic of Afro-Cuban music.

Example 5.12: irregular rhythmic cells

The Mixolydian mode reinforces its presence by having, in the middle register, G as a

pedal note throughout the piece.

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Example 5.13: G as a pedal note throughout the piece.

Using the concept of natural forces in music, the direction of the energy is toward

D. The melody revolves around this pitch, using neighbor tones, D ends melodic motifs.

Furthermore, it is the highest pitch reached in the whole piece. Like other parts of this

“Afro-Cuban suite,” Iyá mi ilé carries the “democratization of the beats.” The first beat in

the upper voice is silent, followed by a chord on the second beat, then another rest.

Example 5.14: chord on the second “weak” beat, then another rest.

One of the most remarkable aspects of Angulo’s writing is his careful

construction of the inner voices. He was completely aware of the emotional and

psychological effect of the arrangement of pitches within a chord. Recalling Debussy’s

concept of color in music, Angulo clearly delineates two suspended chords, both Gsus4.

The last beat in measures 19 and 23 is occupied by a Gsus4 chord which ends the

melodic phrase. But in the final measure, the same Gsus4 closes not just the phrase but

the piece. Here, the composer duplicated the root (G) in the middle voice, providing an

exquisite feeling of resolution.

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Example 5.15: mm19/23: distinction between two suspended chords.

Measure 19/23 (Gsus4) Final measure (Gsus4) with duplication of G

James Gerard Cornolo in his study "Idioms of Composition and Technique in the

Guitar Works of Two Modern Cuban Composers” provide some pedagogical uses and

interpretative suggestions for this movement:

In the first half, the melody is expressed as single notes in the bass register, with a shifting yet overall quiet dynamic range, compelling the right-hand thumb to produce subtle differences in volume as well as tone. This can be done not only through precise control over the amount of force used, but also through deft use of rest strokes and free strokes as well as the inclusion, or not, of the thumbnail. In the second half the theme is set with block chords with the indication intenso (It. intense). In measures 19, 23, and 31 the chord is preceded by a grace note in the bass voice. This could be executed in the typical way, by striking the bass note with the thumb right before sounding the remaining notes of the chord with either the thumb or some combination of thumb and fingers as described earlier in this paper. Another option was made known to the author during his study of this piece, that which entails striking the bass note with the thumb and then producing the rest of the notes with an upward strum of the index finger, a technique commonly used by lutenists.116

1.4 Borotiti is written in an F major with an introduction of two measures. The

piece is divided into two parts (AB), defined by a change in the timbre and dynamics. In

part A, the melody is in harmonics with a piano (p) mark, while part B uses natural

sounds with a mezzo forte (mf) mark. The internal structure of each part is the same, with

116 Ibid

96

three phrases that are organized in this way: A (ab :|| c/b) B (ab :|| c/b). Each phrase (a, b,

c) takes two measures.

Héctor Angulo places the melodic content of this chant in the upper voice so

beautifully and in such a way that it conceals an interesting rhythmic and melodic

ostinato in the lower voice. This melody is associated with the male deity Osain, who

rules over el monte (plants and healing herbs).117

The composer presents the pitch-set [F, C, G] that dominates the entire piece in

the first measure. Also, he establishes the rhythmic platform in which a stress accent is

placed in the last beat of each measure. The composer does not indicate the accent, but it

is implicit. Danza Caracteristica by Leo Brower features the same rhythmic

arrangement. The following excerpts from the score show how the Pitch-set [F, C, G]

was used throughout the piece. Again, Angulo proves a deep understanding of modern

writing techniques with a very creative (perhaps intrepid) way of intertwining this cell

with the rest of the elements.

Example 5.16: Pitch-set [F, C, G].

117 Ibid

97

These are some examples of the stress accent on the fourth beat:

Example 5.17: stress accent on the fourth beat.

A new rhythmic motif is added at measure 12, Part (B) in the lower voice. This

feature suggests a polyphonic texture, not in the traditional European sense of

counterpoint. Still, as explained in chapter II, the overlay of coinciding or not, rhythmic

schemes, constitutes the method of organization and structure of African musical

verticality. Each scheme has autonomy and provides its form of development if there is

any. Given the spiritual inspiration inherent in Afro-Cuban musical practices, some

participants, performers, and/or voices may have an inconsistent presence, meaning they

may contribute to the moment or not.

Example 5.18: new rhythmic motif.

Like in the other pieces, the harmonic field is full of dissonances, quartal chords,

and minor 2nd intervals. A parallel-fifth motion in all voices at measure 14 also carries a

Quintal chord (Am11/C) on the second beat.

Example 5.19: mm14: parallel-fifths motion.

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The last beat of the piece closes the cycle with the same pitch collection as the

first measure. However, this time [F, C, G] is in chord form hit by the right hand over the

strings, producing a drum-like sound (tambura).

Example 5.20: [F, C, G] in chord form.




The most obvious technical consideration in the first half is that the lead voice is to be produced as artificial harmonics, while the accompanying voices are done naturally. This would seem to be achieved most effectively by “fretting” the artificial harmonic notes with the right-hand index finger a distance of twelve frets (one octave) above where the note is fretted with the left-hand finger and plucking it with the ring finger of the right hand while simultaneously plucking the supporting voice with the thumb. The challenge is to produce the artificial harmonic notes both clearly and with enough volume while keeping the accompanying voice from overshadowing them. This can be accomplished by maintaining a buoyant, upward tendency in the right arm, the opposite of weightiness, which results in more force being transferred to the upward plucking of the harmonics while less force is available for the bass notes played by the thumb.118

1.5 Asokere II is a second encounter with Elegguá. Here the “pathway” seems to

be more active for the composer. The chant is presented in D, with the same structure of

Asokere I: (aa’bb’). However, the Allegretto (tempo giusto) indication suggests a

different character. The piece's beginning presents an upward two-voice chromatic

118 Ibid

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movement at different paces, one in eighths and the other one in quarters. This use of

different speeds reflects a common singing style found in many African cultures, but it is

also a compositional technique modern composers use. These phenomena suggest a short

passage of heterophony texture with what is called phase music.

Example 5.21: upward two-voice chromatic movement at a different pace.

Measure 4 starts with a dense harmonic vertical progression that overlaps with a

horizontal polyphonic texture. However, the independent behavior of each voice is

affected by a symbiotic relationship in harmonic terms. This occurs when a composer

gives a double role to one or more pitches in a voice, making them part of the melodic

content of other voices. The vertical sequence moves up chromatically toward a soothing

Bm7 chord that turns into a Gmaj7/B chord on the last subdivision of the measure. The

composer reinforces this harmonic mutation (Bm7 to Gmaj7/B) by adding a poco

diminuendo indication.

The top voice has the melody and two of the inner voices have pedal notes (B, D).

Another inner voice moves in and out, joining one of the pedal voices in unison. But in

the last measure of this sequence (measure 6), the voice with the pedal note (B) moves

chromatically in opposition to the lower voice. This line has a stress accent that serves as

an anticipation to the (Bm7) chord, which is the harmonic goal of the sequence. The

symbiotic relationship between the voices in this section is evident in measure 6. The

chromatically descending melodic line (B, A#/Bb, A, G) in the inner voice is not

restricted to one voice only; it is shared with the lower voice that has an A#. The

100

following excerpts from the score will display all these congruences occurring within just

three measures:

Example 5.22: mm4-6.

Pedal notes (B, D).

Mutation of the chord (Bm7 to Gmaj7/B).

A polyrhythmic element is introduced at measure 11; the composer drops the

lower voice in a rapid gravitational move from G to G. This passage reflects two modern

concepts of musical analysis that Larson proposes in his book Musical Forces: melodic

and rhythmic gravity. In this case, the melodic gravity moves the line from a high G to

the next lower G and the rhythmic gravity from a small value of sixteenths to a quarter.

This rhythmic gravity is also known as metric magnetism.

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Example 5.23: mm11: metric magnetism.




The fifth movement, V – Asokere II, is a different set of the first movement’s theme. The indications tempo giusto (It. strict time) and 76 beats per minute contrast with the beginning movement’s free and open feeling. The identical melody is expressed in a dance-like manner, punctuated with four- and five-string chords of varying shades of unconventional harmony. When rolling chords, playing their notes simultaneously, or some combination of the two, the performer must employ care to bring out the various unexpected sonorities without compromising the jaunty rhythm.119

1.6 Iyá mo dupe, a chant to Yemoyá, the Queen di la mare (of the sea).120, starts

with two introductory measures. In each one, the first measure is a single-voice upward

arpeggio on a Dm11/G chord. On its first note, G, a fermata holds it and then the G is

released using an anacrusis to the third beat of the measure. Then, another fermata

appears on the highest note of the arpeggio to hold the return downward in the second

measure of each pair. The descending melodic content increases from one to four voices

as it goes down back to G. There is a clear image of the waves moving on the sea back

and forth in a quiet way. The dynamic indications of piano and pianissimo throughout the

composition support this notion.

119 Ibid:37 120 Ibid 38

102

Example 5.24: mm1: single-voice upward arpeggio on a Dm11/G chord increases the amount of voice from one to four as it goes down back to G.

The two parts (A and B) are defined by a transposition of the theme. Part A (aa’)

is in Mixolydian mode, and part B (aa’) is in Dorian mode. The texture is polyphonic in

two voices, and the second voice does not develop as it would in Western music. It has an

irregular rhythmic autonomy that is based on the pitch-set [G. C, F] and its combinations.

Ever within the range of p and pp, the dynamics create sounds like whispering, perhaps

Yemoyá responding to the prayer.

Example 5.25: irregular rhythmic autonomy that is based on the pitch-set [G. C, F] and its combinations.

Two considerations determine the atemporal character of this piece: one is that the

melodic structure of the theme does not fit within a measure, as some motifs start at the

end of the bar and end at the beginning of the next. The second is that the rhythmic

structure of the lower voice prevents any instance of unison, and always falls between the

upper voice’s motifs. The composer displays in this movement the congruency of the

writing with compositional techniques of the 20th and 21st centuries.

Example 5.26: two measures- motif and rhythmic structure of the lower voice.

103




Iyá mo dupe offers more opportunities for the musician’s development. After a brief introduction, the slow and sustained melody resides in the upper voice, while the supporting part consists of short, detached sixteenth-note phrases and lots of rests. In addition to adept muting of certain strings and not others with parts of the right hand a seasoned thumb is necessary to make the notes clear yet not overlapping, occasionally employing faux pizzicato as described earlier, all at the dynamic levels of piano and pianissimo.121

1.7 Yeye bi obi tosuo is a movement in which the composer displays the

antiphonal character of Afro-Cuban music. A contrasting imitation defines the dialogue

with a distinctive timbre: pizzicato versus harmonics. The piece has the following

structure: (AB-A’B’). Part (A) has a monophonic texture, while part (B) has a polyphonic

texture. In part (A’) measure 13, the theme is transposed an octave higher. This chant is a

prayer to Oshun, the female ruler of freshwaters.122 The time signature is 6/8 with a

tempo indication Allegretto (scherzando) and a steady pulse with African rhythmic

influences defined by stress, agogic accents, and an anacrusis.

In part (B), the lower voice produces a polyrhythmic texture where the accents are

in the lower voice. Still, in part (B’), the composer presents a rhythmic unison with

interesting accents at the last subdivision of the measure. These are stress accents on the

lower E, at measures 55 and 59.

121 Ibid 122 Ibid 37

104

Example 5.27: mm 55/59: accents at the last subdivision of the measure.

The harmonic content results from the horizontal intervallic relationships with a

predominance of the interval of fourths. This intervallic combination is taken from the

first three notes of melody [G, B, E]. The absence of the pitches IV (A) and VII (D#) of

the scale in the melody, and an almost identical treatment in the lower voice, suggest that

the piece is in E pentatonic mode. Interesting descending melodic motif occurred in

measure 19 with intervals of fourths.

Example 5.28: mm 19: melodic intervals of fourths.

The composer, in measure 18, presents a unique way of soothing the dissonance

of a major 2nd. The goal is achieved by placing the pitches at a distance larger than an

octave.

Example 5.29: mm18: soothing the dissonance of a major 2nd.

105




Developed artificial harmonics and pizzicato abilities are required to aptly execute these lines at this rhythmic pace. The second and fourth sections show the active melody played normally, in the higher register, with counterpoint, harmonized more densely in the final iteration. An advanced left-hand technique is demanded for barring, large shifts, and some relatively intricate fingering. The practice of releasing as much tension as possible from the left hand whenever the opportunity presents itself, i.e., between notes and/or chords, is essential in making these passages not only playable but musical.123

1.8 E Iekua is a piece built upon a theme that appears three times. This chant is

also dedicated to the worship of Elegguá,124 and the melodic treatment can be described

as (a b a’). Even though (b) has the same melody as (a) in the upper voice, the texture

differentiates the two parts. In the first exposition of the theme (a), the lower voice is

vertical, and quartal chords interact with the melody, accentuating the measure's second,

displacing the pulse or downbeat. This vertical texture of the two voices is similar in the

third repetition (a’). The lower voice moves horizontally in the second time (b) section,

establishing a rhythmic and melodic counterpoint. The melodic gravity center is E; the

motifs move downward to E, suggesting an E pentatonic mode.

The first part (a) has energetic polyrhythmic passages in which an inner voice

alternates with the lower voice intervals of fourths against quartal trichords. Also,

measure 4 has a very complex rhythmic combination.

123 Ibid:37 124 Ibid

106

Example 5.30: mm4: intervals of fourths against quartal trichords.

The middle section (b) exposes a linear motion of irregular rhythms and several

agogic accents that creates a sense of erratic mobility, enharmonic substitutions (measure

eight beats 2-3), and melodic parallel fourths.

Example 5.31: linear motion of irregular rhythms and several agogic accents.

Quintal chord arrangements can be found in measure 11 on the second beat. The

piece ends with a beautiful D6(9)/E chord accentuating its highest pitch three times.

Example 5.32: mm11: quintal chord arrangements.




One rather rare technique can be utilized for the syncopated alternating figures in measures 2 and 12. To stop the lower voices, which need to be stopped due to the presence of rests, is to have the right-hand thumb rest

107

between the fifth and sixth strings while the upper voices continue to play.125

1.9 Asokere III, the final movement is in G and is the third time the theme

appears. It follows the same structure as the first and second times. However, this round

starts with two open-string chords instead of the melody in anacrusis as a sign of the open

“pathway.” The melody follows at intervals of fourths between two voices but then at

parallel fifths, which is a new element, in measure 3. This parallelism, also known as

planing, used by Angulo, was a compositional device that could be found in pieces such

as “Nuages,” from Nocturnes by Debussy.

Example 5.33: parallel fifths.

The polyphonic and polyrhythmic texture is present with the other voice in a

vertical chordal form. However, in measures 10 and 11, the inner voice has an upward

arpeggio, bringing a different motion feeling.

Example 5.34: mm 10-11: upward arpeggio.

A pedal note G in the inner voice is present in every measure with two exceptions

in which it is part of the melody in the upper voice. Continuing with this presence of G,

the melody ends the penultimate measure on a G followed by a rapid descending

125 Ibid 37

108

arpeggio in pizzicato. Finally, it concludes with two quartal chords, the first one fingered

on open strings, the second on a closed V guitar position. At this point, the journey has

ended, and Elegguá has closed the pathway.

Example 5.35: pedal note G on the inner voice




The top note G of the two closing chords can be at least slightly emphasized, within the written dynamic marking of piano, to make musical sense, as it seems to be an echo of the note G an octave higher at the start of the previous measure. This accentuation can be achieved in several ways: play the chord simultaneously with some combination of fingers (most likely thumb, first, and second) and apply slightly more force to the G; play the chord as just described but only use the fingernail on the G; roll the chord using the fingers as previously described and slightly bring out the G, or strum the chord with the thumb slightly to bring out the G. Needless to say such detailed considerations are merited for the final breaths of such a work of art. 126

126 Ibid 38

109

Chapter VI

1. Cantos para ir Juntos: Analysis

Cantos para ir Juntos is a work in six movements. Each movement is titled only

by a number (I-VI). There are no indicators that say on what traditional melodies the

movements are based.

1.1 I. This movement is based on a Congo tune called Campana la Luisa. It is in

the key of A with E as the gravitational melodic center. The accidental (D#) reinforces

the E dominance, which is also the ending pitch. The time signature is 2/4. The

composition's formal organization consists of two parts (AB) with the same internal

phrase structure (ab, ab - cb, cb). The parts are defined, first by the change from a

harmonic to melodic intervallic structure of the inner voice in part B. Secondly, by a

change in the horizontal development of the lower voice in phrase (c) also in part B.

A low pedal note on E is present in the last subdivision of all measures; it is an

agogic accent tied to the first beat of the measure followed by a stress accent in the inner

voice. The texture is polyphonic and polyrhythmic (resulting from overlaid rhythmic

schemes) in three voices. A tresillo (Afro-Cuban rhythm) is evident in the two against-

three rhythmic structure in the lower voices of measures 22 and 24, Example 6.2. In

terms of harmony Quartal and Quintal chords are found in different places within the

piece, Example 6.3. An ascending and descending motion occurs at measure 25-30 in the

lower voice, Example 6.4.

110

Example 6.1: polyphonic and polyrhythmic (rhythmic schemes) in three voices.

Example 6.2: mm 22/24: two against three rhythms.

Example 6.3: Quartal and Quintal chords.

In part A, the lower voices followed the melody in a vertical chordal texture,

coinciding in the first beat of the measure with the beginning of the melody. In part B, the

lower voices shift and start one measure behind the melody, quasi homophonic. Finally,

in part C, the lower voices are a half-beat behind the melody and are more polyphonic.

1.2 II This movement is in C and the time signature is 2/4. It is structured in three

parts (ABC), each with the same melodic content. The phrases are organized as (ab cd)

within each part. They are defined primarily by the place within the measure where the

lower voices start and by the different textures of each part.

Example 6.4: mm 25-30: ascending and descending motion.

111

Example 6.5: vertical chordal texture, quasi homophonic, and polyphonic.

Example 6.6: the pitch-set [E, A, D, G]

As in movement I, E is dominant as a pedal note and is found in the lower voice

in almost all chordal structures. The quartal chord sonority of the pitch-set [E, A, D, G],

taken from the melody, dominates the harmonic discourse. This quartal chord is the final

chord of the piece.

112

The rhythm is irregular in the lower voices, creating a complex polyrhythmic

texture. The presence of triples, quintuples, stress accents, and agogic accents defines this

musical element in the movement.

Example 6.7: complex polyrhythmic texture.

In part A, the lower voices move in parallel rhythm with the melody line in the

upper voice and use a natural sound timber. In part B, the lower voices are no longer in

parallel rhythm with melody. Instead, they accentuate the second beat of the measure and

displace the pulse. The texture in the second phrase (b) becomes an imitative

counterpoint between the outer voices at measure 21.

1.3 III. This movement is based on a Congo ritual song Kuenda Ndokito. The time

signature is 2/4 with a meter change to 3/4, for just one measure (48). The melodic

content is in C# pentatonic mixed with E pentatonic. The form of the movement consists

of three parts (ABC) and a coda. The phrase organization within the parts is (aa b cc).

These different parts are defined by timbre changes, texture, the voice’s melodic content,

and rhythm.

113

Example 6.8: mm21: imitative counterpoint.

Example 6.9: Afro-Cuban polyrhythmic distinctiveness.

The coda starts at measure 49 with the indication gracioso meno mosso, which

suggests a passive character. It has an imitative polyphonic texture. In measure 54, a very

interesting hemiola occurs. Besides its rhythmic effect, the composer combined it with an

ascending parallel intervallic motion in two voices at different speeds.

In part B, the timbre changes from natural to harmonics, and the melody moves to

the lowest voice at measure 29. Part C exposes the Afro-Cuban polyrhythmic

distinctiveness at a more complex level than the previous parts; here, a strong

syncopation in the lower voices make the difference. The timbre here returns to natural

sound.

114

Example 6.10: mm 54: imitative polyphonic texture and hemiola.

The work is a polymodal model with the interaction of D Mixolydian in the upper

voice and A# pentatonic in the lower voices. The result of some vertical coincidences

combined with the choral texture displays the use of quartal harmony. The melody in part

A starts on the second beat of a 4/4 measure with a monophonic texture (a). The response

(b), with a different timbre (sul ponticello), is polyphonic, with two voices going back to

natural sound in its repetition.

Example 6.11: The melody in part A starts on the second beat: monophonic texture.

1.4 IV. This movement exhibits antiphony. The antiphonal character of Afro-

Cuban music is clearly defined in this movement. Angulo presents the theme in two parts

(AB) with a coda. The parts are distinguished by a change in the register of the melody,

the choral arrangement of the voices, and the behavior of the rhythmic schemes. The

phrases within the parts are structured as: A (a b), B (a b), Coda (a).

In part B, the texture switches, the first melody (a) has a polyphonic texture, and

the response (b) is quasi monophonic. The coda presents a monophonic texture in the

first half of the melody (a) the second half has a choral texture where all voices join

together for the end of the movement.

115

Example 6.12: a polyphonic texture, and quasi monophonic

Example 6.13: mm 20: overlaps a triplet of quarters with a subdivided triplet of eights.

1.5 V. This movement is governed by increasing textural density as the theme is

repeated five times. First, the theme in Aeolian mode (Am) is presented for the first time

in a monophonic style and the lower voice. Then, in its second iteration, another voice

appears in a vertical polyrhythmic interaction with the theme using dissonant intervals

and quintal harmony.

Rhythmically, the whole work is full of syncopation, accents, irregular rhythms,

and displacements of the downbeat. A singular characteristic of the melodic content is

that the “solo” (a) melody has regular rhythmic values, and the “choral” (b) melody has

irregular ones (triples). At measure 20, with a tenuto indication, the composer overlaps a

triplet of quarters with a subdivided triplet of eights.

116

Example 6.14: quintal harmony.

Example 6 15: chords on the offbeats or between the values of the melody.

Example 6.16: two against three marcato chords.

In the third statement the composer avoids the simultaneity between the voices by

placing the chords on the offbeats or between the values of the melody. In the fourth

statement, the composer gives the theme to the upper register bringing a flowing motion

to polyphony as the texture gets denser.

The lower voice, liberated from carrying the tune, moves freely with irregular

rhythms and an interrupted line. Then, the last statement of the theme unifies all the

elements appearing one by one within each repetition. The composer's genius is in the

integration of the melody with the autonomy of the other voices, while still providing

vertical support with unexpected rhythms and dislocated accents, creating a full choral

sonority that ends with decisive two against three marcato chords.

117

1.6 VI. The theme Campana la Luisa is back to close the cycle. It arrives

suddenly after the indication attacca at the end of the previous movement. In G major,

larger values such as tied half and whole notes in the inner voices suggest a lighter

texture. Still, a sense of atemporality is created by uneven entries of voices and

unexpected accents. The harmonic content is not treated vertically; it is worked out as a

choral polyphony.

The tension and distension occur by the coincidence of pitches from a multi-

horizontal discourse, yet, not in the sense of European musical practices where the

development of the melodic motifs dominates the horizontality, but in the autonomic way

in which different layers of voices share a musical space. The presence of more intervals

of sixths and thirds indicates a more consonant sonority, Example 6.17. Also supported

by the recurrence of the leading tone (F#). It could be found as part of dissonance

(measure 23) or tonicizing (G) within a dominant (V) arpeggiated chord (measure 20-21).

Example 6.17: interval of sixths and thirds

Example 6.18: mm21-23: recurrence of the leading tone (F#).

118

The second part of the theme is assigned to the lowest voice at measure 24. This

shift brings weight to the melody supporting the idea of a slower ending with ritardando

indication, a decrescendo regulator sign, and a mezzo-piano at the end.

Anacrusis in the melody and stress and agogic accent is crucial to create the

polyrhythmic texture in this piece because of the slower motion of the voices. They can

be found at different measures.

Example 6.19: anacrusis in the melody, as well as stress and agogic accent.

Héctor Angulo exhibits a macro-perception and conceptual unity of his musical

writing by using a motif at the beginning, middle, and end of this movement at different

registers.

119

Example 6.20: conceptual unity.

120

Chapter VII

1. Son y Décima: Analysis

1.1 Son is a piece written in 4/4, in the key of C major with an Adagio rubato (an

unexpected indication for a Cuban dance). An introduction of four measures precedes the

main theme. The introduction starts in tonic C with a melody that moves upward to the

highest G on the guitar using a sequence of ascending thirds. A fermata holds the

downward motion on an arpeggiated C chord. The introduction ends in dominant G. The

harmonic progression of this section is very common: (I-V-I -IV- ii-ii7- V). The

distinctive syncopated bass line of Cuban Son is the rhythmic model for the melody in the

introduction. It is followed by two contrasting phrases structured in this way (aba-

coda/intro). Angulo used the theme from the introduction as a coda by transposing it a

minor third higher.

The phrase (a) starts on the tonic and ends on the tonic with a polyphonic texture

in two voices and this harmonic progression: (I- ii7-V7-I-vi7-ii7-vii/°65 -V7-I). A

descending diatonic motif starts on measure 8 in the bass line (C, B, A, G, F, E).

Example 7.1: mm 8: descending diatonic motif (C, B, A, G, F, E).

Phrase (b) starts with an anacrusis on the dominant. It has a more chordal texture

with arpeggios at the end of each motif. The harmonic progression of this phrase is

The last two chords in this progression create the syncopated pulse of the Cuban

Son characteristic of African influences in Cuban music.

(V6-vi7-V-IV+7-iii7-ii7-I-IV+7-V-V7).

121

Example 7.2: The syncopated pulse of the Cuban Son.

The phrase is repeated in the same way with just one change at its end, where a

surprising suspension takes place with a C in the bass line (Gsus4). Thus, G plays a

double role: the root of the previous suspension and the anticipation note for the

following inverted suspension (Csus2/4).

The transposed theme from the introduction starts on the subdominant and ends

with the tonic in the first inversion (I6), favoring an ascending line of parallel thirds in

the bass. The harmonic progression of the coda is (IV-V7-I6-V65 -I-ii-VI-V-I6).

Décima is the second movement of this work featuring the same structure as

the Cuban décima. The composition is written in A major with polytonal and polymodal

melodies in a 4/4 meter. It consists of five octosyllabic (eight beats) verses (phrases). The

phrases have a similar melodic and rhythmic content, each with an ascending and then

descending shape. Two-quarter notes characterize the last measure of each phrase after

the ending chord. What clearly differentiates the phrases are the tonality and modality.

The piece's tonal structure could be represented as (aa’ bc a’). The works have a

polyphonic texture that moves horizontally with regular rhythm in a parallel motion. This

parallelism has sequences at intervals of tenths.

Example 7.3: G plays a double role: the root of suspension and anticipation note.

122

Example 7.4: sequences at intervals of tenths.

The phrase (a) is in the tonality of A major but in the modality E Mixolydian. The

harmonic progression goes from the I (A) to V (E), but the melodic content is divided.

The upper voice uses the second half of the E Mixolydian ascending scale and the lower

voice the first half.

Phrase (a’) has the same tonal and modal character, but the harmonic progression

starts in V (E) to I (A). It has a cadence (V-V6-I) at the end. The next phrase (b) is in E

major with tonicization of its relative, C# minor, where the melodic content is divided in

two. The first half is in the B Mixolydian scale and the second half in G# Phrygian, this

mode change is also called the “Andalusian cadence” (la, sol#, fa, mi), that, in this

piece’s tonality (E), is: (C#, B#, A, G#), Example 7.6. The harmonic progression in this

phrase is:

Example 7.6: “Andalusian cadence”

Phrase (c) is in D major with tonicization of its relative B minor. The modality of

the first half of the melodic content is A Mixolydian and the second half in F# Phrygian.

Example 7.5: melodic content is divided.

[V6/5-V7-IV6- V-I - (v/ vii°)- |-vi- vii°-IV- III(V/vi)], ending in the III, V of C# minor.

123

A chromatic descending line (G, F#, E#, D#, D, C#) in the inner voice causes a

dissonance at measure 11. The last measure (13) of the phrase, containing a G major

chord moving to tonicized D, anticipates (V-IV) a plagal cadence to the returning A

major, which is the tonality of the penultimate phrase(a).

Example 7.7: chromatic descending line (G, F#, E#, D#, D, C#)

Conclusion

This research proves that there is a strong relationship between Afro-Cuban

musical concepts and the writing techniques of the 20th and 21st Centuries. The avant-

garde rupture with Western musical traditions, in terms of selection, combination, and

organization of the musical concept, brought to the musical discourse writing techniques

whose sonic landscape constitutes a mirror to an African musical heritage. As the title of

a work of Leo Brouwer says “La Tradicion se rompe….” (The Tradition is Broken).

And the broken tradition here is that modern composers have searched for and

implemented ways of creating music that approaches this mirroring at its best “primitive”

mode. This study exposes the erroneous idea that something only exists after it has been

discovered, codified, evaluated, classified, legitimized, accredited, assessed, and

The last phrase (a) closes the piece with a return to A major. Still, the melodic

content is in D Lydian modality. The harmony starts on the IV(D) subdominant and ends

on the I(A) tonic with a (V-V7- I- I 6/4- I) cadence.

124

documented by European and Westernized institutions based on outdated traditional

methods of research and analysis.

Throughout the analytic process involving the chosen scores, this investigation

corroborates that analytical techniques such as Tonal and Functional harmony,

Schenkerian analysis, European structure models, and Serial (twelve -tones) analysis, are

incongruent with the musical content of Afro-Cuban practices. Therefore, it implies the

requirement of a conscious reconsideration of the approach to no-Western musical

traditions and different analytical techniques.

From the Classical guitar point of view, this study demonstrates that an unbiased

approach to the instrument’s possibilities from a non-guitarist composer brings to the

guitar new sonorities transcending the range of musical options traditionally limited by

standardized performance models. The music of Héctor Angulo is a case in point.

Intervallic relationships and voicing arrangements enrich and expand on the original

source material in Angulo’s compositions, implicitly developing and improving the

performer’s interpretive experience. In his works, the polyphonic behavior of the

different subjects pushes the performer to reconsider traditional ways of fingering.

Angulo’s counterpoint forces the performer to establish a new approach to sound that

overlays horizontal and vertical musical elements, not in the constrained traditional

rhythmic, metric melodic, and harmonic European way but in its emancipated African

form.

The revision of literature concerning the aesthetics, socio-historical

circumstances, political and ideological currents during the composer’s creative period in

Cuba concludes that: his musical compositions display a great balance between the

125

premise of collective participation within socio-cultural norms and the conception of a

product that reflects the essences of individual identity. Thus, on the one hand, the

composer shared with other Cuban composers’ cultural trends such as Nationalism, Afro-

Cubanism, Vanguardism, and being an “artista revolucionario” (revolutionary artist).

But, on the other hand, he developed a distinctive integration g of Afro-Cuban and Cuban

features with sophisticated writing techniques and stylistic schemes from his own time.

His uniqueness was enhanced by the influence of his experience composing music for the

puppet theatre and vocal music. These experiences clearly influenced his instrumental

works.

An evaluation of the different sources of information about Héctor Angulo

underlines the lack of scholarly research on Cuban academic composers. Except for Leo

Brouwer, Harold Gramatge, and a few other well-known composers, those born after

1959 are relatively unknown outside of Cuba. Self-promotion in a country where the

technology is very limited and the access to resources is narrow and controlled by a few

cultural agents is difficult, if not impossible. The overlap of information on Angulo from

one source to another exemplifies the disjunction between the creative process and the

recognition of the result of that process. All these things confirm the value of analysis and

exposure to the public of Cuban academic music.

Comparing many recordings of Héctor Angulo’s works with the result of a deep

analysis of their musical content shows that this research provides useful information to

the performer. This writing does not aim to disqualify any interpretation of his works. To

the contrary, it recognizes all input from performers as vital. The educational goal of this

126

research is to scrutinize the content of these works in a way that could offer alternative

approaches to it and support the performer’s musical choices.

As it has been said, this dissertation does not constitute a suggestion of musical

interpretation. Nor does it suggest a walk over the stepped terrain of what is often

oversimplified as the “mixing of African and European music in the Americas.” The goal

of this project was the gaining of insights from an exploration of the integration of

conceptual elements, concentrated more on the mode of conceiving than on the

conception itself. It is also a look at the composer's inner world through a deep scrutiny

of his oeuvre, bypassing the obvious in search of what is concealed behind the visible.

The author of this research came to appreciate the colorful sonorities of the Afro-Cuban

traditions and hoped to “own” a sonic experience that, little by little, became less foreign.

The study of these African traditions, present in Héctor Angulo’s music, offers all who

undertake it the privilege of feeling the magic of the Afro-Cuban musical world.

127

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Discography

Angulo, Héctor. “Cantos Yoruba de Cuba,” on Cuba Classics by Leo Brouwer. Leo Brouwer.Erato Disques, France, 1971, LP. _____. “Cantos para ir Juntos,” on De Nuestra Guitarra. Jesús Ortega. Areito Cuba, 1972, LP. _____. “Cantos Yoruba de Cuba,” on ¡Cuba!. Manuel Barruecos. EMI, 1999, CD. _____. “Cantos Yoruba de Cuba,” on Caribbean Souvenirs. William Kanengiser. GSP Records, 2004, CD. _____. “Cantos Yoruba de Cuba” on Como ángel y demonio. Rosa Matos, EGREM, 2004, CD. _____. “Cantos Yoruba de Cuba” on Guitar Music from Cuba. Marco Tamayo, Naxos, 2004,CD.

Music Scores

Angulo, Héctor. “Son y Décima” from 6 Autores Cubanos 10 Obras para Guitarra. Collection: Cuadernos de Música UNEAC, Cuba 1964.

_____. Cantos Yoruba de Cuba, EGREM, Cuba 1977. _____. Cantos para ir Juntos, EGREM, Cuba, 1979.

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