CSS455 COURSE TITLE: FORENSIC SCIENCE - National ...

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCE

COURSE CODE: CSS455

COURSE TITLE: FORENSIC SCIENCE

COURSE GUIDE

2

COURSE

GUIDE

CSS455

FORENSIC SCIENCE

Course Team Ugbe, Agioliwhu Ugbe (Developer/Writer) -

CRSCOE, Akamkpa

Dr N. N. Nwabueze (Editor) - NOUN

Dr. R. O. Arop (Coordinator) - NOUN


CSS455 COURSE GUIDE

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters

14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way

Victoria Island

Lagos

Abuja Office

No.5 Dar es Salaam Street

Off Aminu Kano Crescent

Wuse II, Abuja

Nigeria

E-mail:[email protected]

URL: www.noun.edu.ng

Published By:


First Printed 2012

ISBN: 978-058-095-6

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.noun.edu.ng/

COURSE GUIDE

4

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CSS455 COURSE GUIDE

4

CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction …………………………..…………………………….. 1

What You will Learn in This Course ………..……………………... 1

Course Aims …………………………………………………..……. 2

Course Objectives…………………………………………….…….. 2

Course Requirement ………………………………………….……. 2

Course Materials ……………………………………………..……... 3

Study Units ………………………………………………………..... 3

Textbooks and References …………………………………………. 4

Assignment File …………………………………..………………… 5

Assessment ……………………………………….………………… 5

Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMAs) …………………….…….......... 6

Final Examination and Grading ……………………….…………… 6

Course Making Scheme ……………………………….…………… 6

Course Overview …………………………….……………………... 7

Strategies for Studying the Course ………….………………............ 8

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials ………………………………….... 8

Summary …………………………………………………………… 9

Introduction

You are introduced to CSS455: FORENSIC SCIENCE. FORENSIC

SCIENCE is a first semester course of 3 credits and is available for

first year students of the Police Science Programme. The course

examines the application of scientific concepts and principles to police

system, and the role of Forensic Science in relation to crime or a civil

action, besides its relevance to a legal system.

FORENSIC SCIENCE consist of 23 study units. The Course Guide

introduces you to what the course is all about, course materials you will

require, and information on how you can work your way through the

material. It also highlights assignments (tutor-marked assignments) as

part of the requirement for the course.

What You Will Learn in This Course

The study of FORENSIC SCIENCE will enable you to have insight

to the Police Crime Investigation, as related to forensic science. It

combines the knowledge and techniques of several different disciplines,

including science, mathematics, logic and law.

You will also study and commit to memory definitions of FORENSIC

SCIENCE. In addition, you will acquaint yourself with the techniques

of Crime Scene Investigation as related to Forensic Psychologist, as well

as the use of forensic analysis in crime investigation.

You will also learn the concepts of criminology and the role of the

police in community policing. You will study the criminal justice

system in relation to the police and forgery.

You will also study general principles of photography in relation to light

and criminal photography. The use of finger prints, questioned

documents, criminal laboratories in forensic science is discussed for

your understanding.

The basic rudiments of fire investigation and the use of arms and

ammunitions like Ballistic, Projectiles, Explosives and Land mines are

exhaustively discussed for your understanding.

Finally, you will discover through your reading and assignments, ways

and methods of detecting counterfeit currencies and also acquaint

yourself with the concept of jurisprudence.

CSS455 FORENSIC SCIENCE

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Course Aims

This course encourages you to

1. Study scientific procedures that directly or indirectly deal with

police work.

2. Study the techniques of crime investigation, as related to Forensic

Science.

3. Learn the techniques and procedures of forensic analysis.

4. Know the role of Police in interrogations and confessions.

5. Discuss the goals and main parts of the criminal justice system.

6. Discover the importance of finger prints in crime detection.

7. Study the principles of General photography as applied to

criminal photography.

8. Know the general procedures of fire investigation and methods of

extinguishing fire.

9. Assess the use of Ballistics, Projectiles and Mines as

ammunitions.

10. Know the methods of detecting counterfeit currencies.

Course Objectives

At the end of this course, you should be able to:

Define FORENSIC SCIENCE.

State the subdivisions of Forensic Science.

Describe the techniques of crime investigations.

Analyse data obtained from forensic analysis.

Differentiate between crime and criminalistics.

Describe the criminal justice system in Nigeria.

List four types of forgery.

Identify fingerprints in a given exhibit.

State the roles of forensic psychologist.

Describe the principles of criminal photography.

Differentiate between Ballistics, Mines, Explosives and

Projectiles.

List methods of detecting counterfeit currencies.

Course Requirements

To complete this course you are required to read the study units, read

suggested books and other materials that will help you achieve the

objectives. Each unit contains self-assessment for assessment purposes.

There will be final examination at the end of the course. The course


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should take you a total of about 20 weeks to complete. Listed below are

the major components of the course.

Course Materials

Course guide

Study Units

Recommended textbooks

Assignment file

Study Units

There are twenty three study units in this course. Each unit should take

you about two hours to work through. The twenty three study units are

divided into five modules. Three Modules contain five units each, while

the last two modules contain four units.

These are arranged as follows:

Module 1 Forensic Science

Unit 1 Definition and Scope of Science

Unit 2 Meaning and Scope of Forensic Science

Unit 3 Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, as related to

Forensic Science

Unit 4 Forensic Psychologist, Roles and Responsibilities

Unit 5 Forensic Medicals/Applications and Critique

Module 2 Police Science

Unit 1 Criminology

Unit 2 Community Policing

Unit 3 Penology

Unit 4 Criminal Justice System

Unit 5 Jurisprudence

Module 3 Light and Criminal Photography

Unit 1 Meaning and Principles of Photography

Unit 2 Criminal photography

Unit 3 Crime Scene Photography

Unit 4 Photographic Evidence

Unit 5 Fingerprinting


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Module 4 Firearms and Ammunitions

Unit 1 Ballistics

Unit 2 Projectiles

Unit 3 Explosives

Unit 4 Landmines

Module 5 Fire investigation and counterfeiting

Unit 1 Fire Investigation Unit

2 Signature Forgeries

Unit 3 Counterfeit Currencies

Unit 4 Questioned Documents and Criminal Laboratories

Each unit includes a table of contents, introduction, specific objectives,

recommended textbooks and summaries of key issues and ideas. At

intervals of each unit, you will be provided with a number of exercises

or self-assessment questions. These are to help you test yourself on the

materials you have just covered or to apply them in some way. The

value of these self-test is to help you assess your progress and to

reinforce your understanding of the material. At least, one tutor-marked

assignment will be provided at the end of each unit. The exercise and the

tutor-marked assignments will help you in achieving the stated learning

objectives of the individual units, and of the course.

Textbooks and References

Fisher, B. A. J. ( 1993). Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, (5

th

Ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Pres Inc.

Kirk, P. L. (1974). Crime Investigation, (2nd

Ed.). New York: John

Wiley and Sons.

Saferstein, R. (1998). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic

Science, (6th

Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N. J. Prentice Hall.

Walker, S. “Origins of the Contemporary Criminal Justice Paradigm:

The American Bar Foundation Survey. 1953-1969”. Justice

Quarterly 9 (1).

John R F. (2005). Criminal Justice: Mainstream and Crosscurrents.

Prentice Hall. Upper saddle River. N. J.

Lawrence S. & Wrightsmann S, M. Fuero (2005). Thomas Inc. forensic

Psychology.

Davis & Hull H. Manual of Firearmship Revised Structure (2006). HBL

Printers, N. J.


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Assignment File

All the details of the assignment you must submit to your tutor for

marking will be found in this file. You must get a passing grade in these

assignments in order to pass this course. In the assignment file itself and

in the section on assessment within this Course Guide, additional

information will be found.

There are fifteen (15) assignments in this course. They will cover:

Definition and Scope of Science (Module 1)

Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation as related to Forensic

Science (Module 1, Unit 3)

Forensic medical Analysis (Module 1, Unit 5)

Criminology (Module 2, Unit 1)

Criminal Justice System in relation to the Police (Module 2, Unit

5)

Criminal Photography: General Principles (Module 3, Unit 1)

Fingerprints Evidence (Module 3, Unit 5)

Crime scene photography (Module 3, Unit 3)

Photographing evidence (Module 3, Unit 4)

Fire Investigation (Module 5, Unit 1)

Ballistics (Module 4, Unit 1)

Explosives (Module 4, Unit 3)

Landmines (Module 4, Unit 5)

Counterfeit currencies (Module 5, Unit 3)

Forgery (Module 5, Unit 2)

Questioned documents and Criminal laboratories (Module 5, Unit

4)

Assessment

The course will be assessed in two aspects. These are as follows:

Tutor-marked assignments

Written examination.

For you to do the assignments very well, it is expected of you to apply

information, knowledge and techniques obtained from the course. You

must endeavour to summit the assignments to your tutor for marking,

before the deadlines given in the assignment file. The assignments will

count for 30% of the final examination. The remaining 70% will be for

written examination for the total Course work. The examination will be

of three hours duration.


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Tutor-Marked Assignments

This course consists of 15 tutor-marked assignments. The best three

assignments with the highest marks will be counted for you. You are

encouraged to submit all your assignments. Each assignment counts

10% towards your total course work.

In the Assignment File, you will find all the assignment questions for all

units. To demonstrate your understanding of the course, do not depend

only on information obtained from the units to answer the question. Go

to the Library, read and research very well to obtain more information

on the course.

After completing each assignment, send it to your tutor. Try your best to

get each assignment across to your tutor on or before the dates given in

the assignment file. However, if it becomes impossible for you to

summit any of those assignments on time, please let your tutor know

before the due date. After due consideration, you might be given an

extension.

Final Examination and Grading

To prepare for this examination, revise all the areas covered in this

course. Revision of all the exercises and the tutor-marked assignments

before the examination will also be of help to you. The revision should

start after you have finished studying the last unit. This final

examination will be of three hours duration. It has a value of 70% of the

total course grade.

Course Marking Scheme

This table shows how actual course marking is broken down.

Assessment Marks

Assignments Five assignments, best three marks of the

five counts at 30% of work marks.

Final Examination 70% of overall courses marks

Total 100% of course marks


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Course Overview

The Units, the number of weeks it would take you to complete them and

the assignments that follow them are outlined in the table below.

Unit Title of Work Duration

(Weeks)

Assignment

Course Guide 1

Module 1 Forensic Science

1 Definition and Scope of Science 1 Assignment 1

2 Meaning and Scope of Forensic

Science

1 Assignment 2

3 Techniques of Crime Scene

Investigation, as related to Forensic

Science

1 Assignment 3

4 Forensic Psychologist, Roles and

Responsibilities

1

5 Forensic Medicals/Applications and

Critique

1 Assignment 4

Module 2 Police Science

1 Criminology 1

2 Community Policing 1 Assignment 5

3 Penology 1 Assignment 6

4 Criminal Justice System 1 Assignment 7

5 Jurisprudence 1 Assignment 8

Module 3 Light and Criminal Photography

1 Meaning and Principles of

Photography

1 Assignment 9

2 Criminal Photography

3 Crime Scene Photography 1 Assignment 10

4 Photographic Evidence Assignment 11

5 Fingerprinting 1 Assignment 12

Module 4 Firearms and Ammunitions

1 Ballistics 1 Assignment 13

2 Projectiles 1 Assignment 14

3 Explosives 1

4 Landmines 1

Module 5 Fire Investigation and Counterfeiting

1 Fire Investigation


3 Counterfeit Currencies 1 Assignment 15

4 Questioned Documents and

Criminal Laboratories

1

Revision

Examination


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Strategies for Studying the Course

In the National Open University, where open and distance learning

system is fundamental in the development of course materials, the study

units replaces the university lecturer. Thus you can read the course

materials at your own pace, at anytime and anywhere. Exercises to test

your understanding of the materials are provided in each unit. There is a

common format for all the units. The first item is the introduction to

what the unit will be introducing to you. The introduction also shows

you how a particular unit is related to other units, and to the course as a

whole. After the introduction, you will see the objectives. The objectives

indicate what you are expected to achieve after studying the unit. So you

should keep it handy in order to constantly check or monitor yourself in

terms of achieving those objectives.

The main body of the unit guides you through the required readings

from other sources. Exercises, as was mentioned before, are provided at

intervals throughout the materials. Answers to those exercises are

provided at the end of each unit. Don‟t try to skip any of the exercises.

Try to do them as you meet them while reading. This will help you to do

your tutor-marked assignments and also to prepare you for

examinations.

The following is a practical strategy for studying the reading materials.

If you encounter any problem, contact your tutor and he/she will

be available to help out.

Read this Course Guide thoroughly, provide a time table for

yourself and take note of the time you are required to spend on

each unit, and always stick to the time table.

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

There are ten hours tutorials (eight hours) provided to support this

course. The dates, times and locations of these tutorials will be made

available to you, together with the name and address of your tutor.

Your tutor will mark the assignments. Take note of the comments he

might make and remember to send your assignments before the

deadline. In case you will not meet the deadline, make sure you notify

your tutor. The tutor will return your assignments to you after he must

have marked them.

Try your best not to skip any of the tutorials. This is because that is the

only chance you have of meeting your tutor and your fellow students.


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Your tutor will more easily solve problems encountered while reading

the course materials.

Summary

CSS455: FORENSIC SCIENCE intends to introduce you to the

application of scientific procedures to the police work, and also the

implications of forensic science in the legal framework. By the time you

complete this course, you would have known the relationship between

FORENSIC SCIENCE, General Principles of photography and firearms

and ammunitions.

Therefore, the successful completion of this course will aid you to

answer these questions without much difficulty:

i. What is Forensic Science?

ii. What is the relationship between Forensic Science and Police

Science?

iii. How are Police Investigations and Confessions conducted?

iv. What is the difference between Crime and Criminalistics?

v. How can you apply the general principles of photography to

criminal photography?

vi. The role of fingerprints in evidential law.

vii. What are the ways of detecting forgery?

viii. How are Landmines laid?

ix. What are the basic components of explosives?

The questions are quite numerous. There are more you can answer.

We wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it both

rewarding and interesting.


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Course Code CSS455

Course Title FORENSIC SCIENCE

Course Team Ugbe, Agioliwhu Ugbe (Developer/Writer) -

CRSCOE, Akamkpa

Dr N. N. Nwabueze (Editor) - NOUN

Dr. R. O. Arop (Coordinator) - NOUN



11


Headquarters

14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way

Victoria Island

Lagos

Abuja Office

No.5 Dar es Salaam Street

Off Aminu Kano Crescent

Wuse II, Abuja

Nigeria

E-mail:[email protected]

URL: www.noun.edu.ng

Published By:


First Printed 2012

ISBN: 978-058-095-6

Printed by:

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.noun.edu.ng/


12

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Forensic Science……………..……………………….. 1

Unit 1 Definition and Scope of Science…………………..… 1

Unit 2 Meaning and Scope of Forensic Science………….… 11

Unit 3 Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, as related

to Forensic Science…………………………………… 24

Unit 4 Forensic Psychologist, Roles and Responsibilities….. 38

Unit 5 Forensic Medicals/Applications and Critique…….… 51

Module 2 Police Science………………..……………….……… 67

Unit 1 Criminology………………………………..………… 67

Unit 2 Community Policing………………………..………... 79

Unit 3 Penology………………………………………..……. 91

Unit 4 Criminal Justice System………………………….…. 105

Unit 5 Jurisprudence……………………………………….. 112

Module 3 Light and Criminal Photography………………… 127

Unit 1 Meaning and Principles of Photography……………. 127

Unit 2 Criminal photography………………………………. 138

Unit 3 Crime Scene Photography…………………………… 149

Unit 4 Photographic Evidence………………………………. 162

Unit 5 Fingerprinting………………………………………… 175

Module 4 Firearms and Ammunitions……………………….. 188

Unit 1 Ballistics……………………………………………… 188

Unit 2 Projectiles……………………………………………. 201

Unit 3 Explosives…………………………………………… 210

Unit 4 Landmines…………………………………………… 226

Module 5 Fire Investigation and Counterfeiting…………….. 241

Unit 1 Fire Investigation……………………………………. 241

Unit 2 Signature Forgeries………………………………….. 247

Unit 3 Counterfeit Currencies………………………………. 259

Unit 4 Questioned Documents and Criminal Laboratories… 273


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MODULE 1 FORENSIC SCIENCE

Unit 1 Definition and Scope of Science

Unit 2 Meaning and Scope of Forensic Science

Unit 3 Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, as Related to

Forensic Science

Unit 4 Forensic Psychologists, Roles and Responsibilities

Unit 5 Forensic Medical/Application and Critique

UNIT 1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Definition of Science

3.2 Scope of Science

3.3 Aims of Science

3.4 Scientific Knowledge

3.5 The Scientific Method

3.6 The Science Process Skills

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

How is the knowledge of science useful in Forensic and Police Science?

Scientific knowledge has increased both in quantity and quality. It is

applied in every facet of human activity. The various issues that will be

examined in this unit will introduce you to definition and scope of

science. We shall discuss the aims of science, scientific knowledge,

scientific method, science process, skills and scope of science.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

define the concept of science

discuss the various dimensions or characteristics of science

mention aims of science

list 4 main divisions of science

describe science process skills


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discuss the applications of scientific knowledge

state the different branches of science.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Science

This section introduces you to the definition of science as will be useful

in forensic and police science.

Science has been described in so many ways by authors that one is left

with no clear-cut definition. But generally, science is seen as a system of

thought. It is generally described as a process of thinking, a means of

acquiring new knowledge and a means of understanding the natural

world.

Science has no singular definition. To understand what science means,

we have to know its various dimensions or characteristics. In general,

science is:

a body of knowledge

a method for acquiring knowledge or cognising (studying and

understanding) the world

an instrument which enables us to practically transform the world

in accordance with our purpose and an institution.

a. As a body of knowledge, scientific knowledge differs from other

forms of knowledge in both content and form. It deals with the

material aspects of reality. It shows what is in the world, how the

world (reality) and at its various aspects function, their various

properties and the changes which they undergo. Science

expresses this knowledge in quantifiable terms, in concepts, laws

and theories.

Science has branches which can be grouped into formal science

and empirical science. They differ from other branches of

knowledge, say the humanities or arts.

b. As a method for acquiring knowledge. Empirical science

proceeds by way of observation, experimentation, forming of

hypothesis, testing, use of instruments, and formation of theories.

Formal science utilises concepts, rules and theories expressing

them in quantitative and statistical manner and finally, expressing

knowledge so obtained in systematic and deductive form.


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c. The body of knowledge and method of science are instruments

in our hands for transforming the world in a practical manner.

The practical application of science is technology which we see

in the complex material structures and objects which humanity

has created to serve his purpose. Thus, scientific knowledge

enables us to understand and explain the world, to predict and

change the world.

d. Science is also an institution involving millions of experts all

over the world, who engage in the study and development of

human knowledge in various institutions, laboratories, research

centres and organisation. Today, scientists are found in various

research and educational institutions, industries, hospitals,

companies, etc. The co-operation and interaction among them

make development of science possible and reliable. Among them,

there is a common belief in the method and efficacy of science.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

State and discuss the characteristics of science.

3.2 Scope of Science

Having attempted to define science and explain the various dimensions

and characteristics of science, the next issue to deal with is the scope of

science. That is the different branches and other broad divisions of the

sciences

Branches of Science

The first general distinction among the various disciplines that make up

science is that between formal sciences and empirical sciences.

Formal Science includes Mathematics (Geometry, Algebra,

Trigonometry, and Arithmetic). Logic, Theoretical Physics,

Statistics, etc.

Empirical Science includes Physics, Chemistry, Biology,

Psychology, Botany, Zoology, Biochemistry, Microbiology,

Geology, Medical Science, etc.

Formal Science has a formal and deductive character. Science is

said to be formal if its contents, arguments and procedures obey

certain rules. The results and conclusions are valid and authentic

only if they conform to those rules. For example, in Mathematics,

we have rules of addition, subtraction, multiplication and

division. We have rules for solving certain equations and


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problems, theorems, etc. Also in logic or even mathematical

logic, we have rules of inference, implication disjunction,

conjunction, etc. To make our thinking and reasoning scientific,

there are laws of for our general argument. A systematic body of

scientific knowledge must have clearly defined terms and

concepts, inference and formula to arrive at its conclusions. Thus,

a body of formal science is systematic and deductive in character.

Empirical Sciences, on the other hand, deal mainly with

materials drawn from experience. They treat physical entities and

phenomena which we can observe through any of the senses and

which we can test with instruments such as those for measuring

distance, weight, volume, size (e.g. telescope, microscope, ruler,

tapes, scales, etc.).

In empirical sciences, we deal with the nature and functioning of

objects like the human body, and bodies of other animals, natural

objects (e.g. the weather, diseases, plants, insects, etc.).

Thus, in empirical sciences, we observe and experiment in order

to find out how things originate, grow or develop, function and

relate to each other. We also try to find out the laws which

govern their behaviour. We are interested in the regularities or

laws which can enable us to understand or explain the object or

phenomenon under study. The knowledge we derive in empirical

sciences includes inductive generalisations, laws and theories

which we formulate in clearly defined statements, propositions or

in statistical equations or formulae.

Other Broad Divisions of the Sciences

Apart from the distinction between formal and empirical sciences, we

also group the various scientific disciplines according to two classes of

objects or phenomenon they deal with. For example:

a. Natural Sciences deal with all natural objects. Under it we have

other branches such as:

Physical Sciences e.g. Physics, Chemistry, Biochemistry,

Geology, Applied Mathematics, Astronomy, etc. these deal with

physical and inanimate objects.

Biological Sciences. These deal with living bodies such as

human beings, animals, insects and plants. They include Biology,

Zoology, Botany, Microbiology, etc.

Medical Science deals with objects and problems that affect

human and animal health. They include General Medicine,


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Anatomy, Surgery, Physiology, Neurology, Veterinary Medicine,

etc.

Pharmaceutical Science which is concerned with drugs and

content of plants and other objects.

b. We also have social sciences which deal with society and social

institutions (e.g. Economics, Social Psychology, Sociology and

Anthropology, Geography, Social Philosophy, etc.).

c. Human Science. There has been a progressive attempt to extend

the procedure and techniques of science such as systematisation,

deduction, statistical and mathematical formulae and even

experimentation to the study of the humanities especially

language, music, drama and poetry, art, history, etc. in that case,

we also can tell about Human Sciences.


Differentiate between formal and empirical sciences.

3.3 Aims of Science

What are the aims of science?

Science enables us to attain a systematic, objective and reliable body of

knowledge of the world and of ourselves. Being systematic means that

all the various elements in a body of scientific knowledge are logically

related and each can be inferred from the other. Being objective means

that all those who adopt the same method or procedure can prove or

verify the claims or statements which the body of scientific knowledge

contains.

Being reliable means that the body of scientific knowledge can enable us

to adequately and correctly explain, predict and control any

phenomenon in question.

Thus, science aims at enabling man to explain how the world, events

and objects around him originate, develop, operate or function. It also

helps him to predict how they will behave in future and thus enables him

to control the behaviour of things around him, once he is able to develop

the appropriate instruments for such control. We can therefore say that

science is theoretical knowledge about the world (in terms of concepts,

laws, and theories) which helps us to express and systematise our

understanding of objects and phenomena. It also equips us with practical

knowledge in terms of the various ways, mechanisms and instruments

which enable us to control objects and phenomena. Science is, therefore,


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not only a source of knowledge; it is also a source of power. Generally,

scientific knowledge is said to be objective, factual, systematic,

verifiable and quantifiable.


Discus the basic aims of science.

3.4 Scientific Knowledge

The ultimate source of scientific activity is the human experience by

observing objects and events. Events in this sense could be regarded as

interactions among objects. One does not have to be a scientist in order

to recognise that some objects have striking similarities and that under

similar conditions, these objects appear to interact in similar ways.

People‟s modes of behaviours are often based on concepts and structures

that reflect internal assumptions about the similarity of objects and the

consistent manner in which they interact. These internal assumptions are

always interpreted in various ways by people. For people with little or

no scientific background, such assumptions are usually based upon

social, religious or cultural experiences acquired through

communication with other people.

Science and scientific knowledge militates against assumptions. Science

suggests that there is a better way to deal with the biological and

physical worlds. Scientific knowledge and activities strive to articulate

natural phenomena with some systematic scheme that can be used as a

framework for perceiving, organising and dealing with these phenomena

in more rational ways.

Science is a human activity and scientific knowledge is a human

creation. For it to be communicated to other persons or stored for future

reference, scientific knowledge is expressed in symbols.

Natural phenomena or objects must be well classified before

relationships could be interpreted. These objects must first be classified

into groups and then the interactions among them also classified, that is

the events between the objects. Once objects and events have been

classified into types, one can then look for consistency in the types of

interactions that occur among a selected set of objects under a given set

of conditions. Such a consistency, when found is interpreted as a

relationship among classes of objects under certain conditions and may

be thought of as an empirical law.


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1. Explain how science differs from scientific knowledge.

2. List the importance of scientific knowledge to humanity.

3.5 The Scientific Method

By definition, scientific method is meant the method of reporting

scientific information. The various steps in scientific method are:

1. Stating the problem

2. Formulating hypothesis

3. Designing experiments

4. Observation

5. Collecting data from experiment

6. Conclusions

The disciplines of science are meaningless unless they are geared

towards practical application in human affairs. To Dewey (1966),

science is the outcome of methods of observation and testing which are

deliberately adopted to secure a settled assured subject matter. Scientific

method to him therefore, is a non-authoritarian democratic self

correcting intellectual and moral authority by which man may govern

his actions.

At the experimentation stage, one must devise a control which is a

condition or situation which is neutral to the test in hand, and whose

effects, if any, are known completely as far as the test in question is

concerned. Principles and theories emerge from the results of such

conclusions as they emanate from the scientific method. Science

therefore is not just learning about knowledge but doing things. To

experience the language, the process (method) of doing these things to

experience knowledge is what is referred to as the scientific method.

Science as a process or way of knowing consists of local methods of

approach and the right attitudes of mind which guide inquiring into truth

about natural phenomena. The scientific approach to inquiring and

problem solving involves the scientific method, and the various steps

which have been given earlier science as product yields scientific

hypotheses‟ theories, principles and laws.


List the various steps involved in a scientific method.


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3.6 Science Process Skills

The development of science process skills is a very important objective

of science. This is because these process skills play vital roles in

scientific and technological activities. They are often seen as the

foundation of scientific enquiry. Since they can be generalised and are

required for carrying out scientific activity.

Science process skills can be defined as ways in which scientists carry

out their activities. Or the methods scientist use in arriving at a decision.

These science process skills are: observing, classifying, comparing,

counting, measuring, raising questions, hypotheses, predicting, making

operational definitions, controlling or manipulating variables,

experimenting, collecting data, interpreting data, inferring and

manipulating apparatus.

Each of the process skill is discussed as follows:

1. Observing: This is a common but often misused process skill. It

is more than just seeing. One can use all the senses – seeing,

tasting, touching, smelling to observe. Observing is the act of

paying particular attention to what one experiences with his

senses.

2. Classifying: This depends on careful observation. It is the sorting

out of objects into groups according to some identified properties.

3. Comparing: This is the act of comparing two or more objects.

Comparison of objects can be made at varying levels of

difficulty.

4. Counting of Numbers: This is basically an arithmetic process

but is a very important process of science. It involves the use of

numbers in addition, subtraction, division and multiplication.

5. Measuring: This process involves the use of an instrument to

determine the quantitative value associated with the properties of

objects.

6. Raising Questions: Scientists would always want to know many

things in their environment. They do so by asking such questions

as how, why, when, to what extent among others. Such questions

lead to investigations.

7. Formulating Hypotheses: When scientists raise questions on

any aspect of nature, they also make intelligent guesses which are


9

referred to as hypotheses. These hypotheses are either accepted or

rejected after investigation has been completed.

This involves telling future observation on the basis of previous

information. The nature of an event being predicted and the

accuracy of other past observations determine the reliability of

our prediction. The prediction has to be tested or verified through

investigations.

8. Making Operational Definition: This refers to defining terms

used in a particular context under reference. This is necessary

because it enables any person reading a report arising from

scientific investigations to understand it the way the writer

expects.

9. Controlling or Manipulating Variable: A variable is something

that is capable of change. This is closely linked with

experimentation.

10. Experimentation: This is an act of testing an idea through

practical investigation. The investigation can be based on some

information or it may be on the basis of trial and error.

11. Data Collecting: This is an act of gathering relevant information.

It is an essential element in many scientific investigations.

12. Interpreting Data: The process of interpreting implies that

scientists should provide a meaning to their experiences, and to

provide justification for such meaning.

13. Inferring: This involves making a general statement based on the

data collected and interpreted. It is an attempt to generalise to

other situations on the basis of sufficient evidence obtained.


Enumerate the processes of science and discuss any five of them.

4.0 CONCLUSION

From what has been discussed so far, we have explained that science is a

body of organised knowledge, it is a way of discovering truth about

natural phenomena. Hence, it is a process and method of enquiring. That

science is a social enterprise forming an integral part of the society.

Processes of science are the skills used by scientists to arrive at

scientific knowledge.


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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have dealt with meaning and scope of science by looking

at the following aspect: Definition, scope, aims, scientific knowledge,

scientific method and science process skills.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is science?

2. Differentiate between scientific knowledge

methods.

and scientific

3. List and explain five process skills used by scientists.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Abah, C. O. (2000). “The Nature of Science and Science Education:

Some Current Trends”. Journal of Science Teachers Association

of Nigeria 2 (2) Pp 108 -114.

Anya, A. O. (2001). Science Development and the Future: The Nigeria

Case. Enugu: University of Nigeria, Nsukka Press.

Bajah, S. T & Okebukola, P. A. (1984) “What is Science?” JSTAN No

(1). Beveridge, W. I. B. (1990). The Art of Scientific

Investigation. London: Heinemann.

Moravcik, M. J. (2004). Science Development: The Building of Science

in Less Developed Countries. Basitam Publications.


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UNIT 2 MEANING AND SCOPE OF FORENSIC

SCIENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Definition and Meaning of Forensic Science

3.2 History of Forensic Science

3.3 Subdivision of Forensic Science

3.4 Forensic Profiling

3.5 Forensic Identification

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

Forensic science is a very interesting study and refers to something “of

pertaining to, or used in a court of law”. In today‟s day and age, it

almost always refers to a method of obtaining criminal evidence for the

purpose of using it in a court of law. The various aspects that will be

examined in this unit will introduce you to; definition and meaning of

forensic science, history of forensic science, subdivision of forensic

science, forensic profiling, and forensic identification.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


define forensic science

state the subdivisions of forensic science

describe forensic identification procedure

mention the various steps in forensic profiling

explain forensic profiling process analysis

discuss the history of forensic science

list some notable forensic scientists.


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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition and Meaning of Forensic Science

The word forensic comes from Latin (forensic meaning “before the

forum”) and refers to something “of pertaining to or used in a court of

law. In today‟s day and age, it almost refers to a method of obtaining

criminal evidence for the purpose of using it in the court of law.

Forensic science is typically just referred to as “forensics” and is the

practical application of numerous sciences to solve legal system –

related questions, which can include either a civil or criminal action or

suit.

The use of the term “forensics” in place of “forensic science” is actually

a globally–accepted misnomer considering that the term “forensic” is

effectively a synonym for “legal” or “pertaining to court”, from the root

Latin meaning. Because it is now so closely associated with the criminal

scientific field, many dictionaries equate the word “forensics” with

forensic science”.

Forensic science extends into a broad range of sub-sciences which

utilises natural science technique to obtain relevant criminal and legal

evidence.

Also forensic science (often shortened to forensics) is the application of

a broad spectrum of science to answer questions of interest to a legal

system. This may be in relation to a crime or a civil action. Besides, its

relevance to a legal system, more generally forensics encompasses the

accepted scholarly or scientific methodology and norms under which the

facts regarding an event, or an artefact or some other physical item (such

as a corpse) are ascertained as being the case. In that regard, the concept

is related to the notion of authentication, whereby an interest outside of a

legal form exists in determining whether an object is what it purports to

be, or is alleged as being.

As earlier stated, the word forensic comes from the Latin adjective

forensic, meaning “of or before the forum”. In Roman times, a criminal

charge meant presenting the case before a group of public individuals in

the forum. Both the person accused of the crime; and his side of the

story will determine the outcome of the case. Basically, the person with

the sharpest forensic skills would win. This origin is the source of the

two modern usages of the word forensic – as a form of legal evidence

and as a category of public presentation.


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In modern use, the term “forensics” in place of “forensic science” can be

considered incorrect as the term “forensic” is effectively a synonym for

“legal” or “related to courts” however, the term is now so closely

associated with the scientific field that many dictionaries include the

meaning that equates the word “forensics” with forensic science”


Explain the meaning of forensic science and define the term forensic”.

3.2 History of Forensic Science

After the definition and meaning of forensic science as discussed in the

above section, the next issue to deal with is the history or evolution of

forensic science of course, simply put, how does these forensic practice

come to be?

The ancient world lacked standardised forensic practices, which aided

criminals in escaping punishment. Criminal investigations and trials

relied on forced confessions and witness testimony. However, ancient

sources contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow the

concepts of forensic science, developed centuries later, such as the

“Eureka” Legend told of Archimedes 289 – 212 BC.

The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve

(separate) criminal cases is attributed to the Book xi Yuan Ji Lu,

(translated as “Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified), written in a song

Dynasty China by Sung Ci, in 1248. In one of the accounts, the case of a

person murdered with a sickle was solved by a death investigator who

instructed everyone to bring his sickle to one location. Flies, attracted by

the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this

the murderer confessed. The book also offered advice on how to

distinguish between a drawing (water in the lungs) and with other

evidence from examining corpses or determining if a death was caused

by murder, suicide, or an accident.

In sixteenth century Europe, medical practitioners in army and

university settings began to gather information on cause and manner of

death. A French army surgeon systematically studied the effects of

violent death on internal organs. Two Italian surgeons laid the

foundation of modern pathology by studying change which occurred in

the structure of the body as the result of disease. In the late 1700s,

writings on these topics began to appear. These included: A Treatise on

Forensic Medicine and Public Health by French Physician Fodere‟ and

The Complete Police Medicine by the German medical expert Johann

Peter Frank.


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In 1776, Swedish chemist, Scheele devised a way of detecting arsenous

oxide, a simple arsenic in corpses, although only in large quantities. This

investigation was expanded in 1806 by German chemist Val Ross, who

learned to detect the poison in the walls of a victim‟s stomach, and by

English chemist James Marsh who used chemical processes to confirm

arsenic as the cause of death in an 1836 murder trial.

Two early examples of English forensic science in individual legal

proceedings demonstrate the increasing use of logic and procedure in

criminal investigations. In 1784, in England, John Toms was tried and

convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw with a pistil. When the dead

body of Culshaw was examined, a pistil wad (crushed paper used to

secure powder and balls in the muzzle) found in his head wound

matched perfectly with a torn newspaper found in Tom‟s pocket. In

Warwick, England in 1816, a farm labourer was tried and convicted of

the murder of a young maid servant. She had been drowned in a shallow

pool and bore the marks of violent assault. The police found foot prints

and an impression from corduroy cloth with a sewn patch in the damp

earth near the pool. There were also scattered grains of wheat and chaff.

The breeches of the farm labourer who had been threshing wheat nearby

were examined and corresponded exactly to the impression in the earth

near the pool. Later in the 20th

century, there were several British

pathologists, Bernard Spitsbury, Francis camps, Sydney Smith and

Keith Simpson.


Trace the evolution of forensic science to modern times.

3.3 Subdivisions of Forensic Science

Having looked at the history of modern forensic science, we shall now

consider the subdivisions of forensic science. Forensic science

specialties include:

Forensic Accounting

The acquisition, interpretation and study of accounting evidence.

Computational Forensics – also known as digital forensics is the

retrieval, reconstruction and interpretation of digital media (i.e. images,

PDFs, e-mail messages, etc.) stored on a computer, for use as evidence.


15

Forensic Document Examination

The reconstruction, study and interpretation of physical document–

related evidence, such as hand writing analysis and printmaking.

Forensic Economics

The acquisition, study and interpretation of evidence related to

economic damage, which includes determination of lost benefits and

earnings, business value and profit loss, household service value, labour

replacement and future medical expense cost, etc.

Forensic Engineering

The scientific examination and analysis of structures and other objects to

answer questions as to their failure or cause of damage. Typically their

evaluation is used to answer legal questions.

Forensic Linguistics

The study and interpretation of language for use as legal evidence.

Forensic Origin and Cause

The study, interpretation and identification of a fire for the express

purpose of determining the cause of ignition and origin of the fire (i.e.

arson cases).

Forensic Photography

The art-science of reconstructing, interpreting and producing an accurate

photographic reproduction of a crime scene for a court‟s benefit.

Forensic Psychology and Psychiatry

The study of the mind of an individual, using forensic methods. Also it

is the study, evaluation and identification of mentally–related illnesses

and human behaviour for the purpose of obtaining legal evidence.

Forensic Anthropology

The practice of physical anthropology, as applied to a legal situation -

typically the identification and recovery of skeletonised human remains

(bones).


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Forensic Entomology

Deals with examination of insects in, and around human remains to

assist in determination of time or location of death. It is also possible to

determine if the body was moved after death.

Criminalistics

Includes evidence collected from a wide range of sciences to determine

the answers of questions relating to the examination and comparison of

criminal investigations. This evidence is typically processed in a crime

laboratory.

Forensic DNA Analysis

Performing individual‟s DNA to answer forensic questions such as

determining paternity/maternity or placing a suspect at a crime scene.

Forensic Geology

The application of trace evidence found in soils, minerals and

petroleum, as applied to legal setting.

Forensic Meteorology

Is the analysis of prior weather conditions, specific on the site being

examined.

Forensic Odontology

Is the study of teeth – specifically, the uniqueness of dentition.

Forensic Pathology

This combines the discipline of medicine and pathology, as applied to a

legal inquiry, to determine the cause of injury or death.

Forensic Toxicology

Is the study evaluation and identification of the effects of poison

chemicals or drugs in and on the human body.

Forensic Limnology

Is the analysis of evidence collected from crime scenes in or around

fresh water sources. Examination of biological organisms, particularly

diatoms can be useful in connecting suspects with victims.


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List ten areas of forensic science and discuss on any of five of them.

3.4 Forensic Profiling

You may want to ask yourself what is forensic profiling and its

relevance?

Forensic profiling refers to the study and the exploitation of traces in

order to draw profile that must be relevant to the context of supporting

various security tasks, mostly in the criminal justice system. The term

forensic in this context refers to “information that is used in court as

evidence”. Geralt & Summer (2006), traces originate from criminal or

litigious activities themselves. However traces are information that are

not strictly dedicated to the court, but also that may bring knowledge on

broader domains linked to security that deal with investigation,

intelligence, surveillance, or risk analysis.

Forensic profiling is different from offender profiling, which only refers

to the identification of an offender to the psychological profile of a

criminal.

In particular forensic profiling should refer to profiling in general, i.e.

“the process of „discovering‟ correlations between data in data bases that

can be used to identify and represent a human or non human subject

(individual or group), and/or the application of profiles (set of

correlated data) to individuate and represent a subject or to a group or

category.” Geralt & Summer (2006).

3.4.1 The Profiling Process

The technical process of profiling can be separated in several steps.

Preliminary Grounding

The profiling process starts with a specification of the applicable

problem domain and the identification of the goals of analysis.

Data Collection

The target data set or database for analysis is formed by selecting the

relevant data in the light of existing domain knowledge and data

understanding.


18

Data Preparation

The data is pre-processed for removing noise and reducing complexity

by eliminating attributes.

Data Mining

The mined patterns are evaluated on their relevance and validity by

specialists and/or professionals in the application domain (e.g. excluding

spurious correlations).

Application

The constructed profiles are applied, e.g. to categories of persons to test

and fine – tune the algorithms.

Institutional Decision

The institution decides what actions or policies to apply to groups or

individuals whose data match a relevant profile.

Data collection, preparation and mining all belong to the phase in which

the profile is under construction. However, profiling also refers to the

application of profiles, meaning the usage of profiles of groups or

individual persons as can be seen in step 6 (application) the process is

circular. There is a feedback loop between the construction and the

application of profiles. The interpretation of profiles can lead to the

reentrant – possibly real time – fine tuning of specific previous steps in

the profiling process. The application of profiles to people whose data

were not used to construct the profile is based on data–matching, which

provides new data that allows for further adjustments. The process of

profiling is both dynamic and adaptive.

3.4.2 Profiling Techniques

Forensic profiling is generally conducted using data mining technology,

as a mean by which relevant patterns are discovered and profiles are

generated from large quantities of data.

The data available to law enforcement agencies are divided into two

categories.

Nominal data directly designates persons or objects (intelligence

files and suspect files, stolen vehicles or objects, etc.) and their

relations. Nominal data may also be obtained in the framework of


19

specific investigations, for instance a list of calls made with a

mobile phone (card and/or phone) that cover a certain period of

time, a list of people corresponding to a certain profile, or data

obtained through surveillances.

Crime data: Consist of traces that result from criminal activities:

physical traces, other information collected at the scene,

electronic traces, as well as reconstructed descriptions of cases.

(Modus operandi, time intervals, duration and place) and their

relations (links between cases, series).

3.4.3 Types of Forensic Profiling

DNA profiling: Used for the identification of individuals on the

basis of their respective DNA profiles.

Digital Image Forensic: This covers image source identification

(which is based on specific characteristics of the image

acquisition device or technology) and malicious post-processing

or tampering (which aim is for instance to verify the integrity of

particular features).

Illicit Drug Profiling: Which refers to the systematic extraction

and storage of chemical attributes of drugs seized in order to

obtain indications on the manufacture and distribution processes,

the size and the evolution of the market).

Forensic Information Technology (forensic IT) which refers to

the analysis of the digital traces that people leave when using

information technology.

Offender Profiling: That is psychological profiling of the

criminal.

DNA Profiling

DNA profiling (also called DNA testing, DNA typing, or genetic

fingerprinting) is a technique employed by forensic scientists to assist in

the identification of individuals on the basis of their respective DNA

profiles. DNA profiles are encrypted sets of numbers that reflect a

person‟s DNA make up, which can also be used as the person‟s

identifier. DNA profiling should not be confused with full genome

sequencing. It is used in, for example parental testing and rape

investigation.


20

Although 99.9% of human DNA sequences are the same in every

person, enough of the DNA is different to distinguish one individual

from another. DNA profiling uses repetitive (“repeat”) sequences that

are highly variable, called variable number tandem repeats (VNTR).

VNTRs loci are very similar between closely related human, but also

variable that unrelated individuals are extremely unlikely to have the

same VNTRs.

The DNA Profiling technique was first reported in 1984 by Sir Alec

Jeffreys at the University of Leicester in England, and is now the basis

of several national DNA databases.

DNA Profiling Process

The process begins with a sample of an individual‟s DNA (typically

called a reference sample”). The most desirable method of collecting a

reference sample is the use of a buccal swap, as this reduces the

possibility of contamination. When this is not available (e.g., because a

court order may be needed and not obtainable) other methods may need

to be used to collect a sample of blood, saliva, semen or other

appropriate fluid or tissue from personal items (e.g. toothbrush, razor,

etc.) or from stored samples (e.g. banked sperm or biopsy tissue).

Samples obtained from blood relatives (biological relative) can provide

an indication of an individual‟s profile as could human remains which

had been previously profiled.

A reference sample is then analysed to create the individual‟s DNA

profile using one of a number of techniques. The DNA profile is then

compared against another sample to determine whether there is a genetic

match.


Discuss the role of forensic profiling in forensic science.

3.5 Forensic Identification

Forensic Identification is the application of forensic science and

technology to identify specific objects from the trace evidence left, at a

crime scene. Forensic means “for the courts”.

Human Identification

Droplets of human blood: In addition to analyzing for DNA, the droplets

round also show the impact at a relatively slow velocity, in the case of a

height of two feet.


21

People can be identified by their fingerprints. This assertion is supported

by this philosophy of friction ridge identification, which states that

“friction ridge identification is established through the agreement of

friction ridge formations, in sequence, having sufficient uniqueness to

individualise.

Friction ridge identification is also governed by four premises or

statements of fact:

1. Friction ridges develop on the foetus in their definitive form prior

to birth.

2. Friction ridges are persistent throughout life except for permanent

scarring, disease or decomposition, after death

3. Friction ridge paths and the details in small areas of friction

ridges are unique and never repeated.

4. Overall, friction ridge patterns vary within limits which allow for

classification.

People can also be identified from traces of their DNA by DNA

fingerprinting; from their teeth or bite by forensic odontology; from a

photograph or a video recording by facial recognition systems; from the

video recording of their walk by gait analysis; from an audio recording

by voice analysis; from the content of their writing style (e.g. typical

phrases, factual bias, and/or misspelling of words); or from other traces

using other biometric techniques.

Body identification is a subfield of forensics concerned with identifying

someone from their remains.

Product Identification

Colour copier and maybe some colour computer printers embed

their identification number to some printouts as a counter

measure of currency forgeries.

Copiers and computer printers can be potentially identified by the

minor variants of the way they feed the paper through the printing

mechanism leaving banding artefacts. Analysis of the toners is

also used.

Documents are characterised by the composition of their paper

and ink.

Firearms can be identified by the striations on the bullets they

fired and imprints on the cartridge casings.

Paper shredders can be potentially identified in a similar way, by

spacing and wear of their blades.


22

Photo identification is used to detect and identify forged digital

photos.

Typewriters can be identified by minor variations of positioning

and wear of their letters.

Networks

Cars can be automatically found on CCTV records by automatic

number plate recognition.

Computers connected to the internet can often be identified by

their IP address or MAC address.

Radio transceivers can be potentially identified by minute

variations of their output signal.

Social networks can be discovered by network analysis of

banking, telecommunications and postal records.

Applications

Sometimes, manufacturers and film distributors may intentionally leave

subtle forensic markings on their products to identify them in case of

piracy or involvement in a crime.


State and discuss 3 methods of forensic identification.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained the concept of forensic science, as something

pertaining to, or used in a court of law. Forensic science developed long

ago in China and is subdivided into about twenty areas.

We also discussed the role of forensic profiling as a process of

discovering correlations between data in data bases, and using the

information to identify subjects. Types of forensic profiling were also

discussed, especially the DNA profiling used for the identification of

individuals on the basis of their respective DNA profiles.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have dealt with the meaning and scope of forensic

science, by looking at the following areas, definition and meaning of

forensic science subdivision of forensic science, history of forensic

science, forensic profiling and identification.


23


1. What is forensic science?

2. Describe the steps involved in forensic profiling.

3. Discuss DNA profiling.


Anil Aggrawal. Internet Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology.

Joe Nickell and John F. Fischer (1999). Crime Science: Methods of

Forensic Detection. University Press of Kentucky.

Kind, S. Overman M. (1972). Science Against Crime. New York:

Doubleday.

Jeffreys, A. J.; Wilson, V, & Thein, S. W. (1984). Hyper Variable

„Minisatellite‟ Regions in Human DNA.

Raloff, Janet. (2008). Science News “Judging Science.”

Rose & Goos. “DNA” – A Practical Guide. Toronto: Carwell

Publications.

Schafer, Elizabeth D. (2008). “Ancient Science and Forensic” in AYN

Emba-Seddon & Allan, D. Pass (eds). Forensic Science. Salem

Press.

Wiki Crime Line “DNA Profiling Printer Forensics to Aid Homeland

Security Tracing Counterfeiters.”

http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php? Record id.

http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php


24

UNIT 3 TECHNIQUES OF CRIME SCENE

INVESTIGATION, AS RELATED TO

FORENSIC SCIENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Crime

3.2 Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation 3.2.1 Initial Response/Prioritisation of Efforts

3.2.2 Preliminary Documentation and Evaluation of the

Scene

3.2.3 Processing the Scene

3.2.4 Completing and Recording the Crime Scene

Investigation

3.2.5 Crime Scene Equipment

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

How can you establish a relationship between crime scene investigation

and forensic science? Directly related to forensic science, though not

quite the same, is crime scene investigation (CSI).

The primary function of a crime scene investigator is to collect, identify,

document, and preserve physical evidence left at the scene of a crime,

with the ultimate goal of presenting a court with evidence to identify and

apprehend the perpetrator. CSI combines the knowledge and techniques

of several disciplines, including science, mathematics, logic, and law.

The primary difference between CSI and forensics is that CSI involves

on-site investigation (field forensics) of the physical scene of crime,

whereas standard forensics takes place in a controlled environment lab

setting. The various aspect that will be discussed in this unit will

introduce you to meaning of crime, techniques of crime scene

investigation viz. initial response/prioritisation of efforts, preliminary

documentation and evaluation of the scene, processing the scene,

completing and recording the crime scene investigation and crime scene

equipment.


25

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

define the concept of crime

employ the techniques of forensic science in crime scene

investigation

record evidence in a crime scene

identify the various steps involved in crime scene investigation.

explain the relationship between forensics and crime scene

investigation

describe the various steps involved in preliminary investigation

and evaluation of the scene

differentiate between crime scene investigation and forensics

name crime scene equipments.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Crime

Crime is the breach of rules or law for which some governing authority

(via mechanisms such as legal systems) can ultimately prescribe a

conviction. Individual human societies may each define crime and crime

differently. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of

the law counts as a crime, for example breaches of contract and of other

civil law may rank as “offences” or as “Infractions” when informal

relationships and sanctions prove insufficient to establish and maintain a

desired social order, government may impose more formalised or stricter

systems of social control.

The label of “Crime” and the accompanying social stigma normally

confine their scope to those activities seen as injurious to the general

population or to the state, including some that cause serious loss or

damage to individuals.

The following elements are significant in this definition and need to be

elaborated upon:

1. Crime is a deviant behaviour that violates prevailing norms-

cultural standards prescribing how humans ought to behave

normally.

2. Changing social, political, Psychological and economic

conditions may affect changing definitions of crime and the form

of the legal, law enforcement and penal responses made by

society.


26

3. Legislatures can pass laws (called Mala Prohibit) that define

crime which violate social norms. These laws vary from time to

time and from place to place. Other crimes, called Mala in se

count as outlawed in almost all societies (murder, theft and rape).


Define the term crime and discuss its effects on the society.

3.2 Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation

One of the most important aspects of securing the crime scene is to

preserve the scene with minimal contamination and disturbance of

physical evidence. The initial response to an incident shall be

expeditious and methodical; upon arrival the officer(s) shall assess the

scene and treat the incident as a crime scene.

The initial responding officer(s) shall promptly, yet cautiously, approach

and enter crime scenes, remaining observant of any persons, vehicles,

events, potential evidence and environmental conditions.

The initial responding officer(s) should:

note or log dispatch information (e.g. address)

be aware of any persons or vehicles leaving the crime scene

approach the scene cautiously, scan the entire area to thoroughly

assess the scene, and note any possible secondary crime scenes.

Beware of any persons and vehicles in the vicinity that may be

related to the crime

make initial observations (look, listen, smell) to assess the scene

and ensure officer safety before proceeding

remain alert and attentive. Assume the crime is ongoing until

determined to be otherwise

treat the location as a crime scene until assessed and determined

to be otherwise.


List the essential steps a responding officer(s) takes in a crime scene

situation.


27

3.2.1 Initial Response/Prioritisation of Efforts

You may want to know the initial steps to be taken by a responding

officer(s) towards a crime scene situation. They are as follows:

Initial response/receipt of information: It is important for the

initial responding officer(s) to be observant when approaching,

entering and exiting a crime scene.

Safety procedures: The safety and physical well-being of

officers and other individuals in and around the crime scene, are

the initial responding officer(s) priority. On arrival at the scene he

shall identify and control any dangerous situation or persons.

Ensure that there is no immediate threat to other responders -

scan area for sights, sounds, and smells that may present danger

to personnel (e.g. hazardous materials such as gasoline, natural

gas). Survey the scene for dangerous persons and control the

situation. Notify supervisory personnel and call for

assistance/backup.

Emergency care: After controlling any dangerous situations or

persons, they should ensure that medical attention is provided to

injured persons while minimising contamination of the scene. If

the victim or suspect is transported to a medical facility, send law

enforcement official with the victim or suspect to document any

comment made and preserve evidence. Point out potential

physical evidence to medical personnel, instruct them to

minimise contact with such evidence (e.g. ensure that medical

personnel preserve all clothing and personal effects without

cutting through bullet holes, knife tears) and document movement

of persons or items by medical personnel, ensure medical

personnel not to “clean up” the scene and to avoid removal or

alteration of items originating from the scene if to obtain “dying

declaration document, any statements/comments made by

victims, suspects or witnesses at the scene.”

Secure and control persons at the scene: Controlling,

identifying and removing persons at the crime scene and limiting

the number of persons who enter the crime scene and the

movement of such persons is an important function of the initial

responding officer(s) in protecting the crime scene. He should

control all individuals at the scene-prevent individuals from

altering/destroying physical evidence by restricting movement

location and activity while enduring and maintaining safety at the

scene.


28

Identify all individuals at the scene such as suspects, secure and

separate witnesses.

Boundaries: identify, establish, protect and secure. Defining and

controlling boundaries provide a means for protecting and

securing the crime scene(s). The number of crime scene and their

boundaries are determined by their location(s) and the type of

crime. Boundaries shall be established beyond the initial scope of

the crime scene(s) with the understanding that the boundaries can

be reduced in size if necessary but cannot be as easily expanded.

He shall conduct an initial assessment to establish and control the

crime scene(s) and its boundaries. Establish boundaries of the

scene(s) starting at the focal point and extending outward to

include where the crime occurred. Potential points and paths of

exit and entry of suspects and witnesses places where the

victim/evidence may have been removed, (be aware of trace and

impression evidence while assessing the scene).

Set up physical barriers, e.g. ropes, cones, crime scene barrier

tape, available vehicles, personnel, other equipments, etc.

Document the entry/exit of all people entering and leaving the

scene to maintain integrity of the scene. Effect measures to

preserve/protect evidence that may be lost or compromised (e.g.

protect from the elements (rain, snow, wind and from footsteps,

fire tracks, sprinklers). Document the original location of the

victim or objects that you observe being moved. Consider search

and seizure issues to determine the necessity of obtaining consent

to search and/or obtaining a search warrant.

The officer(s) shall brief the investigators taking charge. Assist in

controlling the scene and remain at the scene until relieved of

duty.

Document actions and observations. All activities conducted and

observations made at the crime scene must be documented as

soon as possible after the event to preserve information.

Documentation must be maintained as a permanent record.

The initial responding officer(s) at the crime scene must produce clear,

concise, documental information encompassing his or her observations

and actions. This documentation is vital in providing information to

substitute investigative considerations.


29


Describe the initial steps to be taken by a response officer in a crime

scene.

3.2.1 Preliminary Documentation and Evaluation of the Scene

Assessment of the scene by the investigator(s) in charge allows for the

determination of the type of incident to be investigated and the level of

investigation to be conducted. The investigator(s) in charge shall

identify specific responsibilities, share preliminary information and

develop investigative plans in accordance with departmental policy and

local, state and federal laws.

The investigator(s) in charge should:

Converse with the first respondent(s) regarding

observations/activities.

Evaluate safety issues that may affect all personnel entering the

scene(s).

Evaluate search and seizure issues to determine the necessity of

obtaining consent to search and/or obtaining a search warrant.

Evaluate and establish a path of entry/exit to the scene to be

utilised by authorised personnel.

Evaluate initial scene boundaries.

Determine the number/size of scene(s) and prioritise.

Establish a secure area within close proximity to the scene(s) for

the purpose of consultation and equipment staging.

If multiple scenes exist, establish and maintain communication

with personnel at those locations.

Establish a secure area for temporary evidence storage in

accordance with rules of evidence/chain of custody.

In addition, the investigator(s) shall perform the following functions:

Conduct Scene Assessment: Scene assessment allows for the

development of a plan for the coordinated identification,

collection, and preservation of physical evidence and

identification of witnesses. It also allows for the exchange of

information among law enforcement personnel and the

development of investigative strategies. He shall also conduct

scene “walk through” and initial documentation. The scene „walk

through‟ provides an overview of the entire scene, identifies any

threats to scene integrity, and ensures protection of physical

evidence, written and photographic.


30

Determine Team Composition: Based on the type of incident and

complexity of the scene, investigator(s) shall determine team

composition. Trained personnel shall perform scene processing.

Assess forensic needs and call forensic specialists to the scene for

expertise and/or equipment. Ensure that scene security and the

entry/exit documentations are continued.


Discuss the importance of evaluating the crime scene by an investigator.

3.2.2 Processing the Scene

The essence of scene processing is to have contamination control and

preventing cross contamination at single or multiple scenes, and also in

maintaining the safety of personnel and the integrity of evidence.

Other responders and/or team members should limit scene access to

people directly involved in scene processing, follow established

entry/exit routes at the scene, clean/sanitise or dispose of

tools/equipment and personal protective equipment between evidence

collections and/or scenes.

Documentation

An assessment of the scene determines what kind of documentation is

needed (e.g. photography, video, sketches, measurement, notes, etc).

Review assessment of the scene to determine the type of documentation

needed. Coordinate photographs, video, measurements and notes.

Prepare preliminary sketch(es) and measuring immediate area of the

scene, noting case identifiers and indicating notes on the sketch. A well

documented scene ensures the integrity of the investigation and provides

a permanent record for latter evaluation.

Prioritise Collection of Evidence

The investigator(s) shall prioritise the collection of evidence to protect

loss, destruction, or contamination. Conduct a careful and methodical

evaluation considering all physical evidence possibilities (e.g. biological

fluids, latent prints, and trace evidence). Select a systematic search

pattern for evidence collection based on the size and location of the

scene(s). Select a progression of processing/collection methods so that

initial techniques do not compromise subsequent processing/collection

methods. Concentrate on the most transient evidence and work to the

least transient forms of physical evidence. Continually assess

environmental and other factors that may affect the evidence. Be aware


31

of multiple scenes (e.g. victims, suspects, vehicles, locations, etc.). In

fact, prioritisation provides for timely and methodical preservation and

collection of evidence.

Collect, Preserve, Inventory, Package, Transport and Submit

Evidence

The handling of physical evidence is one of the most important factors

of the investigation. The team member(s) shall ensure the effective

collection, preservation, packing and transport of evidence. These they

shall accomplish by:

Maintaining scene security throughout the processing and until

the scene is released.

Document the collection of evidence by recording its location at

the scene, date of collection and who collected it.

Identify and secure evidence in containers (e.g. label, date, initial

container, etc.) at the crime scene. Different types of evidence

require different containers (e.g. porous, nonporous, and

crushproof).

Package items to avoid contamination and cross-contamination.

Maintain evidence at the scene in a manner designed to diminish

degradation or loss.

In summary, evidence at crime scene that is in the process of

documentation, collection, preservation, or packaging should be handled

with attention to scene integrity and protection from contamination or

deleterious change. During the processing of the scene, and following

documentation, evidence should be appropriately packaged, labelled and

maintained in a secure, temporary manner until final packaging and

submission to a secured evidence storage facility or the crime

laboratory.

Establish Crime Scene Debriefing Team

The crime scene debriefing enables law enforcement personnel and

other responders to share information regarding particular scene findings

prior to releasing the scene. It provides an opportunity for input

regarding follow-up investigation, special requests for assistance, and

the establishment of post-scene responsibilities.

The team which includes the investigator(s) in charge of the crime

scene, other investigators and evidence collection personnel (e.g.

photographers, evidence technician, latent print personnel, specialised

personnel and initial responding officer(s) is still present). Determine


32

what evidence was collected and discuss potential technical forensic

testing and the sequence of test to be performed.

Initiate any action(s) identified in discussion required to complete the

crime scene investigation.


List measures you will adopt to avoid contamination of evidence at the

crime scene.

3.2.3 Completing and Recording the Crime Scene

Investigation

Final survey of the crime scene ensures that evidence has been collected

and the scene has been processed prior to release. In addition, a

systematic review of the scene ensures that evidence, equipment, or

materials generated by the investigation are not inadvertently left behind

and any dangerous materials or conditions have been reported and

addressed.

The investigator(s) in charge shall direct a walk through at the

conclusion of the scene investigation, and ensure that the scene

investigation is complete. He shall note the following:

Each area identified as part of the crime scene is visually

inspected.

All evidence collected at the scene is accounted for.

All equipment and materials generated by the investigations area

are removed.

Any dangerous materials or conditions are reported and

addressed.

The crime scene is released in accordance with jurisdictional

requirements.

Also he shall carry out the following:

Documentation of the Crime Scene: Reports and other documents

pertaining to the crime scene investigation shall be completed

into a “case file” by the investigator(s) in charge of the crime

scene. This file should be a record of the actions taken and

evidence collected at the scene. This documentation shall allow

for independent review of the work conducted.


33

The investigator(s) in charge should obtain the following for the crime

scene case file:

Initial responding officer(s) documentation

Emergency medical personnel documents

Entry/exit documentation

Photographs/videos

Crime scene sketches/diagrams

Evidence documentation

Other responders‟ documentation

Record of consent form or search warrant

Reports such as forensic/technical reports should be added to this

file when they become available.

Establish Crime Scene Debriefing Team

- Brief person(s) in charge upon completion of assigned crime

scene tasks.

- Establish post-scene responsibilities for law enforcement

personnel and other responders.

The crime scene debriefing is best opportunity for law enforcement

personnel and other responders to ensure that the crime scene

investigation is complete.


Discuss the role of a debriefing team in crime scene investigation.

3.2.4 Crime Scene Equipment

We are going to discuss the equipments used in crime scene

investigations under the following:

Initial Responding Officer(s)

Crime Scene Investigator/Evidence Technician

The Essential ones are as follows:

Bindle Paper

Biohazard Bags

Body Fluid Collection Kit

Camera (35mm) with Flash/Film/Tripod

Casting Material

Consent/Search Forms

Crime Scene Barricade Tape


34

First-Aid Kit

Flares

Flashlight and Extra Batteries

Paper Bags

Personal Protective Equipment

These items should be in police vehicles or readily available to

initial responding Officer(s)

Evidence Collection Kits (example)

a. Blood Collection

Bindle

Coin Envelopes

Disposable Scapels

Distilled Water

Ethanol

Evidence Identifiers

Latex Gloves

Photographic Ruler (ABFO Scales)

Presumptive Chemical

Sterile Swabs

Test Tubes/Test Tube Rack

b. Bloodstain Pattern Documentation

ABFO Scales

Calculator

Laser Pointer

Permanent Markers

Protractor

String

Tape

c. Excavation

Cones/Markers


Metal Detectors

Paint Brushes

Shovels/Trowels

Sifting Screens

Strings


35

Weights

Wooden/Metal Stakes

d. Fingerprints

Black and White Film

Brushes

Chemical Enhancement Supplies

Cyanoacrylate (Super Glue) Wand/Packets

Flashlight

Forensic Light Source

Lift Cards

Lift Tape

Measurement Scales

One-to–one Camera

Powders

e. Impression

Bowls/Mixing Container

Boxes

Dental Stone (die Stone)


Measurement Scales

Permanent Markers

Snow Print Wax

Water

f. Pattern Print Lifter

Chemical Enhancement Supplies

Electrostatic Dust Lifter

Gel Lifter

Wide Format Lift Tape

g. Tool Marks

Casting Materials

h. Trace Evidence Collection

Acetate Sheet Protectors

Bindle Paper

Clear Tape/Adhesive Lift


36

Flashlight (Oblique Lighting)

Forceps/Tweezers

Glass Vials

Trace Evidence Vacuum with Disposables

Collection Filters

i. Trajectory

Calculator

Canned Smoke

Dummy

Laser

Mirror

Protractor

String

Trajectory Rods


List the essential equipments for a crime scene investigator.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained the relationship between crime scene investigation

and forensic science. Crime Science Investigation combines the

knowledge and techniques of several different disciplines, including

science, mathematics, logic and law. One of the most important aspects

of securing the crime scene is to preserve the scene with minimal

contamination and disturbance of physical evidence.

We also discussed the initial steps an investigator will take on the

preliminary documentation and evaluation of the scene. List of crime

scene equipments are also mentioned.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have dealt with the meaning of crime and techniques of

crime scene, investigation by looking at the following areas: Initial

response/prioritisation of efforts, preliminary documentation and

evaluation of the scene processing the scene, completing and recording

the crime scene and crime scene equipment.


37


1. Differentiate between Crime Scene Investigation and Forensic.

2. Discuss the steps an investigation must undertake in a crime

scene situation.

3. List and describe the steps involved in processing a crime scene.


Bavel, T. & Garder R. (1977). Crime Scene Investigation: Guide for law

Enforcement.

Bodziak, W. J (1999). Footwear Impressions Evidence. New York:

Elsevier Science Publishing Co.

Deforest, P. Gaensslen, R. & Lee H. C. (1983). FBI Handbook of

Forensic Science, Collection, Identification and Shipping Index.

Washington D. C

Fisher, B. A. J. (1993). Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation (5th

Edition). Florida: CRC Press Inc.

Fox, R. H & Carl L. C. (1973). Crime Scene Search and Physical

Evidence Handbook. Washington, D.C.

Geberth, V. J. (1996). Practical Homicide Investigation Checklist and

Field Guide. New York: CRC Press.

Kirk, P.L (2000). Crime Investigation. New York: John Wily and Sons.

Rini, G. A. (2002). Crime Scene Search and Physical Evidence

Management. N. J. CRC Inc.


38

UNIT 4 FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGIST, ROLES AND

RESPONSIBILITIES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 What is Forensic Psychology?

3.2 Forensic Psychologists Roles and Responsibilities

3.3 Forensic Psychology and Criminal Profiling

3.4 Hypnosis in Criminal Investigations

3.5 Psychological Autopsies

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

What is the relevance of forensic psychology to forensic science?

The field of forensic psychology has gotten the attention of the public as

we enter the 21st

century. Prominent cases involving such topics as the

insanity defense, the use of jury consultants with psychological training,

the use of psychology in the profiling of criminal suspects, eyewitness

memory, interrogations and confessions, child custody, and child sexual

abuse have been featured in the press, television and movies. Within the

field of psychology itself, forensic psychology has become an important

focus of clinical practice as well as scientific research.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


define forensic psychology

state the roles of a forensic psychologist

apply the knowledge of forensic psychology to criminal profiling

describe the procedures used in criminal profiling

discuss the use of hypnosis in criminal investigations

outline the guidelines in criminal autopsies

differentiate between forensic psychology and psychology.


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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is Forensic Psychology?

One definition has been proposed by Bartol and Bartol (1984): It is both

(a) The research endeavour that examines aspects of human behaviour

directly related to the legal process (e.g. eyewitness memory and

testimony, jury decision making, or criminal behaviour) and (b) the

professional practice of psychology within or in consultation with a

legal system that encompasses both criminal and civil law with

numerous areas which they interact.

Therefore, forensic psychology refers broadly to the production and

application of psychological knowledge to the civil and criminal justice

systems.

In other words, forensic psychology is the intersection between

psychology and the criminal justice system. It involves understanding

criminal law in the relevant jurisdictions in order to be able to interact

appropriately with judges, attorneys and other legal professionals. An

important aspect of forensic psychology is the ability to testify in court,

reformulating psychological findings into the legal language of the

courtroom, providing information to legal personnel in a way that can be

understood.

Questions asked by the court of a forensic psychologist are generally not

questions regarding psychology but are legal questions and the response

must be in a language the court understands. For example, a forensic

psychologist is frequently appointed by the court to assess a defendant‟s

competency to stand trial. The court also frequently appoints a forensic

psychologist to assess the state of mind of the defendant at the time of

the offense.

Forensic psychologists provide sentencing recommendations, treatment

recommendations, and any other information the judge requests, such as

information regarding mitigating factors, assessment of future risk, and

evaluation of witness credibility. Forensic psychology also involves

training and evaluating police or other law enforcement personnel,

providing law enforcement with criminal profiles and in other ways

working with police departments. Forensic psychologists work both

with the public defender, and state and private attorneys.


Differentiate between forensic psychology and psychology.


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3.1 Forensic Psychologist, Roles and Responsibilities

Forensic psychologists perform a wide range of tasks within the criminal

justice system. By far the largest is that of preparing for and providing

testimony in the court room. This task becomes increasingly difficult as

attorneys have become sophisticated at undermining psychological

testimony. Evaluating the client, preparing for testimony, and testimony

itself require the forensic psychologist to have a firm grasp of the law

and the legal situation at issue in the courtroom, using crime

classification manual and other sources. This knowledge must be

integrated with the psychological information obtained from testing,

psychological and mental status exams, and appropriate assessment of

background materials, such as police reports.

Another role performed by a forensic psychologist is that of forensic

assessment.

Malingering: An overriding issue in any type of forensic

assessment is the issue of malingering and deception. A

defendant may be intentionally faking a mental illness or may be

exaggerating the degree of symptomatology.

The forensic psychologist must always keep this possibility in

mind.

Competence Evaluation: If there is a question of the accused

competency to stand trial, a forensic psychologist is appointed by

the court to examine and assess the individual. The individual

may be in custody or may have been released on bail. Based on

the forensic assessment, a recommendation is made to the court

whether or not the defendant is competent to proceed to trial. If

the defendant is considered incompetent to proceed, the report or

testimony will include recommendations for the interim period

during which an attempt at restoring the individual‟s competency

to understand the court and legal proceedings, as well as

participate appropriately in their defense will be made. Often this

is an issue of commitment, on the advice of a forensic

psychologist, to a psychiatric treatment facility until such a time

the individual is deemed fit.

A prominent role of a forensic psychologist is seen in the case of

Ford Vs Wainwright, a case by a Florida inmate on death row

that was brought before the Supreme Court of United States.

Forensic psychologist was appointed to assess the competency of

an inmate to be executed in death penalty cases.


41

Sanity Evaluations: The forensic psychologist may also be

appointed by the court to evaluate the defendant‟s state of mind at

the time of the offense. These are defendants who the judge,

prosecutor or public defender believes, through personal

interaction with the defendant or through reading the police

report, may have been significantly impaired at the time of the

offense. In this case, usually the court appoints forensic

evaluators and the defense may hire their own forensic expert.

Ethical Implication: This is another role performed by a forensic

psychologist. A forensic psychologist generally practices within

the confines of the courtroom, incarceration facilities, and other

legal setting. It is important to remember that the forensic

psychologist is equally likely to be testifying for the prosecution

as for the defense attorney.

Sentence Mitigation: Another responsibility of a forensic

scientist is sentence mitigation. Even in situations where the

defendant‟s mental disorder does not meet the criteria for not

being guilty, be it the reason of insanity defense, the defendant‟s

state of mind at that time, as well as relevant past history of

mental disorder and psychological abuse can be used to attempt a

mitigation of sentence. The forensic psychologist‟s evaluation

and report is an important element in persecuting evidence for

sentence mitigation.

Other Evaluations: Forensic Psychologists are frequently asked

to make an assessment of an individual‟s dangerousness or risk of

re-offending. They may provide information purposes, grants of

probation, and the formulation of conditions of parole, which

often involves an assessment of the offender‟s ability to be

rehabilitated. They are also asked questions of witness credibility

and malingering, occasionally, they may also provide criminal

profiles to law enforcement.


Discuss the role of a forensic psychologist in a judicial system.

3.2 Forensic Psychology and Criminal Profiling

You may want to ask yourself, why develop criminal profiles?

What do we mean by a criminal profile? Crime is always a concern

world wide. Next to crime prevention, crime detection is of the highest

priority.


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A “profile” of what? Some profilers emphasise the personality and

motivations of the offender, including characteristic ways of committing

crimes and treating their victims. But certainly physical characteristics

are important – the criminal‟s age, gender, race, height and weight.

Whether the perpetrator is left-handed or right-handed is sometimes

easily determined from an analysis of the criminal act, because these

qualities plus other demographic data (e.g. occupation, education) are

sought in addition to a personality sketch of the criminal.

What is Criminal Profiling?

The origin of criminal profiling is unclear, but for centuries, elements of

society have tried to pinpoint those physical or psychological qualities

linked to criminal or deviant behaviour Pinizzotto (1984). Criminal

profiling has been described as an educated attempt to provide specific

information about a certain type of suspect, and as a biographical sketch

of behavioural pattern, trends and tendencies, Geberth (1981).

The basic premise of criminal profiling is that the way a person thinks

directs the person‟s behaviour. It is important to recognise that profiling

does not provide the specific identity of the offender. Similarly, not all

types of crimes are susceptible to successful criminal profiling. Holmes

and Holmes (1996) concluded such crimes as check forgery, bank

robbery and kidnapping are not good candidates for profiling.

Criminal profiling consists of analyzing a crime scene and using the

information to determine the identity of the perpetrators. While this

doesn‟t directly give you the perpetrators name, it is very helpful in

narrowing down suspects. For example, a profile based on a crime scene

provides information that may include the perpetrator‟s personality, sex,

age, ethnic background and possible physical features such as

disfigurements or height and weight. This information can then be used

to identify possible suspects, depending on who fits the profile.

Personality is one of the most important parts of a criminal profile.

How does Criminal Profiling Work?

Personality profiles of criminals are based on the way in which a crime

is committed, also known as “Method of Operation”. The M. O.

includes the identity of the victim(s), what the victim(s) (in case of a

serial offender) have in common; the weapon(s) used, the degree of the

hostility, the existence (or lack) of any torture and/or sexual molestation,

and so on. Analyzing these aspects of the crime scene, an investigator

(usually a trained forensic psychologist) can determine the motives of

the perpetrator, which leads to a description of the perpetrators

personality or personality profile.


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It may seem so far that criminal profiling depends on a lot of speculation

on the part of the forensic psychologist. While some speculation is

required, personality profiling is actually the result of many years of

research.

Also criminal profiling is the act of developing a psychological profile

of an offender based on the state of the crime scene. Profiling is most

often done by a forensic psychologist – some has studied the criminal

mind. This profile can then be used by the police departments to assist in

apprehending the criminal.

A profile is a psychological sketch of an offender. There is a lot that a

crime scene can tell a forensic psychologist about the person who

committed the crime. This is especially true in homicide investigations.

Criminal profiling is often used to help investigators catch psychopaths

and serial killers that may otherwise go free. It can also be used to help

catch other types of offenders, such as arsonists and rapist. In criminal

profiling, a crime scene helps to label the perpetrator as organised,

disorganised or mixed. An organised offender plans ahead, picking out

the victim ahead of time. Any tools needed are brought by the offender.

He is meticulous with details, and it is clear that the crime was well

thought out ahead of time. This tells a forensic psychologist a lot about

the criminal.

Organised offenders tend to be high in the birth order of their family,

usually an oldest child. They are very intelligent, and usually had their

lives together, but a series of stressful situations caused them to act out.

Most of them have a live-in partner, are socially adept, and will follow

the coverage of their crime in the media very carefully.

A spontaneous offense is often the work of a disorganised offender. He

will often depersonalise the victim, to make the crime less real, allowing

him to remain detach throughout the course of the crime. There is very

little conversation, if any, between the offender and the victim, and the

crime scene has a random and sloppy feel to it. Criminal profiling makes

it possible to draw a lot of conclusions about this offender, too.

Disorganised offenders are often of average or slightly below-average

intelligence. They are younger children, live alone and are not as

socially mature as an organised offender. They often live or work near

the scene of the crime, and have poor work history.

A mixed offender is harder to use criminal profiling for, but is still

possible. The crime scene combines characteristics of both organised

and disorganised offenders. For example, the offender may have

provided his own tools, but picked a victim randomly. The profile of a


44

mixed offender may not be as accurate as other profiles, giving police

lies to go on.

Criminal profiling is used not only to find potential offenders, but also

to narrow down a list of offenders that has already been compiled by the

police. Although it doesn‟t work in every case, criminal profiling has

helped investigators to apprehend hundreds of criminals. By assessing

the patterns and motives of previous criminals, profiling allows

investigators to fairly, accurately predict the characteristics of current

and future offenders, allowing killers and other perpetrators to be caught

before they can continue on to other crimes.

Phases of Profiling

How many phases of profiling do we have?

According to Gregg O. McCray, the basic premise is that behaviour

reflects personality. In a homicide case, for example, crime profilers try

to collect the personality of the offender through questions about his or

her behaviour at four phases.

1. Antecedents: What fantasy or plan, or both, did the murderer

have in place before the act? What triggered the murderer to act

some days and not others?

2. Method and manner: What type of victim or victims did the

murderer select? What was the method and manner of murder,

shooting, stabbing, strangulation or something else?

3. Body disposal: Did the murder and body disposal take place all

at one scene, or multiple scenes?

4. Post-offense behaviour: Is the murderer trying to inject himself

into the investigation by reacting to media reports or contacting

investigators?

The Criminal Profile Generating Process

Investigators used criminal profile infrequently until 1978, when FBI

established a psychological profiling programme within its Behavioural

Science unit. Since then, investigators of this facility have developed a

criminal profile generating process with five main stages. Apprehension

of a suspect is the main goal and the final step in the process. This

criminal profile generating process involves the following steps:

1. A comprehensive study of the nature of the criminal act and the

types of persons who have committed like offenses in the past.

2. A detailed analysis of the crime scene.

3. An in-depth examination of the background and activities of the

victim or victims.


45

4. A formulation of possible motivating factors for all parties

involved.

5. The development of a description of the perpetrator based on

overall characteristics from the crime scene and past criminal

behaviour.

Initial information gathered in the crime investigation stage includes

evidence from the crime scene, knowledge of the victim, and specific

forensic evidence about the crime (case of death, nature of wounds,

autopsy report, etc.). Photographs of the victim and crime scene are

included. Efforts are made to understand why this person, in particular,

was the victim. Information about possible suspects is not included, so

as not to subconsciously prejudice the profilers.

The second stage emphasises decision making, by organising and

arranging inputs into meaningful patterns. Classifications are

established, for example, the crime may be a mass murder (defined as

anything more than three victims in one location and within one event).

Two other classifications are the spree murder (killing at two or more

locations with no emotional cooling-off period between homicides) and

the serial murder involving three or more separate events with a cooling-

off period between the homicides.

The next step is to reconstruct the sequence of events and the behaviour

of both the perpetrators and the victim. One important distinction is that

between organised (or non social) and disorganised (or social) criminals.

Organised murderers are those who plan their murders, target their

victims (who are usually strangers), show self-control at the crime scene

by leaving few clues, and possibly act out a violent fantasy against the

victim, including dismemberment or torture.

The disorganised murderer is “less apt to plan his crime in detail, obtains

victims by chance and behaves haphazardly during the crime”. In

summary, organised offenders are more apt to:

Plan

Use restraints

Commit sexual acts with live victims

Emphasise control over the victim by using manipulative or

threatening techniques

Use car or truck.


46

Disorganised offenders are more likely to:

Leave a weapon at the crime scene

Reposition the dead body

Perform sexual acts with a dead body

Keep the dead body

Try to depersonalise the body

Not use a vehicle.

The final step usually generates a profile that follows a standard format,

including hypotheses about the perpetrator‟s age, race, educational level,

marital status, habits, family characteristics and type of vehicle, plus

indications of psychopathology.

Distinctions between Criminal or Offender Profiling and

Psychological Profiling

Criminal or offender profiling is a method of identifying the perpetrator

of a crime based on an analysis of the nature of the offense and the

manner in which it was committed. Various aspects of the criminal‟s

personality make up are determined from his or her choice before,

during, and after the crime. This information is combined with other

relevant details and physical evidence, and then compared with the

characteristics of known personality types and mental abnormalities of

developing a practical writing description of the offender.

Psychological profiling may be described as a method of suspect

identification which seeks to identify a person‟s mental, emotional and

personality characteristic (as manifested in things done or left at the

crime scene)


Discuss the importance of conducting criminal profile on a suspected

offender.

3.3 Hypnosis in Criminal Investigations

The use of hypnosis by police grew rapidly during the 1970‟s, partly

facilitated by the rules in most states at that time which permitted wide

admissibility of hypnotically induced memories. Actually, hypnosis had

been used by the legal system for more than 100 years, though shrouded

with controversy. Even today, experts disagree about whether hypnosis

is effective in recovering memories and whether it is unduly suggestive.


47

Guidelines for the use of Hypnosis

Given the concerns about the accuracy of hypnotically assisted memory,

a prime function of a forensic psychologist is to offer and encourage

guidelines for the use of hypnosis. For example, if memories produced

by hypnosis should not be used as evidence in court, can the police seek

them during the early stages of a crime investigation?

The following guidelines are suggested:

1. Qualifications of the person using hypnosis: Traditionally,

police officers have conducted the hypnosis of witnesses, but the

society for criminal and Experimental Hypnosis has proposed

that only trained psychiatrists or psychologists – independent of

the police department should conduct a forensic hypnosis and

questioning. One benefit of this approach is a possible reduction

in the use of leading or suggestive questions.

2. Pre-hypnosis Records: It is important to keep separate what the

witness knew before the hypnosis and what he or she

remembered as a result of it.

3. Electronic recording of hypnosis session: All the interactions

between the examiner and the subject should be recorded

electronically, preferably on videotape. If the later is used, focus

should be on both the subject and the hypnosis to defeat any

subtle influence in the interaction.

4. Measurement of hypnotisability: One guideline suggested by

Spiegel and Spiegal (1987), that prescribe limits, is the level of

hypnotisability of the subject should be determined by use of one

of the standardised hypnotisability scales in order to document

the subject‟s degree of responsiveness, if any. These scales

include the Hypnotic induction profile.

5. Pre-hypnosis briefing: The hypnotist should not give the subject

any indication that will recall new information or that the

memory of the relevant experience will be any clearer. An effort

should be made to determine exactly what memories were held

before hypnosis.

6. Management of the hypnotic session: The person conducting

the session should provide a setting in which the subject can

remember new facts if there are any, but in which none is

introduced in the questioning.


48

The person should be allowed to review the events as they

occurred with little prompting, prompting is best done through

non-leading questions such as “and then what happens?"

7. Selective use: Forensic hypnosis should never be used as a

substitute for routine investigative procedures. Recall that these

are guidelines for the use of hypnosis during the crime

investigation stage. The inherent dangers in hypnotically assisted

memories mean that if police choose to hypnotise a victim at this

early stage, the authorities should exert great caution in allowing

the same person to testify at the trial, because of the suggestibility

involved in the procedure and the risk of producing false

memories.


List the steps involved when using hypnosis during investigation.

3.4 Psychological Autopsies

You may want to ask yourself, why the need for psychological

autopsies?

Often, the cause of a person‟s death is a matter of forensic concern even

if no criminal act is assumed to be involved. Even when the cause of

death is certain, issues related to the mental state of the person prior to

his or her death lead to the application of a psychological analysis.

Ogloff & Otto (1993) suggested several types of situations:

a. The need to determine whether the person was competent to draw

up a will (called the decedent‟s testamentary capacity)

b. In workers‟ compensation cases, claims may be made that

stressful working condition contributed to the person‟s premature

death.

c. In a criminal case, the defendant under trail for murder may claim

that the victim was a violent person who instituted such fear in

the defendant that the act was truly one of self defense.

The term psychological autopsy refers to the investigative method used

by psychologists or other social scientists to help determine the mode of

death in equivocal cases. It is estimated that between 5% and 20% of all

deaths that need to be certified are equivocal deaths. The beginnings of

psychological autopsies grew out of the frustration of the then Los

Angeles country Chief Medical Examiner and Coroner, Dr. Curphy in

1958 was faced with a number of drug-related deaths for which the

mode of death (how the death occurred) was uncertain.


49

The psychological autopsy technique is currently used to answer three

distinct questions: Why did the individual do it? How and when did the

individual die (that is why at that particular time)? And what might be

the most probable mode of death?

Section (1987) concluded that the most common inquiry in a

psychological autopsy concerns whether the death was an accident or a

suicide. A basic job of medical examiners is to certify whether a death

could reliably be classified as natural, accidental, suicidal or homicidal.


Define the concept “psychological autopsy” why is it necessary to a

forensic scientist?

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have discussed the roles and responsibilities of forensic

psychologists. And we went further to explain the meaning of forensic

psychology as the intersection between psychology and the criminal

justice system. We also noted that a forensic psychologist can be trained

in criminal, social, organisational or any branch of psychology. Specific

roles and responsibilities of a forensic psychologist were also mentioned

as forensic assessment, malingering, competency evaluations, sanity

evaluations, Ethical implications, sentence mitigation and other

evaluations. Criminal profiling was also discussed as an important

component of forensic psychology, with its attendant benefits.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed the relevance of forensic psychology, its

meaning, roles and responsibilities of forensic psychologists, criminal

profiling, and Procedures of criminal profiling.

We also discussed the essence of hypnosis in criminal investigation and

psychological autopsies.


1. Define forensic psychology.

2. Discuss the procedures in criminal profiling.

3. Differentiate between criminal or offender profiling and

psychological profiling.


50


Adler, J. R. (ed) (2004). Forensic Psychology; Concepts, Debates and

Practice. Cullomption: Willan.

Bartol I. S. & Bartol H. (1984). Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists.

New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Blakburn, R. (1996). What is Forensic Psychology? Legal and

Criminological Psychology.

Geberth, H. & Holes, Roland (1990). Profiling Violent Crimes; An

Investigative Tool. New Bung Park Sage.

Gregg, O. McCray & Shapio, David L. (1984). Psychological

Evaluation and Expert Testing. New York. Van Nostrand

Reinhold.

Gudjonsson, G. H. & Haward, L. (1998). Forensic Psychology. A Guide

to Practice.

Lawrence S, W. & Solomon M. P. (2005). Forensic Psychology. USA

Thompson Inc.

Ogloff & Otto, S. A. (1993). Clinical Assessment of Malingering and

Deception. Guilford Press

Spiegel & Spiegel (1987). Forensic Mental Health, Assessment: A

Casebook. Oxford University Press.

Pinizzotto S. (1984). The Psychology of Stalking. San Diego, C.A.:

Academic Press.


51

UNIT 5 FORENSIC MEDICAL/APPLICATIONS OF

SAMPLED SPECIMENS TO BE USED AS

EVIDENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Blood Sample Evidence

3.2 Hair, Fibres and Threads

3.3 Firearms Evidence

3.4 Toolmarks

3.5 Paint Evidence

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

One special important element to crime solving is the effective use of

science and technology. Science and technology applied to the solution

of criminal acts, or forensic science, solves criminal acts by assisting

police investigators to identify suspects and victims, clearing innocent

persons of suspicions and ultimately bringing the wrongdoer to justice.

The science is methodical, premeditated actions to gather and analyse

evidence.

Your job as a forensic investigator is to do your best to comb through

the sources of evidence and make sure you preserve it, and try to

reconstruct the events that occurred during a criminal act and produce a

meaningful starting point for police and prosecutors to do their jobs.

It is important to remember that the steps in preserving and collecting

evidence should be done slowly, carefully, methodically and

deliberately. One thing is common to every investigation, and it cannot

be stressed enough. Keep a regular old notebook handy and take careful

note of what you do during your investigation.


52

2.0 OBJECTIVES


apply the knowledge of forensic science in handling specimens to

be used as evidence

discuss standard blood specimens to be used as evidence

list steps in the recovery of evidence samples

describe how firearms evidence could be preserved

list how tool marks could be preserved

describe how paint evidence are marked and preserved.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Blood and Seminal Samples as Evidence

You may want to know how blood and seminal stains are preserved and

used as evidence by a forensic scientist in the court of law.

Blood that is in liquid pools should be picked up on a gauze pad or other

clean sterile cotton cloth and allowed to air dry thoroughly at room

temperature. It should be refrigerated or frozen as soon as possible and

brought to the laboratory as quickly as possible. Delays beyond 48 hours

may make samples useless. You should note the following:

If close to the laboratory, deliver stained object immediately.

If unable to deliver to the laboratory or if the object must be

mailed, allow the stain to air dry completely before packing.

Do not heat stained material or place it in bright sunlight to dry.

Hang clothing and similar articles in a room where there is

adequate ventilation.

If not completely dry, label and roll in paper in a brown paper

bag or box and seal and label container. Place only one item in

each container. Do not use plastic containers.

Dried Blood Stains

On clothing, if possible, wrap the item in clean paper, place the

article in a brown paper bag or box and seal and label container.

Do not attempt to remove stains from the cloth.

On small solid objects, send the whole stained object to the

laboratory, after labelling and packaging.

On large solid objects, cover the stained area with clean paper

and seal the edges down with tape to prevent loss or

contamination. If impractical to deliver the whole object to the


53

laboratory, scrape the stain onto a clean piece of paper, which can

be folded and placed in an envelope. Do not scrape blood from

objects using a freshly washed knife or similar tool. Wash and

dry the tool before each stain is scraped off. Seal and mark the

envelope.

Do not mix dried stains. Place each stain in a separate envelope.

Never attempt to wipe dried stains from an object using

moistened cloth or paper.

Standard Blood Specimens

Autopsy Blood Samples

Request that a pathologist obtain the sample directly from the heart into

a yellow (ACD) or purple stoppered vacationer (some labs request both).

In rare cases when no liquid blood is available, asked a pathologist to

collect a section of liver, and/or deep muscle tissue and freeze for

typing. In such cases, proceed also with collection of a secondary

standard as described below:

Blood samples from live individuals

For typing purposes, have sample drawn into yellow and purple

stoppered vacutainers. Note: these are distinguished from the BA tubes

which have grey stoppers

If the victim is injured to the extent that a transfusion is necessary, make

an effort to obtain or begin necessary procedures to obtain the pre-

transfusion sample collected by the hospital. These samples are not

retained for long periods by the hospital, so it is important to act

promptly. Also make sure that some blood stained garment worn by the

individual has been air dried and frozen to serve as a secondary

standard.

Handling and storage of Physiological Fluids Evidence

Obligation under people vs Nation and Hitch suggest that a reasonable

and good effort be made to preserve perishable evidence.

Stains and Control

1. Air dry

2. Package in paper

3. Freeze


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Consider special handling of non-absorbent items on (metal or plastic).

Any condensation from thawing could disturb or destroy such evidence.

Such items should be kept at room temperatures and submitted to the lab

as soon as possible.

Liquids (General Standards)

Blood

Refrigerate, do nor freeze standards collected in yellow stoppered

vacutainers.

Submit to the laboratory as soon as possible saliva.

Collect on a sterile gauze pad or scrabs, allow to air dry and

package in paper. Do not use plastic containers.

Seminal stains are often, but not always found on clothing,

blankets, sheets, etc. allow any stains to air dry, wrap in paper

and package evidence in paper bags. Do not use plastic bags.

For sex offense cases, the victim should always be examined by a

physician. A Sexual Assault Evidence collection kit is used to

collect evidence from the victim. It is very important that the

instructions on the kit be followed with care in order to gain the

greatest benefits from the collected evidence.

Label all garments such as under shorts, panties or other exhibits

and package each garments separately.

If damp, allow fabric to dry completely before packaging.

Handle fabrics as little as possible.


Describe how you will preserve blood and seminal stains be used as

evidence in the court.

3.2 Hair, Fibres and Threads

How can these be used as evidence in the court?

Hair

An examination of human hair can occasionally reveal the

possible race of the individual from whom it came and the part of

the body from which it originates.

Human hair can be compared to determine whether or not two

samples could have had a common origin. The value of the

laboratory examinations of such specimens will depend upon the


55

amount of hair recovered and the characteristics found in the

examinations.

Recover all hair present. If possible, use the fingers or tweezers to

pick up hair, place in paper bindles or coin envelopes, which

should then be folded and sealed in larger envelopes. Label the

outer sealed envelope.

If hair is attached, such as in dry blood or caught in metal or a

crack of glass, do not attempt to remove it but rather leave hair

intact on the object. If the object is small, mark it, wrap it, and

seal it in an envelope. If the object is large, wrap the area

containing the hair in paper to prevent loss of hairs during

shipment.

In rape cases, the victim‟s pubic region should be combed prior

to collecting standards. Obtain known hair samples from the

victim, suspect or any other possible sources for comparison with

unknown specimens. The recommended method for collecting

head hairs is to start by having the person from whom they are

being collected bend over a large sheet of clean paper, rubbing or

massaging their hands through the hair so that loose hair will fall

over on the paper. More should then be gathered by plucking

them from representative areas all over the head. A total of 50 –

100 hairs are desired. Do not cut the hair. This same method may

be used to collect hairs from other parts of the body. 30 – 60

public hairs are required. When the person is a suspect, hair

should be gathered from all parts of the body even though there

may only be an interest in hair from the head at the particular

time.

Fibres and Threads

Such evidence is often found in fabric abrasions or caught in torn

materials or other areas on hit-and-run vehicles. In some burglary

cases, it may be found caught in torn screens, broken glasses or

other locations.

Examination of fibres can normally be conducted to determine

the type or colour of fibre. Such examinations will sometimes

indicate the type of garments or fabric from which they

originated.

Fibres and threads can also be compared with suspects clothing to

determine whether or not they could have come from this

clothing.


56

If threads or large fibres are found, they can often be picked up

with the fingers and laced in a paper bindle, then in a coin

envelope, which can be lost from this type of envelope.

If the fibres are short or few in number and if it is possible to do

so, wrap the area or the entire item containing the fibres in paper

and send the whole exhibit to the laboratory.

Pick up fibres on tape only if the laboratory in your jurisdiction

allows it and gives you its requirement. When fibres or thread are

recovered, always send all clothing of persons from which they

might have originated to the laboratory for comparison purposes.

In sex offenses, assaults, and some other cases, it may be possible

to indicate or demonstrate contact between two individuals or

between one other individual and some other objects, such as a

car seat, by comparing fibres. Such examinations are only of

value when it is known no contact occurred between the two

individuals or an individual and some other objects prior to, or

subsequent to the offense. Extra care must be taken to keep each

article of clothing of each individual or other object separated.

Each garment should be laid on a clean sheet of paper, and

separately rolled up in the paper after marking the exhibit. If the

clothing of another, or if it is laid down on the table or placed on

the car seat contacted by the clothing of the other suspect, the

comparisons may be of no value.

Glass

Windows are frequently broken in burglaries, headlights in hit-and-run

cases, and bottle or other objects may break or leave fragments on

personal belongings of suspects involved in various types of crimes.

Recovery of Evidence Samples:

Shoes and clothing of suspects or other objects contaminated with

glass should be wrapped in paper and submitted to the laboratory

for examination.

All glass found at hit-and-run scenes should be recovered. The

search should not be limited to the point of impact, since

headlight glass may be dropped off at some distance away as the

car leaves the crime scene. Glass from different locations should

be kept in different containers. All glass should be collected

because more than one type may be present. In addition, if just a

few representative samples are saved, individual pieces that could


57

be physically matched with glass remaining in the headlight shell

of the suspected vehicle may be overlooked.

Place small glass fragments in paper bindles, then in coin

envelopes, pillboxes, or film cans which can be marked and

completely sealed.

Place large glass fragments in boxes. Separate individual pieces

with cotton or tissue to prevent breakage and damaged edges

during shipment. Seal and mark the box containing them.

Standards for Comparison

Windows: If the broken window is small, send the whole

window or all glass remaining to the laboratory. If the window is

large, recover several samples from different areas of the

window. If the evidence glass is large enough for physically

matching the broken edges or comparing the fracture lines,

hackle marks, surface abrasions or contamination, the broken

window is necessary.

Auto Glass – Auto Headlights: All glass remaining in the shell

should be recovered if it is suspected that a new glass has been

installed, this should be removed and a careful examination made

for small chips remaining in the shell from the previous lens

which is broken. In such cases, also submit the new lens to the

laboratory.

Other Glass: When bottles or other glass objects are broken,

recover all remaining glass.

Headlights and Taillights of Motor Vehicles

As part of the investigation of vehicle accidents, it may be of

importance to determine whether or not a headlight or taillight

was illuminated at the time light was broken.

Recovery of the filaments is of primary importance. These are

quite small and their location may require a careful search. If

recovered, they should be placed in a paper bindle or a small pill

box sealed with tape. Whether or not the large filaments are

located, all remaining parts of the lamp socket, glass, envelope or

sealed beam headlight unit should be wrapped in paper and saved

for laboratory study.


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Paints

Paint evidence is frequently encountered in hit-and-run cases, on tools

used by burglars and occasionally in other types of cases.

Hit and Run Cases

Paint may be transferred to clothing of pedestrian victims.

Examine all areas, with particular attention being paid to areas of

showing pressure glaze, tears or other contact which may be

marked and sealed. Sealed tape may be used to seal the bindle,

but such containers should never be stapled.

Glass vials or other suitable containers are used only as a last

resort.

Never place paint directly into envelopes unless large pieces are

enclosed. Most envelopes have unsealed cracks in the corners and

loss or contamination can occur.

Flammable Fluids

The search for flammable fluids in arson cases should include a

thorough examination of the entire fire scene. This should extend to

areas where burning may not occur, since flammable fluids may have

been placed in other locations where ignition failed.

Traces of flammable fluid may be found in cans at the fire scene in

arson cases, mattresses, rugs, upholstery, wallboard and other objects at

the scene may also contain fluids, which can be separated and identified

in the laboratory, even though these objects are partially burned. Wood

upon which such fluids have been poured and ignited may still contain

detectable traces of the liquid, if the wood has not been completely

charred by the fire. Even where a large and hot fire has occurred, traces

of such liquid seeped into the ground through cracks in the floor or

flowed under base boards and sills.

While most flammable fluids, commonly used have characteristic

odours, some substances commonly available are almost odourless and

quite easily escape detection. These include some alcohols, deodorised

kerosene, charcoal lighter fluids.

If volatile liquids are found in open containers, pour a small

amount of this material into a clean glass vial with an airtight seal

so no loss will occur. Do not use any rubber-lined lids or plastic

containers.


59

Small samples of soil wood, cloth, paper, etc. should be placed in

small, clean metal cans and sealed immediately to prevent loss of

additional volatile components by evaporation.

Large pieces of wood, upholstery, wallboard and similar exhibits,

which will not fit in cans, should be placed in heat-sealed

KAPAK plastic. Be sure the laboratory has examined a sample

of the plastic from each other before using.

When the exhibits themselves can be marked, this should be

done. In all cases, the package or the container should be marked.

Samples of flammable fluids normally present at fire scenes

should also be submitted for comparison with any material

recovered from partially burned substance.


List and discuss the steps involved when a forensic investigator wants to

tender, hair, fibres and thread as evidence.

3.3 Firearms Evidence

Firearms

Never submit a loaded gun to the laboratory, unless it is delivered

in person. Unfired cartridges may be left in the magazine of a

weapon, provided the magazine is removed from the gun. A

firearm with the cartridge in the chamber should never be shipped

by any method, even if the weapon is not cocked or on safety.

Never clean the bore, chamber or cylinder before submitting a

firearm, and never attempt to fire the gun before it is examined in

the laboratory.

Never pick up a weapon by placing penal or other objects in the

end of the barrel.

Record serial number, make, model and calibre of the weapon,

and mark it in some inconspicuous manner that does not detract

from its value before sending it to the laboratory. Marking

firearms is important since duplicate serial numbers are

sometimes found on different guns of the same make and general

type. Do not confuse model numbers or patent numbers with

serial numbers.


60

Place weapons in strong cardboard or wooden boxes, well

packed, to prevent shifting of guns in transit.

Rifles or short guns should not be taken apart.

If blood or any other material, which may pertain to an

investigation, is present on the gun, place a clean paper around

the gun and seal it with tape to prevent movement of the gun and

loss of the sample during shipment.

Bullets

Never mark bullets.

Wrap recovered bullets in paper and seal in separate labelled

pillbox or envelopes.

Submit all evidence bullets recovered to the laboratory. A

conclusive identification may be possible on only one of several

bullets recovered even when they all appear to be in good

condition.

Do not attempt to clean recovered bullets before sending them to

the laboratory. Bullets recovered from a body should be air dried

and wrapped in paper. Washing may destroy trace evidence.

Cartridge Cases

Wrap recovered cartridge cases in and seal in separate labelled

pillboxes or envelopes.

Fired shotgun shells may be marked either on the inside or

outside of the paper or plastic portion of the shell.

If an examination is required to determine the point of a shot

shell, or where the cartridge case was fired by a specific weapon,

submit the weapon and all recovered identified ammunition.

Submit all evidence cartridge cases or shotgun shells recovered to

the laboratory. Some cases contain more identifying details than

do others.

Wrap each cartridge in paper to prevent damaging the breech

clock, firing pin or other markings by contact with other cartridge

cases. Place wrapped cartridge cases in envelopes or pillboxes.

Label and seal container.

Ammunition

Always attempt to recover unused ammunition for comparison

purposes when firearms are obtained as evidence. If not in the

weapon itself, subjects often have additional ammunition in their


61

cars, clothing, houses or other locations. It may be important for

test purposes to duplicate exactly the make, type and age of the

ammunition used in the crime. Other ammunition in the suspect‟s

possession is identified to that fired during the crime.

Unfired ammunition should not be marked; the box with the

ammunition may be marked without marking every round in the

box.

Powder and Shot Pattern

Submit clothing or other materials showing evidence of

gunpowder residue or shot holes to the laboratory. The clothing

should be carefully wrapped in clean paper and folded as little as

possible to prevent dislodging powder particles. Photographs of

the pattern will not suffix, as in most instances, microscopic

examination and chemical tests must be conducted on the exhibits

themselves. Package each item separately.

For gunpowder or shot pattern tests to have significance, it is

essential to obtain ammunition identical in make, type and age to

that used at the crime scene. This duplicate ammunition is

necessary for firing in the weapon in question to determine the

distance of the muzzle of the weapon from the victim or other

object at the time the questioned bullet was fired.

Gunshot Residue

Gunshot residue is extremely fragile evidence and should be

collected as soon as possible (preferably within three hours of the

discharge of firearm). Use the laboratory supplied GSR kits and

carefully follow the directions. In the case of live subjects, if

more than six hours he may have washed his hands, it is unlikely

that meaningful results will be obtained. If a body is to be

sampled, whenever possible, gunshot residue collection should be

performed prior to moving the body. If this is not possible,

protect the hands with paper bags.


State precautions you, as a forensic scientist or investigator, will observe

in order to tender firearms and ammunition as evidence.


62

3.4 Tool Marks

You may ask yourself, what are tool marks and what is the nature of

evidence?

Tool marks are encountered most frequently in burglary cases but may

also be found in other types of crimes. The evidence consists of

striations or impressions left by tools on object at the crime scene and on

various types of tools found in the possession of suspects. In other cases,

it is possible by means of physical and other comparisons to prove that

parts of tools left at crime scenes were broken from damaged tools

found in the possession of suspects. In many cases, it is possible to

identify the specific tool which made the questioned marks by means of

a laboratory comparison of tools and marked objects. In some instances,

it is also possible to prove that marks of various types on tools were

produced by objects, which they contacted at crime scene.

Preservation and Packaging of Tools

All areas on recovered tools which contain transferred paint,

building material, or other contamination should be wrapped in

paper and packaged to prevent the prying blades or cutting edges,

from contacting any other surface or object.

Make No Test with Tools

Attempts should never be made to fit tools into questioned marks

or to make test marks prior to laboratory examination. If done,

the questioned mark or tool may be altered and this may make

any laboratory examination valueless. In addition, traces of

transferred paint or other stains on the tool may be lost or

additional material may be transferred to the tool.

Preservation of Tool Marks

Whenever possible, submit the whole object containing tool

marks to the laboratory instead of just removing the area

containing the mark. If this is not possible, carefully photograph

and sketch the area containing the mark.

Casts of tool marks can be made by a person who has had

considerable experience in this work. Poor casts are useless for

comparison purposes and some marks will be damaged if

improper methods are used.


63

Pack the object containing tool marks so that no alteration or

damage will occur during shipment. Small objects should be

wrapped with clean paper and placed in envelopes or boxes,

while important areas on larger object can be protected with

paper. Whole, large objects can be packed in cartons or crates, if

not delivered in person.


Define tool marks. Why is it necessary not to make any test with tools?

3.5 Paint Evidence

Paint evidence is frequently encountered in hit-and-run cases, on tools

used by burglars and occasionally in other types of cases.

Hit-and-Run Cases

Paint may be transferred to clothing of pedestrian victims.

Examine all areas, with particular attention being paid to areas

showing pressure glaze, tears or other contact.

If found, do not remove the paint, but mark the garment, carefully

wrap it by rolling it in paper and send it to the laboratory.

Such paint will at least show the colour of part of the responsible

car. It must be remembered, however, that many modern cars

have more than one colour and the paint transferred only

represents the colour of the particular area on the car that made

contact with the victims.

Rarely will an examination of paint transfer on clothing indicate

the make and model of the vehicle involved, since only portions

of the top oxidised layer on cars are usually transferred. In

addition, many vehicles are repainted using colours and type of

paint, which may be different from those specified by the

automobile manufacturer, which could cause confusion in the

search for the responsible car.

Sometimes whole chips of paint will be transferred to the

clothing. If these flakes contain several layers, and in particular if

they come from a repainted car, such evidence may have great

value when the responsible vehicle is located. Chips of paint may

also be found on the ground near the paint of impact in some

cases.


64

Obtain samples for comparison from all areas showing fresh

damage on suspected vehicles. This is very important since the

paint may be different in type or composition in different areas,

even if the colour is the same. If the paint can be flaked off by

bending the metal slightly, remove it in this manner. If not, scrap

or chip the paint off, using a clean knife blade. Carefully wipe the

blade before collecting each sample, collect all layers down to the

metal. Place each sample in a separate container.

Cross transfer of paint commonly occur in hit-and-run cases of

two or more vehicles. If loose paint chips are found, attempt to

remove and place them in a paper bindle. If, however, the

transfers are smeared on the surfaces, flake off chips or scrape

paint, as well as the top layer of paint originally on the car keep

all transfers recovered from different areas in separate containers.

Do not place samples directly into envelopes, placed into paper

bindles first.

When Cross transfers occur, always collect contaminated sample

from each vehicle from areas immediately adjacent to each

transfer collected. This is of great importance, since such

specimens permit the laboratory to distinguish between the

transferred paint and to the paint originally present on the vehicle.

Collection and preservation of paint specimens

Keep all samples collected in separate containers.

Small paper bindle can be used to collect and hold many paint

samples. A satisfactory method is to tie one side of the bindle to

the side of the vehicle, building, or safe just under the area where

the sample is to be collected. By holding the bindle open with one

hand, and using a clean knife blade, paint can be scraped loose

and into the bindle. With the sample on the bindle scotch tape can

be removed and the open end of the bindle folded several times.

It can be placed in a corn or mailing envelope.

Burglary Cases

Tools used to gain entry into building, safes or other places often

contain traces of paint, as well as other substances such as plastic,

safe insulation, etc. Care must be taken that such traces are not

lost. If such transfers may be present, wrap the end of the tool

containing the material in clean paper and seal with tape to

present loss. In no case should attempts be made to set the tool

into marks or impressions found. If this is done, transfers of paint


65

or material can occur and any traces found later will have no

significance as evidence.

Collect specimens of paint from all areas which the tools may

have contacted at the crime scene. These samples should include

all layers present. Do not destroy the tool mark in collecting the

paint. If possible cut out around the mark, and send it to the

laboratory.

The tool itself may contain paint or other coatings, tracings of

which may be left at the crime scene. A careful search should be

made for such matters, particularly in each tool mark.

A Critique on Forensic Science

Questions about forensic science, finger print evidence and the

assumption behind these disciplines have been brought to light in some

publications, the latest being an article in the New York post. The article

stated that “No one has proved even the basic assumption: That

everyone‟s fingerprint is unique” The article also stated that “Now such

assumptions are being questioned and with it may come a radical charge

in how forensic science is used by police departments and prosecutors.

Also it has been cited that on June 25, 2009 the supreme court issued a

5-to-4 decision in Melendez Vs Massachusetts stating that crime

laboratory reports may not be used against criminal defendants at trial

unless the analysts responsible, gives testimony and subject themselves

to cross-examination.

There is also an assertion that forensic evidence is not uniquely immune

from the risk of manipulation


Examine the role of paint evidence in detecting crime, in a crime scene

investigation

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that the knowledge of forensic science can be

applied in handling specimens to be used as evidence, and also methods

of preserving specimens in a crime scene investigation.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed forensic medical/applications of sampled

specimens to be used as evidence by looking at the following areas:


66

Blood sample evidence, hairs, fibres and threads evidence, firearm

evidence, tool marks, and paint evidence. Also a critique on forensic

science was highlighted.


1. Discuss the preservation of blood and seminal samples, to be

used as evidence.

2. List the steps to follow when handling firearms as evidence.

3. What are tool marks? How can they be preserved?


Joe, N and John, F (1999). Methods of Forensic Detection. University

Press of Kentucky.

Saks, M. D, & Faigman, D. L. (2008). “Failed Forensic, How Forensic

Science Lost Its Way and How It Might Yet Find It”. Annual

Review of Law and Social Science (4).

Santos, F. (2007). “Evidence from Bite Marks, It Turns Out, Is Not So

Elementary”. The New York Times.

Schafer, E. D. (2008). “Ancient Science and Forensics”, in Ayn Embar-

Seddon, Allan D. Pass (eds) Forensic Science.

Solomon, J. (2007). “FBI‟s Forensic Test Full of Holes”. The

Washington Post.


67

MODULE 2 POLICE SCIENCE

Unit 1 Criminology

Unit 2 Community Policing

Unit 3 Penology

Unit 4 Criminal Justice System

Unit 5 Jurisprudence

UNIT 1 CRIMINOLOGY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Crime/Criminology

3.2 Development of Criminology

3.3 Goals of Criminology

3.4 Theories of Crime

3.5 Schools of Thought

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

What is police science? Police science is often an ambiguous term that

denotes the studies and research which directly or indirectly deal with

police work. Studies and research in criminology, forensic science,

jurisprudence, community policing, criminal justice, correctional

administration and penology all come under this umbrella term „police

science‟. The issues that will be discussed in this unit will introduce you

to the meaning of crime and criminology, development of criminology,

theories of crime and schools of thought of criminology.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


define the concepts of crime and criminology

outline the development of criminology

mention the goals of criminology

discuss the theories of crime

assess the effects of crime in the society


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compare the schools of thought on crime and criminology

state the various types/causes of crime.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Crime and Criminology

This section introduces you to the definition of crime and the concept of

criminology.

Crime is the breach of rules or laws for which some governing authority

(via mechanisms) such as legal systems) can ultimately prescribe a

conviction. Individual human societies may each define crime and

crimes differently. While every crime violates the law, not every

violation of the law counts as a crime, for example: breaches of contract

and of other law may rank as “offences” or as infractions. When

informed relationships and sanctions prove insufficient to establish and

maintain a desired social order, a government or a sovereign state may

impose more formalised or stricter systems of social control. With

institutional and legal machinery at their disposal, agents of the state can

compel populations to conform to codes, and can opt to punish or to

attempt to reform those who do not conform.

A normative definition views crime as deviant behaviour that violates

prevailing norms – cultural standards prescribing how human ought to

behave normally. This approach considers the complex realities

surrounding the concept of crime and seeks to understand how changing

social, political, psychological and economic conditions may affect

changing definitions of crime and the form of the legal, law-enforcement

and penal responses made by society.

These structural realities remain fluid and often contentious. For

example, as culture change and political environment shift, societies

may criminalise or decriminalise certain behaviours, which directly

affect the statistical crime rates, influence the allocation of resources for

the enforcement of laws, and (re) influence the general public opinion.

Authorities employ various mechanisms to regulate (encouraging or

discouraging) certain behaviours in general. Governing or administering

agencies may for example, codify rules into laws, police citizens and

visitors to ensure that they comply with those laws, and implement other

policies and practices designed to prevent crime. In addition, authorities

provide remedies and sanctions, and collectively these constitute a

criminal justice system. Legal sanctions vary widely in their severity;

they may include incarceration aimed at reforming the convict. Some


69

jurisdictions have penal codes written to inflict permanent harsh

punishments, legal mutilation, capital punishment or life without parole.

The label “crime” and the accompanying social stigma normally confine

their scope to those activities seen as injurious to the general population

or to the state, including some that cause serious loss or damage to

individuals.

Types of Crime

Religion and Crime: Different religious traditions may promote distinct

norms of behaviour, and these in turn may clash or harmonise with the

perceived interests of a state.

Socially accepted or imposed religious morality has influenced secular

jurisdictions on issues that may otherwise concern only an individual‟s

conscience. Activities sometimes criminalised on religious grounds

include, alcohol-consumption (prohibition), abortion and still-cell

research. In various historical and present-day societies institutionalised

religions have established systems of earthly justice which punish

crimes against the divine will and against specific devotional,

organisational and other rules under specific codes, such as Islamic

(Sharia) or Roman Catholic (canon law).

Military Jurisdictions and States of Emergency: In the military sphere,

authorities can prosecute both regular crimes and specific acts (such as

mutiny or desertion) under martial law codes that either supplant or

extend civil codes in times of war.

Many constitutions contain provisions to curtail freedoms and

criminalise otherwise tolerated behaviours under a state of emergency in

the event of war, natural disaster or civil unrest. Undesired activities at

such times may include assembly in the streets, violations of curfew or

possession of firearms.

Employer Crime: Two common types of employee crime exist:

Embezzlement and sabotage. The complexity and anonymity of

computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their

operations. The victims of the most costly scams include banks,

brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial

institutions. Some places of employment have developed measures in an

attempt to combat and prevent employee crime.

Criminology

Criminology (from Latin crimen, “accusation”, and Greek – logia) is the

scientific study of the nature, extent, causes and control of criminal


70

behaviour in both the individual and in society. Criminology is an

interdisciplinary field in the behavioural sciences, drawing especially

upon the research of sociologists (particularly in the sociology of

deviance) and psychologists as well as on writings in law. Areas of

research in criminology include forms, causes and consequences of

crime as well as social and governmental regulations and reaction to

crime. For studying the distribution and causes of crime, criminology

mainly relies upon quantitative methods. The term criminology was

coined in 1885 by Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo as

criminologia. Around the same time, but later, French anthropologist

Paul Topinard used the analogous French term “Criminologie”.

Criminologists attempt to build theories that explain why crimes occur

and test those theories by observing behaviour. Criminological theories

help shape society‟s response to crime both in terms of preventing

criminal behaviour and responding to it after it occurs.


Define the term police science. Differentiate between crime and

criminology.

3.2 Development of Criminology

How does criminology evolved?

The discipline of criminology has evolved in three phases beginning in

the 18th

century. Although crime and criminals have been around for as

long as societies have existed, the systematic study of these phenomena

did not begin until the late 1700s. Prior to that time, most explanations

of crime equated it with sin – the violation of sacred obligation. When

scholars first distinguished crime from sin, they made possible

explanations of criminal behaviour that were not theological (religious).

This in turn, allowed for the dispassionate, scientific study of why crime

occurs. The development of this study is now known as the era of

classical criminology.

The second phase, which began in the 19th

century, is referred to as

modern criminology. During this era, criminology distinguished itself as

a subspecialty within the emerging discipline of psychology, sociology,

and economics. Scholars formed criminological societies and founded

criminology journals. Criminologists conducted empirical tests

(observations or experiments) of their theories, rather than relying solely

on speculation, and consequently developed a wide range of theories.


71

The third phase, beginning in the second half of the 20th

century, may

best be called independent criminology. During this period, criminology

began to assert its independence from the traditional disciplines that

spawned it. In Western Europe, the USA and the Canada, criminologists

expanded their professional associations and published an increasing

number of journals. A number of universities developed graduate

programmes in criminology. Criminological theories have become more

multidisciplinary (spanning various fields of study) because independent

criminologists seek to understand crime itself rather than study crime as

one aspect of an overall sociological or psychological theory.


Discuss the evolution of modern criminology.

3.3 Goals of Criminology

What are the goals of criminology as an area of specialty to the

society?

The classical criminologists of the 18th

century were primarily

concerned with ending brutality and inequality against criminals by

enforcing limitations on government power. They believed that criminal

behaviour was the product of the offender‟s rational choice and that

crime could be prevented through the speedy and certain application of

penalties that attached painful and unattractive consequences to such

behaviour. Beginning in the era of modern criminology, the emphasis of

the discipline shifted. Criminologists sought to develop theories to

explain why crime occurred. They no longer relied as strongly on

explanations of crime based on the offender‟s rational choice. Instead,

they attributed criminal behaviour to the motivation to commit crime ad

the social context that allows people to pursue criminal inclinations.

Contemporary scholars believe that criminal motivation is the product of

one or more of a complex set of factors. These factors are so numerous

and so varied that no system of classification can describe the current

theories of crime causation with complete accuracy. However, broadly

speaking, these theories may be considered in one of the following three

categories:

(1) Theories attributing criminal behaviour to biological or

congenital (inherited) defects of the offender,

(2) Theories relating crime to psychological factors or mental

disorders, and

(3) Theories relating crime to environmental or social factors. Many

criminologists have suggested theories of multiple causation

involving factors from more than one of these categories.


72


Outline the goals of Criminology.

3.4 Theories of Crime

Biological Theories of Crime: The idea that crime is caused by

biological effects or deficiencies in the offender was not new when

advanced by Lombroso, but it received its most emphatic statement in

the work of the Italian School. Goring, a British Criminologist,

concluded that Lombroso‟s findings had no adequate scientific support

and that statistical evidence disproved the existence of a biological

criminal type. Although most investigators found Goring‟s work

persuasive, research continued into the possible relevance of inherited

deficiencies.

During the first half of the 20th

century as the social sciences developed,

biological theories of crime causation became less popular. The public

became wary of biological typology after the National Socialist (Nazi)

leaders in Germany relied on theories of racial superiority and inferiority

to justify mass murder during World War II (1939 – 1945). However,

with the passage of time and the development of sophisticated

technologies in the field of biological sciences, biological theories of

criminal behaviour have reappeared.

Current theories rely on specific features of genes or the brain, rather

than appearance, as physical indicators of a property toward crime. They

are less deterministic than earlier biological theories, substantial

influence of social factors in addition to or in interaction with

biologically caused predisposition to crime.

Two different types of biological or, more accurately, biological theories

exist; one set of theories emphasises genetic factors that is, the traits

transmitted from parents to offspring. Other studies emphasise

irregularities in neurological development that might undermine certain

self controls that inhibit criminality. These irregularities may occur in

the structure of the brain or in the chemical composition of the brain.

Genetic Factors: The evidence for an association between genetic

makeup and criminality comes from empirical studies of identical twins

(who have the same genetic make-up) and adopted children who are

genetically dissimilar from other family members). These studies

attempt to show that biological inheritance affects the tendency toward

criminality independently, of or in conjunction with the social

environment.


73

Studies of the interrelationship between the criminal tendencies of

parents and children have found that children whose parents are

involved in crime are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour than

children whose parents were law abiding. This finding is unsurprising

due to a number of sociological factors that influence the children.

Studies of twins provide somewhat more persuasive evidence.

Researchers have compared identical twins to fraternal twins (who share

no more genes than siblings who are not twins). In most studies of

twins, the degree of consistency between the criminality of identical

twins is approximately twice that of fraternal twins. While this evidence

is more persuasive than family studies, it is still possible that identical

twins may be treated more similarly on social environments than

fraternal twins.

Studies of identical and fraternal twins reared apart would provide more

accurate indications of the relative contribution of biology and

socialisation. However, such situations are very rare and only scattered

case studies of this type have been done.

Finally, comparisons have been made between the criminal involvement

of parents and their adopted children and that of the children‟s biological

parents. In most cases criminality of the biological parent is a better

predictor of the child‟s criminal involvement than the criminality of the

adoptive parents. The evidence for a link between genetic makeup and a

predisposition to criminality remains inconclusive. New technologies to

map (DNA) deoxyribonucleic acid may identify specific gene patterns

that are associated with predispositions towards criminal behaviour.

Neurological Abnormalities: The second major type of biological

theory of criminality emphasises the role of neurological factors. Studies

in this area focus on abnormalities in brain functioning that reduce

inhibitions toward aggression.

Abnormalities affecting aggression may occur in the structure of the

brain. Researchers have discovered a positive relationship between

aggressive behaviour – including violent crime – and impairment of the

frontal lobe of the brain‟s cerebrum.

Another type of the dysfunction that may be related to aggression is

chemical imbalances in the brain. Human thoughts, behaviour and

emotions depend upon the transmission of electrical impulses within the

central nervous systems. The gaps between cells in the nervous system

are called synapses and the chemicals that enable the flow of electrical

impulses across the synapses are called neurotransmitters. Scientists

believe that abnormally low levels of this neurotransmitters interrupt the

flow of electronic impulses, thereby short-circuiting emotions such as


74

sympathy or empathy that can inhibit aggressive behaviour. Researchers

have found a relationship between levels of specific neurotransmitters,

such as serotonin and certain antisocial behaviours, including violence.

The evidence concerning the relationship between neurological

functioning and criminal behaviour is mixed. For example, although

there is some indication of a link between low serotonin levels and

aggressive behaviour, it is largely restricted to specific populations, such

as alcoholics. Frontal-lob disorders may be the cause of aggressive

behaviour or conversely, they may result from injuries incurred as a

result of aggressive behaviour.

Psychological Theories of Crime: To account for criminal motivation

in people, criminologists have used various psychological theories that

attempt to explain human intellectual and emotional development. These

theories can be divided into three categories: (1) Moral Development

Theories, (2) Social Learning Theories, and (3) Personality Theories.

Moral development theories describe a sequence of developmental

stages that people pass through when acquiring the capacity to make

moral judgments. According to these theorists, this developmental

process may or may not be completed, and people who remain unable to

recognise right from wrong will be more likely to engage in

inappropriate, deviant or even criminal behaviour.

Social learning theories emphasise the process of learning and

internalising moral codes. Learning theorists note different patterns of

rewards and sanctions that affect this process. Personality theories

assume a set of enduring perceptions and predispositions (tendencies).

These theorists propose that certain predispositions or extroversion,

increase the chances of criminal behaviour. These predispositions are

sometimes discussed in terms of personality traits, such as

impulsiveness and stubbornness, or personality types, such as introvert

and extrovert. All other things being equal, people will consistently

display behaviours that they are predisposed towards. Accordingly,

some social scientists believe that certain predispositions or personality

types may be associated with criminal tendencies or activities.

Environmental and Social Theories of Crime: The most common

criminological theories attribute criminal motivation to environmental or

social factors rather than biological or psychological traits. These

theories may focus on social influences, crime or on economic factors.

a. Social Causes: Gabriel Tarde, a French Sociologist asserted that

the causes of crime are chiefly social. His basic theory on the

causes of crime was founded on laws of imitation. Tarde believed

that persons predisposed to crime are attracted to criminal activity


75

by the example of other criminals. He also felt that the particular

crimes committed and the methods of committing these crimes

are the products of imitation. The predisposition to crime, while

in part reflecting many factors, is explained principally by the

offender‟s social environment, particularly the environment of his

younger years.

b. Economic Causes: Studies concerning the influence of economic

factors on criminal behaviour have attempted to link economic

deprivation to increased motivation to commit crimes (especially

property crimes). Such studies assume that when economic

conditions worsen more people experience deprivation and turn

to crime to reduce that deprivation. These same theories have

been used to explain why people of lower socio-economic status

are disproportionately represented among known criminals.

Other studies attempt to relate the disproportionate involvement of poor

people in crime to the distribution of power in society. The assumption

in these studies is that criminal law is a tool used by the social group

with higher economic status to advance its class interests. Studies of the

relationship between unemployment and crime have yielded conflicting

results. Some studies indicate a negative relationship between

unemployment and crime – that is when unemployment decreases, crime

increases or vice versa.

Theories of Criminal Opportunity: Sociologists like Marcus Felson,

and others changed the focus of criminological theory from explaining

criminal motivation to explaining the occurrence of criminal events.

They argued that criminal motivation alone was not sufficient to cause

crime. In addition to motivation, the offender requires the opportunity to

pursue his or her inclinations. According to these opportunity theorists,

the physical and social environment of the offender and the victim (or

targets) encourage or limit criminal opportunity. They sought to identify

environmental factors that provided the opportunity to commit crime.

According to opportunity theory, the dangerousness of a particular

environment relates to four factors (1) the accessibility of the victim or

target, (2) the perceived attractiveness of the target, (3) the proximity to

numerous potential offenders, and (4) the absence of capable guardians.

The chance of a crime occurring is greatest in environments where

accessibility, attractiveness, and proximity are high and where

guardianship is low.


State and discuss the various theories of crime.


76

3.5 Schools of Thought on Criminology

What are the various views that relates to criminology and their effects

on the society.

In the mid-18th

century, criminology arose as social philosophers gave

thought to crime and concepts of law. Over time, several schools of

thought have developed.

Classical School: The classical school, which developed in the mid 18th

century, was based on utilitarian philosophy. Classical school

philosophers argued that (1) people have free will to chose how to act.

(2) Deterrence is based upon the notion of the human being as a

“hedonist” who seeks pleasure and avoids pain, and a rational calculator

weighing up the costs and benefits of the consequences of each action.

Thus, if ignored, the possibility of irrationality and unconscious thrives

as motivational factors. (3) Punishment of (sufficient severity) can deter

people from crime, as the costs (penalties) outweigh benefits, and that

severity of punishment should be proportionate to the crime. (4) The

more swift and certain the punishments, the more effective it is in

deterring criminal behaviour. The classical school of thought came

about at a time when major reform in penology occurred, with prisons

developed as a form of punishment.

Positivist School: The positivist school presumes that criminal

behaviour is caused by internal and external factors outside of the

individual‟s control. The scientific method was introduced and applied

to study human behaviour. Positivism can be broken up into three

segments which include biological, psychological and social positivism.

Italian School: Cesare Lombroso, an Italian prison doctor suggested

that physiological traits such as the measurements of one‟s chest bones

or hairline, or a cleft palate were indicative of criminal tendencies.

He asserted that criminals are a distinct physical and biological type. He

believes that a true criminal could be identified by observing certain

physical traits, such as lower jaw, asymmetric cranium, etc. these traits

according to him, did not cause criminal behaviour, but they revealed an

inherent propensity (inclination) to crime.

Lacassagne School: The Lacassagne School rejected

Lombroso‟s theory of “criminal importance of social factors.

Furthermore, Lacassagne criticised the lack of efficiency of

prisons. And insisted on social responsibilities toward crime and

on political voluntarism as a solution to crime, and thus


77

advocated harsh penalties for those criminals thought to be

unredeemable.

Sociological Positivism: Sociological positivism postulates that

societal factors such as poverty, low levels of education can

predispose people to crime. There is a relationship between crime

and sociological factors. It is found also that age, gender, poverty,

education, and alcohol consumption are important factors related

to crime.


Compare and contrast the various schools of thought on criminology.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have defined, and explained the terms crime and criminology. The

types of crime are also mentioned as religion and crime, military crimes

and employee crime. We also noted that criminology is the scientific

study of the nature, extent causes and control of criminal behaviour.

Goals of criminology were also mentioned and explained. Theories of

criminology were outlined as, Biological, Psychological, Environmental,

social, and theories of criminal opportunity were discussed. The various

schools of thought on criminology were listed as the classical school and

positivist school and were also discussed.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have dealt with the meaning of crime and criminology

by looking at the following aspects; definition, development of

criminology, goals, theories of crime and schools of thought.


1. Differentiate between crime and criminology.

2. What is Police Science?

3. Outline the various theories of crime and discuss on any one of

them.


78


Adler, J. R (Ed). (2004). Forensic Psychology: Concepts, Debates and

Practice. Cullompton Willan.

Beirne, Piers (1987). “Adoplphe Quetelet and the Origins of Positivist

Criminology”. American Journal of Sociology 95 (5) Pp 1140-

1169.

Blackburn, E. (1996). What is Forensic Psychology? Legal and

Criminology Psychology. Vol 1 Part I.

Bursik, Jr. & Robert J. (1988). “Social Disorganisation and Theories of

Crime and Delinquency: Problems and Prospects”. Criminology

26 P 519 – 539.

Clarke, R. U. (1992). Situational Crime Prevention. Harrow and Heston

Pub.

Deflem, M. (2006). Sociological Theory and Crimonological Research:

Views from Europe and the United States. Elsevier. Pub.

Felson, Marcus (1994). Crime and Everyday Life. Pine Forge Pub.

Garland, D. (2002). “Of Crimes and Criminals” in Maguire, Mike, Rod

Morgan. The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 3rd

Edition. Oxford University Press.

Merton, R. (1987). Social Theory and Social Structure. Free Press.

Johnson, H. & Barak, G. (1983). Comparative Criminology. Sage Pub.


79

UNIT 2 COMMUNITY POLICING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Community Policing

3.2 Goals & Philosophy of Community Policing

3.3 Characteristics & Types of Community Policing

3.4 Principles & Strategies of Community Policing

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

How is Community Policing different from the conventional police?

Community policing is the newest terminology for law enforcement. It

is a federally funded initiative. Built on the premise that fear of crime, is

a way to foster better relations between the police and community.

Community policing became a popular term and was instituted in the

1990‟s. This philosophy was seen as a way of reducing future crime

problems. The various issues that will be examined in this unit include

the following; Meaning of Community Policing, Goals and Philosophy

of Community Policing, Characteristics and Types of Community

Policing and finally Principles and Strategies of Community Policing.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

define community policing

differentiate community policing from the conventional police

discuss the types of community policing

list the goals of community policing

state the principles of community policing

describe the characteristics of community policing.


80

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Community Policing

Community policing or neighbourhood policing is a policing strategy

and philosophy based on the notion that community interaction and

support can help control crime and reduce fear, with community

members helping to identity suspects, detain vandals and bring problems

to the attention of police.

Community policing is a philosophy that promotes organisational

strategies, which support the systematic use of partnerships and

problem-solving techniques, to proactively address the immediate

conditions that give rise to public safety issues such as crime, social

disorder, and fear of crime.

One of the major objectives of community policing efforts is to establish

an active partnership between the police and the community that can

analyse problems and design and help implement solutions and services

that are truly community-based.

This requires the police to make a conscious effort to create an

atmosphere in which community partners actively and willingly co-

operate with the police.

Community policing consists of three key components:

Community Partnerships: Collaborative partnerships between

the law enforcement agency and the individuals and organisations

they serve to develop solutions to problems and increase trust in

police. These partnerships are encouraged with other government

agencies, community members and groups, human and social

service providers, private businesses, and the media.

Organisation Transformation: The alignment of a law

enforcement agency, organisational management practices,

structure, personnel and information systems seems to support

community partnerships and proactive problem solving. Police

departments engaged in effective community policing seek to

transform their organisational culture, leadership and

management structure, labour relations, strategies, planning

process, how they evaluate performance, the transparency of their

operations, the geographic assignments of officers, the alignment

of their fiscal resources, recruitment and hiring practices, training

and information gathering systems. The objective of these

changes is to create an organisational infrastructure that can best


81

support proactive operations intended to prevent crime.

Traditional law enforcement practices are reactive and emphasise

process such as response times, arrest rates, and other rote

responses to crime. Community policing emphasises solving

community problems and addressing the factors that contribute to

crime instead of how the police respond to crime.

Problem Solving: The process of engaging in the proactive and

systematic examination of identified problems to develop and

rigorously evaluate effective responses. Community policing

requires agency to become proficient in what is known as the

SARA model of problem solving. Scanning, identifying, and

prioritising problems. Analysis: Researching what is known about

the problem response: Developing solutions to bring about lasting

reductions in the number and extent of problems Assessment:

evaluating the success of the response.

Community policing shifts the focus of police by placing equal

emphasis on crime control, order maintenance, and service

provision. In addition, it asks police to work with citizens and with

other government agencies in efforts to increase overall quality of

life. Thus, the model moves away from police-dominated crime

control through reactive responses to calls for service community

policing models move toward active problem solving centred on

the underlying conditions that give rise to crime and disorder and

on fostering partnerships between the police and the community.

There is no one commonly recognised definition of community policing.

Here we offer one possible definition that we will then apply to

preventing and responding to crime. Community policing can be defined

as a philosophy that, through the delivery of police services, focuses on

crime and social disorder; the philosophy includes aspects of traditional

law enforcement as well as prevention, problem-solving tactics, and

partnerships. As a fundamental shift from traditional, reactive policing,

community policing stresses the prevention of crime. Community

policing requires police and citizens to join as partners in identifying and

effectively addressing the underlying conditions that give rise to crime

and disorder. Community policing can be roughly divided into three

inter-related elements as discussed above; Organisational change,

problem solving, and external partnerships.


How is Community Policing different from the traditional policing?


82

3.2 Goals & Philosophy of Community Policing

Having attempted to discuss the meaning of community policing and

explaining its major differences from the traditional policing, the next

issue to deal with is, what are the goals and philosophy of community

policing.

As earlier stated, community policing is both a philosophy and an

organisational strategy that allows police and community residents to

work closely together in new ways to solve the problems of crime, fear

of crime, physical and social disorders, and neighbourhood decay.

Goals of Community Policing

The following are the goals of community policing:

Maintaining or increase public confidence in the police

department

Decrease fear of crime

Listen to and address citizen concerns

Bring community resources together to solve problems

Impact specific crime problems

Reduce repetitive calls for service

Educate the public about its police department.

Community policing is in essence, collaboration between the police and

the community that identifies and solves community problems with the

police no longer the sole guardians of law and order, all members of the

community become active allies in the effort to enhance the safety and

quality of neighbourhood.

Community policing has far-reaching implications. The expanded

outlook on crime control and prevention, the new emphasis on making

community members active participants in the process of problem

solving, and the patrol officers pivotal role in community policing

require profound changes within the police organisation.

We want our community members to voice their concerns, contribute

advice and take action to address these concerns. Creating a constructive

partnership will require the energy, creativity, understanding, and

patience of all involved.

The goal of community policing is to reduce crime and disorder by

carefully examining the problems in neighbourhoods and then applying

appropriate problem-solving remedies.


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Operationally, the town or city could be divided into 6 “districts”. Each

of these districts will then be assigned its own community policing

officer who is given the responsibility of that district. Main police

officers are the primary providers of police services and have the most

extensive contact with community members. Although the officers

assigned to each district will be available to offer advice on security and

helping to organise and support neighbourhood watch groups. They will

let you know what district you are in and begin to develop positive

contact in bringing the police closer to the community. They will leave

their business card so that you will know who to contact to help you

solve any non-emergency issues that occur. Our goal is for each officer

to get to know our citizens on a first name basis.

They could be community district meetings to afford community

members an opportunity to air concerns and find ways to address them.

We want to establish and maintain mutual trust with the citizens.

The Community Policing Philosophy

A great deal of the responsibility for preparing for and responding to

crime rests with local police departments. Community policing presents

an over reaching philosophical orientation that agencies can use to better

deal with the threat and fear that crime may crate. The community

policing philosophy can be roughly divided into three interrelated

elements: Organisational change, problem solving, and external

partnerships.

The philosophy of community policing is important for police in

preparing for possible crime acts and in responding to the fear they may

create. Community policing involves broadening the nature and number

of police functions compared to traditional policing models. It

emphasises organisational change, active problem solving, and external

partnerships to address issues that concern both the police and citizens.

However, the community policing philosophy is well positioned to play

a central role in local law enforcement responses to crime.

Organisational Change: Ideally, community policing should be

adopted organisation-wide and be reflected through department

participation at all levels as well as through the organisation‟s mission,

goals, objectives, performance evaluations, hiring and promotion

practices, training, and all other systems that define organisational

culture and activities. One of the most important specific aspects of

organisational change relevant to community policing is a flattened

organisational structure. Community policing departments are often less

hierarchical, supporting management‟s dispersion of decision making

authority to the lowest organisational level and holding those individuals


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accountable for the outcomes. A second important element of

organisational change is fixed geographic responsibility. Officers or

deputies are assigned to fixed geographic areas for extended periods,

based on social and cultural considerations and on the assumption that

this fosters better communication with residents, increase the police

officers ability to understand, prevent and respond to community

problems, and enhances accountability to the citizens in that area.

Problem Solving: Community policing department also actively

address the underlying conditions that give rise to or facilitate crime or

disorder in an effort to prevent future problems by identifying and

analyzing problems and by developing tailored strategies that may

include traditional and nontraditional responses that focus on deterring

offenders, protecting likely victims, and making locations less

conducive to crime and disorder. Departments should use a wide array

of relevant traditional and nontraditional data sources to better

understand and evaluate the nature of problems and work in conjunction

with the community and other organisations to develop effective long

term solutions. Problem solving often manifests itself in the “scanning,

analysis, response and assessment” problem solving model. Department

first identify relevant or perceived crime problems (scanning), determine

the nature and underlying conditions that give rise to those problems

(analysis), craft and implement interventions that are linked to that

analysis (response), and evaluate its effectiveness (assessment). The

process is understood as continually involving feedback among the

components. For instance, through in-depth analysis, agencies may

come to define problems differently, effectively returning to the

scanning phase. Likewise, an assessment may determine that a response

was ineffective and that the problem requires additional analysis.

External Partnerships: Under a community policing philosophy,

departments partner with other government, social service, and

community agencies in attempts to identify and address persistent

problems in the community. They form external partnerships in

recognition of others that can be leveraged when addressing community

problems. The police are only one of a host of local government

agencies responsible to community problems.

Under community policing, coordination with other government

agencies in developing comprehensive and effective solutions is

essential. In addition, the police are encouraged to develop working

partnerships with civic and community groups to accurately survey

community needs and priorities and to use the public as a resource in

problem-solving and in developing and implementing interventions.


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Discuss the philosophy behind the community policy model.

3.3 Characteristics and Types of Community Policing

What are the distinguishing features of community policing and types?

Community policing is service oriented, promoting the concept of

community as client, and police as provider. The needs of the client

become the goals of the provider in delivering professional, client-

central service that is effective, efficient, and accountable.

Community policing is a partnership whose objective is to determine

community needs and policing priorities, and to promote police

accountability and effectiveness. Consultation with the community,

through community police forums is of critical importance. But

community policing forums are not the only means of consultation;

other channels may also be developed and should include the

participation of all stakeholders. Surveys, interviews, workshops,

community profiles, and other methods can help identify community

needs.

Community policing is effective at problem solving. The actual and

potential causes of crime and conflict within the community can be

jointly identified and analysed. With the results that guiding measures

can be developed that can address the problems in the short, medium

and long-term. Problem solving also involves conflict resolution and

other creative methods to address service delivery and police-

community relations problems.

Community policing is an agent of empowerment, creating a sense of

joint responsibility and a joint capacity for addressing issues of concern

to the campus community and police personnel. This will require

training about community policing so everyone has a constructive role.

In community policing, accountability is achieved by making the

provider responsible to the client; creating mechanisms through which

the police are accountable for addressing the needs and concerns of the

community they serve.

Types of Community Policing: There are basically two major types of

community policing models, namely:

Traditional Policing: Within a traditional policing model, the

police officer would respond when a call comes in, that a crime

has occurred. The officer would then take a report and hand the


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investigation up to a detective. At that point, the officer will then

go back to his patrol car and wait for another call to come in that

a crime had occurred.

The officer has little interaction with the citizens within a community

and can end up responding to crimes at various points in the city. The

officer hardly knows anyone in the area where he is responding nor do

the citizens really know the officers. Also under this type of policing,

there is nothing in place to try to prevent crime from occurring. It is just

a supply and demand sort of policing system. You have seen the police

shows where a crime took place and no witnesses are talking well in this

police shows, this is the type of policing model that is being used.

Within this model there is an emphasis on trying to prevent crime from

happening. This policing model has detectives watching for patterns in

crimes to help understand when and how crimes are being committed.

Once they have a pattern, they will search for ways in which to help

prevent crimes from continuing to happen in those areas.

Community Oriented Policing: Within this model, the officers

will take a more community involvement stance. No longer does

an officer sit in his patrol car and wait for a call that a crime has

happened. Within this type of policing, the officers will have a

zone in which to work in during their shifts. This is the area and

they will work to get to know the citizens of the community and

help out in any way they can. The officers will make their

presence known and also rely on community citizens to report

any suspicious behaviour or tips on criminals in the area.

This method takes a lot of trust on the officer‟s part as well as the

citizen‟s part. They will have to trust each other and know what each

other is looking out for. Many citizens have attested to several agencies

that, when they know the officers they can start to view them as part of

their families and are willing to look out for “their officers” and help

keep them safe.


List the main features of community policing and describe any of the

types or models.


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3.4 Principles and Strategies of Community Policing

What are the strategies to be adopted for effective community policing?

Principles

Community policing principles inform, guide, and sustain all policing

activities.

Community Policing:

Respects and protects human rights

Appreciations, respects, and accommodates the languages,

cultures, and values of our diverse community

Creates understanding and trust between the police, the

community, and other constituencies

Shares responsibility and decision making

Solves problems in consultation with the community, and

consistently strives to improve responsiveness and to identify and

prioritise community needs.

Educates police personnel and members of the community to

enable constructive participation in addressing the problems of

safety and security

Resolves conflict between and within community groups in a

manner that enhances peace and stability.

Enhances accountability of the police to the community they

serve.

Sustains commitment from both the police and the community to

safety and security.

According to community policing by Trojanowicz (1990), in

contemporary perspective, there are ten principles of community

policing.

1. Philosophy and Organisational Strategy – People deserve input

into the police process in exchange for their participation and

support. New, creative ideas should be explored to address

neighbourhood concerns beyond individual crimes.

2. Commitment to Community Empowerment – The philosophy

of power sharing must be translated from philosophy to practice.

There will be more autonomy for line officers and more

expectation of citizen involvement in the problems solving

process.


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3. Decentralised and Personalised Policing – There must be a new

breed of line officers who serves as a link between police and the

community. These officers must be in the community, and not in

their patrol cars or face to face contact in a defined area.

4. This Immediate and Long-Term Practice of Problem Solving

has continued and sustained contact with the law abiding people

of the community which helps them to solve and plan together.

5. Ethics, Legality, Responsibility and Trust: There will be a new

“contract” between police and citizens to overcome widespread

apathy while restraining vigilantism. This relationship is based on

mutual trust and respect. It will require citizens to work to solve

minor concerns while freeing the police to work with the

community to develop solutions.

6. Expanding the Police Mandate – The role of police moves from

reactive to proactive while they will still respond to crises and

incidences of crime, they will work to make changes today that

will have an impact on the quality of life for tomorrow within the

community.

7. Helping those with Special Needs – Police will explore new

ways to protect those who are most vulnerable - juveniles,

elderly, minorities, poor, disabled, and homeless.

8. Grass-Roots Creativity and Support – Never underestimate the

possibilities of a small group of dedicated people. Technology is

a tool, but human beings, talking and working together to solve a

problem, have the potential to do great things.

9. Internal Change - Community policing requires a commitment

to the approach that involves the community policing officer who

acts as the bridge between the community and the police force.

10. Building for the Future: Decentralisation, personalised police

service is the order of the day. Police cannot impose order and

they must work with the community to create it. This cannot be a

“flavour of the mouth”. It must be something that is initiated and

worked toward every day. It is a new philosophy and

organisational strategy for positive change.


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Strategies for Community Policing

Participation by all members of the police department in

community policing and problem solving initiatives.

Commitment from police service commission to develop new

skills through training that facilitates conflict resolution and

community involvement.

Encouragement for police officers to assume responsibility for

addressing safety and security problems within their areas of

responsibility; to promote initiative, creativity self-discipline and

motivated personnel.

Identification and mobilisation of community resources and

organisation to assist in addressing safety and security concern.

Development of a police department crime prevention officer to

help form a closer relationship with the community.

Establishment of a community service officer programme, to

promote and maintain safety awareness through community

outreach programmes.


What are the guiding principles of community policing. Discuss

strategies for effective community policing.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that community policing is a policy and strategy

aimed at achieving more effective and efficient crime control, reduced

fear of crime, improved quality of life, improved police services and

police legitimacy, through a proactive reliance on community resources

that seeks to change crime causing conditions. There is a need for

greater accountability of police, greater public share in decision making,

and greater concern for civil right and liberties.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have dealt with the concept of community policing by

looking at the following aspects; meaning of community policing, goals,

and philosophy, characteristics and types, principles and strategies of

community policing.


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1. Differentiate between community policing and traditional

policing.

2. Discuss the main components of community policing.

3. What strategies will you adopt to improve on community

policing?


Gary, W. C. (1997). “Community Policing: Elements and Effects” in

Roger G. Dunham and Geoffrey P. Albert (eds) Critical Issues in

Policing. Waveland Press.

Herma, G. (1990). Problem – Oriented Policing. McGraw-Hill Nil.

James, Q. W. (1994). Varieties of Police Behaviour, Harvard University

Press Cambridge.

Matrhew, J. H. & Brain (1999). “Community Policing in Local Police

Department”. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report.

Steven, D. (1997). “Evaluating Community Policing: Quality Police

Service and Fear of Crime”, Policing: An international journal of

police strategies and management Pp 83 – 100. Vl 20 (1).

Trevor, B. (1994) “Confidence in the Police as Mediating Factor in the

Fear of Crime”. International Review of Victimology. Vol 3.

Trojanowicz, T. (1990). Community Policing: A Contemporary

perspective. Anderson Publishing Company.


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UNIT 3 PENOLOGY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Penology

3.2 Theories of Punishment

3.3 Prisons (Reform, Prisoner Abuse and Right)

3.4 Criminal Rehabilitation

3.5 Prison Management

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

Penology generally is a branch of criminology dealing with prison

management and the treatment of offenders, and it is an important aspect

of police science. Penological studies have sought to clarify the ethical

bases of punishment, along with the motives and purposes of society in

inflicting it, differences throughout history and between nations in penal

laws and procedures, and the social consequences of the policies in force

at a given time. Influential historical works includes Cesare Beccaria‟s

On Crimes and Punishments, Cesare Lombroso‟s Crime and Michael

Foucault‟s Discipline and Punishment. The various aspects that will be

examined in this unit include the following: Meaning of Penology,

Theories of punishment, Prison, including Prisoner Abuse, Prison

Reforms and Prisoner‟s Rights, Criminal Rehabilitation and Prison

Management.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

define the term penology

discuss the various theories of punishment

explain prisoner‟s right and abuse

describe the importance of criminal rehabilitation

identity the goals of prison management

justify the importance of prison reforms.


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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Penology

What is penology all about? Penology (from the Latin word “poena”,

punishment) is a section of criminology that deals with the philosophy

and practice of various societies in their attempts to repress criminal

activities, and satisfy public opinion via an appropriate treatment regime

for persons convicted of criminal offenses.

Penology is concerned with the effectiveness of those social processes

devised and adopted for the prevention of crime, via the repression or

inhibition of criminal intent via the fear of punishment. This study of

penology therefore deals with the treatment of prisoners and the

subsequent rehabilitation of convicted criminals. It also encompasses

aspects of probation (rehabilitation of offences in the community) as

well as penitentiary science relating to the secure detention of offenders

committed to secure institutions.

Penology concerns many topics and theories, including those concerning

prisons (prison reform, prison abuse, prisoner‟s rights, and recidivism),

as well as theories of the purposes of punishment (such as Deterrence,

Rehabilitation, Retribution and concerns itself mainly with criminal

rehabilitation and prison management. The word seldom applies to

theories and practices of punishment in less formal environments such

as parenting, school and workplace correctional measures.

Historical theories of punishment were based on the notion that fearful

consequences would discourage potential offenders. Example of the

principle can be found in the Draconian law of ancient Greece and the

bloody code which persisted in Renaissance England. When at various

times, capital punishment was prescribed for over 200 offenses.

Similarly, certain hundred offences under Sharia Hadith tradition may

incur fearful penalties.

Modern theories of the punishment and rehabilitation of offenders are

broadly based on ancient scriptural texts of the Christian Bible and the

Moslem Quran, which principles only reappeared in Europe some time

after the publication of a seminal pamphlet “On Crimes and

Punishment” published by Cesare Marquius of Beccaria in 1764. It is

based on the notion of proportionality. Previously (for example, under

England‟s Bloody Code) the penalty of theft had been the same

regardless of the value stolen; giving rise to English expression “it is as

well to be hanged for a sheep or a lamb”.


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Subsequent development of the ideas of Beccaria made a non-lethal

punishment more socially acceptable. Consequently, convicted prisoners

had to be re-integrated into society when their punishment was

complete. In Europe, and many westernised legal systems, criminal

punishments now tend to be in accordance with a popular theory once

expressed by Martin Luther King around 1958. Hates begets hate

violence begets violence; toughness begets a greater toughness, we must

meet the forces of hate with the power of love … our aim must never be

to defeat or humiliate the white man (e.g. our enemies) but to win his

friendship and understanding.

Penologist have consequently evolved occupational and psychological

education programmes for offenders detained in prisons, and a range of

community service and probation orders which entail guidance and after

care of the offender within the community.

The importance of inflicting some measure of punishment on those

persons who breach the law is however maintained in order to maintain

social order and to moderate public outrage which might provoke

appeals for cruel vengeance. Penalties can only be imposed by a

criminal court and include fines, damages, unpaid compensatory work

and mandatory training as well as physical detention.


Define the concept of penology and its evolution.

3.2 Theories of Punishment

What is punishment and the various theories of punishment?

Punishment is the practice of imposing something unpleasant or

aversive on a person or animal or property, usually in response to

disobedience, defiance, or behaviour deemed morally wrong by

individuals, government or religious principles. In common usage, the

word “punishment” might be described as “an authorised imposition of

deprivations – of freedom or privacy or other goods to which the person

otherwise has a right, or the imposition of special burdens – because the

person has been found guilty of some criminal violation, typically

(though not invariably) involving harm to the innocent.”

Punishments are applied for various purposes, most generally, to

encourage and enforce proper behaviour as defined by society or family.

Criminals are punished judicially, by fines, corporal punishment or

custodial sentences such as prison, detainees risk further punishment for

breaches of internal rules, children, pupils and other trainees may be

punished by their educators or instructors (mainly parents, guardians or


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teachers, tutors and coaches). Domestic and other servants used to be

punished by their masters. Employees can still be subjected to a

contractual form of fine or demotion. Most hierarchical organisations,

such as military and police forces, or even churches, still apply quite

rigid internal discipline, even with a judiciary system of their own (court

martial, canonical courts).

Punishment may also be applied on moral, especially religious grounds,

as in penance (which is voluntary) or imposed in a theocracy with a

religious police (as in a strict Islamic state like Iran or under the Taliban)

or (though not a true theocracy) by inquisition.

You will realise that the progress of civilisation has resulted in a change

in the theory and in the method of punishment. In primitive society,

punishment was left to the individuals wronged or their families, and

was vindictive or retributive. In quantity and quality it would bear no

special relation to the character or gravity of the offense. Gradually,

there would arise the idea of proportionate punishment of the

characteristic type, which is “an eye for an eye”. The second stage was

punishment by individuals under the control of the state or community.

The third stage, with the growth of law, the state took over this primitive

function and provided itself with the machinery of justice for the

maintenance of public justice. Henceforward, crimes are against the

state, and the exaction of punishment by the wronged individual is

illegal.

Governments have several theories to support the use of punishment to

maintain order in society. These theories of punishment can be divided

into two general philosophies: Utilitarian and Retributive. The utilitarian

theory of punishment seeks to punish offenders to discourage or “deter”

future wrongdoing. The retributive theory seeks to punish offenders

because they deserve to be punished.

Under the utilitarian philosophy or theory, laws should be used to

maximise the happiness of society. Because crime and punishment are

inconsistent with happiness, they should be kept to a minimum.

Utilitarians understand that a crime-free society does not exist, but the

endeavour to inflict only as much punishment as is required to prevent

future crimes. The utilitarian theory is “consequentialist” in nature. It

recognises that punishment has consequences for both the offender and

society and holds that the total good produced by the punishment should

exceed the total evil. In other words, punishment should not be

unlimited. One illustration of consequentialism in punishment is the

release of a prison inmate suffering from a debilitating illness. If the

prisoner‟s death is imminent, society is not served by his continued

confinement because he is no longer capable of committing crimes.


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Under the utilitarian theory or philosophy, laws that specify punishment

for criminal conduct should be designed to deter future criminal

conduct. Deterrence operates on a specific and a general level. General

deterrence means that the punishment should prevent other people from

committing criminal acts. The punishment serves as an example to the

rest of society, and it put others on notice that criminal behaviour will be

punished.

Specific deterrence means that the punishment should prevent the same

person from committing crimes. Specific deterrence works in two ways.

First, an offender may be put in jail or prison to physically prevent him

from committing another crime for a specified period. Second, this

incapacitation is designed to be so unpleasant that it will discourage the

offender from repeating his criminal behaviours.

The counterpart to the utilitarian theory of punishment is the retributive

theory. Under this theory, offenders are punished for criminal behaviour

they deserve punishment. Criminal behaviours upset the peaceful

balance of society, and punishment helps to restore the balance. The

retributive theory focuses on the crime itself as the reason for imposing

punishment. Where the utilitarian theory looks forward by basing

punishment on social benefits, the retributive theory looks backward at

the transgression as the basis for punishment.

According to the retributivist, human beings have free will and are

capable of making rational decisions. An offender who is insane or

otherwise incompetent should not be punished. However, a person who

makes a conscious choice to upset the balance of society should be

punished. There are different moral bases for retribution. To many

retributivists, punishment is justified as a form of vengeance.

Wrongdoers should be forced to suffer because they have forced others

to suffer. To other theorists, retribution against a wrongdoer is justified

to protect the legitimate rights of both society and the offender. Society

shows its respect for the free will of the wrongdoer through punishment.

Punishment shows respect for the wrongdoer because it allows an

offender to pay the debt to society and then return to society,

theoretically free of guilt and stigma.

The third theory of punishment is denunciation theory. Under this

theory, punishment should be an expression of societal condemnation.

The denunciation theory is a hybrid of utilitarianism and retribution. It is

utilitarian because the prospect of being publicly denounced serves as a

deterrent. Denunciation is likewise, retributive because it promotes the

idea that offenders deserve to be punished.


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Discuss the distinguishing features of retributive and utilitarian theories

of punishment.

3.3 Prisons (Reform, Prisoner’s Right and Abuse)

You may want to know what constitutes a prison, prisoner‟s abuse and

rights as well as prison reforms.

A prison (from old French prisoun) is a place in which people are

physically confined and usually, deprived of a range of personal

freedoms. Other terms are penitentiary, correctional facility and jail

(gaol). Prisons are conventionally institutions which form part of the

criminal justice system of a country, such that imprisonment or

incarceration is a legal penalty that may be imposed by the state for the

commission of a crime. A criminal suspect who has been charged with

criminal offenses may be held on remand in prison if he is denied or

unable to meet conditions of bail, or is unable or unwilling to post bail.

A criminal defendant may also be held in prison while awaiting trial or a

trial verdict, if found guilty, a defendant will be convicted and may

receive a custodial sentence requiring imprisonment.

As well as convicted or suspected criminals, prisons may be used for

internment of those of those not charged with a crime. Prisons may also

be used as a tool of political repression to detain political prisoners,

prisoners of conscience and “enemies of the state”, partially by

authoritarian regimes. In times of war or conflict, prisoners may also be

detained in prisons. A prison system is the organisational arrangement of

the provision and operation of prisons, and depending on their nature,

may involve a corrections system.

For most of history, imprisonment has not been a punishment in itself,

but rather a way to confine criminals until corporal or capital

punishment was administered. There are prisons used for detention in

Jerusalem in Old Testament times, Dungeons were used to hold

prisoners; those who were not killed or left to die there often became

gallery slaves or faced penal transformations. In other cases, debtors

were often thrown into debtor‟s prison, until they paid their jailers

enough money in exchange for a limited degree of freedom.

Only in the 19th

century beginning in Britain, did prisons as we know

them today become commonplace. The modern prisons system was born

in London, as a result of the views of Jeremy Bentham. The notion of

prisoners being incarcerated as part of their punishment and not simply

as a holding till trial or hanging was at the time revolutionary. The first


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“modern” prisons of the early 19th

century were sometimes known by

the term “penitentiary”. As the name suggests, the goal of these facilities

was that of penance by the prisoners, through a regime of strict

discipline, silent reflections and perhaps forced and deliberately

pointless labour.

Prison Reform

Prison reform is the attempt to improve conditions inside prisons aiming

at a more effective penal system. The processes include the following:

Rehabilitation/Reform/Correction

“Reform” here refers to reform of the individual, not the reform of the

penal system. The goal is “repair” the deficiencies in the individual and

return them as productive members of society. Education, work skills,

deferred gratification, treating others with respect, and self-discipline are

stressed. Younger criminals who have committed fewer and less severe

crimes are most likely to be successfully reformed. “Reform schools”

and “boot camps” are set up according to this model. One criticism of

this model is that criminals are rewarded with training and other items

which would not have been available to them had they not committed a

crime.

Removal from Society

The goal here is simply to keep criminals away from potential victims,

thus reducing the number of crimes they can commit. The criticism of

this model is that others increase the number and severity of crimes they

commit to make up for the “vacuum” left by the removed criminals. For

example, incarcerating a drug dealer will then result in an unmet

demand for drugs at that locale and an existing or new drug dealer will

then appear, to fill the void. This new drug dealer may have been

innocent of any crimes before this opportunity, or may have been guilty

of less serious crimes, such a being a lookout for the previous drug

dealers.

Restitution/Repayment

Here prisoners are forced to pay their “debt” to society. Unpaid or low

pay work is common in many prisons often to the benefit of the

community. In some countries prisons operate as labour camps. Critics

say that the repayment model gives government an economic incentive

to send more people to prison.


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Reduction in Immediate Cost

Government and prison officials also have the goal of minimising short

term cost. In wealthy societies, this calls for keeping prisoners placated

by providing them with things like television and conjugal visits.

Inexpensive measures like these prevent prison assaults and riots which

in turn allow the number of guards to be minimised. Providing the

quickest possible parole and/or release also reduces immediate costs to

the prison system (although this may very well increase long term costs

to the prison system and society due to recidivism).

In poor societies, which lack the resources to imprison criminals for

years, frequently use execution in place of imprisonment for severe

crimes. Less sever crimes such as theft might be dealt with by less

severe physical means.

Some of the goals of criminal justice are compatible with one another,

while others are in conflict in the history of prison reform, the harsh

treatment, torture and executions used for deterrence first came under

fire as a violation of human rights. The salvation goal and the methods

were later treated as violations of the individual‟s freedom of religion.

This led to further “reforms” aimed principally at reform/correction of

the individual, removal from society and reduction of immediate costs.

The perception that such reforms sometimes denied victims justice then

led to further changes.

Prisoner’s Rights

The movement for prisoner‟s rights is based on the principle that

prisoners, even though they are deprived of liberty, are still entitled to

basic human rights. Advocates for prisoner‟s rights argue that they are

often deprived of very basic human rights, with the cooperation of the

prison authorities. Alleged violations include:

Prison authorities turning a blind eye to assault or rape of

prisoners, failing to take sufficient steps to protect prisoners from

assault or rape, or even allegedly arranging for prisoners to be

assaulted or raped by other inmates as a form of punishment.

Providing insufficient treatment to serious medical conditions.

Refusing freedom of expression, to read materials, and

communicate (particularly in cases of foreign languages in

prisons).

Punishing prisoners who complain about conditions.


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Taking away prisoner‟s right to sue prison officials or

government for maltreatment, or to receive compensation for

injuries caused by the negligence of prison authorities.

Depriving inmates of freedom of religion.

Blockading inmate‟s rights to legal materials and access to the

courts.

Not properly feeding and clothing the prisoner.

Disenfranchising prisoners.

As a corollary of the above, the following list represents a part of a

prisoner‟s rights:

Right to be protected by authorities in the case of assault or rape.

Right to medical treatment.

Right to freedom of expression, reading materials and

communication.

Right to express concern with the prison‟s standard of living.

Right to a court of law with regards to prison authorities

Right to freedom of religion.

Right of access to a court of law.

Right to drink safe water and get treated the same as everyone

else.

Right to food and clothing.

Some of the prisoner‟s rights movements also advocate

Conjugal visitation

Education for inmates

Increasing the wages for workers who are employed with prisons.

Prisoner‟s rights are limited. For the most part, jail and prison inmates

may demand only a “minimal civilized measure of shelter”. Generally,

courts follow three basic principles when deciding whether to recognise

a particular right. First, an inmate necessarily gives up many rights and

privileges enjoyed by the rest of society. Second, an inmate does not

relinquish all constitutional rights upon placement in prison, and thirdly,

the constitutional rights retained by the inmates must be balanced

against the security concerns of the prison. The established rights of

prison inmates include FREEDOM OF SPEECH and RELIGION.


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Prisoner Abuse

Prisoner abuse is the maltreatment of persons while they are under arrest

or incarcerated. Prisoner abuse falls under this category:

Physical abuse: Needless beating, hitting or other corporal

punishment

Psychological abuse: Taunting, sleep deprivation, or other forms

of psychological abuse.

Sexual abuse: Forced intercourse, genital mutilation or other

forms of sexual abuse.

Other abuse: Refusal of essential medication, humiliation, etc.

Enhanced interrogation: Methods implemented in the war or

terror purportedly needed to extract information since other

techniques would not yield results.

Torture: Any act by which severe pain whether physical or

psychological is intentionally inflicted.


What constitutes Prisoner‟s Abuse? And how are the rights of Prison

Inmates Abused?

3.4 Criminal Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation means to restore to useful life, as through therapy and

education or to restore to good condition, operation or capacity. The

assumption of rehabilitation is that people are not permanently criminals

and that it is possible to restore a criminal to a useful life, to a life in

which they contribute to themselves and to society. A goal of

rehabilitation is to prevent habitual offending, also known as criminal

recidivism. Rather than removing the harm out of a criminal,

rehabilitation would seek, by means of education or therapy, to bring a

mind into an attitude which would be helpful to society, rather than

being harmful to society.

This theory of punishment is based on the notion that punishment is to

be inflicted on an offender so as to reform him/her, or rehabilitate

them so as make their reintegration into society easier. Punishments that

are in accordance with this theory are community service, probation

orders, and any form of punishment which entails any form of guidance

and aftercare towards the offender.

This theory is found on the belief that one cannot inflict a severe

punishment of imprisonment and expect the offender to be reformed and

to be able to re-integrate into society upon his release. Although the


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importance of inflicting punishment on those persons who breach the

law, so as maintain social order, is retained, the importance of

rehabilitation is also given priority. Humanitarians have, over the years,

supported rehabilitation as an alternative, even for capital punishment.

In criminal rehabilitation, prisoners are given opportunity to increase

their content knowledge base. This is essential as studies show that

many inmates do not have basic education. This would severely impede

their success of acquiring jobs, thus many had to turn to a life of crime.

Basic criminal rehabilitation programmes ensure that there is a standard

level of literacy amongst the inmates who sign up for the course.

Rehabilitation also ensures that inmates are socially well adjusted.

Psychological assessments are being administered to test for mental or

physical disabilities that led to incarceration in the first place. Should the

inmates be ready and willing to accept counseling and assessment, many

of them are able to return to society as relatively well-balanced

individuals. For drug addicts, this is a pertinent issue, as many of them

are struggling with additional problems. Counseling would help to

balance inner dynamics that led to the addiction, and possibly the

criminal behaviour that fuelled the addiction.

Criminal rehabilitation has many positive benefits and can impact the

lives of many inmates as well as their families; it can help with wider

social issues as well, such as reducing discrimination and stigma.

Measures for Criminal Rehabilitation

The first step in increasing the effectiveness of criminal rehabilitation is

education on two levels. One level is to educate the workforce involved

in the criminal justice system as ways to promote the system into being

a revolving door for better citizens instead of for habitual offenders.

Education is one of the ways in which this positive change is effected.

Education works in two levels to successfully rehabilitate the criminal

on a macro level, society as a whole is being educated to promote the

importance of keeping the laws as well as ensuring that there is less

discrimination against former criminals. This ensures that the propensity

for ex-convicts to return to a life of crime is less, as they are able to

secure jobs after their release. Education is also being offered within the

prison to allow the prisoners to upgrade and stay relevant to the

changing society outside the prison walls.

Part of the education programme in criminal rehabilitation would be to

help the prisoners increase their knowledge base. Many inmates do not

even have basic education; this limits their ability for success in the

working world. Basic criminal rehabilitation programmes would ensure


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that there is a standard module for literacy amongst the inmates who are

willing and able to learn.

The next step in a good criminal rehabilitation programme involves the

social adjustment level of the inmates. Each criminal could be assessed

as to any mental or physical disabilities and problems that contribute to

their incarceration. If appropriate counselling and behaviour

modification techniques could be utilised, many prisoners may be able

to shift back in to society in a more balanced manner.

Criminal rehabilitation is gaining popularity among many who are

forward thinking. Such forms of rehabilitation can help to reduce the

number of repeat offenders who return to jail after being unable to adapt

to life outside of jail. This can also help solve some of the more serious

cases, such as sexual offenders who may continue in their ways after

being released, preying on women or children. Criminal rehabilitation

can also help solve the problem of overcrowding in most prisons.


Examine the role of “rehabilitation” in repositioning a criminal.

3.5 Prison Management

In the changing world of today, the need for highly effective

management of prisons and other related institutions has never been

greater. The effective management of prisons, has been linked, both in

theory and practice to sustained economic development and is a major

vehicle through which to develop modern prison management systems

and principles. Government and prison services around the world are

undergoing processes of renewal and reform that pose new challenges

and opportunities in prison management. These same challenges and

opportunities demand new knowledge, skills and leadership abilities.

The shift in the focus of prison management, which leads to the move

from an input to an output orientation, a stress on quality prisoner-based

service and the increasing role of performance based management

systems, give rise to a new concept of responsible professionalism

within the prison. The following components are necessary in

developing a prison management system. This system should contain the

modules like nominal roll, case register, parole register, interview

requests, in-out register and an automated release diary generator.

Nominal Roll: The details of the prisoner and his/her demographic

details should be captured. A digital photo comprising different views of


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the prisoner and the list of articles surrendered by the prisoner during

nominal roll are to be recorded.

Case Register: All the details of the cases against the prisoner should be

captured. This must include the sentence details, remand/conviction

details, etc.

Automated Release Diary Generator: This report should display the

list of prisoners to be released on a day, the next day, the next week, the

next month or any given duration of time.

Parole Register: This module should track all prisoners on parole and

provide necessary reports on this data.

Interview Requests and In-Out Register: All interview requests by the

relatives of the prisoners need to be recorded and tracked. An in-out

register will track all prisoners and others who move in and out for

various reasons. This should include provisions for recording the

prisoners sent to courts for hearing.

Various Status Reports and demographical analysis reports are to be

generated.


Give an outline aimed at developing an efficient prison management

system.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have discussed that penology is a branch of criminology that deals

with prison management, treatment of offenders and also an important

aspect of police science. Punishments are applied for various purposes,

most generally to encourage and enforce proper behaviour as defined by

society or family. Also prison reform is the attempt to improve

conditions inside prisons aiming at a more effective penal system. We

also explained prisoner‟s rights and abuse. Prisoner‟s right is based on

the principle that prisoners, even though they are deprived of liberty, are

still entitled to basic human rights. While prisoner abuse is the

maltreatment of persons while they are under arrest or incarcerated.

Criminals are normally rehabilitated to ensure that inmates are socially

well adjusted.


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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed the concept of penology by looking at the

following aspects: Meaning, Theories of punishment, Prisons including

prison reforms, Prisoner‟s abuse and rights, criminal rehabilitation and

prisons management.


1. What is penology?

2. Discuss the various theories of punishment.

3. Differentiate between prisoner‟s rights and abuse.


Ackerman, B. A. (1980). Social Justice in the Liberal State. New

Haven: Yale University Press.

Austine, J. (2001). Prisoner Reentry: Current Trends, Practices and

Issues. Crime and Delinquency 47.

Bedou, H. A. (2001). Retribution and the Theory of Punishment. Buffalo

Criminal Law Review.

Beccaria, Cesare (1764). Crimes and Punishments. Indianoplos,

Hackette Pub.

Clear, T. (1994). Harm in American Penology: Offenders, Victims and

their Communities. Albany, NY: State University Press.

Currie, E. (1985). Confronting Crime: An American Challenge. New

York: Pantheon Pub.

Diiulio, J. J. (1990). Governing Prisons: A Comparative Study of

Correctional Management. N. Y.: Simon and Schuster Publishers.

Gendreau, P. (1996). Offender Rehabilitation: What we know and what

needs to be done in Criminal Justice and Behaviour. (23) 144-

166.

Michel, F. (2000). Discipline and Punishment. New York: Seven Stories

Press.


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UNIT 4 CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Criminal Justice System

3.2 History of Criminal Justice System

3.3 Goals of Criminal Justice System

3.4 Components of Criminal Justice System

3.5 Importance of Criminal Justice System

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

Criminal Justice covers every aspect of our legal system; from police

through the courts on to correctional facilities and even covering

probation and parole. Criminal justice is a field of study pertaining to the

institutions used to maintain social control through policies, laws and

procedures aimed to deter ad mitigate crime and to sanction those who

violate laws with penalties and rehabilitation.

The Criminal Justice System includes the agencies charged with

enforcement of the law of various stages of the process for an alleged

criminal offender. This includes initial police contact, pre-trial services,

criminal court proceedings, sentencing and corrections. The various

aspects that will be examined in this unit that will introduce you to

criminal justice system are Meaning, History, Goals, Components and

Importance of viewing criminal justice as a system.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


define criminal justice system

discuss the components of criminal justice system

mention the importance of criminal justice as a system

explain the goals of criminal justice system

outline the historical development of the criminal justice system

differentiate between Criminal Justice and Criminal Justice

System.


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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Criminal Justice System

What is the meaning of criminal justice and criminal justice system?

Criminal justice is defined as the group of practices, policies and courts

designed to uphold social responsibility, deterring and mitigating crimes

and enforcing penalties against those who are found guilty of

committing crimes. Criminal Justice is the system of practices and

institutions of governments directed at upholding social control,

deterring and mitigating crime, and sanctioning those who violate laws

with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts.

“Criminal Justice System” includes all activities and agencies, whether

state or local, public or private, pertaining to the prevention, prosecution

and defense of offenses, the disposition of offenders under the criminal

law and the disposition or treatment of juveniles adjudicated to have

committed an act, which if committed by an adult would be a crime. The

“Criminal Justice System” includes police, public prosecutors, defense

counsel, courts, correction systems, mental health agencies, crime

victims and all services in connection with elements, whether

voluntarily, contractually or by order of a court.

The Criminal Justice System can be overwhelming, confusing and

intimidating for anyone who does not work within the system on a

regular basis. Mainly individuals – including victims and their advocates

– believe that the justice system focuses on the criminal to the detriment

of the victim. Criminal justice is a generic term for the procedure by

which criminal conduct is investigated, arrest made, evidence gathered,

charges brought, defenses raised, trials conducted, sentences rendered

and punishment carried out.

The pursuit of criminal justice is, like all forms of “Justice” or “fairness”

or “process”, essentially the pursuit of an ideal. Thus, this field has

many relations to anthropology, economics, history, law, political

science, psychology, sociology and theology.

One question which is presented by the idea of creating justice involves

the rights of victims and the rights of accused criminals, and how these

individual rights are related to one another and to social control. It is

generally argued that victim‟s and defendant‟s rights are inversely

related, and individual rights as a whole are likewise, viewed as

inversely related to social control. Rights, of course, imply

responsibilities or duties, and this in turn requires a great deal of

consensus in the community regarding the appropriate definitions for

many of these legal terms.


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There are several basic theories regarding criminal justice and it‟s

relation to individual‟s rights and social control.

Restorative justice assumes that the victims or their heirs or

neighbours can be in some way restored to a condition “just as

good as” before the criminal incident. Substantially, it builds on

traditions that exist in common law and the law that requires all

who commit wrong to be penalised. In recent time these penalties

that restore justice advocates community service, restitution and

alternatives to imprisonment that keep the offender active in the

community, and re-socialised him into society. Some suggest that

it is a weak way to punish criminal who must be deterred, these

critics are often proponents of

Retributive justice of the “eye for an eye” approach. Assuming

that the victim or their heirs or neighbours have the right to do to

the offender what was done to the victim. These ideas fuel

support for capital punishment for murder, amputation for theft

(as in some versions of the sharia).

Transformative justice does not assume that there is any

reasonable comparison between the lives of victims nor offenders

before and after the incident. It discourages such comparisons

and measurements, and emphasises the trust of the society in each

member, including trust in the offender not to re-offend and of

the victim (or heirs) not to avenge.

In addition, there are models of criminal justice systems which try to

explain how these institutions achieve justice.

The consensus model argues that the organisations of a criminal

justice system do, or should cooperate.

The conflict model assumes that the organisations of a criminal

justice system do, or should compete.


What is “Criminal Justice System”? How is it different from “criminal

justice?”

3.2 History of Criminal Justice System

Throughout the history of criminal justice, evolving forms of

punishment, added rights for offenders and victims, and policing

reforms have reflected changing customs, political ideals and economic

conditions.


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The modern criminal justice system has evolved since ancient times,

with new forms of punishment, added rights for offenders and victims

and policing reforms. These developments have reflected changing

customs, political ideals and economic conditions. In ancient times

through the middle ages, exile was a common form of punishment.

During the Middle Ages, payment to the victim (or the victim‟s family)

known as wergild, was another common punishment, including violent

crimes. For those who could not afford to buy their way out of

punishment, harsh penalties included various forms of corporal

punishment. These included mutilation, branding and flogging as well as

execution.

Though a prison, le stiche, existed as early as the 14th

century in

Florence, Italy, incarceration was not widely used until the 19th

century.

Correctional reform in the United States was first initiated by William

Penn, towards the end of the 17th

century. For a time, Pennsylvania‟s

criminal code was revised to forbid torture and other forms of cruel

punishment, with jails and prisons replacing corporal punishment. These reforms were reversed upon Penn‟s death in 1718. Under pressure from

a group of Quakers, these reforms were revived in Pennsylvania toward

the end of the 18th

century and led to a marked drop in Pennsylvania‟s

crime rate. Patrick Colquhoun, Henry Fielding and others led significant

reforms during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

Modern Police

After the troubles of the French Resolution, the Paris Police Force was

reorganised by Napoleon I on February 17, 1800 as the prefecture of

police, along with the reorganisation of police forces in all French cities

with more than 5,000 inhabitants. On March 12, 1829, a government

decree created the first uniformed policemen in Paris and all French

cities, known as Sergeants de Ville (“city sergeants”) which the Paris

prefecture police‟s website claims were the first uniformed policemen in

the world.

In the United Kingdom, the development of police forces was much

slower than in the rest of Europe. The word “Police” was borrowed from

French into the English Language in the 18th

century, but for a long

time, it applied only to French and continental European police forces.

The word, and the concept of police itself, was “disliked as a symbol of

foreign oppression” (according to Britannica 1911) Prior to the 19th

century, the only official use of the word “Police” recorded in the United

Kingdom was the appointment of commissioners of police for Scotland

in 1714 and the creation of the marine police in 1798.


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On June 30, 1800, the authorities of Glasgow, Scotland, successfully

petitioned the government to pass the Glasgow police Act establishing

the city of Glasgow police. This was the first professional police service

in the country that differed from previous law enforcement agency

which was a preventive police force. This was quickly followed in other

Scottish towns, which set up their own police forces by individual Acts

of parliament. In London, there existed Watchmen hired to guard the

streets at night since 1663, the first paid law enforcement body in the

country, augmenting the force of unpaid constables. On September 29,

1829, the metropolitan police Act was passed by parliament allowing Sir

Robert Peel, the then home secretary to found the London Metropolitan

Police. This group of police are often referred to as „Bobbies‟ because it

was Sir Robert (Bobby) Peel who authorised it. They were regarded as

the most efficient forerunners of a modern police and became a model

for the police forces in most countries such as the United States and

most of the then British Empire (common wealth).

In North America, the Toronto police was founded in Canada on 1834,

one the first municipal police departments on that continent, followed by

police forces in Montreal and Quebec City both founded in 1838. In the

United States, the first organised police service was established in

Boston in 1838, New York in 1844, and Philadelphia in 1854. The first

police force was established in London in 1829 by Sir Robert Peel with

police departments established in Boston in 1838 and New York City in

1844. Early on, Police were not respected by the community, as

corruption was rampant. In the late 19th

and early 20th

century, there were few specialised units in police departments.

The first modern police force is commonly said to be the London

Metropolitan Police established in 1829 by Sir Robert Peel, which

promoted the preventive role of police as a deterrent to urban crime and

disorder. In the United States, police departments were first established

in Boston in 1838 and New York City in 1844.

In the 1920s, led by Berkeley, California police chief, August Vollmer

and O. W. Wilson, police began to professionalise, adopt new

technologies and place emphasis on training and professional

qualifications of new hires. Despite such reforms, police agencies were

led by highly autocratic leaders and there remained a lack of respect

between police and the community. Following urban unrest in the

1960s, police placed more emphasis on community relations, enacted

reforms such as increased diversity in hiring and many police agencies

adopted community police strategies.

In 1990s, compstat was developed by the New York Police Department

as an information-based system for tracking and mapping crime patterns


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and trends and holding police accountable for dealing with crime

problems. Compstat has since been replicated in police departments

across the United States and around the world, with problem oriented

policing, intelligence-led policing and other information-led policing

strategies also adopted.


1. Discuss the evolution of the “Modern Police.”

2. What is the persistent problem that is still occurring in today‟s

police system?

3.3 Goals of Criminal Justice System

What are the primary goals of the criminal justice system?

The primary goals of the criminal justice system are to maintain order,

punish the guilty and remove threats from society. All societies are

based on the idea of trust in the system that governs the people. In order

to maintain that trust, the system must have a set of rules for dealing

with transgressions of the laws of the society. Essentially, having a

criminal justice system takes away the anger and the retribution of the

mob by following a code to determine guilt or innocence in any given

circumstance. Without a civilised system, the angry mob can hand out

sever vigilante “Justice” that can be cruel, vile and, perhaps, wielded

upon an innocent victim.

The Criminal Justice System with its ritualistic separation of judge, jury,

prosecution and defense, is designed to be civilised and to temper the

heat of emotion, anger and rage. The main goal in any case – according

to the foundations of law – is to find the truth, uphold the law and

punish the guilty, but not unduly.

The way the system does this is through law enforcement officials

investigating crimes and gathering evidence. The prosecutions –

representing the “state” or the people then must go over the evidence,

sometimes perform interviews and then decide whether a case can and

should be brought against individuals. If the prosecutor determines there

is a case, the goal is to “set right” the situation in the view of society. A

judge is assigned and the accused person is represented by counsel.

Throughout the proceedings, the decorum of the court, the criminal

justice system itself, must be maintained for a fair outcome, which in the

end is the ultimate goal.

The purpose of the Criminal Justice System (CJS) is to deliver justice

for all, by convicting and punishing the guilty and helping them to stop


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offending, while protecting the innocent. It is responsible for detecting

crime and bringing it to justice, and carrying out the orders of the court,

such as collecting fines, and supervising community and custodial

punishment. The key goals for the Criminal Justice System (CJS) are:

To improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the Criminal

Justice System (CJS) in bringing offences to Justice.

To increase public confidence in the fairness and effectiveness of

the Criminal Justice System.

To increase victim satisfaction with the police, and victim and

witness satisfaction with Criminal Justice System.

To consistently collect, analyse and use good quality data to

identify and address offenders in the Criminal Justice System.

It should be known that Criminal Justice is the branch of law that deals

with disputes or actions involving criminal penalties. It regulates the

conduct of individuals, defines crime, and provides punishment for

criminal acts. More so, it means activities relating to the detection,

apprehension, detention, pretrial release, post trial release, prosecution,

adjudication, correctional supervision or rehabilitation of accused

persons or criminal offenders. Also the administration of criminal justice

includes criminal identification activities and the collection, storage and

dissemination of criminal history records. The Criminal Justice System

is purposive of delivering justice for all, by convicting and punishing the

guilty and helping them to stop offending, while protecting the innocent.

It is responsible for detecting crime and bringing it to justice and

carrying out the orders.

The goal of the Criminal Justice System (CJS) is to deliver justice for

all, by convicting and punishing the guilty and helping them to stop

offending while protecting the innocent. It is responsible for detecting

crime and bringing it to justice and carrying out the orders of court such

as collecting fines, and supervising community and custodial

punishment.

Today there are things the criminal justice system aims to do by

imposing punishments and sentences. Goals of punishment have moved

from satisfying the victim, as in early days, to more of a broad scale.

There are theories on how punishment and sentencing may serve to

reduce crime as a whole; general and specific deterrence, incapacitation,

rehabilitation and retribution.


Outline the major goals for the criminal justice system.


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3.4 Components of Criminal Justice System

What are the various components of the Criminal Justice System?

Criminal Justice System consists of four main parts or components.

a. Law enforcement (police)

b. Prosecution

c. Adjudication (courts or judiciary)

d. Corrections, which includes both adult and juvenile institutions as

well as probation and parole (community correction)

Although these four components have distinct purposes, responsibilities

and legal duties, the Criminal Justice System fails if they do not

effectively work together.

a. Law Enforcement

In most instances, it is the law enforcement community that has the first

contact with a victim of crime. Law enforcement officers are responsible

for such legal duties as:

Receiving and documenting reports of crime within the agency‟s

jurisdiction.

Investigating the reported crime.

Gathering and holding evidence of the crime.

Arresting the alleged offender, and

Conducting follow-up investigations as needed.

Depending upon several factors, including the size of the department

and how divisions are arranged, the officer that responds to the scene of

a crime may not be the individual to conduct the follow-up

investigation. After the initial report is taken, a detective may be

assigned to pursue the investigation.

Once the alleged offender has been identified, he or she is most often

arrested and taken to the local jail or corrections facility, for processing.

In some cases, depending upon the nature of the crime – the alleged

offender may be eligible to receive a citation to appear in court, and

therefore would not be taken into a facility for processing. In other cases

– normally involving more sensitive and/or serious crimes – the

evidence may be presented to a grand jury by the prosecutor. After

hearing the evidence, the grand jury decides whether or not to indict

(charge) the alleged offender.

The law enforcement officer‟s role does not end with the arrest of the

alleged offender. Officers are routinely called upon to testify in the


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prosecution of a case. They may be involved in grand jury hearings,

preliminary hearings and as witnesses at the actual trial.

b. Prosecution

The prosecutorial phase is perhaps the most critical stage of the criminal

justice process, as it is at this point that many of the rights of an alleged

offender and crime victim are brought into play. The offender‟s rights in

the court proceedings include:

The right to have legal representation.

The right to a speedy trial

The right to be informed regarding the proceedings, and

The right to be heard.

It is the role of the prosecutor to represent the interests of the state in

every criminal proceeding – from first court appearance when the

release or detainment of the accused is determined, during any plea

negotiations, through the numerous preliminary hearings, throughout the

trial and, finally, at the sentencing stage. The prosecutor also has the

power to decide whether a case will be prosecuted or dismissed.

c. Judiciary

The courts serve as the venue where disputes are then settled and justice

is administered. With regard to criminal justice, there are a number of

critical people in any court setting. These critical people are referred to

as the courtroom work group and include both professional and

nonprofessional individuals. These include the judge, prosecutor and the

defence attorney. The judge or magistrate is a person elected or

appointed, who is knowledgeable in the law, and whose function is to

objectively administer the legal proceedings and offer a final decision to

dispose of a case.

Essentially, the role of the judge is to oversee the court proceedings

associated with the prosecution of any criminal case. The judge is

responsible for ensuring that the law is followed at all stages of the

criminal justice process. The judge makes the final decision, or ruling at

each stage. The judge will:

Decide the release status of an offender.

Decide whether or not to accept a guilty plea or a negotiated plea

by an offender.

Oversee the trial where the indicted offender is determined to be

guilty or not guilty, and


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Determine the final sentence of the court for a convicted

offender.

d. Corrections

The final component of the Criminal Justice System is corrections. The

term “Corrections” can be used to describe either institutional

suspension or community supervision – which is known as probation

when granted by a judge on a suspended prison sentence, and which is

known as parole when granted by a parole board after a portion of a

prison sentence has been served.

Offenders are then turned over to the correctional authorities, from the

court system after the accused has been found guilty. Like all other

aspects of Criminal Justice, the administration of punishment has taken

many different forms throughout history. Early on, when civilisations

lacked the resources necessary to construct and maintain prisons, exile

and execution were the primary forms of punishment.

The most publicly visible form of punishment in the modern era is the

prison. Prisons may serve as detention centres for prisoners after trial.

For containment of the accused, jails are used. Early prisons were used

primarily to sequester criminals and little thought was given to living

condition within their walls.


Examine the role of the judge and law enforcement officer in the

Criminal Justice System.

3.5 Importance of Criminal Justice System

The Use of Criminal Profiling

Criminal profiling is a method of identifying the perpetrator of a crime

based on an analysis of the nature of the offense and the manner in

which it was committed. Crimes that are suitable for profiling are those

in which there is much evidence at the crime scene or considerable

interaction with the victim where in the offender displays severe mental

disturbance. Ritualistic crimes, torture and murders involving post-

mortem disfigurement are especially conducive to this kind of analysis

because they are committed by criminals.

Criminal justice is the application or study of laws regarding criminal

behaviour. Those who study criminal justice include the police, those

working in the judiciary capacity, and lawyers who either defend or

prosecute those accused of a crime. Others work to advocate for changes

in the Criminal Justice System.


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Justice also refers not only to the fair trial accorded to the citizens of

most countries, but also to the just retribution for victims of a crime, as

for example, seeing an offender jailed. Criminal justice is always a goal.

All involved in the arrest, prosecution, defense or judgment of a suspect

aim to be fair. However, this goal is not always met, accounting for the

flexibility in the application of laws, the changes to laws that are unfair,

and the judiciary power of interpretation.

As a field of study, most who will work with parts of the law that

involve behaviour defined as criminal, will study criminal justice. The

knowledge of criminal justice is important for training and certification

for police officers. Police officers train specifically on what powers they

have in relationship to a suspect, and what powers they do not have.

They learn how to legally administer criminal justice in their capacity as

law enforcement officers.

Criminal Justice System helps balance the short-term and long-term

perspective. As much as we may hate criminals, it is in our long-term

interest to help them, since almost all of them return to the community

(usually after only a few months or years). Application of the system

concept to criminal justice research and evaluation has many

advantages.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that “Criminal Justice System” includes all activities

and agencies, whether state or local, public or private, pertaining to the

prevention, prosecution and defence of offenses, the disposition of

offenders under the criminal law and the disposition or treatment of

juveniles adjudicated to have committed an act which, if committed by

an adult, would be a crime. The “Criminal Justice System” includes

police, public prosecutors, defense counsels, courts, correction systems,

mental health agencies, crime victims and all public and private agencies

providing service in connection with these elements, whether

voluntarily, contractually or by order of a court.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed “Criminal Justice System” by looking at

the following aspects: Meaning, History, Goals, Components and

Importance of Criminal Justice System.


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1. Define Criminal Justice System.

2. List the Components of Criminal Justice System and explain any

two.

3. Discuss the goals of Criminal Justice System.


Ress Jr. & Albert, J. (1992). “Police Organisation in the Twentieth

Century”. Crime and Justice. Journal of Criminal Law and

Criminology. Pp 39 -52.

Stark, J. & Howard, G. (1985). The Rights of Crime Victims. New York:

Bantam Books Inc.

Walker, S. (1992). “Origins of the Contemporary Criminal Justice

Paradigm: The American Bar Foundation Survey, 1953 -1959.”

Justice Quarterly 9(1).

Walker, S. (1977). A Critical History of Police Reform: The Emergence

of Professionalism. Lexigton, Mt: Lexington Books.

Webster, Barbara & Thomas J. (1992). “Assessing Criminal Justice

Needs”. National Institute of Justice Research in Brief.

Washington DC: US Department of Justice.

Wolfgang, M. (1990). “Crime and Punishment in Renaissance

Florence”. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 81. Pp 567

– 584.


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UNIT 5 JURISPRUDENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Jurisprudence

3.2 Nature of Law

3.3 History of Jurisprudence

3.4 Types of Jurisprudence

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

The concept of Jurisprudence has been around for quite a long time.

Both the Ancient Greeks and Romans considered the philosophy of law,

and earlier societies probably did as well. The term itself is derived from

a Latin phrase, “juris prudential”, meaning “knowledge of the law”. As

long as humans have had laws governing their activities, philosophers

and commentators have been thinking about these laws and considering

how they fit in with the societies which they are supposed to codify and

protect. The various aspects that will be examined in this unit will

include the following: Meaning of Jurisprudence, the Nature of Law,

History of Jurisprudence and Types of Jurisprudence.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


define the term jurisprudence

examine the nature of law

discuss the history of jurisprudence

mention the types of jurisprudence

state the elements of legal system.


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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Jurisprudence

What is the meaning of Jurisprudence?

Jurisprudence is the study of law, specifically legal philosophy and

science. There are numerous branches of jurisprudence which focus on a

range of issues, from whether or not law should exist to what sort of

penalties are appropriate for violations of the law. Jurisprudence is

largely dominated by Western laws and ethics, although students of

Eastern law do not exist. The term is also used to refer to a specific

branch of law, such as environmental jurisprudence or medical

jurisprudence.

Jurisprudence also refers to the science of judicial law, the knowledge of

the laws, customs and rights of men in a state or community, necessary

for the due administration of justice.

Jurisprudence is derived from the Latin term juris prudential, which

means “the study, knowledge or science of law” in the United States,

more broadly associated with the philosophy of law. Philosophers of law

ask “what is law?” And “what should it be? ” Jurisprudence is the theory

and philosophy of law. Scholars of jurisprudence, or legal philosophers,

hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature of law, of legal

reasoning, legal systems and of legal institutions.

Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th

century and was focused on the

first principles of the law of nature, civil law, and the law of nations.

General jurisprudence can be broken into categories both by address and

by the theories of jurisprudence or schools of thought regarding how

those questions are best to be answered.

Legal philosophy has many branches, with four types being the most

common. The most prevalent form of jurisprudence seeks to analyse,

explain, classify, and criticise entire bodies of law, ranging from

contract to tort, to constitutional law. Legal encyclopaedias, law

reviews, and law school textbooks frequently contain this type of

jurisprudential scholarship.

The second type of jurisprudence compares and contrasts law with other

fields of knowledge such as literature, economics, religion, and social

sciences. The purpose of this type of study is to enlighten each field of

knowledge by sharing insight that have proven to be important in

advancing essential features of the compared discipline.


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The third type of jurisprudence raised fundamental questions about the

law itself. These questions seek to reveal the historical, moral and

cultural underpinnings of a particular legal concept. The Common Laws

(1881), written by Oliver Wendell Hoimes JR. is a well-known example

of this type of jurisprudence. It traces the evolution of civil and criminal

responsibility from underdeveloped societies where liability for injuries

was based on subjective notions of revenge, to modern societies where

liability is based on objective notions of reasonableness.

The fourth and fastest-growing body of jurisprudence focuses on even

more abstract questions, including, what is law? How does a trial or

appellant court judge decide a case? Is a judge similar to a

mathematician or a scientist autonomous and determinant rules and

principles? Or is a judge more like a legislator who simply decides a

case in favour of the most politically preferable outcome? Must a judge

base a decision only on the written rules and regulations that have been

enacted by the government? Or may a judge also be influenced by

unwritten principles derived from ideology, moral philosophy, and

historical practice?

Four schools of jurisprudence have attempted to answer these questions:

formalism proposes that law is a science, realism holds that law is just

another name for politics, positivism suggests that law must be confined

to the written rules and regulations enacted or recognised by the

government, and naturalism maintains that the law must reflect eternal

principles of justice and morality that exist independent of governmental

recognition.


Discuss the meaning of Jurisprudence.

3.2 Nature of Law

Lawyers are interested in the question: what is law on a particular issue?

This is always a local question and answers to it are bound to differ

according to the specific jurisdiction in which they are asked. In

contrast, the philosophy of law is interested in the general question:

what is law? This general question about the nature of law presupposes

that law is a unique social-political phenomenon, with more or less

universal characteristics that can be discerned through philosophical

analysis.

Generally, jurisprudence as philosophical inquiry, is about the nature of

law, and is meant to be universal. It assumes that law posses certain


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features and it possess them by its very nature, or essence, as law,

wherever and whenever it happens to exist.

However, even if there are such universal characteristics of law, the

reasons for a philosophical interest in discussing them remain to be

explained. First, there is the sheer intellectual interest in understanding

them or such a complex social phenomenon which is, after all, one of

the most intricate aspects of human culture.

Law, however, is also a normative social practice; it purports to guide

human behaviour, giving rise to reasons for action. An attempt to

explain this normative, reason-giving aspect of law is one of the main

challenges of general jurisprudence. These two sources of interest in the

nature of law are closely linked. Law is not the only normative domain

existing in our culture, morality, religion, social conventions, etiquette,

and so on, also guide human conduct in many ways which are similar to

law.

Therefore, part of what is involved in the understanding of the nature of

law consists in an explanation of how law differs from these similar

normative domains, how it interacts with them, and whether its

intelligibility depends on such other normative orders, like morality or

social conventions.

There are two kinds of law. One is based on justice; the other is based

on control. The predominant form in use today, and which has greater

ancient heritage, is the latter. Basically, what the vast majority of

individuals view as law today is a bastardisation of the Golden Rule:

“Dem wit de gold, makes de rules”. Which means it is the law of control

of power, of “might-making right” and it is retribution instead of

restoration.

Law at its most fundamental level is a means by which individuals and

groups with worldly different agendas, goals, and aspirations can

function in a tolerant, cooperative, and/or competitive environment. Just

as law cannot be dismissed merely because of its misuse by those in

power, they use it as a manipulative and enslaving tool – there is also no

reason to assume that the latter is the only viable form of law. The law

of control is not the law which at a fundamental level is what one

desires.

The „Me‟ of the Sumerian civilisation includes one of the earliest known

forms of law which was based – curiously enough – on fairness, justice,

and equality – as opposed to making it easier for those with the gold to

run roughshod over everyone else. Today, the same system of just law is

called common law or Restoration Justice.


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The key to this early form of law – and its modern equivalents – is that

the victim is the focus, instead of the state. The idea is to seek justice, do

what is fair for all concerned. One alternative is to seek retribution –

retribution which is almost always to the distinct benefit of those in

control of the state‟s bureaucracy. According to the famous code of

Hammurabi, which was one of the earliest examples of the concept,

where the idea of the crime and punishment was introduced and has

persisted to this day in most forms of law.

Consider our current body of laws. They define what is permissible and

what isn‟t. If there is no law on the books for a particular act, then no

matter how damaging or hurtful it is to others, then there is no crime.

But if there is a law which defines a crime for an action which harms no

one, a crime has indeed been committed. In the latter case, the state then

claims injury to “peace and dignity” of the state. Such a state has no

“peace and dignity” when they would enforce victimless crimes.

Common law is by comparison the simplest of concepts. If someone is

injured or their property damaged, then there is a crime. If not, there‟s

no crime. This would mean that such things as environmental damage

would be a crime, but only if someone could show injury or damage to

their property.

Running alongside common law is Restorative Justice, where justice is

emphasised instead of retribution. What everyone wants is a system

which is fair, where there is some semblance of what “ought to be”.

Therefore, general jurisprudence necessarily relies on some normative,

moral considerations. Both of these views, and similar ones, purport to

rely on insistence that a normative social practice, like law, cannot be

understood without taking into account the participant‟s internal point of

view, a point of view that is essentially normative, rationalising the ways

in which the participants regard the law as reasons for their actions.


Outline the importance of law as a social practice.

3.3 History of Jurisprudence

In the central criminal court of England and Wales at the Old Bailey,

Jurisprudence had its meaning in Ancient Rome. There was a body of

oral laws and customs which verbally transmit values of the system from

father to son. Praetors established a workable body of laws by judging

whether or not singular cases were capable being prosecuted either by


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the edicta, the annual pronunciation of prosecutable offense, or

extraordinary situations, additions made to the edicta. An iudex then

would judge a remedy according to the facts of the case.

Their sentences were supposed to be simple interpretations of the

traditional customs, but effectively it was an activity that, apart from

formally reconsidering for each case what precisely was traditionally in

the legal habits, soon turned also to a more equitable interpretation,

coherently adapting the law to the never social instances. The law was

then implemented with new evolutive institutions (legal concepts), while

remaining in the traditional scheme. Praetors were replaced in the 3rd

century BC by a local body of prudentes. Admission to this body was

conditional upon proof of competence or experience.

In ancient Indian verdict society, the law or Dharma, as followed by

Hindus was interpreted by use of “Manu Smrti” – a set of poems which

defined sin and the remedies. They were said to be written between 200

BC – 200 AD. In fact, these were not codes of law but norms related o

social obligations and ritual requirements of the era.

Under the Roman Empire, schools of law were created, and the activity

constantly became more academic. In the age from the early Roman

Empire to the 3rd

century, a relevant literature was produced by some notable groups including Proculians and Sabinians. The degree of

scientific dept of the studies was unprecedented in ancient times and reached still unrivaled peaks of skill.

After the 3

rd century, Juris Prudentia became a more bureaucratic

activity, with few notable authors. It was during the Byzantine Empire

(5th

century) that legal studies were once again undertaken in depth, and

it is from this cultural movement that Justinian‟s corpus Juris Civilis

was born.


Outline the historical development of Jurisprudence.

3.4 Types of Jurisprudence

What are the various types of jurisprudence? There are about three

major types of jurisprudence, namely Formalism, Realism, and Natural

Law and Historical Jurisprudence.


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Formalism

Legal formalism, also known as conceptualism, treats law like a math or

science. Formalists believe that in the same way a mathematician or

scientist identifies the relevant axioms, applies them to given data, and

systematically reaches a demonstrable theorem, a judge identifies the

relevant legal principles, applies them to the fact of a case, and logically

deduces a rule that will govern the outcome of a dispute. Judges derive

relevant legal principles from various sources of legal authority,

including state and federal constitutions, statutes, regulations and case

law.

For example, most states have enacted legislation that prohibits courts

from probating a will that was not signed by two witnesses. If a court is

presented with a number of wills to probate for the same estate, and only

one of those wills have been witnessed by at least two persons, the court

can quickly deduce the correct legal conclusion in a formalistic fashion:

each will that has been signed by fewer than two witnesses will have no

legal effect, and only the will executed in compliance with the statutory

requirements may be probated.

Formalist also rely on inductive reasoning to settle legal disputes,

whereas deductive reasoning involves the application of general

principles that will yield a specific rule when applied to the facts of a

case, inductive reasoning starts with a number of specific rules and

infers from them a broader legal principle that may be applied to

comparable legal disputes in the future.

English jurist Sir Edward Coke was among the first to popularise the

formalistic approach to law in Anglo-American history. Coke believed

that the common law was “the peculiar science of judges”. The

common, Coke said, represented the “artificial perfection of reason”

obtained through “long study, observation and experience”. Coke also

believed that only lawyers and judges, and others trained in the law

could fully comprehend and apply this highest method of reasoning.

Langdell, an American compared the study of law to the study of

science, and suggested that law school classrooms were the laboratories

of jurisprudence. Judicial reasoning, Langdell believed, parallels the

reasoning used in geometric proofs. He urged professors of law to

classify and arrange legal principles much as a taxonomist organises

plant and animal life.

Since the early 1970s, Professor Roland M. Dworkin has been the

foremost advocate of the formalist approach with some subtle variations.

Although Dworkin stops short of explicitly comparing law to science,


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and math, he maintains that law is best explained as a rational and

cohesive system of principles that judges must apply with integrity. The

principle of integrity requires that judges provide equal treatment to all

litigants presenting claims that cannot honestly be distinguished.

Realism

The realist movement, which began in the late eighteenth century and

gained force during the administration of President Franklin d.

Roosevelt, was the first to attack formalism. Realist held a skeptical

attitude toward Langdelian legal science. “The life of the law has not

been logic, it has been experience,” Holmes wrote in 1881.

Realists held two things to be true. First, they believed that law is not a

scientific enterprise in which deductive reasoning can be applied to

reach a determinate outcome in every case. Instead, most litigation

presents hard questions that judges must resolve by balancing the

interests of the parties and ultimately drawing an arbitrary line on one

side of the dispute. This line is typically drawn in accordance with the

political, economic, and psychological proclivities of the judge.

For example, when a court is asked to decide whether a harmful

business activity is a common law nuisance, the judge must ascertain

whether the particular activity is reasonable. The judge does not base

this determination on a precise algebraic equation instead, the judge

balances the competing economic and social interest of the parties, and

rules in favour of the litigants with the most persuasive case. Realist

would thus contend that judges who are ideologically inclined to foster

business growth will authorise the continuation of a harmful activity,

whereas judges who are ideologically inclined to protect the

environment will not.

Second, realists believed that because judges decide cases based on their

political affiliation, the law tends always to lag behind social change.

Some realists only sought to demonstrate that law is neither

autonomous, apolitical, nor determinate; for example, Jerome Frank,

who coined the term legal realism, emphasised that the psychological

foundation of judicial decision making, arguing that a judge‟s decision

may be influenced by mundane things like what he or she ate for

breakfast.

Natural Law or Law of Nature (Latin Lex Naturalis) is a theory that

posits the existence of a law whose content is set by nature and that

therefore has validity everywhere.


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The Phrase Natural Law is opposed to the positive law (which is man-

made) of a given political community, society, or nation-state, and thus

can function as a standard by which to criticise that law. In natural law

jurisprudence, on the other hand, the content of positive law cannot be

known without some reference to the natural law (or something like it).

Used in this way, natural law can be involved to criticise decisions about

the status, but less so to criticise the law itself. Some use natural law

synonymously with natural justice or natural right.

Historical Jurisprudence

Positivists and naturalists tend to converge in the area of historical

jurisprudence. Historical jurisprudence is marked by judges who

consider history, tradition, and custom when deciding a legal dispute.

Strictly speaking, history does not completely fall within the definition

of either positivism or natural law. Historical events like the civil war,

are not legislative enactments, although they may be the product of

governmental policy. Nor do historical events, embody eternal

principles of morality, although they may be the product of clashing

moral views. Yet, historical events shape both morality and law. Thus,

many positivists and Naturalist find a place for historical jurisprudence

in their legal philosophy.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXCERCISE 4

List the various types of jurisprudence and discuss on one of them.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that jurisprudence is the study of law, specifically

legal philosophy and science. It is derived from the Latin term juris

prudential, which means “the study, knowledge, or science of law. That

law at its most fundamental level is a means by which individuals and

groups with widely different agendas, goals and aspirations can function

in a tolerant, cooperative, and/or competitive environment. There are

four schools of jurisprudence, Formalism, Realism, Positivism and the

Naturalists.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have examined the concept Jurisprudence under the

following headings; meaning, Nature of Law, History and Types of

Jurisprudences.


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1. What is Jurisprudence?

2. Compare the views of formalists and realists on law.

3. Trace the history of Jurisprudence to modern times.


Liewellye, K. N. (2000). Jurisprudence: Realism in Theory and

Practice. Union, N.J.: Lawbook Exchange Ltd.

Michael, Helen (1991). “The Role of Natural Law in Early America

Constitutionalism: Did the Founders Contemplate Judicial

Enforcement of „Unwritten Individual Rights‟ North Carolina

Law Review.

Patterson, D. M (2002). Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory. Malden,

Mass Blackwell.

Posner, Richard A. (1990). Problems of Jurisprudence. Cambridge:

Harvard Ohio-Press.


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MODULE 3 LIGHT AND CRIMINAL

PHOTOGRAPHY

Unit 1 Meaning and Principles of Photography

Unit 2 Criminal Photography

Unit 3 Crime Scene Photography

Unit 4 Photographing Evidence

Unit 5 Fingerprints

UNIT 1 MEANING AND PRINCIPLES OF

PHOTOGRAPHY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Definition of Photography

3.2 Principles of Photography

3.3 Evaluating Negatives

3.4 Exposure Review/Camera

3.5 Principles of Sketching

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

What is the meaning of photography?

Photography generally is the science which relates to the action of light

on sensitive bodies leading to the production of picture, the fixation of

images, and the like. The various areas that will be examined in this

unit, to introduce you to meaning and principles of photography are the

definition, principles, evaluating negatives, exposure review and

principles of sketching.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to

define photography

discuss the basic principles of photography

explain how negatives are evaluated


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mention types of lens

describe the mechanism of exposure

list the basic principles of sketching.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Photography

What is photography and how did the concept develop? The term

photography comes from the Greek word photos, photos-light and

graphos-writing. The word photography means writing with light but

most photographers claim they are painting with light.

Photography can be defined as the science which relates to the action of

light on sensitive bodies on the production of pictures, also the fixation

of images and the like. It is also the art or process of producing pictures

by this action of light; the art or process of producing images of objects

on photosensitive surfaces. Photography is the art, practice, or

occupation of taking and printing photographs, it can also be regarded as

a body of photographs.

Photography is also a method of reading permanent images by the action

of light projected by a lens in a camera onto a film or other-sensitive

material. It was developed in the 19th

century through the artistic

aspirations of two French men, Nicephore Niepc and Louis – Jacques-

Mande Daguerre, whose combined discoveries led to the invention of

the first commercially successful process, the dagueo type (1837). In

addition, two Englishmen, Thomas Wedgwood and William Henry Fox

Talbot, patented the negative-positive calotype process (1839) that

became the fore runner of modern photographic technique. Photography

was initially used for portraiture and landscapes. In the 1850s and 60s,

Mathew B. Brady and Roger Fenton Pioneered war photography and

photojournalism. From its inception, two views of photography

predominated. One approach held that the camera at its resulting images

truthfully document the real world, while the other considered the

camera simply to be a tool, much like a paintbrush, with which to create

artistic statements.

The latter notion, known as pictorialism, held sway from the late 1860s

through the first decade of the 20th

century, as photographers

manipulated their negatives and prints to create hazy elaborately staged

images that resembled paintings. By the 1920s and „30s, a new more

realistic style of photography gained prominence, as photographers such

as Paul Strand, Edward Weston, and Ansel Adams began to pursue

sharply focused, detailed images. The Great Depression and two world

wars inspired many photographers, including Walkers Evans and


129

Dorathea Lauge, to pursue documentary often socially conscious

photography. Inspired by such work, many photojournalists, including

Alfred Eisenstaedt and Margret Bourke-white, also emerged during this

period.

In the second half of the 20th

century the urban social scene became a

subject of much interest to photographers, as aid celebrity portraiture

and fashion photography. At the turn of the 21st

century, photographers

took advantage of digital capabilities by experimenting with enormous

formats and new manipulative techniques. As technological advances

improve photographic equipment, materials, and techniques, the scope

of photography continue to expand enormously.


Define the term photography and discuss its developmental stages.

3.2 Principles of Photography

Having defined and explain photography in the last section, the next

issue to deal with is the basic principles of photography. How are

photographs made? Photographs are captured moments in time and they

are made with light, camera, film and knowledge. These are the main

principles underlying the concept photography.

Light is important to photography. Light is a form of energy released by

the sun or man-made source. Without light, the chemical reaction

necessary in forming images on a piece of acetate (film) or within a

digital imaging camera cannot take place. Light comes in form of

electromagnetic spectrum. The sun releases various wavelengths of

energy which are measured in monometers. Visible light propagates as a

wavelength and is characterised by the length of two peaks. In white

light, the three primary colours (Red, Green and Blue) when evenly

mixed produce white light. The primary, or additive colours also

produce other colours when equally mixed or unequally.

The various light sources are daylight, electronic flash, fluorescent,

Tungsten, metal Halide, Sodium or Mercury vapour illumination and

alternate light sources. Note that all light sources have temperature,

which are measured on a colour temperature scale, the colour

temperature scale is known as the Kelvin scale.

Daylight balanced film- colour films are normally balances for only

“sunlight” or flash photography. If “Daylight” balanced film is used

with the artificial lighting, a true colour rendition is more difficult to

achieve. There are various types of film, namely, Negative, Positive


130

(Transparency) Instant and Digital. Films come in a variety of Iso‟s fast

speed films, medium speed films and shows speed films. Films with

lower Iso‟s (25, 64, 100 and 200) are less sensitive to light, and

therefore need more light. These films are called “show films”. Film

with higher Iso‟s (400, 800, 1000, P 3200) are more sensitive to light.

These films are called “fast films”. The most popular Iso‟s are 100, 200

and 400. However, there are a variety of Iso‟s available for differing

conditions and applications.

How Does the Film Record the Images We See?

Film is several layers of acetate sandwiched together-one layer, the

emulsion layer, contains silver halide crystals (bromine, iodine or

chlorine. Silver halide crystals upon exposure to light darken and form a

latent image. Upon development, a permanent negative or positive

image is formed. The amount of rays and the intensity of the rays affect

the sensitivity of film. Light rays also affect the quality of the print to

be produced from particular films.

Film latitude is the ability of a light sensitive material to compensate for

over and under exposure. Over-exposure is when light sensitive material

receives two much exposure resulting in dense negatives with opaque

highlights and blocked up shadows.

While under-exposure is when a light sensitive material receives too

little light resulting in a thin negative, a dark slide or a muddy (greyish)

looking print. B & W films have the greatest exposure latitude typically,

B & W films can reproduce acceptable positive prints. Underexposed

colour negative films do not have the same latitude as B & W films.

However, acceptable prints can be made up to 2 or 3 stops

underexposed.

Film Storage. The following are guidelines on how to store films

Film must be stored in cool, dry place

Long term storage in freezers

Short term storage in a refrigerator

Never store film in direct sunlight, or on areas that have constant

temperature above 60 degrees


Describe the general principles of photography.


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3.3 Evaluating Negatives & Exposure

Another principle in photography is the evaluation of negatives. Dark

areas in a negative will appear lighter on the print, and light areas of the

negative will be dark on a print. Always evaluate a negative by the

amount of detail in the shadow areas.

What is Exposure? Exposure is the amount of light reaching a light

sensitive material specifically, the intensity of light multiplied by the

time light falls on a material.

What controls Exposure?

Light (Quality and Quantity)

Film (sensitivity)

Diaphragm (Aperture – F Stops)

Shutter curtains (speeds)

Exposure Controls – Light

Remember, film needs light in order to create an image. The amount and

type of light present determines how much exposure is needed to create

an acceptable image.

How can light intensity charge? Using inverse square law, illumination

intensity on a surface will vary inversely with the square distance from

the light source to the illuminated surface. In other words, as light

travels in distance, the intensity of the light source diminishes.

Diaphragm

The diaphragm controls the amount of light that penetrates through the

lens the F/stop ring on lens controls the size of opening of the

diaphragm. The relative size opening of the diaphragm is called the

aperture. The aperture size is expressed in fractions, known as F/stops.

In aperture, we have minimum and maximum aperture. The lower the

F/stop number, the wider the diaphragm opening on the lens. This wider

opening allows more light to make exposure. The crest opening of a

given lens is called the maximum aperture while the smallest opening of

a given lens is called the minimum aperture. The higher the F/stop

number, the smaller the diaphragm opening in the lens. This smaller

opening allows less light to make exposures.


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Depth of Fields

The diaphragm controls three things in the depth-of-field:

aperture

lens of focal length

lens to subject distance.

The Shutter Curtain

The shutter controls the amount of light that is passed through the

camera body. Similar to the diaphragm, the shutter is controlled by the

photographer. The shutter allows the photographer to give more or less

exposure to the film when needed. Focal plane shutters are located

directly in front of the film in the back of the camera. Focal plane

shutters can move either horizontally or vertically, leaf shutters are

located inside of the lens, leaf shutters are limited in shutter speeds when

compared to focal plane shutters. The shutter determines the movement

to be stopped. The higher the number (1/125, 1/250, 1/500… etc.), the

more motion will be stopped.

Using Reciprocity Law

Time (T) x Intensity (I) = Exposure (E)

If the time is doubled and the intensity is cut in half ( and vice

versa), the exposure remain the same.

Your camera has control equivalents for exposure control, when

used together properly, proper exposure can be achieved.


Outline and discuss factors that control exposure, when evaluating

photographic negatives.

3.4 Exposure Review/Camera

The intensity of light and length of time that light is subjected to a piece

of film, determines the exposure necessary to create an image.

Lens diaphragm F/8, F/5.6, etc.)

Shutter curtain 1/125, 1/250, 1/500, etc.

Film (100, 200, 150, etc.)

Light, the quality and quantity of light control exposure

The camera.


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The camera is an electro-mechanical device that allows us to make an

image that preserves what the eye sees at a given scene. With the use of

a box (the camera), a hole (aperture) a means of focusing (lens), and

film we are able to preserve on film what we see at a given moment, but

that which our mind forgets.

Small format or 35mm camera has the following features:

Versatility/portability

Film selection

Lens selection

Accessories

Medium format or 120mm camera

Slightly larger in size than 35mm

Larger Negative

Fewer lenses

Fewer functions

Fewer films to select from

Large format camera or 4x5 & 8x10 inch cameras

Very cumbersome

Is not user friendly

Fewer accessories

Smaller film selection than even medium format

Digital Cameras

Instant Images

Portability

Cost: The cost can be extremely high for equal quality images

Integrity issues

Polaroid

instant images

lacks negative

quality of images

cost


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Lens

A lens is a device that uses convex glass or mirrors, enabling us to focus

on the subject at hand. There are various types of lens, short curdle

angle, normal, telephoto and zoom.

Lenses with F/stops such as F/1.4 though F/2.8 are considered fast

lenses. Fast lenses are called such because they have greater light

gathering capabilities. Lenses with F/stops above F/4.0 are considered

show lenses. Show lenses do not always have ideal light gathering

capabilities, especially in low light situations.


List different types of cameras you know and also their advantages.

3.5 Principles of Sketching

Closely related to photography is sketching. Even experienced artists

occasionally struggle with creating naturalistic three-dimensional

pictures. Of course they know the basic concepts and create naturalistic

drawings instinctively.

For beginners it is even more difficult, they have to exercise hard to

climb a steep learning curve. Its long-familiar that outstanding drawing

skills are the outcome of hard exercising. Instead knowing the three

most important rules of third-dimensional drawing will make things

easier for you. They will be a shortcut to improving your drawing skills

and help even experienced draftsmen to nail elements that call for

rewriting.

So what causes a picture look realistic and third-dimensional? There are

three rules that contribute to the naturalistic outlook of your drawing.

Every single one of them must be understood thoroughly. Together they

ensure outstanding results. The three basic principles of sketching are as

follows.

Composition

Perspective

Lighting and shadow.

Composition

Does composition actually contribute to the third-dimensional appearing

of your drawing? Naturally, the third-dimensional outlook of any

drawing is strongly influenced by the relationships connecting the

different objects inside the drawing. You can create an image with


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objects that all follow the rules of perspective and have ideally

composed lighting and dark parts. But a weak composition will spool

most of the third-dimensional effect. There is just one important

composition.

Law

Allow your drawing‟s objects overlap! Frequently we see beginners

avoiding to let objects in their pictures overlap, because they fear to

mess it up. Sure if your drawing has lots of interesting parts it gets more

difficult to depict. There are more dark parts and also perspective and

proportions of the objects must be a great deal more exact.

Tightly composed objects in your picture will reveal all weak points. On

the other side if you try to get the perspective, lighting and shadows

right, a denser composition will strengthen the third-dimensional effect.

So have courage to put your picture‟s object closer together. Let them

overlap and demonstrate how good you can draw them according to the

rules of third-dimensional drawings.

Composition really contributes to the third-dimensional appearance of

your images. Naturally, the third-dimensional outlook of any picture is

strongly influenced by the relation connecting the various elements

inside the picture. You can create an image consisting of elements

created according to the rules of perspective and have ideally composed

lightening and dark parts. But a weak composition will cripple most of

the third-dimensional effect.

There is only one crucial composition law: let your drawing‟s element

overlap. Often we see beginning artists avoiding to let elements in their

drawings overlap because they are afraid to ruin it completely. Sure if

your picture has many intersecting parts it is more difficult to depict.

The dark parts and dimensions of the elements must be much more

exact. That‟s demanding indeed. Tightly arranged elements in your

drawing may reveal all weak points. On the other side, if you manage to

get the perspective, lighting and shades right, a denser arrangement will

strengthen the third-dimensional effect. So have bravery to put your

pictured elements closer together. Make them overlap and demonstrate

how good you can draw them according to the rules of third-dimensional

pictures.

Perspective

This is the second principle of sketching. Creating a drawing employing

correct perspective is the point where a little bit of maths comes into


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play. Do not worry – no rocket science formulas, just drawing some

extra lines.

By creating a drawing, keeping the rules of perspective in mind you

make sure that:

Your drawing‟s elements have the correct proportions and size.

Your drawing‟s elements have the correct distortion according to

the distance of the viewer.

Your drawing‟s elements are correlating properly to one another.

All this is achieved by employing one small law: “objects and parts of

them grow smaller the farther the distance to the viewer”. This law

cannot be stressed enough. Once you fail to apply it correctly, your

drawings will appear distort4ed and awkwardly. So drawing some extra

lines will allow you to apply this law properly.

Light and Shadow

The correct lighting and shadowing is the 3

rd important principle for

sketching scenes. It‟s for the lights in your drawings that shadows

emerge. And shadows are essential for a truthful appearing drawing –

except you depict “gray rainy day” scenes only.

To create naturalistic shadows there are some rules you have to

consider.

You have to know where exactly illumination originates from.

This enables you to find the right dimension of the shade.

The right bearing and alignment for the shade.

And the correct shape of the shade.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that the concept „photography‟ refers to the science

which related to the action of light on sensitive bodies in the production

of pictures, the fixation of images, and the act of producing pictures by

this action of light. We also understand that photographs are captured

moments in time and that photographs are made with lights, camera,

film and knowledge. Closely related to photography is the concept of

sketching images, with three major guiding principles as follows:

composition, perspective, and light and shadows.


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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have dealt with the meaning and principles of

photography by looking at the following aspects: definition, principles

of photography, evaluating photographic negatives, cameras and

principles of sketching.


1. What is photography?

2. List and explain the basic principles of photography.

3. Discuss the guiding principles when sketching a crime scene.


Fulford, R. (2006). “How New York‟s Most Famous Crime

Photographer Exposed Its Darkest Age” in the Naked City.

National Post.

Jaeger, Jens (2005). “Police and Forensic photography” in the Oxford

Companion to the photograph. Oxford University Press.

Platt, Richard (2005). Forensics. Boston: Kingfisher Publications.

Rohde, Russell R. (2000). Crime Photography. PSA Journal.


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UNIT 2 CRIMINAL PHOTOGRAPHY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Criminal Photography

3.2 History of Criminal Photography

3.3 Elements of Criminal Photography

3.4 Importance of Criminal Photography

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

The word photography derives from the Greek words “fos” – meaning

light and “grofo” – to write. The word was popularised by Sir John

Herchel in 1839. Modern criminal photography began in the 1820s with

the first permanent photographs. The use of criminal photography and

the documenting of victims of violent crimes have increased awareness

by exposing the crimes. The various issues that will be examined in this

unit, to introduce you to criminal photography are the meaning, history,

elements and importance of criminal photography. The development of

chemical and digital photography will also be discussed.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


define photography

explain the meaning of criminal photography

discuss the levels of development of criminal photography

describe the elements of criminal photography

state the importance of criminal photography.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Criminal Photography

How is criminal photography different from the conventional

photography?


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Criminal photography encompasses documenting both suspected and

convicted criminals, and also the crime scenes, victims, and other

evidence needed to make a conviction. Although photography was

widely acknowledged as the most accurate way to depict and document

people and objects, it was not until key development in the late 19th

century that it came to be widely accepted as a forensic or criminal

means of identification.

Criminal photography resulted from the modernisation of criminal

justice system and the power of photographic realism. During the

nineteenth and twentieth centuries, these two developments were

significant to both criminal and forensic photography and police work in

general. They can be attributed to a desire for accuracy. First,

government bureaucracies became more professionalised and thus

collected much more data about their citizens. Then, Criminal Justice

Systems began incorporating science into the procedures of police and

judiciaries. The main reason, however for the acceptance of police

photography is a conventional one. Other than its growing popularity,

the widespread notion of photography was the prominent belief in the

realism of the medium.


Differentiate criminal photography from ordinary photography.

3.2 History of Criminal Photography

You can trace the development of criminal photography from ancient

times.

The earliest evidence of photographic documentation of prison inmates

dates back to 1843 – 44 in Belgium and 1851 in Denmark. This,

however, was solely experimental and was yet to be ruled by technical

or legal regulations. The shots ranged from mug shot resemblances, to

prisoners in their cells, and the purpose of them also varied from

documentation to experimentation. There was no training required and

pictures were often taken by amateurs, commercial photographers, and

even policemen or prison officials.

By the 1870s, the practice had spread to many countries, though limited

to larger cities. Professional photographers would then be employed to

take posed portraits of criminals. This was early evidence that led to the

standard mug shot known today and was unlike any previous known

portraiture. Though there was no set standard as of yet, there was rarely

creativity employed with lighting or angle. This was not like

photographing portraits of families or children. These were documenting


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criminals. It was one of the first times people saw portraiture being used

for something other than art. Though these were slowly adapted to

police regulations, photographing criminal suspects was widespread

until the latter part of the 19th

century. When the process of having one‟s

picture taken and archived was limited to individuals convicted of

serious offenses. This was, of course, by the discretion of the police.

As the number of criminals increased, so too did the number of

photographs, organising and storing archives became a problem.

Collections called “Rogues Galleries” classified criminals according to

the types of offenses. The earliest evidence of these galleries was found

in Birmingham, England in the 1850s. Shortly after this were initial

attempts at standardising the photographs.

French photographer, Alphonso Bertillon was the first to realise that

photographs were futile for identification if they were not standardised

by using the same lighting scale and angles. He wanted to replace

traditional photographic documentation of criminals with a system that

would guarantee a reliable identification. He suggested anthropological

studies of profiles and full-face shots to identify criminals. He published

La Photographic Judiciarie (1890), which contained rules for

scientifically exact form of identification photography. He stated that the

subjects should be well lit, photographed full face and also in profile,

with the ear visible. Bertillon maintained that the precepts of

commercial portraits should be forgotten in this type of photography. By

the turn of the century, both his measurement system and photographic

rules had been accepted and introduced in almost all states. Thus,

Bertillon is credited with the invention of the mug shot.

Some people believed that Bertillon‟s methods were influenced by crude

Darwinian ideas and attempted to confirm assumptions that criminals

were physically distinguishable from law-abiding citizens. It is

speculated in the article „Most wanted photography‟ that it is from this

system that many of the stereotype works (stains, colour, eye colour,

hair colour, body type and more) of criminals in movies, books and

comics were founded. Although the measurement system was soon

replaced by fingerprinting, the method of standardised photographs

survived.

A photographer appears to be photographing himself in a 19th

Century

photographic studio. The daguerreotype proved popular in responding to

the demand for portraiture emerging from the middle classes during the

industrial revolution. This demand that could not be met in volume and

in cost by oil painting added to the push for the development of

photography.


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In 1847, Count Sergel Lvovich Levitsky designed a bellows camera

which significantly improved the process of focusing. This adaptation

influenced the design of cameras for decades and is still found in use

today in some professional cameras. While in Paris, Levitsky would

become the first to introduce interchangeable decorative backgrounds in

his photos, as well as the retouching of his negatives to reduce or

eliminate technical deficiencies.

Levitsky was also the first photographer to portray a photo of a person in

different poses and even in different cloths. In the twentieth century,

photography developed rapidly as a commercial service. End-user

supplies of photographic equipment accounted for only about 20 percent

of industry revenue. For the modern enthusiast, photographic processing

in black and white film has little change since the introduction of the

35mm film Leica camera in 1925.

The first digitally scanned photograph was produced in 1957. The digital

scanning process was invented by Russell Kirsch, a computer pioneer at

the National Institute of Standards and Technology. He developed the

system capable of feeding a camera‟s images into a computer. His first

fed image was that of his son, Walden Kirsch. The photo was set at

176x176 pixels.

Since then, a canon power-shot A95, the Charged-Couple Device (CCD)

was invented in 1969 by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith at AT & T

Bell labs. The lab was working on the picture phone and on the

development of semi-conductor bubble memory. Merging these two

initiatives, Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed

“Charge “Bubble Devices”. The essence of the design was the ability to

transfer charge along the surface of a semi-conductor. It should be noted

that all these attempts led to the development of criminal photography.


Discuss the development of criminal photography.

3.3 Elements of Criminal Photography

What are the main features of criminal photography?

Criminal photography falls within the spectrum of forensic photography.

In criminal photography, it involves documenting the scene of the crime,

rather than the criminal. Though this type of forensic photography was

also created for the purpose of documenting, identifying and convicting,

it allows more room for creative interpretation and variance of style.

Criminal photography includes taking pictures of the victims (scars,


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wounds, birthmarks, etc.) for the purpose of identification or conviction;

and pictures of the scene (placement of objects, position of body, photos

of evidence of fingerprints). The development of this type of forensic

photography is responsible for radical changes in the field, including

public involvement (crime photos appearing in the newspaper) and new

interpretations and purposes of the field.

Bertillon was also the first to methodically photograph and document

crime scenes. He did this both at ground level and overhead, which he

called “God‟s-eye-view” while his mug shots encourage people to find

differences (from themselves) in physical characteristics of criminals,

his crime scene photographs revealed similarities in the public. This

made people question, when looking in a newspaper at pictures of a

murder that took place in a home that resembles their own, “Could this

happen to me? For the first time, people other than criminologists, police

or criminal photographers were seeing the effects of crime through

criminal photography.

Among the most famous crime photographers, is Arthur Fellig, better

known as “Weegee”. He was known for routinely arriving at crime

scenes before other reporters, or often even before the police. The

nickname is speculated to come from an alternate spelling of the word

“Ouija” implying that Fellig had a supper natural force telling where the

action was going to occur. His first exhibition, entitled “Weegee:

Murder is my Business” showed in 1941 at the photo League in New

York. The museum of modern Art purchased five of his photos and

showed them in an exhibit called “Action Potography.

Criminal photography had now transcended mere documentation. It was

considered an art. Weegee did not consider his photos art, but many

perceived them that way. He is a prime example of the different

purposes of criminal photography. His photographs were intended as

documentations as were viewed that way in the paper by many people.

But Weegee was shown in museums and seen as art by many others. His

first book was published in 1945 and was titled Naked City.

As criminal photography grew in practice and popularity, it yielded both

positive and negative results, depending on the individual and his

response. Many people find it easy to agree with Barbara Miller‟s essay

“The New Flesh” when she writes, “the newsworthy status of criminals

continues to increase exponentially. Graphic accounts appear not only in

tabloid media but in publications as Time and The New York Times.

More recently, the photograph documentations of killers and their

violent acts has become ubiquitous on televisions. While most can agree

that what Miller writes is true, there is a positive and negative side to

this picture. While many people argue that theses images are too graphic


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for their kids or even themselves to see on TV or that they do not want

to see killers or even suspected criminals like O. J. Simpson being

glorified like celebrities, the growth of the publicity of the criminal

image had had its positive effects as well.

The use of criminal photography and the documenting of victims of

violent crimes have increased awareness by exposing the crimes. While

people may have been aware of the existence of these evils, they may

have tried not to imagine the severity of the crime. However, a visual aid

is something that is much harder to ignore and is often shocking and

moving to the viewer. While it may not be pleasant image to rest one‟s

eyes upon, the discomfort felt by the viewer directly affects the way he

or she feels about the subject being shown, and even if it is only to avoid

seeing more graphic images, the viewer is more inclined to do

something to help stop the crimes being committed. The gained support

has led to the starting of movements and programmes dedicated to aid

victims and stop future instances of these crimes. Among these are child

abuse, spousal abuse, rape, and many others.

With technology like digital photography taking the world by storm,

criminal photography continues to advance and now includes many

categories that specialists are required to perform more sophisticated

tasks. The use of infrared and ultraviolet light is used to trace evidence

photography of fingerprints, tiny blood samples and many other things.

Necropsy photographs or photographs taken both before and after the

victims clothing is removed. These photos include close-ups of scars,

tattoos, wounds, teeth marks and anything else that would help in

identifying the victim, or determining his or her time and cause of death.

Technology is what guided the field and placed it where it is today, and

so it will continue to guide it. As technology constantly changes and

progresses, so too will the means of identifying criminals and

documenting crime scenes.


Outline the main features of criminal photography. Also list the

advantages of criminal photography.

3.4 Importance of Criminal Photography

Of what relevance is criminal photography to the investigation of

criminal activities?

Criminal photography is an integral part of a crime scene investigation.

Criminal investigation is not a simple thing to do because it involves

various individuals, agencies, and roles. On TV series, you can see how


144

criminal investigation can solve various crime cases. Unfortunately, this

is not always the outcome in the real world as many cases remain

unsolved or when they go to court, they lead to an acquittal or mistrial.

Therefore, crime scene investigation is not intended only to understand

what has happened, but also to collect important evidence to prove what

has happened. If evidence cannot be produced, the guilty will remain

free and the victim will not receive justice.

Forensic chemistry and psychology are popular among crime scene

investigation where people are arguing various theories across internal

and external networks. In this process, criminal photography is very

important because without the photographs, it will be difficult to prove

or even develop theories. Criminal photography involves two scenarios.

First are the pictures of the actual crime scenes and second are the

pictures of the recreated scenes. Both approaches are equally important

to give evidence and solve cases.

At the actual crime scene, criminal photography will capture the position

and location of bodies, locations, broken objects, and many other

aspects. At the recreated crime scene, the same things are applied. Those

subjects are positioned following the facts to create a realistic account of

the crime that has happened in the past or a crime that did not produce

any concrete evidence. Providing photographs that show what has truly

happened in criminal events so they can serve as court evidence is the

final goal of criminal photography.

You can consider criminal photography as an art because photographers

need to do certain activities commonly done to produce fine art

photography, such as choose the lighting, lens angles and correct

viewpoints so the pictures can serve as evidence in court. It is very

important for photographs to be clear and have proper scales so people

can imagine the real size of different objects. Different viewpoints are

necessary to counter the problem of parallax. Criminal photography

must not be tampered, which means that every person who touches the

photographs must be recorded to ensure that they are the real ones and

unedited.

Most criminal photography is in colour, although black and white is

used occasionally. Both film and digital images are accepted in most

courts. Surveillance and even mobile phone cameras can be used as

evidence, especially when the photographs are taken at the time of the

crime. Then these amateur pictures will be examined by the criminal

photography professionals to determine whether they can be used as

evidence or not.


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We are all familiar with the work of the criminal photographer through

detectives such as crime scene investigation (CSI). While it may not

always be quite as glamorous as depicted on TV, criminal photography

is still a fascinating area of work suitable to highly organised

photographers who combine excellent technical skills with a methodical

and meticulous working practice. While it is the job of many other

photographers to interpret a brief, it is the job of the criminal

photographer to produce accurate, detailed photographs that faithfully

record the location and evidence as clearly and as objectively as

possible.

Criminal photographs are used for measurement or analysis, to

accompany forensic reports, articles or research papers. Criminal

photography is an integral part of criminal investigation procedures

employed by police and security forces throughout the world.

Photographers must therefore, follow standard methodology and

produce images of a rigorous technical standard so that they can be used

as evidence in hearings, tribunals and court proceedings. Since the

subject matter often relates to accident, injury or criminal investigations,

criminal photographers will be expected to be able to work efficiently in

distressing and challenging environments, without disturbing other

evidence or interfering with the work of other investigators.

Criminal photographers produce a permanent visual record of the scenes

of accidents and crime scenes for use as evidence in court. They must be

able to produce detailed recordings of all available evidence at the

scene, including overview photographs as well as accurate images of

tiremarks, fingerprints, footprints, blood spatters, bullet holes and other

unique evidence at the scene. They must also be able to take detailed

photographs of injuries sustained through accidents or assaults and may

also be required to photograph dead bodies. Much of the work is routine,

but photographing crime scenes and road traffic accidents, or visiting

patients in hospital, can be emotionally distressing.

Many criminal photographers are forensic scientists employed directly

by the police or a specialist forensic services company. They work pre-

defined shifts and enjoy the benefits of a salaried post. There are also

other independent criminal photographers who provide forensic photo

imaging services to lawyers, insurance companies and some police

forces. However, most of these will have worked as forensic

photographers with a police force or the forensic science service before

branching out on their own. Photographers specialising in forensic

imaging are usually expected to work unsocialable shifts, and be part of

an on-call rota.


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While most lead photographers in criminal photography units will

usually have a strong background and qualification in photography,

most criminal photographers start as crime scene investigators or scene

of crime officers (Socos) before specialising in photography and

forensic imaging.

Criminal photographers need a thorough grasp of photographic

principles, particularly those involving non-standard techniques, such as

high-density and low level aerial imaging, as well as an appreciation of

the importance of their work. They must also pay close attention to

details, and take a meticulous approach to image and data recording.

They must be able to select and use the best equipment and techniques

for the job in all environments and lighting conditions. Photographs

must be correctly lit and exposed, have maximum depth of field, be free

from distortion and be in sharp focus. Experience of digital imaging

techniques is also desirable. Criminal photographers need a good

grounding in police methods and conventions, and a sound

understanding of anatomy. They must be able to methodically record the

original scene and the initial appearance of physical evidence without

the photograph appealing to the emotions of the jury or in anyway

prejudicing the case. They must also keep detailed records of exactly

where photographs were taken, the type of camera and lenses, what

stock the picture was taken on, and whether flash or artificial lights were

used.

This work requires a dedication and care which is not always necessary

in other less objective forms of photography. The role also requires tact

and discretion when dealing with distressed victims of crime, and the

ability to interact with a wide variety of professionals including police

officers, doctors, lawyers and court officials.

Criminal photographers usually receive general training in crime scene

photography once they have already been selected as a crime scene

investigator or crime scene officer. It should be noted that all

photographers need to understand health and safety rules, and should be

capable of assessing and managing the risks and potential dangers

associated with the use of electrical lighting, equipment and properties.

Criminal photographers may be subject to physical stresses from

carrying heavy camera equipment and lighting indoors and out, in all

seasons and all environmental conditions. They should therefore seek

advice about appropriate techniques for lifting and moving equipment.

There may also be a range of other risks specific to their area of work

and they should seek suitable training in appropriate risk management

procedures and best practices.


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Discuss the role of a criminal photographer in a crime scene

investigation. State the importance of criminal photography.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that criminal photography involves documenting

both suspected and convicted criminals, and also crime scenes, victims

and other evidence needed to make a conviction. It includes taking

pictures of the victim (scars, wounds, birthmarks, etc.) for the purpose of

identification or conviction, and pictures of the scene (placement of

objects, position of body, photos of evidence and fingerprints). We are

also made to understand that criminal photography is an integral part of

crime scene investigation (CSI). Because criminal photographers

produce a permanent visual record of the scenes of accidents and crime

scenes for use as evidence in court.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have examined the concept of criminal photography by

looking at the following aspects: Meaning, History, Elements and

Importance of Criminal Photography.


1. Explain the term criminal photography.

2. Outline the main functions of a criminal photographer in a crime

scene.

3. Discuss the importance of criminal photography.


Crawford, W. (1979). The Keepers of Lights: A History and Working

Guide to Early Photographic Processes. New York: Dobbs

Ferry.

Jaeger, J. (2005). “Police and Forensic Photography”. The Oxford

Companion to the Photograph (Ed.). Robin. Lenman: Oxford

University Press.

Levenson, G. I. (1993). “Berkeley, Overlooked Man of Photo Science”.

Photographic Journal 133(4) Pp169-71.


148

Michael, R. P. (2007). The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography: Digital

Imaging, Theory and Applications, History, and Science. UK.:

Focal Press Ltd.

Platt, R. (2005). Forensics. Jennifer Schofield, Boston: Kingfisher

Publications.

Rohde, R. R. (2000). Crime Photography. PSA Journal.


149

UNIT 3 CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning and Types of Crime Scene Photography

3.2 Purpose of Crime Scene Photography

3.3 General Principles of Crime Scene Photography

3.4 Basic Crime Scene Photographic Equipments

3.5 Photographing Specific Crime Scenes

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

In detective movies or television shows like „CSI‟, photographers swarm

in and take countless pictures of a crime scene. They twist and turn their

cameras haphazardly as agents discuss leads over the background hum

of the photographs‟ flash explosions. But how does crime scene

photography really go down? Since its purpose is to record evidence that

will be admissible in court, it‟s hardly a haphazard operation.

The various issues that will be examined in this unit that will introduce

you to crime scene photography are the meaning and types of crime

scene photos, purpose of crime scene photography, principles of crime

scene photography, basic crime scene photography equipments and

photographing specific crime scenes.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, it is hoped that you should be able to

define crime scene photography

describe the types of crime scene photos

discuss the basic principles underlying crime scene photography

list the basic crime scene equipment kit

state the purpose(s) of crime scene photography.


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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning and Types of Crime Scene Photography

Crime scene photography, also called forensic photography, has been

around almost as long as the camera itself. Criminologists quickly

realised that such technology could freeze time – creating a supposedly

incontestable record of a crime scene, a piece of evidence or even a

body. The 19th

century French photographer Alphonse Bertillon was the

first to approach a crime scene with the systematic methods of an

investigator. He had capture images at various distances and take both

ground level and over head shots.

Today crime photographs are essential for investigating and prosecuting

a crime. This is because most evidence is transitory. Fingerprints must

be lifted, bodies must be taken away and state. Photographs help

preserve not only the most fleeting evidence examined, and homes or

business must be returned to their normal – like the shape of a blood

stain that will soon be mopped up-but also the placement of items in a

room and the relation of evidence to other objects. Such images can

prove vital to investigators long after the crime scene is gone.

The first piece of evidence viewed by jurors is oftentimes the

photographs recorded by the crime scene investigator. Professional and

accurate photographic documentation is critical for creating lasting

impressions in the minds of a jury. Advanced crime scene photographic

evidence that is engaging, interesting, and informative; giving them

greater credibility when testifying in court. Crime scene photography

uses both basic photographic principles and integrates this information

with corresponding applications in crime scene photography. Mindful of

cost-saving concerns in most law enforcement agencies, it provides

useful tops on creating compelling photographic presentations on a

limited budget using everyday items in lien of expensive equipment. It

demonstrates how to photograph images used in identification, including

fingerprint, footwear, and tirewear impressions, tool and birthmarks and

bloodstain patterns.

Crime scene photography also encompasses nighttime and low-light

photography, flash photography, and painting with light techniques, the

photography of luminol reactions, laser trajectories and ultraviolet and

infrared light photography.

Thinking outside of the box, analyzing photographic challenges, and

determining the best way to record a particular composition are all keep

to the successful capture of photographic images that will leave a lasting

impression with the viewer.


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Types of Crime Scene Photos

A crime scene photographer takes a close-up image of a containers door

in Lagos, Nigeria. Police had just discovered million of naira stolen in a

bank robbery. Crime scene photographers must be methodical in their

work. They can‟t afford to leave out an important piece of evidence or

produce photographs that could be considered misleading in court. But

they also have the pressure of the entire operation behind them. Before

other crime scene investigators can touch or move any of the evidence

and even before the medical examiner can remove the body, the forensic

photographer mush document the scene.

There are three classifications of crime scene photos – overviews, mid-

range and close-ups.

If the crime took place inside, overviews include photos of the outside of

the building, its entrances and exits as well as images that place the

building in relation to its surroundings. Photos of spectators at the crime

scene can later help locate witnesses or suspects. Overviews also include

images of all rooms, taken from overhead and from each corner.

The crime scene photographer then hung in on key pieces of evidence

and captures images of them in the context. This evidence, like a knife,

but at enough of a distance to show its relation to furniture, a blood stain

or the rest of the room. Mid-range images establish the distance of

object from surrounding objects.

Finally, the crime scene photographer thoroughly documents evidence

with close-up images. Close-ups include identifying marks like scars on

a corpse or serial numbers on bloodied piece of electronic equipment. A

crime photographer will often include a ruler in the shot to establish

scale but always takes a duplicate image without the measuring device.

In court, the defence could claim the device covered something

important. And, of course, pictures are of no value unless they‟re in

context. A crime photographer keeps a photo log that includes every

relevant detail, the photo number, any filters applied, the time and date

and the location and a description of the object. The advent of digital

photography has helped to make some aspects of recording the time and

date simpler and more verifiable.


Describe the various types of crime scene photos that may be shot by a

crime scene photographer.


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3.2 Purpose of Crime Scene Photography

Why does a crime scene photographer document a scene? The purpose

of crime scene photography includes the following:

To record the original scene and related areas

To record the initial appearance of physical evidence.

It will provide investigators and others with this permanent visual

record of the scene for latter use.

Photographs are also used in court trials and hearing.

Admissibility of Photographic Evidence

There are certain points to be considered for a photograph to be

qualified to be tendered in the court.

The object pictured must be material or relevant to the point in issue.

The photograph must not appeal to the emotions or tend to prejudice

the court or jury.

The photographs must be free from distortions and not misrepresent the

scene or the object it purports to reproduce.

You do not need to be an expert in photography to take crime scene

photographs or testify about them.


List the purpose(s) of taking photographs in a crime scene.

3.2 General Principles of Crime Scene Photography

The following are the guiding principles of crime scene photography:

Photographs are one way to record a crime scene

Field note

Photographs

Sketches

In crime scene photographing, the following conditions must be

considered: what photographs can show and what photographs do not

show.


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Five steps in recording the crime scene are as follows:

Secure the scene

Take preliminary notes

Take overview photographs

Make a basic sketch

Record each item of evidence

In taking overview photographs, the purpose is to show the scene

exactly as it was when you arrived, don‟t try to reconstruct the scene as

it was. The photographs should show the scene as you find it. In major

crime photography, the following principles should be followed:

First discuss the crime, evidence and photographs needed with

other investigators at the scene.

Be careful not to destroy any evidence while taking the

photographs, outside the scene.

The exterior of the building where the crime occurred and in some cases

the whole locale, also aerial photographs of the scene and the

surrounding area can be useful in some type of cases. The original series

of photographs should also show all doors, windows and other means of

entrance or exit.

Inside the scene, begin with a view of the entrance, then photograph the

scene as it appears when you first step into the room, next move around

the room to get photographs of all the walls. These photographs should

also show the positions of any potential items of evidence. Finally,

include photographs of other rooms connected with the actual crime

scene. The use of video to record the crime scene is valuable so as to

show an overview of the scene.

In taking photographs to record items of evidence, the following

principles should be adhered to: take two photographs of each item of

evidence, one should be an orientation (mid-range) shot to show how the

item is related to its surrounding and secondly, the other photograph

should be a close-up to bring out the details of the object itself. In

measuring and marking devices, the following should be noted: Take

two photographs if a marking or measuring devices is used, one

photograph without the device, the other with the device. So the defence

can‟t claim that the scene was altered or that the device was concealing

anything important.

In night photograph, use multiple flash, paint with light available, for

extra long skid-marks or to show two vehicles some distance apart. The

following steps should be followed in using flash fill:


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Set the shutter speed to the camera‟s flash synchronisation speed

(usually 1/60 seconds).

Use the camera‟s light meter to determine the correct F/stop. Set

the F/stop on your lens.

With the flash on manual, find the flash to subject distance for the

above F/stop.

Position the flash unit at the distance and take the photograph.


State the guiding principles of crime scene photography.

3.3 Basic Crime Scene Photography Equipment

Early detectives used to sketch the scene of a crime. Photography

introduced a way to produce images that were more true-to-life and

credible than drawings. And while an honest and technically sound

photograph can record original state of a crime scene, it‟s simple enough

to manipulate a photograph or record an image that‟s drastically

different from reality. A good photograph of a crime scene must meet

certain technical specifications: correct exposure, sharp focus and

maximum depth of field, the portion of the photograph that appears

sharp. The image must also be free from distortion. Such technical

standards produce photos that will actually aid agents in their

investigation of a crime.

But there are additional qualities that make a photo admissible in court.

The image pictured cannot alter the scene or evidence.

Say through strategic blocking with a measuring device or an

intentionally shallow depth of field. The image must also be

relevant to the case and should be composed with technical

precision in mind, not emotional appeal.

Crime scene photographers might vary their kit based on personal

preferences or the type of crime scene. But the following are the basic

crime scene and evidence photography kit:

Camera

Normal lens (a 50mm lens is considered a normal lens for a

35mm camera)

Wide angle lens (28mm or similar for a 35mm camera)

Close-up lenses or accessories (e.g. macro lens, 1:1 adaptor,

extension tubes, bellows, reversing ring, or close-up filters)

Filters (red, orange, yellow, blue, and green)


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Electronic flash

Remote syncord for electronic flash (to operate flash when not

mounted on camera)

Extra camera and flash batteries

Locking cable release

Tripod

Film (colour and black and white print film)

Owner‟s manual for camera and flash

Note book and pen

Scales (ruler)

Gray card (to aid getting accurate exposures)

Index cards and felt pen

Flashlight

Lenses

Normal lens

Wide angle lens

Other lenses

Care and Maintenance of Crime Scene Photography Equipment

Cleaning lens and camera

Camera repair

Protection from extreme heat and cold.

Protection from rain

Film

Colour vs. Black and White

Print film vs. slide film

Film speed

Matching film to the light source.

Other equipments that should be considered include:

Telephoto lenses (135mm, telephoto zoom lens for surveillance

photography)

Supplementary light meter for low light level reading

Small tools for emergency camera repairs

Blocks of wood, clothespins, and other devices for positioning

evidence for close-up photography

White handkerchief or other flash diffusion material

Levels


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Tape measure

Colour chart or colour control patches (injury photography)

ABFO #2 scale (injury photography)


Mention the basic equipments necessary for a forensic photographer.

3.4 Photographing Specific Crime Scenes

Each crime scene has unique characteristics and the type of photographs

needed will be determined at the scene by the investigator familiar with

the crime

Homicide

Use colour film

Photographs (example, homicide inside a residence)

a. Extension of the building

b. Evidence outside the building

c. Entrance into the scene

d. Room in which the body was found

e. Close-up of body wounds

f. Weapons

g. Trace evidence

h. Signs of activity prior to the homicide

i. Evidence of a struggle

j. View from positions witnesses had, at time of the crime

k. Autopsy

Suicide: Other death call. If there is any doubt, photograph the scene as

a homicide.

Burglaries

Photographs (residential or commercial burglaries)

a. Exterior of building

b. Point of entry

c. Entrance into the scene

d. Interior views

e. Area from which valuable articles were removed

f. Damage to locks, safe, doors, tool marks

g. Articles or tools left at the scene by the suspect

h. Trace of evidence

i. Other physical evidence


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Assault, Injuries

a. Face of victim in the photographs

b. Bruises

c. Bit marks

d. Orientation shot

e. Close-up at 90 degrees angle to avoid distortion

f. Ruler in same plane as bite mark

g. Focus carefully

h. Bracket exposures

In equipments

a. Always use colour film and filter

b. Use colour charts and ruler

c. Flash unit with diffused lighting

Traffic Accident and Hit-and-run cases

Photographs at the accident scene

a. Where the vehicles came to rest and in what position.

Photographs should show the relationship of each vehicle with

each other.

b. Damage to vehicles

Technical photographs of Damage to Vehicles

a. Do not take any oblique or corner photographs to show damage

for reconstruction purposes because they are not aligned with the

axis of the vehicle. They tend to conceal the amount and direction

of the damage.

b. Take six photographs. Two from each side in line with the axles.

Take one of each, take one more from overhead.

c. Use electronic flash to fill in shadows within the damage.

d. Debris or marks on the road way.

e. View if each driver had approach the key point of the accident.

f. View from the point a witness observed the accident, at witness‟

eye level.

g. Evidence to identify hit-and-run vehicles.

Photographing specific crime scenes is highly technical photography.


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The following procedure must be followed:

A. Photographs must be correctly exposed, have maximum depth of

field, be free from distortion and be in sharp focus.

Correctly Exposed

a. Exposure is controlled by the shutter speed and lens aperture.

b. Automated camera exposure systems and automated flash units

can be fooled and give incorrect exposures.

c. Front, side and back lighting.

d. Light meters

e. Flair

f. Using gray card

g. Bracketing exposures.

B. Maximum Depth of Field

a. Depth of field is the area in photograph I which objects are in

sharp focus.

b. How to control depth of field

c. Zone focusing. Preview depth of field.

C. Free from distortion (must have good perspective)

a. Use a normal focal length lens when ever possible.

b. Keep the camera as level as possible

c. Photograph with the camera at eye level whenever possible.

D. Sharp focus

a. Keep the camera steady.

b. Focus carefully and use maximum depth of field.

Flash and Night Photography

Types of Flash

1. Manual Flash

Set F/stop for the flash-to-subject distance

2. Automatic Flash

Uses Distance Ranges


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A change to a new range requires a change in f/stop. Never work an

automatic flash at its maximum range, especially in less than ideal

conditions. When in automatic flash, make sure the shutter speed dial is

set to the flash synchronisation speed. When photographing a high key

scene (light or reflective background) bracket <197> opening up one or

two f/stops.

3. Dedicated Flash

Sets correct flash synchronisation speed when the flash is in operation.

Still uses automatic sensor and ranges. The photographer must set the

appropriate f/stop for the distance range. OR sets the correct flash

synchronisation speed and f/stop for the automatic range selected.

4. Dedicated TTL (through-the-lens)

Uses a sensor inside the camera. Use smaller f/stops for short distances

and larger f/stops for long distances. For compensation or bracketing use

the exposure compensation dial.

b. Problems with Electronic Flash

Flash Synchronisation

Coverage

Distances … inverse square law of light

Long distances when outdoor at night or at arson scenes.

Automatic flash units can shut off too soon due to reflected light.

Rain

c. Lighting Techniques

Electronic Flash (note: disregard the light meter in the camera when

using electronic flash)

Flash mounted on camera

Flash off camera

Bounce flash, bounce flash off a white or light coloured surface.

Manual flash: Add the distance up and down for the flash-to-

subject distance figure in the absorbance loss (one to three

f/stops)

Automatic flash with sensor facing the subject: use a range for

two times or more times the actual flash-to-subject distance

Multiple flashes: Distance the units to provide the same f/stop for

each flash

Available light (no electronic flash)


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Painting with Light

The shutter is left open while the light source is moved around until the

entire scene is properly illuminated.

Procedure

Mount the camera on a steady tripod

Equip the camera with a lens shade (if available)

Screw a locking cable release into the camera shutter release

Set the shutter speed dial to B (bulb)

Determine the f/stop based on the flash-to-subject distance (not

the camera-to-subject distance)

Focus carefully

Depress the cable release and lock it to hold the shutter open

Fire the electronic flash to light areas of the scene. The number of

flashes and angle of the flashes will depend on the size and

character of the scene. Do not point the flash directly at the

camera and keep yourself out of the view of the camera.

Unlock the cable release and allow the shutter to close

Advance the film.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that crime scene photography involves recording

evidence that will be admissible in court, and that it is hardly a

haphazard operation. Crime scene photography assists investigators in

creating photographic evidence that is engaging, interesting, and

informative, giving them greater credibility when testifying in court.

There are three types of crime photos: overview, mid-range and close-

ups. Since crime scene photography is technical photography, the

photographs must be correctly exposed, have maximum depth of field,

be free from distortion and be in sharp focus.

Crime scene photographers might vary their kit based on personal

preferences or the type of crime scene but must carry certain basics: a

camera, obviously, and may be multiple cameras, filters, electronic

flashes, various lenses for wide-range angle, mid-range and close-up

shots, a tripod, a measuring device, a gray card, which when combined

with a light meter helps produce correctly exposed photographs.


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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed crime scene photography by examining

the following areas: Meaning and types, purpose, general principles,

basic crime scene photographic equipments and photographing specific

crime scenes.


1. What is crime scene photography?

2. List the basic crime scene equipments.

3. Mention the general principles of crime scene photography.


Aobertis, E. K. (2004). “Light and Crime Scene” in Groundbreaking

Scientific Experiments, Inventions and Discoveries. UK:

Greenword Publishing Company.

Crawford, W. (1979). The Keepers of Light: A History and Working

Guide to Early Photographic Processes. New York: Dobbs

Ferry.

Henry, F. T. (2001). Improvement in Crime Scene Pictures. USA:

Morgan & Morgan Publishers.

Michael, R. P. (2007). The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography: Digital

Imaging, Theory and Applications, History and Science. USA:

Focal Press.


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UNIT 4 PHOTOGRAPHING EVIDENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning, Nature and Laws of Evidence Photography

3.2 Photographing Fingerprints

3.3 Photographing Toolmarks

3.4 Photographing Bloodstains

3.5 Photographing Impressions

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

Photographing evidence at crime scene is a vital aspect of crime scene

investigation. A crime photographer will thoroughly document evidence

with close-up, mid-range or overview photo. And of course, pictures are

of no value unless they are in context. A forensic or crime photographer

keeps a photo log that includes every relevant details, the photo number,

any filters applied, the time and date and the location and a description

of the object. The various issues that will be examined in this unit in

order to introduce you to photographing evidence are: the Meaning,

Nature and Laws of evidence photographing, Photographing

fingerprints, toolmarks, bloodstain, and impressions.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


define evidence photography

mention types of evidences in a crime scene

discuss nature of photographic evidence

apply the laws of evidence photography

described photographic techniques of recording evidences like

fingerprint, toolmarks, bloodstains and impressions.


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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning, Nature and Laws of Evidence Photography

Evidence photography can also be called crime scene or forensic

photography. The purpose of evidence photography is to record the

crime or accident scene as accurately as possible so that such evidence

can be used in a court of law to assist a judge or jury in understanding

what happened at the crime scene or at the time of the accident.

Nature

Even before the photographic invention was officially announced to the

public in 1839, light sensitive materials were already being used to make

scientific observation on the spectrum and on the chemical precipitation

of metals. By the late nineteenth century, this use of the photochemical

trace in addition to more modern photographic techniques was providing

scientists with innumerable insight into the natural world. It became, as

J. B Biot predicted in 1839, “an artificial retina, placed at the disposal of

physicists”, physiologists, biologists, astronomers, geologists, doctors

and all manner of social scientists. Photography recorded things that

were, to the human eye and human memory: too small, too fast,

invisible, too far away and far too ephemeral.

The relationship between photography and the sciences is wholly

symbiotic. Not in the sense that one cannot exist without the other, but

instead, that the effect one has on the other flows irregularly backwards

and forwards, new experiments are generated because photography is

capable of doing what it does, and new photographic technologies are

developed in response to particular experimental and observational

needs.

Taking as important not only how photography was used, but how

photography was surrounded by the language and rhetoric of science

photography has been seen to operate in experimental and observational

settings ever since Sir John Herschel first used” photograph to explain

the result of an experiment on March 1839. the project was used in

examining ways in which photographs were seen to generate facts, how

different types of photographs are used to photochemical trace differs

from photographic images made with lenses, how photographic

materials alter the way in which experiments and observations are

structured, and finally, but certainly not the least, how photographic

desiderata is treated, discussed and disseminated to a public audience

and as evidence.


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Law that Apply to Evidence Photography

Louis Daguerre is considered the first to capture a photographic image

and preserve it permanently; the result is what we know as the

daguerreotype. Daguerre believed himself to be creator of a chemically

created, therefore automatic, image that was not dependent on the

memory of a human being, as a sketch or drawing would be. Many after

him agreed, believing photography to be objective and incontrovertible

in its accuracy.

The general rules of evidence were formulated in 1975 to govern the

admissibility of evidence offered by both sides of a dispute into a court

of law. In particular, Article X of the General Rules of Evidence covers

the admissibility of photographic evidence. Key to admission of

photographic evidence is its relevance and authentication, which may

require the sworn testimony of the party requesting its admission.

Among other things, the General Rules of Evidence also defines what an

“Original” and “duplicate” image are, these definitions are used

frequently to determine how photographic recorded can be used in the

legal process.

Regulated Types of Photographs

The General Rules of Evidence have long governed the use of film-

based photography efficiently because of the difficulty of altering

conventional photographs without detection. Although Digital

photography has complicated the field of evidence photography because

of the ease with which digital photos can be altered, not just by changing

the colour and lighting but by adding or eliminating key elements of the

photo.


Differentiate evidence photography with conventional photography.

3.2 Photographing Fingerprints

When do you photograph fingerprints and how?

A fingerprint is an impression of the friction ridges of all or any part of

the finger. A friction ridge is a raised portion of the epidermis on the

palmar (palm) or digits (fingers and toes) or plantar (sole) skin,

consisting of one or more connected ridge units of friction ridge skin.

These are sometimes known as “epidermal ridges” which are caused by

the underlying interface between the dermal papillae of the dermis and

the interpapillary (rete) pegs of the epidermis. These epidermal ridges


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serve to amplify vibrations triggered when finger trips brush across an

uneven surface, better transmitting the signals to sensory nerves

involved in fine texture perception. The ridges assist in gripping rough

surfaces, as well as smooth wet surfaces.

Fingerprints may be deposited in natural secretions from the eccrine

glands present in friction ridge skin (secretions consisting primarily of

water) or they may be made by ink or other contaminants transferred

from the peaks of friction skin ridges to a relatively smooth surface such

as a fingerprint card.

The term fingerprint normally refers to impressions transferred from the

pad on the last joint of fingers and thumbs, though fingerprint cards also

typically record portions of lower joint areas of the fingers.

When to Photograph Fingerprints

Lift all major cases in the latent so that it may not be destroyed.

Lift to bring out all details in the latent

Equipment:

1:1 cameras and copy cameras

35mm cameras with macro or chese-up lens attachments

Gray card for available light exposures

Films

Well defined fingerprints can be photographed with colour film but

black and white film provides more contrast and is preferred for latent

print photography. Kodak, T-MAX film. Develop in T-MAX developer

while increasing the development time by 25% for increased contrast.

Kodak TECHNICAL PAN this film has a variable contrast range

between high and low and a variable speed of Iso 25 to 320. For high

contrast, expose at Iso 100 and develop in HC – 110 Kodak

KODALITH FILM for highest contrast.

Packaged as Kodak Ekagraphic Hc – Slide film (HCS 135 – 36) and has

an approximate Iso of 8. if develop0ed in D-76 of Hc – 110 there will be

a limited gray scale.

Iiford XP-2 black and white film can be processed in colour processors.

Iso 410, fine grain with good sharpness resolution can be processed in

C-41colour chemistry.


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Filters

Colour filters, when used in black and white photography, can be used

to build contrast by either lightening or darkening the background

(background drop-out).

To lighten a colour, the colour filter closest to the colour is used.

To darken a colour, the opposite colour filter is used.

Procedures

Establish the location of the latent

Close-up to show detail

1. A 1:1 camera or device must be used.

2. A scale must be included in the photograph on the same plane as

the latent.

3. Photograph with the film plane parallel to the latent surface.

4. Get as much depth of field as possible, especially for curved

surfaces.

Exposures

Available light exposures of latents with normal contrast can be

metered using a gray card.

Bracketing may reveal more detail in “low contrast” latents.

Underexposing the film will separate the steps on the white end

of the gray scale or on the black end of the gray scale.

The latitude for black and white film is generally two steps

underexposure and six steps overexposure.

Specific Types of Fingerprint Subjects

Normal, dusted prints. Usually can be photographed with no

problem. Impressions in soft substances (wax, putty, clay,

adhesive tape, grease, etc.) or in dust.

- Use cross lighting at an oblique angle.

- Preview with flashlight lighting.

Porous surfaces.

- May need to use close to a 90 degree lighting angle

- Preview with flashlight lightening


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Glass and mirrors.

- Glass – place whole card of cloth behind glass, use low oblique

angle of light

Perspiration prints on glass.

- Use back (transmitted) lighting diffusion screen

Ninhydrin fingerprint

- use normal black and whole film (T- MAX or Plus –X) with a

green filter and increase development time 25%.

Impressions

Footprints and tire tracks

Procedure

Take an orientation photograph to show where in the scene the

impression is located.

Take a close-up for detail

Use a scale in the same plane as the impression.

Keep the film plane parallel to the plane of the impression.

Block out ambient light and use a strong light source at different

angles to find the light angle(s) that shows the best detail in the

impression … then put the electronic flash or light source at that

angle for the photograph.

Photograph tire impressions in sections showing one circumference of

the tire then use a tape measure for overlapping photographs.


What are fingerprints? List ways of photographing fingerprints

3.3 Photographing Toolmarks

What are toolmarks? And what is the link between the toolmark and the

tool.

Toolmarks examination is an important discipline of forensic science.

When tools are used at a crime scene they can be linked to the unique


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tool marks. When tools like screwdrivers, pliers, hammers and wire

cutters are manufactured, the manufacturing process leaves certain

imperfections or patterns embedded in the tool‟s surfaces. These

patterns are believed to be unique for each tool. This means that when

criminals use the tools at a crime scene, to force open a window or to

jam a door or stab a person in the chest, the tool marks are often left

behind for forensic scientist to analyse.

What are Toolmarks?

Toolmarks are impressions or marks that are produced by a tool or

instrument on a receptive surfaced by a tool, or instrument that makes

contact with the surface with sufficient force to create an indentation,

the pattern of the tool is permanently reproduced onto the surface. In the

world of forensic science, toolmarks can take the form of a negative

impression (stamping type) or an abrasion (Friction type) mark. Some

toolmarks are a combination of both types

Toolmarks are the identifying characteristics of a specific tool.

Toolmarks impressions are usually microscopic and are the result of the

imperfections found on the cutting surface of a tool. These marks are the

“signature” or identifying characteristics of a specific tool. Laboratory

examinations and comparisons of toolmarks from a “suspect tool” with

toolmarks recovered from a crime scene can often prove conclusive

evidence to link a suspect to a specific crime and wrap up the criminal

investigation.

In creating a link between toolmark and the tool, we often know that in

criminal investigation, the goal is to establish a link between a toolmark

and the tool that created it at the crime scene. Such links are crucial in

forensic sciences, as tools are often used in criminal activities,

particularly in burglaries, and can help to identify a criminal. For

example, when someone uses a screw driver to force a window open, the

marks lefts by the tool on the window frame are direct evidence of the

presence of that tool for that particular use at the crime scene. (Then the

tool needs to be matched to its owner).

Evidence submitted in Toolmarks cases may include tools like bolt

cutters, screwdrivers and chisels, scissors, knives and box cutters, pliers

and wrenches, crowbars, tire, irons, saws, knives, etc. Places and

surfaces where toolmarks might be observed in criminal investigations

include wire, chains, door and window frames, sections of sheet metal,

safety deposit boxes, safes, human bone or cartilage, padlocks,

doorknobs, bolts and a variety of other materials.


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Toolmarks can also be scratches or impressions that are left on a surface

that is softer than the object or tool that caused the marks. At a crime

scene, the unique and individual imperfections on the tool surfaces –

that are transferred to the softer surface of the damaged object – can be

used to make a positive identification of the tool that may have been

used to cause the toolmark striations or impressions. Minute scratches

(striations) produced by tests made in the crime laboratory by the

questioned tool, will be compared to the striations noted on the evidence

toolmark areas. The forensic scientist (toolmark examiner) using a

comparison microscope will conduct comparison examination to

determine whether or not a particular tool may or may not have caused

the markings on the evidence from the crime scene.

Impressed marks – crowbars, car bumpers, and screwdrivers are also

considered to be toolmarks. For example, the top of a screwdriver or

chisel that is used to indent a metal surface but does not penetrate the

object will leave an impression that can be identified to that tool.

Photographing and Recording Toolmark Evidence

Toolmarks should be completely documented prior to removal or

casting. Notes, sketches and photographs must accurately reflect the

position of all toolmarks to a fixed reference point, and should depict the

height from the floor or ground. Toolmarks should be examined

carefully for any trace evidence. The first consideration should be for

the presence of latent fingerprints. Processing for latent fingerprints

should be preceded by careful examination for any loosely adhering

particles of evidence. This evidence may be photographed and removed

prior to application of fingerprints developing techniques (fingerprinting

techniques can destroy trace evidence).

Requested fingerprints and trace examinations will be performed prior to

the toolmark examination. On painted surfaces, bearing toolmark

evidence, sample scrapings of the paint should be submitted to the

laboratory for examination. Paint may not be readily seen adhering to

the tool, however, microscopic examination may reveal minute particles

that may be of evidentiary value. Toolmark evidence should be

packaged so as not to subject it to damage or loss of trace evidence.

Flakes of adhering paint or other trace materials may be lost from the

tool while in transit. It could also be damaged, changing the microscopic

characteristics. The tool should be padded with soft cotton or tissue and

covered with a paper bag to prevent damage or loss of or contamination

of trace evidence. Do not place evidence tape over the working surface

of the tool.


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In photographing, doors, windows or other openings with hinged or

sliding doors should not be opened, closed or handled in any manner

that might compromise latent fingerprints. These are usually found near

the points of entry or exit. Notes and photographs, with scales included

in the photos, should be made to document any broken, forced, or cut

locks, latches or bolts in the immediate area. Two types of photographs

are necessary for courtroom presentation as well as for investigative

purposes. The first scene and the object which bears the toolmark.

secondly close-up photos showing the detail of the toolmark. The photos

should contain a scale used for identification and orientation only.

Note that photos cannot be used for actual comparisons. Photographs

should depict the physical location and arrangement of the door,

window, etc. bearing the mark. These can reveal the direction of tool use

and whether or not the tool is physically capable of making the mark. A

scale/ruler should be included in these photographs. The photos should

be submitted, with the evidence, for examination. Photographs should

also include serial numbers and other small items, etc.

Removal and Marking of Evidence

Any items removed as evidence should be clearly marked with the case

number, initials of recovering officer and date/time of removal. The

evidence should also be marked to show the configuration in which it

was located, i.e. inside or outside, top or bottom, front or back and the

surface area bearing the tool mark. Many objects bearing tool marks that

are detached during a forced entry, may be submitted directly as they are

found. This includes segments of window or door molding, window or

door sill, latches, bolts, locks or doorknobs (where door knobs are

twisted) note whether anything obstructs access to the knob from either

side i.e. posts, door, set back) if the mark appears on large items it may

be possible to remove the area containing the mark. If it is removed, a

sufficiently large piece of the surrounding surface area must be included

to prevent damage to the tool mark through bending, splintering or

breaking. Any small removable item such as door knob, latch plate, lock

or hinge should be marked showing the top and front of the item as it

was positioned before removal including your photographs will greatly

enhance the situation for the examiner.


What are tool marks? How can they be photographed?


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3.4 Photographing Bloodstain

Blood that is in liquid pools should be picked up on a gauze pad or other

clean cotton cloth and allowed to air dry thoroughly, at room

temperature. Once the walk through in a crime scene is completed, the

notes must be supplemented with other forms of documentation, such as

videotape, photographs, and/or sketches.

Videotape can be an excellent medium for documenting bloodstains at a

crime scene. If a video camera is available, it is best used after the initial

walk through. This is to record the evidence before any major alterations

have occurred at the scene. Videotapes provide a perspective on the

crime scene layout that cannot be as easily perceived in photographs and

sketches. It is a more natural viewing medium to which people can

readily relate, especially in demonstrating the structure of the crime

scene and how the evidence relates to those structures.

The value of videotaping blood evidence is that the overall relationship

of various blood spatters and patterns can be demonstrated. One

example of this could be a beating homicide. In this case, videotape can

show the overall blood spatter patterns and how these spatters are

interrelated. The videotape can also show the relationship of the spatters

to the various structures at the crime scene. In cases where the suspect

may have been injured (such as stabbing homicides) the video camera

can be used to document any blood trails that may lead away from the

scene. If videotaping indoors, the camera can show how the various

cases or areas are laid out in relation to each other and how they can be

accessed. This is particularly valuable when recording peripheral

bloodstains that may be found in other rooms. The high intensity light

source can also be used for illuminating the bloodstains to make them

more visible on the videotape.

Whether a video camera is available or not, it is absolutely essential that

still photographs are taken to document the crime scene and any

associated blood evidence. If a video camera is available, then still

photography will be the second step in recording the crime scene. If

video is not available then still photography will be the first step.

Photographs can demonstrate the same type of things that the videotape

does, but crime scene photographs can also be used to record close up

details, record objects at any scaled size and record objects at actual

size. These measurements and recordings are more difficult to achieve

with videotape.

Blood evidence can be photographed using colour print film and/or

colour slide film. Infrared film can also be used for documenting

bloodstains on dark surfaces. Overall, medium range, and close up


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photographs should be taken of pertinent bloodstains. Scaled

photographs (photographs with a ruler next to the evidence) must also be

taken of items in cases where size relevance is significant or when direct

(one-to-one) comparisons will be made, such as with bloody shoeprints,

fingerprints, high velocity blood spatter patterns, etc. A good technique

for recording a large area of blood spatter on a light coloured wall is to

measure and record the height of some of the individual blood spatters.

The overall pattern on the wall including a yardstick as a scale is then

photographed with a slide film. After the slide is developed, it can be

projected onto a blank wall or onto the actual wall many years after the

original incident. By using a yardstick, the original blood spatters can be

viewed at their actual size and placed in their original positions.

Measurement and projections can then be made to determine the

spatter‟s point of origin. The following point should be noted in

bloodstain.

Photography

Use colour film

Orientation photographs to show locations of bloodstain evidence

at the scene.

Close –up photos to show detail by using a scale on the same

plane as the blood stain, also keep the film parallel to the plane of the bloodstain. And finally use a low oblique light angle.


Discuss the importance of videotape and photographs in documenting a

bloodstain scene crime.

3.5 Photographing Impressions

The following steps should be followed in photographing impression

evidence at the crime scene.

Secure and preserve the crime scene first. After that walk the crime

scene from the perimeter … inwards.

The essence of this is to interpret crime scene footwear and tire track

impressions for assistance in reconstructing events of the crime. For

example, direction of travel by suspects, and/or victim(s) to, from and

while at the scene may be determined. Also the number of suspects

involved at the scene may be determined. Use any video surveillance or

witness accounts to pinpoint searches for impression evidence. Mark the

impression(s) with a numbered cone or card for reference when taking

any crime scene photographs.


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Impression evidence, such as footwear and tire track, are often

overlooked. To avoid contamination, visualise this type of evidence

first, using visualisation techniques like oblique light with flashlight or

other light source – in low light or total darkness if possible. Also

electrostatic dust print lifter can be used.

In recording impression evidence, first take examination quality

photographs before using any chemical or physical enhancement

techniques. If three dimensional impressions are located, cast with

dental stone. Whenever possible, submit the original evidence

The following procedure should be followed in photographing

impression like footprints and tire tracks.

Take an orientation photograph to show where in the scene the

impression is located.

Take a close-up for detail by using a scale on the same plane as the

impression

Keep the film plane parallel to the plane of this impression and finally

block out ambient light and use a strong light source at different angles

to find the light angle(s) that shows the best detail in the impression.

Then put the electronic flash or light source at the angle for the

photograph.

Photograph tire impressions in sections showing one circumference of

them.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that photographing evidence is an important aspect

of crime scene investigation. A crime or forensic photographer keeps a

photo log that includes every relevant detail.

We learnt also that the purpose of evidence photography is to record the

crime or accident scene as accurately as possible so as to tender such

evidence in the court of law to assist a judge in taking a decision. Crime

scene photographs can be taken overviews, midrange or close-ups.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have examined photographing evidence or evidence

photography by looking at the following aspects: meaning, nature and

laws of evidence photography, fingerprints, toolmarks, bloodstain and

impressions photographing.


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1. What is the purpose of evidence photography.

2. What are Toolmarks? Discuss the various types of Toolmarks.

3. Explain Bloodstain photography.


Henry F. T. (2001). Impression in Crime Scene Picture. USA: Morgan

& Morgan Publishers.

Jaeger, J. (2005). Police and Forensic Photography” in the Oxford

Companion to the Photograph Oxford University Press.

Platt, R. (2005). Forensic Photography. Boston: Kingfisher

Publications.

Michael R. P. (2007). The Focal Encyclopaedia of Photography Digital

Imaging, Theory and Applications, History and Science. USA:

Focal Press.


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UNIT 5 FINGERPRINTS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Definition of Fingerprints

3.2 History of Fingerprints

3.3 Types of Fingerprints

3.4 Methods of Detecting Fingerprints

3.5 Uses of Fingerprints

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

Construction workers tend to have rough hands, and musicians tend to

develop calluses on the tips of their fingers. It‟s important not to rely too

heavily on these clues as they are not facts. Prints can substantiate or

disprove the story of a victim or witness by locating their prints where

they said they were. Even the absence of prints may be a key factor.

Fingerprints are used to identify an unknown victim, witness or suspect,

to verify records, and most importantly, as links and matches between a

suspect and a crime. Even when you have no suspect, prints can develop

leads, and sometimes provide clues about the criminal‟s size, sex, and

occupation. Small prints tend to be made by small people, and prints on

a wall indicate the suspects height. The various issues that will be

examined in this unit that will introduce you to fingerprints are the

definition, history, types, methods and uses of fingerprints.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


define the concept of fingerprints

discuss the history of fingerprinting

describe the various types of fingerprints

list methods of detecting fingerprints

state the uses of fingerprints.


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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Fingerprint

What is fingerprint?

Fingerprints are made of ridges on the upper skin on hands and feet of

all people and some animals. A fingerprint is an impression of the

friction ridges of all or any part of the finger. A friction ridge is a raised

portion of the epidermis on the palmer (palm) or digits (fingers and toes)

or plantar (sole) skin, consisting of one or more connected ridge units of

friction ridge skin. These are sometimes known as “epidermal ridges”

which are caused by the underlying interface between the dermal

papillae of the dermis and the interpapillary (rete) pegs of the epidermis.

These epidermal ridges serve to amplify vibrations triggered when

fingertips brush across an uneven surface, better transmitting the signals

to sensory nerves, involved in fine texture perception. The ridges assist

in gripping rough surfaces, as well as smooth wet surfaces.

Fingerprints may be deposited in natural secretions from the eccrine

glands present in friction ridge skin (secretions consisting primarily of

water) or they may be made by ink or other contaminants transferred

from the peaks of friction skin ridges to a relatively smooth surface such

as fingerprint card. The term fingerprint normally refers to impressions

transferred from the pad on the last joint of fingers and thumbs, though

fingerprint cards also typically record positions of lower joint areas of

the fingers.

Fingerprint can also be defined as an impression on a surface of the

curves formed by the ridges on a fingertip, especially such an

impression made in ink and used as a means of identification.

A distinctive or identifying mark or characteristic “the invisible

fingerprint that is used on products from counterfeits”. (Gene G.

Marcial) it could also be a DNA fingerprint or a chemical fingerprint.

Occasionally, a print is found that is made with the palm of the hand or

bare foot. These are ordinarily processed by the same methods used for

fingerprints. Several months before a baby is born, ridges develop on the

skin of its fingers and thumbs. These ridges arrange themselves in more

or less regular patterns referred to as fingerprints.

Fingerprints offer an infallible means of personal identification. That is

the essential explanation for their having supplanted other methods of

establishing the identities of criminals reluctant to admit previous arrest.


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Explain the term fingerprint in relation to forensics.

3.2 History of Fingerprints

How did fingerprints evolve as a means of identification?

Before the mid-1800s, law enforcement officers with extraordinary

visual memories, so called “camera eyes”, identified previously arrested

offenders by sight. Photography lessened the burden on memory but was

not the answer to the criminal identification problem. Personal

appearances change.

Around 1870, French anthropologist Alphonse Bertillon devised a

system to measure and record the dimensions of certain bony parts of

the body. These measurements were reduced to a formula which,

theoretically, would apply only to one person and would not change

during his/her adult life. The Bertillon system was generally accepted

for thirty years, but it never recovered from the events of 1903, when a

man named Will West was sentenced to the U.S. Penitentiary at

Leavenworth, Kansas. It was discovered that there was already a

prisoner at the penitentiary at the time whose Bertillon measurements

were nearly the same, and his name was William West.

Upon investigation, there were indeed two men who looked exactly

alike. Their names were Will and William West respectively. Their

Bertillon measurements were close enough to identify them as the same

person. However, a fingerprint comparison quickly and correctly

identified them as two different people. (per prison records discovered

later, the West men were apparently identical twin brothers and each had

a record of correspondence with the same immediate family relatives).

In the early days of police work, one of the great plagues of the

professional judge was not being able to prove that a suspect, and likely

convict, was a repeat offender. Society then as now frowned on the

career criminal and wanted a way to be able to punish him or her

accordingly, with a stiffer sentence. Different countries took different

approached to this problem: France took the method of branding their

criminals with the Fleur-di-lis symbol, as an indication that this person

had offended the crown before, Rome sometimes tattooed criminals,

other countries went the route of removing the hand of a thief (although

those that had merely suffered an accident might be confused with

having a criminal past).


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Beginning in the 1850s, some areas began photographing

(daguerreotyping) criminals as they went into prison. This method

became popular in the 1880s with the advent of the Kodak camera,

which was quicker and easier to use. However, photographs were still

not foolproof – people can drastically change their appearance and what

they do not do, time may. Nonetheless, police spent a great deal of time

studying “Rogues Galleries” thick books of photographs of known

criminals in the hopes of being able to identify them in the case of

similar crimes occurring near them. (There was apparently very little

faith that a criminal wouldn‟t return to his or her illicit ways).

Other methods included the Bertillon system developed by a French

anthropologist (Alphonso Bertillon) who posited that there were specific

body measurements that would not change; an example would be the

length of the femur. This was a very popular method despite the obvious

problems of obtaining measurements. The system received a severe

blow in 1903 in Leavenworth, Kansa, while taking the measurement of

one Will West, officials found that he was indeed a repeat offender. Mr.

West mightily protested this charge, and upon further examination of the

records, the jailers discovered that they already had one William West in

their custody, with the same Bertillon measurements. (There is still

some confusion as to whether these men were related, some believe they

may have been twins, others believe it was merely a fluke).

Happily, however, another system of identification was developing –

fingerprinting. Fingerprints had been used as source of identification

since the T‟ang Dynasty in China, and in 18th

century Japan – a

thumbprint could suffice for a signature on legal documents. The first

crime solved using fingerprints is sometimes stated to be a murder case

that occurred in ancient Rome, where a bloody handprint was later

found to be the match for the killer. Western awareness of the

possibilities of fingerprinting first came to notice in 1684, with a lecture

given by British doctor Nehemiah Grew, who spoke on the ridge

patterns of fingerprints. Two years later, Italian physician Marcello

Malpighi wrote a treatise describing the ridge patterns. (Latter the

“Malpighi” skin layer would be named in his honour). And there interest

ended for over a hundred years, in 1823 Johannes Evangelist Purkinje

wrote his doctoral thesis for the University of Breshaw that divided

fingerprints into nine different types.

In 1858, however, fingerprinting found a firm believer in William James

Hershel. It all started innocently enough. An employee of the East India

Company, Hershel wanted a good way to seal a contract with a Bengali

firm, and settled on using a handprint on the contractor. Two years later,

Hershel became a magistrate at Nuddea. One of his official duties was to

make sure that only the natives of the area receive the pensions that were


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due them, but to prevent as much fraud as possible. High illiteracy rates,

and therefore the inability to get a signature, drastically raised the

potential for fraud. Remembering the success of the handprint, Hershel

began requiring pensioners to use their fingerprints as a form of

signature in order to receive the money due them. Fraud avoided, and a

passion born. In 1877, Hershel requested permission to try his system in

a small prison in Bengal, but was refused.

The use of fingerprints during this time was somewhat stagnant. In

1893, the British Home Office set up a committee to determine the best

criminal identification system for Scotland Yard to use. After

consideration, they recommended the Bertillon system, but to also use

fingerprinting as a complementary means of identification. In the United

State, interest was growing, Gilbert Thompson, a geologist in New

Mexico used his fingerprints on documents in 1882 to prevent forgery,

thinking of Hershel‟s work, perhaps. At any rate, Thompson thus

became the first person to use fingerprinting in United States. Great

Britain and most of Europe accepted the Galton-Henry system, with the

exception of France, Belgium, and Egypt, who used an amalgam of the

two systems. France also held on to anthropometry for the first half of

the 20th

century. Edward Henry finished his system of identification and

retrieval of fingerprints in 1896, to great success. The following year,

the Indian government made fingerprinting the official means of keeping

track of criminals. In 1901, Henry became the head of Scotland Yard‟s

Criminal Investigation Division. The four basic divisions that Henry

created were: Arches, Loops, Whorls, and Composites. Every

fingerprint will fall into one of these four groups, narrowing down

potential matches.

And from this point on, progress is swift, with the notable exceptions of

France, Belgium and Egypt, all of whom will continue to use both the

Bertillon method and fingerprinting. The New York Civil Service began

testing fingerprinting in 1902. in March, 1903, the New York State

Prison System began fingerprinting criminals (in Ossining Prison, better

known as Sing Sing) and in 1904, the federal prison at Leavenworth

began to do so (as a direct result of the Will/William case). The US

army began using them in 1905 and the Navy in 1906. In 1908, P. A.

Flak of the Library Bureau Company in Chicago designed the basic

form still in use today – an 8inch square of medium weight cardboard,

with the fingerprints on it in printer‟s ink. Printer‟s ink is preferred

because it rarely smudges and dries quickly.

After eight years of testing, the FBI created a computerised criminal

fingerprint file in 1980. In 1983 the FBI created the National Crime

Information Centre, to allow for dissemination of information about

criminals between the federal and local governments. As part of this, the


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FBI standardised the methods of fingerprint classification, eradicating

local differences in classification, and making national retrieval easier.

By 1989, all fingerprints match requests were done on the computer, and

the response time cut from 14 days to 1 day.

Fingerprinting and identification are still key to solving criminal cases

despite the technological advances that are making DNA testing more

reliable and easy to obtain. It is possible that they may one day become

obsolete, as new methods supersede them, but for the foreseeable future,

the ends of the fingers will continue to point the way.


Discuss the historical development of fingerprints.

3.3 Types of Fingerprints

What are the various types of fingerprints?

The first workable system of classifying fingerprints was introduced by

British anthropologist Sir Francis Gallon in 1888. A few years later, Sir

Edward Henry, an Inspector-General of Police in British- controlled

India, refined the Galtonian method of classification so successfully that

the system became known by Henry‟s name. For decades, law

enforcement agencies in the English-speaking world used the Henry

system, which often proved cumbersome because of the need for

fingerprint experts and the time required to manually match the often

staggering number of prints on file.

There are essentially seven different types of fingerprints patterns that

are being used for fingerprint identification, which are:

Loops – Loops make up almost 70% of the patterns that have

been encountered so far. A loop pattern is basically the existence

and combination of one delta and one core and a ridge count.

There are basically two types of loops – „ulnar‟ and „radical‟.

Whorls – whorls constitute around 25 – 35 percent of the

patterns that have been brought in and mainly consist of whorls.

A fingerprint pattern that contains 2 or even more deltas will

always be a whorl pattern.

Plain whorl – A plain whorl is that whorl that consists of at least

one ridge that could possibly make a complete circuit, with 2

deltas, where an imaginary line will be drawn and it should have

at least 1 recurving ridge.


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Central Pocket Whorl – This type of a whorl consists of one

recurving ridge, 2 deltas, an obstruction to the line of flow and no

recurving ridge inside the pattern area is touched or cut.

Double Loop Whorl – This whorl is made up of 2 distinct yet

separate loop formations having 2 separate and distinct shoulders

and also 2 deltas.

Arches – Arches are encountered in only 5 percent of the patterns

received. Arch patterns consist of ridges that run from one side of

the pattern to the other. There is generally no delta. There are two

types of arches – Plain arches and Tented arches.

Whorl Tracings – There are essentially two different

components to a whorl classification – the first is the pattern and

the second is the tracing. To find a whorl tracing you must

identify the left delta.

The arch fingerprint type has a pattern of ridges that curve upward,

forming what resembles a stacked row of arches. In the plain arch, the

line usually flows consistently from one side of the fingertip to the

other. This is widely considered the easiest type of print to identify. The

tented arch is similar but has at least one ridge that point upward and

breaks up one or more of the lines above.

The loop fingerprint has ridges that curl around the fingertip. The ridges

point in one direction before rising and flowing in the opposite direction.

Like the arch type, the loop is divided into two categories. The radial

loop‟s ridges move in a downward slope from the direction of the pinky

toward the thumb. The ulna loop‟s ridges downward in the opposite

direction toward the pinky, the digit found on the same side as the

forearm‟s long ulna bone.

One of the most varied, complex fingerprint patterns is the whorl, which

is broken down into four sub-categories. Whorl ridges form frequently

closed, rounded shapes that expand outward from the delta, the point at

which the ridges converge or form a different pattern. A fingerprint can

have one or more delta. The plain whorl is the easiest of the four to

classify because it consists of round circuits within round circuits

emanating towards the fingerprint edge. The central pocket whorl, in

contrast, has one or more ridges that disrupt the curving flow of lines,

sometimes at right angles. The double loop whorl contains two distinct

set of loop patterns. Composite whorl combine two fingerprint patterns

– with the exception of the plain arch pattern – and also include

complete circuits among the ridges.

Experts note a fourth type of fingerprint pattern known as the composite,

although it is not part of the original Henry system. Like the whorl

pattern, the composite has four sub-categories which have varying


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combinations of arch, loop and whorl features. The central pocket loop

composite has one ridge that forms a complete loop and at least two

deltas. The twinned loop is like the central pocket except that it has two

complete, rounded shapes within the pattern. The lateral pocket loop is

similar to the twinned loop with its two distinct, rounded circuits, the

difference being at some point the ridges curve sharply downward in one

direction. Lastly, the accidental loop combines rounded circuits and two

distinct deltas with any of the known fingerprint types except the plain

arch.


Discuss the various types of fingerprints.

3.4 Methods of Detecting Fingerprints

What methods are used in detecting fingerprints of suspects A and B in a

crime investigation?

Since the late nineteenth century, fingerprint identification methods have

been used by police agencies around the world to identify both

suspected criminals as well as the victims of crime. The basis of the

traditional fingerprinting technique is simple. The skin on the palmar

surface of the hands and feet forms ridges, so –called papillary ridges, in

patterns that are unique to each individual and which do not change

overtime. Even identical twins (who share their DNA) do not have

identical fingerprints. Fingerprints on surfaces may be described as

patent or latent. Patent fingerprints are left when a substance (such as

paint, oil or blood) is transferred from the finger to a surface and are

easily photographed without further processing. Latent fingerprints in

contrast, occur when the natural secretions of the skin are deposited on a

surface through fingertip contact and are usually visible, so that they can

be photographed. The complex ones depend on the type of surface

involved. It is generally necessary to use a „developer‟, usually a powder

or chemical reagent, to produce a high degree of visual contrast between

the ridge patterns and the surface on which the fingerprint was left.

There are several methods of detecting latent fingerprints.

Powder and Tape

Probably the most well-known method of detecting latent prints is

dusting for them. A variety of powders are used in dusting for prints,

many containing aluminium or carbon. This finally crushed powder is

gently applied to a surface, and the minute particles of powder cling to

the print residue, making it visible to the human eye. These prints are


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then lifted using adhesive tape. For dusting to work, the surface that is

being dusted must be completely dry and relatively free of other

contamination.

Magna Brush

This is a magnetic wand that attracts iron. It is dipped in iron dust, and

the particles cling to it. This then used in the same way as using dusting

carbon and aluminium powders. The Magna Brush is also less messy, as

any excess iron particles can be easily collected with the magna brush. A

variety of fluorescent colours are available for this, and some of these

powders reflect alternative light sources such as UV and lasers.

The Cyanoacrylate Fuming Method

The cyanoacrylate fuming method, also known as the superglue fuming

method, has proved to be another very useful way of detecting latent

prints. This method was first used by the Criminal Identification

Division of the Japanese National Police Agency in 1978. Shortly after

this, it was adopted in USA and now it is commonly used method of

detecting prints. Most superglue is methyl cyanoacrylate or

ethylcyanoacrylate. This reacts with the traces of amino acids, fatty

acids, and proteins in fingerprints as well as the moisture in the air,

making them visible.

Ninhydrin

Another common method of fingerprint detection is the use of

ninhydrin. This is sprayed, swabbed or dripped onto the surface.

Ninhydrin reacts with the amino acids in the prints, forming a purple or

pink compound.

Iodine Fuming

Iodine crystals are placed in a glass tube known as a fumer. The

examiner then blows into the fumer, causing the transformation from

solid to gas. The iodine vapours are emitted from the other end, and if

the tube is aimed at a latent print, it will become visible for a short time.

Silver Nitrate

Silver Nitrate is a less toxic way of detecting prints on paper. Silver

chloride turns black in light, and one of the components of sweat is

sodium chloride. The silver nitrate is placed with distilled water and

applied to the paper. The paper is exposed to light, and any prints will

turn black.


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Amido Black

Amido Black is a chemical used to develop fingerprints in blood. A

fixing agent is first applied to the blood stain, and then amido black is

used. There are other methods of detecting latent prints most similar to

the techniques mentioned above. Some methods even include laser

technology. Different surfaces will require different techniques for

developing latent prints. For example, when developing a print on paper,

Ninhydrin should be used, though powders may work but not as

effectively.

When developing prints in blood, Amido Black should be used, and

powder works best on non-porous surfaces. When taking fingerprints

from people, ink is rolled over the fingers and then the fingers are

pressed down on papers or cards. However, when it come to finger

printing the dead, it does not come so easy. If we are fingerprinting a

corps recently deceased, there is no problem. However, if we are dealing

with decomposition or mummification where the skin has become

hardened and contracted, a special method is required. Usually the

fingers are soaked in a solution of glycol, lactic acid and distilled water,

softening the finger tissues. If the skin has been wrinkled by the damp,

the fingers can be printed by either use of hypodermic syringe, gently

manipulating the fingertips by hand, or removing the finger skin

altogether and mounting it to be printed. Fingerprints found at crime

scenes are very rarely fully intact, which means the quality of the print is

lower, and can be more difficult to positively match.

When multiple sets of prints are being compared, a certain number of

characteristics points must be a match. Worldwide, there is no set

number of how many points must match before it is accepted as a match,

but it does differ in some countries. For example, in Netherlands, 12

points are required, whereas in Africa, only 7 points are required. Paris

has a requirement of 17 points, whereas the rest of France only requires

12. It should be noted that people of African ancestry tend to have

plenty of arches; people of European background have frequent loops;

and Asians/Orientals have a fairly high frequency of whorls.

Crime scene fingerprints may be detected by simple powders, or some

chemicals applied at the crime scene, or more complex, usually

chemical techniques applied in specialist laboratories to appropriate

articles removed from the crime scene. With advances in these more

sophisticated techniques some of the more advanced crime scene

investigation services from around the world are now reporting that 50%

or more of the total crime scene fingerprints result from these laboratory

based techniques.


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List the methods of detecting latent fingerprints and describe two of

them.

3.5 Uses of Fingerprints

In crime investigation: Fingerprints are the cheapest and best means to

prove the identity of the criminal. Most of the crime cases, like murder

and theft cases, do not have an eye witness or other evidence. Even the

testimony of an eye witness can be strongly challenged in court. But one

can never deny his presence at a crime scene if his fingerprints are

collected there. A fingerprint itself is conducive evidence.

To prevent impersonation: Fingerprints can be included with social

security cards, passports, driving licenses, bank accounts, etc. to prevent

unauthorised use.

To prove the identity of an unidentified dead body: Fingerprint

comparison is one way to prove the identity of a dead body when it is

mutilated or decomposed, thus making it difficult to identify the person.

It becomes useful when a natural calamity occurs or a war breaks out.

The mutilated bodies of the victims may be identified with the use of

earlier recorded fingerprints.

In biometrics based electronic gadgets: Fingerprints plays a vital role in

the manufacturing of the biometric based electronic gadgets, such as

door security systems, door access control systems, automatic safe

boxes, fingerprint attendance systems, fingerprint security system, etc.

Fingerprints offer an infallible means of personal identification: That is

the essential explanation for their having supplanted other methods of

establishing the identities of criminals reluctant to admit previous

arrests. The science of fingerprint identification stands out among many

all other forensic sciences for many reasons, including the following:

It has served all governments worldwide during the past 100 years to

provide accurate identification of criminals. No two fingerprints have

ever been found alike in many billions of human and automated

computer comparisons. Fingerprints are the very basis for criminal

history foundation at every police agency on earth. Remains the most

commonly used forensic evidence worldwide – in most jurisdictions

fingerprints examination cases match or outnumber all other forensic

examination casework combined.

Worldwide, fingerprints harvested from crime “scenes lead to more

suspects and generate more evidence in court than all other forensic


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techniques combined. Other visible human characteristics change –

fingerprints do not. In earlier civilisation, branding and even maiming

were used to make the criminal for what he was. The thief was deprived

of the hand which committed the thievery. The Romans employed the

tattoo needle to identify.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that fingerprints are used to identify an unknown

victim, witness, or suspect to verify record, and most importantly as

links and matches between a suspect and a crime. Even when you have

no suspects, prints can develop leads, and sometimes provide clues

about the criminal‟s size, sex and occupation. We have also learnt that

there are three major types of fingerprints namely: Arches, Loops and

Whorls, with each class further subdivided into numerous sub

categories. We also learnt that fingerprints can be detected using a

powder or chemical reagents, like ninhydrine, cynoacrylate fuming

method, etc. Finally fingerprints are used in crime investigation, to

prevent impersonation and also to prove the identity of an unidentified

dead body.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have examined the concept „Fingerprints‟ by looking at

the following aspects: Definition, History, Types, Methods of Detecting,

and Uses of fingerprints.


1. What are fingerprints?

2. Mention the various types of fingerprints and discuss two of

them.

3. Discuss the importance of fingerprints to forensic science.


Ashbaugh, David (1999). Quantitative – Qualitative Friction Ridge

Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advance Ridgeology.

Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.

Astrom, Paul (2007). “The Study of Ancient Fingerprints”. Journal of

Ancient Fingerprints.

Ashbaugh, D. R. (1991). “Ridgeology”. Journal of Forensic

Identification. 41(1).


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Everts, Sarah (2008). “Fingerprints Reveal Drug Use”. Chemical &

Engineering News 86(51): 34.

Laufer, B. (2000). “History of the Fingerprint System”. Smithsonian

Institution Annual Report.

Vokey, J. R.; Tangen, J. & Cole S. A. (2009). “On the Preliminary

Psychophysics of Fingerprints Identification”. The Quarterly

Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol. 62, 155, 5.


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MODULE 4 FIREARMS AND AMMUNITIONS

Unit 1 Ballistics

Unit 2 Projectiles

Unit 3 Explosives

Unit 4 Landmines

UNIT 1 BALLISTICS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Ballistics

3.2 Basic Ballistics

3.3 History of Ballistics

3.4 Types of Ballistics

3.5 Ballistics Fingerprinting

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

Ballistics is the science of how ammunition operates. Ballistics is a

science which is important for soldiers, law enforcement, hunters and

anyone who seeks to protect their life, their home, and family. The

various issues that will be discussed in this unit that will introduce you

to ballistics are: the meaning, History, Types, Basic Ballistics and

Ballistic fingerprinting.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


define the term Ballistics

discuss basic ballistic knowledge

mention types of ballistics

explain ballistic fingerprinting

list the basic characteristics of firearms

discuss the history of ballistics.


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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Ballistics

What is Ballistics all about?

The best firearm in the world will perform horribly if not fed equally

good ammunition. A well-designed round can significantly increase the

accuracy and stopping power of any caliber bullet.

Ballistics is the science of how ammunition operates. Ballistics is a

science which is important for soldiers, law enforcement, hunters, and

anyone who seeks to protect their life, home, and their family. The study

of ballistics can help any shooter to achieve better results from their

rifle, pistol or shotgun. Ballistic is the science of mechanics that with

flight, behaviour, and effects of projectiles, especially bullets, gravity

bombs, rockets, or the like, the science or art of designing and

accelerating projectile so as to achieve a desired performance. Gun

ballistics is the study of projectiles from the time of shooting to the time

of impact with the target.

A ballistic body is a body which is free to move, behave, and be

modified in appearance, contour, or texture by ambient condition,

substances, or forces as by the pressure of gases in a gun, by rifling in a

barrel, by gravity, by temperature, or by air particles. A ballistic missile

is a missile only guided during the relatively brief initial powered phase

of flight and its course of classical mechanics.

In the field of forensic science, forensic ballistics is the science of

analyzing firearm usage in crimes.


Explain the meaning of the term ballistics.

3.2 Basic Ballistics

As shooters, we are all interested in where the bullet goes once we fired

the gun. The ability to place the bullet where we want it is vital to any

accurate shooter, and an understanding of ballistics is necessary to

accomplish that in a consistent and reliable fashion. The body of

knowledge as to the factors effecting the flight of the bullet from the

instant it leaves the muzzle of the gun until it strikes the target is termed

Extend Ballistics.


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In order to make clear our discussion, let us study figure 1 below:

Line of Sight

A perfectly straight line from the shooters eye through the rear sight,

than the front sight, then the target. Line of sight starts at “0” and is the

black line running straight across the chart in the centre of the shade

area. Obviously, when the shooter aims the gun, he is looking along the

line of sight.

Line of Bore

A straight line running along the centre of the bore of the gun, as we all

see, this does not coincide with the line of sight.

True Drop

Illustrated as the blue line on the chart, true drop is the actual distance

the bullet falls during the time of flight to the target. It is important to

realise that this is not the same as what we speak of when we discuss

drop in the ordinary sense, which is more properly termed Effective or

Apparent Drop. A simple way to think of this is as follows: hold in your

hand a round ball perfectly identical to the one being shot, at exactly the

same level above the ground, make the line of Bore of the gun exactly

parallel to the earth, fire the gun, and at the instant the ball clears the

muzzle, drop the ball from your hand. The ball fired from the gun and

the one dropped from your hand will both strike the ground at the same

instant, one at your feet and the other many yards down range. Since two

identical balls dropped from the same height, hit the ground at the same

instant, they must be dropping at the same rate. That‟s true because both

balls, like everything else on earth, are subject to the acceleration of


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gravity, which is constant under all circumstances. Regardless of what

we do, the ball is „falling‟ all the time it is in flight, even when it is

travelling upwards.

Path

The red line on the figure shows the one thing we are vitally interested

in, the actual path through the air of the bullet after it leaves the muzzle

of the gun. It is in fact the True Drop of that path. Many factors affect

the final shape of the path. It is the fact that True Drop is constant and

inescapable that everything else in basic ballistics revolves round. To

illustrate this, this figure or chart was prepared using a 600 round ball

travelling at 1247/sec. The ball weighs 324.3 grains, the gun is sighted

in at 75 yard and shooting was done under standard atmospheric

conditions. This figure or chart represents a hypothetical situation.

The data used to create the chart show that true drop at 75 yards is 7.55

inches. This means that if we point the barrel, the line of Bore, directly

at the target, the ball will strike 7.55 inches low every time, and we can‟t

change that. So, we cheat in a very simple way. We aim the barrel above

the target just enough to cancel out that 7.55 inches of drop. We then

adjust the sights of the gun so that the line of sight points directly at the

target, and we forget it. Now it is easy to see the difference between

True Drop and Apparent Drop. We know the ball is actually falling 7.55

inches, but since it hits the target when we aim at it, apparent drop is

zero at the target range.

Several things follow from the setup. We know that the line of Bore is

below the line of sight at the muzzle, crosses the line of sight, going

upward. The ball, which starts out along the line of Bore, quickly falls

below it, but not before it has crossed the line of sight. Depending upon

the gun, the velocity and the range the gun is sighted for, this happens at

5 to 10 yards in front of the muzzle. Where the bullet crosses the line of

sight the first time, going upward is called the Near Zero Range, NZ on

the cart of figure. The bullet travels on, reaching its maximum height

above the line of sight, then begins to fall. The point at which this

maximum above line of sight is reached is called Mid-range Trajectory

MRT on the figure. This occurs, in general at a little more than 50

percent of the distance to the target. Continuing on, the bullet falls closer

to the line of sight, until it crosses it again at the target range, the Far

Zero Range.

We now have the picture of the path from muzzle to target… below the

line of sight at the muzzle, crosses the Line of sight close to the muzzle

at the Near Zero, reaches a maximum height above the line of sight at


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the Mid-range Trajectory, stays above the line of sight until it crosses it

again at the target range, Far Zero.

If we see the shape of red line on the figure, the perfect path would

coincide exactly with the line of sight, and to see the target happen,

obviously, different bullets, fined at different velocities, will perform

differently. A major factor in determining the shape of the path is the

rate at which the bullet, of whatever shape, slow down. Since True Drop

is a constant, occurring at a constantly accelerating rate, we can see that

if a bullet is traveling very fast, it will travel a long distance downrange

for any given unit of time, and for a certain amount of True Drop, if it is

travelling slowly, it will travel a much shorter distance downrange in

that same unit of time, but it will drop exactly the same amount. Thus,

the shape of the path is fairly flat at the beginning, but curves more and

more as it nears the target, because the bullet is slowing down. The

shape of all trajectories is similar to that of a parabola, with constantly

increasing rate of curvature.

Why does one bullet slow down more quickly than another? Simply put,

because it has more drag (more friction through the air) or less inertia.

Why does one have more drag? Because of a difference in shape which

creates more friction. A streamlined bullet cuts the air more easily than

a blunt, irregularly shaped one. So, a bullet designed for and fired from a

modern, high velocity rifle will have much less drag than a conical or a

round-ball fired from a blade powder gun. Inertia is the property that

makes any moving body tends to keep moving in the same direction and

at the same speed, unless acted upon by some outside force. Inertia is

increased by increasing mass (think weigh) and velocity. Our flying

bullet is acted upon by two outside forces, gravity forcing it to drop and

air friction forcing it to slow down.

It becomes obvious, then, that heavier bullets and more streamlined

bullets resist slowing best.

In order to be able to compare the efficiency of various bullets, a

mathematical tool was developed, and it‟s called Ballistic coefficient. A

bullet of a given shape (the shape doesn‟t matter) and weight was fired

thousands of times, and its drag, its rate of slowing, was determined

precisely. This was named standard Bullet. Now in order to compare the

performance of our favourite projectile, all we have to do is compare its

rate of slowing with that of the standard bullet. If it slows exactly the

same as the standard bullet, it is said to have a Ballistics coefficient of

1.0. Any BC lower than 1.0 indicates a bullet which is not as good at

plowing through the air and retaining its velocity as the standard Bullet

is. Those of us interested in black powder shooting and the ballistics of

our bullets quickly learn that the BC of a round-ball is lower than the


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standard Bullet. Because a round-ball is … a round ball … its shape

cannot be changed. To compensate for a low BC, we can do two things,

increase the weight, because a heavier projectile has more inertia and

resists slowing more and starts with greater initial velocity, so that

velocity at the target is higher, even after all the loss.


1. Explain the following terms, Line of Sight, True Drop and Line

of Bore.

2. Explain also why one bullet slows down more quickly than

another.

3.3 History of Ballistics

Ballistics experiments have been with us since ancient times, when war

machines were slinging rocks over the walls of fortified towns. As a

science it began with the study of flight-paths when shooting at targets.

One of the first to apply the science of ballistics to criminology was

Eugene Francois Vidocq, the first head of the French Surete.

The modern ballistics expert is concerned with three areas.

Internal ballistics is what happens inside a weapon when it is

fired. The firing pin makes a distinct mark on the cartridge. Then

explosive pressure causes the bullet to expand slightly to fill the

spiral „rifling‟ grooves cut in the bore. This makes the bullet spin

as it passes down the barrel, but it leaves tell-tale marks on the

bullets that are unique to that particular firearm. The presence of

nest or spider silk indicates the gun that has not fired recently. At

close range, particles from a wound may lodge inside the barrel.

External ballistics is what happens to the bullet and residues

outside the gun, including the direction and velocity of the shot,

as well as any deviation in the trajectory.

Terminal ballistics looks at the changes in trajectory and speed

caused by ricochet and penetration of objects, as well as layered

deposits on parts of the bullet accumulated as it contacts these

objects. Terminal ballistics includes examination of the shape of

rounds and the extent of tissue damage. If a bullet cannot be

removed for examination, its Calibre can be measured by CT

scanning.

The mysteries of gunpowder and its tremendous force attracted such

scientists as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, and Isaac Newton. Firearms


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operate faster than the human eye can see, and so these early researchers

tried to determine the flight of projectiles. A recent development

combines ballistics with DNA analysis. With DNA mmo bullets are

tagged with a cocked DNA sequence and are directly traceable to the

purchaser.

Rifling, which first made an appearance in the 15th

century, is the

process of making grooves in gun barrels that imparts a spin to the

projectile for increased accuracy and range. Bullets fired from rifled

weapons acquire a distinct signature of grooves, scratches, and

indentations which are of value for matching a fired projectile to a

firearm.

The first firearms evidence identification can be traced back to England

in 1835 when the unique markings on a bullet taken from a victim were

matched with a bullet model belonging to the suspect when confronted

with the damning evidence, the suspect confessed to the crime.

Alexandre Lacassagne was the first scientist to try to match individual

bullet to a gun barrel.

The first court case involving firearms evidence took place in 1902

when a specific gun was proven to be the murder weapon. The expert in

the case, Oliver Wendel Holmes, had read about firearm identification,

and had a gunsmith test-fire the alleged murder weapon into a wad of

cotton wool. A magnifying glass was used to match the bullet from the

victim with the test bullet.


Mention three areas that modern ballistics expert emphasises as

compared former experts. Discuss them briefly.

3.4 Types of Ballistics

What are the various types of ballistics? As we all know, ballistics is the

science of the motion of projectiles and the conditions that influence

that motion. The four major types of ballistics influencing helicopter

fired weapons are interior, exterior, aerial, and terminal. Each type

produces dispersion, which is the degree that projectiles vary in range

and deflection about a target.

Interior Ballistics

Interior ballistics deal with characteristics that affect projectile motion

inside the barrel or rocket tube. It also includes effects of propellant

charges and rocket motor combustion. These characteristics affect the


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accuracy of all aerial-fired weapons. Aircrews cannot compensate for

these characteristics when firing free-eight projectiles. The

characteristics of interior ballistics are discussed below.

a. Barrel Wear: Gaseous action, propellant residue, and

projectile motion wear away the barrels inner surface or cause

deposits to build up. These conditions result in lower muzzle

velocity, a decrease in accuracy, or both.

b. Propellant Charge: Production variances can cause difference in

muzzle velocity and projectile trajectory. Temperature and

moisture in the storage environment can also affect the way

propellants burn.

c. Projectile Weight: The weight of projectiles of the same caliber

may vary. The variance is most noticeable in linked-ball

projectiles. The variations do not significantly influence

trajectory.

d. Launcher Tube Alignment: Individual rocket launcher tubes are

aligned by the rocket launchers internal or end bulkhead.

However, the precise alignment of each tube may vary. Because

of variances in alignment, the launcher boresighting of the

launcher should include checking the boresight of several tubes

and selecting the one that best represents the alignment of the

entire launcher

e. Thrust Misalignment

i. A Perfectly Thrust – Aligned free-flight rocket has thrust control

that passes directly through its centre of gravity during motor

burn. In reality, free-flight rockets have an inherent thrust

misalignment, which is the greatest cause of error in free flight.

Spinning the rocket during motor burn reduces the effect of thrust

misalignment.

ii. Firing rockets at a forward airspeed above ETL provides a

favourable relative wind, which helps to counteract thrust

misalignment when a rocket if fired from a hovering helicopter,

the favourable relative wind is replaced by an unfavourable and

turbulent downwash caused by rotor. This unfavourable relative

wind results in a maximum thrust misalignment and a larger

dispersion of rockets.

iii. Rockets spin to counteract thrust misalignment. Rockets with

MK66 motors exhibit less dispersion in the target effect area than


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those with MK40 motors according to data provided by Rock

Island Arsenal.

Exterior Ballistics

Exterior ballistics deal with characteristics that influence the motion of

the projectile as it moves along its trajectory. The trajectory is the flight-

path of the projectile as it flies from the muzzle of the weapons. It has

all the exterior ballistic characteristics associated with ground-fired

weapons. They also have other characteristics unique to helicopters. The

characteristics of exterior ballistics are discussed below.

a. Air Resistance: Air resistance, or drag, is caused by friction

between the air and the projectile. Drag is proportional to the

cross-section area of the projectile with its velocity. The bigger

and faster a projectile is, the more drag it produces.

b. Gravity: The projectile‟s loss of altitude because of gravity is

directly related to range. As range increases, the amount of

gravity drops increase. This drop is proportional to time of flight

(distance) and inversely proportional to the velocity of the

projectile. Crew members that fire weapons without FCC

solutions must correct for gravity drop.

c. Yaw: Yaw is the angle between the centre line of thee projectile

and the trajectory. Yaw causes the projectile‟s trajectory to

change and drag top increase. The direction of the yaw constantly

changes in spinning projectile. Yaw maximises near the muzzle

and gradually subsides as the projectile stabilises.

d. Projectile Drift:

i. When viewed from the rear, most projectiles spin in a clockwise

direction. Spinning projectiles act like a gyroscope and exhibit

gyroscope precession. This effect causes the projectile to move to

the right, which is called the horizontal plane gyroscopic effect.

As the range to target increases, projectile drift increases.

ii. Aerial Ballistics

Common characteristics of aerial-fired weapons depend on

whether the projectiles are spin stabilised or fin-stabilised and

whether they are fired from the fixed mode or the flexible mode.

Some characteristics of aerial-fired weapons are discussed below:

Rotor Downwash Error: Rotor downwash acts on the projectile as it

eaves the barrel or launcher. This downwash causes the projectile‟s

trajectory to change. A noticeable change in trajectory normally occurs

when the helicopter is operating below effective translational lift.

Although rotor downwash influences the accuracy of all weapons


197

system, it most affects the rockets. Maximum error is induced by rotor

downwash when the weapon system is fired from an aircraft hovering.

When the rocket passes beyond the rotor risk, air flow upward and

causes the rocket to nose-dive. This air flow causes both lateral (a

zimuth) and linear (range) errors.

iii. Terminal Ballistics

Terminal ballistics describes the characteristics and effects of the

projectile at the target. Projectile functioning, including blast, heat and

fragmentation is influenced as described below:

a. Impact Fuses: Impact fuzes activate surface and subsurface burst

of the warhead. The type of target engaged and its protective

cover determine the best Fuze for the engagement. Engage targets

on open terrain with a super quick Fuze that causes the warhead

to detonate upon contact. Engage targets with overhead

protection, such as fortified positions or heavy vegetation, with

either a delay or forest penetration Fuze.

b. Remote set or Variable Time Fuzes: Time Fuzes produce

airburst and are most effective against targets with no overhead

protection. Flechette, smoke, and illumination war heads

incorporate a timed fuze, which depends on motor burnout. The

range for this type of fuze is fixed. Remote range-set fuzes are

used for high explosive, multipurpose submunition, smoke,

illumination, and chaff warheads.

iv. Dispersion

If several projectiles are fired from the same weapon with the same

settings in elevation and deflection, their points of impact will be

scattered about the mean point of impact group of rounds. The degree of

scatter (range and azimuth) of these rounds is called dispersion. The

mean point of impact with respect to the target centre, or intended air

point, is an indication of the weapon‟s accuracy. Both dispersion and

accuracy determines whether a particular weapon can hit an intended

target, or firing rockets at maximum ranges decreases range dispersion

and normally increases accuracy. The reverse is true with other weapon

system that is as range increases, dispersion increases and accuracy

decreases. Dispersion is caused by errors inherent in firing projectiles.

These errors are influenced, in part, by the factors such as vibrations,

sights and boresight.

Vibrations: Because mounts for weapons are fixed to the helicopter,

vibration in the helicopter transmits through the mounts. These


198

vibrations affect azimuth and elevation sights. The condition of the

sights and the accuracy of their alignment with the bore axes of weapons

cause a displacement of the dispersion pattern of the projectiles.

Bore sight: Proper bore sighting of aircraft weapons is critical to

accurate fires; improper bore sighting is a factor in dispersion

differences between aircraft.


List the various types of Ballistics you know. Also explain dispersion in

projectiles.

3.5 Ballistic Fingerprinting

Ballistic fingerprinting refers to a set of forensic techniques that rely on

marks that firearms leave on bullets to match a bullet to the gun it was

fired with. It is a subset of forensic ballistics (the application of ballistics

to legal questions) and internal ballistics (the study of events between

the firing of a gun and the bullet leaving the barrel.

Ballistic fingerprinting techniques are based on the principle that all

firearms have inevitable variations due to marks left by the machining

process, leaving shallow impressions in the metal which are rarely

completely polished out. Also, normal wear and tear from use can cause

each firearm to acquire distinct characteristics overtime. The following

are some of the variations.

Gross Differences

The simplest considerations are the gross differences. A 10mm bullet,

for example, could not have been fired from a 9mm barrel, nor could a

357 magnum cartridge have been fixed from a 38 special revolver.

Striations

When a bullet is fired through a rifled barrel, the raised and lower spirals

of the rifle are called “striations”. These can be matched with the barrel

through which the bullet was fired. Examiners distinguish between

striation common to all guns of a particular type (“class characteristics”)

and those unique to a particular gun (“individual characteristic”). The

class characteristics depend upon the type of rifling in the barrel, which

varies among manufacturers and models in numbers and shape of the

grooves, twist rate, and direction individual characteristics are caused by

imperfections in the rifling process and tools, but also by the wear and

tear caused by regular use, and can therefore change over time.


199

Criminals or those concerned with government intrusion in privacy

sometimes attempt to alter a gun‟s individual characteristics by changing

or shorting the barrel or by rubbing its interior with a steel brush.

Breech Markings

Marks on the cartridge case can be matched to marks in the chamber and

breech. Cartridge cases are often easier to identify than bullets. There

are a couple of reasons for this. First the parts of a firearm that produce

marks on cartridge cases are less subject to long-term wear, and second,

bullets are often severely deformed on impact, destroying much of the

markings they acquire.

Shotguns

Ballistic fingerprinting of bullets does not write with firearms such as

shotguns that fire shot-containing cartridges. In many cases the shot

rides inside a plastic sleeve that presents it from ever touching the barrel,

and even in cases where the shot does touch the barrel the random

movement of the shot down the barrel will not leave any consistent

marks but shotgun cases can still be examined for firing pin marks and

the like.


Describe the techniques used in ballistic fingerprinting.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have discussed that Ballistics is the science of how ammunitions

operate; the study of ballistics can help any shooter to achieve better

results from their rifle, pistol or shotgun. We also know that there are

four major types of ballistics, namely interior, exterior, aerial and

terminal ballistics. We also understand that, both dispersion and

accuracy determine whether a particular weapon can hit an intended

target. Dispersion is caused by errors inherent in firing projectiles. In

addition, they may be influenced by the vibrations in the mount and

condition of the sighting systems.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have studied ballistics by looking at the following

aspects: Meaning, History, Types, Basic Ballistics and Ballistic

Fingerprint.


200


1. What are ballistics.

2. Mention types of ballistics and discuss any two of them.

3. Why does one bullet have more „drag‟ than the other?


Castillo O. A. (1997). Introduction to Ballistics. UK: Vintage Press.

Cook, W. (1993). Warfare and Firearms in Fifteen Century Morocco.

Morocco: Osprey Publishing.

Tan, A.; Frick, C. H. & Castillo O. (1987). The Flyball Trajectory.

American Journal of Physics. Vol. 55 (1).

U. S, Marine Corps (1996). FM 6-40 Tactics, Techniques, and

Procedures for Field Artillery Manual Cannonry, Department of

the Army.

URL S. (2005). “Basketball Ballistics”. Nigeria Journal of Science. Vol.

10 (2).


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UNIT 2 PROJECTILES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Projectile

3.2 Types of Projectile

3.3 Properties of Projectiles

3.4 Applications of Projectiles

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

A projectile is any object that has been thrown, shot or launched, and

ballistics is the study of projectile motion. Examples of projectiles range

from a golf ball in flight, to a curve ball thrown by a baseball pitcher to a

rocket fired into space.

The flight paths of all projectiles are affected by two factors, gravity and

on earth at least, air resistance. The various issues that will be examined

in this unit, so as to introduce you to the concept of projectile are the

meaning/definition, properties, types and applications of projectiles.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


define the concept projectile

discuss the various types of projectiles

state the properties of projectile motion

explain how projectiles work

mention some applications of projectiles.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Projectile

What is a projectile?

A projectile is any object propelled through space by the exertion of a

force which ceases after launch. Although a thrown baseball could be


202

considered a projectile the word more often refers to a weapon. Arrows,

darts, spears and similar weapons are fired using pure mechanical force

applied by another social object, apart from throwing without tools;

mechanisms include the catapult, slingshot, and bow. Other weapons use

the compression or expansion of gases as their motive force. Blowguns

and pneumatic rifles use compressed gases, while most other guns are

liberated by sudden chemical reactions. Light gas guns use a

combination of these mechanisms. Rail guns utilise electromagnetic

fields to provide a constant acceleration along the entire length of the

device, greatly increasing the muzzle velocity.

Some projectiles provide propulsion during (part of) the flight by means

of a rocket engine or jet engine. In military terminology, a rocket is

unguided, while a missile is guided. Note the two meanings of “rocket”.

Many projectiles, e.g. shells, contain an explosive charge. With or

without explosive charge a projectile can be designed to cause special

damage, e.g. fire (early thermal weapons), or poisoning (arrow poison).

Projectiles which do not contain an explosive charge are termed kinetic

projectiles, kinetic penetrator. Classic kinetic energy weapons are blunt

projectiles such as rocks and round shot, pointed ones such as arrows,

and somewhat pointed ones such as bullets. Among projectiles which do

not contain explosives are those launched from rail guns, coil guns, and

mass drivers, as well as kinetic energy penetrators. All of these weapons

work by attaining a high muzzle velocity, that is hypervelocity, and

collide with their objectives, converting their kinetic energy into

destructive shock waves and heat.

Some kinetic weapons for targeting objects in spaceflight are anti-

satellite weapons and anti-ballistic missile. Since they need to attain a

high velocity any way, they can destroy their target with their released

kinetic energy alone. Explosives are not necessary.

Compare the energy of TNT, 4.6 MJ/kg, to the energy of a kinetic kill

vehicle with a closing speed of 10 km\s, which is 50 MJ/kg. This saves

costly weight and there is no detonation to be precisely timed. This

methods, however, requires direct contact with the target, which requires

a more accurate trajectory.

A kinetic projectile can also be dropped from an aircraft. This is applied

by replacing the explosive of a regular bomb e.g. by concrete, for a

precision hit with less collateral damage. A typical bomb has a mass

of 900kg and a speed of impact of 800km/hr (220m/s). It is also applied

for training the act of dropping a bomb with explosives. This method

has been used in operation Iraq Freedom and the subsequent military

operations in Iraq by mating concrete-filled training bombs with JDAM

GPS, guidance kits, to attack vehicles and other relative “soft” targets


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located too close to civilian structures for the use of conventional high

explosive bombs.

We also have wired projectiles, where some projectiles stay connected

by a cable to the launch equipment after launching it:

for guidance wired projectiles or guided missile (range up to

4000 meters).

to administer an electric shock, as in the case of a Taser (range up

to 10.6 meters), two projectiles are shot simultaneously, each

with a cable.

to make a connection with the target, either to tow it towards the

launcher, as with a whaling harpoon or to draw the launcher to

the target, as a grapping hook does.

A projectile or shell is a missile fired from the muzzle of a gun, it is

always the projectile, whether issuing from the muzzle of a Breech-

loading rifle, using separate ammunition, or from the muzzle of a Rapid–

Fire Gun, using fixed, cartridge-case ammunition. Projectile for guns of

and above seven inches in calibre are called major-calibre projectiles. For

guns of six-inch calibre and smaller they are called minor-calibre

projectiles. The charge intact to the enemy‟s most vulnerable

point and its relative efficiency will be a measure proportional to its

carrying capacity. The first projectiles used were stones thrown from

slings, afterwards lead bullets were projected in the same way, arrows,

from long bow, and darts javelins thrown, in very early days, ballista,

and catapults were used as a species of ordinance, the former to hurl

large stones, and the latter, wooden beams shod with iron and often

covered with inflammable material. The projectile, as it is understood in

modern times, came in with the use of gunpowder in warfare, and

small-arms, it was found too soft for battering with larger guns, and

stone shot being not only too light for good flight, but also deficient in

tenacity and gave way to iron.


Explain the concept of projectile.

Types of Projectiles

What are the various types of projectiles?

As earlier explained, a projectile is any object that has been thrown,

shot, or launched. Examples of projectiles range from a golf ball in

flight, to a curve ball thrown by a baseball pitcher to a rocket fired into

space.


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Projectiles can be broadly classified according to three main types. Spin-

stabilised, fin-stabilised, and rocket assisted (both fin and spin-

stabilised). Formal military classification is based on the intended use of

the projectile and the composition of the explosive charge (i.e.

antipersonnel, antitank, and incendiary). Some very significant progress

in projectile design has been made in the past few years. The form of all

projectiles is approximately the same, namely, that of a hollow steel

cylindrical case with pointed head, having a soft metal band near the

base which takes the rifling of the gun and gives the projectile the

twisting motion which keeps its steady flight.

Spin-Stabilised Projectiles

Most guns in today use spin-stabilised projectiles. Spinning a projectile

promotes flight stability. Spinning is obtained by firing the projectiles

through a rifled tube. The projectile engages the rifling by means of a

rotating band normally made of copper. The rotating band is engaged by

the leads, grooves and at a nominal muzzle velocity of 2800 feet per

second. The spin rate is on the order of 250 revolutions per second.

Spin-stabilised projectiles are full bore (flush with the bore walls) and

are limited approximately to a 5:1 length – to – diameter ratio. They

perform very well at relatively low trajectories (less than 450

quadrant

elevation). In high trajectory applications they tend to over stabilised,

i.e. maintain the angle at which they were fired and, therefore, do not

follow the trajectory satisfactorily.

Fin-Stabilised Projectiles

These projectiles obtain stability through the use of fins located at the

left end of the projectile. Normally, four to six fins are employed.

Additional stability is obtained by imparting some spin (approximately

20 revolutions/second) to the projectile by canting the leading edge of

the fins. Fin-stabilised projectiles are very often sub calibre. A sabot

wood or metal fitted around the projectile is used to centre the projectile

in the bore and provide a gas seal. Such projectiles vary from 10:1 to

15:1 in length –t-diameter ratio. Fin-stabilised projectiles are

advantageous because they follow the trajectory very well at high-

launch angles, and they can be designed with very low drag thereby

increasing range and/or terminal velocity. However, fin-stabilised

projectiles are disadvantageous because the extra length of the projectile

must be accommodated and the payload volume is comparatively low in

relation to the projectile length.

In contrast to conventional spin-stabilised projectiles which derive their

in-flight stability from the gyroscopic forces resulting from the high rate

of spin, the finned projectiles are stabilised during flight by aerodynamic


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forces acting on the projectile. Although projectile spin does not

contribute to the stabilisation of finned projectiles, a low rate of roll

around the longitudinal axis is desired to minimise the adverse effects of

mass and configurational asymmetries which may result from material

imperfections and from manufacturing tolerances.

Fin-stabilised projectiles are ideally launched from smooth bore guns

which due to the absence of rifling do not impart a rolling motion. Such

weapons are installed for instance, on advanced battle tanks and

commonly have calibres of 60 millimetres or more.

Commonly, fin-stabilised projectiles consist of a sub calibre penetrator

and a fin assembly of four or more fins attached to the rear of the

penetrator. The projectile assembly is symmetric to its longitudinal axis

and is fired from the gun by means of a discarding sabot. Two important

functions of the discarding sabot are to support and guide the sub calibre

projectile along the centreline of the gun barrel during acceleration and

to form a seal to contain the propellant gasses during travel in the barrel.

The latter function is accomplished by the rotating band which engages

the rifling grooves of the gun barrel and in doing so imparts spin to the

projectile commensurate with the rifling twist of the barrel and the

projectile muzzle velocity.

Fin-stabilised projectiles reflecting the current state of the art

incorporate a sliding seat between the rotating band and the sabot body.

The sliding seat is designed such as to reduce by approximately 70 to 90

percent the amount of spin transmitted from the rotating band, which

picks up the full spin, to the sabot body. The degree of spin transmission

within the seat of the rotating band is determined by sliding friction.

Thus, upon exit from the muzzle of the gun the fin-stabilised projectile

has a rate of spin equal to approximately 10 to 30 percent of that of a

spin-stabilised projectile launched at the same muzzle velocity.

There are two problem areas encountered with this method of firing fin-

stabilised projectiles from a rifled cannon. Firstly it is difficult to control

the spin reduction in the sliding sea with a degree of repeatability

necessary to assure acceptable projectile accuracy over the entire range

of operating conditions specified for military employment. Variation in

projectile temperature from 400

to +600c

changes in humidity finite

manufacturing tolerances, contamination by dust, salt and other

substances entering between the rotating band and its seat, etc. influence

the friction coefficient in the band seat and with it the degree of spin

transmission.

Secondly, centrifugal forces acting on sabot components are very

effective in initiating the instantaneous and symmetric separation of the


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sabot from the penetrator upon exists from the muzzle of the gun. With

reduced projectile spin the centrifugal forces acting on the sabot

components are reduced by the square of the spin ratio. As a result, the

sabot separation is neither as rapid nor as precise as with a non - slipping

rotating band and is increasingly more dependent on aerodynamic

forces.

The access of aerodynamic forces to the projectile is delayed by the

influx of high velocity propellant gases upon exit of the projectile from

the muzzle of the gun. The temporal reverse flow field occurs only upon

entering into the ambient air. This occurs at a range of approximately 30

calibres from the muzzle, when the aerodynamic forces become fully

effective. The magnitude of the separation is only a fraction of the

centrifugal forces available when launching at full spin and therefore a

considerably more fragile sabot construction is required to assure its

fracture and separation. In addition, because of size limitations of

ammunition of calibres up to 40 millimetres, the physical dimensions of

sliding rotating bands, inclusive of their seats, are small, thus resulting

in rather delicate and vulnerable components. In contrast, utilisation of a

non-sliding rotation band allows for the use of a stronger sabot which is

advantageous when employed from high rate of fire cannons and their

correspondingly high structural loads during feeding and ramming.

Fin-stabilised projectiles equipped with discarding sabots incorporating

slipping rotating bands experience considerable variations in spin rate at

exit from the muzzle due to elevations in the friction coefficient within

the sliding seat of the band. As a result the subsequent acceleration or

deceleration of the projectile spin may result in conditions where the

spin rate is equal to the notation frequency of the projectile and

resonance instability will occur. The lower projectile spin rate at muzzle

exit and consequent reduction in centrifugal forces acting on the sabot

decrease the rapidly and symmetry of the discard of the sabot

components and therewith result in increased projectile dispersion.

Sabot

What is a sabot and its influence on projectiles?

A sabot is a lightweight carrier used both to position a missile or sub

calibre projectile inside a gun tube and to transmit energy from the

propellant to the projectile. The sabot works much like a person

throwing a dart, where the thrower‟s arm movement acts as both the

propellant-driving gas and the sabot‟s energy gathering pusher.

In general, guns operate with a fixed mass to be propelled out of the

gun‟s tube. The sabot is necessary to transfer propellant energy but is a


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parasitic weight in terms of projectile target performance. Reducing the

sabot‟s weight allows greater projectile velocity. The weapons thus

penetrate deeper with more lethal results. But materials used to fabricate

sabots can only be as lightweight as they are strong enough to withstand

great pressures and loads during gun-tube acceleration.

Rocket-Assisted Projectiles

There are two main reasons for developing rocket-assisted projectiles (1)

to extend the range over standard gun systems, and (2) to allow for

lighter mount and barrel design and reduce excessive muzzle flash and

smoke the recoil and setback forces of standard gun systems. Since the

ranges are different, the above two objectives represent opposite

approaches in the development of rocket-assisted projectiles. Normally,

one or the other establishes the performance of the rocket-assisted

projectile under development although the two approaches may be

established by the design objectives.


List the types of projectiles. What advantages does fin-stabilised

projectile have over other types of projectiles?

Properties of Projectiles

Projectiles or objects experiencing projectile motion have the following

common characteristics: All have a constant velocity in the horizontal

direction, and a constantly changing velocity in the vertical direction.

Also the trajectory resulting from this combination always has the shape

of a parabola.

For example, if we throw a green-ball and a red-ball, and a blue-ball, the

green-ball will illustrate constant velocity in the x-direction, the red-ball

illustrates constant acceleration from gravity in the negative y-direction.

The blue-ball illustrates projectile motion, its y-coordinate at any time is

the same as the x-coordinate of the green-ball, and its y-coordinate at

any time is the same as the y-coordinate of the red-ball. Note that the

trajectory is always a parabola.

As mentioned above, the time required for an object to complete its

motion is the same whether you consider the y-direction or the x-

direction. This has an interesting implication for projectile motion,

particularly if the initial velocity is zero. The time required for initially

horizontal projectile motion to occur is the same as the time required for

the object to fall to its final height. Thus, a ball thrown horizontally will

reach the ground at the same time as a ball dropped from the same

height.


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Mention two properties of projectiles in motion.

Applications of Projectiles

One of the first things people think of when they hear the word

“projectile” or “ballistics” is the study of gunfire patterns for the

purposes of crime-solving. Indeed this application of ballistics or

projectile is a significant part of police science, because it allows law-

enforcement investigators to determine when, where, and how a firearm

was used. In a larger sense, however, the term as applied to firearms

refers to efforts towards creating a more effective, predictable, and

longer bullet trajectory.

From the advent of firearms in the west during the 14th

century until

about 1500, muskets were hopelessly unreliable. This was because the

lead balls they fired had not been fitted to the barrel of the musket.

When fired, they bounced erratically off the sides of the barrel, and this

made their trajectories unpredictable. Compounding this was the

unevenness themselves, and this irregularity of shape could lead to even

greater irregularities in trajectory.

Around 1500, however, the first true rifles appeared, and these greatly

enhanced the accuracy of firearms. The term rifle comes from the

“rifling” of the musket barrels: that is the barrels themselves were

engraved with grooves, a process known as rifling.

Despite these improvements, soldiers over the next three centuries still

faced many challenges when firing lead balls from rifled barrels. The

lead balls themselves, because they were made of a soft material, tended

to become misshapen during the loading process. Furthermore, the

gunpowder that propelled the lead balls had a tendency to clog the fact

that these rifles took tissue to load and in a situation of battle, this could

cost a man his life. The first significant change came in the 1840s, when

in place of lead balls, armies began using bullets. The difference in

shape greatly improved the response of rounds to aerodynamic factors.

Finally, Claude-Etienne Minis, a captain in the French army developed a

bullet made of lead, but with a base that was slightly hollow. Thus,

when fired, the lead in the round tended to expand, filling the barrel‟s

diameter and gripping the rifling. As a result, the round came out of the

barrel and spinning, and continued to spin throughout its flight not only

were soldiers able to fire their rifles with much accuracy, but thanks to

the developments of chambers and magazines, they would reload more

quickly.


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The most complex form of projectile widely known in modern life is the

rocket or missile. Missiles are unmanned vehicles, most often used on

warfare to direct some form of explosive toward an enemy. Rockets, on

the other hand, can be manned or unmanned, and may be propulsion

vehicles for missiles or for spacecraft. The term rocket can refer either to

the engine or to the vehicle it propels.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that a projectile is any object propelled through

space by the exertion of a force which cease after launch. Also objects

experiencing projectile motion have a constant velocity in the vertical

direction. We were also made to understand that projectiles can be

broadly classified according to three main types: Spin-stabilised, fin-

stabilised and rocket assisted. Application of projectiles and ballistics is

a significant part of police science, because it allows law-enforcement

investigators to determine when, where, and how a firearm was used.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed the concept of projectile by looking at the

following areas: Meaning of projectile, types, properties and application

of projectiles.


1. Explain the meaning of projectile.

2. List the types of projectiles and discuss any two mentioned.

3. State two properties of projectile motion.


Devries, K. (1996). The Use of Gunpowder Weaponry, During the

Hundred Years War. UK: Brown Publishing.

Cook, W. (1993). Warfare and Firearms in Fifteen Century Morocco.

Morocco: Osphrey Publishing.

Keegan, J. (1993). An History of Warfare. UK: Vintage Press.

Mcnab, C. & Hunter, K. (2008). Tools of Violence, Guns, Tanks and

Dirty Bombs. Morocco: Osphrey Publishing.

Smithsonian, F. (2004). “Fin-Stabilised Artillery Shell” Patenstorm

Journal (24) 1.


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UNIT 3 EXPLOSIVES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Definition of Explosive

3.2 Types of Explosives

3.3 Properties of Explosives

3.4 Classification of Explosives

3.5 Uses of Explosives

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

An explosive material is a substance that contains a great amount of

stored energy that can produce an explosion, a sudden expansion of the

material after initiation, usually accompanied by the production of light,

heat and pressure. An explosive charge is a measured quantity of

explosive material. It is also a substance, especially a prepared chemical,

which explodes or causes explosion. The various issues that will be

examined in this unit introduce the following: definition, properties,

types, classification and the many uses of explosives.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


define the term explosives

explain types of explosives

discuss the characteristics of explosives

list the compatible class of explosives

state the uses of explosives

state the conditions that makes a material explosive.


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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Explosives

What are Explosives?

An explosive material, also called an explosive, is a substance that

contains a great amount of stored energy that can produce an explosion,

a sudden expansion of the material after initiation, usually accompanied

by the production of light, heat and pressure. An explosive charge is a

measured quantity of explosive material. The energy stored in an

explosive material may be:

chemical energy, such as nitroglycerine or grain dust

pressurised, compressed gas, such as a gas cylinder or aerosol can

nuclear, such as fissile isotopes of uranium 235 and plutonium –

239.

Explosive materials may be categorised by the speed at which they

expand. Materials that detonate (explode faster than the speed of sound)

are said to be high explosive and materials that deflagrate are said to be

low explosives. Explosives may also be categorised by their sensitivity.

Sensitive materials that can be initiated by a relatively small amount of

heat or pressure are primary explosives and materials that are relatively

insensitive are secondary explosives.

There are different reasons and conditions that make a material

explosive. Explosive material is often classified by the type of reaction

that takes place

Chemical

Chemical explosives are substances that undergo or contain a large

amount of energy stored in chemical bonds. Explosives are classified as

low or high explosive according to their rates of burn: low explosives

detonate. While these definitions are distinct, the problem of precisely

measuring rapid decomposition makes practical classification of

explosives difficult.

Decomposition

The chemical decomposition of an explosive may take years, days,

hours, or a fraction of a second. The slower processes of decomposition

take place in storage and are of interest only from a stability stand point.

If more interest are the two rapid forms of decomposition, deflagration

and detonation.


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Deflagration

In deflagration, the decomposition of the explosive material is

propagated by a flame front, which moves slowly through the explosive

material in contrast to detonation. Deflagration is a characteristic of low

explosive material

Detonation

Detonation is used to describe an explosive phenomenon whereby the

explosive shockwave traverse the explosive material. The shockwave

front is capable of passing through the high explosive material at great

speeds, typically thousands of meters per second.

Mechanical

In addition to chemical explosives, there exist varieties of more exotic

explosive materials, and theoretical methods of causing explosions.

Examples include nuclear explosives, antimatter, and abruptly heating a

substance to a plasma state with a high-intensity laser or electric arc.

Unlike other chemicals, most explosives detonate rather than burn. A

detonation is a very rapid chemical reaction using oxygen that is

contained in the material rather than in the air. In a detonation, the

chemical reaction releases gases that rapidly expand and give off energy

as they become hot. It should be noted that the development of new and

improved types of ammunition requires a continuous programme of

research and development. Adoption of an explosive for a particular use

is based upon both proving ground and service tests.


What are explosive materials? Describe their innate qualities.

3.2 Types of Explosives

What are the various types of explosives?

Explosives are chemicals and, like all chemicals, should be treated

safely and with respect. Unlike other chemicals, most explosives

detonate rather than burn. A detonation is a very rapid chemical reaction

using oxygen that is contained in the material rather than in the air. In a

detonation, the chemical reaction releases gases that rapidly expand and

give off energy as they become hot.


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Explosives are categorised into primary, secondary, high and low

explosives.

Primary Explosive

A primary explosive is an explosive that is extremely sensitive to stimuli

such as impact, friction, heat, static electricity, or electromagnetic

radiation. A relatively small amount of energy is required for initiation.

As a very general rule, primary explosives are considered to be those

compounds that are more sensitive than PETN. As a practical measure,

primary explosive are sufficiently sensitive that they can be reliably

initiated with a blow from a hammer, however, PETN can usually be

initiated in this manner, so this is only a very broad guideline.

Additionally, several compounds, such as nitrogen tri-iodide, are so

sensitive that they cannot even be handled without detonating.

Primary explosives are often used as detonators or to trigger larger

charges of less sensitive secondary explosives. Primary explosives are

commonly used in blasting caps to translate a signal (electrical, shock,

or in the case of laser detonation systems, light) into an action, ie an

explosion, a small quantity-larger charge of explosive that is usually

safer to handle.

Examples of primary high explosives are:

Acetone Peroxide

Ammonium permanganate

Hexamethylene triperoxide diamine

Lead azide

Lead styphnate

Lead picrate

Mercury fulminate

Nitrogen trichloride

Nitroglycerin

Silver acetylide

Silver fulminate

Sodium azide

Tetacene

Tetraamine copper II complexes

Diazodinitrophenol

Azo-clathrates

Tetrazoles

Copper acetylide


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Secondary Explosive

A secondary explosive is less sensitive than primary explosive and

require substantially more energy to be initiated. Because they are less

sensitive they are usable in a wider variety of applications and are safer

to handle and store. Secondary explosives are used in larger quantities in

an explosive train and are usually initiated by a smaller quantity of a

primary explosive. Examples of secondary explosives include TNT and

RDX.

Low Explosives

Low explosives are compounds where the rate of decomposition

proceeds through the material at less than the speed of sound. The

decomposition if propagated by a flame front (deflagration) which

travels much more slowly through the explosive material than a shock

wave of a high explosive. Under normal conditions, low explosives

undergo deflagration at rates that vary from a few centimetres per

second to approximately 400 meters per second. It is possible for them

to deflagrate very quickly, producing an effect similar to a detonation.

This can happen under higher pressure and temperature, which usually

occurs when ignited in a confined space.

A low explosive is usually a mixture of a combustible substance and an

oxidant that decomposes rapidly (deflagration), however they burn

slower than a high explosive which has an extremely fast burn rate. For

many years, black powder was the most common low explosive used

throughout the world. But black powder or gun powder as it was

commonly called, produced a large amount of smoke and was dangerous

to use. Today black powder is still used for pyrotechnics (fireworks),

special effects, and other specialised works, but it has been replaced in

commercial blasting by safer, more productive materials.

High Explosives

High explosives are explosive materials that detonate, meaning that the

explosive shock front passes though the material at a supersonic speed.

High explosives detonate with explosive velocity rates ranging from

3,000 to 9,000 meters per second. They are normally employed in

mining, demolition, and military applications. They can be divided into

two explosive classes differentiated by sensitivity: Primary Explosive

and Secondary Explosive. The term high explosive is in contrast to the

term low explosive, which explodes (deflagrates) at a slower rate.

High explosives create more pressure and burn more quickly, detonating

almost instantaneously. The proper use of high explosive by today‟s


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explosives engineer, produces minimal ground vibrations and air

overpressure. The first high explosive used in commercial blasting was

nitroglycerine, also called “blasting 001” Nitroglycerine was dangerous

to use because it is an unstable chemical. But in the late 1800‟s a

Swedish chemist, named Alfred Nobel, invented dynamite by mixing

nitroglycerine with a special clay, called kieselgur, and packed it into

stocks. Dynamite became the first safe high explosive used. It can be

dropped, hit with a hammer or even burned and will accidentally

explode. There are a number of different types of dynamites being used

today, all containing nitroglycerine.


Differentiate between Primary and Secondary Explosives, High and

Low Explosives

3.2 Properties of Explosives Materials

To determine the suitability of an explosive substance for a particular

use, its physical properties must first be investigated. The usefulness of

an explosive can only be appreciated when the properties and the factors

affecting them are fully understood. Some of the more important

characteristics are discussed below:

Availability and Cost

Availability and cost of explosives is determined by the availability of

the raw materials and the cost, complexity, and safety of the

manufacturing operations.

Sensitivity

Regarding an explosive, this refers to the ease with which it can be

ignited or detonated – i.e., the amount and intensity of shock, friction, or

heat that is required. When the term sensitivity is used, care must be

taken to clarify what kind of sensitivity is under discussion. The relative

sensitivity of a given explosive to impact may vary greatly from its

sensitivity to friction or heat. Sensitivity is an important consideration in

selecting an explosive for a particular purpose. The explosive in an

armor-piercing projectile must be relatively insensitive, or the shock of

impact would cause it to detonate before it penetrates to the desired

point. The explosive lenses around nuclear charges are also designed

to be highly insensitive to minimise the risk of accidental detonation.


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Velocity of Detonation

Is the velocity with which the reaction process propagates in the mass

of the explosive. Most commercial mining explosives have detonation

velocities ranging from 1800m/s to 8000m/s. Today, velocity of

detonation can be measured with accuracy.

Stability

Chemical stability is the ability of an explosive to be stored without

deterioration. The following factors affect the stability of an explosive:

Chemical Constitution

The very fact that some common chemical compounds can undergo

explosion when heated indicates that there is something unstable in their

structures.

Temperature of Storage

The rate of decomposition of explosives increases at higher temperatures. All of the standard military explosives may be considered

to have a high degree of stability at temperatures of -10 to +350c, but

each has a high temperature at which the rate of decomposition rapidly accelerates and stability is reduced. Most explosives become

dangerously unstable at temperatures exceeding 700c.

Exposure to Sun

If exposed to the ultra violet rays of the sun, many explosive compounds

that contain nitrogen groups will rapidly decompose, affecting their

stability.

Electrical Discharge

Electrostatic or spark sensitivity to initiation is common to a number of

explosive. Static or other electrical discharge may be sufficient to inspire

detonation under some circumstances. As a result, the safe handling of

explosives and Pyrotechnics almost always requires electrical grounding

of the operator.

Power

The term power or performance as applied to an explosive refers to its

ability to do work. In practice it is defined as the explosive‟s ability to

accomplish what is intended in the way of energy delivery (i.e. fragment


217

projection, air blast, high-velocity jets, underwater shock and bubbles

energy, etc.) explosive power or performance is evaluated by a tailored

series of test to assess the material for its intended use.

Brisance

In addition to strength, explosives display a second characteristic, which

is their shattering effect or brisance (from the French meaning to

“break”) which is distinguished from their total work capacity. As

exploding prepared tank may release more chemical energy than that of

nitroglycerine, but the tank would probably fragment into large pieces of

twisted metal, while a metal casing around the nitroglycerine would be

pulverised. This characteristic is of practical importance in determining

the effectiveness of an explosion in fragmenting shells, bomb casings,

grenades, and the like. The rapidity with which explosive reaches its

peak pressure (power) is a measure of its brisance. Brisance values are

primarily employed in France and Russia.

Density

Density of loading refers to the mass of an explosive per unit volume.

Second methods of loading are available; including pallet loading, cast

loading, and press loading, the one used is determined by the

characteristics of the explosive. Increased load density also permits the

use of more explosive, thereby increasing the power of the warhead. It is

possible to compress an explosive beyond a point of sensitivity, known

also as “dead-pressing” in which the material is no longer capable of

being reliably initiated, if at all.

Volatility

Volatility is the readiness with which a substance vapourises. Excessive

volatility often results in the development of pressure within rounds of

ammunition and separation of mixtures into their constituents. Volatility

affects the chemical composition of the explosive such that marked

reduction in stability may occur, which results in an increase in the

danger of handling.

Hygroscopicity and Water Resistance

The introduction of water into explosive is highly undesirable since it

reduces the sensitivity, strength and velocity of detonation of the

explosive. Hygroscopicity is used as measure of a material‟s moisture-

absorbing tendencies. Moisture affects explosives adversely by acting as

an inert material that absorbs heat when vaporised, and by acting as a

solvent medium that can cause undesired chemical reactions. Sensitivity


218

strength and velocity of detonation are reduced by inert materials that

reduce the continuity of the explosive mass, when the moisture content

evaporates during detonation, cooling occurs, which reduces the

temperature of reaction. Stability is also affected by the presence of

moisture since moisture promotes decomposition of the explosive and,

in addition, causes corrosion of the explosive‟s metal container.

Explosives considerably differ from one another as to their behaviour in

the presence of water. Gelatin dynamites containing nitroglycerine have

a degree of water resistance. Explosives based on ammonium nitrate

have little or no water resistance.

Toxicity

Due to their chemical structure, most explosives are toxic to some

extent. Explosive product gases can also be toxic.

Explosive Train

Another property of explosive material is where it exists in the explosive

train of the device or system. An example of this is a pyrotechnic lead

igniting a booster, which causes the main charge to detonate.

Oxygen Balance (OB%)

Oxygen balance is an expression that is used to indicate the degree to

which an explosive can be oxidised. If an explosive material contains

just enough oxygen to convert all of its carbon to carbon iv oxide, all

of its hydrogen to water, and all of its metal to metal oxide with no

excess, the molecule is said to have a zero oxygen balance. The

molecule is said to have a positive oxygen balance if it contains more

oxygen than is needed and a negative oxygen balance if it contains less

oxygen than is needed. The sensitivity, strength and brisance of an

explosive are all somewhat dependent upon oxygen balance and tend to

approach their maximum as oxygen balance approaches zero

Chemical Composition

A chemical explosive may consist of either a chemically pure

compound, such as nitroglycerine, or a mixture of a fuel and an oxidiser,

such as black powder or grain dust and air. Some chemical compounds

are unstable in that, when shocked, they react, possibly to the point of

detonation. Each molecule of the compound dissociates into two or more

new molecules (generally gases) with the release of energy.

Nitroglycerine: A highly unstable and sensitive liquid.

Acetone Peroxide: A very unstable white organic peroxide.


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TNT: Yellow insensitive crystals that can be melted and cast

without detonation.

Nitrocellulose: A nitrated polymer which can be a high or low

explosive depending on nitration level and conditions.

RDX, PETN, HMX: Very powerful explosives which can be

used pure or in plastic explosives.

The above composition may describe the majority of the explosive

material, but a practical explosive will often include small percentages

of other materials. For example, dynamite is a mixture of highly

sensitive nitroglycerine with sawdust, powdered silica, or most

commonly diatomaceous earth, which acts as stabilisers. Plastic and

polymers may be added to bind powders of explosive compounds,

waxes may be incorporated to make them safe to handle, and aluminium

powder may be introduced to increase total energy and blasts effects.


List and discuss some properties of explosive materials or explosives.

3.3 Classification of Explosives

Shipping Label Classifications

Shipping labels and tags may include both United Nations and national

markings.

United Nations markings include numbered Hazard class and Division

(HC/D) codes and alphabetic compatibility group codes. Though the two

are related, they are separate and distinct. Any compatibility group

designator can be assigned to any Hazard class and Division. An

example of this hybrid marking would be a consumer firework, which is

labelled as 1.4G or 1.4S.

United Nations Organisation (UNO) Hazard class and Division (HC/D)

Explosives warning signal

The Hazard class and Division (HC/D) is a numeric designator within a

hazard class indicating the character, predominance of associated

hazards, and potential for causing personnel casualties and property

damage. It is an intentionally accepted system that communicates the

primary hazard associated with a substance using the minimum amount

of markings.


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Listed below are the Divisions for class 1 (Explosives)

1. Mass Detonation Hazard: with HC/D 1:1, it is expected that if

one item in a container or pallet inadvertently detonates, the

explosion will sympathetically detonate the surrounding items.

The explosion could propagate to all or the majority of the items

stored together causing a mass detonation. There will also be

fragments from the item‟s casing and/or structures in the blast

area.

2. Non-mass Explosive, Fragment-producing: HC/D 1.2 is further

divided into three subdivisions, HC/D 1.2.1, 1.2.2 and 1.2.3, to

account for the magnitude of the effects of an explosion.

3. Mass fires, minor blast or fragment hazard, propellants and many

of the pyrotechnic items fall into this category. If one item in a

package or stack initiates, it will usually propagate to the other

items creating a mass fire.

4. Molecule fire or blast or fragment HC/D 1.4 items are listed in

the table as explosives with no significant hazard. Most small

arms and some pyrotechnics items fall into this category. Items

that inadvertently initiate most of the energy and fragments, will

be contained within the storage structure.

5. Mass detonation hazard, very insensitive.

6. Detonation hazard without mass detonation hazard, extremely

insensitive.

Class 1 Compatibility Group

Compatibility group codes are used to indicate storage compatibility for

HC/D class 1 (explosive) materials. Letters are used to designate 13

compatibility groups as follows:

a. Primary explosive substance (1.1A)

b. An article containing a primary explosive substance and not

containing two or more effective protective features. Some

articles such as detonator assemblies for blasting and primers,

cap-type, are included (1:1B, 2B, 1:4B).

c. Propellant explosive substance or other deflagrating explosive

substance or article containing such explosive substance (1:1C,

1:2C, 1:3C, 1:4C): These are bulk propellants with or without

means of ignition.

d. Secondary detonating explosive substance or black powder or

article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance, in

each case without means of initiation and without a propelling

charge, or article containing two or more effective protection

features (1:1D, 1:2D, 1:4D, 1:5D).


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e. Article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance

without means of initiation, with a propelling charge (other than

one containing flammable liquid, gel or hypergolic liquid) (1:1E,

1:2E, 1:4E).

f. Containing a secondary detonating explosive substance with its

means of initiation, with a propelling charge ( other than one

containing flammable liquid, gel or hypergolic liquid) or without

a propelling charge (1:1F, 1:2F, 1:3F,1:4F).

g. Pyrotechnic substance or article containing a pyrotechnic

substance or article containing both an explosive substance and

an illuminating, incendiary, tear-producing or smoke-producing

substance ( other than a water-activated article or one containing

white phosphorus, phosphide or flammable liquid or gel or

hypergolic liquid) (1:1G, 1:2G, 1:3G, 1:4G). Examples include

flares, signals, incendiary or illuminating ammunition and other

smoke and tear producing devices.

h. Article containing both an explosive substance and white

phosphorus (1:2H, 1:3H). These articles will spontaneously

combust when exposed to the atmosphere.

i. Article containing both an explosive substance and flammable

liquid or gels (1:1J, 1:2J, 1:3J): This excludes liquids or gels

which are spontaneously flammable when exposed to water or the

atmosphere, which belong in group.

j. Examples include liquid or gel filled incendiary ammunition,

fuel-air explosives.

k. Article containing both an explosive substance and a toxic

chemical agent 91:3K, 1:3K).

l. Explosive substance and presenting a special risk (e.g., due to

water-activation or pressure of hypergolic liquids, phosphides)

needing isolation of each type (1:1L, 1:2L, 1:3L). Damaged or

suspect ammunition of any group belongs in this group.

m. Articles containing only extremely insensitive detonating

substance (1.6M).

n. Substance or article so packed or designed that any hazardous

effects arising from accidental functioning are limited to the

extent that they do not significantly hinder or prohibit fire

fighting or other emergency response efforts in the immediate

vicinity of the package (1:4N).

It should be noted that explosives usually have less potential energy than

petroleum fuels, but their high rate of energy release produces a great

blast pressure. TNT has a detonation velocity of 6,950m/s compared to

1,680m/s for the detonation of a pantone-air mixture, and the 0.33m/s

stiochimetric flame speed of gasoline combustion in air.


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The properties of the explosive indicate the class into which it falls. In

some cases explosives can be made to fall into either class by the

conditions under which they are initiated. In sufficiently large quantities,

almost all low explosives can undergo a Deflagration to Detonation

Transition (DDT). For convenience, low and high explosives may be

differentiated by the shipping and storage classes.


Attempt to classify explosives based on their compatibility.

3.3 Uses of Explosives

What are the various uses of explosives?

Many people know that explosive are used in Mining, Building

Demolition, Pyrotechnic and even construction, many would be

surprised to know about some of the unusual uses of explosives. Did

you know that explosives were used to carve Mount Rushmore?

Explosives are also used to control Avalanches and Maintenance.

Explosives are even used in medicine to break-up kidney stones!

In the United States, explosives are primarily used in Mining, Quarrying

and construction as shown below:

Nationwide Explosive Use Coal Mining 67%

Non-metal mines and quarries 14%

Metal mining 10%

Construction 7% and Miscellaneous 3%

Other uses of explosives include the following:

Aerospace – As in ejector seats and separation devices for rocket

Boosters

Agriculture – Farmers use explosives to break up boulders, blow

tree stumps, felling trees and loosening soil

Aggregate Blasting

Art – As in metal clad art and large projects such as mountain

carving

Automotive Restraint Systems – To inflate Airbags

Avalanche Control

Coal Blasting

Commercial and Industrial Products – Door systems, for example

construction, Demilitarisation work

Implosion


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Demolition – The quantities of explosive used on this type of

operations vary, depending on the size, construction and location,

of the structure to be demolished whether it be Bridges, Building,

Chimneys or Towers

Diamond Manufacturing – jewellery grade and very fine

industrial-type diamonds used for grinding and polishing are

produced by the carefully controlled action of explosives on

carbon

Emergencies at Sea – Project lifeline to ships in distress off

storm-beaten shores

Excavation – to dig foundations and clear underwater

channels/dredging

Fire Fighting – Along fire paths to cut off oxygen to a large fire

and to extinguish oil well fires

Food preparation –meat tenderizing

Forestry – Trail Blazing

Hazardous wastes – For destruction of some hazardous waste

materials

Ice Jams

Law Enforcement and Security – Used on Exploding Dye

capsules and other security systems

Logging – for cutting and removing timber

Manufacturing - Man-made diamonds

Medical Uses – Medicines, fracturing kidney and gall stones

Metal working – Hardening of metals – including railway frogs,

hardening of crusher wear parts, shovel teeth, ripper shanks, and

specially wear components such as striker bars and pates for mills

Metal –cladding – Explosives are sometimes used to bond

various metals to each other

Mining and Quarrying _ Explosives are used to break up rock and

displace large quantities of earth

Nail guns

Oil Well Perforation

Pile Driving – When pile drivers are not available, exploding

dynamite on an iron plate placed on top of the piles can do their

work

Pyrotechnics – Display fireworks, theatrical special effects

Quarrying

Rail Roads – Hardening and removing track parts

Riveting - Blind rivets are needed when space limitations make

conventional rivets impractical. Explosive riveting is an

engineering practice

Rocketry

Seismic Exploration

Signal lights


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Soil Compaction - For large-scale construction projects, soil

compaction is often accomplished with the used of explosives

Sport Shooting – Gunpowder (black powder and smokeless

powder) is used for shooting purposes such as muzzle-loading

handguns and rifles, or events where re-enactments of historical

battles involve the use of muzzle-loading muskets and cannon.

Tools – Hand tools

Tunnelling

Welding – Explosives jigs are often used to weld large diameters

pipelines


Enumerate the various uses of explosive known to you.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have discussed the concept explosives, and come to a conclusion

that an explosive is a substance that contain a great amount of stored

energy that can produce an explosion if ignited. Or a sudden expansion

of the material after initiation, usually accompanied by the production of

light, heat and pressure. We learnt also that explosives are categorised

into primary and secondary explosives, high and low explosives and

various properties of explosives are being exhibited like sensitivity,

power, Brisance, density, volatility and hygroscopicity. We also studied

that explosives are classified based on Hazard class and compatibility

groups. Various uses of explosives are also enumerated which include

excavation, coal blasting, demolition, seismic exploration,

metalworking, and others.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we have discussed explosives by looking at the following

areas: definition, types, properties, classifications and many uses of

explosives.


1. Define the concept “explosive material.”

2. List the various uses of explosives.

3. Discuss two major types of explosive material.


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Army Commander (1967). Military Explosives. Washington DC.

Army Research Office (1904). Elements of Armament Engineering. Part

1 Washington, D.C. U.S. Army Material Command

Commander (1971). Naval Ordinance Systems Command. Weapons

Systems Fundamentals NAVORD OP 3000, Vol. 2. Washington

DC. GPO

Commander (1972). Naval Ordinance Systems Command. Safety and

Performance Tests for Ceualification of Explosives. NAVORD

OD 44811. Washington, D.C: GPO.


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UNIT 4 LANDMINES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Landmines

3.2 Types of Landmines

3.3 Laying of Mines

3.4 Demining

3.5 Impact of Landmines

3.6 Uses of Landmines

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assessment


1.0 INTRODUCTION

One of the most deadly legacies of the 20

th century is the use of

landmines in warfare. Antipersonnel landmines continue to have tragic,

unintended consequences years after by and even when the entire war

has ended. Even by those who planted them. These mines continue to be

functional for many decades, causing further damage, injury and death.

A landmine is usually a victim-triggered explosive device which is

intended to damage its target via blast and or fragments. The various

areas that will be examined in this unit that will introduce you to

landmines are the meaning, types, laying of mines, demining, impact

and uses of mine.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


explain the concept “landmine”

list and describe the types of landmines

differentiate between laying of mines and demining

discuss the impact of landmines

state the various uses of landmines.


most common use of mines on civil conflicts is to protect economic and

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Landmine

What are the meanings of mines and landmine?

The word „mine‟ is derived from the Latin word Mina which means

„vain of ore‟ and was originally applied to the excavation of minerals

from the earth. The term was then borrowed by military engineers,

whose job was to dig landmines in the ground during sieges.

A landmine is usually a victim-triggered explosive device which is

intended to damage its target via blast. The name originates from the

practice of mining, where tunnels were dug under enemy fortifications

or forces. These tunnels („mine‟) were first collapsed to destroy

fortification above and later filled with explosives and detonated

landmines generally refer to device specifically manufactured for this

purpose as distinguished from improved explosive devices Landmines

are basically explosive devices that are designed to explode when

triggered by pressure or a trip wire. These devices are typically found on

or just below the surface of the ground. The purpose of mines when used

by armed forces is to disable any person or vehicle that comes into

contact with it by an explosion or fragments released at high speeds.

These are containers of explosive material with detonating systems that

are triggered by contact with a person or vehicle. They are designed to

incapacitate that person or vehicle through damage caused by an

explosive blast and metal fragments. Military advantages are gained

from taking out of action another 3 able bodied soldiers to carry the

injured one, as this lowers the moral of the enemies as they are forced to

listen to their comrade(s) screaming in pain.

What makes anti-personnel mines so abhorrent is the fact that they are

designed to maim and not to kill as well as the indiscriminate nature it

selects victims. Antipersonnel mines cannot distinguish between the

footfall of a soldier and that of a child. Unlike bullets and artillery shells,

mines are not aimed, as persons or animals triggers their detonating

mechanism and are often laid in triangular groups of 3 or more. If a

mine is laid properly it should be impossible to tell, it is there or not.

Most mine fields are unmarked and so there are often few clues to show

that it is a mined area. An unsuspecting passer-by may have no idea that

there is a danger until it is too late.

Warring groups use landmines to defend positions as it provides a first

warning signal of advancing enemy. Landmines are often used to

prevent people and vehicles from moving through certain areas, and to

channel then onto certain routes from which they cannot deviate. The


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social targets such as bridges, dams, oil, gas and water pipelines and rail

road station from attack or sabotage by the enemy.

Increasingly over the last two decades, landmines have come to serve

not only as military weapons but also as political weapons. Many parties

to civil conflicts have sought to instil a sense of dissatisfaction and

chaos in the civilian population.

Large tracts of agricultural land are rendered unusable, wreaking

environmental and economic devastation. Refugees returning to rebuild

their lives in war-ravaged countries face the deadly landmine obstacle.

Landmines are now a daily threat in Afghanistan, Angola, Bosnia,

Cambodia, Croatia, Iraq, Mozabique, Nicaragua, Somalia and dozens of

other countries.

In addition, by laying mines in agricultural fields and plantations,

around irrigation systems, in forests necessary for firewood, and in

villages themselves, groups of combatants have succeeded in driving

large numbers of civilians out of rural areas and into large cities and

towns, adding enormously to the social and economic burdens of those

in control of the cities. In some places, such as Cambodia, mines are

even used by civilians as a way to make a living; scrap metal collection;

fishing and to protect their property.

Landmines are indiscriminate weapons by nature – they do not

distinguish between a soldier‟s footstep and a child‟s footstep. Their toll

on mine-affected communities is devastating and the consequences of

their use are felt years after hostilities ceased “once peace is declared the

landmine does not recognise that peace”, says Jody Williams. “The

landmine is eternally prepared to take victims. Landmine victims suffer

debilitating physical and emotional injuries, victims, families and

communities are plagued by psychological and economic burdens.

Traditionally, antipersonnel landmines were used for military defense

purposes, but increasingly they are used as offensive weapons. They are

designed to target civilian populations, disrupt people‟s lives, and

displace entire communities from their homes and agricultural bases.

Their purpose is to inflict maximum harm on victims and to a state of

military, political, social and economic imbalance in war-torn societies.


What are landmines? Discuss its effects.


mind or a matol. During WWII, mine traps were used for blocking port

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3.2 Types of Landmines

How many types of mines are known?

There are two major types of mines classified as contact mines and

influenced mines:

Contact Mines

The earliest mines were usually of this type. They are still used today, as

they are extremely low cost compared to any other anti-ship weapon and

are effective, both as a terror weapon and to sink enemy ships. Contact

mines need to be touched by the target before they detonate, limiting the

damage to the direct effects of the explosion and usually affecting only

the single vessel that triggers them.

Early mines had mechanical mechanisms to detonate them, but these

were superseded in the 1870‟s by the Hertz Horn (or chemical horn),

which mine had been in the sea for several years. The mines upper half

is studded with hollow lead protuberance, each containing a glass vial

filled with sulphuric acid. When a ship‟s hull crushes the metal horn, it

cracks the vial inside it, allowing the acid to run down a tube and into a

lead-acid battery which until then contains no acid, detonates into

Limpet mine, moored contact mines, drifting, bottom and remotely

controlled mines.

Limpet Mines

Limpet mines are a special form of contact mine which are attached to

the target by magnets, and are so named because of the superficial

similarity to the limpet, a mollusc

Moored Contact Mines

Generally, this mine type is set to float just below the surface of the

water or as deep as five meters, a steel cable connecting the mine to an

anchor on the scabbed to prevent it from drifting away. The explosive

and detonating mechanism is contained in a buoyant metal or plastic

shell. The depth below surface at which the mine floats can be set so that

only deep draft vessels such as aircraft carriers, battleships or large

cargo ships are at risk, saving the mine from being used on a less

valuable target. In littoral waters it is important to ensure that the mine

does not become visible when the sea level falls at low tide, so the preset

cable length is adjusted to take account of tie. Floating mines typically

have a mass of around 200kg, including 80kg of explosives; e.g. TNT,


230

entrances. Two floating mines were anchored some distance apart on

either side of a shipping channel, linked by chain. When a deep draft

vessel passed through the trap it would pull the chain along with it,

dragging the mines onto the sides of the ship, the resulting double

explosion often sank it. This system was not used extensively, but

proved effective in blocking ports.

Drifting Contact Mines

Drifting mines were occasionally used during World War I and II.

However, they were more feared than effective. Sometimes floating

mines break from their moorings and become drifting mines, modern

mines are designed to deactivate in this event. After several years at sea,

the deactivation mechanism might not function as intended and the

mines may remain live. After World War I the drifting contact mine was

banned, but was occasionally used during World War II. The drifting

mines were much harder to remove than tethered mines after the war,

and they caused about the same damage to both sides.

Bottom Contact Mines

A bottom contact mine is the simplest form of mine. It is merely an

explosive charge with some form of fuze fitted lying on the seafloor.

They have been used against submarines, as submarines sometimes lie

on the seafloor to reduce their acoustic signature. They are also used to

prevent landing craft from reaching the shore and move a major obstacle

during the D-day landings. The Germans used antitank mines here with

minor modifications to make them reliable under water, attaching the

mines to the front of many of the obstacles seen. These mines usually

weigh 2 to 50kg including 1 to 40kg of explosives (TNT or hexanol).

Remotely Controlled Mines

Frequently used in combination with coastal artillery and hydrophones,

controlled mines (or command detonation) mines can be in place in

peacetime, which is a huge advantage in blocking important shipping

routes. The mines can switch (which prevents the enemy from simply

capturing the controlling station and deactivating the mines). These can

be detonated on a signal or be allowed to detonate on their own. The

earliest ones were developed around 1812 by Robert Fulton. The first

remotely controlled mines were moored mines used in the American

Civil War, detonated electrically from shore. They were considered

superior to contact mines because they did not put friendly shipping at

risk. Modern examples usually weigh 200kg (440ls), including 80kg

(175ls) of explosives (TNT or hexanal).


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Influence Mines

These mines are triggered by the influence of a ship or submarine, rather

than direct contact. Such mines incorporate electronic sensors designed

to detect the presence of vessel and detonate when it comes within the

blast range of the warhead. The fuzzes on such mines may incorporate

one or more of the following sensors; magnetic, passive acoustic or

under pressure displacement caused by the proximity of a vessel.

First used during the Second World War, the sophistication of influence

mine fuzzes has increased considerably over the years as first transistors

and then microprocessors have been incorporated into design. Simple

magnetic sensors have been superseded by total-field magnetometers.

Modern influence mines such as the BAE stonefish are computerised,

with all the programmability that this implies; e.g. the ability to quickly

load new acoustic signatures into fuzzes, or programme them to detect a

single, highly distinctive target signature.

Moored Mines

The moored mine is the backbone of modern mine systems. They are

deployed where water is too deep for bottom mines. They can use

several kinds of instruments to detect an enemy, usually a combination

of acoustic, magnetic and pressure sensors, or more sophisticated optical

shadows or electro potential sensors. These cost many times more than

contact mines. Moored mines are effective against most kinds of ships.

As they are cheaper than other anti-ship weapons they can be deployed

in large numbers making them useful area denial or a channelising

weapons. Moored mines usually have lifetimes of more than 10years

and some almost unlimited. These mines usually weigh 200kg (440ls) of

explosives (hexatonal)

Bottom Mines

Bottom mines are used when the water is no more than 60meters (180ft)

deep or when mining for submarines down to around 200 meter (660ft).

They are much harder to detect and sweep, and can carry a much larger

warhead than a moored mine. Bottom mines commonly use pressure

sensitive exploders, which are less sensitive to sweeping. These mines

usually weigh between 150 and 1,500kg, including between 1250 to

1,400kg of explosives.

Unusual Mines

Several specialised mines have been developed for other purposes than

the common minefield.


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Anti Sweep Mine

The anti sweep mine is a very small mine (40kg warhead) with as small

a floating device as possible. When the wire of a mine sweep hits the

mine, it “sinks”, letting the sweep wire drag along the anchoring wire of

the mine until the sweep hits the mine. That detonates the mine and cuts

the sweeping wire. They are very cheap and usually used in combination

with other mines in a minefield to make sweeping more difficult.

Rocket Mine

A Russian invention; the rocket mine is a bottom distance mine that fires

a coming high-speed rocket (not torpedo) upwards towards the target. It

is intended to allow a bottom mine to attack surface ships as well as

submarines from a greater depth.

Torpedo Mine

The torpedo mine is a self propelled variety, able to lie in wait for a

target and then pursue it, e.g. CAPTOX Mine. Generally, torpedo mines

incorporate computerised acoustic and magnetic fuses.

Bouquet Mine

This is a single anchor attached to several floating mines. It is designed

so that when one mine is swept/detonated, another takes its place. It is a

very sensitive construction and lacks reliability.

Ascending Mine

The ascending mine is a floating distance mine that may cut its mooring

or some other way float higher when it detects a target. It lets a single

floating mine cover a much larger depth range.

Nuclear Mine

During the cold war, a number of tests were conducted with naval mines

fitted with tactical nuclear warheads. These weapons were experimental

and never went into production.

Daisy-Charned Mine

This comprises two moored, floating contact mines which are tethered

together by a length of steel cable or chain. Typically, each mine is

situated approximately 60 feet (18m) away from its neighbour, and each

floats a few meters below the surface of the ocean. When the target ship


233

hits the steel cable, the mines on either side are drawn to the side of the

ship‟s cull, exploding on contact. In this manner it is almost impossible

for target ships to pass safely between two individually moored mines.


List the various types of mines and describe two of them.

3.3 Laying of Mine

Historically several methods were used to lay mines. During the first

and second world wars, the Germans used U-boats to lay mines around

the UK. In the second world war, aircraft came in favour for mine laying

with the one of largest such examples being the mining of the Japanese

Sea routes in operation starvation.

Minefield may be laid by several means. The preferred, but most labour-

intensive, ways to have engineers bury the mines, since this will make

the mines practically invisible and reduce the number of mines needed

to deny the enemy an area. Mines can be laid by specialised mine-laying

vehicles. Min-scattering shells may be fired by artillery from a distance

of several tens of kilometres. Mines may be dropped from helicopters or

air planes, or ejected from cluster bombs or cruise missiles.

Laying a minefield in modern times is a relatively fast process with

specialised ships, which is still today the most common method. These

mine layers can carry several thousand mines and manoeuvre with high

precision. The mines are dropped at a predefined interval into the water

behind the ship. Each mine is recorded for later clearing, but it is not

unusual for these recordings to be lost together with the ships. Therefore

many countries demand that all the mining operations shall be planned

on land and records kept so that mines can later be recovered more

easily. Other methods to lay minefields include:

Converted Merchant Ships – rolled or slid down ramps

Aircraft – descent to the water is showed by a parachute.

Submarine – launched from torpedo tubes or deployed from

specialised mine racks on the sides of the submarine.

Combat boats – rolled off the side of the boat

Camouflaged boats – Masquerading as fishing boats

Dropping from the shore – typically smaller shallow-water mines

Attack divers – smaller shallow –water mines.

In some cases, mines are automatically activated upon contact with the

water. In others, a safety layer is pulled (e.g., one end attached to the rail

of a ship, aircraft or torpedo tube) which starts an automatic timer


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countdown before arming process is complete. Typically, the automatic

safety-arming process takes some minutes to complete. This is in order

to give the people laying the mines sufficient time to move out of its

activation blast zone.

Some minefields are specifically booby–trapped to make them more

dangerous. Mixed anti personnel and anti-tank minefields, anti

personnel mines under anti-tank mines, and fuses separated from them

have all been used for this purpose. Often, single mines are bucked by a

secondary device, designed to kill or maim personnel tasked with

clearing the mine.

Multiple anti-tank mines have been buried in stacks of two or three with

the bottom mine fuzzed, in order to nullify the penetrating ground,

which directs the energy of the blast in a single direction-through the

bottom of the target vehicle or on the track.


Describe how an ordinary land can be made to become a minefield.

3.4 Demining

What is Demining of a minefield?

Whereas the placing and arming of landmines is relatively inexpensive

and simple, the process of detecting and removing them is typically

expensive, slow, and dangerous. This is especially true of irregular

warfare where mines were used on an ad-hoc basis in unmarked areas.

Anti-personnel mines are most difficult to find, due to their small size

and the fact that many are made almost entirely of non-metallic

materials specially to escape detection. Landmines can remain active

more than 50 years after they are planted in the ground. For this reason,

there is a growing worldwide effort to rid the world of landmines.

Finding these landmines is extremely difficult, as most minefields are

unmarked. And those that are marked can take years to de-mine.

Landmine detection is a slow, methodical process due to the danger

involved in locating landmines. While location technology is improving,

the following conventional techniques are still relied on heavily:

Probing the Ground

For many years, the most sophisticated technology used for locating

landmines was probing the ground with a stick or bayonet. Soldiers are

trained to poke the ground lightly with a bayonet, knowing that just one

mistake may cost them their lives.


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Trained Dogs

Dogs can be trained to sniff out vapours coming from the explosive

ingredients inside the landmine.

Metal Detector

Metal detectors are limited in their ability to find mines, because many

mines are made of plastic with only a tiny bit of metal.

Other techniques involve the use of geo-location technologies. Scientists

at Ohio State University are developing a new ground penetrating radar

(GPR) device that may be more effective in locating and disarming

landmines. This new device would be helpful in locating mines that

have little or no metal content. All landmines, including plastic ones, are

filled with explosive agents that have electrical properties that make

them detectable to the right technology, such as GPR.

A GPR device focuses radar energy just below the ground and just a few

feet in front of the user, according to researchers. The device ignores

signals that bounce back from the surface and uses specially designed

software to make buried objects shine brighter in the radar image. The

GPR has been successful in detecting two common landmines casings

filled with a waxy substance that once a landmine is detected, the GPR

device shoots two chemical agents into the ground to deactivate it. One

agent solidifies the triggering mechanism along with surrounding soil,

allowing soldiers to cross the ground. The second chemical agent then

solidifies the mine and soil permanently. The mine can then be

shovelled out and destroyed.

Ironically, the laying of landmines inadvertently proved a positive

development on the Falkland Islands. This is because the mine fields

laid by the sea during the Falklands war have become favourite places

for penguins, which are too light to detonate the mines, and are therefore

able to breed safely in areas where humans do not enter. These odd

sanctuaries have proven so popular and lucrative for ecotourism that

there has been some effort to prevent having the mines removed by

offering to finance mine removal in regions with human populations

where mines are a persistent danger, such as in Cambodia.


List the methods used in demining a minefield. Describe two of them.


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3.5 Impact of Landmines

What effects does laying mines have on human population??

The impact of landmines on war-torn societies is devastating. Broadly

speaking, they impede the ability of mine-affected communities to fully

recover from conflicts, after the cessation of hostilities.

Children

Of the estimated 26,000 civilians killed or maimed every year by

landmines, 8,000 to 10,000 are children, many more lose their parents to

landmine accidents or have to bear the difficult responsibility of

supporting their families after a family has been disabled or killed.

Children are particularly vulnerable to landmines. Their small size

places them closer to the source of a mine‟s explosion and,

consequently, they often sustain more severe injuries than adults.

Furthermore, because children are curious and like to play outdoors,

they frequently leave known, safe paths or pick up mines, mistaking

them for toys.

Medical Impact

Landmines have numerous direct and indirect consequences on the

health of people living in mine-affected countries. Mines kill and maim

innocent men, women, and children, and they deny people access to

adequate medical services, immunisations, and safe water and food,

leading to the spread of diseases. Furthermore, many mine-affected

countries do not have adequate health facilities or mined roads and

bridges virtually cut off entire populations from existing services.

Psychosocial Impact

The psychosocial and social traumas associated with landmines can be

as devastating on a mine-affected community as the immediate physical

injuries sustained by mine victims. Men, women, and children all suffer

terrible psychological consequences associated with the presence of

landmines and landmine-related injuries. Some victims are permanently

disfigured, while others living in mined areas face the constant fear that

they may be next. Many mine victims are ostracised by their

communities and not welcomed back after suffering their injuries.

Amputated women are less desirable as wives because they are no

longer able to work on the fields, which is their traditional role in many

countries. Amputated men often become drifters. Spouses leave one

another for healthier partners. Children are either left alone when their


237

parents are killed or must assume primary responsibility for caring for

their severely injured parents.

Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons

The traditional problem of refugees and internally displaced persons that

accompanies most conflicts is exacerbated by the use of landmines.

Mines are increasing used to terrorise civilian populations and channel

their movements, resulting in ever larger numbers of displaced persons

forced to leave their homes. After hostilities cease, the continued

presence of mines on roads, agricultural fields, and in buildings prevent

populations from returning to their homes. This destruction leaves areas

of land uninhabited and uncultivated, hampering post-war reconstruction

efforts.

Economic Impact

Most mine-affected countries are agrarian societies whose economics

are predominantly defined by the quality and quantity of their

agricultural production. The peoples of those largely developing

countries rely on the land for their food and livelihood. However, the

presence of mines in agricultural fields renders large tracts of fertile soil

unusable. Farmers and peasants are unable to safely cultivate their land

and livestock feeding off the land are frequently killed by mines,

constituting grave economic losses for their owners.

Mines destroy national infrastructures and impede economic

development and reconstruction efforts. Transportation networks, power

lines, and water resources are damaged and inaccessible. The production

and distribution of fundamental goods and services are disrupted.

Tourism, markets, and important source of income in many countries

suffer greatly. In addition, mine clearance programmes divert financial

resources from critical development and reconstruction projects.

Environmental Impact

In addition to the impact on their victims, landmines also have severe

environmental consequences. Landmines introduce poisonous

substances into the environment as their casings erode. Explosives

commonly used in landmines, such as Trinitron toluene (TNT) seep into

the soil, the decomposition of these substances can cause many

environmental problems because they are often water soluble,

carcinogenic, toxic, and long-lasting.

Landmines also harm the environment when they explode, scattering

debris, destroying surrounding vegetation, and disrupting soil


238

composition. This substantially decreases the productivity of agricultural

land and increases an areas vulnerability to water and wind erosion,

which in turn can add sediment into drainage systems, adversely

affecting water habits.

Peace and Reconciliation

Landmines pose a continuous threat to peace and reconciliation. They

prevent post-conflict reconstruction of war-torn economics and can too

easily threaten fragile peace plans. Damaged infrastructures, including

roads, bridges, and water supplies, impede efforts to deliver relief

supplies to remote areas. This can perpetuate the cycle of poverty

inherent in so many mine affected countries, leading to further tension

and conflict.


What are the consequences of a landmine affected area.

3.6 Uses of Landmines

What are the uses of Landmines?

Originally, both antitank and antipersonnel landmines were developed as

tactical, defensive weapons. They were intended to profit troops,

military bases, and key installations take power plants and water

supplies. They were also used to delay the advance of enemy troops, to

deny them access to certain areas and resources, and to burden them

with soldiers injured by landmines. “Nuisance minefields” – two or

three mines placed at the entrance of a house or designated sites were

intended to have demoralising psychological effect on troops.

After World War II, advances in weapons technology accelerated

rapidly. In the 1960‟s an antipersonnel landmine was developed that

could be delivered by air and automatically activated as it hit the ground.

These scatterable mines made it possible to rapidly deploy large

numbers of mines, rather than the traditional time-consuming method of

manually planting each mine by hand.

This new technology quickly changed the fundamental nature of

antipersonnel landmines from a tactical, defensive weapon to a strategic,

offensive weapon. Mines are now used to drive a wedge between

opposing forces and their military bases, and to channel these forces into

diverse terrain. Increasingly, scatterables and hand-deployed mines were

used against civilian populations-to terrorise communities, to displace

entire villages, to render fertile agricultural land unusable, and to destroy

national infrastructures like roads, bridges, and water sources.


239

In recent decades, new technologies have transformed the improvised

“dumb” landmine traditionally used for defensive purposes into a

sophisticated “smart” mine that is now used largely for offensive

purposes. Technological advances have made landmines more

dangerous for civilians and more difficult, if not impossible, to detect.

Greater numbers of mines can be level more rapidly than ever before.

Furthermore, as landmines have become more sophisticated, mine

clearance technologies have developed very slowly. In general, the most

effectives and reliable method of clearing mines continues to be manual

demining – a deminer probing the ground with a prod, checking the

ground for mines one inch at a time.


Enumerate and discuss the various uses of landmines.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that landmines are basically explosive devices that

are designed to explode when triggered by pressure or a tripwire. These

devices are typically found on or just below the surface of the ground.

We also learnt that landmines can remain active for more than 50 years

after they are planted in the ground. Methods of detecting landmines

include metal detecting probing the ground and the use of trained

animals like dogs. We also discussed the impact of landmines on

children, medicals, psychosocial, economic and environmental impact;

finally uses of landmines were discussed as both defensive and

offensive.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have dealt with the topic Landmines by looking at the

following aspects Meaning, Types, Laying of Mines, Demining, Impact

and Uses of Landmines.


1. Discuss methods of locating mines.

2. List the various impact of landmines and discuss two of them in

detail.

3. How are minefields demined?


240


ICBL (1990) International Campaign to Ban Landmines. U.S.

MCnab, C. & Hunter K. (2008). Tools, of Violence, Guns, Tanks and

Dirty Bombs. Morocco: Osphrey Publishing.

Needham, J. (1986). Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 5 Part 7,

Taipei: Cares Books Ltd.

Roogers, C. (1993). “The Use of Landmines” in the Military Revolutions

of the Hundred Years War. Holmes Pub.


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MODULE 5 FIRE INVESTIGATION AND

COUNTERFEITING

Unit 1 Fire Investigation Unit


Unit 3 Counterfeit Currencies

Unit 4 Questioned Documents and Criminal Laboratories

UNIT 1 FIRE INVESTIGATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Fire Investigation

3.2 Classification of Fire by Types

3.3 Conducting Fire Investigation

3.4 Methods of Extinguishing Fire

3.5 Fire Extinguishing Media

3.6 Principles of Fire Protection

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

Fire investigation, sometimes referred to as origin and cause

investigation, is the analysis of fire-related incidents. After firefighters

extinguish a fire, an investigation is launched to determine the origin

and cause of the fire or explosion. Investigations of such incidents are

done using a systematic approach and knowledge of basic fire science.

The various issues that will be examined in this unit that will introduce

you to the concept of fire investigation are the meaning, classification of

fire, conducting fire investigation, methods of extinguishing fire, fire

extinguishing media, and principles of fire protection.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


explain the meaning of fire investigation

list the different classes of fires

describe how a fire-related incident can be investigated


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discuss methods of extinguishing fire

mention various principles behind fire protection

list fire extinguishing media.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Fire Investigation

How do you determine the origin and cause of a fire?

Fire investigation is one of the most difficult of the forensic sciences to

practice. Unlike most forensic disciplines, even the basic question of

whether a crime has been committed is normally not obvious. During a

fire investigation, an entire process must be undertaken just to determine

if the case involves arson or not. The difficulty of determining whether

arson has occurred arises because fire often destroys the key evidence of

the origin. Many fires are caused by defective equipment, such as

shorting of faulty electrical circuits, for example car fires can be caused

by families storing fuel and spontaneous combustion is possible where

organic wastes are stored.

A fire investigator looks at the fire remains, and obtains information to

reconstruct the sequence of events leading up to the fire. One of the

challenging aspects of fire investigation is the multi-disciplinary basis of

the investigator‟s job. Investigators need to know not only the basic

science of fire behaviour, but knowledge of many different areas of

study (including construction, electricity, human behaviour, vehicles,

etc.) is helpful. If there is a gas appliance at the origin of the fire, an

investigator should know about appliances to either include or exclude it

as a possible cause of the fire. Fire investigators must also know their

own limitations and call upon experts to assist when needed.

Fire investigation is a field of forensic science dedicated to the

determination of the origin and the cause of a fire. Determining the

origin of the fire, answers questions like the cause of fire, and why did

the fire start.

In order for a fire to occur, three conditions must be met. There must be

a combustible (fuel), an oxidiser (oxygen) and a sufficient heat energy

source (source of ignition). The key elements that determine the cause of

the fire rely on the determination of the first material ignited and to the

source of ignition. Heat energy can be produced by mechanical,

electrical, chemical, or radioactive means. The role of fire investigation

is to identify the event that brought together the combustible, the

oxidiser, and the source of ignition that started the fire.


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Causes of fire can be natural, accidental, deliberate or undetermined.

Natural causes of fire include all the actions of nature that can cause a

fire, such as lightening from the sky or lava from a volcano. Accidental

fires include both fires that are caused by a negligent human intervention

or by accidental occurrence without the necessary presence of a human

being. Deliberate fires are caused by the intentional intervention of a

human being. However, not all deliberate fires are arsons; for example,

if one sets fire to backyard debris, it is deliberate but may not constitute

arson. Arson is a legal term that can greatly vary from one country to

another or from one state to another. In many instances, fire

investigators will not be able to determine where and/or why the fire

started, and the cause is classified as undetermined.

The determination of the origin of a fire is made based on observations

of smoke, heat, and burn patterns at the fire scene. Fire evolves

following the laws of physics and chemistry. While combustion is a

complicated phenomenon that can be random in some instances, it is

most often possible to determine the direction of fires. By tracing the

direction backward, it is possible to find the origin of the fire. Once the

origin of a fire is found, it is necessary to determine the cause.

One of the most important objectives in fire investigation is determining

if a crime occurred in connection with the fire. If the fire is due to arson,

it is extremely important to quickly determine that a crime occurred and

gather evidence, so that an arrest may be made. If an accidental or

natural fire occurred, it is important to determine how it started, so that

the proper measures can be taken to prevent similar fires and to protect

lives and property from future damage. In addition, in the case of

accidental fire, it is important to determine the exact cause of the fire,

because people or companies might bear a responsibility in the loss. The

responsibility might be civil or criminal and carry an important financial

burden. Many criminal laws also allow charges to be brought against

people who accidentally created a fire.

Fires are investigated by fire investigators or criminalists. Fire

investigators come from many different backgrounds. In some European

countries, fire investigators are commonly part of the police department,

usually the crime scene unit. Fire investigation is a harsh job, as it

consists of working in or dangerous conditions around burned structures

or vehicles and in atmospheres containing many contaminants that are

detrimental to the lungs and health. Fire investigators must often dig

through debris from fire scenes in order to see burn patterns. Often it is

necessary to reconstruct the fire scene in order to determine the pre-fire

conditions.


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Explain the role of a fire investigator in a fire related incident.

3.2 Classification of Fires by Types

What are the various classes of fires?

In the united kingdom, fires in the past have been unofficially classified

into four types, namely A, B, C and D denoting respectively

carbonaceous fires, flammable liquids fires, electrical fires and metal

fires. Agreement has now been reached between European nations on a

new classification which forms the subject of British standard BS-EN 2:

Classification of fires, are as follows:

Class ‘A’

These are fires involving solid materials normally of an organic nature

(compounds of carbon), in which combustion generally occurs with the

formation of glowing embers. Class „A‟ fires are the most common and

the most effectives extinguishing agent is generally water in the form of

a jet or spray.

Class ‘B’

These are fires involving liquids or liquefiable solids. For the purpose of

choosing effective extinguishing agents, flammable liquids may be

divided into two groups:

(i) those that are miscible with water and

(ii) those that are immiscible with water

depending on (i) and (ii), the extinguishing agents include water

spray, foam, light water, vaporising liquids, carbon (iv) oxide and

dry chemical powders.

Class ‘C’

These are fires involving gases or liquefied gases in the form of a liquid

spillage, or a liquid or gas leak, and these include methane, propane,

butane, etc, foam or dry chemical powder can be used to control fires

involving shallow liquid spill (water in the form of spray is generally

used to cool the container).


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Class ‘D’

These are fires involving metals, extinguishing agents containing water

are ineffective and even dangerous, carbon (IV) oxide and the

bicarbonate classes of dry chemical powders may also be hazardous if

applied to most metal fires. Powdered graphite, powdered talc, soda ash,

limestone and dry sand are normally suitable for class „D‟ fires. Special

fusing powders have been developed for fires involving some metals,

especially the radioactive ones.

Electrical Fires

It is not considered, according to present day ideas, that electrical fires

constitute a class since any fire involving, or started by, electrical

equipment must, in fact, be a fire of class A, B, C or D. The normal

procedure of electricity and the use of an extinguishing method

appropriate to what is burning. Only when this cannot be done with

certainty will special extinguishing agents be required which are non-

conductors of electricity and vaporising liquids, dry powders and

Carbon IV oxide, although the latter‟s cooling and condensation effects

may affect sensitive electronic equipments.

Classification of Fires by Size

To describe the size of a fire, the central fire Brigades Advisory council

has made the following recommendation:

Major fire 20 + jets

Large fire 8 – 9jets

Medium fire 3 - 7jets

Small fire 1-2jets, or 3 + hose reels

Minor fire 2-1 hose reels or hand extinguishers


List the various classes of fires and discuss on two of them:

3.3 Conducting Fire Investigation

Fire investigators conduct their investigations using a systematic

approach. The approach endorsed by the (NFPA), National Fire

Protection Association is that of a scientific method.

There are five components that create a methodology with which fires

are investigated using a systematic approach.


246

The assignment is received and the investigator is notified of

his/her responsibilities.

The investigator plans the investigation and assembles tools,

equipment, and personnel.

The scene is examined and data is collected.

Physical evidence is collected, document tested and evaluated.

The scientific method is used to analyse the information obtained.


Mention the steps involved in carrying out a fire investigation.

3.4 Methods of Extinguishing Fire

It has been shown from the triangle of combustion, (see diagram)

Those three factors are essential to combustion, namely

the presence of a fuel, or combustion substance

the presence of oxygen (usually as air) or other support of

combustion

the attainment and maintenance of a certain minimum

temperature.

Fire extinction, in principle, consists in the limitation of one or more of

these factors, and the methods of extinguishing fire may therefore be

classified conveniently under the following headings.


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1. Starvation or the Limitation of Fuel

2. Smothering or the Limitation of Oxygen

3. Cooling or the Limitation of Temperature.

In practice, specific methods of fire extinction often embody more than

one of these principles, but it will be convenient to consider them

according to the main principle listed.

Starvation

The extinction of fire by starvation fig 1 above is applied in three ways,

i.e. by:

removing combustible material from the neighbourhood of the

fire. Examples of this are the drainage of fuel from burning oil

tanks, the working out of cargo at a ship fire, the cutting of

trenches in peat, heath and forest fires, the demolition of

buildings to create a fire-stop, counter-burning in forest fires.

removing the fire from the neighbourhood of combustible

material as, for instance, pulling apart a burning haystack or a

thatched roof.

subdividing the burning material, when the smaller fires produced

may be left to burn out or to be extinguished more easily by other

means. A typical example is the emulsification of the surface of

burning oil, whilst the beating out of a heath fire owes much of

its effectiveness to this.

Smothering

If oxygen content of the atmosphere in the immediate neighbourhood of

burning material can be sufficiently reduced, combustion will cease. The

general procedure in methods of this type is to prevent or impede the

access of fresh air to the seat of the fire, and allow the combustion to

reduce the oxygen content in the confined atmosphere until it

extinguishes itself. This principle is, of course, ineffective where, as in

the case of celluloid, the burning material contains within itself, in a

chemically combined form, the oxygen it requires for combustion.

The principle of smothering is employed on small scale in snuffing a

candle, and on large scale, in capping a burning oil well. These two

processes are precisely analogous. The battening down of a ship‟s hold

when a fire breaks out below decks will often hold the flames in check

until port is reached. Small fires, such as those involving a person‟s


248

clothing can be smothered with a rug, blanket, etc while the use of sand

or earth on a small metal is a further instance of the same principle.

An important practical application of the smothering method is the use

of foam. This forms a viscous coating over the burning material and

limit, in so far as it is complete, the supply of air. It also tends to prevent

the formation of flammable vapour. Another method of smothering is by

the application of a cloud of finely divided particles of dry powder,

usually sodium bicarbonate, from a pressurised extinguisher. Research

has been made into this method and it is not certain that the action is

solely related to smothering. Trioxocarbonates will absorb heat and

when they are finely divided, as is the powder, their specific heat is very

much greater. It may therefore, be more accurate to say that the powder

has a cooling effect in addition to its smothering effect.

A further development in the smothering method has been the discovery

of a powdered compound for use on metal fires, such as uranium and

plutonium, thorium and magnesium. This powder (tertiary eutectic

chloride) is applied by means of a gas cartridge pressurised extinguisher.

As the fusing temperature of the powder is in the region of 5800c, it is

intended that it shall form a crust over the burning metal and thus

exclude the oxygen of the air.

Another class of smothering agent may be described as temporary in its

blanketing effect. Thus, the vigorous discharge of an inert gas in the

immediate vicinity of the fire may so reduce the oxygen content of the

atmosphere for the time being that combustion cannot be maintained.

Carbon IV oxide and nitrogen are familiar examples of this. With fires

of any magnitude, however, the convection currents set up are

sufficiently powerful to dissipate the inert atmosphere formed by the

application of the gas blanket before the extinguishing action can take

effect. The same thing happens if this method is used out of doors with a

strong wind blowing. The application of these media in liquid form,

which is thus vaporised by the fire thus forming the required inert

atmosphere, is more likely to be effective, particularly as a cooling

effect is also operative.

Experiments over recent years have produced a group of extinguishants

consisting of volatile liquids based on the halogenated hydrocarbons.

The first and probably the simplest of these was carbon tetrachloride,

but owing to its toxic effects, its use has been discontinued and a

number of others of lesser toxicity have found favour. The best known is

bromo chlorodiflouromethane (known as BCF).

One other method of fire extinction is the separation of the fuel from the

flame by blasting it away. On a small scale the blowing out of a candle


249

is an obvious example, while on the larger scale the extinguishing of an

oil well fire by the blast from exploding dynamite is a practical use of

the method. Such a technique does, of course, also involve to a

considerable extent the cooling principle.

Cooling

If the rate at which heat is generated by combustion is less than the rate

at which it is dissipated through various agencies, the combustion

cannot persist. In applying this principle of fire extinction, the first step

is to accelerate the speed with which heat is removed from the fire, thus

reducing the temperature of the burning mass and as a consequence the

rate at which heat is produced. In due course the rate at which heat is

lost from the fire exceeds the rate of heat production and the fire dies

away.

The application of a jet or spray of water to a fire is invariably based on

this simple but fundamental principle. There are many variations.

Another example is the emulsification of the surface of oil by means of

the emulsifying type of sprinkler heat producing an oil-in-water or

water-in-oil emulsion. The cooling principle on fire extinction is the one

most commonly employed, forming as it does the basis of the

application of water and other liquids to burning materials. The

extinguishing medium operates by absorbing heat from the fire, as a

consequence of which it may undergo one or more of the following

changes:

(a) its temperature is raised

(b) it is converted to the vapour state

(c) it is decomposed

(d) it reacts chemically with the burning material.

It is clearly desirable that the quantity of heat required to produce any or

all of these changes in a given quantity of an extinguishing medium

should be as high as possible. That is to say, referring specifically to the

above headings, that the following values should be as high as possible:

(i) the amount of heat absorbed for any given increase in

temperature (the thermal capacity).

(ii) the amount of heat required to vaporise a unit weight of the

extinguishing medium (the latent heat of vaporisation).

(iii) the amount of heat required to cause decomposition of a unit

weight of the extinguishing medium (the heat of decomposition)

(iv) the amount of heat required to cause a unit weight of the

extinguishing medium to react chemically with the burning

material (the heat of reaction).


250

The action of water depends predominantly on (i) and (ii) the latter

being by far the more important. Thus, it takes about six times as much

heat to convert a certain weight of water at its boiling point into steam as

is required to raise the temperature of the same amount of water from

the usual atmospheric value to its boiling point.

In the interests of efficiency, then it is clearly desirable that the liquid

condition is maintained, and in if possible is converted to steam. The

smothering effect of the steam produced at the seat of the fire is thought

to play a part in assisting in the extinguishing process. In all fire-fighting

operations where water is in use it should be the aim to ensure that the

proportion of water which escapes from the building in liquid form to

that which is applied should be as low as possible. When the heat of

afire is considerable, as in its early stages, the steam formed will not be

visible, but as the temperature falls the steam will condense above the

fire. These officers ensure that a fire is being brought under control.


State three factors essential for combustion to take place. Describe

smothering method of extinguishing fire outbreak

3.5 Fire Extinguishing Media

Here we will discuss the various media which are used for particular

types of fire. These will depend upon the nature of the materials

involved and the size and intensity of the fire.

Water

Despite the many new techniques which have come to the assistance of

firemen, water is still the most efficient, cheapest and most readily

available medium for extinguishing fires of a general nature. It is used

by fire brigades for the majority of fires, although the methods of

application have undergone a number of improvements. If more water is

applied than is actually required to contain and extinguish the fire, the

surplus will drain off, or will seep through floors and perhaps cause

more damage to goods and property than that caused by the fire itself.

Accordingly, the method of applying water to a fire varies according to

the size of the fire.

If small quantities only are required the use of necessary force may be

obtained by the use of portable extinguishers expelling water, or by the

use of hand pumps where the fire is larger than can be dealt with by

hand appliances, then hose reels are used instead. The water for this is

contained in a tank incorporated on the appliance and is pumped through


251

the tubing on the reels by means of a built-in pump. For major fires,

greater quantities of water are necessary, and the built in pumps driven

by the vehicles engine are often capable of pumping up to 1000 gallons

(4500 litres) per minute, giving the necessary energy to the water to

provide adequate striking power

Steam

Steam in large quantities can be used to smother a fire and in situations

where it is readily available, it can be used on fired installation

compartmentation is obviously a help and ships are frequently adapted

to be able to fill holds with steam under pressure.

Foam and Foam-Making Compounds

Some of the most hazardous substances so far as fire risk is concerned,

are liquids having a specific gravity lower than that of water. When

water is applied to the burning surface of such a liquid, it lowers the

temperature momentarily and then sinks below the surface where any

further effect is lost, except in the case of liquids such as methylated

spirits which mix freely with water, and where dilution may therefore

occur to the point where combustion cannot be maintained.

We know that one of the methods which can be employed for fire

extinction is smothering foam, which is relatively insoluble in most

liquids and because of its light weight floats on the surface of the liquid,

forms a blanket capable of covering the surface of the burning liquid and

so extinguishes the fire. It also forms a radiant heat barrier which is of

importance in extinction of oil and petrol fires. Foam as used by fire

brigades is usually generated by the mechanical agitation of diluted

foam compounds include soaps, glue and wetting agent mixtures and

hydrolyzed protein concentrates. This type of foam compound produces

foam with the most suitable characteristics for general use by fire

brigades for fighting large fires in oil and petrol tanks, and is the

standard compound used in this counting. It is manufactured by the meal

or animal blood.

Vaporising Liquid

The halogenated hydrocarbons used for extinguishing fires have the

property of vaporising readily when heated and are, therefore, generally

known as vaporising liquid. They form a dense, heavier than-air, cloud

of non-flammable vapour which not only blankets a fire by the

displacement of air, but also has the property of interfering with the

chemical reaction of flame propagation on the burning material.


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Vaporising liquids have an exceptional use for extinguishing fires

involving electrical equipment, as they are also non-injurious to delicate

electronic equipment. Vaporising liquid extinguishers are also excellent

for dealing with fires involving laboratory equipment, or for

extinguishing fires in the engines and inert gases.

Carbon IV Oxide and Inert Gases

At normal temperatures, carbon iv oxide is a gas 1.5 times as dense as

air, it is easily liquefied and bottled, where it is contained under a

pressure of approximately 750 ft/in2

(51 bars). As a fire extinguishant it

acts in a similar manner to vaporising liquids, and when a Co2

extinguisher is discharged, the liquid boils off rapidly as a gas,

extracting heat from the surrounding atmosphere. The gas, however,

extinguishes by smothering, or reducing the oxygen content of the air

and about 20 to 30 percent is necessary to completely extinguish,

according to the nature of the burning material. In fact, materials which

supply their own oxygen will continue to burn, as will any material that

tends to decompose the Carbon IV Oxide, such as burning magnesium.

Apart from these considerations, Carbon IV Oxide is quick and clean,

non-conductive of electricity, non-toxic and does not harm most fabrics.

For fire situations, such as in transformer chambers, where complete

flooding of the compartment is desirable, fixed Carbon IV Oxide

installations may be built. As an alternative to Carbon IV Oxide, liquid

nitrogen in bulk or in cylinders containing the gas will also produce the

inerting or smothering effect necessary for successful extinction.

Dry Chemical Powders

New problems have been produced for the fireman by the use in

industry of an ever widening range of materials. Plastics are one

example of this, and the fabrication of titanium zirconium, beryllium

and other metals is another. Water can often not be used, on most fires

involving burning metals, the result of applying water can be

explosively disastrous, and so new methods of extraction have been

evolved, chief among these are powdered chemicals which are stored in

cylinders under pressure, or which can be ejected by the release of gas

under pressure.

The basis of most chemical powders is sodium bicarbonate. This, with

the addition of a metallic stearate as a water proofing agent, is widely

used as an extinguishant, not only in portable extinguishers, but also for

general application in large quantities. Apart from stearates, other

additives are sometimes used to decrease the bulk density and to reduce

packing in the cylinders by gas pressure and, by means of specially


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designed nozzles, is directed at the fire in a concentrated cloud. This

cloud also screens the operation from the flames and enables a relatively

close attack to be made. Dry chemical powder can also be supplied in

polythene bags for metal fires, as it is more effective to bury the fire

under a pile of bags which melt and allow the contents to smother the

fire.

Sand: Some burning materials, such as metals, which cannot be

extinguished by the use of water, may be dealt with by means of dry

earth, dry sand, powdered graphite, powdered talc, soda ash or

limestone, all of which act as a smothering agent. Dry sand may also be

used to prevent burning liquids, such as paints and oils, from flowing

down drains, basements lights, etc. and for confining shallow layers of

such liquids, thus permitting the use of foam or spray branches; on no

account should sand be used for extinguishing fires in machinery such as

electric motors, since its use may well necessitate dismantling the entire

machine for cleaning, even though the fire damage is negligible.

Blanketing

Another method, by which fire may be extinguished, especially for

persons whose clothing is on fire, is by blanketing. The person should be

laid down and covered or rolled in a rug, coat, jacket, woollen blanket,

etc. for dealing with fires in small utensils, such as those containing

cooking fats, the best method is to smother the fire with an asbestos

blanket, or similar material, such as a dormant which has been wetted

first.

Beating Out

Small fires in material such as textiles, etc. may often be extinguished

by beating them out, or by rolling and screwing up the burning material

tightly to exclude the air. Beating is also the method normally employed

to extinguish heath, crop and other similar fires in rural areas when

water is not readily available.


List and describe three types of extinguishing media you know.

3.6 Principles of Fire Protection

What is fire protection?

Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted

effects of fires. It involves the study of the behaviour,

compartmentalisation, suppression and investigation of fire and its


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related emergencies, as well as the research and development,

protection, testing and application of mitigating systems. In structures,

be they land-based, offshore or even ships, the owners and operators are

responsible to maintain their facilities in accordance with a design-basis

that is noted in laws, including the local building code and fire code,

which are enforced by the authority having jurisdiction. Buildings must

be constructed in accordance with the version of the building code that

is in effect when an application for a building permit is made. Building

inspectors cheek on compliance of a building under construction with

the building code, once maintained in accordance with the current fire

code, which is enforced by the fire prevention officers of a local fire

department. In the event of fire emergencies, fire fighters, fire

investigators, and other fire prevention personnel called to mitigate,

investigate and learn from the damage of a fire.

Goals of Fire Protection

Fire protection has three major goals:

Continuity of Operations

On a public scale, this is intended to prevent the interruption of critical

services necessary for the public welfare.

Property Protection

On a public scale, this is intended to prevent area wide conflagration. As

a an insurance consideration

Life Safety

Minimum standard used in fire and building codes.


What are the major goals of fire protection?

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have discussed and explained that fire investigation is a field of

forensic science that determines the origin of fire, where and why did

the fire start also learnt that fires are classified into „A‟, „B‟, „C‟ and „D‟

and methods of extinguishing fire include starvation, smothering and

cooling. Finally the goals of fire protection include continuity of

operations, property protection and life safely.


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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have dealt with the concept of fire investigation by

looking at the following aspects: meaning, classification, how to conduct

fire investigation, methods of extinguishing fire, fire extinguishing

media and principles of fire protection.


1. As a fire officer, describe how you will conduct a fire

investigation.

2. List methods of extinguishing fire and describe two of them.

3. State the goals of fire protection.


Bates, E. B. (2001), Elements of Fire and Arson Investigation. Santa

Cruz, CA: Davis Publishing Co.

Battle, B. P. & Weston, (1999). Arson: A Handbook of Detection and

Investigation. New York: Arco Publishing Co.

Carroll, J. R. (2003). Physical and Technical Aspects of Fire and Arson

Investigation. Springfield, IL: C. C. Thomas Publisher.

Carter, R. E. (2000). Aeson Investigation. Encino, CA: Glencoe Press.

Golding, E. I. (1998). Forensic Handbook U.S Department of the

Treasury. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

Huron, B. S (2004). Elements of Arson Investigation. New York:

Reuben H. Donnellery Corp.

Kennedy, J (2002). Fire, Arson and Explosion Investigate. Chicago

Investigations Institute.

Kirk, P. L. (1997). Fire Investigation, Including Fire-Related

Phenomena: Arson, Explosion, Asphyxiation. New York: John

Wiley and Sons, INC.


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UNIT 2 SIGNATURE FORGERIES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Forgery

3.2 Types of Signature Forgeries

3.3 Forged and Disputed Signature

3.4 How forgers Reproduce Signatures

3.5 Signature Forgery Prevention Tips

3.6 Methods of Detecting Signature Forgery

3.7 Comparison of Four Ordinary Signatures with

Descriptions

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

Forgery is a non violent crime that involves the alteration of legal and

financial documents or instruments or otherwise altering with the

attempt to defraud. Forgery can include bonds, deeds, titles, cheques,

money orders, wills, court documents, and other types of falsification.

Forgery is also any instrument, document or human effort that has been

presented as one author‟s work when it is in reality another‟s. In most

cases, benefit is gained by the individual or institution presenting the

falsity. The various issues that will be examined in this unit, so as to

introduce you to the concept of forgery include: Meaning, Types of

Signature Forgery, Forged and Disputed Signatures, How Forgers

Reproduce Signature, Signature Forgery Prevention Tips, Methods of

Detecting Signature Forgery and Comparison of four Ordinary

Signatures with Description.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the of this unit, you should be able to:

explain the concept forgery

state the various types of signature forgeries

mention ways of preventing signature forgery

discuss methods of detecting signature forgery.


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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Forgery

Before discussing signature forgery, let us explain the meaning of

forgery, or what is forgery all about?

The act of criminally making or altering a written instrument for the

purpose of fraud or deceit; for example, signing another person‟s name

to a cheque. To write payee‟s endorsement or signature on a cheque

without the „payee‟ of a cheque is the true owner or person to whom the

cheque was payable. Forgery is also defined as an illegal modification or

reproduction of an instrument, document, signature, or legal tender, or

any other means of recording information. An item is also considered

forged it is claimed that it was made by someone who did not make it.

The making, drawing, or altering a document with the intent to defraud.

A signature made without the person knowing of or consenting to it.

Forgery at common law has been held to be „the fraudulent making and

alteration of a writing to the prejudice of another man‟s right false

modern writer defined it as, „a written instrument, for the purpose of

fraud and deceit. The making of a whole written instrument on the name

of another with a fraudulent intent is undoubtedly a sufficient making

but a fraudulent insertion, alteration or erasure, even of a letter, in any

material part of the instrument, whereby a new operation is given to it,

will amount to a forgery, Although it may be executed by a person

ignorant of the deceit. The fraudulent application for which it was not

intended or vice versa, will also be a forgery. For example, it is forgery

in an individual who is affixed to the paper without revealing to him the

legacies thus fraudulently inserted. It has even been intimated that a

party who makes a copy of a receipt and adds to such copy material

words not in the original and then offers it in evidence on the ground

that the original has been lost, may be prosecuted for forgery.

Making an instrument in a fictitious name or name of a non-existing

person, is equally a forgery as making it in the name of an existing

person and although a man may make the instrument in his own name if

he represents it as the instrument of another, of the same person when in

fact there is no such person, it will be a forgery in the name of a non-

existing person but the correctness of this decision has been doubted.

Today a person‟s identity is comprised of numbers, data and files. One

might say that individuality has gone by the boards, but no, signature is

still the standard for contacts, cheques and other important financial

transactions, not to mention wills and other legal documents. It may be

observed that the offence of forgery may be complete without a


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publication of the forged instrument with regard to the thing being held

to be forgery at common law fraudulently to falsely make records and

other matters of a public nature. Also with regard to private writings it is

forgery fraudulently to falsity or falsely to make a deed or will or any

private document whereby another person may be prejudiced.

Typically the main focus of a forgery case is determining (1) whether

there was intent to defraud and (2) what the financial value of the

resulting forgery amounted to. The greater the financial value, the

heavier the sentencing may be if you are convicted.


Explain the term forgery.

3.2 Types of Signature Forgeries

In a cryptographic digital signature or MAC system, forging a signature

is the ability to create a pair consisting of a message M and a signature

(or MAC) 6 that is valid for M, where „M‟ has not been signed in the

past by the legitimate signer. There are three types of signature

forgeries:

Existential Signature Forgery

Selective Signature Forgery

Universal Signature Forgery.

Existential Signature Forgery

Existential forgery is the creation (by an adversary) of any

message/signature pair (M, 6), where 6 was not produced by the

legitimate signer. The adversary need not have any control over M, M

need not have any particular meaning, and indeed it may even be

gibberish – as long as the pair (M, 6) is valid, the adversary has

succeeded in constructing an existential forgery.

Existential forgery is essentially the weakest adversarial goal; therefore

the strongest schemes are those which are “existentially unforgivable”.

Selective Signature Forgery

Selective forgery is the creation (by an adversary) of a

message/signature pair (M, 6) where M has been chosen by the

adversary prior to the attack. M may be chosen to have interesting

mathematical properties with respect to the signature algorithm,

however, in selective forgery; M must be fixed before the start of the


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attack. The ability to successfully conduct a selective forgery attack

implies the ability to successfully conduct an existential forgery attack.

Universal Signature Forgery

Universal Forgery is the creation (by an adversary) of a valid signature

for any given message M. An adversary capable of universal forgery is

able to sign the message he choose himself (as in selective forgery).

Generally, there are two main types of forgeries: Forgery by

reproduction and forgery by imitation.

Forgery by Reproduction

It consists in imitating an object as exactly the same. Most of the time,

those reproduced items are the best sealers of famous brands.

Forgery by Imitation

It aims at imitating a brand, its signature, its style. It focuses on the

brand and not on the product (compared to forgery by reproduction). It

concerns well known brands and items are various (from cell phone case

to travel bag). In fact, the intent is only to fool the gullible who may not

look at the label and doesn‟t know what the real thing looks like.


List and describe the types of signature forgery.

3.3 Forged and Disputed Signatures

The title to money and property of all kinds depends so lately upon the

geniuses of signatures, that no study or inquiry can be more interesting

than one relating to the degree of certainty with which genuine writings

can be distinguished from those which are counterfeited.

When comparing a disputed signature with a series of admittedly

genuine signatures of the same person whose signature is being

disputed, the general appearance and pictorial effect of the writing will

suggest, as the measure of resemblances or differences predominates, an

impression upon the mind of the examiner as to the genuine or forged

character of the signature in question. When it is understood that to

make a forgery available for the purposes of its production it must

resemble in general appearance the writing of the person whose

signature it purports to represent. It follows as a reasonable conclusion

that resemblances in general appearances alone must be secondary


260

factors in establishing the genuineness of a signature by comparison –

and the fact that two signatures look alike is not always evidence that

they were written by the same person.

There are many conditions affecting the production of signatures,

habitually and uniformly apart from the causes which prevent a person

from writing signatures twice precisely alike, under the influence of

normal conditions of execution. The effect of fatigue, excitement, haste,

or the use of a different pen from that which the standards were written,

are well known conditions operating to materially affect the general

appearance of the writing, and may have been, in one form or another,

an attendant cause when the questioned signature was produced, and

thus have given to the latter some variation from the signatures of the

same person, executed under the influence of normal surroundings.

In the process of evolving a signature, which must again and again

repeated from an early age till death, new ideas occur from time to time,

are tried, modified, improved, and finally embodied in the design. The

idea finally worked out may be merely a short method of writing the

necessary sequence of characters, or it may present some novelty to the

eye. Signatures consisting almost exclusively of straight up-and-down

strokes, looking at a short distance like a row of needles with very light

hair-lines to indicate the separate letters, signature begun at the

beginning or the end and written without removing the pen from the

paper, signatures which are entirely illegible and whose component parts

convey only the mutilated rudiments of letters, are not uncommon. All

such signatures strike the eye and arrest attention, and thus accomplish

the object of their authors. The French signature frequently runs upward

from left to right, ending with a strong down nourish in the opposite

direction. All these, even the most illegible examples, give evidence of

experience in handling or mishandling the pen. The signature most

difficult to read is frequently the production of the hand which writes

most frequently, and it is very much harder to decipher than the worst

specimens of an untrained hand. The characteristics of the latter are

usually an evident painstaking desire to imitate faulty ideals of the

letters one after the other, without any attempt to attain a particular

effect by the signature as a whole. In very extreme cases, the separate

letters of the words constituting the signature are not even joined

together.

A simulation of such a signature by an expert penman will usually leave

enough traces of his ability in handling the pen to piece his disguise.

Even a short, straight stroke, into which he is likely to relapse against

his will, gives evidence against the pretended difficulties of the act

which he intends to convey. It is nearly as difficult for a master of the

pen to imitate an untrained hand as for the untrained to write like an


261

expert penman. The difference between an untrained signature and

tracing of his signature by an experienced writer who is ill or feeble, is

that in the former may be seen abundant instances of ill-directed

strength, and in the latter equally abundant instances of well-concerned

design, with a failure of the power to execute it.


List the features of a forged signature.

3.4 How Forgers Reproduce Their Signatures

How do signature forgers perpetuate their act?

As forgers differ in their capability as to accuracy in simulation, all

grades of its proficiency come up in the experience of those who, as

experts, are called upon to make such matters a study. At one extreme

will be found to occur, signatures written with but little effort to imitate

the genuine signature they purport to represent, with all the intermediate

grades of imitation extending to the other extreme, wherein a skilful

forger will, by practice simulate the signature of a person and with such

close resemblance that the very individual whose name is imitated

cannot independently or at any circumstance, tell the forgery from the

signature which he knows he has written.

Among the most common forgeries of signatures are those which have

been traced from genuine ones, and these are produced in various ways;

the most common method being to place the genuine signature over a

plate of glass horizontally arranged, with a strong light behind it, or

against the window frame, and then to place over the signature so

positioned the paper on which forgery is to be made. When this has been

done the papers are held in contact firmly, the pen is dipped-in ink and

moved over the paper, guided by the lines of the genuine signature

beneath, which show through the superimposed paper, and by means of

which the form of the signature is transferred to the paper, which is

exteriorly place.

While the process of tracing procedures very nearly the proper form of

the matter thus copied, and if well done by the forger, the copy will in

general appearance and to a certain extent resemble in outline the

signature thus traced, there are usually apparent in all reproduced

signatures thus made, peculiarities and earmarks indicating the manner

in which they were produced and by which they can be identified as

such. One of the prominent features of reproduced signatures is the

general sameness of the writing as appearing in the uniform width of the

lines, and the omission of the usual shading emphasis. The cause of this

appearance is the absence of habitual pen pressure, and the necessitated


262

slow movement of the pen held closely in contact with the paper and by

which a uniform and steady flow of ink is deposited thereon; thus,

making what should be the heavier and lighter links of one width and

density as to shading. This method of tracing and reproducing signatures

is that usually resorted to by novices, but is seldom employed by expert

forgers.

Another condition appearing in all traced signatures is the absence of all

evidence of pen pressure when examined as a transparency, this

deficiency occurring as consequent upon the signatures thus made may

resemble the one from which they are copied, the only likeness they

have is that of pictorial resemblance and it will be found to be destitute

of all the appearances and indications of habitual writing in other

respects.

Another method of tracing signatures is frequently resorted to by

persons adept in the art, and this consist in making lead-pencil copy of

the genuine signature holding the paper on which the forgery is to be

produced, tracing the outline of the signature by means of a pencil, and

then with ink to write over the pencil copy. But as the method

necessitates the use of an Indian rubber to remove the surplus black lead

which was not covered by the ink, and evidences of the use of the rubber

will be found to occur, and trace of the black lead can be found by the

microscope. While the appearances and conditions are common traced

signatures, there are in addition to their presence generally found

evidences of pauses made in the writing, the effect of which will appear

not as shading of the lines, but as irregularities produced thereon by

resting the hand in its movement, and by which at intervals more ink

flowed from the pen than would occur when the latter was being moved

habitually over the paper.

Reproduced signatures often show a copying effort that is manifested in

the details of their production. These evidences generally appear, in

some instances, as pauses made in the lines connecting the letters of the

signature, where the pen rested while the eye of the forger was directed

from the writing being done to the copy, that the writer could fix in the

mind the form of a succeeding letter. Another characteristic of forged

signatures that are not traced from a genuine signature is that they are

written with greater length in proportion to the width and height of the

letters, than occurs in the genuine signature from which they are copied

in imitation. This want of proportion occurs generally from making the

lines connecting the letters of the signature longer than those of the

copy.

As earlier stated, one of the commonest and easiest means of

reproducing a signature is to put the genuine signature on a piece of


263

glass, lay another glass on top of it and fasten the piece of paper that is

to receive forgery on top of that. Then by holding the glass strips to a

bright light, the original signature casts a shadow through, which may be

traced in pencil. From the tracing the ink forgery is completed.


Enumerate the various methods signature forgers can adopt to carry out

their act.

3.5 Signature Forgery Prevention Tips

How can signature forgery be prevented or minimised? The following

are the tips:

1. Whenever you dictate something anytime – make sure you have a

copy for your files. Just don‟t walk out of any establishment

without at least a photocopy of the document that you signed.

2. Keep your receipt: Keep it in a safe, easily accessible place. The

best evidence is always the original (signature in ink is

considered an original). Many firms have photocopied or printed

contracts which are used instead of typing or printing out the

terms each time and simply have the buyer or client sign that

copy.

3. Do not sign a blank sheet of paper: Do not sign a form in which

the blanks have not been filled in. if there are necessary blanks,

initial those parts to show that they are intentionally left

incomplete.

4. Do not do business when you are ill, under stress and/or under the

influence: The courts do not take kindly to those excuses. Your

signature is your signature and it is the one of the last strongholds

of individuality in this century and the next. Therefore, if your

name is inscribed, unless you can prove it‟s a forgery, you must

take responsibility.

5. Devise a signature that is particularly yours: It may resemble the

rest of your writing with a few variations that people will find

hard to copy. Legibility is not the key here, individuality is. Some

people make their capital letters larger, or place them in a

particular sequence. Often there is a flourish built into the final

stroke. The more your signature looks like your regular script, the

easier it is for people to copy. Practice subtle differences: the

size/shape/angle of the capitals, the punctuations, the spacing


264

between your first and last name, and/initial. There are as many

variations in writing as there are people – make up your own and

you will have a signature that is difficult to forge.

6. Practice making your signature completely individual: How do

you do it? Simple: write your name as if you were going to be

marked on your penmanship. Then, write it again and again,

changing the writing to your most comfortable style. Vary some

aspects of the letter formation so it does not copy your regular

script.

Forgers will reproduce a passable image of your capital letters,

the size and maybe the slant of a signature. But it is impossible

for them to copy all the aspects of your writing.

7. Never sign a document or paper in blank: People frequently bring

lawsuits against professionals in today‟s litigious society.

Fortunately for both the professional and the client, records are

kept of visits and procedures both at the office visits and hospitals

stay in most instances. Those records are used to refresh the

professional‟s memory. Often these records are crucial to proving

the specialist‟s reasons for acting as he or she did.

8. Keep samples of your writing through the years: Cancelled

cheques are excellent. If you are one of those people that have

different signatures for different instances such as one signature

for cheques and regular business, another for formal documents

such as wills, contracts, etc. and perhaps a third for friends and

family, keep representative copies of them all at least a dozen of

each. Mark them for the year in which they were written. This

will help if someone tries to copy a 2009 signature in 2010.


Describe how you will prevent your signature from being forged.

3.6 Methods For Detecting Signature Forgery

In the past, signatures were verified by comparing a signature in

question with a collection of samples of a valid signature. After the

signature was normalised to a particular scale, the overall shape of the

signature was compared with the stored samples or templates.

Unfortunately, this type of comparison was susceptible to forgeries

made by tracing or copying a valid signature.


265

An embodiment of the present invention provides a method for detecting

forged signatures that were made by methods such as tracing a valid

signature. As a signature is traced, it typically includes jitter. Jitter

results from the many small corrections a person makes in the process of

tracing a signature.

Forgeries are detected by curve fitting the signature in question. The

length of the curve fitted signature and the length of the signature in

question are compared. If the signature in question is a traced forgery, it

will tend to have a significant amount of jitter which results in a

significant longer length than the curve fitted signature.

In another embodiment of the present invention, samples of valid

signatures are collected and the amount of jitter in each valid signature

is measured. Then when a signature in question is checked for

authenticity, the amount of jitter can be compared with the amount of

jitter included in valid signatures. This helps to prevent the rejection of

valid signatures produced by the people with jittery signatures.

Signature forgeries are also detected by curve fitting the signature in

question. The length of the curve fitted signature and the length of the

signature in question are compared. If the signature in question is a

traced or copied forgery, it will tend to have a significant amount of

jitter which results in a significantly longer length than the curve fitted

signature.

A method for detecting forgery in a traced signature by measuring an

amount of jitter in the traced signature, comprising the following steps:

Collecting at least one valid signature.

Taking a first plurality of samples of the valid signature.

Forming a first sum of distances between consecutive samples

belonging to the first plurality of the samples.

Fitting a first curve to the valid signature.

Measuring a first length of the first curve.

Determining the threshold by forming a first ratio using the first

sum of distances and the first length of the first curve.

Taking a second plurality of samples of the traced signature.

Forming a second sum of distances between consecutive samples

belonging to the second plurality samples

Fitting a second curve to the traced signature.

Measuring a second length of the second curve.

Forming a second ratio using the second sum of distances and the

second length of the second curve, and detecting forgery in the

traced signature by comparing the second ratio and the threshold


266

Imitations of signatures are usually written in a laborious and

painstaking manner. They are, therefore, decidedly unlike a

man‟s natural signature which is usually written in an easy

fashion. The imitations show frequent pauses, irregularities in

pen pressure and in the distribution of ink, and contain other

evidences of hesitation. Not frequently the forger tries to improve

on his work by retouching some of the letters after he has

completed a word. Microscopic examination brings out all of

these things and makes them tell-tale witnesses.

3.7 Comparison of Four Ordinary Signatures with

Description


267

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained signature forgery as an illegal modification or

reproduction of an instrument, document, signature, or legal tender, or

any other means of recording information. An item is also considered

forged if it is claimed that it was made by someone who did not make it.

We also learnt that signature forgery is made up of three types, selective,

universal and existential. Also one of the commonest and easiest means

of reproducing a signature is to put the genuine signature on a piece of

glass and traced with a pencil. We also advise top ranking officers to

sign unique signatures to avoid forgery.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed signature forgery by looking at the

following aspects: Meaning, Types, Forged and Disputed Signatures,

How forgers reproduce signatures, How to prevent signature forgeries

and methods of detecting signature forgery.


1. Define the term forgery.

2. How will you prevent your signature from being forged?

3. List three types of forged signatures.


Adrian, D. (2000). Forgeries: Long History. WY, USA: Thomas

Publisher.

Erneco, G. A. (1998). A History of Art Forgery. Lagos: Magms

Publishing Co.

Hans, W. S. (1997). Detecting Forgery. New York: Arco Publishing Co.

Rence, C. (2001). “Forgery Prevention Tips.” In A Handbook of

Detection and Forgery Investigation. Arco Publishing Co. Inc.

Simon, S. (1996). “False Impressions”: In A Guide to Signature

Forgery. Santa Cruz: Davis Publishing Co.


268

UNIT 3 COUNTERFEIT CURRENCIES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Counterfeit Currencies

3.2 History of Counterfeit Currencies

3.3 How to Spot Counterfeit

3.4 Counterfeit Money Detectors

3.5 Combating Counterfeiting

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

Counterfeiting currencies is an interesting study and touches on both

economic and political facets of the society. Counterfeit is generally

defined as, representing by imitation, or likeness, having a resemblance

to something else, portrayed or fabricated in imitation of something else,

with a view to defraud by passing the false copy for genuine or original,

as counterfeit antiques, counterfeit coin. The various issues that will be

examined in this unit that will introduce you to the concept of

counterfeiting currencies are the meaning, history, spotting a counterfeit,

counterfeit money detector and combating counterfeiting.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


explain the meaning of counterfeit currency

describe how to spot a counterfeit

mention various ways of detecting counterfeit currency

state measures of combating counterfeiting

trace the history of counterfeiting currency.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Counterfeit Currency

Counterfeit money is currency that is produced without the legal

sanction of the state or government to resemble some official form of


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currency closely enough that it may be confused for genuine currency.

Producing or using counterfeit money is a form of fraud. Roman coins

were stuck using a minting process, not cast, so the coin moulds were

created for forgery.

Counterfeiting is probably as old as money itself before the introduction

of paper money, the most prevalent method of counterfeiting involved

mixing base metals with pure gold or silver. A form of counterfeiting is

the production of documents by legitimate printers in response to

fraudulent instructions. During World War II, the Nazis attempted to

forge British pounds and American dollars. Today some of the finest

counterfeit banknotes are called super-dollars because of their high

quality and likeness to the real US dollar. There has been a rapid growth

in the counterfeiting of Euro banknotes and coins since the launch of the

currency in 2002.

The crime of counterfeiting currency is as old as money itself. In the

past, nations had used counterfeiting as a means of warfare such as in

the War Between the States in the USA in the mid 1800s and the

Bernhard operation in Europe during the Second World War. The idea

was to overflow the enemy‟s economy with fake banknotes, so that the

real value of the said money was reduced, therefore, attacking the

economy and general welfare of a society. Today, the crime of

counterfeiting continues to present a potential danger to national

economies and financial losses to consumers. Recent developments in

photographic and computer technology, as well as printing devices, have

made the production of counterfeit money relatively easy, thereby

increasing the potential threat.

Some of the ill-effects that counterfeit money has on society are: a

reduction in the value of real money, and increase in prices (inflation)

due to more money getting circulated in the economy – an unauthorised

artificial increase in the money supply, a decrease in the acceptability of

paper money, and losses, because companies are not reimbursed for

counterfeits. Traditionally, anti-counterfeiting measures involved

include fine detail with raise intaglio printing on bills which would

allow non-experts to easily spot forgeries on coins, milled or reeded

(marked with parallel grooves) edges are used to show that none of the

valuable metal has been scrapped off.


Define the term counterfeiting in relation to currencies.


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3.2 History of Counterfeit Currency

Was counterfeiting existing in olden times? Counterfeiting is as old as

money itself. Coinage of money began in the Greek city of Lydia around

6 B. C. Before the introduction of paper money, the most prevalent

method of counterfeiting involved mixing base metals with pure gold or

silver. Also, individuals would “shave” the edges of a coin. This was

known as “clipping”. While not itself counterfeiting, the exponents were

able to use these precious metal shavings to create counterfeits. A

fourrée is an ancient type of counterfeit coin, in which a base metal core

has been plated with a precious metal to resemble its solid metal

counterpart. Rulers often dealt very harshly with the perpetrators of such

deeds. In 1162, Emperor Gaozong of Song had promulgated a decree to

punish the counterfeiter of Huizi to death and to reward the informant.

The English couple, Thomas and Anne Rogers, were convicted on 15

October, 1690 for “clipping 40 pieces of silver”. Thomas Rogers was

hanged, drawn and quartered while Anne Royer was burnt alive. The

extreme forms of punishment were due to the pair‟s acts being construed

as treason, rather than simple crime.

In the United States, counterfeiting was once punishable by death. Paper

currency printed by Benjamin Franklin often bore the phrase to

counterfeit is death. The theory behind such harsh punishments was that

one who had the skills to counterfeit currency was considered a threat to

the safely of the state, and had to be eliminated-another explanation is

the fact that issuing money that people could trust was both an economic

imperative, as well as a royal prerogative-therefore counterfeiting was a

crime against the state or ruler itself, rather than against the person who

received fake money.

Modern counterfeiting begins with paper money. Nations have used

counterfeiting as a means of warfare. The idea is to overflow the

enemy‟s economy with fake bank notes, so that the real value of the

money plummets. Great Britain did this during the revolutionary war to

reduce the value of the Continental Dollar. Although this tactic was also

employed by the United States during the American Civil War, the fake

Confederate currency it produced was of superior quality to the real

thing.

A form of counterfeiting is the production of documents by legitimate

printers in response to fraudulent instructions. An example of this is the

Portuguese Bank Note Crises of 1925, when the British banknote

printers Waterlow and Sons produced Banco de Portugal notes

equivalent in value to 0.88% of the Portuguese nominal Gross Domestic

Product, with identical serial numbers to existing banknotes, in response

to a fraud perpetrated by Alves dos Reis.


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In 1926 a high-profile counterfeit scandal came to light in Hungary,

when several people were arrested in the Netherlands while attempting

to procure 10 million francs worth of Fake French 1000-franc bills

which had been produced in Hungary, after 3 years, the state sponsored

industrial scale counterfeit operation had finally collapsed.

Today, some of the finest counterfeit bank notes are called super-dollars

because of their dollar. The source of the super-notes is disputed, with

North Korea being vocally accused by U.S authorities. Recently, on

May 23, 2007, the Swiss government has raised some doubt as to the

ability of North Korea to produce the “super dollars”. Bulgaria and

Colombia are also significant sources of counterfeit currency. There has

been a rapid growth in the counterfeiting of Euro banknotes and coins

since the launch of the currency in 2002. In 2003 551, 287 fake euro

notes and 26, 191 bogus euro wins were removed in circulation and in

2004, French Police seized fake 10 euro and 20 euro notes worth a total

of around €1.8 million from two laboratories and estimated that 145,000

notes had already entered circulation.

In the early years of the 21st century, the United States Secret Service

has noted a substantial reduction in the quantity of forged U.S. currency,

as counterfeiters turn their attention towards the Euro. In 2006, a

Pakistani government printing press in the city of Quetta was accused of

churning out large quantities of counterfeit Indian currency. The times

of India, reported this based on central Bureau of intelligence

investigation. The rupee notes are then smuggled into India as part of

Pakistanis agenda of destabilising (the) Indian economy through fake

currency, the daily said. The notes are supplied by the Pakistan

government press (at Quetta) free of cost to Dubai-based counterfeiters

who, in turn smuggle it into India using various means, the report said.

This money is allegedly used to fund terrorist activities inside India. The

recent blasts in Mumbai were allegedly funded using fake currency

printed in Pakistan.


Trace the origin of counterfeiting currencies to the modern times.

3.3 How to Spot a Counterfeit Currency

It used to be that spotting a “good” counterfeit bill was impossible for

ordinary people. If it was good enough to pass the “look and fed” test,

then it was going to take an ultra-violet light or a magnetic ink detector.

By now you should know a little bit about bank notes, the way they are

printed and the types of feature that they have on them. You even know

about the methods that are used to counterfeit them. The best chance you


272

have of detecting a counterfeit is knowing your currency. Many

countries, on issuing newly designed notes, will also publicise many of

the security features present on them, so that the general public can

verify that they have the genuine article.

So what is the plan of action for assessing whether a note is counterfeit?

If possible view the suspicious note alongside one that you know is

genuine, e.g. one you have just got out of an ATM machine.

Action Genuine Counterfeit

1. feel the

paper

a new genuine

note has very crisp

paper with a

distinctive feel

The paper is often the initial

give away for a counterfeit

note, it tends to be a lot

floppy than the real thing. We

are all used to handling cash

on an everyday basis and

know the feel of a real note

even if we are not aware of it.

2. Feel the

paper

The print on a

bank note also

produces a very

distinctive feel

with intaglio areas

being raised

compared to the

rest. This effect is

most pronounced

on brand new

notes.

Hold the

note up to

the light

When you will be

able to see

depends upon the

features present

but generally most

bank notes carry a

watermark and

thread. A thread

will always appear

as a solid line

when viewed in

this way and good

watermark detail

should be seen. If

a see through

feature is present

the front and back

Some counterfeiters will

attempt to simulate a

watermark but it will be

locking in the fine detail seen

in an original and the image

may be visible when not held

up to the light. Some also

attempt to reproduce the

effect of the thread but again

it is more likely to be visible

when not looking at the note

using transmitted light. The

register of a see through

feature is likely to be

imprecise so that a composite

image is not produced.


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images should

produce the

composite.

3. Print

Quality

A genuine note has

very crisp well

define print with

plenty of tonal

range in the

intaglio areas.

The print quality of

counterfeits is very inferior,

fine details are lot and areas

can sometimes appear

blurred.

4. Magnifying

Glass

Now we are

getting serious, if

you have once take

a magnifying glass

and have a really

close look at the

note. Under

magnification the

print quality will

still look crisp.

You should be

able to read any

microtext message

present.

What you see under

magnification will depend on

how the note has been

counterfeited. The presence

of cyan yellow magenta and

black dots, a raster line (often

seen on colour copy

counterfeits) or poorly

defined line are indicators.

5. U V Lamp Not something we

all have lying

around the house

but if you do have

access to an ultra

violet lamp, it is a

useful viewing

tool. Any ultra

violet feature will

show up and the

paper will appear

dull.

Counterfeiters will not always

counterfeit what can‟t be seen

in normal light and may have

omitted a simulation of an

ultra violet feature very often

the paper they use is UV

bright, meaning that it glows

more than banknote paper

under UV light.

6. Colour The colours on a

genuine note are

clear and well

defined and

metallic ink area

has sheen.

The colours seen on a

counterfeit note can sometime

appear washed out or off

gamut. Colour copies

sometime copy both light

greens and oranges as

yellows. Metallic areas often

do not have sheen.

7. Feature

cheques

The cheques you

entirely have on,

knowing how

Can perform depending on its

present look.


274

genuine the

currency is.

Latent Images:

when viewed

obliquely a hidden

image should

emerge.

Optically

Variable Ink: A

colour shift should

be seen from this

feature as the

angle of viewing is

changed.

Hologram: The

feature produces

multi colours and

different images

depending upon

the angle of

viewing.

Foil: A particular

design is not

blocked onto a

note. Extra

security is

provided by over

printing with

intaglio design.

The feature is seen

in a variety of

colours and has a

very high sheen.

Anti Copy Tints:

These are very flat

Because the mechanism

which produces a latent

image is a result of the tactile

nature of intaglio, this effect

will not be seen on a

counterfeit unless some

simulation of intaglio has

been attempted. This alone

will not ensure that a latent

image effect will be

produced.

A very difficult effect to

stimulate, the colour shift

effect will generally not be

seen on a counterfeit note.

Extremely difficult to

reproduce but the

counterfeiter may stimulate it

by a plain shiny foil.

The feature will appear as a

black area on a colour copier

counterfeit. Some

counterfeiters will attempt to

simulate it but printing on top

of it will be difficult.

These features can be

activated depending on the


275

unassuming

features revealing

nothing.

method used to counterfeit

the note, a half tone

separation method will

produce a visual disturbance

within the area either

producing interference

fringes, patterns which pop

out or words that emerge.


List the various steps you will follow in spotting a counterfeit.

3.4 Counterfeit Money Detection

How are counterfeit currencies detected? Counterfeiting is no longer the

realm of the skilled engraver. Digital technology, high quality printing

and computer scanning have made it possible for even a student with

reasonable expertise to print currency notes. Monetary half from anti-

government agencies have given a much needed boost to counterfeiters.

Detecting a fake is not easy. Because the days when counterfeit money

was printed in a local printing press are long gone. Today, the best

equipment, the best technology and people with expertise behind

manufacturing American dollars are being roped in to make fake

currency notes. The notes have all the features of an American bank note

(the red and blue security fibres, the security thread, and the watermark).

And some of these notes are so perfect, that they can even fool an

expert. We all know that counterfeit money detector detect a fake

currency note and sound an alarm when it spots one.

It has been a cat and mouse game of sorts between counterfeiters and

security agencies. Whenever a new method of counterfeiting is detected,

a new method of authenticating the note is also developed by security

agencies. Yea, there are different types of counterfeit money detectors

available in the market today.

Let us take a look at some of them.

The Counterfeit Money Detector Pen

This is undoubtedly the most popular counterfeit money detection

system in the market today. It looks like an ordinary pen but it can

quickly detect a counterfeit currency note. The counterfeit money

detector is based on a simple but quite an effective concept. Ordinary

wood based paper contains starch and the counterfeit money detector


276

pen contains an iodine solution that reacts with the starch. This reaction

creates a black stain on the paper indicating that the currency note is a

fake. When the ink is used on genuine fibre based paper that is used in

actual currency notes, there is no discoloration or stain. All that you

have to do is create a small mark on the currency note to authenticate

whether the note is fake. While the counterfeit money detector pen

cannot be used on high end notes like the super dollar, it is quite

effective in detecting fake notes printed on ordinary paper.

The Counterfeit Currency VU Detector

Try scanning a $20 bill using a scanner at home and ensure that you set

the scanner to its highest resolution. The scanned image of the $20 bill is

a perfect replica of the original. If you use the zoom function and look

closely, you will find that the entire bill has a hexagonal pattern of fine

lines imprinted on it. These lines are invisible to the naked eye. But it is

these lines that give different tints to different parts of the note. Other

than this, there are tiny intricate details on parts of the note. There is

micro-printing, there are watermarks and other security features. The

scanner is able to capture the image with remarkable clarity. But when

you try to print it, the printer is not able to do the same. And don‟t forget

the colour shifting ink. In most fake currency notes, the printer has

merely created a superficial image of the note on the paper. And it can

quickly be detected using an ultra violet light money detector.

This detector uses UV technology and a band or UV light is shone on

the note. Apart from easily detecting the superficial image, a printer

toner has several tiny particles also known as bleed that a UV detector

can detect. A UV counterfeit money detector may also include other

methods of detecting counterfeit money.

Magnetic Currency Detection

Magnetic detection or MG detection is one of the methods of detecting

counterfeit currency that is included in most currency detectors now.

Most UV currency detectors have built in support for MG detection.

Several countries use magnetic particles in the ink used for printing

currency notes and these particles provide a way of validating currency.

The magnetic fields used in these particles are smaller than the magnetic

field of the earth. However, these fields produce signatures that can be

used to detect denominations of currency. A magnetic currency detector

detects the presence of these magnetic particles in the ink.


277

Magnifying Currency Detection

You can always rely on the good old eyes to help you spot a fake. While

you can use an ordinary magnifying glass to have a detailed look at a

note, most counterfeit currency detectors use magnifying detection

technology. The note is magnified using magnifying paver more than 5x

and the result can be seen on a computer screen. This helps users verify

the security features like the micro-printing, the security thread that runs

vertically with the pertinent text legibly printed on it, the high quality

portrait, the presence of the visual aid and watermark.

Watermark Detection

A watermark is a security feature that is added to security notes and

other important documents to prevent counterfeiting. The watermark

will only appear when the note is held against a black background or at a

certain angle. Depending on the country and the denomination of the

note, the watermark may either be a true watermark (applied during

paper manufacture) or an artificial watermark (applied during printing).

The watermark on US dollar note can be easily detected when it is held

against fluorescent light and hence, most counterfeiting currency

detections use watermark detection.

The Lighted Reflection

Currencies of most countries including the United States have a metallic

colour changing emblem printed on it. For example, the US $100 bill

that has the black green colour changing emblem in the lower right hand

corner.


Describe three methods used in detecting counterfeit currency.

3.5 Combating Counterfeiting

Traditionally, anti-counterfeiting measures involves including fine

details with raised intaglio printing on bills which would allow non-

experts to easily spot forgeries. On coins milled or reeded (marked with

parallel grooves) edges are used to show that none of the valuable metal

has been scraped off. This detects the shaving or clipping (paring off) of

the rim of the coin. However, it does not detect sweating, or shaking

coins in a bag and collecting the resulting dust. Since this technique

removes a smaller amount, it is primarily used on the most valuable

coins, such as gold. In early paper money in colonial North America,

one creative means of detecting counterfeiters was to print the patterns


278

found in a leaf that were unique and complex, they were nearly

impossible to reproduce.

In the late twentieth century advances in computer and photocopy

technology made it possible for people without sophisticated training to

copy currency easily. In response, national engraving bureaus began to

include new more sophisticated anti-counterfeiting systems such as

holograms, multi-coloured bills, embedded devices such as strips, micro

printing and inks whose colours changed depending on the angle of the

light, and the use of design features such as the “EURION constellation

which disables modern photocopiers. Software programmes such as

Adobe Photoshop have been modified by their manufacturers to obstruct

manipulation of scanned images of banknotes.

The following are other measures taken globally to combat the crime of

counterfeit currencies.

Cooperation, Communication, and Contacts

The INTERPOL Counterfeits and Security Documents Branch (CSDB)

is responsible for establishing programmes that provide forensic

support, operational assistance, and technical databases in order to assist

the 188 member countries of INTERPOL regarding counterfeit

currency. With this responsibility, INTERPOL CSDB continuously

assess existing measures, with the goal of implementing new ones that

may provide an “added value” to the international community

addressing counterfeit currency on a global scale.

The major challenge to protect currencies from counterfeiters has

increasingly become more dependent on partnership between law

enforcement agencies, financial institutions and central banks, as well as

with the security printing industry and high-grade supplier community.

These partnerships bridge geographic, jurisdictional, cultural and

organisational divisions, which were once impediments toward

providing comprehensive and co-ordinate solutions for combating

financial crimes.

Therefore, INTERPOL, through its Counterfeits and Security

Documents Branch (CSDB), recognises and fosters cooperation with

other official law enforcement entities, such as the Unified States Secret

Service (USSS) and Europol, as well as with international Organisations

and Central Banks, such as the European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF),

European Central Bank (ECB), the US Federal Reserve Bank (FRB) and

the Central Bank Counterfeit Deterrence Group (CBCDG) and with

innovative leaders in private industry.


279

The INTERPOL CSDB philosophy is that through partnerships-and

increased cooperation, communication, and contacts – we can better

serve the needs of the community and reduce duplicity of effort, while

combating the particular crime.

INTERPOL Assistance in the Prevention of Currency

Counterfeiting

Since the 1929 General convention, which recognised the ICPO-General

Secretariat as the international central office for the suppression of

counterfeit currency, INTERPOL member countries have been able to

call upon the General Secretariat for the following services:

Classifying, analyzing and storing genuine currency specimens

and counterfeit banknotes.

Circulating analytical reports among INTERPOL member

countries.

Determining whether suspect specimens are genuine or

counterfeit.

Allocating international indicatives to newly discovered

counterfeits, (except for USD and Euro).

Publishing descriptions of new counterfeit banknotes.

Preparing and circulating tables of statistic on worldwide

counterfeit currency trends.

Organising and/or participating in international counterfeit

currency, in order to stay abreast of latest technologies and to

share best practices.

Public–Private Outreach

In an effort to address new trends in the area of counterfeit currency, as

well as encourage the international spirit of cooperation representatives

of INTERPOL, CSDB routinely participate in public events and private

training seminars, with partners from law enforcement, the central

banking community, and the security printing industry.

CSDB Web-Based Tools

In addition to „public-private‟ outreach activities, representatives of

INTERPOL CSDB are also continuously developing web-based tools in

order to address concerns within the 188 members of the ICPO

community. Over recent years, CSDB has developed the following web-

based tools, which are available via the INTERPOL secure

communication network.


280

Currency Bulletins: A publication posted monthly with the

assistance of CPO members and their respective national central

banks which provides current trends and specific details about the

genuine currencies within the ICPO community.

Currency List: An electronic listing of all 188 members of the

community with direct links to the respective national central

banks.

Early Warning Messages: A monthly publication posted in

conjunction with the Europol and the ECB in order to provide

relevant trends involving counterfeit Euro currency.

Counterfeit Alerts: A posting of newly discovered counterfeit

currencies.. Non US Dollar and non Euro… along with a detailed

forensic analysis to warn specific region of the ICPO community

about potential impact.

Counterfeit Currency List (CCL) : To disseminate information on

known counterfeits regarding the other currencies of the ICPO

community … non US-Dollar and non Euro… which have also

exhibited a global impact as well as global circulation.

CSDB New: A web-based product to inform the ICPO

Community about recent activities of the CSDB Counterfeit

Currency Team.


List Measures of combating counterfeit currencies.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that counterfeiting generally refers to imitation or

likeness, having a resemblance to something else portrayed, while

counterfeit money as currency that is produced without the legal

sanction of the state or government to resemble some official form of

currency closely enough that it may be confused for genuine currency.

Producing or using counterfeit money is a form of fraud. We also

discussed ways of spotting a counterfeit and counterfeit money

detectors. Finally measures of combating counterfeit currencies were

also listed.

5.0 SUMMARY

In the unit, we have dealt with the concept of counterfeiting currencies

by looking at the following area: Meaning, History, how to spot a

counterfeit, counterfeit money detectors and measures of combating

counterfeiting.


281


1. What is counterfeiting currencies?

2. List and explain 3 ways of detecting counterfeit currency.

3. How can you spot a counterfeit?


Erin, R. (2008). Counterfeit Detection, a Guide to Spotting. USA: Dri

Mark INC.

Shermer, M. (2004). “Counterfeiting of American Currency” American

Scientific Journal.

William, F. H. (2007). “Counterfeit Money, who Takes the Hit?”

http./wthummel.Cnchost.com/counterfeiting.html

Malkin, L. (2006). The Secret Nazi Counterfeit Plot and the Prisoners of

Block 19. UK: Dri Marks Products INC.

Swallow, N. (2008). “Businesses Lose out on Counterfeit Money”.

Springfield, Missouri KSPR.


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UNIT 4 QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS AND CRIMINAL

LABORATORIES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Meaning of Questioned Documents

3.2 Scope of Questioned Document Examination

3.3 Types of Questioned Document Examined

3.4 Criminal Laboratories

3.5 FBI Crime Laboratory and ATF Crime Laboratory

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary



1.0 INTRODUCTION

What is a questioned document? A “questioned” document is any

signature, handwriting, type writing, or other mark whose source or

authenticity is in dispute or doubtful. Letters, cheques, driver licenses,

contracts, wills, voter registrations, passports, petitions, threatening

letters, suicide notes, and lottery tickets are the most common

questioned documents, although marks on doors, walls, windows, or

boards would also be included by definition. Also discussed are criminal

laboratories where evidences are analysed using scientific procedures.

The various issues that will be examined in this unit, so as to introduce

you to questioned document examination and criminal laboratories are

the meaning, scope or type of documents FBI and ATF crime

laboratories.

2.0 OBJECTIVES


define a questioned document

explain questioned document examination (ODE)

discuss the scope of questioned document examination

list the types of documents to be examined

mention at least two major criminal laboratories and their

functions.


283

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Questioned Document

What is the difference between a questioned document and questioned

document examination (ODE)? A “questioned” document is any

signature, handwriting, type writing, or other mark whose source or

authenticity is in dispute or doubtful. Letters, cheques, driver licenses,

contracts, wills, voter registrations, passports, petitions, threatening

letters, suicide notes, and lottery tickets are the most common

questioned documents, although marks on door, walls, windows, or

boards would also be included by definition.

Questioned document examination (ODE) is the forensic science

discipline pertaining to documents that are (or may be) in dispute in a

court of law. The primary purpose of questioned/forensic document

examination is to answer questions about a disputed document using a

variety of scientific processes and methods. Many examinations involve

a comparison of the questioned document, or components of the

document, to a set of known standards. The most common type of

examination involves handwriting wherein the examiner tries to address

concerns about potential authorship.

A document examiner is often asked to determine if a questioned item

originated from the same source as the known item(s), then present their

opinion on the matter in court as an expert witness. Other common tasks

include determining what has happened to a document, determining

when a document was produced, or deciphering information on the

document that has been obscured, obliterated or erased.

The discipline is known by many names including forensic document

examination, diplomatic, handwriting examination, or sometimes

handwriting analysis although the latter term is not often used as it may

be confused with graphology. Likewise, a forensic document examiner

(FDE) is not to be confused with a graphologist, and vice versa. Many

forensic document examiners receive extensive training in all of the

different aspects of the discipline. As a result they are competent to

address a wide variety of questions about document evidence, however,

this “broad specialisation approach has not been universally adopted.

In some locales, a clear distinction is made between the term forensic

document examiner and a forensic handwriting expert) examiner. In

such cases, the former term refers to examiners who focus on non-

handwriting examination types while the latter refers to those trained

exclusively to do handwriting examinations. Even in places where the

more general meaning is common, such as North America or Australia,


284

there are many individuals who have specialised training only in certain

relatively limited areas. As the terminology varies from jurisdiction to

jurisdiction, it is important to clarify the meaning of the title used by any

given individuals professing to be a “forensic document examiner”.

Question document examination is frequently found in cases of forgery,

counterfeiting, mail fraud, kidnapping, con games, embezzlement,

gambling, organised crime, white colour crime, art crime, theft, robbery,

arson, burglary, homicide, serial murder, psychological profiling and

deviant sex crime. A number of famous cases over the years, some

involving wrongful conviction … the Dreyfus affair, Bruno Hauptman

and the Lindbergh kidnapping, the Hitler Diary profiling controversy,

and the Clifford Irving‟s forgery of Howard Hughes signature and

Mormon documents … were showcases for the talents of various experts

at questioned documents examination. Its strength drawn from civil law,

is that expert opinion can overturn (alleged) eyewitness opinion.


Differentiate between questioned documents and questioned document

examination.

3.2 Scope of Questioned Document Examination

A forensic document examiner is intimately linked to the legal system as

a forensic scientist. Forensic science is the application of science to

address issues under consideration in the legal system.

Common criminal charges involved in a document examination case fall

into the “white-collar crime” category. These include identity theft,

forgery, counterfeiting, fraud, or altering a forged document. Questioned

documents are often important in other contexts simply because

documents are used in so many different contexts and for so many

different purposes. For example, a person may commit murder and forge

a suicide note. This is an example wherein a document is produced

directly as a fundamental part of a crime. More often a questioned

document is simply the by-product of normal day-to-day business or

personal activities.

Forensic document examiners, examine items that form part of a case

which may or may not come before a court of law. The many types of

possible examinations include the following:

Handwriting (cursive/printing) and signatures

Typewriters, photocopiers, laser printers, ink jet printer, fax

machines


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Cheque writers, rubber stamps, price markers, label markers

Printing processes

Ink, pencil, paper

Alterations, additions, erasures, obliterations

Indentations

Sequence of strokes

Physical matching.

Questioned document examiners follow a standard guide for scope work

of a forensic document examiner. It states that an examiner “makes

scientific examinations, comparisons, and analyses of documents in

order to:

1. Establish genuineness or non-genuineness, or to expose forgery

or to reveal alterations, additions or deletions.

2. Identify or eliminate persons as the source of handwriting.

3. Identify or eliminate the source of typewriting or other

impression, marks, or relative evidence.

4. Write reports or give testimony, when needed, to aid the users of

the examiner‟s services in understanding the examiner‟s limit.

Their work is not only the examination and comparison of

handwriting but most inspect and examine the whole document in

accordance with the guide standards. i.e. standard Guide for

Minimum Training Requirements for Forensic Document

Examiners.

What Sorts of Documents are Examined?

Documents feature prominently in all manner of business and personal

affairs. Almost any type of document may become disputed in an

investigation or litigation. For example, a questioned document may be

a sheet of paper bearing handwriting or mechanically produced text such

as a ransom note, a forged cheque or a business contract. Or it may be

some material not normally thought of as a „document‟. Forensic

document examiners define the word “document” in a very broad sense

as being any material bearing marks, signs or symbols intended to

convey a message or meaning to someone. This encompasses traditional

paper documents but also includes things like graffiti on a wall, stamp

hidden in a written letter, among other things.

Specific Document Examinations

Identification

The traditional approach in the discipline of questioned document

examination is best expressed as follows:


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“when any two items possesses a combination of independent

discriminating elements (characteristics) that are similar and/or

correspond in their relationships to one another, of such number and

significance as to produce or preclude the possibility of their occurrence

by pure coincidence, and there are no inexplicable disparities, it may be

concluded that they are the same in nature or are related to a common

source (the principle of identification).

The evaluation of such characteristics at the present time is

predominantly subjective in nature though efforts to quantify this type of

information in a meaningful manner are ongoing. It should be noted that

subjective evaluation does not mean the results of properly conducted

comparisons will be either unreliable or inaccurate. To the contrary,

scientific testing has shown that professional document examiners (as a

group) our-perform lay-persons when comparing handwriting or

signatures to assess authorship.

However, this type of „subjective‟ analysis depends greatly upon the

competency of an individual examiner. It follows that (1) an examiner

should follow appropriate case examination protocols carefully and

evaluate all possible propositions, (2) an examiner should be properly

trained and their training should include adequate testing of their

abilities, (3) the formal case examination procedure should incorporate

some form of secondary review (ideally, independent in nature) and (4)

every examiner should make every effort to demonstrate and maintain

that competency through professional certification and ongoing

competency testing.

Handwriting Examinations

The examination of handwriting to assess potential authorship proceeds

from the above principle of identification by applying it to a comparison

of samples of handwritten material. Generally, there are three stages in

the process of examination.

In brief, they are:

1. Analysis: The questioned and known items are analysed and

broken down to direct perceptible characteristics.

2. Comparison: The characteristics of the questioned item are then

compared against the known standard.

3. Evaluation: Similarities and/or differences in the compared

properties are evaluated and this determines which ones are

valuable for a conclusion. This depends on the uniqueness and

frequency of occurrence in the items.


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4. Optionally, the procedure may involve a fourth step consisting of

verification/validation or peer review.


List the essence of questioned document examination, and the sort of

documents to be examined.

3.3 Types of Questioned Documents Examined

Historically questioned document examination has been somewhat of an

inclusive profession, even to the point where so-called pseudo-experts

(in palmistry and fortune-telling) were sometimes welcome, and even

today, it suffers from a bit of identity crises in that at least eight different

or related, areas can be identified.

Questioned Document Examiners

A document examiner analyses any questioned document and is capable

of more than just questions of authorship limited only by their access to

laboratory equipment.

Historical Dating

These is work involving the verification of age and worth of a document

or object, sometimes done by a document examiner, and can get as

complicated as Carbon-14 dating.

Fraud Investigators

This is work that often overlaps with that of the document examiner and

focuses on the money trail and criminal intent.

Paper & Ink Specialist

These are public or private experts who date, type, source, and/or

catalogue various types of paper, watermarks, ink, printing/copy/fax

machines, computer cartridges, etc. using chemical methods.

Forge Specialists

These are public or private experts who analyse altered, obliterates,

change or doctored documents and photos using infrared lighting,

expensive spectrography equipment or digital enhancement techniques.


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Handwriting Analysts

These are usually psychology experts who assess personality traits from

handwriting samples, also called graphologists or graphoanalysts.

Forensic Stylists

This refers to the same purpose but by looking at semantics, spelling,

word choice, syntax, and phraseology.

Typewriting Analysts

These are experts on the origin, make, and model used in typewritten

material.

Computer Crime Investigators

This is an emerging group that relates to questioned document

examination through some common investigative and testimonial

procedures.

It is probably a futile effort to rigidly demarcate and delimit the various

areas of question document examination as there will always be overlap,

evolution, and perhaps, controversy. One of the things important to

understand is what the question document examiner expert is looking

for. This deals with the issues of class characteristics versus individual

characteristics. In a nutshell, Class characteristics, which are commonly

found at crime scenes, describe evidence which can only be associated

with certain personality traits) and not a single source.

Among question document examination experts, the use is made of

many different scientific principles from a variety of disciplines, and one

of the first attempts at basic principles appeared in Albert Osborn‟s

Questioned Documents in 1910, grounded in handwriting comparison as

evidence of individual characteristics (paraphrased below):

1. The most identifying characteristics are those which are most

divergent from the regular system or national average.

2. Repeated characteristics which are inconspicuous should be

sought first and given the most weight.

3. Regular or national system similarities are not alone sufficient to

base judgments.

4. It is the combination of particulars, common and uncommon, that

identifies.

5. It is impossible to discover how all strange and peculiar

characteristics came to be developed.


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6. People do wholly unaccountable things in their speech, gestures,

and writing.

7. An individual characteristic may be the survival of an error

overlooked by a teacher.

8. Many characteristics are outgrowths or copies of an at one time

admired design.

The psychological theory of handwriting comparison is developmental.

Children learn to write by copying whatever style of writing is

fashionable at the time and taught to them by teachers from textbooks.

This style is known as the regular or national system. And for most of

the twentieth century, it was either the palmer system or the Zaner-

Blosser system for cursive. Today, there are many systems, or no

system. As the child grows, the act of writing becomes a sub conscious

effort and begins to pick up habitual shapes and patterns that distinguish

it from all others. This is most evident with capital letters and numerals.

Handwriting has individual characteristics due to it being largely

unconscious behaviour. The unconscious handwriting of two different

individuals is never identical.


Describe four major areas that could be examined by a questioned

document examiner expert.

3.4 Criminal Laboratories

What are criminal laboratories?

A criminal-laboratory often shortened to crime lab is a scientific

laboratory, using primarily forensic science for the purpose of

examining evidence for criminal cases.

A typical crime lab has two sets of personnel:

Field Analyst

Investigators that go to crime scenes, collect evidence, and process the

scene Job titles include – Forensic evidence technician, crime scene

investigator and scenes of crime officer.

Laboratory Analysts

Scientific or other personnel who run tests on the evidence once it is

brought to the lab (i.e. DNA tests, or bullet striations). Job titles include

forensic technician (performs support functions such as making

reagents).


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Forensic scientific/criminalist (performs scientific analyses on evidence)

fingerprint analyst

forensic photograph.

Forensic Document Examination

In the United State, crime labs may be public or privately operated,

although private laboratories typically do not respond to crime scenes to

collect evidence. Public labs are organised at the city, country, state or

national level. A law enforcement agency that does not operate its own

crime lab usually has free access to a higher level laboratory for analysis

of their evidence.


What is a criminal laboratory, discuss its components.

3.5 FBI Crime Laboratory

The FBI‟s crime lab, as one of the premier forensic research and

analysis facilities, offers its expertise to law enforcement agencies

across United States and, at times across the world. It offers services at

no cost to the requesting entities, and teams of special agents,

administrative staff offer on-site forensic and technical support,

nationally and globally, even in the event of disasters involving mass

casualties or wide-ranging investigations. Among the services currently

provided by the lab, both within its facilities and off-site, are analysis of

blood, tissue, and other biological evidence, analysis of legal and illegal

drugs and courtroom expert witness testimony for cases involving FBI

crime laboratory forensic investigations.

At present, the FBI crime laboratory has two primary operating

branches: Forensic Analysis and Operational Support. The forensic

analysis branch includes the forensic analysis and scientific analysis

sections. The operations support branch is comprised of the forensic

science support, operational response, and operational support sections.

The forensic analysis section contains several units, including the

cryptanalysis and racketeering records unit, tasked with examination of

writer communication and records related to terrorist and criminal

organisations. This unit has four programme areas: The first is

cryptanalysis, which involves examination, analysis, and decryption of

ciphers and codes embedded in all manner of written and electronic

communications. Secondly, the drugs programme area analysis,

examines records related to illegal drug-trafficking operations. The third


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area, racketeering, examines and analyses records pertaining to all forms

of gambling, loan-laundering area analyses a broad-range of suspected

financial records pertaining to the illegal movement of money both

within and outside U.S borders.

Also within the forensic analysis section is the firearms and toolmarks

unit, which is charged with examining all aspects of the mechanical

condition of serious firearms and ballistic materials, as well as the

examination of evidence toolmarks for identification of recovered or

suspected tools.

The latent print unit examines and analyses latent prints. On submitted

evidence. Latent prints occur when the friction ridge skin of human

palms, fingers, or the soles of the feet make contact with a surface and

leave physical impressions thereon.

The Questioned Document Unit is staffed with experts in the

examination of printing, handwriting, typewriting, printing by hand,

obliterated impressions, erasures, and alterations of written

communications. Examiners in this unit are also proficient in the

identification of edges, imprints, stamp, water-marks, fibres, and other

components of writing surfaces, as well as analysis and identification of

the media used to mark on them, such as photocopying and facsimile

machines, and the media used therein (ribbons, cartridges, etc.).

The scientific analysis section contain six functional units, the first of

which is the chem. Bio science unit, involved in extremely high-quality,

standardised forensic examination of hazardous chemical, biological,

and nuclear evidence, along with related materials. Another functional

unit is the chemistry unit, which contains six programme areas the

general chemistry, toxicology, paints and polymers, metallurgy, glass

and instrumentation operations. Other units include the scientific

analysis section (CODIS) Combines DNA Index system, the explosive

unit, trace evidence, quality assurance and training unit.

The special photographic unit houses the FBI‟s entire forensic imaging

and photographic continuum, from camera and equipment maintenance

and repair, to technical assistance on concealment operations, to aerial

and surveillance filming. The operational response section is comprised

of the Bomb Data Centre, in which specially trained forensic scientists

create and implement advanced technologies designed to increase safety

for those involved in bomb disarmament and disposal.

The FBI lab specially handles violent crime, works exclusively for the

prosecution and is considered the world‟s largest lab.


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ATF Crime Laboratory

The ATF crime lab handles explosives, bombs, arsons (and does

firearms ownership and usage: Disaster response teams (kind of like

FEMA). Also field support and some intelligence record keeping. ATF

labs are typically very high-tech and have always been accredited.


Discuss the operations of FBI and ATF crime labs.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that a “questioned” document is any signature,

handwriting, typewriting, or other mark whose source or authenticity is

in dispute or doubtful. We also learnt that Question Document

Examination (QDE) is the forensic science discipline pertaining to

documents that are or may be in dispute in a court of law. The essence

of examination is to identify or eliminate persons as the source of

handwriting, identify or eliminate the source of typewriting or other

impression, marks or relative evidence. We also defined a crime lab as a

scientific laboratory, using primarily forensic science for the purpose of

examining evidence from criminal cases. The two major crime labs are

the FBI and ATF laboratories.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have successfully discussed the following: meaning,

scope, types of questioned documents, and also criminal laboratories

especially the FBI and ATF as typical examples.


1. Differentiate between question document,

document examination.

2. Discuss two types of document examined.

and questioned

3. Describe the units of FBI crime lab.


Ellen, D. (2005). Scientific Examination of Document: Methods and

Techniques (3rd

Edition). Boca Ration: CRC Press.

Hilton, O. (1982). Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents.

New York: Science Publishing Co.


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Huber, R. A. & Headrick (1999). Handwriting Identification: Facts and

Fundamentals. Boca Ration: CRC Press.

Levinson, J. (2001). Questioned Documents: a Lawyers Handbook. San

Diego: Academic Press.

Morris, R. (2000). Forensic Handwriting Identification: Fundamental

Concepts and Principles. Academic Press.

Koppenhaver, K. (2007). Forensic Document Examination, Principles

and Practice. Humana Press.

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