Volume 5

Journal of the Manitoba Educational Research Network

THE

JOURNAL

Volume 5

THE

JOURNAL

Journal of the Manitoba Educational Research Network

Address all The MERN Journal correspondence to: Heather Hunter, Director Manitoba Education Research Network heather.hunter@mern.ca

The MERN Journal is produced by the Manitoba Educational Research Network. Its purpose is to disseminate research by educational researchers in Manitoba, and thereby improve the effectiveness of the public education system in the province. It is distributed free of charge through the MERN website (www.mern.ca). Articles reflect content presented at MERN research events.

Outgoing Managing Editor: Thomas MacNeill New Managing Editor: Marion Terry Copyright © 2013 by The Manitoba Educational Research Network Reproduction of the material in this publication is authorized for classroom use in non-­profit educational institutions and for professional development organizations provided that: (1) there is no charge beyond the reproduction costs, and (2) that each copy includes full identification of the source.

CONTENTS ARTICLES Educating for Social Change: The Risks of Advocacy

- Dr. Randy Kroeker, University of Winnipeg

Learning Today to Improve Tomorrow: Education for Sustainable Development in Evergreen School Division - Paul D. Cuthbert, Superintendent and CEO - Tyler Moran, Curriculum Coordinator Evergreen School Division, Gimli, MB

Exploring Different Roles that Universities Play in Facilitating Learning for

Sustainability: A Personal Account - Laura Sims, Ph.D. Université de Saint-Boniface

The Great Divide between Theory and Practice in Teacher Education Programs:

Transforming what we are doing and not doing

- Jerry Ameis, University of Winnipeg

Creating a Culture of Critique, Justice & Care: Vision & Action in Teacher Education

- D. Lark Gamey and Michael Nantais, Faculty of Education, Brandon University

Mentorship in the Arts: Introducing Youth to Careers in the Arts - Talia Pura, coordinator, Youth Mentorship in the Arts Program, ACI Manitoba

Belonging: A critical place-based art education research project

- Pam Reichert, University of Manitoba doctoral student

Transforming Rural Education through Effective Professional Development

- Candy Skyhar, Ph. D. Student, University of Manitoba

Teaching for Empowerment, Action and Change (TEACH): A proposed forum for

social justice educators

- Cathryn Smith, University of Manitoba, Faculty of Education

Transformative Learning and Teaching Social Justice: Developing Pathways for Educational Innovation - Karen Magro, University of Winnipeg

Tell it like a story: Some of my research related to the 2008 ministerial mandated Aboriginal Perspectives Course - S. Peden, Faculty of Education, Brandon University

An Overview of Anti-oppressive Education - Christopher D. Brown, Brandon University

MERN Forum Presentation Listings: Numbers 20 to 25

1

5

9

15

20

26

30

36

41

47

65

73

85

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

MERN acknowledges the support of the Manitoba School Boards Association

who covered the cost of publication for this volume.

Thank you.

IN THIS ISSUE

Welcome to Volume 5 of the MERN Journal. This is the final volume under my editorship. While I believe that the Journal has “come a long way” since its first vol-ume, there is much room for growth and development. The Journal is slowly emerg-ing as an integral part of the educational research community, providing an extended voice for the important findings and ideas about education which are delivered in the various fora.

However, if one looks through the first five volumes of the Journal, it is clear that

the increasing amount of research being done by classroom teachers in the public education system is significantly under-reported. While some of this research is sub-sumed under the category of “graduate student”, there can be little doubt that we must do more to encourage teachers to consider communicating their findings through these pages.

In this issue, you will find several articles advancing the need for classroom

teachers to look beyond their classrooms as they seek to improve society for all its people. You will also find some discussion of the need to ensure that students de-velop commitment to sustainable use of the environment.

There is discussion of the importance of teacher education programming as well

as the necessity for continuing professional development for practicing teachers. There are two articles on the importance of the arts in a modern society. As I leave the editor’s chair, I want to thank all those contributors to the five vol-

umes who have made the Journal a venue for the sharing of their ideas. They have made a significant contribution to classrooms in our province. Anyone who has missed previous volumes needs to know that they are available on our website: www.mern.ca While the editorship has been work, it has also been very rewarding to have been able to contribute to the early development of this Journal. I ask that you all continue to support it through submission of your research reports.

Please welcome Dr. Marion Terry, Brandon University, Faculty of Education as

the new editor. I have every confidence that the Journal will flourish under her editor-ship.

Finally, we thank the contributors to the present volume for their willingness to share their work in the MERN Journal.

T. MacNeill, Managing editor

1

Abstract Empowering our students to become proactive citizens who value social change seems to be a core educational objective. Yet many critics suggest that social change and concomitant ethical and moral values should not be taught in school, and that those teachers who endeavour to do so risk falling into the trap of telling stu-dents what to think rather than helping them learn how to think. Is it even possible to deter-mine what constitutes social change, let alone how we can attain it? Should we as teachers strive to remain content- and value-free in advo-cating citizenship and social change processes, or are there core values and beliefs that we need to teach explicitly and unconditionally? Do we risk becoming close-minded “True Believers” who think we have answers for all social issues, and who misuse our power to influence our young charges? In this article, the author will discuss the risks, challenges and possible strategies to navigate this path with profession-alism and integrity.

Introduction

My parents, and my dad especially, tried to raise me properly and instill in me appropriate citizen-ship and social values. ‘Proper’ and ‘appropriate‘ val-ues were often synonymous with those values associ-ated with social change advocacy from the right end of the political spectrum. [For the sake of simplicity and brevity, I have used a generalized dichotomy between the political left and right, rather than acknowledging the complete range of nuances.] As a young adult, I received counsel from my dad, who would often para-phrase 19th century French statesman Francois Guisot (a quote often mistakenly attributed to Winston Churchill): “If you’re 20 and you aren’t a socialist, you have no heart. If you’re 30 and you’re not a conserva-tive, you have no brains.” What about liberals, I’d ask? Surely, by taking the middle road, we embody heart AND brains. My father would reply that liberals were heartless AND brainless, and simply lacked con-viction to take a stand. As a child, I had unquestioningly accepted and followed my parents’ and our church’s conservative (as well as evangelical and fundamentalist) teachings. Coming of age in the turbulent ‘60s and ‘70s, I re-jected those teachings, and turned to more leftist val-ues. I, and many of my generation, admired and tried

to emulate leaders such as Martin Luther King, John F. Kennedy and Pierre Trudeau, choosing to focus on their charismatic gifts rather than their considerable character flaws. During that time, I believed that my parents held wrong-headed biases about gender is-sues, race, and human rights. Plus, they just weren’t very cool. And yet, looking back now, I see that my parents and their church community were remarkably inclusive about special needs, community involve-ment, and contributing money and time to international development. If I’m completely honest about assessing my own actions and beliefs, I have to acknowledge that in many cases I have been less than fully authentic. I have based certain aspects of my philosophical belief system on whether it was popular with people whom I admired. Choices that I made were sometimes reflec-tive of flaws in my character, or in my receiving some sort of secondary gain, such as a sense of personal power. Even though my beliefs have swung to the left, at times I have still been rigid (and evangelical and fundamentalist) in my leftist beliefs. I have deni-grated those who believed differently than me, and have at times been resistant to revising my values and beliefs, even in the face of substantial contrary evi-dence. I (and I suspect others like me) have acted like a True Believer (Hoffer, 1951), looking to convert oth-ers to my way of thinking, rather than attempting to contribute to collective attempts at authentic social change.

Self-Evident Truths?

Then: Don’t trust anyone over 30. Now: 50 is the new 30. Fast forward 40 years.

I am well over 30. In fact, I am well over 50. I am the proud father of two empowered young adult daughters, and am fortunate to be able to counsel and teach young people who are eager to become teach-ers. I am trying to make a difference in their lives. I believe that I am being respectful in conveying what I believe, and in trying to help them forge their own paths of self-discovery and engagement with commu-nity and world concerns. I suspect that on occasion I fail, and that they then look at me with the same sort of wariness that I leveled at my father when he seemed to come up with ‘right’ answers as to how to lead a good life, a proper life. It’s a tricky issue, incorporating the teaching of ethics, values and morals, perhaps under the guise of educational relevance, or in contributing to helping

Educating for Social Change: The Risks of Advocacy

(Based on a presentation at Forum 20, January 2010) - Dr. Randy Kroeker, University of Winnipeg

2

young people become productive and contributing citizens. For most of us who teach, the key emphasis, and rightly so, is on HOW to take personal responsibil-ity for one’s values, HOW to think critically and with discernment, and HOW to act with dignity and respect. The reality, though, is that on some occasions, we may stray towards teaching WHAT to value. I ques-tion, sometimes, the degree to which I can share, as a teacher, WHAT I believe, even in regard to issues that seem, on the surface, to be self-evident truths. Ah, self-evident truths. I have heard that, and said that, before. “Any sensible person knows that the truth is (fill in the blank).” Consider the following is-sues, and how perhaps the truth may be more evasive than we initially think. Global warming and the environmental impact of nuclear energy and the oil sands seem to be givens as being significant planetary concerns to ‘sensible’ people, while natural gas has been viewed until quite recently as being a clean and safe source of energy. And yet we’re finding that the fracking process of extri-cating natural gas is extremely dangerous, and that older types of energy (such as coal) have killed many more people over the course of history than all the nuclear accidents combined. What about women’s issues? My being a pro-ponent of women’s rights should be obvious, correct? And yet, I get comments from a number of my stu-dents, every class and every year, that I’m fighting an ancient battle, that the need for feminism has been outgrown, that (what I believe to be) righteous anger about injustice poisons the way for those who simply want to compete on a level playing field. My wife kept her own name when we married, and our daughters carry her surname; many students who hear this think it quaint, archaic, and absolutely useless. Feminism is being redefined, and I apparently missed the memo. What about poverty? Can we agree that it’s a problem, and that people are suffering? Probably, but can we reach some sort of agreement on how to ad-dress the situation? Case in point: Remember the Haitian earthquake from a few years back? Food that was being sent to the island was being held up at the docks by administrative and transportation boondog-gles; some of the aid was being confiscated and held for political gain, while cruise ships were still regularly arriving at the other end of island, only 100 miles from the devastation. So, what was an appropriate re-sponse? Giving money or food? Or taking a cruise? Advocates of the cruise industry believed that despite the distasteful optics, a cruise was the most effective approach, providing tremendous economic benefits for the surviving islanders. Even something as basic as promoting ‘respect’ is a moving target. We all know (beware of people using this phrase!) that respect for another person is conveyed by giving that person sufficient physical space, and by maintaining eye contact and not inter-

rupting them while they speak. Well, not so fast: Cul-tural and family differences exist, and what many of us think of as respect may in fact be interpreted as disre-spect in some quarters. Self-evident truths may be anything but.

Educational Truths: Doing the Right Thing?

Do you want someone telling you what to be-lieve or value? Have you ever been completely convinced about your truth or stand on a particular issue? Have you ever then found yourself to be wrong, sometimes embarrassingly so? As a parent, counsellor and educator, I am find-ing that the older I get, the less certain I become about what Truth is, and how to go about doing the right thing. Things seemed so much clearer when the good guys were demonstrating with flowers in their hair and bad guys looked like Richard Nixon. There is a tre-mendous joy in being certain about one’s own beliefs, as well as a disheartening and deflating feeling in real-izing that one’s ideals are not just lacking, but perhaps impeding personal and collective advancement. Every interaction with our students provides the opportunity to foster growth as well as the temptation to use our influence wrongly. The most frustrating experience in my graduate training was with a professor who said that we would all end up sharing his thoughts and beliefs by the end of his course. I thought at first that he was simply be-ing provocative, but after a few classes, it was clear that this was clearly his intent. He ended up being correct in his statement because those of us who dis-agreed with him ended up switching courses, leaving behind only those who agreed with his perspectives. So, what’s a poor conflicted teacher to do? How can we promote investigation of substantive and sometimes contentious issues while being true to our-selves, and yet resist the urge to inflict our values on our young charges?

Successive Approximations Towards Truth: The Personal Journey

Our personal journeys can ultimately be more productive and satisfying when we learn to actively engage our world and take personal responsibility for our actions in it, what some have called the construc-tivist approach (Piaget, 1952, 1954), an action philoso-phy and change strategy closely allied with existential and phenomenological approaches to personal growth (Mahoney, 1991; Shapiro, 2004). The essence of constructivism is to utilize the process of metacognition (Flavell, 1976) to examine how we live our lives, and how we can learn to do that more effectively. Introspection and reflection, often with the help of scripted guidelines (Progoff, 1975) are beneficial metacognitive strategies that can contribute to viewing one’s personal growth journey as a narra-

3

tive for which one embraces personal authorship (Brown, D’Emidio-Caston & Benard, 2001; Mahoney, 2003; Neimeyer & Mahoney, 1999; Schön, 1987). As teachers, we can utilize constructivism and metacognition by helping our students learn to value, actively author, and evaluate their own experiences. As teachers, we can also choose to view the shared educational experience as a context for our own self-learning (Huang & Lynch, 1995, 1999; Kroeker, 2008) and in the process learn to identify and address our own biases and beliefs, and help our students to do the same. Thinking back on my personal, and occasionally dark, journey, I have come to understand how my up-bringing has impacted the way I have in the past viewed right and wrong (as black and white, with no shades of gray), who I choose to emulate as models (appreciating the evangelical civil rights fervor of Mar-tin Luther King, while ignoring his character issues with relationship commitments), and how I choose values that are important to me (noting the attraction of rebel-lious values that are contrary to the mainstream). My past and my past actions influence who I am and what I do, even though the content of what I believe is very different now. Many in my generational cohort share similar issues: valuing the rebellious, reacting to what we perceived as restrictive upbringings, and in some ways trying to get ‘back to the garden,’ a simpler time when we felt assured in our choices and in our positive association with certain people and events. Metacog-nition and the constructivist approach can help us ‘make sense’ of such existential and personal crises (Echterling, Presbury & McKee, 2005), by meeting the challenge of facing that which appears to negate our identity (Chödrön, 2002), and by “surviving the journey into one’s inner darkness, a [person] develops resil-ience to overcome similar future episodes, and to de-velop an enhanced belief system for facing such epi-sodes” (Kroeker, 2003, p. 11). This enhanced belief system can be construed as what some have called second order change, utilizing metacognition to en-hance and expand the field of personal change possi-bilities. Instead of first order conceptual change, sec-ond order change impacts the nature and hierarchy of how one organizes those conceptualizations, espe-cially one’s conceptualization about ‘being’ in relation to the world (Bateson, 1972; Kroeker, 1987).

Successive Approximations Towards Truth: The Shared Journey

As we mature and develop, we move from being primarily I-centered to becoming more other-centered (Kohlberg, 1984). This brings us more and more into the realm of caring for others, and caring about what happens in the world around us. As we encounter oth-ers, we differentiate and articulate boundaries (Perls, 1971), through what Buber (1970) has described as an I/Thou relationship, an authentic, sacred connection.

Personal development embodies a “successive de-crease in egocentrism” (Wilber, 2000, p. 17) which leads to the development of empathy and compas-sion, and ultimately to socially responsible actions (Tart, 1994; Welwood, 2000). Personal growth is en-hanced through social action, and effective social ac-tion is enhanced by personal growth (Ram Dass & Bush, 1992; Ram Dass & Gorman, 1987). So, the shared journey becomes a personal journey; and the personal journey becomes a shared one. In theoretical terms, individual constructivism has become integral to social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1962, 1978), where each enhances the other (Hoshmand, 1993). Maturity begets social inter-dependence and the possibility of positive life-changing transformations by linking one’s wellbeing with the wellbeing of others (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1995; Clausen, 1995; Elder, 1995; Moen & Erickson, 1995).

A Risk Worth Taking

I am not suggesting that as teachers we avoid contentious issues, or avoid sharing what we really think about these issues. I do believe, however, that there is a risk of misplaced advocacy in sharing our opinions as dialogue-ending Truth, as compared with sharing our views as works-in-progress, open to de-bate and further construction. Emphasizing the proc-ess of dialogue also strikes me as being more produc-tive in most cases than emphasizing hard-and-fast positions. I find it useful to think of dialogue as a col-lective experience of what Piaget (1952) described as individual equilibration, the back and forth between positions that ultimately helps to elaborate the full range of inquiry. I think it’s also imperative to recog-nize the power imbalance in a teacher-student rela-tionship, and how that impacts the power of one’s words. In some cases, it may be more empowering for students if we “bracket off” our own response, and put the emphasis on simply helping them articulate their responses. Additionally, I think it useful to not tether our-selves (as humans, not just teachers or students) to particular and specific social change perspectives. Locking our thinking and beliefs into the presently-held opinion, convinced of our ultimate correctness, strikes me as fostering a bias against learning as a life-long process of wisdom acquisition. The older I get, the more I learn painful and often unasked-for lessons in humility. Yesterday’s absolutes are today’s lessons in humility. Teaching is a huge and enriching respon-sibility, and in a way it is tremendously freeing to wel-come students as co-creators of our mutual educa-tional experience, where we all contribute to our re-spective personal and shared journeys of discovery.

4

References

Bateson, G. (1972). Steps to an ecology of mind.

New York: Ballantine.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1995). The biological model from a life course perspective: Reflections of a participant observer. In P. Moen, G. H. Elder, Jr. & K. Lüscher (Eds.), Examining lives in context: Perspectives on the ecology of human develop-ment (pp. 599 – 618). Washington DC: American

Psychological Association.

Brown, J. H., D’Emidio-Caston, M. & Benard, B. (2001). Resilience education. Thousand Oaks,

CA: Corwin Press.

Buber, M. (1970). I and thou (W. Kaufman, Trans.) New York: Scribner’s. (Original work published

1966)

Chödrön, P. (2002). The places that scare you: A guide to fearlessness in difficult times. Boston:

Shambhala.

Clausen, J. A. (1995). Gender, contexts, and turning points in adults’ lives. In P. Moen, G. H. Elder, Jr. & K. Lüscher (Eds.), Examining lives in context: Perspectives on the ecology of human develop-ment (pp. 365 – 389). Washington DC: American

Psychological Association.

Echterling, L. G., Presbury, J. H. & McKee, J. E. (2005). Crisis intervention: Promoting resil-ience and resolution in troubled times. Upper

Saddle River NJ: Pearson Education.

Elder, G. H., Jr. (1995). The life course paradigm: Social change and individual development. In P. Moen, G. H. Elder, Jr. & K. Lüscher (Eds.), Ex-amining lives in context: Perspectives on the ecology of human development (pp. 101 – 139). Washington DC: American Psychological

Association.

Flavell, J. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of in-telligence (pp. 231 - 235). Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum.

Hoffer, E. (1951). The true believer: Thoughts on the nature of mass movements. New York: Harper &

Row.

Hoshmand, L. T. (1993). The personal narrative in the communal construction of self and life issues. In G. J. Neimeyer (Ed.), Constructivist assess-ment: A casebook (pp. 179 – 205). Newbury

Park, CA: Sage.

Huang, C. A. & Lynch, J. (1995). Mentoring: The Tao of giving and receiving wisdom. San Francisco:

Harper.

Huang, C. A., & Lynch, J. (1999). Tao mentoring: Cultivating collaborative relationships in all areas

of your life. New York: Marlowe.

Kohlberg, L. (1984). The psychology of moral devel-opment: The nature and validity of moral stages.

San Francisco: Harper & Row.

Kroeker, R. (1987). Facilitating second-order change in the counseling encounter. Journal of Humanis-

tic Education and Development, 25 (4), 150 – 154.

Kroeker, R. (2003). Exploring citizenship within the psychotherapeutic encounter. Communique, 4

(1), 10 - 11.

Kroeker, R. (2008). Meta – mentoring: Reflecting on the shared experience. In K. Lamoureux, K. W. McCluskey, A. C. Wiebe, and P. A. Baker (Eds.), Mentoring in a canadian context (pp. 123 - 133).

Winnipeg, MB: Institute of Urban Studies.

Mahoney, M. J. (1991). Human change processes: The scientific foundations of psychotherapy. New

York: Basic Books.

Mahoney, M. J. (2003). Constructive psychotherapy:

A practical guide. New York: Guilford.

Moen, P. & Erickson, M. A. (1995). Linked lives: A transgenerational approach to resilience. In P. Moen, G. H. Elder, Jr. & K. Lüscher (Eds.), Exam-ining lives in context: Perspectives on the ecol-ogy of human development (pp. 169 – 207). Washington DC: American Psychological Asso-

ciation.

Neimeyer, R. A. & Mahoney, M. J. (Eds.), (1999). Constructivism in psychotherapy. Washington:

American Psychological Association.

Perls, F. (1971). Gestalt therapy verbatim. New York:

Bantam.

Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in chil-

dren (M. Cook, Trans.). New York: Norton.

Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the

child. New York: Basic Books.

Progoff, I. (1975). At a journal workshop: The basic text and guide for using the intensive journal proc-

ess. New York: Dialogue House Library.

Ram Dass, & Bush, M. (1992). Compassion in action.

New York: Bell Tower.

Ram Dass, & Gorman, P. (1987). How can I help?

New York: Knopf.

Schön, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practition-

5

er. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Shapiro, S. B. (2004). Case studies in reflective in-quiry: Conversations to explore significant issues

in life and work. Suffolk, UK: Arima.

Tart, C. T. (1994). Living the mindful life: A handbook for living in the present moment. Boston: Shamb-

hala.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cam-

bridge, MA: M.I.T. Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The devel-opment of higher psychological processes.

Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.

Welwood, J. (2000). Toward a psychology of awak-

ening. Boston: Shambhala.

Wilber, K. (2000). A theory of everything. Boston:

Shambhala.

Learning Today to Improve Tomorrow: Education for Sustainable Development in

Evergreen School Division

- Paul D. Cuthbert, Superintendent and CEO and Tyler Moran, Curriculum Coordinator Evergreen School Division, Gimli, MB

(Based on a presentation at MERN Forum 22, November 5, 2010)

There can be few more pressing and critical goals for the future of humankind than to en-sure steady improvement in the quality of life for this and future generations, in a way that re-spects our common heritage – the planet we live on. . . . Education for sustainable develop-ment is a life-wide and lifelong endeavour which challenges individuals, institutions and societies to view tomorrow as a day that belongs to us all, or it will not belong to anyone. (UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development,

2005-2014)

As we enter the second decade of the 21st Cen-tury, research is clearly revealing that our world as we know it is no longer sustainable if we do not signifi-cantly change our perspectives and behaviours. Pro-gress in Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) has not kept pace with the need to mobilize the global community toward actions that will substantially shift our unsustainable trajectory. Achieving sustain-ability is a matter of transformation more than innova-tion. Therefore, it is incumbent upon public education systems to provide students with the knowledge, skills and attitudes to address these challenges.

The goal of this article is to share Evergreen School Division’s commitment to the principles of edu-cation for sustainable development within our new foundations and strategic direction. Our vision, “Learning Today to Improve Tomorrow”, describes what we strive for, providing our students with an op-portunity to create a promising future for themselves, our communities and the world. Our new mission, “Evergreen School Division will engage students in learning to become contributing citizens of a democratic society” articulates what we aim for in our day to day work to enable us to improve tomorrow.

For the past decade, Evergreen School Division schools have been implementing recycling programs

and other environment-based initiatives. While these were worthwhile learning opportunities for students, we recognized that we needed a more systemic ap-proach to sustainability that infused the three pillars of sustainability: the environment, our society and the economy.

An Evergreen team attended the Sustainability and Education Academy (SEdA) in November, 2008. The Academy is a collaborative program between Manitoba Education, York University Faculty of Educa-tion, UNESCO and Learning for a Sustainable Future. As a result of our Division’s participation at this leader-ship academy, we developed a comprehensive sys-temic plan for sustainability in Evergreen School Divi-sion that was adopted by the Board in 2009.

Sustainable Development Plan

Our Sustainable Development Plan involves the four domains of Governance, Education for Sustain-able Development, Human Resources, and Facilities and Operations and includes the following action ar-eas.

Governance - A systemic approach to implement-ing Sustainable Development is implemented. Sustainable Development a Priority in Division

Strategic Plan Division foundations which have direct linkage to

sustainability Board Policy Development Committees Budget Community Partnerships Evaluation and Monitoring

Education for Sustainable Development - Students will acquire and demonstrate the knowledge, skills, attitudes and life practices that contribute to a sus-tainable future. Cross-curricular focus of ESD in all subjects

6

Manitoba Education scope and sequence is imple-mented

Problem-based learning focused on ESD Pedagogy focused on systems thinking, inquiry, ac-

tive learning, futures thinking, and problem solv-ing from a local and global perspective

Connections to Student Engagement and Citizen-ship

Human Resources - Human resources policies, prac-

tices and development plans are aligned with sustain-able development principles.

Professional development is provided for profes-sional and support staff

Education for Sustainable Development practices are profiled and recognized

Succession Planning Staff Wellness plan is developed and programs are

implemented at each work site

Facilities and Operations - Sustainability principles are applied to the design, construction and renewal of divi-sion buildings and all aspects of facility management, procurement, resource use and transportation.

Facilities and operations assessment Facility renewal plan developed based on LEED or

equivalent standard Operations plan developed that includes actions in

procurement, energy efficiency, water conserva-tion and waste reduction.

School structures and outdoor spaces are “facilities that teach” sustainability practices

Sustainable transportation plan Actions

The following actions have been taken since the implementation of our sustainable development plan:

Division foundations developed which have direct linkage to sustainability (2009)

Summer Institute Workshops on ESD for teachers (2009, 2010)

Post SEdA Division Workshop with Charles Hop-kins, Brian Kelly and Anne MacDiarmid (all pro-fessional and support staff in attendance) (2009)

New Board Policy – Sustainable Development (2010)

Facilities and Operations Audit (2010) Education for Sustainable Development Committee

established(2009, 2010) Facilities and Operations Committee (2010) Staff Wellness Committee (2009, 2010) Financial support for schools (ESD Grants, Student

Engagement Grants) All Evergreen Schools have achieved EcoGlobe

status in 2010) Youth forum “World of Water” for Grade 4, 6, & 8

students (2010)

Sustainable Development identified as one of 3 Priority Areas in 2010-2013 Strategic Plan

Evergreen School Division has identified three priorities in our 2010-2013 Strategic Plan: Citizenship, Student Engagement, Sustainable Development. The plan articulates the following goals which are linked to education for a sustainable future.

Students will become informed and responsible decision-makers, playing active roles as citizens of Canada and the world, and will contribute to social, environmental, and economic well-being and an equitable qual-ity of life for all, now and in the future.

Students will acquire and demonstrate the knowledge, skills, attitudes and life prac-tices that contribute to a sustainable future.

Schools provide students with in and out-of-school learning experiences to develop their understanding and demonstrate ex-amples of citizenship.

Participatory / Social Justice Citizenship is a key element of curriculum and pedagogy and students have opportunities to demon-strate their learning of what it means to be a contributing citizen in a democratic soci-ety.

Operations, activities, programs and facilities will be sustainable. Design, construction, renewal of buildings for management, pro-curement, resource use and transportation will be informed by sustainability principles.

Initiatives for Sustainable Development

The following excerpts highlight some educa-tion for sustainable development initiatives in Ever-green.

Teacher Action Research Teams

In cooperation with the Manitoba School Im-provement Program, a team of Evergreen School Division teachers (K – 12) are currently engaged in exploring pedagogy through action research in the area of education for a sustainable future.

The team uses an action research model based on the following guiding questions:

In our ongoing efforts to make learning experi-ences more relevant and engaging:

“In what ways do our/might our ‘classroom’ teaching and learning experiences deliberately aim at developing contributing citizens of a de-mocracy?” “In what ways do our/might our ‘classroom’ teaching and learning experiences deliberately aim at developing the knowledge, skills, atti-tudes and life practices that contribute to a sus-tainable future?”

7

“How do we/might we overcome systemic barri-ers to the provision of these relevant and en-gaging learning opportunities?” “How do our/might our assessment practices contribute to these relevant and engaging learning experiences?” This framework aims to honour the voice and ex-

perience of teachers. It also acknowledges comple-mentary research and accesses the voices of students and community members. In other words, the team invites teachers to share current and planned practices in an effort to enhance collaboration and success in the pursuit and realization of Evergreen’s priorities and foundations. In this way, pedagogical discussions throughout the division will be characterized by a col-lective pursuit of shared goals, and a wealth of exem-plars will be available to inspire ‘improved’ practice within our schools.

This team aims to contribute to the development of Evergreen’s living portfolio. The work of the Teacher Action Research Team is intended to be shared divi-sionally, in the form of teachers sharing their work with fellow teachers in an attempt to amplify the exceptional efforts of our students and staff.

Water Action Project at Riverton Early Middle School

In fall 2010, the Grade Seven class at Riverton Early Middle School participated in a R4R Water Ac-tion Project to increase their awareness of the local environmental concerns that are present in the River-ton community. The students developed a Geocach-ing course at many unique locations within the com-munity of Riverton. With the support of the Project Flow grant, the school purchased Garmin eTrex Hand-held GPS units. Students chose nine different histori-cal and/or environmental locations throughout the community and created their own personal geocaching containers. Students learned how to use handheld GPS units, locating items and marking points of refer-ence for their course. Students chose locations, re-searched the information, and marked coordinates for the locations. They uploaded it on a Wiki and included three environmental tips at each site dealing with natu-ral resource conservation.

Once they completed the containers and the web-site, small groups of students went into the community, visiting each site. The students took a deep interest in the project and gained significant insight into their community and the environment around them. They connected with the past, and class discussions re-volved around different environmental issues affecting their community. The students will continue to update their site containers and website, and they will have ongoing opportunity to use the GPS units. In spring 2011, they plan to add tracking items by way of the Internet.

Aboriginal Perspectives in ESD

Aboriginal education can be incorporated into a variety of areas in the curriculum. When one factors in the Aboriginal peoples’ relationship with the land and their appreciation of the natural environment, a unit titled ‘The Helping Tradition’ can be developed. Stu-dents can be told stories or participate in activities where they learn how to use all parts of an animal, plant seeds to grow a vegetable and herb garden, learn to fish, harvest wild rice, discover outdoor cook-ing methods and more. These skills were shared with the first settlers and explorers by Aboriginal peoples as they helped one another.

Living in relationship to the land can involve teachings that cover respect, responsibility and rela-tionship. To sustain life, people need to learn the im-portance of respectful living. This means knowing how to live on the land with one another and sharing re-sources. When students become aware of their re-sponsibilities to their family, community and the envi-ronment, they can actively plan and work towards what is best for the future.

Building Aboriginal Student Success at Riverton Collegiate

The purpose of this program is to support the tran-sition of Aboriginal students into the RCI high school program and the community of Riverton and foster school success. While it is not uncommon for Aborigi-nal youth from remote communities to board and at-tend schools in larger communities, there is a need to provide both school and community-based supports to facilitate the academic and social transition experi-enced by these young people.

For most, a move to a new community has a pro-found impact on their entire lifestyle. Left to their own devices, some students manage well, but many others find the challenges too great - and often feel that they have no recourse but to drop out of school and return to their community. The Northern non-resident (NNR) student program at Riverton Collegiate has recently taken steps to address many of these issues. Through the support of Evergreen School Division and the Aboriginal Education Directorate, a community liaison position was established to forge stronger links be-tween all partners.

Strategies were developed to deal with the most pressing issues related to supporting these students and ensuring the long term viability of the program.

School-Community Transitions 21: A school initi-ated course designed to ease the entry of NNR stu-dents into the regular school program, this half credit course it taken by all newly enrolled NNR students. Community Liaison: A school and community-based resource person is in place to respond to the needs of students, families, and home parents.

8

Home Placements: Students board with supportive and welcoming families within the community. “Home Parents” are kept up to date on the students’ school activities. Cultural Connections Workshops: These workshops are held every other year and heighten cultural awareness amongst and between all RCI students. Community Partnership: A close working relationship with First Nations communities, First Nations Educa-tion Co-ordinators, and the Riverton and District Friendship Centre as evidenced by:

School visits to northern communities Open house visits of northern students to RCI Regular contact with Education Co-ordinators

Student Services: Additional academic supports are in place to support skill development in literacy and numeracy.

Aboriginal Language Workshops: Ojibway lan-guage workshops and opportunities to challenge for the Special Language Credit in Ojibway are offered bi-annually.

Education for Sustainable Development at Gimli High School

The Social Justice Committee has been working at educating ourselves in terms of affordable housing in Gimli. We have met with the organizers of the Eco-Village, and members of the Social Justice Commit-tee attended their presentation to town council in support of the group. Our information tells us that it is becoming more and more difficult for residents, some of whom are working two or more jobs, to re-main in Gimli, given the lack of affordable hous-ing. Sustaining the livelihoods of our population and the Charter Right to mobility is of essence here.

The Social Justice Committee have ongoing in-volvement with Evergreen Basic Needs (Trick or Eat and Christmas Hamper programs) to support an or-ganization that attempts to build sustainability in the community. The efforts that our school and our divi-sion are making to buy fair trade products builds sus-tainability in citizens and are supportive of making people sustainable worldwide. We have held the one month challenge sponsored by Fair Trade Manitoba in our school during the month of February and March and are hoping to promote this challenge at the Feb. 11 PD session by signing interested persons up to the challenge.

The Enviro Club hosted their second annual "Eating Lower on the Food Chain" dinner in early De-cember. This is a community evening event featuring vegetarian and vegan selections, from entrees to desserts. Students and staff also provided musical entertainment. Information was presented to atten-dees to encourage more sustainable eating prac-tices. Our school cafeteria regularly provides vege-tarian choices for students and staff, too.

Enviro Club students are also planning a fashion show this spring to provoke thinking about our con-sumer choices. Students are reworking "old" items, creating new items from organic and other materials and re-styling items such as jewelry. It is an "eco chic" approach. Funds generated are intended to raise awareness of concerns about the tar sands and the effects upon wildlife and human health and well-being.

The Gimli High School Key Club sold grown in Manitoba vegetables from Peak of the Market as a part of the Healthy Farm to School fundraiser. The profits from the sales are donated to Camp Kan Do. People also purchased vegetables and donated them to Evergreen Basic Needs and Peak of the Market donated an equal amount of vegetables to Winnipeg Harvest. Sewing for Santa made 41 Hot Dog pillow-cases which were donated to Evergreen Basic Needs for the Christmas hampers. Key Club paid for the cost of the fabric and thread for the pillowcases and the students made them at lunch. Key Club also col-lected donations for the Christmas hampers and eye-glasses for the Lions. Scrap fabric is collected in the Home Economics classroom and donated to a quilt-ing group in Portage la Prairie that uses it for bedding for the dogs at the Animal Shelter.

The Family Studies 30/40 class interviewed the families of residents of Betel with dementia or Alz-heimer's disease and then made Touch Quilts. This is an initiative of the Alzheimer's Society of Mani-toba. The students had a great time making the quilts and also interviewing the families and meeting with the recipients. The batting, some of the backing and some squares were donated by Alzheimer's but most of the fabric came from the stash in the Home Economics room.

Sustainability at Sigurbjorg Stefansson School

SSES is eagerly anticipating having their new Greenhouse operational in March of this year. Teachers are utilizing some of their PLC opportuni-ties to design hands-on learning experiences and inquiry-based projects for our student engagement initiative. This project will have a tremendous impact on the learning environment in our school as it en-gages students in relevant, authentic learning experi-ences on a daily basis, and allows students (and staff) to embrace and be actively involved in activities that promote a sustainable future.

We currently have plans to work collaboratively with parents, community volunteers and businesses, the high school Environment Club, and local horticul-turalists. This project will also help to foster a sense of belonging and value to students, staff, parents, and community members while building lasting rela-tionships and mentorships. Some other plans that are being considered are to plant vegetables to har-vest and prepare for students to sample as well as

9

planting Poinsettias to give to parents as Christmas gifts. Compost material that is currently being col-lected at the school will be mixed in with the planting soil. Recently purchased high powered microscopes will be put to great use in our Greenhouse and Out-door Classroom. We know that this initiative will help to cultivate a culture of innovation in our school while ensuring that students are involved in highly engag-ing, meaningful, and relevant learning experiences on a daily basis.

AEMYS Environmental Club

The 2010-2011 school years sees the AEMYS Environmental Club begin its second year of exis-tence. This club has become increasingly important over this time and champions environmental sustain-ability for our school. During the 2009-2010 school year this group worked to implement a composting program at the school as well as worked to improve our recycling program. This group has developed a schedule where different members take turns going to classrooms to take out the composting and recy-clables.

For this year, this group has planned to promote litter-less lunch days, lights out, and other environ-mental conservation ideas to promote and teach eve-ryone at the school how to reduce our carbon foot-print. Their largest project is a school greenhouse that has been erected and ready to be used in Spring 2011. The greenhouse will provide students an op-portunity to learn about gardening in a hands-on manner. We are hoping that we will eventually be able to utilize the compost material we are making in the greenhouse as well.

Dr. George Johnson School - Bridging the Gen-eration Gap

There are two things that characterize the stu-dents of Dr. George Johnson School: success in reading, and a commitment to community involve-ment. Since 2008, students have been making a monthly visit to the local Betel home for seniors to read with the residents. The experience has been a revelation for both groups, but especially for the stu-dents. In exchange for the stories they shared in book form, many of the seniors shared the stories they have gathered from a rich lifetime. “The things

we have studied at school - like World War Two - they have actually lived. It’s really amazing to listen to them” - student. Each year Dr. George Johnson School reciprocates the hospitality, when Betel resi-dents make the trip to our school to visit with the stu-dents.

Community involvement or service activities such as the relationship between seniors and students in Gimli are an example of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). At Dr. George Johnson School, the seniors’ and students’ relationship is only one example of Education for Sustainable Development, but perhaps the most rewarding for both parties as together they bridge the generation gap.

Summary

The examples above are just few of the many great things happening in Evergreen schools related to our mission and vision. Education for sustainable development is about developing good citizens; citi-zens that know how to critically assess different per-spectives; citizens that examine social, political, and economic issues and explore strategies for change that address root causes of problems and social in-justice. Good citizens are critical thinkers who think about issues of fairness, equality of opportunity, and democratic engagement. They make independent thinking a priority and look for ways to improve soci-ety and effect systemic change.

Education in the 21st century can continue to evolve at a comfortable pace that is entirely out of step with the leadership that is needed to embrace sustainability education, or we can engage in a deeper critique and broader vision for the future.

While there have been many efforts to integrate sustainability concepts into curricula, education for sustainable development has never really gained the level of importance that is necessary to transform public education in order to provide our students with the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to de-velop a sustainable society and planet.

Sustainable Development should not be viewed as an “extra” to be built into an already overcrowded curriculum. The scope of education for sustainable development embodies the very purpose of educa-tion itself and must be modeled by all in the system.

Exploring Different Roles that Universities Play in Facilitating Learning for Sustain-

ability: A Personal Account

- Laura Sims, Ph.D. Université de Saint-Boniface

Abstract Universities play an important role in facilitating adult learning that enables more sustainable be-

haviours. Examples can be found in a variety of formal and non-formal contexts involving collabo-ration with various stakeholders in society. These

10

stakeholders include individuals from industry, farmers, educators and academics. In this paper, three distinct types of collaborative activities are described wherein universities have played a significant role in promoting learning for sustain-ability. These activities include environmental education course work, interdisciplinary environ-mental studies research, and a university-led international development project in Central America. For each activity, strengths and limita-tions are explored as these directly relate to uni-versities and their role in enabling learning to-

wards sustainability outcomes.

Introduction Educating people to become more environ-

mentally- and socially-responsible citizens is critical if we are to learn to live more sustainably on this planet. Universities contribute to society in a variety of ways: through teaching, research and service to the community. What my experi-ence has shown me is that through these ave-nues, universities can play an important role in facilitating learning for sustainability, particularly in adult learners. The goal of this paper is to ex-plore, after over a decade of professional en-gagement with universities, a snapshot of some of the kinds of work universities are doing in both local and global contexts to meet this end. This narrative provides a personal reflection upon work that was carried out in these various areas in Canada and in Central America. As an educator at heart, I have always considered each "area of contribution" as a potential forum for learning. Within this paper I briefly describe a university-related activity for each area. Exam-ples include: an intensive environmental educa-tion course, a qualitative research environmental studies case study, and an international devel-opment project. This is followed by a reflection on their strengths and limitations and on what roles these activities might play with respect to educating people "how to think" and "how to act" to be more effective eco-citizens.

For clarity, I will make explicit a few basic concepts that ground my understanding, particu-larly as they relate to the research and interna-tional development examples. First, I believe that creating social spaces for public deliberation exposes people to different perspectives with learning as an outcome. Such participatory forms of planning offer a forum where knowl-edge can be shared and valued, mutual learning facilitated, and where communities work towards

greater self-reliance and voice in local decision-making (Neefjes, 2000). These opportunities have facilitated individual and social learning that has been significant for participants espe-cially in regards to their sense of agency, their understanding of the interrelationship between their actions and the environment, and their sense of ecological and communal responsibility (Keen et al., 2005; Sinclair et al., 2008). Learn-ing in this sphere underscores the importance of individual behaviour change and collective ac-tion in order to achieve sustainability (Muro & Jeffrey, 2008). Maida (2007) explains that sus-tainability involves improving the quality of hu-man life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting eco-systems.

Examples of University-Led Activities

I will begin with what might be considered the most conventional and accessible forum-for-learning, course work. Environmental education courses, like the Université de Saint-Boniface's five-day intensive summer workshop entitled "Education for a sustainable future", provide an opportunity for teachers, practitioners, and pro-fessors to come together in a university setting. Such courses assist participants in learning about relevant theory and practice related to sustainable development and environmental education through discussion, readings, lec-tures, and hands-on activities, and they explore how to apply this new knowledge to their respec-tive (formal or non-formal) educational contexts.

Such courses provide a potential opportu-nity to bring big ideas together and link them with pedagogical practice as well as to pose questions and discuss issues. One benefit is that they are accessible to many teachers, prac-titioners, and others who might be interested and provide an opportunity to raise awareness about issues. However, with respect to facilitat-ing critical reflection, as this topic is so closely linked to personal values and behaviours, stu-dents in a university setting might be reluctant to challenge their own or their colleagues’ ideas for fear of appearing judgmental or preachy. This potential limitation closely relates to one's moti-vation for taking the course; if the student is sim-ply taking the course for credit (and not out of a strong interest in, or conviction about, sustain-able development), it is probable that that stu-dent might be unmotivated to push him or her-self in his/her thinking. In order to overcome this,

11

there is a need to create a very supportive envi-ronment, engage participants meaningfully in learning activities so that they can critically question their and others' ideas in a respectful and supportive manner, and clearly articulate the importance and urgency of the issue. An-other potential limitation with respect to facilitat-ing deep, potentially transformative, critical re-flection is that this kind of course might be an isolated topic within a broader Education pro-gram. For many, the concepts of education for sustainable development take time to under-stand and to come to terms with. Further exacer-bating this, such an intense five-day workshop format enables participation by teachers in the summer, but in being so time-condensed, it does not necessarily provide the time needed to en-gage meaningfully with the issues through think-ing, reading, and discussing. After observing the course, I was left to wonder if intensive isolated courses like this really enable students to reflect upon and understand global environmental and equity issues in a meaningful way (i.e. on a macro scale) or if they provide more of an intro-duction to the area. During this course, perhaps due to the very practical nature of formal K - 12 education, I noticed a greater emphasis being placed by students on exploring practical class-room activities (i.e. the micro context).

Finally with respect to understanding envi-ronmental education concepts through hands-on activities (e.g. a nature walk with accompanying observational, interactive, experiential activities), I found that these place-based activities were creative and effective in terms of getting out of a sterile window-less classroom and into nature, but they might have seemed a bit contrived; cer-tainly a longer, more authentic immersion ex-perience in nature (e.g. field camp with inte-grated classroom and more in-depth, hands-on activities) would be fantastic but also logistically challenging and less accessible.

In terms of facilitating more sustainable ac-tions, these university environmental education courses have the potential to influence teachers and subsequently their classroom practice. Per-haps a perceived challenge by teachers is nego-tiating how to integrate concepts learned at uni-versity into existing provincially-mandated cur-riculum. At the moment, we are fortunate, as education for sustainable development is a strong focus for Education Manitoba which pro-vides both resources and ideas to facilitate its

integration. However, schools are generally con-sidered conservative institutions so "change" is often small-scale and voluntary. Further, raising awareness amongst teachers as to the enor-mous power they have to influence more posi-tive sustainable behaviours, and inspiring them to act, can be challenging. Teachers might per-ceive their sense of agency (i.e. power to act) as primarily confined to the four walls of their class-room. They might limit proposed sustainable-education outcomes to the classroom level (to avoid potential conflict with parents), hesitant to address the more fundamental far-reaching changes needed (e.g. challenging societal val-ues around our right to a consumer lifestyle). Without wanting to dictate how others live as individuals, I think that it is important for teach-ers in all contexts to appreciate the enormous influence we have as role models in inspiring sustainable lifestyle choices for our students (e.g. transportation, nutrition, and other con-sumer choices). As Mahatma Gandhi sug-gested, we need to be the change we want to see in the world. Finally, it is hard to assess whether a course like this one had any impact on the participants’ ways of thinking, acting or classroom practice as it was an isolated experi-ence.

A second area that provides opportunities for meaningful learning is through university-led research. Interdisciplinary research, such as is found in environmental studies programs, allow graduate students and university researchers to apply the concepts of environmental education theory in an innovative way to real-life public-engagement processes. For my doctoral re-search (Sims & Sinclair, 2008; Sinclair, Sims & Spaling, 2009; Sims, in press), I was able to combine the desire to work in a real-life context in Latin America with the goal to facilitate learn-ing for sustainability by meaningfully involving citizens in environmental decision-making proc-esses. The result was a learning-focused, com-munity-based, strategic environmental assess-ment process facilitated in two Costa Rican wa-tersheds that involved eight communities and over one hundred people. The community-based strategic environmental assessments consisted of a series of workshops that enabled the com-munity participants (mostly small-scale farmers) to do a participatory environmental assessment of the national hydro-electric company's (i.e. In-stituto Costaricense de Electricidad - better

12

known as ICE) proposed watershed manage-ment agricultural program. A community-based strategic environmental assessment (CBSEA) is a strategic environmental assessment at a pro-gram or policy level that is adapted to commu-nity-based programs. The CBSEA process con-sisted of four workshops addressing each of the following components: i) explaining the CBSEA process and presenting the program to farmers; ii) assessing the program to see how it could be improved and identifying alternatives; iii) identify-ing real and potential impacts of the proposed program components including the identified al-ternatives; and, iv) sharing CBSEA results with the proponent, ICE. One aspect that made this research innovative was the taking of a peda-gogical approach when designing and facilitating the workshops. Concepts from transformative learning theory (Mezirow, 2000), environmental education (Finger & Asún, 2001), and critical education (Freire, 1970) were integrated throughout the process (see Sims 2008 and Sims in press for more details on the pedagogy behind the workshops).

Together, namely I as the facilitator and the community members as the participants, we did an assessment of the environmental, social, and economic impacts that ICE's proposed agro-

conservation program might have on the com-munities and on the watersheds. Following the assessment done by community members, par-ticipants presented their assessments back to ICE (the proponent) (for more details on the spe-cific agro-conservation program, the CBSEA process-related results, and the workshops, please see Sinclair et al., 2009 and Sims in press).

When considering the potential impact uni-versity-led research like this could have, it is worthwhile to look at some of the results from this case study. With respect to the learning out-comes from participation in the CBSEA process, research results show that community partici-pants learned about the strategic environmental assessment process; developed problem-solving skills related to evaluating impacts and creating mitigation strategies; learned participa-tory strategies for working in groups; and ac-quired information related to the program, com-munity, environment, and impacts of the compo-nents. In terms of communicative learning out-comes from participation in the CBSEA, negoti-

ating ideas related to livelihoods and the envi-ronment led to: a greater critical self and com-munal awareness; a recognition of the value of conserving the environment; and, a recognition of the power and utility of working together. Par-ticipating in the process also enabled ICE and other institutions to learn to engage differently with communities. As Ricardo (a farmer in the Reventazón watershed) told me, what made participation so valuable was seeing common concerns and planning together which enabled people to move beyond self interest to work for communal interests.

What makes research opportunities like this one so interesting, when trying to enable learn-ing for sustainability, is that they provide the po-tential for really innovative ideas to be tried out and explored bringing together theory, real-life authentic opportunities (like public participation in environmental assessments) to create non-formal learning contexts. Aspects that are bene-ficial in terms of enabling critical reflection are that forums like this one promote dialogue be-tween a variety of actors (local and international academics, stakeholders, farmers, and industry) and provide an opportunity to pose questions that might not have been explored otherwise. Often an outsider can ask (tough) questions that an insider might not feel comfortable asking. However, to sustain participation in the process, community participants and ICE had to see the benefit of participating in this deliberative forum. In this case it was having a voice in an incoming program: for the farmers and ICE, the CBSEAs brought together community concerns, the land, action and practice. Without an opportunity to improve upon their farming practice and local watershed management practice, the research

In Costa Rica, ICE created the watershed management agricultural program to address erosion and contamina-tion problems caused by conventional farming practices (i.e. regular tilling, homogeneous crops, and reliance on agrochemicals). The watershed management agricul-tural program promotes a more sustainable approach to farming by implementing agro-conservation projects at an individual farm level. The projects use established technologies (e.g. biodigestor) that address specific needs (e.g. waste management) of certain production sectors (e.g. dairy). They are characterised as being simple, inexpensive, robust and profitable (Sims & Sin-clair 2008 provide details on the original watershed management agricultural program, public participation and related learning outcomes).

13

would have held no relevance for the partici-pants. With respect to learning to interact differ-ently with each other, by participating in the workshops, participants experienced and had modeled more participatory ways of decision-making. This could have an impact on future interactions between the proponent and commu-nity members. However, Canadians doing re-search in the South has its negative impacts: there is an environmental cost to travelling to do the research. Furthermore, researchers from Northern universities doing research in develop-ing countries in the South could potentially cre-ate and/or reinforce unbalanced power relation-ships and cycles of dependency. Finally, re-search projects, if not part of a larger program or local initiative, could potentially be just an iso-lated intervention.

The final example relates to the area of ser-vice to the community. Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) funds, through their University Partnerships in Cooperation and Development Program, have provided an oppor-tunity for researchers to develop collaborative international development projects with inter-ested universities in the developing world. A University of Manitoba-led project entitled “Community-based pest management in Central American agriculture” aims to enhance human resource and institutional capacity of the Univer-sidad de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional Agraria (Nicaragua), and the Universidad Na-cional Autónoma de Honduras to contribute to safer community-level pesticide practices. In this project, which began in 2006, universities are collaborating with rural communities and other relevant stakeholders to increase food security through better pest management practices. This Central American project exemplifies how edu-cational-outreach work and a participatory ap-proach to managing the project have been in-strumental in promoting more sustainable prac-tices both at an international project and com-munity level.

The project involves three main compo-nents. The community development component works directly with farm families in rural commu-nities to understand how and why they farm the way they do with particular focus on their pest management practices. The technical compo-nent implements demonstration plots and facili-tates outreach activities that are meant to raise

awareness of safer pesticide storage, handling and use practices, as well as provide alterna-tives to pesticide use. It also builds on technical capacities at the three Central America universi-ties. The policy component includes the devel-opment of indicators to help understand current practices and monitor change over time. This approach is not only meant to raise awareness and change behaviors at a farming-community level, it is also meant to influence local and na-tional policies related to pesticide use. I was pro-ject manager from 2007 – 2010, and I continue to participate as a community-development team member.

Creating meaningful learning forums has been a focus throughout our work in this project. As an international team, our approach has been interdisciplinary and participatory with a focus on capacity building through direct en-gagement with university and community col-laborators. At a university-level, capacity build-ing has occurred through course work and par-ticipatory planning, through students collecting data and doing outreach in communities, and through the development of regional pesticide indicators. For our community-level participants, mostly farmers, awareness has been raised through educational outreach and farm demon-stration plots as well as through providing rele-vant, hands-on learning opportunities (e.g. learn-ing how to build micro greenhouses for seed-lings). In general, meaningfully involving the various stakeholders (i.e. farmers, students, uni-versity collaborators) in decisions and outreach activities has facilitated the learning of outcomes related to sustainability (for more information, please see http://www.umanitoba.ca/afs/centralamerica_cbpm/home_en.htm and/or see Chibi 2011).

University-led initiatives like this CIDA-funded project provide many opportunities to get people to think about sustainability. As with course work and with research, international de-velopment projects have the potential to pro-mote discussions that would not otherwise hap-pen. In this case, the project acted as a catalyst for the universities involved to discuss common regional concerns like environmental contamina-tion and pesticide management and to problem solve around how to address these issues. It also provided university researchers, particularly the Central American collaborators, with the op-

14

portunity to do experiential research in their field. This has been significant for the Central Ameri-can collaborators for two main reasons: i) as many of them have a bachelor or master's de-gree, their experience and formation doing re-search is generally limited; and, ii) few, if any, funds are available for them to do experiential research. Consequently, opportunities that en-able them to broaden their knowledge and ex-perience doing field research are beneficial for them as professionals. Further, these experi-ences enrich the quality of education that they can offer their own students. The international nature of the project has strengthened our col-laborators' fieldwork by enabling them to discuss with the other national teams what was being done in each of their countries. In the end, pro-ject management, a participatory approach to program planning and implementation has helped create more equitable relationships be-tween the project members nationally and inter-nationally. Finally, and very important in terms of using longer-term regional collaboration to deal with overarching issues (i.e. like regional envi-ronmental contamination caused by pesticides), this international project provided an opportunity to build regional relationships, where traditionally barriers have existed, through the use of con-structive cooperation.

At a farm level, demonstration plots and farm demonstration days made it possible to hold a forum where farmers could discuss the impact of pesticide use on their health, the envi-ronment, and their pocketbook. A positive out-come of the project that we have observed is that many collaborating farmers changed their practices in order to be safer (e.g. using protec-tive equipment when applying pesticides) and more environmentally sound (e.g. properly dis-posing of used pesticide containers in the pro-ject-built communal recycling bins2). Without a doubt, using pesticides more efficiently, and finding safer alternatives to pesticide use, has had economic, environmental and health bene-fits for the farmers and their communities.

Conclusion

In conclusion, my experiences with universi-ties in these different "areas of contribution" have confirmed for me that universities can and should take a leadership role in promoting edu-cation for sustainability whenever the opportuni-

ties present themselves. As these examples show, many different forums can be turned into effective learning forums that promise to have a significant impact within their respective circles of influence (i.e. with post-baccalaureate stu-dents and subsequently through their teaching practice with younger students, with farmers, with university collaborators and with other stakeholders). Probably most worthwhile is that universities are enabling opportunities for learn-ing that otherwise might not have existed. I be-lieve that to most effectively promote learning for sustainability through university activities, it is wise to take an integrated approach, bringing in people from different fields to broaden partici-pants’ perspective while taking into considera-tion the concepts of sustainability and using a pedagogical approach when planning and facili-tating the work. It is important to remember that it is not just the project or the course content that counts, it is also the way in which they are im-plemented that matters.

References

Chibi, A. (2011). Contributions of University Partner-ships in Cooperation and Development (UPCD) Tier 2 projects to marginalized populations. Ot-tawa: Association of Universities and Colleges Canada.

Finger, M. & Asún, J. M. (2001). Adult education at the crossroads. London: Zed Books.

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. USA: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc.

Keen, M., Brown, V., & Dyball, R. (2005). Social learning: A new approach to environmental management. In M. Keen, V. Brown, & R. Dyball (Eds.), Social learning in environ-

mental management: Towards a sustainable future (pp. 3-21). UK: Earthscan.

Maida, C. A. (2007). Sustainability and commu-nities of place. New York: Berghahn Books.

Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult: Core concepts of transformative theory. In J. Mezirow (Ed.). Learning as transformation (pp. 3 - 34). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

2 Particularly in Honduras, it is common to throw empty

(toxic) containers in the river or re-use them to store food.

15

Muro, M. & Jeffrey, P. (2008). A critical review of the theory and application of social learning in partici-patory natural resource management and proc-esses. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 51(3), 325–344.

Neefjes, K. (2000). Environments and liveli-hoods: Strategies for Sustainability. London: Oxfam.

Sims, L. (2008). Integrating sound pedagogical prac-tice into development activities: Facilitating edu-cation for sustainable development within real-life contexts. Education for Sustainable Development Conference Proceedings. (Article posted at: www.mesdwg.ca).

Sims, L. (in press 2012). Taking a learning approach to community-based strategic environmental as-

sessment: Results from a Costa Rican case study. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal.

Sims, L.C. & Sinclair, A. J. (2008). Learning through participatory programs: Case studies from Costa Rica. Adult Education Quarterly, 58 (2), 151 - 168.

Sinclair, A.J., Diduck, A.P., & Fitzpatrick, P. (2008). Conceptualizing learning for sustain-ability through environmental assessment: Critical reflections on 15 years of research. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 28(7), 415-422.

Sinclair, A.J., Sims, L. & Spaling, H. (2009). Commu-nity-based strategic environmental assessment: Lessons from Costa Rica. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 29, 147–156.

The Great Divide between Theory and Practice in Teacher Education Programs: Transforming what we are doing and not doing - Jerry Ameis, University of Winnipeg

Education students do not necessarily per-ceive their experiences in teacher preparation programs in a positive way. Here are two com-ments about this from Manitoba pre-service

teachers.

Courses are rarely realistic. In these ar-eas I have learned entirely from my own experiences. Planning in these courses is always based on an "ideal" situation. Pro-fessors should provide us with more prac-tical techniques for differentiated instruc-

tion.

In terms of feeling prepared to establish "a cooperative productive classroom envi-ronment", I really don't feel my courses have helped me feel comfortable and pre-pared. Sure we learn things and get help-ful tips, but when it comes to applying and using them in a classroom, it’s completely different. I know that what I have SEEN teachers do in my placements will be much more memorable and useful . . . Classes pour information into your head, but it's all theory, and I'm not convinced theory holds up in a classroom.

The dominant theme in the students’ com-ments is a divide between theory and practice. Is this a widespread phenomenon? The following research evidence suggests that it is widespread.

Darling-Hammond and Baratz-Snowden (2005) contend that traditional teacher prepara-tion programs are not adequate, “being overly theoretical, having little connection to practice, offering fragmented and incoherent courses, and lacking in a clear, shared conception of teaching among faculty.” (p. 37).

Henning & Shin (2006) reported,

. . . We found that preservice teachers did not value classes offered by the uni-versity, nor did they believe that most of those classes were needed to be pre-pared for the teaching profession. During the focus group meetings, the preservice teachers indicated that some classes were a “waste of time,” and they could teach mathematics, science and social studies without taking methods courses. The pre-service teachers were also critical of their university textbooks, saying they did not find the texts to be valuable. In fact, 80% of the surveyed pre-service teachers said that they were ready to teach “right now” at the end of their sec-ond semester in the program (out of four semesters). The pre-service students ranked their professors and the textbooks used in their courses at the bottom of the preferred valuable resources for future

teaching.

16

Findings from a Faculty of Education under-graduate program review at the University of Al-berta (2007) provides some details on the con-

cerns of pre-service teachers.

Students reported many weaknesses of the program. They stated that their core courses did not relate to the reality of classrooms; there was inconsistency be-tween sections in some courses and that grading on the curve created competition between students, not collaboration. Stu-dents also indicated there were too many credits assigned to the minor; not enough use of technology; not enough field ex-perience; not enough practice in lesson planning, unit planning and year planning; field experience placements are over ca-pacity, with an inevitable result: reluctant

mentor teachers. (p. 3)

The research seems to suggest that teacher education is in need of significant upheaval. One source of the problem lies in teacher education’s relationship with a modern research university. Even though teacher education operates within a tradition of university autonomy, it nevertheless is constrained by university customs, values, poli-tics, and degree regulations, as well as by logisti-cal matters. The result of these constraints is that the freedom to create the “best possible” pro-gram is illusory. Two university values that are particularly hostile to creating exemplary teacher preparation programs are: (1) valuing theory and denigrating the practical and (2) valuing research & publication while paying lip service to teaching. Too many teacher educators have been en-snared by these values, not necessarily because they agree with them, but because they must ac-cept them in order to survive and gain status in the university setting. However, this article will not provide further discussion on the negative influences of a research university on teacher preparation. Rather the focus will be the divide between theory and practice and what might be done to appropriately re-unite the two.

Another source of the divide is the practi-cum. Pre-service teachers are placed in their practica largely according to the availability of placements rather than the quality of the place-ments. Unfortunately, not enough practicing teachers employ or are knowledgeable about re-search-based teaching strategies that are recom-

mended in education coursework (Philipp, et al, 2007; Zeichener, 1992). Because of this situa-tion, there is insufficient opportunity for pre-service teachers to observe or use teaching strategies that promise to be more effective than some of those employed by their co-operating teachers. The situation can be as extreme as, for example, pre-service teachers never observing a particular subject such as math being taught, nor having any opportunity to teach it. As a result of these realities of the practicum, too many pre-service teachers do not witness or are not able to try out the teaching strategies promoted in their coursework. This tends to encourage the attitude that university coursework is not to be valued

One way to counteract the negative influ-ence of the practicum is to have pre-service teachers implement research-based teaching strategies in a school setting close to the time that these strategies are presented in course-work. In this way, research and classroom life would not become two solitudes for pre-service teachers.

Many teacher educators have spoken about this matter. Dewey (1904, 1920) recognized the flaws in teacher education prevalent in his day. He recognized the need to connect theoretical and practical preparation. More recently, Wideen

& Holborn (1990) noted,

. . . Campus courses are not held in high esteem by students, teachers or principals. The practicum remains the most favourably viewed component of teacher education. Where follow-up studies have been conducted by third parties, teachers report that the teacher training component occurring on cam-pus had little impact upon their teach-ing. (p. 20)

The University of Winnipeg’s teacher prepa-ration program is not immune from these con-cerns. One example of a gap between theory and practice involves a mathematics methods course for K-8 pre-service teachers in the Winnipeg Edu-cation Centre (WEC) Access Program.

This author’s efforts to connect course con-tent to classroom contexts, while appreciated by students, nevertheless have always fallen short. Discussions during university sessions revealed that the pre-service teachers had difficulty con-necting the theory to their practicum setting for a

17

variety of reasons (e.g. the teacher wouldn’t let them try new things; mathematics was rarely taught). It is against this backdrop of concerns about an adequate linking of theory and practice that the decision was made to implement part of the methods course in a school setting. The deci-sion was easy to make. The reality of making it possible was not. There were many roadblocks to overcome (e.g. time tabling constraints; institu-tional reluctance to change).

The WEC environment made it possible to design a project that brought preparation for teaching K-8 mathematics into a school setting for part of the course. The project lasted two years. Then the roadblocks reasserted them-selves and the grand adventure came to a crash-ing halt. What follows is a description, observa-tions and analysis of those two years.

Description of the project

The altered mathematics methods course consisted of thirteen 2-hour sessions at the Uni-versity and five days in a K-4 or 5-8 school set-ting. The school-site days occurred once a week for five consecutive weeks. There were two school-site locations. One school site was able to provide a dedicated room that we could use for assessment, implementation, and planning. The other school site could not. We had to do “hallway teaching” at that site and improvise a private space that we could use for planning and discussing purposes. During the days at a school site, the pre-service teachers were organized into pairs. Each pair was assigned three to four elementary students who were struggling learners of mathematics (henceforth referred to as SLM). Teachers identi-fied these SLMs and provided curriculum infor-mation on the mathematics concepts and skills that were to be addressed by the pre-service teachers. Each pre-service teacher pair had four major tasks:

To establish an inventory of understandings and non-understandings of the SLMs.

To create a teaching plan for each SLM, based on the information provided by the inventory and the teacher.

To implement the individualized plan. To reassess the SLMs to determine if cognitive

and attitudinal changes had occurred.

The author’s primary role during the five school-site days was to respond to the pre-service

teachers’ questions, to provide commentary and assistance on how they were attending to the tasks, and to conduct debriefing sessions. A sec-ondary role was to respond to any problems or issues that might arise during a school-site day.

Observations

The reassessment of the SLMs’ mathemati-cal knowledge and attitudes strongly indicated that they had received significant benefit from the individualized attention and instruction that the pre-service teachers had provided. The SLMs’ mathematical understandings and skills im-proved, sometimes dramatically. Perhaps more importantly, they gained some confidence in themselves as learners. The SLMs went back to their classrooms with stronger mathematical knowledge and a feeling of greater self-worth.

It was clearly evident that the pre-service teachers were deeply immersed in their tasks as demonstrated by their thoroughness, the amount of preparatory thinking that they did, and by the quality of the debriefing discussions that took place near the end of each school-site day.

The pre-service teachers appreciated the fact that they had control of the planning and im-plementation. They made sound decisions that benefited the learning situation. These decisions were based on insightful observations about the SLMs’ behaviours during an assessment or les-son. The pre-service teachers also developed important connections with the SLMs, motivating them to go out of their way to ensure the success of their students.

Here are two samples of the pre-service teachers’ reflections about their experiences. The

samples are typical.

This experience has given me many in-sights into teaching math. One of them being that it has made the idea of teaching it a lot less intimidating. I feel a lot more confident that I will be able to do it and do it well. This procedure has helped me de-cipher and understand the math language when reading about outcomes and plan-ning how to teach them. I have also learned that there are many ways that you can teach a concept, not just one. If your (sic) using one that does not seem to be working you can always try doing it a dif-ferent way, you do what you need to do and what works best for particular children because everyone learns differently. It has

18

given me proof that if a student is behind in math you are better off trying to catch them up and teaching them necessary skills before you move on otherwise they will always be behind and resent math in general due to their fear and lack of confi-dence. You really should make sure that all your students understand a concept before moving on and if they do not then you need to give them extra help that may be required to get them there. This is so important because it does not take much for them to fall behind and get completely lost, which in turn will make them fear and hate math. I found this experience to be challeng-ing and a wonderful way to learn about teaching mathematics to students. It gives you a chance to teach math, but at the same time become more involved in the process. By this I mean that you are able to assess the student, create inter-ventions for the individual student in their struggling areas, and then assess them to see if your lessons made a difference or not. It is also really interesting to see how what you do as a teacher (the strategies and implementations that you use) can affect the students’ learning process. What works for most students does not work for all students. It would be really great if we had more time with our stu-dents so that we could focus more on helping them in their struggling areas in math. There was a lot that I wanted to cover with my student because through assessing her I could tell that she had the concept of several tasks, she just needed guidance to do them. My concluding thoughts that concern working with stu-dents is that when you work one on one with a student or even in a small group, the teaching and learning process seems to be a lot more effective; especially for students who need extra help in any sub-ject. It would be nice to see this happen more often than it does. Through the as-sessment and the first intervention there was so much that I had planned to do with my student. However due to time re-straints I knew that if the teaching and learning process was going to be effec-tive, I was going to have to focus more on

a specific area in the second intervention than I did in the first intervention.

Analysis and Conclusions

As discussed already, the SLMs benefited significantly from their interactions with the pre-service teachers. How did the pre-service teach-ers benefit from having part of their mathematics methods course implemented in a school setting? While partially answered for the reader by the two sample reflections, a deeper answer to this ques-tion follows.

An analysis of the reflections revealed that

the pre-service teachers:

Better understood how theory looks in prac-tice, and the obstacles and pitfalls that might occur when trying to apply theory.

Realized the benefit of learning from mistakes that occur when teaching, and were not intimidated by the possibility of making a mistake.

Recognized and accepted responsibility for mistakes made during teaching interac-tions.

Asked probing and insightful questions more often than in a university-class setting be-cause the interactions with the SLMs stimulated them to do so. The pre-service teachers referred to actual teaching situa-tions that they were deeply involved with to frame detailed questions about what a learner was doing and why he/she was doing it.

Felt the importance of the teacher under-standing the content, because there was an emotional component attached to hav-ing direct contact with a learner. In a uni-versity class session, there is not a strong stimulus for needing to understand a par-ticular mathematical matter when com-pared to the stimulus arising from teach-ing interactions with a learner. The inter-action with the learner makes the need to understand content urgent and authentic.

Appreciated the importance of knowing the perspective of the learner in a teaching-

learning interaction.

In summary, it was evident that implement-ing part of a mathematics methods course in a school setting had a powerful impact on the atti-tudes of the pre-service teachers, the intensity and depth of their engagement, and their ability to

19

link theory and practice. Anecdotal reports showed that this impact was significantly greater than any made during typical university class ses-sions. The combination of university-site and school-site implementation of a methods course shows great promise for preparing teachers for teaching curricula such as mathematics, lan-guage arts, and other subject curricula.

There might be even greater promise if the both the theoretical and practical components of a methods course were to be implemented en-tirely on a school-site, with part of the day de-voted to theory and the remaining part to applica-tion of theory. One could refer to this approach as a focused practicum, where a single curriculum area (e.g. mathematics) is considered intensely for a period of time, followed by another intense consideration of a different curricular area. These focused practica could then be followed by a multi-tasking practicum during which pre-service teachers would be responsible for teach-ing a variety of curricular areas.

A focused practicum approach to implement-ing methods courses, besides preparing pre-service teachers, could also provide opportunities for the revitalization of the teaching staff in the school, as well as providing them with significant assistance in attending to the needs of struggling learners. It could easily become a process where the university and the community both benefit greatly. Sadly, a program design consisting of a series of focused practica followed by a multi-tasking prac-ticum will probably continue to be an intriguing, but unlikely idea as long as a teacher preparation program is bound by the time-tabling whims, course constraints, and values of whatever the university in which it finds itself.

References

Darling-Hammond, L., & Baratz-Snowden, J. (2005). A good teacher in every classroom. San Francisco,

CA: Jossey-Bass.

Dewey, John. (1904/1964). The relation of theory to practice in education. New York: Random House.

(Original work published in 1904).

Dewey, John. (1920). The School and Society. Chi-

cago: University of Chicago Press.

Faculty of Education, University of Alberta. (2007). Undergraduate program review. http://www.uofaweb.ualberta.ca/education/nav02.cfm?

nav02=56652&nav01=13164

Henning, Mary B. & Shin, Eui-kyung. (2006). Examin-ing Student and Faculty Perceptions about Uni-versity Courses and Clinical Experiences in an Elementary Teacher Education Program. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. URL: http//www.allacademic.com/meta/p36199index.html

Philipp, R.A., Ambrose, R., Lamb, L., Sowder, J.T., Schappelle, B., Sowder, L., Thanheiser, E., & Chauvot, J. (2007). Effects of early field experi-ences on the mathematical content knowledge and beliefs of prospective elementary school teachers: An experimental study. Journal for Re-search in Mathematics Education, 38(5), 438-

476.

Wideen, M. F. & Holborn, P. (1990). Teacher Educa-tion in Canada: A Research Review. In R. P. Tischer & M. F. Wideen (Eds.). Research in Teacher Education: International Perspectives.

Bristol, PA: The Falmer Press.

Zeichener, Kenneth. (1992). Rethinking the Practicum in the Professional Development School Partner-ship. Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4). 296-

307.

“Education is a human right with immense power to transform. On its foundation rest the cornerstones of freedom, democracy and sus-

tainable human development.” (Kofi Annan, Ghanaian diplomat, seventh secretary-general of the United Nations, winner of 2001 Nobel Peace

Prize.)

20

Creating a Culture of Critique, Justice & Care: Vision & Action in Teacher Education - D. Lark Gamey and Michael Nantais, Faculty of Education, Brandon University

Abstract

Understanding diversity and re-visioning inten-tions and practices of teacher education through a social justice lens is the focus of this work-in-progress. Evidence suggests that many teachers are ill prepared to address issues of social justice in the classroom. Teacher educa-tion programs must do a better job in helping teacher candidates examine attitudes and be-liefs regarding diversity as well as issues of op-pression and privilege affecting specific groups. It is argued that by promoting critical reflection, open discussion in the context of an ethic of critique, justice and care (Starrett, 2009), teacher educators and teacher candidates are more likely to view themselves as agents of change and be more prepared to grapple with issues of social justice.

Vision

“Understanding diversity includes knowing how diminished we all are when voices go un-heard.” (Preskill & Brookfield, 2009, p. 11)

The vision embraced in this paper is one in

which teacher educators have a place and a space over time to participate in authentic dia-logue with colleagues. We envision a faculty that makes pedagogical and program decisions grounded in an “ethic of critique, justice and care” (Starratt, 2009, p.13). Furthermore, we see a faculty that engages in learning, reflection and discourse with quality resource people and critical friends in a spirit of openness to new ideas and a concern for the common good. The concern for the common good over the good of the individual is echoed by Shapiro and Stefkovich, who sug-gest that the ethics frame be “expanded by add-ing a fourth dimension, the ethic of profession, which has a unique moral aspect of serving the best interests of the students” (as cited in Brown, Irby, & Yang, 2008-2009, p. 7).

Specifically our vision would result in: ● an environment in which teacher educators

engage in meaningful ongoing, dialogue focused on uncovering injustice embedded in the lan-guage and structures of the programs, policies, and procedures and look for ways to correct these injustices;

● a teacher education program that creates opportunities for teacher candidates and gradu-ate students to develop a "cultural critical con-sciousness and self-reflection" (Gay & Kirkland, 2003, p.182);

● a teacher education program that expands beyond the "technical" aspects of teaching prac-tices;

● undergraduate and graduate programs that promote teachers as change agents who engage their students in addressing important issues in a critical manner; and

● teacher educator and teacher candidate demographics that more closely represent the communities that they serve.

Context

We are two teacher educators, one male, one female, at a small university on the Canadian prairies who have been brought together by our pursuit of higher learning and our interest in so-cial justice. Our reality falls short of the vision we imagine for teacher education. Dialogue is hin-dered by a department structure that magnifies differences rather than builds on diversity. De-spite well-intentioned efforts to demonstrate a commitment to the ideals of diversity and equity (Manitoba Education Citizenship and Youth, 2006), the changes could be characterized more as tinkering than as meaningful change. While the ideals we promote are in the minds and ac-tions of many teacher educators, our vision would see them permeate the teacher education pro-gram from policy to practice.

Graduates of our program are known for their extensive knowledge of curriculum and solid abil-ity to plan and implement learning experiences. Yet, recent graduates have indicated that they are inadequately prepared for the diversity of needs that are present in classrooms today. To-gether, we hope to move beyond the incremental changes of our individual practice to larger expo-nential systemic change.

Social Justice: A Definition

One of the major problems in focusing on so-cial justice is that the term itself has been co-opted and misused (Chubbuck, 2010). Sonia

21

Nieto defines social justice as “a philosophy, an approach, and actions that embody treating all people with fairness, respect, dignity, and gener-osity” (Chapman & Hobbel, 2010, p. 1). A focus on social justice should “help students to develop a critical disposition and help them reflect on their communities and their world” (p. 2). We will use social justice then, as suggested by Spalding, Klecka, Lin, Odell and Wang (2010), “as an um-brella term to cover projects that differ in their fo-cus . . . but share the common aim of preparing teachers to recognize, name, and combat ineq-uity in schools and society” (p. 191). Coming to an understanding of social justice and developing an ethic of critique, justice and care would help new teachers confidently use these principles in their practice.

Existing Conditions in Society and Schools

Giroux (2010), in a recent essay, paints a bleak picture of contemporary society. He posits that we live in a climate of anti-intellectualism, one in which “racist, reactionary and morally re-pugnant commentaries” (para. 2) appear in the media and where “anger replaces critique and ignorance informs politics” (para. 5). He further insists that there is an “intellectual vacuum ... that cultivates ignorance, limits choices, legitimizes political illiteracy and promotes violence” (par. 5). Tochon and Karaman (2009) further this idea by explaining that ignoring a lack of equity leads to a divided society that remains polarized and poised for self-destruction.

Schools are a vital part of our society and are often a reflection of the values and norms of soci-ety at large. In the current climate, Giroux (2010) contends that our public schools are modeled after prisons, which in turn leads to racism, breakdown of democracy and disappearance of critical thought. Starratt (2009) would agree with this view stating; “it is becoming increasingly evi-dent that schools and school systems are struc-turally ineffective in serving all students and their parents fairly” (p. 13). There has been a growing movement to the marketization of twenty-first century education. Many believe that the sole purpose of education is to prepare students for the market and to serve the needs of capitalism; “few people realize that their image of others and their sense of belonging have been fabricated and manipulated for profit” (Tochon & Karaman, 2009, p. 137). Education based on social justice and human rights can challenge this focus and

change it to serve equality, respect and human rights (Grant & Gibson, 2010). Such a change has a better chance of being actualized if teach-ers can see themselves as agents who can effect such lofty goals by building a culture of critique, justice and care in their classrooms, schools and communities.

Masse, Perez and Posselt (2010) investi-gated inequalities in college attendance in the United States. While their study only looked at enrollment in African American and Latino popu-lations, the results could be extrapolated to other groups as well, including those in Canada. The researchers posit that “deeply entrenched biases in our current educational system create obsta-cles to academic achievement, which may subse-quently limit ... full and equitable participation in society” (p. 290). These biases act to reinforce social reproduction of the status quo.

In Canada, questions of linguistic, cultural and racial diversity in the teaching force have particular salience because the demographics of the school system are changing more rapidly than the demographics of the teaching force. Carson and Johnson (2000) reported that of 320 pre-service teachers surveyed in 1996, approxi-mately 92% were non-immigrants with English as their first language. Furthermore, 75% of these students also had parents who were born in Can-ada with English as their first language. In a more recent report, Gambhir, Broad, Evans, and Gas-kell (2008) found that the demographics of pre-service teachers have changed little. Galman, Pica-Smith and Rosenberger (2010) and others (Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1990; Solomon, Por-telli, Daniel, & Campbell, 2005; Young, 2010) suggest that teachers are under-prepared to ad-dress social and racial issues in the classroom. Agaral, Epstein, Oppenheim, Oyler and Sonu (2010) support these findings and add other chal-lenges, including accountability and standardiza-tion, to the difficulties new teachers face in ad-dressing social justice. Gay (2010) further con-tends that “teacher education programs need to do a much better job than they currently are in helping their students examine the causes and character of the different attitudes and beliefs they hold toward specific groups and cultures” (p. 144). The change we envision would address these problems and barriers head on. By promot-ing critical reflection, open discussion in the con-text of an ethic of critique, justice and care, teacher candidates would be more likely to tackle

22

issues of social justice in their own classrooms. Schoorman and Acker-Hocevar (2010) state

that one of the concerns of social justice educa-tors, as discussed earlier, is the commodification of education and a move away from democratic principles. They further point out that this trend not only impacts public schooling, but also has an impact in higher education, thus echoing Giroux’s concerns. They propose that not only should prin-ciples of diversity and social justice be espoused in teaching and curriculum, but also that a lens of social justice should be used for examining fac-ulty governance. We are in agreement; thus part of our vision is to examine the policies and proce-dures of the teacher education program for injus-tices, so that they may be addressed. It would be hypocritical to promote these ethics to teacher candidates and not use them to guide our own faculty.

An Ethic of Critique, Justice and Care

Starratt (2009) espoused the ethics of cri-tique, justice and care we have adopted for our vision. The ethic of critique “uncovers inherent injustice embedded in the language and struc-tures of the school system and suggests ways to redress such injustice ” (p. 13). The ethic of jus-tice “demands that the claims of the institution serve both the common good and the rights of the individuals in the school” (p. 13). Finally, the ethic of care “places the human persons-in-relationship as occupying a position for each other of absolute value; neither one can be used as a means to an end; each enjoys an intrinsic dignity and worth” (p. 14). An environment based on these ethics provides a framework to fo-cus and guide dialogue and action. Indeed, such a climate would be an exciting one in which to work and learn, and is a goal worth pursuing.

In order to create a successful program for social justice, we believe that developing a cul-ture of learning leadership as described by Pre-skill and Brookfield (2009) is desirable. They de-lineate nine tasks for learning leadership. Of these, the practice of openness is the foundation. “Openness is the willingness to entertain a variety of alternate perspectives ... to make room for many voices and opinions” (p. 21). Openness, however, is a double-edged sword. People must be open to critically listen to others, to put aside their preconceptions and assumptions; yet, open-ness should not be “an excuse to allow voices of bigotry, authoritarianism, and self-satisfaction to

broadcast uninterruptedly” (p. 24). Openness is vital in order to sustain critical discussion, reflec-tion and exploration of ideas for change in the directions we envision. James (2007) suggests that those “striving for social justice, fairness, and equity ... need to work to disrupt the normatively and centrality of whiteness as well as expose and challenge ‘white talk’, both of which function to maintain White hegemony” (p. 127).

Critical reflection is a necessary part of our vision. Preskill and Brookfield (2009) define the process;

“Critical reflection ... focuses the process of thinking on power, justice, empower-ment, agency, self-realization, and com-munity renewal. Those who engage in critical reflection must be prepared to confront the ways in which communities and organizations undermine justice, limit agency, concentrate power in the few, and discourage individual and community renewal.” (p. 46).

In order for faculty to engage in critical reflection, we must build a culture that privileges critique, justice and care. Such a culture is possible, but takes time to build.

Action Plan

"I wish to do something Great and Wonderful, but I must start by doing the little things like they were Great and Wonderful"- Albert Einstein

As Einstein suggests in the quote above, our action plan starts with little things that can indeed lead to something great and wonderful. Change at any level is difficult, and facilitating change in higher education provides its own set of chal-lenges. Faculty members in higher education en-joy a great degree of freedom and autonomy. While this level of freedom is necessary for inde-pendent, creative research, thought and aca-demic progress and creates a dynamic, vibrant workplace, it also makes collective change diffi-cult. Those embarking on such efforts need to pay attention to the research on adult profes-sional learning and the nature of change.

Fullan (2000) informs us that change can take several years to be realized and suggests that several factors can facilitate change. The first is that the change must be meaningful and have purpose; the second is to mobilize – to develop a

23

learning community – and finally, increase ca-pacity to choose and use new ideas effectively. This is why we have chosen our first steps to be small ones designed to create a core community of passionate people willing to engage in open, critical dialogue. Preskill and Brookfield (2009) describe collective leadership as a key task for learning leadership. In order to reach such a state, they suggest that “creating free spaces for people to dialogue openly” (p. 99) is necessary. It is the intention of our first steps to create and promote such open dialogue in the hopes that collective leadership in the area of social justice will emerge.

Mezirow (2000) posits that meaningful adult learning is transformational, that is, it is learning that transforms our “taken-for-granted frames of reference … to make them more inclusive, dis-criminating, open, emotionally capable of change” (p. 7-8). In order for such learning to be transformational, he further states that some sort of dissonance must trigger the learning, or change. In addition to creating opportunities for dialogue, we have created and will be sharing a multimedia artifact with faculty that might serve to provoke reflection on issues of social justice. Through the use of compelling images, sound and text, the multimedia artifact invites you to join the conversation about equity in education. (Should the reader wish to access this presenta-tion go to http://equity ineduca-tion.wordpress.com)

Challenges

Implementing change in higher education is fraught with difficulties. We have identified sev-eral potential challenges to implementing our plan and realizing our vision. Efforts to develop a common ethic of social justice for considering issues of program, policy and practice might be viewed by some as infringing on academic free-dom and individual autonomy. Resistance will be greatest if attempts are made to mandate rather than encourage change. Academics tend to function more as a loose collection of independ-ent individuals rather than cohesive collectives, each with full schedules of research, teaching and service. Mobilizing such diverse individuals, with varied and personal agendas, towards a common cause will be challenging.

The change envisioned by this project re-quires deep and systemic change. Translating such a broad transformation into concrete and

specific outcomes that are representative of so-cial justice and equity will demand much acuity, a kind of ‘sharp sightedness of the ethnosphere’ which is not easily obtained. There are two types of challenges here. First there is the difficulty of framing what amounts to a philosophical position towards social justice into observable and meas-urable outcomes. Second, there is the danger of product subsuming process. Wade Davis (2010), in a recent keynote address warned not to confuse our objectives with our goals.

Creating dissonance in order to encourage dialogue without derailing collaborative and col-legial efforts is yet another challenge. Disso-nance in this context is the uncomfortable feel-ing one gets from holding conflicting ideas and/or values. There is a tendency to reduce such discomfort by justifying, blaming, and denying. Finding ways to enable the transformation of the status quo to one that is more inclusive and fair will be challenging, especially since we are in-side the very system we are attempting to change. This feeling of dissonance must be cre-ated without unsettling people to the point where they either ignore the issue, or worse still, see it as a personal attack. Either of these scenarios would derail attempts at open, collegial dis-course.

In the midst of the very real challenges that are present when contemplating change in teacher education, the experience shared by Cochran-Smith and her colleagues (1999) stands as an example of what is possible when teacher educators come together in a “collaborative research and professional devel-opment project that focused on social jus-tice” (p.234). Our vision mirrors their work of “faculty groups attempting to emphasize or in-fuse social justice into pre-service teacher edu-cation” (p. 229) and our goal to have faculty en-gaged in meaningful ongoing dialogue centered on social justice is a reflection of their approach. We hope that by taking small steps, starting with promoting open dialogue about social justice, we too can inspire “a commitment to extended and repeated conversations that evolved over time into a culture of careful listening” (p. 229).

Strategies

Our overriding goal is to develop an ethic of critique, justice and care (Starratt, 2009) in the Faculty of Education that includes faculty, staff and students. We view this goal as a way of be-

24

ing, a continuing process of reflection and action rather than an end point to be obtained. Our ac-tion plan is guided by three objectives: (a) to cre-ate opportunities for open, collegial and critical faculty dialogue (we are using the term ‘faculty’ in an inclusive manner, that is we wish to include all staff working in the Faculty of Education in this dialogue.); (b) to raise awareness of issues of equity and diversity; and (c) to examine pro-grams, policies and procedures with the lens of critique, justice, care and profession. A multime-dia presentation will be used to invite faculty to a conversation. A website will provide a platform to share resources and promote dialogue. Fu-ture plans include focus group meetings and in-vited speakers with the expectation that a formal committee will be established.

Conclusion

We believe that education for social justice is essential. However, it is not a question of whether attitudes and beliefs should be privi-leged over more technical knowledge and skills. Rather, both must be “included as essential ele-ments of teacher education. They are deeply connected, interactive, and complimentary. One cannot be fully realized without addressing the other in both teacher professional preparation and classroom practice for teachers and teacher educators,” (Gay, 2010, p.151). The approach must employ a pedagogy that is participatory and includes authentic situations. “At its heart, it must provide room for students’ voices and show them the power of activism. It must end with providing students with specific strategies to engage in social justice personally, profession-ally, and globally” (Fuentes, Chanthongthip & Rios, 2010, p. 372). We argue, as do Osei-Kofi, Shahjahan and Patton (2010), “that there is no acceptable alternative to not doing this work. We believe we must continue to strive to center sub-jugated knowledges in the academy, to honor different ways of knowing, and to work for pro-gressive social change” (p 326). We end as we began, with a quote that acknowledges the im-portance of broad vision together with specific actions in creating meaningful change.

“Vision without action is a daydream. Action

without vision is a nightmare.” - Japanese proverb

References

Agaral, R., Epstein, S., Oppenheim, R., Oyler, C., & Sonu, D. (2010). From ideal to practice and back again: Beginning teachers teaching for social justice. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(3), 237-

247. doi: 10.1177/0022487109354521

Carson, T., & Johnston, I. (2000). The difficulty with difference in teacher education: Toward a peda-gogy of compassion. The Alberta Journal of Edu-

cational Research, 56(1), 75-83.

Chapman, T., & Hobbel, N. (2010). Introduction: Con-versations, problems, and action. In T. Chapman & N. Hobbel (Eds.), Social justice pedagogy across the curriculum (pp. 1-5). New York:

Routledge.

Chubbuck, S. (2010). Individual and structural orien-tation in socially just teaching: Conceptualization, implementation, and collaborative effort. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(3), 197-210. doi:

10.1177/0022487109359777

Cochran-Smith, M., Albert, L., Dimattia, P., Freed-man, S., Jackson, R., Mooney, J., Neisler, O., Peck, A., & Zollers, N. (1999). Seeking social justice: a teacher education faculty’s self-study. International Journal of Leadership in Education,

2(3), 229-253.

Davis, W. (2010, November). The Wayfinders: Why ancient matters in the modern world. Presented at the Social Justice: Educating for Action Con-

ference, Winnipeg, MB.

Einstein, A. (n.d.). Quotes. The Centre for Restora-tive Justice. Simon Fraser University. Retrieved

from http://www.sfu.ca/cfrj/quotes.html

Fuentes, R., Chanthongthip, L., & Rios, F. (2010). Teaching and learning social justice as an “intellectual community” requirement: Pedagogi-cal opportunities and student understandings. Equity & Excellence in Education, 43(3), 357-

374.

Fullan, M. (2000). The three stories of reform. Phi

Delta Kappan. 81(8), 581-584.

Galman, S., Pica-Smith, C., & Rosenberger, C. (2010). Aggressive and tender navigations: Teacher educators confront whiteness in their practice. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(3),

225-236. doi: 10.1177/0022487109359776

Gambhir, M., Broad, K., Evans, M., & Gaskell, J. (2008). Characterizing initial teacher education in Canada: Themes and issues. Report for the In-ternational Alliance of Leading Education Insti-

tutes.

25

Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2),

106-116.

Gay, G. (2010). Acting on beliefs in teacher educa-tion for cultural diversity. Journal of Teacher Edu-cation, 61(1-2), 143-152. doi:

10.1177/0022487320

Gay, G., & Kirkland, K. (2003). Developing critical consciousness and self-reflection in preservice teacher education. Theory into Practice, 42(3),

181-187.

Giroux, H. (2010, July 12). The disappearing intellec-tual in the age of economic Darwinism. Truthout. Retrieved from http://www.truth-out.org/the-disappearing-intellectual-age-economic-

darwinism61287

Grant, C., & Gibson, M. (2010). “These are revolu-tionary times”: Human rights, social justice, and popular protest. In T. Chapman & N. Hobbel (Eds.), Social justice pedagogy across the cur-

riculum (pp. 9-35). New York: Routledge.

Japanese Proverb. (n.d.). In S. Khurana, Quotations on vision. Retrieved from http://quotations.about.com/cs/inspirationquotes/a/

Vision1.htm

James, C. E. (2007). Who can/should do this work: The colour of critique. In P. R. Carr & D. E. Lund (Eds.), The great white north: Exploring white-ness, privilege and identity in education (pp. 119-

131). Rotterdam, NL: Sense Publishers.

Ladson-Billings, G. (1990). Culturally relevant teach-

ing. College Board Review, 155, 20-25.

Manitoba Education Citizenship and Youth. (2006). Belonging, learning and growing. Winnipeg, MB:

Author.

Massé, J., Perez, R., & Posselt, J. (2010). Revisiting college predisposition: Integrating sociological and psychological perspectives on inequality. Equity & Excellence in Education, 43(3), 279-

293. doi: 10.1080/10665684.2010.492271

Mezirow, J. (Ed.). (2000). Learning as transformation.

San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Osei-Kofi, N., Shahjahan, R. A., Patton, L.D. (2010). Centering social justice in the study of higher education: The challenges and possibilities for institutional change. Equity & Excellence In Edu-

cation, 43(3), 326–340.

Preskill, S., & Brookfield, S. D. (2009). Learning as a way of leading: Lessons from the struggle for

social justice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Schoorman, D., & Acker-Hocevar, M. (2010). Viewing faculty governance within a social justice frame-work: Struggles and possibilities for democratic decision-making in higher education. Equity &

Excellence in Education, 43(3), 310-325.

Solomon, R.P., Portelli, J.P., Daniel, B., & Campbell, A. (2005). The discourse of denial: How white teacher candidates construct race, racism and ‘white privilege’. Race, Ethnicity, and Education,

8(2), 147-169.

Spalding, E., Klecka, C., Lin, E., Odell, S., & Wang, J. (2010). Social justice and teacher education: A hammer, a bell, and a song. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(3), 191-196. doi:

10.1177/0022487109359762

Starratt, R. J. (2009). Building an ethical school sys-tem: Ethical challenges for superintendents.

M.A.S.S. Journal, 10(2), 12-15.

Tochon, F., & Karaman, C. (2009). Critical reasoning for social justice: Moral encounters with the para-doxes of intercultural education. Intercultural Education, 20(2), 135-149. doi:

10.1080/14675980902922168

Young, E. (2010). Challenges to conceptualizing and actualizing culturally relevant pedagogy: How viable is the theory in classroom practice? Jour-nal of Teacher Education, 61(3), 248-260. doi:

10.1177/0022487109359775

“Until the great mass of the people shall be filled

with the sense of responsibility for each other's wel-fare, social justice can never be attained.”

- Helen Keller

26

Mentorship in the Arts: Introducing Youth to Careers in the Arts

- Talia Pura, coordinator, Youth Mentorship in the Arts Program, ACI Manitoba

ABSTRACT

ACI Manitoba is The Arts and Cultural Indus-tries Association of Manitoba. They are a not for profit organization dedicated to supporting the arts and cultural industries of Manitoba and helping to develop sustainable careers for those working in these industries. ACI offers a variety of training programs to enhance the careers of individuals and assist organizations. The focus of this paper is the mentorship program for youth who want to explore a career in the arts. This program is funded by MB4Youth (the Branch of the Manitoba provincial government, which is responsible for youth programming), and is now in its fifth year of operation. It is di-vided into three streams: a one-on-one mentor-ship for 20 to 24 year olds, group programs for 16 to 19 year olds, and a two-on-one rural pro-gram for 16 to 24 year olds. To date, hundreds of youth have benefited from this program.

Mentorships have long been seen as an im-portant component of a youth’s training and intro-duction into the professional world. There are many intangible ways in which youth benefit from the guidance of a more experienced person in their field. They may experience a boost in self-confidence, knowledge and understanding of their craft, as well as benefiting in more measur-able ways from the professional contacts, skills acquisition and new experiences that the mentor is able to offer.

Mentorships can happen informally, when an adult takes an interest in a youth known to him or her, or it can happen within a program that has been designed to bring together youth and men-tors who would otherwise not know each other. Such a program is the subject of this paper. The Career in the Arts Mentorship Program is organ-ized by the not-for-profit organization, ACI (Arts and Cultural Industries Association of Manitoba). While some programs for youth come out of a grass roots need that has been recognized in a specific community and acted upon, this program was initiated by the MB4Youth Branch of the Manitoba provincial government. They put out a call for an organization to develop and run such a program. ACI submitted a proposal, which was accepted, after which a coordinator was hired to organize it. The goals of this program, in the pro-

posal, were stated as follows: • To provide youth participants with knowl-

edge and experience in arts-related ca-reers

• To develop the youth participants’ essential skills and their ability to apply them in a workplace setting

• To provide an opportunity for youth partici-pants to establish relationships and net-work within the local arts and cultural com-munity

• To provide an opportunity for employers to share their workload

• To promote the arts and cultural industries as a place to launch viable, long-term ca-reers

The program was to follow the ideals of men-

torship proposed by L. Brendtro (1991), in speak-ing about Urie Bronfenbrenner, who suggested that youth need participation in progressively more complex reciprocal activity, on a regular basis, over an extended period of time (Brendtro, 1991, p.2). The mentors in this program were requested to spend ten hours per month, for seven months, preparing the youth for a career in the arts through direct mentorship and volunteer work experience. The youths were required to bring to the program either a high level of artistic ability or an aptitude for administration and man-agement, with a desire to apply this to the arts and cultural sector.

Participants would range from 16 to 24 years of age, in keeping with the mandate of MB4Y-outh. The number of participants was capped at 24, and the mentors were to be paid an honorar-ium for their time in the program. There was a need for the program to be perceived as highly valued by the youth, as they would be participat-ing on a voluntary basis. In addition to the ten hours they would spend with their mentors every month, they would also attend six ‘essential skills’ workshops throughout the program.

As the mentors would be expected to provide networking opportunities for their protégés, they would have an opportunity to begin the process of building the necessary connections needed for

27

success in their artistic field. The youths would be accepted into one of three areas: creative, techni-cal or administration. The program would be open to youths in all artistic fields, from writing and theatre, to dance, film, multi-media, design, music and visual art.

There was also a mandate to include youths from culturally diverse backgrounds, including ‘youth-at-risk’. The idea of identifying strength and developing it with the help of a mentor was certainly sound. As Kathy Cox (2008), posits in her article, “Tools for Building on Youth Strengths”, ‘Even the most troubled youth have positive traits and capacities that can be mobi-lized in the service of growth and recovery” (p. 19). While all youth have strengths that can be nurtured, the lingering question was whether the structure to support the youth and mentors in this journey would be sufficient in this program for the at-risk population. As outlined in “Unlocking Hidden Potential Through Mentoring”, Ken McCluskey and his colleagues (2004), suggest that, “it’s not the easiest thing in the world to mentor an at-risk student. From a school per-spective, it requires planning and intensive train-ing for staff” (p. 86). While this is true for schools, with professional development opportunities for their teachers, could professional artists, and arts organizations manage to work with these youth with only a one-day orientation session? The budget did not allow for more extensive training, nor were the artists who were engaged as men-tors necessarily open to extended training in this area. The hope was that this situation would be so enjoyable for the youth that they would invest in and remain committed to the program.

All youth accepted into the program had to be nominated by someone who was familiar with his or her artistic strengths and believed that the youth would benefit from, and have something to offer, this program. For the pilot year, youth were selected from as wide a range of cultural back-grounds as possible, including some from poten-tially at-risk backgrounds.

The program began with orientation sessions for both the mentors and youth -first one, then the other, and then both together. Individual sessions focused on program expectations and answered all questions and concerns put forth by the par-ticipants. The mentors’ session also contained discussions around best mentoring practices. When meeting together, each mentor and men-tee pair drew up a ‘Learning Contract’. This was

to become the blueprint for their program to-gether. It could be as unique as they were. To-gether they would outline their expectations and goals for their program. For follow-up, the coordi-nator would contact them once per month, receiv-ing an email response to various questions per-taining to how they were progressing in the pro-gram, how their relationship was working out, and whether they felt that they were working towards their goals.

At the halfway point in the seven-month pro-gram, they were visited individually, for face-to-face feedback. Six essential skills workshops were set up, which were mandatory for all youth participants.

The program began on a high note. Youth were nominated, mentors were found that specifi-cally addressed the artistic discipline that the youth had an interest in, and meetings were ar-ranged. A lot was learned in that first year. While there were many successful pairings, producing extraordinary growth in the youth participants, there were also several difficulties that became apparent.

First, it was very difficult for the at-risk youth to maintain focus for the seven months of the program. It was clear that they needed more structure and predictability in their meetings, and a strong support system outside our program.

Also, all but one of the 16 to 19 year olds in the program did not do nearly as well as the 20 to 24 year olds. The concerns that surfaced were that:

• They seemed intimidated by their mentors.

They appeared to be missing appoint-ments because they were not comfortable with their mentors.

• They were too young and inexperienced in their artistic fields to know which questions to ask, or how to take full advantage of this opportunity.

• The program length was too long for them to maintain. After about five months, all of the high school aged participants had dropped off in their contact with their men-tors. Most found that other demands on their time took over from the time they were to have committed to the program.

The one younger participant who was being

mentored by an organization, rather than an indi-vidual, stayed strong until the end of the program.

28

She had regular hours in which to come to the organization’s office. She had specific duties for her volunteer work experience and interacted with many staff members, spending almost no time in one-on-one situations.

In addition, the monthly workshops were a challenge. The age range of 16 to 24 meant that relevant training had to be presented to youth who had barely left junior high schoolall the way to those who had already completed an under-graduate degree.

After analyzing these results, some signifi-cant changes were introduced for the second year. The 20 to 24 year old participants contin-ued to engage in the one-on-one program. The 16 to 19 year olds were offered a group setting. The rationale for this plan was:

• In a group setting, the youth would have

peer support, as well as the support of the mentor. This would make them comfort-able enough to ask questions and also learn from each other. The material could be presented at an appropriate level for all participants.

• The groups would have a focus; so all the youth would be working on the same pro-ject. This would not only facilitate group bonding, but also teach them specific skills.

• The groups could be set up to meet at a specific time and place, on a regular ba-sis, eliminating the mentor’s need to ‘chase down’ the youth every month. This also offered the youth a predictable schedule and structure.

• The program could be of a shorter dura-tion, making it more viable for busy youth with many different focuses in their lives (February to May).

• In a group setting, a more diverse popula-tion could be accommodated. There would be room for at-risk youth of all types, including those who were academically strong, but at risk of drop-ping out because they didn’t fit in, as well as weaker students who needed the sense of belonging this group could offer along with the success of the mastery of the skills they would learn.

This rationale is well supported by the litera-

ture on working with youth. In fact, Kathy Cox (2008), in “Tools for Building on Youth Strengths”, uses an example that could have come right out of this mentorship program. “For instance, a depressed, socially withdrawn girl who has a talent for poetry might be encouraged to write and read poems dealing with loss in ses-sions with her therapist… the girl might be as-sisted in locating a creative writing class or group wherein she would be encouraged to practice specific social skills and accept appre-ciation for her evolving ability and talent as an aspiring poet” (p. 21).

This is something that could only happen in a group setting. During the first year of the pro-gram, there was one young woman mentored by a professional writer, who went well beyond the expectations of the program to facilitate the youth’s lack of structure in her home life. She picked her up for their sessions, often offered her a meal, and took on the responsibility of ar-ranging for all of their activities, rather than wait-ing for her to meet her half way. Even with that level of support, after several months the youth ended her participation in the program. During the second year, we had several youth with diffi-cult personal lives who did well in a group set-ting, which offered the youth both peer and men-tor support, provided in a consistent, structured program.

ACI’s program was now able to connect with youth in three areas, personal, academic and social. As Allen N. Mendler (2002) explores in his paper, “Connecting with Students to Limit High-Risk Behaviors”, “Personal connection is about warmly letting each student know that he or she is noticed and valued, but school prac-tices often convey a message to our students that they are not as important as the principal, the teacher or the curriculum” (p. 162). Students who have that experience in their schools can come to this program and get that validation from an adult who will recognize their worth and treat them all as individuals, as the groups are much smaller than any school class. While capped at fifteen participants each, they gener-ally contain between eight and ten youth.

Mendler (2002), suggests that, “too many students shut down from learning and become disenfranchised from school because they hate feeling like failures” (p. 162). The 16-19 year old group mentorship programs give them the suc-

29

cess they crave, as they are developing a pro-ject that is within their field of interest. While this alone can offer a sense of satisfaction, it might also act as a catalyst to help the youth recognize the need to stay in school, in order to realize a greater dream of success in the arts after graduation.

Mendler (2002), continues: “Individuals within the community each have strengths that can benefit others… building a sense of commu-nity” (p. 163). This is truly the strength of this group program. It offers the sense of community that had been the goal of the skill building work-shops during the pilot year. However, the work-shops were not creating anything. Youth were listening to an adult, with only limited opportuni-ties to engage with each other. In the new group mentorships, while they were still being taught specific skills, they were all engaged in bringing a project to life, something that takes a great deal of teamwork and cooperation. Thus, a com-munity is built.

As Andrew J. Schneider-Munoz (2009), so aptly suggests in his article, “Developing Con-trols from Within through Service Learning”, “There is nothing more intimate than setting a goal together and struggling through the team process of the structure needed to move forward and the care necessary to keep the team mem-bers engaged” (p. 43).

As the group programs continued on into subsequent years, it became apparent that in many cases, the community that was built in these groups was the best ‘home’ that many of these youth had known. A youth might feel rather isolated and alone in his school setting, but once he is engaged with others who share his interests, he blossoms into a confident, en-gaged member of the team. The youth often finds a common ground that wasn’t necessarily present in his school classroom. In “Unlocking Hidden Potential Through Mentoring”, McCluskey and his co-writers (2004), point out that “Not all capable youth have an easy time of it in the school system… Most students indi-cated that ‘not belonging’ was the main factor for leaving school” (p. 87). Bound by a common in-terest, the youth in this program, whatever their day to day school experiences might be, could now find community with others who looked at the world as they did.

In other cases, this program offered youth an opportunity to find a social group that was other-

wise absent in their lives. There have been a few participants who were home-schooled, and used our program as a way of connecting with their peers. The mentoring groups were de-signed to offer youth specific artistic endeavors that were not readily available in the schools, or through other organizations. That was how part-nerships in the artistic community were created.

ACI partnered with Manitoba Music to offer a program in which youth produce a compilation CD of local, young, aspiring musicians, then pro-mote and launch it at a concert featuring some of the CD’s artists.

The second partner is the Winnipeg Film Group, which offers youth interested in filmmak-ing an opportunity to create a short film; from writing the script, to storyboarding, setting up shot lists, and acting as crew for the shoot, through to the final editing process.

During the first year of the new group men-torships, the third group was theatre tech. This seemed like a good match for school theatre productions, where there is never a shortage of actors, singers and dancers, but there may be a lack of qualified student sound and lighting crews. However, we did not attract as many par-ticipants as we had hoped; perhaps schools take care of training their own students for these crews. The second year it was replaced with a writing group. This proved to be very popular and successful, and is now the standard third group.

The Circle of Courage identifies four impor-tant areas that need to be experienced for youth to grow: Belonging, Mastery, Independence, and Generosity. This mentorship program offers the opportunity to experience all four. By joining this program, and being treated as a valued member of the group, they experience belonging. As they are being taught new skills that culminate in a finished product, they can experience a mastery of the process. As there are many individual jobs that need to be done to create the whole piece, independence is fostered. Finally, youth are en-couraged to show generosity towards each other during the project. Once the project is complete, and the program ends, youth have a further op-portunity to share their newfound knowledge with others, in other settings, thereby continuing to foster a generosity of spirit. towards each other during the project. Once the project is complete, and the program ends, youth have a further opportunity to share their newfound

30

knowledge with others, in other settings, thereby continuing to foster a generosity of spirit.

Because these programs are fully supported by the provincial government, youth are able to access them without paying any fees. They are offering something of value at no cost to the par-ticipant. This enables youth from all segments of society to join in.

This mentorship program is now in its fifth year,-fourth for the group and rural projects. The one-on-one program continues to be extremely successful for those who are out of high school and ready for its intensity. It has attracted a veri-table who’s who of the Winnipeg artistic commu-nity, who act as mentors to a wide range of bright, young, emerging artists. The rural pro-gram has also continued to show growth and success. Each rural mentor works with two youth, who form their own tiny community of three. The group projects are becoming more popular every year, touching the lives or more and more young people.

REFERENCES

Sparling, Thom (2007). Careers in the Arts Mentor-ship Program Proposal. Arts and Cultural Indus-tries Association.

Brendtro, L (2006). The Vision of Urie Bronfenbren-

ner: Adults Who Are Crazy About Kids. Reclaim-ing Children and Youth, (15)3, 162-166.

Brendtro, L., Larson, S. (2004). The Resilience Code: Finding Greatness in Youth. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 12(4), 194-200.

Brendtro, L., Brekenleg, M. & Van Brockern, S. (2005). The Circle of Courage and Positive Psy-chology. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 14(3), 130-136.

Cox. K. (2008). Tools for building on Youth Strengths. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 16(4), 19-24.

Long, N. (2009). Why Competent Persons Have Melt-downs Working with Troubled Students. Reclaim-ing Children and Youth, 18(4), 40-43.

McCluskey, K., Noller, R. Lamourex, K., McCluskey, A. (2004). Reclaiming Children and Youth, 13(2), 85-95.

Mendler, A. (2002). Connecting with Students to Limit High-Risk Behaviors. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 11(3), 162-163.

Reclaiming Youth Network. “The Circle of Courage Philosophy.” 2007. <www.reclaiming.com/about/index.php?page=philosophy> (13 July 2007).

Schneider-Munoz, A. (2009). Developing Controls from Within though Service Learning. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 18(1), 41-44.

Belonging: A critical place-based art education research project

- Pam Reichert, University of Manitoba doctoral student

Abstract

This paper describes an action research proposal that arises from a long career in art, art therapy, and art education, working with marginalized students, and my doctoral studies at the University of Manitoba. My work with youth who are usually not of the dominant culture has led me to consider critical pedagogical principles in art education. I hope to improve my art students’ academic experiences, by working with them and their families in art projects and displays. I want to create a series of art projects about the river. I want to use this as an opportunity to connect the arts, community, and cultural concepts and experiences. In other words, I want to find ways to create and talk and display artwork that is a bridge; bridging the river, the cultural gaps, and

the distance between school and home.

Introduction

I am a doctoral student in the Transformative

Teaching, Learning and Leading cohort, and I am studying critical art therapy. I have been an art teacher for more than 20 years, and have also worked as an artist and an art therapist. I teach

part time in a middle school, and at university.

Figure 1. A picture of the river by the school. Photograph by Pam Reichert.

31

Through my doctoral research I will work towards greater social equity in an art classroom, with the hope of influencing the prevalence of such work. This paper will describe an action research proposal that arises from a long career in art, art therapy, and art education, working with marginalized students. My work with such youth, who are usually not of the dominant culture, has led me to consider critical pedagogical principles in art education. I hope to improve my art students’ academic experiences, by working with the students and

their families in art projects and displays.

What is a community?

According to the multiple dictionaries which I consulted, community can be many things: a group of people that share the same geography, common land or property; all of the people spoken of as one; people who share a common significant characteristic; or interdependent organisms. We are a community if we live in the same space, or are of the same religion or race, but when I discuss community in terms of educational communities, I think of a shared bond, or a comfort in communication, that

comes from some significant commonality.

Figure 2. A picture of the school. Photograph by Pam Reichert.

The Goals of the Study

I taught art in a UNESCO associated school beside a river. I want to use the arts and the river to improve school and home relationships. I want to use ecologically-focused arts teaching to help our students, their families, and our school neighbours to feel that they belong and are important to our community of learners. I want to help our students to build a river community,

rather than just be in a school by the river.

Figure 3. A picture of a local river. Photograph by Pam Reichert.

Water rushes by, snow piles up, life goes on. In our school, in our city, we decide how to get somewhere by planning which bridge to cross, with only six or seven choices. There are two big rivers in our city. The city exists because it was a good meeting place, and a good place for trade. I made a movie with my grade 9 art students to help you to see what I imagine that I

could do in this project.

The Philosophy and Questioning Behind the

Study

Humans exist as social beings. Can we do a better job of including our youth? I want to know why we see such a disconnect between our most disadvantaged students, their families and our schools. How can we improve school and home relationships through our arts programs? How can I design and implement arts programs and projects to welcome increased community attendance and support? Many of our staff think that this disconnect between home and school comes from ethnic diversity, language and cultural difference, and socioeconomic disadvantage—are they correct in thinking so? Are there other principles at work? Rivers have much physical and spiritual connectivity, and this is an area I wish to explore with our students and their families to help to tie us together in our

common humanness.

Review of the Literature

I went to the literature to begin to seek understanding, but found few art education research articles on home/school relationships, or on the role of parents or parental school involvement in academic success specific to art programs. However, an action research report from a project done in Toronto called “Fishnet: Catch and Release” (Ironside, & Iarocci, 2009)

32

addressed many relevant themes.. The project involved many different members of the community in creating artworks that focused on the 52 Great Lakes fish species. This is ecological art but is not about relationships so specifically.

I find that my literature review takes me into many different fields. Perhaps that is because of my varied background and approach to art and art education. Elias, Patrikakou, & Weissberg, (2007) studied the links between parent/school/community partnerships and students’ social and emotional competencies. Specifically, “the way schools care about children is reflected in the way schools care about the children’s families” (p. 541). An interesting clarification made in their work was that “the impression that disadvantaged families are resistant to school involvement is likely to stem from the ways in which most school involvement is structured” (p. 542). This is significant to my work because it was the opinion of our staff that the immigrant and aboriginal families of our students feel separated from our school. We had a hard time getting them to attend functions, or to be active partners in their children’s education. Perhaps part of the reason for this could be the manner in which we invited them to participate.

I am in the early stages of conceptualizing this project and I am trying to refine and focus it. My plan is growing and takes bits from here and there. Many things have flowed together to become the river project that I see evolving. In the book, Identity and Agency in Cultural Worlds (Holland et al, 2003), there is much discussion of figured worlds. These can be thought of as dramatic settings in which humans play out cultural roles and rules, and try to understand

their own value.

“Figured worlds rely upon artifacts…. Figured worlds are evinced in practice through the artifacts employed by people in their performances. Such artifacts are pivotal in the sense Vygotsky attributed to them in play. Artifacts ‘open up’ figured worlds. They are the means by which figured worlds are evoked, collectively developed, individually learned, and made socially and personally powerful” (Holland et al, 2003, p. 60-61,

italics in original).

I want to work with a community to create artifacts. I am hoping that families will have art and artifacts from their other homes to open conversations. We will make images, and in doing so we will hopefully be experiencing some new figured worlds. Newcomers are still learning the social and cultural rules of Canada and this would allow for their exploration, within and around the artwork.

Vygotsky (1978) wrote much about play and symbolism, which are both significant to image making. Playing with materials and with ideas is a big part of making artwork. In the chapter titled “Development of symbolism in play” he wrote, “children’s symbolic play can be understood as a very complex system of ‘speech’ through gestures that communicate” (p. 108). In “Development of symbolism in drawing” he wrote: “We see that when a child unburdens his repository of memory in drawing, he does so in the mode of speech—telling a story” (p. 112). Offering the opportunity to make images and tell visual stories may open up new communication for our students and their families, leading to more connections among us.

Dewey (1938) was a foundational writer in the area of school and community, and the aims of schooling in terms of development. He found that “..community life does not organize itself in an enduring way purely spontaneously. It requires thought and planning ahead” (p. 56). In discussing social relationships in the school and community, he promoted a democratic approach to education, increasing student voice in their schooling. If it requires ‘thought and planning ahead” to organize a community, then I want to plan ahead for the betterment of our school community, and the incorporation of some democratic principles. Opening our door more authentically to families should be a step toward greater connections, and more voices in the conversations. Olivia Gude (2009) talked about the inherent qualities of democracy in art making, and the sense of agency that can and should ensue from controlling your environment

and your images:

It is useful to remember that as educators we create citizens of a democratic society, not so much by filling students with ideas or facts about democracy, as by creating the conditions through which youth

33

experience the pleasures, anxieties, and

responsibilities of democratic life (p. 2).

Although there is much talk about student voice or agency around my school, there is little true democracy in the system. Allowing for a free and authentic art experience could be a link to democratic values.

I think the opposite of agency is passivity, and schools often foster passivity. Peter London (1994) commented on education happening inside a school, while learning about the outside, and the lack of development of a sense of

agency in our education systems.

“Thus, not only does schooling often substitute secondhand experience for raw reality, it also fosters a passive intellect through a school day composed of adult-designed, prearranged problems that neither emerge from nor relate back to the

actual lives of children” (p. 11).

Maxine Greene (1995) noted the relationship between school and increasing

student voice, when she wrote that

“we should think of education as opening public spaces in which students, speaking in their own voices and acting on their own initiatives, can identify themselves and choose themselves in relation to such principles as freedom, equality, justice,

and concern for others”(p. 68).

This is a nice reminder that although the school can be seen in many ways, both positive and negative, it holds huge potential for our ideals.

We as educators and researchers also have agency. What we do matters also. We can foster democracy and dignity, or rows of quiet kids. Nel Noddings (2004) made a strong case for change

in terms of our approach to education:

Today’s schools are increasingly authoritarian—characterized by coercion and control. In the name of democracy, they force all students—regardless of interest or ability—into the same so-called academic studies, and they use rigid rules and penalties to control unhappy teenagers. Too many of us have forgotten what John Dewey told us so clearly: To maintain a democracy, we must allow our

children to participate democratically in the activities designed to educate them. It would be hard to exaggerate the damage we are doing to our children, teachers, and schools through the current mania for testing, standardization, and corrupt forms of accountability (Noddings in Eisler &

Miller, 2004, p. ix-x).

There are many examples of undemocratic schools. In art education, some of the school districts in the USA, as authors of art curriculum, tried to ‘teacher-proof’ scripts and offered financial penalties for not following them.

I know that the ecological focus of my work is less evident here than it really would be in practice. Working with images allows for consideration of nature and our environment in greater depth than is possible at times in other subjects. David Orr (1994) wrote “all education is environmental education. By what is included or excluded, students are taught that they are part of or apart from the natural world” (p.12), and he concluded that “finally, we can attempt to teach the things that one might imagine the earth would teach us: silence, humility, holiness, connectedness, courtesy, beauty, celebration, giving, restoration, obligation, and wildness” (p. 52). These are noble goals, and something to aspire to. These are also common paths or rivulets into our river community. Graham (2009) discussed place-based art education with the view that “the isolation of schooling from local human and ecological communities diminishes the public, democratic responsibilities of schools and renders students passive by dismissing their potential contributions to the places they inhabit. But the character of schooling changes when local communities and places become the focus of education” (p. 1). The focus of education can be changed to include our natural and/or social environment, and to then reintroduce our surroundings as a subject of choice. We also have the land we stand on in common, even if

we share no other characteristics or language.

34

Figure 4. A picture of a local river. Photograph by Pam Reichert.

I am interested in the UNESCO ideas of education, especially as I taught in a UNESCO associated school that professes to follow the ideals of UNESCO. UNESCO is the United Nations Education Science and Culture Organization. As a part of their view of education, UNESCO promotes teaching toward a culture of peace and democracy. This means implementing the theories of critical pedagogy, questioning authority and standard practices, and establishing greater social justice for all types of diversity, but especially, giving students a voice in the content and style of their education. These are the goals I seek to attain as I work with the images of a river to build stronger relationships with the students

and families in my educational neighbourhood.

Action Plan

Putting the reading I have done together, I see a path to increase positive community relationships amongst our students, their families and our school, and to create a sense of

ownership of the river and the riverbank in our community; I want to create a series of art projects about the river. I want to begin by talking to students and families, finding out if there is an interest in being a part of art making and displaying. I want to use this as an opportunity to connect the arts, community, and

cultural concepts for my students.

Figure 6. A picture of a local river. Photograph by Pam Reichert.

Our work and our words can then be on display in our community – inside or outside of our school building. I want to use the voices of our community to decide if I have made any difference, in discussions after the project. In other words, I want to find ways to create and talk and display artwork that is a bridge; bridging the river, the cultural gaps, and the distance between school and home.

Figure 5. A graphic organizer to show the potential study that I planned.

35

Figure 7. A picture of a local river. Photograph by Pam Reichert.

References

Albers, P. M. (1999). Art education and the possibility

of social change. Art Education, 52(4), 6-11.

Andrus, L. (2001). The culturally competent art

educator. Art Education, 54(4), 14-19.

Davis, W. (2009). The wayfinders: Why ancient wisdom matters in the modern world. Toronto,

ON: House of Anansi Press, Inc.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New

York: Touchstone.

Elias, M., Patrikakou, E., & Weissberg, R. (2007). A competence-based framework for parent-school-community partnerships in secondary schools.

School Psychology International,28(5), 540-554.

Eisler, R., & Miller, R. (2004). Educating for a culture

of peace. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Freire, P. (2008). Education for critical consciousness. London, England: Continuum. (Original work

published 1974)

Graham, M. (2009). Critical place-based education: Community, ecology, and artmaking. Translations,

18(2), 1-4.

Greene, M. (1995). Releasing the imagination: Essays on education, the arts and social change. San

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Gude, O. (2009). Art education for democratic life, retrieved from: http://alumniconnections.com/olc/filelib/NAEA/cpages/9003/

Library/2009_LowenfeldLecture_OliviaGude.pdf

Haywood Rolling, Jr., J. (2010). Art education at the turn of the tide: The utility of narrative in curriculum-making and education research. Art

Education, 63(3), 6-12.

Hoffmann-Davis, J. (2005). Framing education as art: The octopus has a good day. New York, NY:

Teachers College Press.

Holland, D., Lachicotte, W., Skinner, D., & Cain, C. (2003). Identity and agency in cultural worlds.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Ironside, C., & Iarocci, A. (2009). Fishnet: The Great Lakes craft and release project. Visual

Communication, 8(3), 349-360.

London, P. (1994). Step outside: Community-based

art education. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Manitoba Education, Citizenship and Youth. (2004-5). Working together: A guide to positive problem solving for schools, families, and communities. Retrieved from http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/

specedu/problem_solving/

Martin, A., & Dowson, M. (2009). Interpersonal relationships, motivation, engagement, and achievement: Yields for theory, current issues, and educational practice. Review of Educational

Research, 79(1), 327-365.

McNiff, S. (2004). Art heals: How creativity cures the

soul. Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications Inc.

Orr, D. (1994). The Earth in mind: On education, environment, and the human prospect.

Washington, DC: Island Press.

Powell, M., & Speiser, V. (2005). The arts, education, and social change: Little signs of hope. New

York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing Inc.

Project Peacemakers, http://

www.projectpeacemakers.org/

Suter, W.N. (2006). Introduction to educational research: A critical thinking approach. Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage.

Trend, D. (1992). Cultural pedagogy: Art/education/

politics. New York, NY: Bergin & Garvey.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge:

MA: Harvard University Press.

Webber, M., & Bezanson, K. (2004). Rethinking society in the 21st century: Critical readings in sociology. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars’ Press

Inc..

Wilson, B. (1997). The second search: Metaphor, dimensions of meaning, and research topics in art education. In S. La Pierre, & E. Zimmerman, (1997). Research methods in art education (pp. 1-31). Reston, VA: National Art Education

Association.

Yokley, S. H. (1999). Embracing a critical pedagogy in art education. Art Education, 52(5),18-24.

36

development and university services, teacher shortages, decreased enrolment leading to decreased educational funding, and a declining pool of qualified administrative candidates, all make the provision of equitable learning opportunities for rural students increasingly difficult (Wallin, 2008).

What can rural divisions do to improve student learning in their school divisions, thereby creating more equitable opportunities for their students? While government funding, teacher shortages, physical distance, and travel costs are largely out of the control of rural school boards, there are many things, locally, that are within their control. Linda Darling-Hammond (2009) suggests that a democratic and professional approach to educational change is essential for the challenges that now confront education systems. She promotes the view of educators as professionals who are accountable to their students, parents, and colleagues for continually improving their practice, as well as for participating in the democratic process of educational change. Darling-Hammond (2009) also discusses the importance of investing in teacher professional development (PD) as essential and effective, noting that “investments in the quality of teachers secure greater improvements in achievement than any other use of a marginal education dollar” (p. 56). If this approach to educational change is effective, then improvement of student learning in rural areas is not only possible, but is also within the

control of rural school divisions.

Identifying the Problem Areas in Rural PD

Transportation costs are one of the most significant limitations for PD in rural areas (Manitoba Education, 2009; Wallin, 2008). Whether sending local teachers out for PD opportunities, or bringing in experts to provide such opportunities to educators, significant travel costs are incurred by school divisions. In addition to this, teachers themselves often bear the burden of financial costs for PD , when they incur expenses for additional childcare, travel, conference fees, or lodging. The ability of individuals or divisions to afford such costs determines the extent to which PD is available to

Transforming Rural Education through Effective Professional Development - Candy Skyhar, Ph. D. Student, University of Manitoba

Abstract It is public education that is charged with providing equitable educational opportunities for all students, regardless of location (Green & Reid, 2004). Access to effective professional development remains difficult for educators in rural areas due to high transportation costs, staffing issues, declining enrolment, and smaller staff sizes. If rural students are to be provided with equitable educational opportunities, their teachers must be afforded access to effective professional development. Effective professional development has been described as: situated in practice, focused on student learning, embedded within professional learning communities, and sustainable. How might these characteristics be used to remodel professional development in rural divisions in order to ensure more equitable learning opportunities for rural students?

Introduction As rural school divisions within Manitoba look

toward the future of education within their local areas, they are faced with significant challenges to providing equitable learning opportunities for their students. Only about one quarter of the province’s public school population resides in rural areas, despite the fact that rural schools make up nearly half of the number of schools in Manitoba (Wallin, 2008). Many rural Manitoba school divisions find their student numbers decreasing, under-represented at the provincial level, and sparsely distributed. The provision of quality learning opportunities for these students is both a social and political issue, since “it is the public sector that is charged with the equitable provision of educational services for all children and all constituencies, regardless of location” (Green & Reid, 2004). Rural school division leaders have indicated their frustration with the impossible demands placed on them to implement the same initiatives in education as their urban counterparts, despite having fewer people to manage and do the work (Wallin, 2008). Rural divisions do not have the same access to curriculum and specialized educational supports as do urban divisions. In addition to this, issues related to distance and travel, deteriorating educational facilities, access to quality staff

37

rural educators. This situation, in and of itself, is inequitable for rural teachers, and by extension, for the students they teach.

In addition to issues surrounding transportation and cost, recruitment and retention of quality staff also pose a huge challenge for many rural divisions (Green & Reid, 2004; Manitoba Education, 2009; Wallin, 2008). Teachers, substitute teachers, administrators, and clinicians can be difficult to recruit, and in some areas, a high turnover in staff makes it difficult not just for staffing, but also for consistency within schools, divisions, and communities. Many divisions rely on retired teachers as substitute teachers to support classrooms when teachers are away, and as the pool of substitute teachers continues to decrease, it is difficult for divisions to release more than a few teachers at a time for PD.

Economic instability within rural areas is another issue of great concern for rural divisions (Suvorova, 2004; Wallin, 2008). Many rural school divisions find their enrolment decreasing, due to a lack of economic development within their area. As jobs decrease, people (and students) are forced to leave the area, creating decreases in tax revenue as well as provincial funding, which is based on student enrolment. Rural divisions often find themselves having to do more with less, especially in areas that are discretionary such as PD.

Another challenge for PD in rural areas is the absence of opportunities for dialogue and collaboration amongst similar grade or subject area colleagues within small schools and divisions. There is often only one teacher in a school teaching a particular grade or subject, making it difficult to discuss subject or grade related issues within the workplace. This form of isolation can further limit the ability of teachers to benefit from the wisdom and insight of others in the same field. Isolationism, combined with fewer opportunities to travel for external PD, significantly decreases lines of communication that may be more easily accessed by urban educators.

Teachers in rural divisions often have heavy workloads due to high numbers of courses to prepare, despite having, in general, smaller class sizes than their urban counterparts. They often have split classes, or in high school settings, seven or eight different courses to teach. In

addition, many teachers are asked to take on courses that are new to them in order to meet student needs within their school. Similarly, due to the small numbers of staff in rural schools, teachers are often asked to be responsible for many extracurricular activities in order to provide the best possible options for their students. All of these factors contribute to teachers who may have little time or energy to engage in PD on their own, or to take an active role in promoting it

within their divisions.

Characteristics of Effective PD

In an article entitled “Growing Talent: Promising Professional Development Models and Practices”, Whitcomb, Borko, and Liston (2009) suggest that effective PD models are: situated in the work of teaching, focused on student thinking and learning, embedded in professional communities, sustainable and scalable, and supported and accompanied by carefully designed research. While this list of characteristics is not exhaustive, it provides a starting point for discussion about how rural school divisions might design PD opportunities for their teachers in order to improve student learning. For this discussion, four of the characteristics of effective PD will be discussed. Effective PD is: (1) situated in practice, (2) focused on student learning, (3) embedded within professional learning communities, and (4) sustainable. These four characteristics have been modified from Whitcomb, Borko, and Liston’s original description of effective PD models, taking into consideration the work of

other scholars in the area of effective PD as well.

Characteristic #1: Situated in Practice

Lieberman and Mace (2008) note that much PD, “though well intentioned, is often perceived by teachers as fragmented, disconnected and irrelevant to the real problems of classroom practice” (p. 226). This perception comes from the nature of PD opportunities that are not situated in practice, or relevant to the issues and concerns that teachers face in their daily lives.

Timperley (2008) suggests:

In effective professional development, theories of curriculum, effective teaching, and assessment are developed alongside their applications to practice. This integration allows

38

teachers to use their theoretical understandings as the basis for making ongoing, principled decisions about

practice. (p. 11)

In order for PD to change teaching practice, and improve student learning, teachers must be able to see the connections between what they have learned and their own practice, as well as “develop the self-regulatory skills that will enable them to monitor and reflect on the effectiveness of changes they make to their practice” (Timperley, 2008, p. 13). Teaching, as well as teacher-learning, occur in context-specific situations that require teachers to make decisions about students’ understanding and needs on an ongoing basis. By teaching teachers to continually evaluate their students’ learning and modify their practices, PD programs can encourage educational practices that are

both responsive to student learning and effective.

Characteristic #2: Focused on Student

Learning

The ultimate goal of PD should be the improvement of student learning outcomes (Guskey, 2003). As a result, the examination of student thinking and learning should be at the centre of PD efforts. Several studies have documented the benefits of using student thinking and data as a resource for effective PD. Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI) is one area which focuses on this concept. “CGI teachers engage in sense making around children’s thinking. They [teachers] continually evaluate their understanding, adapt and build on their knowledge, and figure out how to make use of it in the context of their ongoing practice” (Frank & Kazemi, 2001, p. 103). The result of this approach for teaching and teacher development, is that teachers develop a sense of themselves as learners, engaging in conversations about students’ thinking and their own teaching (Franke & Kazemi, 2001).

Other methods of collecting information about student thinking and learning have also been used for PD. Van Es and Sherin (2009) utilized video clubs to help teachers “learn to notice” (p. 157) the learning that was taking place in mathematics classrooms as well as the complex interactions which fostered such learning within the learning environment. Higgens and Parsons (2009) used the diagnostic

interview to help teachers identify students’ knowledge and strategies in order to plan for future learning sequences. Both the use of video clubs and diagnostic interviews required teachers to use data to analyze student learning, as well as their own teaching practices. Such methods of utilizing student and classroom data for PD seek to evaluate the PD’s effectiveness by the impact that the resulting changed practice has on actual student learning.

In an article entitled “Mapping a Course for Improved Student Learning: How Innovative Schools Systematically use Student Performance Data to Guide Improvement”, Supovitz and Klein (2003) examine how schools can use different kinds of student performance data to improve instructional practice. External (state and district test results), individual teacher assessment, and school-wide assessment data, were all used with the specific intent of improving instruction and student learning. Supovitz and Klein (2003) suggest that much of the data available to schools goes unused, and that it might be better utilized for things such as: improving instruction, focusing planning efforts for PD, setting goals, and celebrating faculty and student accomplishments. By focusing on student learning and instructional practices that improve student learning, professional growth opportunities for educators can be relevant,

practical, and effective.

Characteristic #3: Embedded in Professional

Learning Communities (PLCs)

Thomas Guskey (2003) suggests that in almost every school, there are teachers who have found ways to help students learn well. “Identifying the practices and strategies of these teachers and sharing them with their colleagues might provide a basis for highly effective professional development within that context” (Guskey, 2003, p. 750). Essentially, this idea is the premise on which the theory of embedding PD within PLCs is based. PLCs allow teachers to engage in PD that is about their own teaching practice (characteristic #1), and focused on student learning (characteristic #2). They provide a forum for collegial interaction to occur, interactions in which educators can learn from the successes of others. They also provide an opportunity for teachers to examine their own teaching practice and challenge their

39

assumptions about teaching and learning. Timperley (2008) warns, however, that

research does not always support the link between improved teaching and collegial interaction. If teachers are to change and if student learning is to improve, it is not enough for teachers to be engaged in PLCs – the PLCs must be focused on becoming responsive to

students. According to Timperley (2008):

change appears to be promoted by a cyclical process in which teachers have their current assumptions challenged by the demonstration of effective alternative practice, develop new knowledge and skills, make small changes to practice, and observe resulting improvements in

student outcomes. (p. 18)

Just as Timperley warns about the importance of focusing PLCs on becoming responsive to students, Guskey (2003) raises the issue that despite a common belief that school- or site-based PD is best, there is a danger that teachers participating in PLCs will only look at things that are similar to what they are already doing in their classrooms. Guskey (2003) suggests that “a carefully organized collaboration between site-based educators, who are keenly aware of critical contextual characteristics, and district-level personnel, who have broader perspectives on problems” (p. 749) is essential for effective PD to occur. It is for the same reason that Timperley (2008) suggests PLCs cannot allow teachers to focus on the things they already do – they must encourage teachers to look critically at their practice as well as at the teaching practice of others in order to make changes, and to evaluate the effects of those changes on student

learning.

Characteristic #4: Sustainable

Unfortunately, efforts to improve student outcomes through PD are often short-lived (Timperley, 2008, p. 24). In order for PD to be sustainable, it must take into consideration not only the immediate learning experiences of teachers, but also the means that will be necessary for teachers to continue to improve their practices and student learning once they are left on their own. PLCs provide ongoing support for teachers so that PD does not

become a one day session or a weekend workshop. Rather, PLCs enforce the concept of ongoing learning for teachers, whereby they are never done the process, but rather, continually work towards improvements in teaching practice and student learning. Timperley (2008), suggests that sustained improvement “depends on teachers developing professional, self-regulatory inquiry skills so that they can collect relevant evidence, use it to inquire into the effectiveness of their teaching, and make continuing adjustments to their practice” (p. 24). The self-regulatory inquiry skills that Timperley refers to require teachers to engage in the process of professional inquiry on an ongoing basis, increasing their chances of exacting lasting change.

In rural divisions, sustainability is of particular importance in a slightly different way. While larger, urban school divisions have access to large staff numbers, consultants, coordinators, and the benefit of proximity to other school divisions, rural divisions who cannot afford to hire into such positions, or who are not close enough to divisions who can, are forced to develop capacity for change within their own staff. For example, unlike many urban divisions, a small rural division would likely not have the ability to hire a math consultant to help mathematics teachers improve student outcomes in mathematics through the latest theories about effective mathematics teaching practices. One of the few alternatives a rural division might have is to develop, within an existing mathematics teacher, leadership capacity and knowledge about theories in mathematics education so that they might be able to share that knowledge and expertise with others in a mathematics-focused PLC, or even as a part-time math consultant. Such initiatives could provide opportunities for rural divisions to

become more self-reliant and self-sustaining.

Linking PD and Learning

Although not a lot of research is available linking teacher PD directly to student learning and achievement, some research is beginning to emerge that suggests that PD that focuses on student learning and instructional practice within the context of PLCs can actually improve student learning. Supovitz & Christman (2003)

40

note in their review of developing communities of instructional practice in Cincinnati and Philadelphia, that “those communities that did engage in structured, sustained, and supported instructional discussions and that investigated the relationships between instructional practices and student work produced significant gains in student learning” (p. 5). Similarly, in their work with PLCs, McLaughlin and Talbert (2010) “found, repeatedly, strong effects of teacher collaboration on gains in student learning at the school level and in smaller groups” (p. 36). Further, in their review of the National Writing Project (NWP), Lieberman and Mace (2008) point out that in addition to its ability to evolve and grow, the NWP was able to raise achievement for students. And finally, Franke and Kazemi (2001), in their work on CGI strategies in mathematics instruction noted that “students in CGI classrooms could solve a wider variety of word problems, used a wider range of strategies, and know their number facts at a better recall level than their control group counterparts” (p. 104). They also noted that students in CGI classrooms on average “made a grade level gain in achievement” and “reported being more confident and better able to

understand mathematics” (p. 104).

Conclusion

As rural divisions continue to contemplate what they can do to improve student learning and create more equitable opportunities for their students, they must consider the role that PD might play in improving student learning outcomes. PD that is situated in practice, focused on student learning, embedded within professional learning communities, and sustainable has the potential to address many of the challenges faced by rural divisions in providing effective PD opportunities. Issues related to cost, such as transportation of staff to external PD opportunities, the cost of bringing in external PD to the division, and the ability of divisions to afford local consultants or coordinators could be minimized by looking to less costly, more localized PLCs for PD opportunities. Such PLCs could also provide opportunities for collaboration and discussion; something rural teachers need but do not always have access to. By investing in PD within the division, rural boards could effectively grow their

own potential, creating quality staff rather than trying to attract and retain them. By investing in their own human resources, rural divisions could reduce their reliance on external sources for PD, and build their own capacity to be more self-reliant and self-sustained. All of these things could serve not only to improve education within the division, but also to ensure the provision of equitable learning opportunities for all of their students, regardless of location.

References

Darling-Hammond, L. (2009). Teaching and the change wars: The professionalism hypothesis. In A. Hargreaves & M. Fullan (Eds.), Change

Wars (p. 45-68). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.

Franke, M. L., & Kazemi, E. (2001). Learning to teach mathematics: Focus on student thinking.

Theory into Practice, 40(2), 102-109.

Green, B., & Reid, J. (2004). Teacher education for rural-regional sustainability: Changing agendas, challenging futures, chasing chimeras? Asia Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 32(3), 255-

273.

Guskey, T. R. (2003). What makes professional development effective? Phi Delta Kappan, 84

(10), 748-750.

Higgens, J., & Parsons, R. (2009). A successful professional development model in mathematics: A system-wide New Zealand case. Journal of

Teacher Education, 60(3), 231-242.

Lieberman, A., & Mace, D. H. (2008). Leader learning: The key to educational reform. Journal

of Teacher Education, 59(3), 226-234.

Manitoba Education. (2009). Rural education: A review of provincial and territorial initiatives. Retrieved from http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/

docs/reports/rural_ed/index.html

McLaughlin, M. W., & Talbert, J. E. (2010). Professional learning communities: Building blocks for school culture and student learning.

Voices in Urban Education, 27, 35-45.

Supovitz, J. A., & Christman, J. B. (2003). Developing communities of instructional practice: Lessons from Cincinnati and Philadelphia. CPRE Policy

Briefs, 21, 1-10.

Supovitz, J. A., & Klein, V. (2003). Mapping a course for improved student learning: How innovative schools systematically use student performance data to guide improvement. Consortium for

Policy Research in Education, 21, 1-49.

41

Suvorova, G. (2004). How to avoid the negative consequences of restructuring the network of rural schools. Russian Education and Society,

46(12), 30-41.

Timperley, H. (2008). Teacher professional learning and development. International Academy of Education Educational Practices Series-18. Retrieved from http://www.mp.gov.rs/ resursi/dokumenti/dok195-eng-IBE_teacher_professional_learning_and_development.pdf

van Es., E. A., & Sherin, M. G. (2009). The

influence of video clubs on teachers’ thinking and practice. Journal of Mathematics Teacher

Education, 13, 155-176.

Wallin, D. (2008). A comparative analysis of the educational priorities and capacity of rural school districts. Educational Management,

Administration & Leadership, 36(4), 566-587.

Whitcomb, J., Borko, H., & Liston, D. (2009). Growing talent: Promising professional development models and practices. Journal of

Teacher Education, 60(3), 207-212.

Teaching for Empowerment, Action and Change (TEACH): A proposed forum for social

justice educators

- Cathryn Smith, University of Manitoba, Faculty of Education

Abstract

To create equitable school systems which benefit all learners, and develop schools as democratic places to work, leadership for social justice is es-sential. Leadership is specifically needed to sustain and retain social justice educators in the profes-sion. Educators are often surprised by the intensity of the emotions generated in students, community members and themselves in response to social justice pedagogy. Committed educators need a group of people to turn to for both challenge and support. This action research (Stringer, 2007) study articulates a vision and plan for a community-based forum for collaborative dialogue to improve social justice pedagogy. TEACH, which stands for Teach-ing for Empowerment, Action and Change, will in-clude a variety of community partners. This article outlines the vision for TEACH, the contexts in which it will be situated and the frameworks and

practices which will guide the group.

Vision

TEACH is envisioned as a community-based home for Manitoba’s social justice educators that is relevant, critical, and change oriented. In this home, social justice educators can be ourselves, share our fears, hopes and passions, and meet with others for dialogue in a comfortable atmos-phere. The intent of TEACH is to support educa-tors at all levels to teach in ways that empower youth to be change agents in our communities, so membership will be open to teachers, community activists, researchers and education students. Teaching is political work. Our choices make statements about what our society values

(Cochran-Smith, 1991). We challenge ourselves to embrace pedagogy which acknowledges and works to eradicate inequities in society. Working together constructively means that we maintain a hopeful stance in the face of opposition (Shields, 2004). Finally, TEACH challenges us to work to-gether in democratic and just ways (Kincheloe & Steinberg, 1995) which exemplify social justice.

Contexts

The contexts in which pedagogy and commu-nity organizing can be enacted are complex, plu-ralistic and multi-dimensional. TEACH reflects elements of critical pedagogy, community part-nerships, collaborative inquiry and communities of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Three broader contexts which have specific relevance to TEACH are definitions of social justice, Mani-toba’s social justice context and the needs of so-cial justice educators.

Social justice

Most definitions of social justice include ac-cess to equal rights, privileges and outcomes. The definition adopted for TEACH is drawn from the British Columbia provincial diversity docu-ment:

- Social justice is a philosophy that ex-tends beyond the protection of rights. - Social justice advocates for the full par-ticipation of all people, as well as for their basic legal, civil and human rights. The aim of social justice is to achieve a just and equitable society. It is pursued by individuals and groups – through collabo-

42

rative social action – so that all persons share in the prosperity of society. (British Columbia Ministry of Education, 2008, p. 13).

Manitoba’s social justice context

In the Social Studies and Sustainable De-velopment documents, Manitoba teachers are mandated by the provincial government to teach about social justice (Manitoba Education, Citi-zenship and Youth, 2007; Manitoba Education and Training, 2000; Manitoba Education and Youth, 2003) ). Although Manitoba Education (ME) does not name social justice as one of its priorities, it does focus on inclusion, students who are traditionally less successful in school, aboriginal and northern students (Manitoba Edu-cation, 2010b), and diversity (ME, 2010a).

In addition to the mandated provincial cur-ricula, many schools have chosen to adopt a service component (UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network, ME, 2010c). Some schools encourage students to identify needs in their communities and to create action projects they believe will address those concerns (Thrive!). Other schools have chosen to under-take fundraising projects aimed at delivering fi-nancial assistance to deserving groups or or-ganizations. A third type of project involves ex-changing oral or written communication and/or visits between partnering schools. Such teacher and student-driven initiatives must operate from a strength based perspective in which the bene-ficiaries are seen as capable partners. Educa-tors need to know how to facilitate such relation-ships.

Needs of social justice educators

Teachers come to adopt social justice peda-gogy through a variety of routes. Some, who have hopeful outlooks for the world or strong personal beliefs, recognize their obligation to expose students to the principles of social jus-tice (Marshall & Anderson, 2009). Other teach-ers are drawn towards social justice content in response to the needs of the students they teach and the communities in which they live. Regardless of teachers’ motivations, engaging in social justice pedagogy can generate a variety of responses. Some teachers feel unprepared to lead students in these forms of curriculum; oth-ers fear they will be accused of unfairly influenc-

ing students (Marshall & Anderson, 2009).

Advocating for social justice can leave teachers with a range of emotions and doubts about where to look for support. In their book, Activist Educators, Marshall and Anderson (2009) found "Social justice activism is frag-mented: activists often feel isolated, unaware of activist colleagues” (p. 127). Marshall’s (2009) own study “reveals educator activist identity as personal political contestation, wherein individu-als’ stances, voices, and interventions often re-quire taking personal risks, with little or no preparation or support from their professional or community culture” (p.156). Teachers working for social justice need a group of people to turn to who can provide many different kinds of sup-port: emotional, pedagogical, practical and politi-cal. Digital communication can reduce isolation and maintain contact between face to face con-versations, but personal contact is powerful. In their multi-year study, Marshall and Anderson found “educators’ sense of risk and loss was lessened when supported by the establishment of networks” (p. 146). A group of critical friends to help network, problem solve, engage in criti-cal reflection and share instructional and organ-izational strategies, would support teachers do-ing social justice work in schools. TEACH can serve as a contact point for media, community organizations and researchers engaged in re-lated work. This local network of social justice educators can engage with more distant com-munity partners to learn from colleagues world-wide and gather energy and hope from being a part of a larger movement (Preskill & Brookfield, 2009). In order to make thoughtful and effective choices, it is important that TEACH have frame-works which can guide our work.

Guiding Frameworks

The vision for TEACH is that groups of edu-cators will gather together in a supportive envi-ronment to engage in cognitively challenging dialogue aimed at strengthening our abilities to critically reflect on our practice and educate for empowerment, action and change. This vision is structured around the theoretical perspectives of social justice leadership, and the characteristics of networks which provide support and chal-

lenge to educators.

43

Educator Networks for Support, Challenge

and Vision

Lipton and Wellman (2003) identify support, challenge and vision as the purposes of a learn-ing- focused relationship. An ongoing network of people who meet together to dialogue about so-cial justice pedagogy can form learning focused relationships and fulfill all three purposes. The potential for a network to provide support is well documented in the literature and Marshall (2009) articulates the potential positive impact of net-works: “Cohorts of social justice educators with shared social justice values could sustain them-selves in their beliefs that teaching is emancipa-tory practice and that schools are locations for collaborative engagement with the societal chal-lenges of democracy” (p. 165). Darling-Hammond (2009) affirms that "systems of sup-port are needed" (p. 65) to sustain educators in their work.

Hargreaves and Fullan (2009) endorse the relational value of networks as a strategy for cre-ating change, "the art of spreading change is about building new relationships as much as dis-seminating new knowledge" (p. 35). Preskill and Brookfield (2009) believe that by listening to the stories of co-workers and championing co-workers’ goals, we are able to support the growth of others. Clearly networks are valid forms of support for educators and TEACH is likely to be successful, but how can we know for sure?

The success of TEACH relies on the extent to which educators have the opportunity to talk about our practice, discuss whatever teaching strategy or dilemma is on our mind, and engage in critical reflection with like-minded peers. Jansen's (2009) insights from post-apartheid South Africa are that dialogue might be risk-tolerant or risk-accommodating, but is never risk-free, and that we must recognize teachers and principals as emotional actors. In pursuing social justice issues we, as leaders and learners, be-come aware of injustice in the world and can become paralyzed as a result. We need time to talk about our experiences, as the most common response to burdensome knowledge is guilt and shame. To move past these emotions into ac-cepting responsibility for action, we require clear ground rules for conversations and an atmos-phere of trust and challenge.

When Lipton and Wellman (2003) advocate

the need for challenge in learning-focused rela-tionships, they do not mean confrontation and conflict, but rather cognitive challenge. In the case of social justice education, this entails ex-amining the impact of our pedagogy. Educators might examine student work, reflect on units or lessons taught and engage in group problem solving around next steps. The group may also decide to organize any number of events or pro-jects for the broader community. Similar groups in other locations have developed curriculum fairs, social justice conferences, and book stud-ies, and sponsored social justice awards (Caucus of Rank and File Educators; Education for Liberation Network; Educators Network for Social Justice; Rethinking Schools; Teachers Action Group; Teaching for Change; Teachers 4 Social Justice; Teachers for Social Justice). So-cial justice groups inspire and guide TEACH to provide social justice leadership.

Social Justice Leadership

As a group of social justice educators we ensure our work is inclusive, accessible, re-spectful and flexible. TEACH is guided by the ideas of Kincheloe and Steinberg (1995) and Shields’ (2004), descriptors of “equity oriented change agents” offered by Skrla, McKenzie and Scheurich (2009), and the actions of leaders for social justice articulated by Preskill and Brook-field (2009). An elaboration on these guidelines follows.

Kincheloe and Steinberg (1995) state that equitable learning environments should be just, democratic, empathic and optimistic. In just envi-ronments, everyone has equal access, equal outcomes, equal challenges, and actions are sustainable. Democratic environments need to teach members how to participate in groups and in democratic processes, particularly those indi-viduals with the least power. Empathic learning environments are those in which members care for each other and nurture relationships. Opti-mistic organizations believe what they are doing makes a difference and they maintain a hopeful stance towards students, communities and col-leagues.

Shields (2004) adopts Kincheloe and Steinberg’s framework as one of her three rec-ommendations for building a socially just school. Her other two suggestions, also relevant for TEACH, include examining one’s practice and

44

taking responsibility. To examine our own prac-tice, we might look at the ethnicity or socio-economic status of our students and assess the impact of our pedagogy on differing populations. We might challenge each other to empower those who are less successful in our learning environments. Shields' final suggestion, to take responsibility, overlaps slightly with Kincheloe and Steinberg's final point about remaining opti-mistic. She challenges educators to reject deficit thinking, adopt student-centered pedagogies and stop blaming the system: "We need to act agentically, to lead deliberately, to facilitate transformative dialogue, and to achieve socially just learning environments for all children” (p. 127). The concepts expressed by Kincheloe, Steinberg and Shields provide TEACH with so-cial justice principles upon which to build our organizations.

Skrla, McKenzie and Scheurich (2009) adopt the phrase “equity oriented change agents” (EOCA) to describe activist educators. An EOCA has an equity attitude, avoids demoni-zations, initiates courageous conversations, demonstrates persistence, remains committed but patient, maintains an asset attitude and has a coherent focus (pp. 70-78). These sentiments echo many of those mentioned earlier and mesh with the nine learning tasks for social justice leaders articulated by Preskill and Brookfield (2009): learning critical reflection, practicing col-lective leadership and democracy; learning to support the growth of others, remaining open to the contributions of others, analyzing experi-ence, learning to question, sustaining hope in the face of struggle, and creating community. These skills serve as guidelines for processes to adopt within TEACH.

If, as educators, we learn to develop the skills identified by Brookfield and Preskill (2009), apply them through the approaches of an EOCA (Skrla, McKenzie & Scheurich, 2009) in a com-munity which is critically reflective and takes re-sponsibility (Shields, 2004), then we will act in ways which reflect the four principles of social justice articulated by Kincheloe and Steinberg (1995). Enacting social justice principles also requires that we adopt critical practices in our work.

Critical Practices

TEACH bases our work on the principles of

critical theory. The critical aspect of our work acknowledges that power and privilege are un-equally distributed in society and that as teach-ers we work within school systems which per-petuate inequities (Apple, 2004). The strategies we adopt in our work: critical pedagogy, critical reflection and dialogic action, are specifically chosen to interrogate the dilemmas that arise as a result of our positioning in schools.

Critical Pedagogy

Critical pedagogy, most strongly associated with Paulo Freire (1970) refers to education which “understands that people around the world constantly have to deal with modes of op-pression emerging from dominant power” (Kincheloe, 2008, p. vii). A supportive resource for critical pedagogy is the video enti-tled Joe and Paulo: The Struggle (Paulo and

Nita Freire Project for Critical Pedagogy), in which critical scholars, including Freire and Kin-cheloe, articulate their understanding of the topic. Using critical pedagogy implies that we reflect on ways in which our work is influenced by the larger society and explore how critical thinking can help us understand and strengthen our teaching.

Critical Reflection

Critical reflection involves a variety of pur-poses, skills and practices. Preskill and Brook-field (2009) believe critical reflection includes reflection in practice and on practice, but that it is only critical if it is associated with critical pur-poses. In his book, Becoming a Critically Reflec-tive Teacher, Brookfield (1995), articulates this

distinction:

Reflection becomes critical when it has two distinctive purposes. The first is to un-derstand how considerations of power un-dergird, frame, and distort educational processes and interactions. The second is to question assumptions and practices that seem to make our teaching lives eas-ier but actually work against our own best

long-term interests. (p. 8)

Preskill and Brookfield assert that communi-ties can learn to reflect critically so that looking at issues of justice, power and agency become the norm. They advise that critical reflection in-cludes asking hard critical questions, but also being gentle, hopeful and responsive. Brown

45

(2004) believes the purpose of critical reflection is social action, and that educational activists stand with marginalized groups. According to Brown, critical reflection means examining per-sonal and professional belief systems as well as the ethical implications and effects of practices (p. 89). Critical reflection, as a community-based practice, has the potential to deepen our under-standing of the complexity of pedagogy in varied settings. The process through which we make meaning of our reflection is through collaborative dialogue.

Dialogic Action

Dialogic action is another term most com-monly associated with Paulo Freire (1970), who connects critical thinking and dialogue in these

statements:

True dialogue cannot exist unless the dia-loguers engage in critical thinking - thinking which discerns an indivisible solidarity be-tween the world and the people and admits of no dichotomy between them - think-ing which perceives reality as process, as transformation, rather than as a static en-

tity… (p. 92)

Marshall (2009) moves from Freire’s theo-retical stance, to a more pragmatic position, as-serting that what is needed is to “create spaces for discourse ... within their workspaces, class-rooms, offices, hallways, and other arenas within the school building" (p. 141). Brookfield and Pre-skill (2009) affirm this stance and challenge edu-cators to create open dialogic spaces, in which analyzing experience can build a collective sense of agency, clarify social and political is-sues, and become part of reflection and action loops. Brown (2004) supports this notion assert-ing that critical reflection involves questions, challenges and counter-arguments.

Critical Friends Groups (National School Re-form Faculty) come together monthly to "meet voluntarily, collaborate across disciplines, reflect on their work, confront assumptions; and prob-lem solve.… Critical Friends Groups could pro-vide structures to facilitate educators’ justice and activism work" (Marshall, 2009, p. 168). Other potential dialogue techniques for TEACH include talking practice groups, critical incident analysis and storytelling (Preskill & Brookfield, 2009). Grumet (1995) connects dialogue to curriculum: “Curriculum is never the text, or the topic, never

the method or the syllabus,” but rather “the con-versation that makes sense of things. … It is the process of making sense with a group of people of the systems that shape and organize the world we can think about together” (p. 19). Criti-cal conversations with colleagues, which involve critical reflection on our practice and an aware-ness of power structures in which teaching oc-curs, can lead to increased understanding of our pedagogical practices and the teaching and learning dynamics present in our classrooms. The vision, guiding framework and critical prac-tices articulated here position TEACH to impact social justice educators in Manitoba.

The challenge for TEACH is to adhere to principles of action research (Stringer, 2007), critical pedagogy (Apple, 2004; Giroux, 2004; McLaren, 2003) and social justice (Kincheloe & Steinberg, 1995) in all activities. Collaboration is at the heart of the TEACH initiative, all plans are tentative as participants will have a strong voice in determining directions for the group.

Conclusion

TEACH is envisioned as a response to the perceived needs of social justice educators within the Manitoba context. Guided by the prin-ciples of social justice leadership, TEACH aims to be a collegial network providing support, chal-lenge and vision. Through critical pedagogical practices, including reflection and dialogue, TEACH will bring together and energize social justice educators in the province. This leader-ship is specifically needed, to sustain and retain social justice educators in the profession, who can teach for empowerment, action and change.

References

Apple, M. (2004). Ideology and curriculum (3rd ed.).

New York, NY: RoutledgeFalmer.

British Columbia Ministry of Education. (2008). Di-versity in BC schools: A framework (Rev. ed.). British Columbia Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/diversity/

diversity_framework.pdf

Brookfield, S. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective

teacher. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Brown, K. (2004). Leadership for social justice and equity: Weaving a transformative framework and pedagogy. Educational Administration Quarterly

40(1), 77-108.

doi: 10.1177/0013161x03249147

46

Caucus of Rank and File Educators (C.O.R.E.). (2010). Retrieved from http://

www.CORETeachers.com

Cochran-Smith, M. (1991). Learning to teach against the grain. Harvard Educational Review, 61(3), 279

-310.

Cooper, C.W. (2009). Performing cultural work in de-mographically changing schools: Implications for expanding transformative leadership frameworks. Educational Administration Quarterly, 45, 694-

724.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2009). Teaching and the change wars: The professionalism hypothesis. In M. Fullan & A. Hargreaves (Eds.), Change wars

(pp.45-68). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.

Education for Liberation Network. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.edliberation.org/Educators Net-work for Social Justice. (2010). Retrieved from

http://www.ensj.org/

Freire, P. (2005). Pedagogy of the oppressed (30th

Anniversary ed.). London, UK: Continuum.

Giroux, H. A. (2004). Betraying the intellectual tradi-tion: Public intellectuals and the crisis of youth. In A. Phipps & M. Guilherme (Eds.), Critical peda-gogy: Political approaches to language and inter-cultural communication (pp. 7-21). Clevedon, UK:

Multilingual Matters.

Grumet, M. (1995). The curriculum: What are the ba-sics and are we teaching them? In J. L. Kincheloe & S. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Thirteen Questions (2nd

ed., pp.15-21). New York: Peter Lang.

Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. (2009). Change wars.

Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.

Jansen, J. (2009). When politics and emotion meet: Educational change in racially divided communi-ties. In M. Fullan & A, Hargreaves (Eds.). Change

wars (185-199).Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.

Johnson III, R. G. (Ed.). (2009). A twenty-first century approach to teaching social justice: Education for both advocacy and action. New York, NY: Peter

Lang.

Kincheloe, J. L. (2008). Knowledge and critical peda-gogy: An introduction. Explorations of educational purpose (Vol. 1) [SpringerLink Version]. doi:

10.1007/978-1-4020-8224-5

Kincheloe, J. L., & Steinberg, S. R. (1995). The more questions we ask, the more questions we ask. In J. L. Kincheloe & S. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Thirteen questions (2nd ed., pp.1-11). New York: Peter

Lang.

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Le-gitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, MA:

Cambridge University Press.

Lipton, L., & Wellman, B. (2003). Mentoring matters – A practical guide to learning–focused relationships

(2nd ed.). Sherman, CT: Mira Via.

Manitoba Education. (2010a). Belonging, learning and growing: Diversity education. Winnipeg, MB: Author. Retrieved from http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/

k12/diversity/educators/what.html

Manitoba Education (2010b). Mandate, Mission, Vi-sion, Overarching Goals and Priority Action Areas. Retrieved from http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/edu/

mandate.html

Manitoba Education. (2010c). UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network (ASPnet) in Manitoba . Retrieved from http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/

socstud/aspnet/index.html

Manitoba Education, Citizenship and Youth. (2007). Grade 9 social studies. Canada in the contempo-rary world: A foundation for implementation. Gov-

ernment of Manitoba.

Manitoba Education and Training. (2000). Education for a sustainable future: A resource for curricu-lum developers, teachers, and administrators.

Winnipeg, MB: Author.

Manitoba Education and Youth. (2003). Kindergarten to grade 8 social studies: Manitoba curriculum

framework of outcomes. Winnipeg, MB: Author.

Marshall, C. (2009). The activist professional. In C. Marshall, & A. Anderson (Eds.), Activist educa-tors: Breaking past limits (pp. 125-174). New

York, NY: Routledge.

Marshall, C., & Anderson, A. (Eds.). (2009). Activist educators: Breaking past limits. New York, NY:

Routledge.

Marshall, C., & Anderson, A. (2009). Is it possible to be an activist educator? In C. Marshall, & A. Anderson (Eds.), Activist educators: Breaking past

limits (pp.1-30). New York, NY: Routledge.

McLaren, P. (2003). Critical pedagogy: A look at the major concepts. In A. Darder, M.P. Baltodano & R. D. Torres (Eds.), The critical pedagogy reader

(pp. 69-96). New York, NY: Routledge.

National School Reform Faculty. (2008). Critical friends groups: Purpose and work. National School Reform Faculty, Harmony Education Cen-ter. Retrieved from http://www.nsrfharmony.org/

faq.html

Paulo and Nita Freire Project for Critical Pedagogy (Producer). (2008). Joe and Paulo: The Struggle

[Video]. Retrieved from http://freireproject.org

Preskill, S., & Brookfield, S. (2009). Learning as a way of leading: Lessons from the struggle for so-

47

cial justice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Shields, C. (2004). Dialogic leadership for social jus-tice: Overcoming pathologies of silence. Educa-

tion Administration Quarterly 40(1), 109-132.

doi: 10.1177/0013161X03258963

Skrla, L., McKenzie, K.B., & Scheurich, J. J. (2009). Using equity audits to create equitable and excel-

lent schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Stringer, E. (2007). Action research (3rd ed.). Los

Angeles, CA: Sage.

Teachers 4 Social Justice. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.t4sj.org/templates/System/default.asp?

id=39669

Teachers for Social Justice. (2010). Retrieved from

http://www.teachersforjustice.org/

Teaching for Change. (2010). Retrieved from http://

www.teachingforchange.org/

Thrive! The Canadian Centre for Positive Youth De-velopment. (2003). Retrieved from http://

www.thrivecanada.ca/index.asp

Transformative Learning and Teaching Social Justice: Developing Pathways for Educational Innovation

- Karen Magro, University of Winnipeg

Abstract The purpose of this article is to provide a theoretical perspective linking teaching social justice with different strands of transformative learning theory that include: individual per-spective transformation, planetary-global transformative education, non-western ways of knowing, and emancipatory teaching. While providing specific examples of completed and current empirical studies that explore the per-spectives of social justice held by teachers, administrators, and counselors in Winnipeg schools and adult learning centres, the article emphasizes the importance of extending ways of knowing and learning that have the potential to create more dynamic and cultur-ally inclusive learning environments. The bar-riers that impede or hinder transformative learning within a context of social justice will be explored. Implications for curriculum inno-vation, particularly in English Language Arts and Global Studies, and educational leader-ship will be addressed.

Introduction and Theoretical Background: The Different Strands of Transformative

Learning Theory

Theories of transformative learning have been applied extensively in different educational contexts such as literacy development, counsel-ing, health education, planetary sustainability, cultural adaptation and intercultural awareness, and professional development. (Cranton, 2006; Merriam and Grace, 2011; Mezirow and Associ-ates, 2000 O’Sullivan, 2002). A key difference among the applications of transformative learn-

ing theory is the emphasis placed on psychologi-cal and individual change in comparison to trans-formative social activism, political change, and critical global awareness. Edward Taylor (2008) writes that the multiple theoretical conceptions of transformative learning theory have “the potential to offer a more diverse interpretation of transfor-mative learning and have significant implications for practice.” (p.7). Culture, ethnicity and race, the role of spirituality, planetary sustainability, positionality, emancipatory teaching, and non-Western ways of knowing represent themes that have emerged as transformative learning theory has evolved over the past three decades, since Jack Meziow’s (1981) initial description of per-spective transformation as a theory in process. The common themes in transformative learning involve: critical reflection, creativity, self-knowledge, a reverence for life, democratic dis-course, and the balance of attaining collective and personal goals. A fundamental shift takes places in the way individuals see themselves and the world. ( Mezirow and Associates, 2000; Mer-riam and Grace, 2011). Taylor (2008) points out that despite the advances of transformative learning theory, more research is needed into the way it is applied and translated in the classroom.

Mezirow’s (1981; 2000) theory of transfor-mative learning describes how individuals inter-pret, construct, validate, and reappraise their ex-periences. Life crises such as the death of some-one close, divorce, a move, trauma, conflict, or war, and the rebuilding of one’s life in an unfamil-iar culture can create conflict, self-examination, reflection, and a change or revision in perspec-

48

tive. Mezirow (1990) writes that transformative learning can be viewed as “an enhanced level of awareness of the context of one’s beliefs and feelings, a critique of one’s assumptions and par-ticular premises, and an assessment of alterna-tive perspectives” (p.61). For Brookfield (2000) “an act of learning can be called transformative only if it involves a fundamental questioning and reordering of how one thinks or acts” (p.139). The teacher can play a crucial role in fostering trans-formative learning. Laurent Daloz links transfor-mative teaching and learning to mentoring and guiding where “our best stance is one of a care-fully tended mixture of support as [our students] risk new territory, challenge as they bog down, and light as they seek to move toward or some-times change their destination.” ( Daloz, 1986, p. 240).

A Planetary-Global Perspective of Transfor-

mative Learning

Theorists like Edmund O’Sullivan (2002) and Bud Hall(2006) present a more global and plane-tary perspective of transformative learning. Sys-temic and structural barriers that reinforce pov-erty, racism, sexism, war, work degradation, hu-man rights violations, and ecological devastation need to be examined using a critically reflective stance. A sense of alienation and dispossession, notes O’Sullivan, are the fallout of globalization. Alternative lifestyles and ways of thinking are needed to counteract the negative impact of planetary devastation and rampant globalization. “Transformative learning involves a deep, struc-tural shift in the basic premises of thought, feel-ing, and actions….such a shift involves our un-derstanding of ourselves and our self-locations; our relationships with other humans and the natu-ral world; our understanding of power in interlock-ing structures of class, race, and gender; our body-awareness; our visions of alternative ap-proaches to living; and our sense of the possibili-ties for social justice and peace, and personal job” ( O’Sullivan, 2002, p. 11).

Bud Hall (2002) notes that on global terms, over 100 million people are refugees, forced to flee their homeland and living against their choice in countries in which they were not born (UNHCR, 1995). Many people are losing a vital connection to each other, the natural world, and themselves; and education can play a role in helping people reconceptualize the way they view

the world. In his paper “The Right to a New Uto-pia”, Hall (2002) captures the tension of our world today:

In fact, the kinds of lifestyles and con-sumer patterns that fuel the global mar-ket utopia are a cancer for the planet. In the insightful work entitled Our Ecologi-cal Footprint, William Rees outlines a method for determining the percentage of the world’s resources that we use as individuals, as communities, or as whole nations. His complex formula points out that if the entire world were to achieve the same levels of growth and develop-ment that characterize most lives in rich countries, we would need four entire planet’s worth of energy resources to satisfy these demands. Clearly we are on an ecological collision path between a Utopia of the rich and the carrying ca-

pacity of a still-fragile planet. (pp.38-39).

Hall (2002) emphasizes that a transforma-tive education can encourage the “release of our creativity and imagination” and help us to be-come, as Paulo Freire noted, “agents in our own history”( p. 44). A “new utopia” is inspired by in-digenous knowledge and can be found in local community gardens, in individual and family choices to live more simple lives, and in the still growing “green economic development move-ment.” Reinforcing this perspective, Jack Miller (2002) suggests that a “meaning-centered cur-riculum” would not only address the needs and aspirations of students, but it would examine ways to reduce problems like poverty, conflict, mental illness, homelessness, racism, and social injustice. Learning cannot be compartmentalized and viewed solely as a cognitive process. “From a spiritual perspective, learning does not just involve the intellect; instead, it includes every aspect of our being including the physical, emo-tional, aesthetic, and spiritual.”(p.243). In “The Project and Vision of Transformative Education” Edmund O’Sullivan (2002) further posits that educational institutions at all levels need to play a pivotal role in fostering a sense of community. There is the need to move away from a consumer based society and into one that is life-sustaining and inclusive. “Contemporary education today suffers deeply by its eclipse of the spiritual dimension of our world and our universe….It has also been com-

49

promised by the vision and values of the market. In a world economy governed by the profit mo-tive, there is no place for the cultivation and nour-ishment of the spiritual life” (p. 10). As a result of the limits and inadequacies of contemporary life, many people are looking for a different way of approaching education that integrates academic and social issues.

O’Sullivan (2002) suggests that educational initiatives can focus on bioregional studies that would help students develop a greater aware-ness of place. Bioregional study would involve a study of the land, the history of the community that has occupied a particular region, and the histories of the people in each bioregion. “Education for the purpose of cultivating a sense of the history of an area enables people to have loyalties and commitment to their place of their dwelling.” (p. 9). Creating an awareness of a sense of locality and place can “correct and re-align” global inequities and a lack of resources. It can also encourage human ingenuity and self-direction, notes O’Sullivan. From this perspec-tive, personal change and progressive social

change are interwoven.

An Integrated Approach to Teaching Social Justice: The UNESCO Schools Association of

Manitoba

The application of the global-planetary per-spective of transformative learning directly links to a current qualitative study that is focused on exploring the conceptions of social justice of 20 teachers and administrators from various ele-mentary and secondary schools in Winnipeg. Many of the teachers and administrators who are participating in my study are part of the UNESCO Associated Schools network. UNESCO Associ-ated Schools is part of global network of schools that promotes quality education through the inte-gration of social justice themes that are linked to global issues, peace and human rights, intercul-tural learning, and education for sustainable de-velopment. Interestingly, many of the themes highlighted in the UNESCO Earth Charter (www.earthcharter.com ) reflect the different strands of transformative learning theory. In sum, the teachers I have interviewed so far express a need for learning to extend beyond the traditional classroom and the acquisition of basic skills and functional literacy. The commitment of the teach-ers and administrators that I have observed

speaks to a need for educators to connect with the larger community of learners –not only in the Winnipeg locale but internationally. “Transformative” education, from the perspective of these educators, involves responding to the economic, technological, political, and social changes that have taken place in recent years in ways that are relevant and potentially empower-ing for their students.

The participants in my ongoing study spoke of the importance of education to change lives along individual, local, and global dimensions. Learning is seen as comprehensive and holistic and the process extends beyond the classroom. When I asked the participants to describe their role in the school, they identified themselves as a “problem solver”, “guide”, “advocate”, and “cultural mediator”. One principal connected the image of a “key” to his own role as a facilitator who “opens doors” to potential projects and new ways of thinking and learning. He further ex-plained that “while our teachers are at different stages in their learning and their career, they have valuable skills, patience, and creativity. They may not directly state it, but most value the ideals outlined the UNESCO Earth Charter. I look for qualities like commitment, caring, and the ability to connect with challenging students. It is important to have most of the teachers “on board” when a school decides to embark on a project such as growing a community garden and then donating the food to a local charity. The success and planning of so many of our UNESCO initiatives have started with teachers who come to me with great ideas. I help them organize the parameters in realistic ways that will be acceptable to all---the students, the teachers, and the parents in the communities.”

The approach to learning and teaching that the educators hold is holistic; the UNESCO themes are embedded in the mission of the school, in the curriculum, and in the specific teaching and learning practices applied. The perspectives of teaching and learning expressed by a number of the participants reflect these

themes:

The UNESCO themes of social justice are embedded in our school and in the curriculum for all subjects. It is not an “add on” nor is it sim-ply about “fund raising” to build a school in an-other part of the world. Without helping students

50

respect themselves and care for each other, ini-tiatives such as food drives and building a new school in a developing country will be limited. At our school, we start with an emphasis on self-awareness and a developing of basic interper-sonal skills like listening and empathy. Having said that, we also encourage the value of local initiatives like community gardening and helping students meet and dialogue with children and eld-ers from communities that they might be very un-familiar with. The artwork you see around the school is a representation of the cultural diversity of our students and it is their representation of different forms of social justice. I see learning as a broadening of community; it is also about gain-ing self-knowledge. Learning is about being open to possibilities, challenging yourself to the limit,

and reflecting about you have done.

*******

We live in ‘have and have not’ society. Even in this school, we have students from both very affluent families and others who face economic hardship. A significant proportion of our students come from single parent homes. The common thread is that they are a part of this school and it represents a positive community where everyone has knowledge and experience to share. We have to find concrete ways to help our students improve their own lives and then move beyond themselves to improve their communities.

We are also living in a world that is rapidly becoming smaller and many people live in con-flict. The UNESCO themes provide a more crea-tive means of dialoging that enables students to see beyond themselves in more reflective ways. For instance, social media like Facebook ,etc. may have many benefits but it is also a Pandora’s box. How can we help students navigate the dan-gers? Emotionally and cognitively, we are bom-barded with images and “information” that many people do not question. This creates anxiety and confusion. I try to encourage students to question and critically examine what they see and read. The quote that best sums up my approach to inte-grating the UNESCO themes is from Mahatma

Ghandi: ‘Become the change you want to see.’

*****

By working on global projects such as rais-ing money to build a school in Sri Lanka or Kenya, my students see in very concrete ways how poverty, race, and social class impact the

basics we often take for granted here in Canada. Some of the students will have the opportunity to travel overseas and experience a different cul-ture. This global learning experience has the potential to activate positive change in their own

lives and communities.

******

Many of our students come from disenfran-chised backgrounds. They have experienced hardship in some form whether. They may be from a war torn family or they may have had a traumatic childhood just growing up here in the city. A piece of their lives is missing in some way---they have just been divorced, they just got out of jail, or they are getting off drugs. You meet amazing students here who have been excluded from society in some way and they see our school as having a key to living a more purposeful life. Beneath each jacket, there is a hidden treasure, and you have to be able to see the potential in each student. I have seen stu-dents’ lives transformed in different ways. You will see students who start at a basic level of literacy and then a few years later are graduat-ing from Grade 12 and ready to start a university program with confidence and hope. I was a UNESCO teacher long before I joined the UNESCO network. To me, at a very fundamen-tal level, it is about a culture of caring. I see my-self as an advocate and problem solver. I will stop to help a student find the right day care or a

good lawyer if she/he is in trouble.

Mirrors and Windows: Developing a Trans-

formative Curriculum

A number of the teachers in the UNESCO schools that I interviewed view curriculum con-tent in courses like English, History, and World/ Global issues as a both a “mirror and window” that has the potential to empower students per-sonally and academically. While specific classes have curriculum units framed around UNESCO themes, the school at large provides an opportu-nity for students to participate in groups like the sustainable development committee. Short and longer terms projects are collaboratively organ-ized by faculty members and the student body. Anna, an English teacher at a large secondary school in Winnipeg, explained that social change begins with personal change and that the pilot Grade 12 Global issues course of “learning to do, learning to know, learning to be, and learn-

51

ing to be together” parallel the five general learn-ing outcomes in the English Language Arts cur-riculum. These outcomes include: exploring ideas thoughts, and feelings; responding per-sonally and critically to texts; clarifying and ex-tending ideas; and celebrating community. Anna asked: “How do we move beyond the superficial UNESCO categories and themes into learning that involves significant personal and social change? Her approach is multi-faceted and in-terdisciplinary. She explains that the broad UNESCO themes such as issues of world con-cern, environmental sustainability, intercultural learning, and human rights, democracy, and tol-erance can be woven into the curriculum in many different ways. In the “Perspectives of War” unit, students examine the nature of war from different voices---the voice of a child, a sol-dier, etc. Anna explained that reading memoirs like Ishmael Beah’s A Long Away Gone or I, Rigoberta Menchu can encourage a greater

awareness of human rights and democracy voices of children in war, soldiers, the struggle against oppression, and the concept of “freedom fighters.”

The work produced by the students at the UNESCO schools reflected a balance of individ-ual and global awareness. One student at an adult learning centre was generously sharing recent writing projects he had developed. Roger designed a comprehensive research proposal to create a “dedicated, volunteer-based storm/flood planning emergency response agency in Mani-toba.” He wrote extensively about Manitoba and its history of flooding. Another research paper he completed focused on the topic: “Fear is the pri-mary barrier against a true global community.” His analysis included an insightful discussion of Jeremy Rifkin’s (2010) The Empathic Civiliza-tion: The Race to Global Consciousness in a World in Crisis.” Integrating sociology, psychol-

ogy, and political studies, this student demon-strated creativity and critical thinking skills that skillfully integrated local and global issues. He examined the way North American society has responded to living in a post 9/11 world. He ar-gued that fear is a basis of racism, gated com-munities, organized crimes, and acts of terror-ism. We need to find “global” solution if we are to refer to the “residents of Earth” as a single unified people in search of peace and universal values.

Martina, another secondary school teacher in Winnipeg encouraged her students to read international short fiction and they are asked to write about race, class, and gender as these categories related to issues of personal and global concern. One UNESCO themed learning project featured a photo contest called “Rachel Carson—Sense of Wonder” to highlight the envi-ronmental awareness unit. Students could pre-sent in a photographic essay or montage their own visual images and photographs of wonders of nature that they have observed in their neighborhoods or in the city. She emphasized that the students would be expected to take the pictures and organize their photos in a way that told a story of their “wonders of nature” in their own community. Other activities included stu-dents creating a recording project titled “songs for peace” and to encourage intercultural learn-ing, students were interviewing their peers from different cultural backgrounds. This teacher ex-plained that “it is not always easy to measure UNESCO goals as a lot of learning is personal and incidental. I also am always asking myself : how do we move beyond superficial goals and how do we encourage ‘change within for social and global changes.” Peer tutoring and menotor-ing, group discussion and focus groups, journal reflections, and self-evaluation were some of the learning strategies she applied. Applying the UNESCO themes has relevance in all subject areas. In Chemistry, for example, a unit examin-ing the “world of water” can raise awareness about the need to protect our oceans and fresh water supply. One of the world issues classes create a wall mural depicting UNESCO themes on the school walls. The students are involved in UNESCO themed projects in specific classes such as World/Global Issues, English, Chemis-try, and Digital Photography, and the larger stu-dent body is also involved in collaborative pro-jects that enable the students to video confer-ence with students in different parts of the world They are introduced to the work of groups and organizations such as War Child Canada, the Siloam Mission, Winnipeg Harvest, and Engi-neers without Borders. The students are in-volved in complex experiential learning projects that provide them with opportunities to meet indi-viduals from groups such as Engineers without Borders or they take part in video conferences such has the Copenhagen Conference on Cli-

52

mate Change. The sustainable development committee raised more than $30,000 to place a wind turbine and solar cells on the school’s roof. The students also organized a conference called “Sustainability: Awarenenss and Action.” These authentic learning projects described reflect many of the strategies and learning approaches detailed in transformative learning theories ( King, 2005; Taylor, 2008).

The teachers that I interviewed in the UNESCO schools embraced an interdisciplinary approach to teach courses like English, Digital Photography, and World Issues. Their approach to curriculum planning is creative and flexible and they allow their students to explore themes connected to social justice in various ways. Themes related to choices, responsibility, iden-tity(ies), gender, race, and culture become an opportunity for their students to develop greater self and social awareness. She explained that anchor novels ( read by the entire class) like Richard Wagamese’s Keeper’N Me have the potential to help students broaden their under-standing of race, culture and identity. This novel presents a powerful view of native life and phi-losophy; themes such as the redemptive power of traditions communities and the individual’s ability to overcome adversity can unite students across cultures.

Kathleen, a teacher at an adult learning centre helps her students link local and global issues by starting each day with a global or local news event as a catalyst for discussion. Stu-dents were engaged in researching interesting topics and questions that included: food deserts, disaster and flood relief, the importance of faith in our lives, the meaning of ‘global citizen,’ and a response to the question: is war inevitable? One of the teachers explained: “Students need assis-tance with critical reflection. I want them to en-gage with a topic and with each other with a new lens for looking at the world. I see myself as a gardener planting seeds for thinking, reflection, and hope. We look forward universal ideas and themes----that students can relate to, and that applies to whether I am teaching The Tempest or a news article about gun control.” Another teacher emphasized the importance of empow-ering learners to move beyond their fears and insecurities. I think of a line from Rohinton Mis-try’s A Fine Balance that reads something like ‘The secret to life is to find a balance of hope

and despair and embrace change.’This state-ment reflects my feeling about life and teaching.”

In Reading, Writing, and Rising Up, Linda Christenson (1997) notes that critical literacy “is embedded in students’ lives just as deeply as students’ lives are embedded in society.” Stu-dents can move beyond reading texts as “ends in themselves,” their minds become more open to reading and examining society “from cartoons to immigration laws to the politics of lan-

guage” ( p. vii).

Reconceptualizing Curriculum and Teaching

for Change

An interesting observation is the way in which content in curriculum areas such as Eng-lish and Social Studies is being reconfigured and reconceptualized in more creative ways to ad-dress personal and global issues. Ecoliteracies and inter-textual studies are among the emerg-ing areas in critical literacy ( Bruce, 2011; Glas-gow and Baer, 2010; Magro, 2011; Vaughan, 2010). Texts become powerful vehicles for stu-dents to explore contemporary issues that im-pact their lives. Dialogue, discussion, interdisci-plinary approaches, and experiential learning are ways to promote critical literacy and transfor-mative or deeper level learning. Students are encouraged to make connections between the perspectives they read about and the perspec-tives they have about issues in their own lives: poverty, discrimination, human rights, and plane-tary sustainability. Heather Bruce (2011) empha-sizes that English teachers need to reimagine and redirect the focus of teaching classic and contemporary texts in a way that promotes “empathy for both human and nonhuman spe-cies, for the soil, water, and air in which all of life depends….English teachers specialize in ques-tions of vision, values, ethical understanding…Our expertise in addressing the aesthetic, ethi-cal, and sociopolitical implications of the most pressing human concerns of our time enable us to reach toward and embrace environmental problems ( pp. 13-14).

The English and administrators that I have interviewed so far associate their role and re-sponsibility with that of an advocate and facilita-tor. They see the curriculum as a vehicle to ex-plore themes like sustainable development and peace and human rights in a flexible and crea-tive way. Learning is construed as being more

53

than the acquisition of knowledge; personal em-powerment, creativity, empathy, and a sense of responsibility to the local and the global commu-nity were highlighted by the teachers and admin-istrators. Their students are actively involved in raising money to build a school in a developing country or the students are involved in experien-tial learning projects such as growing a commu-nity garden that build an awareness of the envi-ronment and the importance of sustainability. One of the UNESCO Earth Charter tenets en-courages the application of art, poetry, fiction, and non-fiction that highlight issues linked to so-cial justice and planetary sustainability. One teacher that I interviewed was using texts such as Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring and the biog-raphy I, Rigoberta Menchu used in classes to

help students develop emotional, cultural, and ecological literacies. Interestingly, the new Grade 12 Global Issues:Citizenship and Sustain-ability Curriculum has a strong social justice and

interdisciplinary focus; in essence, it encourages learners to participate effectively in local, na-tional, and global communities by: developing ecological literacy through an understanding of the interdependence of society, the environ-ment, and the economy and by being open to

new ideas and divergent thinking.

Peace and Human Rights : Teaching for So-

cial Justice and Transformative Change

The transformative themes that surfaced in my interviews reflect a number of theoretical perspectives that emphasize the importance of critical thinking, social awareness, and educa-tion for empowerment. In Reading, Writing, and Rising Up, Linda Christensen (2000) writes that when The perspectives of social justice are emerging in my interviews with the teachers in UNESCO schools are consistent with my find-ings in earlier studies addressing teachers’ per-sonal philosophies and perspectives( (Magro, 2003; Magro,2009; Magro, 2011; Magro and Ghorayshi,2011;). I found that while the English teachers did not refer to themselves as “transformative educators” their perspectives of learning and their approach to curriculum design reflected, in essence, transformative themes. A number of the teachers used different forms of literature as a way to explore ideas in psychol-ogy, politics, the media, and other contemporary

social and global issues. They emphasized the importance of learners being able to relate the literature to their lives in some way. Autobiogra-phies, personal narratives, poetry, and persua-sive essays helped learners articulate their ex-periences and feelings. One teacher explained, “I start with personal interest and personal re-flection, and I offer choices in what the students can read and write about. What may be difficult is the language barrier, so I try to work around that. I try to demystify literature and make it ac-cessible.” The personal narratives that the stu-dents in this teacher’s English class wrote about were topics like arranged marriages, the strug-gle in adapting in a new country and culture, and the experience of discrimination. Craig, a crea-

tive writing teacher emphasized:

Literature provides shape and form to life’s questions. That’s what keeps people read-ing. My approach to teaching involves this exploration. I have a desire to make shape out of different facts. Unlike other kinds of teaching where the curriculum may be very set and specific, there is an element of dis-covery in teaching English - - -we all have a narrative to tell. At its basic level, literature exists to help people understand them-

selves and the world.

Craig associated his teaching role with be-ing a “cultural guide” a co-learner, and a facilita-tor. He explained that his teaching approach re-volves around making literature accessible. “We are not living in the ‘Great Books Society.’ It is difficult to begin a conversation by saying ‘Let’s talk about Crime and Punishment.’ Many of the students do not have this frame of reference.” Craig emphasized that he looks for contempo-rary narratives and texts that his students can relate to. From there he builds bridges between contemporary and classic texts. “You have to reach the students at a level with which they are familiar, and then begin to build from there. I of-ten make links between Poe, Conrad, and Twain with shows like “The Simpsons” if I’m introducing concepts like irony, satire, and so on.” From Craig’s viewpoint,therefore, you can’t simply “transmit knowledge.” He emphasized that “students seem to be more fulfilled if they feel part of a group and if they have to report back on their own interpretations. His view of learning captures the essence of transformative learning

54

as a change in perspective:

Learning is more than an accretion of facts. It’s changing the architecture around you. Major learning to me means a paradigm shift of sorts. The things that I’ve valued most have always involved recognition that now I see things working in a different way. I can see my students learning if they start challenging me and asking me questions. Sometimes I see it in their assignments where they are applying a skill or strategy in a fresh or original way. They’re not just re-gurgitating information. They’re taking a dif-ferent way of looking at poetry and then ap-

plying it to writing their own poem

(Magro, 2003, p. 25).

Educators working with newcomers empha-sized the critical role they can play in their stu-dents’ lives. They connected EAL teaching with advocacy and mentoring. Sarah, an EAL teacher emphasizes, “EAL teachers are so im-portant. They are often the starting point for un-derstanding Canadian culture. Immigration will double in the next few years and we need to continue to think creatively about the profession. As a teacher, you also influence the way your students see Canadian society. I try to teach anti-racist education through art, story telling, and poetry” (Magro, 2008, p.27). Another teacher explained that “newcomers have a lot of depth and knowledge but sometimes they cannot translate that depth in obvious way. As a teacher, you have to help draw out this knowl-edge.” This teacher noted that critical literacy and “transformative change” may have more to do with the readiness and personality of the learner and their own interests rather than with a

specific learning strategy introduced.

Building a Balance between Self and Social

Awareness

Teaching from a transformative perspec-tive involves teachers being able to acknowl-edge the socio-cultural context that youth today experience. Many students, for example, in in-ner cities are dealing with problems such as gang violence, single parenting, drug and alco-hol addiction, and balancing school with employ-ment responsibilities. Henry Giroux (2005) em-phasizes the need to create a larger public dia-logue to re-envision education, civic engage-

ment, and social transformation. According to Giroux, the youth of today are increasingly being marginalized. He emphasizes the need for edu-cators to look critically at the stresses and chal-lenges of our time: systemic class inequalities, racism, and a culture of downsizing and deficits that “has created a generation of unskilled and displaced youth who have been expelled from shrinking markets, blue-collar jobs, and any vi-able hope in the future...more than five million youth between the ages of eighteen and twenty-four are out of school, work, and hope” (p.28).

Working in an inner city high school with youth and young adults, Bruce equates literacy with personal and social transformation. A tal-ented poet himself, Bruce has edited several poetry anthologies created by his senior high English classes. The themes of his students’ poetry reflect social justice issues from a per-sonal lens. His students’ narratives capture the experience growing up in the inner city: poverty, the pressures of joining a gang, growing up with-out a father, and the fragility of life. In one les-son, Bruce used Langston Hughes’ poem “Dream Deferred” to start a discussion on the importance of having dreams. While having the opportunity to discuss Hughes poem, the stu-dents also wrote their own poems and narratives about their dreams and hopes for the future. Creative writing, notes Bruce, can “inform and uplift” and guide students through difficult times. He explains the challenge of working in the inner city and the importance of integrating creative writing with the study of contemporary and clas-

sical literature:

I want my students to read from a range of sources–Canadian, American, international and also sources from different cultural and historical periods. Then I believe that it is vital for the students to have the opportunity to develop their own literature and enter the literary process. I guide them through this

journey.

Writing is an act of seeing. I try to encour-age my students to be good observers. I want the students to articulate their experi-ences and in the process heal in some way. Writing poetry allows my students to share some of the most tragic things in their lives. I teach in the center of pain and poverty. A lot of talented young people grow up with

55

poverty, prejudice, and a lack of hope. They can’t see the options and they don’t feel ac-cepted. I try to get them to explore their feel-ings and share their experiences with others by writing about it. I see many of our students who are overwhelmed by their alcohol and drug habits. Students who grew up in parent-less homes are now parents themselves. Everywhere I see the streets pulling at them. As an English teacher, you are in a position to teach skills for living. Your mission is to help individuals feel hopeful about them-selves. I try to make my students realize how

vital they are (Magro, 2003, p. 27).

Personal narratives, memoirs, and journalis-tic accounts could also be a part of English curric-ula that provides opportunities for students to broaden their global and cultural perspectives. Stephen Wolk (2009) makes a strong case for teaching literature as a vital way of helping teen-agers understand the cultural, social, and emo-tional landscape of past, current, and future events. He explains that teaching for social re-sponsibility in meaningful ways would challenge teachers, administrators, and students to “redefine” the purpose of school and the scope and content of the curriculum. “No longer is the curriculum simply the novel or facts to be learned, but, rather, the students and their teacher to-gether using books, other authentic resources, and their own opinion and experiences create a ‘living curriculum’ as a true community of learn-ers”(Wolk, 2009, p.667). Family fragmentation, abduction and slavery, witnessing the death of close family and friends, a narrow escape from death, starvation, years of interrupted education, life in a refugee camp, and the stress of resettle-ment are themes that emerge from the texts re-ferred to in the following paragraphs. In learning more about the experience of refugees, students are more likely to develop empathy and compas-sion for fellow classmates coming from war af-

fected countries.

Peace, Human Rights, and Democracy: Teach-

ing for Change

In Manitoba, new curricula being developed in Global Issues and Education for Sustainable Development all emphasize a social justice com-ponent. A reconfiguring or “reimagining” of the way curricula is being taught and the way stu-dents are engage in learning processes is consis-tent with emerging new perspectives of transfor-

mative learning theory. In theoretical perspec-tives on critical literacy, several emerging theo-retical perspectives directly emphasize social justice issues: intertextuality, ecoliteracies, and cultural studies ( Magro, 2011; Bruce, 2011). In English Language Arts and the new Global Is-sues course that is currently being piloted in se-lected Manitoba High Schools developed, the UNESCO themes emphasizing human rights and creating cultures of peace can be high-lighted through the use of memoir. For example, Francis Bok’s (2003) memoir Escape from Slav-ery can provide students with helpful insights into the journeys that some refugees have made to reach for safety. Students and teachers can also learn of the remarkable courage and resil-ience of individuals who were forced to flee their homeland. In his autobiography, Bok described how his life is shattered when Arab raiders from northern Sudan invade his village in the south. Threatened, beaten, and humiliated, Bok en-dures eleven years of forced labour before he manages to escape. He describes the deaden-

ing routine of life in captivity:

But my real home was hours away to the south, where my parents and the Dinka people lived, and one day during the dry season, as I was herding the cattle to the grasslands, I decided it was time to make my move…This was my seventh summer with this family, and I had learned a lot. They still hated me, and fed me bad meat and scraps from their table. Giemma and his kids barely spoke to me, and my mas-ter kept me away from the only other peo-ple in the area who would have wanted to talk, the other Dinka boys. Even when I tried to talk to Giemma, he would wave a hand at me and say ‘Shut up.’ My social life was limited to grabbing a few quick sentences with another slave at the water

hole. (Bok, 2003, pp. 67-68)

Narratives like Bok’s reinforce the value of teachers being able to understand the social and cultural background of their students more deeply. Students could have the opportunity to write their own autobiographies or a narrative account of a personal struggle. Weber (2006) emphasizes that “the very act of writing invites reflection by both students and teachers, which can take place in journals, letters, poems, speeches, formal essays, or more informal per-sonal essays. Whatever the form used, students

56

should see writing as a means of thinking through changes and dilemmas that they and others face.” ( p.26) He further notes that the larger question concerning the relevance of such per-sonal writing lies in an understanding and appre-ciation of the way they may have changed or im-proved, and “an understanding of the larger impli-cations of certain events or actions” ( p.27)

Nelofar Pazira’s (2005) A Bed of Red Flow-ers and Khaled Hosseini’s (2007) A Thousand Splendid Suns give a startling insight into the ex-periences of young girls and women caught in the violence of war. Nelofar Pazira’s riveting personal account of life in Afghanistan before and after the repressive Taliban rule portrays the way occupa-tion, political corruption, and human rights viola-tions have eroded hope and dignity. While she made her escape to Canada and now lives as a journalist and film maker in Toronto, Pazira hopes to increase awareness of the desperate and dire fate of girls and women in Afghanistan, a troubled country that has known little peace. Returning to Afghanistan in search of her friend Dyana, Pazira recounts the historical, political, and cultural changes that shaped Afghanistan and its people today. In her memoir, she writes that Kandahar

was once:

a place of harmony and culture, of wealth and beautiful gardens and music and po-etry. The city was famous for its pomegran-ates. The blossoms of pink and red roses, which Kandaharis still cherish around their windowsills, are a memory of this beauty …. Now, Kandahar is now a city of ex-tremes, a place of men and guns, expen-sive cars and starving children. It is oven-hot, a dry blowtorch heat that sucks colour out of the landscape. Even in post-Taliban Kandahar, there are few signs of women. Those who venture out are covered from head to toe, whether in burqas or in long, Arab-style black coats and head scarves which also cover their faces, except for

their eyes. ( p.335)

Similarly, Khaled Hosseini’s (2006) A Thou-sand Splendid Suns portrays the way brutal and oppressive laws against women in Afghanistan destroy individual dreams, families, and lives. Through the powerful characters of Mariam and Leila, issues related to human rights violations can be explored at a deeper level. Carey-Webb (2001) notes that personal narratives and testi-

monials become “particularly important to the writing of women, minorities, and Third World people for whom the “high” literary genres have been less accessible and less useful” ( p. 137). Biographies, autobiographies, and testimonials such as Night, I, Rigoberta Menchu, I know why the caged bird sings, and Incidents in the life of a slave girl would enable students to integrate per-sonal narrative and social commentary with their own interviews with people who have felt margin-alized and oppressed.

In his book, Nurturing the Peacemakers in Our Students, Chris Weber (2006) provides many practical strategies and lessons for teaching re-flective, persuasive, and creative writing to middle and senior high school students. He emphasizes the teaching of emotional intelligence skills like empathy through poetry and art. Weber defines ecphrastic poetry as the poetry of empathy, re-quiring the viewer/poet to “enter into” the spirit and feeling of the subject through a variety of po-etic stances: describing, noting, reflecting, or ad-dressing “(p.33). He asks his students to find a photograph, piece of art, print, or sculpture that profoundly inspires them. Weber gives his stu-dents time to find their artistic form in libraries, photography books, newspapers, and travels to art galleries, museums, and so on. Weber en-courages his students to investigate the historical and cultural context of each text. At the end of the assignment, the students present their image/work and their poetic response to the class. “I give my students several weeks to search for a work that truly inspires and engages them ‘to en-ter into the spirit.’ The results of this researching and reflecting time prove to be highly productive as students’ ecphrastic responses help them to enter, define, and develop a curriculum of peace” ( p. 45). To introduce the topic of war and peace, Weber first teaches a lesson on empathy by using several texts about the Holocaust. Robert O. Fisch’s memoir Light from the Yellow Star: A Lesson of Love from the Holocaust in ad-dition to poems and poignant photographs of war frame the lessons around peace and social justice

issues.

Intertextuality: Teaching Approaches that Pro-

mote Critical Literacy

Transformative approaches to teaching and learning involve critical dialogue, discussion, inter-disciplinary approaches, and experiential and au-

57

thentic learning activities. English teachers in secondary schools can introduce more intertex-tual studies in their classes (King-Shaver, 2005).” In intertextual studies, teachers approach the-matic units from a slightly different point of view; in addition to examining the similarities in themes, they focus on how understanding the theme in one text affects the comprehension of an-other.” (King-Shaver, pp.30-31). Fischer (2006) explains that intertextual studies highlight the way in which “one text exists in relation to others and is framed by particular social, historical, and cul-tural climate. Studying the connections and com-parisons between texts can help readers deepen their understanding and critical insight. Intertex-tual links can be strengthened when students are challenged to compare a particular text with other short stories, novels, poems, films, and non-fiction texts that they have read. They can exam-ine thematic similarities and differences that emerge from each text.

Texts can also be juxtaposed by looking at the way archetypes are used. King-Shaver high-lights the way that studies of archetypes give studies an opportunity to focus on recurring im-ages, characters, symbols, and themes across different historical and cultural backgrounds. In-terdisciplinary units can also be collaboratively created by teachers from different departments. Books like Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart

can lead readers to intertextual links by making direct reference to other texts. At the beginning of Achebe’s novel, W.B. Yeat’s poem, “The Second Coming,” highlights the impact imperialism had upon African culture and identity and encourages readers to search for connections. How was Achebe’s novel about Nigerian independence in-formed by Yeat’s poem? How do lines from Yeat’s poem like ‘Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; mere anarchy is loosed upon the world…The ceremony of innocence is drowned…” capture the struggle of the protago-nist in Achebe’s novel and the impact British colonization had upon Nigeria. Fischer(2006) emphasizes that an intertextual approach to teaching encourages students to think more criti-cally in understanding issues related to war. Fischer (2006) uses Hardy’s classic poem “The Man He Killed” with Tim O’Brien’s The Things They Carried and Erich Maria Remarque’s All Quiet on the Western Front to explore the theme

of war and the psychological impact it has upon individuals. In examining these texts closely, stu-

dents are able to examine how guilt, remorse, and “dehumanization of the enemy” occur.

In “Teaching Ethnography: Reading the World and Developing Student Agency,” J. Arias (2008) explains that the field of ethnography can help students understand and write about both familiar and different cultures. J. Arias (2008) ex-plains that “because their consciousness is devel-oping, adolescents are often quick to make gener-alizations about humanity; however ethnographic study questions such abstractions….Ethnography also encourages students to question truths about human nature, continually asking students to be aware of their subjective and objective selves” ( p. 93). Arias explains the importance of inquiry based learning, field work, critical reflection, de-scriptive and analytical writing, and writing to ap-propriate new knowledge. Students can read clas-sic texts like Forster’s A Passage to India, for ex-ample, as a way to better understand the barriers that interfere with cross-cultural understanding. Arias further explains that “Forster’s masterpiece allows for a multiplicity of interpretations regarding the mysteries of the human heart, the limitations of language, and the struggle for genuine connec-tion across the barriers of race, religion, culture, class, gender, sexual orientation, and lan-guage” ( p. 94) In an ethnographic approach to teaching English, students become like cultural anthropologists, gathering information by observ-ing and writing about particular cultural artifacts. These cultural artifacts might include interviews, magazine articles, films, or music videos. The stu-dents would pay close attention to the language, imagery, and message conveyed from this par-ticular cultural artifact. Students can look for evi-dence of bias, stereotyping, and other overt and covert messages that seek to influence individu-

als’ values, beliefs, and actions.

Non-Western Ways of Knowing and Learning

Students from diverse cultural backgrounds in Manitoba schools today challenge educators to apply different teaching styles and assessment protocol. This holistic-“multi-centre” and holistic/spiritual perspective of transformative learning theory examines the relevance of race, class, gender, and [dis]ability identity in relation to edu-cation ( Alfred, 2008; Dei, 2010; Ntseane, 2007). Dei, Hall, and Rosenberg (2000) identify a num-ber of common characteristics in “indigenous” or

non-western ways of knowing. These include:

“Seeing the individual as part of nature;

58 respecting and reviving the wisdom of eld-ers; giving consideration to the living; the dead, and future generations; sharing re-sponsibility, wealth, and resources within the community; and embracing spiritual values, traditions, and practices reflecting connections to a higher order, to the cul-ture, and to the earth.” ( Dei, Hall, and Rosenberg, 2006, p. 6 as cited in Merriam

and Kim, 2010, p. 380).

A recent Globe and Mail article cites new census data that indicates Manitoba has tripled its share of national immigration “and is in the proc-ess become a model for immigration reform. With roughly 3 percent of Canada’s population, Mani-toba now attracts 6 percent of its immigrants, more than 15,000 in 2010.” ( p. A5: February, 6, 2012). A recent edition of the Winnipeg Free Press focused on Winnipeg’s growing African-Canadian community. While newcomers arrive in Winnipeg from diverse countries and with a range of financial and educational experiences, the need for educational systems to be more cultur-ally inclusive is clear. Transformative teaching and learning from a non-Western perspective en-ables educators to extend their teaching practices and perspectives with creativity and a sense of cultural inclusion. Merriam and Kim ( 2010) have synthesized key themes that emerge from Hindu, Buddhist, Confucian, and Indigenous systems of thinking and have reflected on their implications for teachers and learners. Themes such as learn-ing is communal, learning is informal, and learn-ing is holistic “recognize the interrelationship among an adult learner’s body, cognition, emo-tion, and spirituality.” (p 385). They explain the many Asian learners who value a Confucian worldview see the teaching and learning as hier-archical, formal, and more authoritarian. “In Con-fucianism, criticizing a teacher’s opinion or having opinions different from those of classical works was seen as breaking the harmonious social or-der; therefore, students from Confucian cultures need more guidance to think critically or engage in creative expression, both of which are valued in Western society” ( 387).

Drawing on her own research on African in-digenous knowledge, Dr. Peggy Ntseane(2007) explains that years of colonial rule and an adher-ence to technical rationality and western educa-tional values worked to erode the values of Afri-can culture from one generation to the next. She

writes: “As a result of education systems that ne-glect the African philosophy of life, it can be ar-gued that one of the major conflicts in Africa and globally has been a lack of understanding, ap-preciation, and tolerance of other cultures and ways of life of people.” (p.115) African educa-tion traditions, she explains, value practical knowledge, the preservation of cultural heritage, a participatory education for the common good, storytelling, and the interpretation of dreams, vi-sions, and proverbs. An Afro-centric approach highlights a spiritual, narrative, and multi-centre cultural perspective that validates collaborative learning, collective histories, and the value of oral traditions. Practical knowledge enables indi-viduals to solve everyday problems in creative and useful ways.“A good speaker in the African society is one who does not make direct simple statements but one who substitutes and punctu-ates points with the use of proverbs, idioms, and similarities.” ( p. 123) This perspective may be particularly helpful for educators working new-comer youth and adults. Teachers can integrate African traditions in their classes by encouraging collaborative and participatory education and by acknowledging the diversity of learning styles. The documentary “The Storytelling Class” ( Sedna Films, 2009), highlightes the way Winnipeg teacher Marc Kuly uses storytelling and sharing circles to build interpersonal intelli-gence and empathy and breakdown cultural mis-conceptions and biases.

Juanita Johnson-Bailey and Mary Alfred (2006) developed a framework for transformative teaching that is rooted in teacher self-awareness, social justice, consciousness raising, and devel-oping a safe classroom climate that encourages “connected ways of knowing” ( Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule, 1986 as cited in Bailey and Alfred,p.57). Similar to the views expressed by Dei (2010) and Nteseane (2007), the “race-centric” perspective of teaching that Johnson-Bailey and Alfred encourage can be applied to diverse learning contexts and it advocates for the

inclusion of a range of learning strategies:

Each class we teach has varied instruc-tional modes ( printed materials, audio, WebCT components, video presentations guest lecturer, collaborative and individual projects) and a range of other ways in which students can participate….Perhaps the most often used and most successful

59

building block of our transformational teaching is the use of dialogue, an informal conversational approach for verbal ex-changes and discourse—a more formal, linear, and directive methodology. It has been our experience that multiple voices, whether ordered as discourse or free flow-ing dialogue, produce a symphony of ideas and lay groundwork that supports an envi-ronment where change is possible.” ( p.

47)

Empowerment (whether it be in the form of helping students develop greater self-confidence or helping them gain the academic and social skills needed to succeed in college and in a ca-reer), self-direction, and lifelong learning were

overall educational goals.

Intercultural Learning: Communication

Across Cultures

Another area of transformative learning linked to social justice is intercultural learning. Edward Taylor (2008) describes intercultural competence as a “transformative process” where individuals develop an “adaptive capacity” that enables them to negotiate “purpose and mean-ing” in response to the demands of a new culture. Along similar lines, Bennett describes the multi-cultural person as a person whose “cognitive, af-fective, and behavioral characteristics are not lim-ited but are open to growth beyond the psycho-logical parameters of any one cul-ture” ( Gudykunst and Kim, 1984 as cited in Ben-nett, p.9). An important point to note is that the development of intercultural learning or “cultural proficiency” is not a “one way street”----the term implies that people are learning to appreciate al-ternative ways of knowing—regardless of their place of birth. In my immigration research over the years, I found that there were many cultural misconceptions that both newcomers and Cana-dian born individuals had about different ethnic groups, etc. In my own research exploring the learning challenges and barriers of newcomer youth and adults ( Magro, 2009; Magro and Ghorayshi, 2011), navigating an unfamiliar edu-cational and cultural system placed families and individuals in a vulnerable state. Keith, a refugee counselor who came as a newcomer to Canada from Kenya ten years ago explained that “worlds and communities collide and the results can be devastating.” This newcomer counselor empha-sized that vulnerable new comers teens and

young adults may become “alienated from their parents. They are living in two worlds. Poverty can drive young people from refugee back-grounds to a life of crime.” He emphasized the parents, teachers, and communities need to work together to help guide youth toward a more hope-ful future. Keith explained: “There is hope but you have to have determination, vision, and a plan and each person has a variety of resources. You can’t be mentally locked up in the past.”

The teacher as a “cultural guide” and media-tor can play a significant role in breaking down these misconceptions. The teacher also has the opportunity to be an important role model demon-strating emotional and cultural competence or proficiency. One EAL resource teacher that I in-terviewed concluded: “We have a lot to learn in terms of understanding different cultures. We need to be more understanding as a society. I have learned from the tremendous strengths of my students.” A film like “The Storytelling Class” provides an insight into the way teacher Marc Kuly used Ishmael Beah’s memoir A Long Way Gone as a catalyst for breaking down cultural stereotypes and misconceptions that his students may have had. Kuly’s use of non-traditional story-telling with his students coming from diverse Mid-dle Eastern, Asian, African, and Aboriginal back-grounds highlights the power of the personal nar-rative as a means of self-expression and as a way to develop empathy, listening skills, and intercul-tural awareness. This balance of individual and collaborative ways of knowing is directly linked to building social justice. One administrator at an adult learning centre explained the value of inter-cultural learning in classrooms: “If we can inte-grate different cultural groups in educational con-texts, they can learn from each other in terms of respect, in terms of different styles of communica-tion, in terms of support and leadership. Learning involves building relationships and the develop-ment of multiple skill sets in multiple areas.” ( Ma-

gro and Ghorayshi, 2011).

Psychological and Cognitive Processes of

Learning

Many of the holistic-spiritual strands of trans-formative learning theory emphasizes the impor-tance of looking at the individual processes of learning from the perspective of the learner. Learning is also complex and non-linear and teachers play a significant role in helping learners cope and to some extent, overcome difficult life

60

circumstances ( Magro, 2009). Psychological and emotional change can result from a “disorienting” dilemma such as the trauma result-ing from war, a sudden loss of a loved one, a diffi-cult decision in life, etc. Teachers are critical in helping guide students who may be experiencing challenges in life.

The importance of an insightful and caring teacher in a student’s life is expressed by this

adult learner:

After leading a peaceful student demon-stration in Ethiopia, I was arrested for speaking on behalf of students’ and teach-ers’ rights. I lived in a refugee camp for several years before being sponsored by the Canadian government. I have learned a lot since being in Canada. My teachers helped me change my thoughts and per-ceptions about Canada. They were willing to listen to the problems that new immi-grants like myself faced…I have signifi-cantly changed from being pessimistic to being more optimistic and open-minded. I now see myself as a ‘moving star’ be-cause I am moving one step closer to my life dream of becoming a teacher in Can-

ada. ( Magro, 2007)

The teaching and mentoring relationship can be viewed as a transformative journey that in-volves significant attitudinal, emotional change, and behavioral change. Drawing from humanistic and constructivist learning theories, Mezirow (2000) asserts that learning does not only include the addition of new information; rather, the way we understand and interpret our world can be transformed through a process of dialogue, criti-cal reflection, and action. Learning “is understood as a process of using a prior interpretation to con-strue a new or revised interpretation of the mean-ing of one’s experience in order to guide future

action” ( p.162).

Barriers

The readiness of the learner, emotional and cognitive barriers, and the circumstances that im-pact their lives all influence learning processes.

Laurent Daloz (2000) writes:

Although the capacity to develop more adequate meaning-making frameworks is always there, transformative learning is by

no means inevitable….

These theorists explain the need to explore

topics at micro and macro levels “because the world extends far beyond the classroom walls to an ever shrinking global community in which we all must participate.” ( Johnson-Bailey and Alfred, 2007, p. 57).

Along similar lines, George Sefa-Dei (2012) explains that a school system that fails “to tap into youth[’s] myriad identities….is short changing learning. Identity is an important site of knowing. Identity has in effect become a lens of reading one’s world…the role and importance of diversity in knowledge production is to challenge and sub-vert the dominance of particular ways of know-ing.” ( p. 119-120).In his research with African-Canadian youth in Toronto who leave high school early, Dei points out that too many youth from minority and Indigenous backgrounds become alienated and disengaged with traditional forms of education that exclude their cultural back-grounds and collective histories.. Dei emphasizes that education need to place the learner [their histories, experiences, cultures, and knowledge] at the centre. He further notes that “the role of teachers cannot be underestimated and that there is something fundamentally and morally wrong for students to go through the system and not be taught by educators who also share their cultural, racial, sexual, and gender back-grounds.” (pp. 119-120). A “pedagogy of lan-guage liberation” would empower youth and adults to tell their stories and learn about their heritage, history, and culture in interconnected ways. For Dei, spirituality “is about a material and metaphysical existence that speaks to an inter-connection of self, community, body, mind, and soul.” (p.120).

These different strands of transformative learning theory provide an important foundation for teaching social justice in different ways. A bal-ance of individual and collective needs challenge teachers to think more creatively and critically about engaging youth and adults today.

Developing curricula around issues related to social justice and cross cultural understanding becomes particularly important when considering the trajectory of immigration in North America. The social and cultural fabric of Canada is be-coming increasingly complex as the heritage countries of immigration have shifted from Euro-pean to non-European countries. Estimates are that by 2031, 1 in every 3 Canadians will be born outside of Canada (Magro, 2010). Urban and ru-ral centers in North America continue to receive

61

immigrants and newcomers from war affected countries like the Sudan, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the Middle East. Students from these coun-tries are often developing essential literacy skills while navigating an unfamiliar social and cultural context. A transformative approach to teaching language arts emphasizes a curriculum that em-phasizes inclusion, cultural diversity, and differ-entiated instruction. Roberta, a senior high EAL teacher commented, “So much of what I do is a type of transmission of culture but I am also in-volved in helping the students develop social awareness, practical knowledge, and problem solving skills. I have to balance ‘essential literacy skills’ they need in order to move ahead with their interest in North American culture and knowing how the society works here” (Magro, 2008, p.27).

The school can play a major socializing role for learners who have experienced trauma and loss. Teachers who incorporate texts reflecting a diverse range of authors and cultures can pro-mote an atmosphere that promotes inclusion. In reading biographical accounts and in encourag-ing students to write autobiographies and per-sonal reflections, English teachers can gain a greater insight into the prior experiences of stu-dents they have in their class who are coming from refugee backgrounds. Discussions around human rights, the plight of refugees, child sol-diers, cultural differences, and the importance of faith and perseverance provide a valuable foun-dation for writing and further research. Drawing upon the rich resources of student experiences, teachers can foster inclusion, meaning, intercul-tural competence, and motivation in the learning process.

All of our students have powerful narratives and expertise to share and as teachers, we need to be able to validate and honour their experi-ences. A newcomer I interviewed was a teen-ager when the civil war in Sierra Leone broke out. This student found many similarities between his own personal experiences and events portrayed in the film Blood Diamonds, a true account based on the book by Greg Campbell of diamond smug-gling and how the rebel wars have devastated

Sierra Leone and its people. David wrote:

In the West, a diamond is a symbol of prestige and beauty; in my country (Sierra Leone) a diamond is a symbol of misery. When the war was at its peak in 1998, I was a teenager working in the diamond

mines. I was captured by the rebels and had to work for them so it was a miracle that I escaped on the third night. I could have been recaptured and killed. I walked in the forest for many miles until I found safety. When I lived in Sierra Leone, I saw horrible things. There was no respect for humanity. Since I have been in Canada, I have been lonely. However, there is free-dom and human rights. I saw the respect for humanity in Canada and this has moti-vated me to help my people back home. I am particularly interested in making a documentary about the innocent ampu-tees in Sierra Leone. They are victims of war and their lives changed in a second. They all deserve to have help and have their dignity restored. I would like to help build a health facility for the disabled - - - similar to the ones I have seen in Canada

(Magro, 2009 b, p.82).

The above narrative reinforces the reality that for many innocent citizens, political turmoil has a disruptive and destructive toll on personal lives. As a refugee receiving country, Canada has a stake in providing opportunities for all citi-zens to learn more about the social, cultural, and political context that force so many thousands to flee their home and search for a safe haven else-

where.

Theoretical Links to Transformative Educa-

tion

Ecoliteracies and reconfiguring the teaching of English Language Arts to highlight the UNESCO themes continue to emerge in the re-search of teaching in English. Many of the UNESCO themes linked to peace and human rights, and intercultural learning parallel a number of the General Learning Outcomes in the English Language Arts Curriculum. Some of these out-comes include: exploring and sharing ideas, thoughts and feelings, responding personally and critically to a variety of texts, and celebrating community.

Literacy educators play a critical role in fos-tering personal and social empowerment Bruce, 2011;Gruenewald, 2004; Lundahl, 2011). Many of the key tenets the UNESCO Charter, for exam-ple, reinforce themes of transformative learning theory and critical literacy. nterestingly, the rise of socio-emotional development programs, “conflict

62

resolution” and anti-bullying programs in schools across North America speak to a need for schools to move beyond providing academic foundations ( Magro, 2011). However, more re-search is needed to explore the long term effec-tiveness of these programs in preventing bullying, racism, and other forms of discrimination that many children and teens experience. A “counter-schooling” alternative approach to education ad-vocated by critical education theorists like George Sefa-Dei(2010) emphasize that the stan-dardized curriculum found in many school sys-tems across North America work to disengage and alienated youth---particularly minority and disenfranchised youth. The mysterious and spon-taneous elements of learning and development need to be tapped, concludes Miller through more authentic and arts-informed inquiry. More-over, a compassionate and creative teacher can help students feel psychologically safe and willing to examine their lives and the world around them

in more reflective and insightful ways.

Discussion and Conclusion

The different perspectives of transformative learning theory presented in this paper have the potential to provide educational practitioners and researchers with a creative foundation for reflect-ing on curriculum content, teaching and learning strategies, and the preparation and professional development of teachers. The challenges we face as a world today places a greater urgency on educational systems to provide new direction and focus. The voices of the teachers, adminis-trators, and counselors in my studies indicate a strong interest and commitment in bridging schools with the community at many different lay-ers. Their voices speak to an intentionality among educators to build stronger bridges between themselves, their learners, and both the local and global communities. The teacher as “educational leader” is another key role that teachers of the future are likely to explore. Alternative education contexts are being created as rigid boundaries between schools as sites of learning and sites of learning in the wider community are being broken and these shifts offer potential new opportunities for transformative learning. The conceptions of learning among educators that emerge suggest a more inclusive and broader understanding of learning that include: emotional self-awareness and empowerment and activating positive social change. Beginning with an understanding of indi-

vidual learning processes, teachers are express-ing the need to move beyond a linear model of teaching and learning into one that factors in cul-ture and community.

Edward Taylor (2008) stresses that transfor-mative learning is much more than a series of activities ( e.g. reflective journals, experiential learning); it involves “educating from a particular worldview, a particular educational philosophy” that may or may not be shared by other col-

leagues. ( p.55) He further writes:

One area in particular is the student’s role in fostering transformative learning. What are the student’s responsibilities in rela-tionship to the transformative educator? Second, there is a need to understand the peripheral consequences of fostering transformative learning in the classroom. For example, how does a student’s trans-formation affect peers in the classroom, the teacher, the educational institution, and other individuals who play a signifi-cant role in the life of the student? Further-more, there is little known about the im-pact of fostering transformative learning on learning outcomes ( e.g. grades, test scores). Definitive support is needed if educators are going to recognize fostering transformative learning as a worthwhile

teaching approach…” ( p. 13)

Institutional norms and expectations, as-sessment protocol, and “unwritten policies and procedures” Teachers and counselors, in particu-lar, can play a vital role in assisting learners to become more critically reflective and open to choice and change. However, they need to have opportunities to discuss their perspectives of the way their courses and the school can lead to per-sonal and social empowerment. The “nature of dialogue and relationships between teacher and students and among students” are catalysts to significant personal learning and transformative change—whether the change be in self-concept, a expanding conception of the intersection of race, culture, gender, and experience, and how these factors impact local and global events. Rather than viewing themselves as an “enforcer of institutional norms,” Taylor(2008) suggests that teachers begin to see themselves more as an advocate for students. However, the reality, is that each school is a unique community that may or may not value transformative teaching and

63

learning. As practitioners and researchers, we need to further our knowledge of transformative learning and work toward breaking down barriers that prevent teaching for social justice ---individually, socially, and globally. Taylor sug-gests that teachers need more opportunities to discuss the barriers that may constrain the ability of some teachers to develop authentic relation-ships with students that might promote transfor-mative change. Finally, theories of transformative learning becomes particularly relevant in the con-text of understanding the way in social justice can be connected to solving problems of inequity at

individual, community, and global levels.

References

Arias, J. (2008). Teaching ethnography: Reading the world and developing student agency. English

Journal, 97 (6), 92-97.

Bennet, C. (2007). Comprehensive multicultural edu-

cation. Boston: Pearson.

Blewitt, J. (2004). Sustainabilty and life long learning. In: Blewitt, J. & Cullingford, C. (Eds.) The sus-tainability curriculum: The challenge for higher

education, 23-43. London: Earthscan. .

Bruce, H. ( 2011). Green (ing) English: Voices howling

in the wilderness? English Journal,100 (3).

Butler, J. (2009). Frames of war: When is life griev-

able? London: Verso.

Carey-Webb, A. (2001). Literature and lives:A re-sponse-based cultural studies approach to teach-

ing English. Urbana, IL:NCTE.

Christensen, L. (2000). Reading, writing, and rising up: Teaching about social justice and the power of the written word. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Rethink-

ing Schools.

Christensen, L.(1999). Critical literacy: Teaching Reading,writing, and outrage. In C. Edelsky (Ed.) Making justice our project ( pp. 209-225). Ur-bana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of

English.

Clark, C.(1993) Transformative Learning. In S. Mer-riam (Ed.), An Update on Adult Learning Theory,

(pp. 47-56). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Clover, D. (2006). Environmental adult education in Canada. In: Fenwick, T., Nesbit, T.& Spencer, B. (Eds.) Contexts of adult education: Canadian

perspectives, 250-259.

Connelly, F.M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1988). Teachers as curriculum planners: Narratives of experience.

New York: Teachers College Press.

Cranton, P.(2006). Working toward transformative

learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Dei, G. S. (2010). The possibilities of new/counter and alternative visions of schooling. English Quar-

terly, 41 (3/4), 113-132.

Elbaz, F. (1983). Teacher thinking: A study of practical

knowledge. London: Croom Helm.

Flinders, D. and Thornton, S.( 1997). The curriculum studies reader. New York and London:

Routledge.

Fischer, J.(2006).Killing at close range: A study in in-

tertextuality. English Journal, 95(3), 27-31.

Friesen, J. (2012). “It’s only the weather that’s a prob-lem.” The Globe and Mail: Monday, February 6,

2012, A5.

Freire, P.(1973) Education for Critical Consciousness.

New York: Seabury.

Freire, P.(1997). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New

York: Seabury ( Originally published in 1970).

Frye, N.(1991). The Educated Imagination. Toronto:

University of Toronto Press.

Fuentes, C. (1992). Buried mirror. New York: Hough-

ton Mifflin.

Fullan, M. (2000). Learning in a culture of change.

New York: Teachers College Press.

Gee, P. (1992). Literacy, discourse, and linguistics: An

introduction.Journal of Education, 17(1), 5-60.

Giroux, H. (2005). Putting Youth Back into the Future: Reclaiming Education and Hope in Dark Times.

Canadian Children’s Literature, 31(1), 22-43.

Glasgow, J. & Baer, A. (2010). Lives beyond suffering: The child soldiers of African wars. English Jour-

nal, 100(6), 68-77.

.Goodman, A. (2002). Transformative learning and cultures of peace. In E. O’Sullivan, A. Morrell, and M.A. O’Connor ( Eds.) Expanding the boundaries of transformative learning. (pp.185-

198). London: Palgrave Press.

Greene, M. (1978). Landscapes of learning. New

York: Teachers College Press.

Greene, M.(1995). Releasing the Imagination: Essays on Education, the Arts, and Social Change. San

Francisco:Jossey-Bass

Greenlaw, J.(2005). Developing Global Awareness in Adolescents by Teaching Deborah Ellis’ s Bread-winner Trilogy. Canadian Children’s Literature,

31(5), 22-46.

Griffin, S. (1995). The eros of everyday life: Essays on ecology, gender, and society. New York: Double-

day of Memphis.

Gruenewald, D.(2004). Why the Earth Charter matters to ( multi) cultural educators everywhere: A re-

joinder. Curriculum Inquiry, 34 (2), 241-250.

64

Gwynn, R.S.(2009). Poetry: A pocket anthology. New

York: Pearson.

Hall, B. ( 2002). The right to a new utopia: Adult learn-ing and the changing world of work in an era of global capitalism. In: O’Sullivan, E., Morrel, A., and O’Connor, M. ( Eds.) Expanding the bounda-ries of transformative learning, 35-46. London:

Palgrave.

Hosseini,K. (2007). A thousand splendid suns. Toron-

to: Penguin Canada.

Hosseini, K.(2003). The Kite Runner. Toronto: Anchor

Canada.

Johnson-Bailey, J. & Alfred, M. (2006). “Transformational Teaching and the Practices of Black Women Adult Educators” In: Taylor, E. (ed.) Teaching for Change: Fostering Transfor-mative Learning in the Classroom. New Direc-tions for Adult and Continuing Education, No, 109, 49-58). Spring. San Francisco: Jossey-

Bass.

Kellow, B. and Krisak, J. (1987). Essays: Thought and

style. Toronto: Prentice Hall.

King-Shaver, B. (2005). When text meets text: Helping high school students make connections with lit-

erature. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Kolb, D.(1982). Experiential Learning. California:

Englewood Cliffs.

O’Sullivan, E. (2002). The Project and Vision of Trans-formative Education: Integral Transformative Learning. In: E. O’Sullivan, A. Morrell, A., & M.A. O’Connor ( Eds). Expanding the Boundaries of Transformative Learning (pp. 1-12). London: Pal-

grave Press.

Jacobs, E. . (2011). Re(Place) your typical writing as-signment: An argument for place-based writing.

English Journal, 100(3), 49-54.

Lundahl, M (2011). Teaching where we are: Place-based language arts. English Journal, 100(3), 44-

48.

Magro, K. (2011). Teaching Social Justice in English Language Arts. In: Rahat, N. & Smits, H. (Eds.). Reenacting curriculum for “Frames of War”, 77-98. London, U.K. and Baltimore, Maryland:

Rowan and Little.

Magro, K. (2010). Changes and challenges of teach-ing English language arts and literacy in the

21st century. English Quarterly, 41 (1/2), 1-5.

Magro, K. (2009 a). Building bridges to social inclu-sion: Challenges of the lost boys and girls of Su-dan in Winnipeg.Working Paper Series #WP01-09. Edmonton, Al: Prairie Metropolis Centre for

Excellence in Research on Immigration.

Magro, K. (2009 b). Expanding conceptions of intelli-gence: Lessons learned from refugees and new-

comers to Canada. Gifted and Talented Interna-

tional, 24(1), 79-92.

Magro, K. (2008). Exploring the experiences and chal-lenges of adults from war-affected backgrounds: New directions for literacy educators. Adult Basic

Education and Literacy Journal, 2(1), 24-33.

Magro, K. (2003). Exploring Teaching Roles and Re-sponsibilities in Adult Literacy Education: Do Teachers See Themselves as Transformative Educators? Perspectives: The New York Journal

of Adult Learning,(1), 21-33.

Magro, K.(2001). Perspectives and theories of adult learning. In: D. Poonwassie & A. Poonwassie ( Eds), Fundamentals of adult education, To-

ronto: Thompson, 76-97, 2001.

Manitoba Education and Training. Education for a Sustainable Future: A Resource for Curriculum Developers, Teachers, and Administrators. Mani-toba Education and Training, School Programs

Division.

Merriam, S. & Kim, Y. (2011). “Non-Western Perspec-tives on Learning and Knowing.” In: Merriam, S. & Grace, A. (eds.) Contemporary Issues in Adult Education, 378-390. San Francisco: Jossey-

Bass.

McLaughlin, M. & De Voogl, G.(2004). Critical Liter-acy as Comprehension: Expanding Reader Re-sponse. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Liter-

acy, 48(1), 52-62.

Merriam, S. & Grace, A. (2010). Contemporary issues

in adult education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Miller, J. (2002). Learning from a spiritual perspective. In E. O’Sullivan, A. Morrell, and M.A. O’Connor ( Eds.) Expanding the boundaries of transforma-tive learning ( pp. 95-120). London: Palgrave

Press.

O’Sullivan, E., Morrell, A. & O’Connor, M.A. ( Eds.) (2002). Expanding the boundaries of transforma-

tive learning. London: Palgrave Press.

Pinar, W. (1997). The reconceptualization of curricu-lum studies. In: Flinders, D. and Thornton, S. ( Eds.) The curriculum studies reader ( pp. 121-

129). New York and London: Routledge.

Pratt, D.D. & Associates (2010). Five perspectives of teaching in adult and higher education. Malabar,

Florida: Krieger.

Qureshi, K. (2006). Beyond mirrored worlds: Teaching world literature to challenge students’ perception

of “other.” English Journal, Vol. 96 (2), 34-40.

Rosenblatt, L.(1968). The reader, the text, and the poem. New York: Columbia Teacher’s Press,

1968.

Sassen, S. (1991). The global city. Princeton, NJ:

65

Princeton University Press.

Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educa-

tional Review, 57, 1-22.

Svinicki, M.D., & Dixon, N.M.(1987) The Kolb model modified for classroom Activities. College Teach-

ing, 35(4), 141-146.

Taylor, E. (1993). A Learning Model of Becoming In-terculturally Competent: A Transformative Proc-ess. Unpublished dissertation, University of

Georgia.

Taylor, E. (2008). “Transformative Learning Theory.” In: Merriam, S. and Associates (eds.) Third Up-

date on Adult Learning Theory, pp. 5-15.

Taylor, E.(2000) Analyzing Research on Transforma-tive Learning Theory.” J. Mezirow and Associ-ates ( Eds.) Learning as Transformation, (pp.

285-328). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Taylor, E. (2006). Teaching for change: Fostering transformative learning in the classroom. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education,

Number 109, Spring.

Taylor, E. (2008). Transformative learning theory. In Merriam, S. (Ed.) Third update on adult learning

theory, 5-16, 119, Fall 2008. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass.

UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning ( UIL). (2010). CONFITEA VI---Sixth international conference on adult education: Final report. Hamburg, Ger-

many: Author.

Van Manen, M. (1997). Researching lived experience.

Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta Press.

Vaughan, K. (2010). Reading the literature of war: A global perspective on ethics. English Journal,

100(6), 60-67.

Weber, C. (2006). Nurturing the peacemakers in our students: A guide to writing and speaking about issues of war and peace. Portsmouth,

NH:Heinemann.

Wiesel, E.(2006) Night. New York: Hill and Wang.

( Originally published in 1958).

Wilkinson, R. ( 2010). Teaching dystopian literature to

a consumer class. English Journal, 99(3), 22-26.

Wolk, S. (2009). Reading for a better world: Teaching for social responsibility with young adult litera-ture. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 52

(8), 664-673.

Tell it like a story: Some of my research related to the 2008 ministerial mandated

Aboriginal Perspectives Course

- S. Peden, Faculty of Education, Brandon University

Those who have knowledge have a re-sponsibility to pass it on… teachers are individuals who have taken it upon them-selves to become especially knowledge-able about the world and its fundamental relationships, a knowledge that they must

pass on to others (Graveline, 2008, p. 63).

I feel compelled to tell the story of how my research and educational journey began before I share a very brief overview of the findings of the research conducted about the Aboriginal Per-spectives course. I am attempting to present a written version, similar to a movie trailer that represents both me and my research, by using a part of my story to bridge Indigenous ways of do-ing and knowing with western world thinking. Following that, I will present a brief synopsis of my research.

A Story Relating to my Research

The credentials hanging on my office wall

identify me as a teacher and a scholar but they do not identify the other important roles that I play: those of mom, wife, sister, friend, guide and mentor. The credentials do not say that I was raised in the bush in the absence of electricity, running water or telephone. They do not indicate that I was raised in the oral tradition where stories were the primary means of imparting information and learning, where lived experience was how we made sense of and shared information about the world (Crowshoe, 2005). When conducting quali-tative research, Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggest that it is critical to identify the standpoint of the researcher because although we valiantly attempt to adhere to the standards related to objectivity, the very manner that we perceive the findings is related to our personal lens or worldview. Fur-thering that concept, Bogdan and Biklen (2007) suggest that researchers must "acknowledge that no matter how hard you try, you can not divorce your research and writings from past experience, who you are, what you believe and what you

66

value" (p. 38). As such, I am identifying my re-search standpoint or lens as that of an Aboriginal woman who seeks the relationships or intercon-nections between what I am studying, teaching or practicing. Stories have and continue to play a critical role in my understanding of the world.

Archibald (2008) asserts that stories have the" power to make our hearts, minds and bodies work together" (p.12) and that "stories challenge the listener [or the reader] to examine his or her own emotional reactions in relationship to the character, plot and context, and to question and reflect upon their behaviour and actions in the process of listening [or reading] (p.85). In a re-view of the literature supporting narrative meth-odology, Mitchell and Egudo (2003) found that the use of narratives, via stories, is an "instrument to construct and communicate mean-ing and to impart knowledge" (p. 6). Stories told within their cultural context or environment can be used to promote particular values and beliefs and can contribute to the construction and devel-opment of identity at a personal and collective or communal level. Tafoya (1995) suggests that stories are an important way of developing alter-native ways of thinking because:

Stories go in circles. They don't go in

straight lines. It helps if you listen in cir-cles because there are stories inside and between stories and finding your way through them is as easy and as hard as finding your way home. Part of finding is getting lost, and when you are lost, you open up to listen. (p.12)

I do not like writing in a formal academic,

American Psychological Association (APA) for-mat even though I know that this is the require-ment of most post-secondary education institu-tions and social science journals. I often refer to this form of writing as ugly writing, and I say this neither to disrespect the system nor because I can not write in this manner; I say this because APA writing is a foreign way for me to present information and knowledge. When I write in this manner, it feels as if I am wearing someone else's shoes that are too small. It doesn't feel right, and in some instances, it is downright pain-ful and causes me considerable angst.

Like many First Nations students enrolled in public school systems, I went through most of my school life with a sense of angst, thinking that

there was something wrong with me, thinking that I had a deficit in my thinking or academic abilities. It was only in the last ten years or so that I began to learn about the characteristics of different epis-temologies, world views or lenses by which we interpret and make sense of the world around us. I then discovered that APA writing style repre-sents the tenets of the western or Eurocentric world view where the ideas or so-called knowl-edge is presented as a discrete, linear and hier-archical process (Battiste, 2002; Cajete, 1994, Chamberlain, 2000) where one has to support one’s ideas with the written word by using refer-ences of previously published scholars. It was then that I realized that the linear methodologies associated with school were somewhat foreign to me because I had been taught in an oral tradition where stories were the source of knowledge, where experience was valued, and where we - the listeners had to figure out the message of the story. For example, we never had someone tell us what the story meant or what the story was going to teach us, we had to figure that out on our own. The stories would have different mean-ings depending on where we were in terms of life, maturity and age. I had what many call the "aha moment" when I realized that my angst about writing and learning in a variety of school settings was a result of a collision between the two dispa-rate ways of knowledge acquisition- that of the Indigenous or oral tradition and the western world or Eurocentric tradition, and was not a result of personal intellectual deficits. Little Bear (2000) identified this phenomenon as "jagged worlds colliding" and Stewart (2009) terms this "when worlds collide." What a relief it was for me to un-derstand that there was nothing wrong with me because like most people, I wish to be consid-ered capable and normal, whatever normal means!

The majority of public schools in Manitoba represent a Eurocentric way of instilling and de-termining knowledge and continue to be staffed predominantly by White teachers who also hold this worldview. These schools work well for stu-dents who have been raised in a Eurocentric en-vironment and whose experiences are synony-mous with the teachers; they don't necessarily work well for many of the First Nations, Metis and Inuit students who have been raised with differing worldviews and background experiences (Battiste, 2004; Frideres & Gadacz, 2008; Helin, 2006). LaFrance (2000) contends that

67

Aboriginal people have "long understood educa-tion as being a continuum of experience from the interactions of all, a part of natural living; our ex-perience with Western education systems is that [education and schools] is separate from living and this alienates us [Aboriginal learners] from our lived experience, language, culture and envi-ronment" (p.101). My research story began years ago when I experienced the collision of school curricula that represented a foreign world to my experience and continues as I practice and reflect upon the work that I do in teacher educa-tion and the experiences of life.

The Research

Within the scope of this paper, I can only

share a piece of what I came to understand from my mixed methods doctoral research that ex-plored the perceived impact of the mandate on the student teachers that completed the course entitled, “Teaching Aboriginal Perspectives” at Brandon University Faculty of Education during the 2008 – 2010 academic terms. I began the research with a literature review of the plethora of educational initiatives over the past 30 years which were developed with the goal of improving the academic success of Aboriginal students in public schools. The literature showed that, in spite of many initiatives and reports focused on improving Aboriginal education, there continues to be a significant achievement gap between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students in Can-ada (Battiste, 2000, 2002; Ireland, 2009; St. Denis, 2007, 2010; White & Beavon, 2009). In 2008, the Manitoba Minister of Education at-tempted to address this gap by mandating that faculties of Education across the province re-structure teacher education programs to include a compulsory course on Aboriginal perspectives, histories and pedagogies. As an Aboriginal, I was so excited when this mandate was announced because it seemed as if it was finally the time when the Aboriginal voice, history and ways of learning would be heard and legitimated in schools of teacher education.

I helped design the course at Brandon Uni-versity and taught half of the course offerings in both 2008 and 2009. I did not expect the resis-tance that was displayed by the student teachers. The student teachers seemed to suggest that they would get more benefit from taking elective courses that aligned with their teachable areas or

potential teaching assignments. I can honestly say that I was blind-sided by the amount of resis-tance presented when the topic of the Aboriginal Perspectives course was initiated. I looked to the literature and found that Donald (2009), St. Denis (2007) and Williams and Tanaka (2007) all re-ported that subtle and overt forms of resistance to mandated courses are often displayed when student teachers are compelled to study Aborigi-nal issues as a requirement for teacher certifica-tion. As such, the research was theoretically framed using critical race theory (Bell, 1991, Delgado, 1995), Whiteness theory (Levine-Rasky, 2000; St. Denis & Schick, 2003), Red Pedagogy (Grande, 2004, 2008) and Indigenous or Aboriginal feminism (Canella & Manuelito, 2008).

Critical race theory (CRT) (Dei, 1996; Kailin, 1994) is constructed on the following three ten-ets: the recognition that racism has social effects and that all oppressions are interlocking; the cri-tique of ideologies that relate to liberalism and meritocracy; and the problematizing of the voices of those who have been marginalized by society. Ladson-Billings (2005) suggests that CRT is not limited to race, but serves as "a new rubric for considering difference and inequity [gender, abil-ity, sexual orientation, language] using multiple methodologies – story, voice, metaphor, analogy, critical social science, feminism and post-modernism (p.9).

Whiteness theory emerged from the scholar-ship from Canada (Levine-Rasky, 2000; St. Denis & Schick, 2003), the United States (Picower, 2009; Vaught & Castagno, 2008) and Australia (Aveling, 2006; Thompson, 2003) in the past twenty years that focused CRT in terms of how race plays a significant role in both teacher edu-cation and public school education. Proponents of whiteness theory aim to create the conditions within teacher education such that white student teachers are able to come to an understanding of how schools and society are organized by recog-nizing their own colonial or white assumptions with the view to transform future practice in schools.

The social and ethnic demographics of the student teacher are often far removed from the students whom they teach. Values and attitudes are based upon life experience and identity mark-ers such as religion, class, ethnicity and religious affiliations (Picower, 2009); therefore, the exami-nation of white power requires that student teach-

68

ers scrutinize and examine all aspects of their lives and past experience. This pursuit is often difficult because it requires that people question the very systems that have served them well and for their entire lives. Causey, Thomas and Ar-mento (2000) suggest that young, white student teachers hold a "naïve, egalitarianism in that they believe that each person is created equal, has equal access to resources and should be treated equally" (p. 34). When student teachers are asked to engage in difficult tasks that require them to question and negate their fundamental beliefs; they often demonstrate a variety of re-sponses ranging from resistance and anger (Aveling, 2006; St. Denis & Schick, 2003; Vaught & Castagno, 2008) to white guilt which can move into white paralysis (Thompson, 2003) and use a variety of social and ideological tools (Aveling, 2006; St.Denis & Schick, 2003) to resist their movement towards less racist paradigms and structures.

Red Pedagogy, conceptualized and defined by Grande (2004) is known as a revolutionary form of pedagogy with roots in major critical theo-rists of our time (Freirie, 2006; Kincheloe, 2003; McLaren, 2003). Grande noted the urgent need to develop transcendent theories of education with the hope of creating broad based coalitions to oppose the global encroachment on indige-nous cultures, resources, lands and communities. Furthering the scholarship of other indigenous scholars (Alfred, 1999; Deloria, 1994; Smith & Williams, 1999; Warrior, 1995) Grande (2004) asserts that red pedagogy is:

Historically grounded in local and tribal narratives, intellectually informed by an-cestral ways of knowing, politically cen-tered in issues of sovereignty, and morally inspired by the deep connections among the Earth, its beings, and the spirit world. (p. 35)

Indigenous feminism, defined by Cannella

and Manuelita (2008) is an “anticolonial social science that would recognize the intersection of new oppressive forms of power created within attempts to decolonize” (p.47). This theoretical perspective is built upon feminist theory put forth by scholars such as hooks (1995, 2000), and Harding (1991, 1995). Metis feminist scholar La-Rocque (2007) asserts that feminism should originate with both genders and all socio-cultural

backgrounds such that all have the tools to ana-lyze and change (disrupt) those social systems that have historically worked to disadvantage women and privilege men. LaRocque (2007) points out “Aboriginal values and world views of-fer genuine alternatives to our over-industrialized, over-bureaucratized, corporate controlled socie-ties” (p. 68). Indigenous feminist scholarship pro-vides the tools and methodologies that can be used to deconstruct, analyze and re-construct those bureaucratic structures that have typically marginalized those people who do not represent the mainstream in terms of color, ideology, sex-ual orientation or ability.

Methodology

The methodology for this research is primarily phenomenological (Creswell, 2007; Greenfield, 1974) but articulated using Indigenous storywork (Archibald, 2008) and story (Wilson, 2008). Gill (2001) suggests that stories provide a holistic context from which individuals can reflect upon and reconstruct (hence, better understand) the social, personal and cultural experiences of both their own and others.

In terms of methods, the research incorpo-rates multiple, distinct data sources as a means to “corroborate, elaborate, or illuminate the re-search problem and its outcomes” (Stringer, 2007, p. 49). This research was conducted over a two year period, and includes the use of the fol-lowing data sources: 142 questionnaires from student teachers from 2009 and 2010 which asked questions utilizing pre-and post-tests about their knowledge, experiences and attitudes about the social and educational realities of First Na-tions, Metis and Inuit FNMI students; field notes that included teaching reflections were made be-fore, during and after the classes, and student learning logs which is an assessment strategy that uses open-ended questioning so students may demonstrate their evidence of thinking and learning in a specified time frame; my personal story as an Aboriginal female professor of the course, and semi-structured interviews of ten stu-dent teachers (five males and five females) who had graduated and were teaching.

The findings were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, means and percentages) and comparative statistics (chi-squares and t-tests) for quantitative items on the questionnaires based on sex and ethnicity, as well as constant

69

comparative data analysis methods (Creswell, 2007) for open-ended questions on the question-naires and the interview data.

Findings and Implications

Findings show that the student teachers dem-onstrated growth in FNMI content and knowledge over both years of the study. The findings also indicated an initial resistance to course content, which caused angst for both students and the instructor as students engaged with contentious issues, the deconstruction of privilege and exam-ples of institutionalized racism within the educa-tional system. Although more positive attitudes regarding FNMI content, worldviews, pedagogies and people developed over the duration of the course, once student teachers moved into the school system, their desire to implement their learning was often challenged by racist attitudes and practices, particularly in schools where ad-ministrators did not foster FNMI education.

The findings of this study suggest that the majority of non-FNMI student teachers come to the Aboriginal Perspectives course with little knowledge of FNMI content, histories, pedago-gies and why this is important in contemporary classrooms. In addition, teachers become frus-trated within the confines of the single course be-cause there is so much to learn that the curricu-lum development aspects of the Aboriginal Per-spectives course become rushed at the end. Therefore, it seems reasonable to suggest that other ways of fostering background knowledge prior to entering the course must be explored. Universities demand that teachers have a fairly extensive background in their teachable areas yet they are asked to integrate FNMI content into their subject area without ensuring that they have the knowledge to do so. Given what this research has shown, it might be necessary to establish some prerequisite coursework in Aboriginal con-tent knowledge in the Bachelor of Education en-trance requirements so that upon entry to the Faculty of Education, students have a basic foun-dation in FNMI history and legislation, and its im-pact on schooling. The findings also make ex-plicit the need for additional coursework that util-izes a critical theoretical stance to address ra-cism and related social justice issues within the Bachelor of Education program.

Interview data analysis showed that adminis-trative support was critical in helping teachers

implement FNMI content and pedagogies. Much of the research on effective school leadership (Leithwood, Seashore Louis & Wahlstrom, 2004) suggests that leadership is critical to effecting sustainable change for school improvement and student learning. Leithwood and Duke (1999) suggest that one of the many responsibilities of school leaders is to engage both colleagues and themselves in an ongoing self-reflection and analysis of the existing social conditions of the school and local society with a goal of better meeting the needs of those in the school. Given this research, and the recent focus on inclusive and social justice education that underpins the philosophy of our public school systems, it fol-lows that having well-prepared and trained princi-pals who understand FNMI issues is key to em-bedding sustainable and effective practices, pedagogies and curricula from which all students can benefit. Unfortunately, given the speed at which the introduction of FNMI students into pro-vincial schools seem to have “snuck up on” school systems, and the lack of cultural represen-tation in both teaching and administrative staff, it is not surprising that most school principals feel grossly unprepared to deal with the realities, world views, experiences and learning needs of these children. Perhaps it is this feeling of not having the skills or knowledge that leads some of the teachers in this research to articulate that “FNMI content, knowledge and pedagogies are simply not a priority” in their school contexts. I argue that in addition to self-selected profes-sional development opportunities, the principal certification program in the province should in-clude mandatory training in FNMI education for the Level one or Level two certificates granted by Manitoba Education.

The most difficult dilemma involves naming the elephant of racism, and addressing its subtle characteristics and effects in public schools. As St. Denis (2007, 2009) and Ireland (2009) sug-gested, until we start addressing issues around race, we will not make the progress we need to make in schools. As one of the teachers said, “when you examine those things, you have to look in the mirror and sometimes you don’t like what you see so then, you have to change your thoughts and attitudes about things.” The chal-lenge in terms of teacher capacity development lies in considering how it is that teachers can be provided with opportunities to learn about and

70

meaningfully consider the unacknowledged racism that pervades our public schools. To do this, teachers must be provided with safe spaces to engage in honest, open and sustained dialogue around the debilitating effects that colonial oppres-sion has caused for all Manitobans, and for FNMI people in particular. Long term and sustained pro-fessional development (Guskey, 2003) for practic-ing teachers is necessary to develop their under-standings of FNMI content, knowledge or pedago-gies, and to offset some of the misunderstandings and resistance to engaging in such learning. School divisions could make a concerted effort to develop learning communities where principals, teachers and parents could dialogue and collabo-rate on new initiatives and resources about FNMI issues.

It is not new knowledge that many FNMI par-ents have a distrust of school systems (Grant, 1996; Lea & Sims, 2008) because of their own, often negative, experience with education, and the fact that many FN parents were not allowed to participate in educational decisions in the hun-dred plus years of the residential school era. It stands to reason that supports or bridges have to be put in place so that parents can gain positive experiences within public schools. If relationships were built with parents in an indirect yet authentic and meaningful way, maybe FNMI parents would be more supportive of the education system in general and would be more willing to become en-gaged with their children’s learning within it. If teachers can move away from developing their identities as knowledge expert and embrace the idea that the knowledge and experiences of par-ents and communities can enhance what is hap-pening within the school walls, we might make the education system more effective not only for FNMI students but for all students.

Several teachers noted that “FNMI students did not seem to feel a sense of belonging” at the school where they were working. Yet how can FNMI students feel as if they belong when they don’t see themselves or their people represented on staff or on the teams and in the various extra curricular areas highlighted within the school? It is difficult for FNMI students to feel as if they belong to the school or have a commitment to education if they are not participating in the kinds of activities in which many students take pride. The reasons for this lack of participation run a gamut from pov-erty to a lack of transportation or a lack of skill de-velopment (which generally can be traced back to

the first two causes). If the cause ultimately boils down to lack of access, it behooves administrators to re-structure these circumstances or opportuni-ties such that FNMI students have access to the teams and clubs that often meet after school. The most important point to consider is the significance that FNMI participation in school events might have, not only on the students at an individual level, but on the community at large as community members begin to see positive depictions of FNMI people contributing to the school community.

The mandate for the Aboriginal Perspectives Course (APC) was made with the intention of pro-viding all future teachers with FNMI content, worldviews and pedagogies to improve the educa-tional success of FNMI students. My research has shown that the APC alone will not change our educational system, but it does have the potential to create knowledge growth and attitudinal change within individual teachers. The student teachers who complete the APC have acknowledged ra-cism and are able to develop curricula that are inclusive of FNMI content and worldviews; but they struggle with the prevalent attitudes of their communities and of other staff members. These novice teachers have been armed with knowledge and pedagogy to affect change for FNMI students, but they are also trying to fit into a school system that has not acknowledged the elephant – racism in the classroom. The danger is that these new teachers may withdraw from the challenges asso-ciated with this difficult work, particularly if they do not work with administrators who foster FNMI edu-cation. The work that has begun in the APC is important, necessary work, but it must be sus-tained across the entire educational system and across the career stages of teachers in order to change the social attitudes that continue to domi-nate in schools. Without a mandate or concerted plan to provide existing teachers and administra-tors with similar opportunities to learn about the “frontier colonial logic” (Donald, 2009, p. 1) that has impeded FNMI academic success, educators continue to dance with the elephant [racism] rather than confront and engage with it.

My research has been difficult in a number of ways. I realize that I am taking a major risk by speaking about racism. I realize that there will be some people from both the FNMI and non-FNMI communities who may continue to negate the ele-phant in our schools. They may do this because it is painful to acknowledge; when we look deep into our hearts, “Sometimes we see things that we

71

don’t want to see but when we do, then we must change things” (Bill). And, yes, change is difficult and frightening, but if we want a better world for all of our children, we must make these changes. I recall a little boy once asking me “How do you eat an elephant?” I initially thought of the ele-phant’s immense size and replied, “I don’t eat elephants.” To finish his teasing, the young boy countered with the giggle, “You eat it one bite at a time.” I think I was meant to hear the real wis-dom that came from the mouth of this child. Rather than dancing around the elephant in our schools, we will all be better served if we "just tackle the problem one bit at a time".

References

Alfred, T. (2009). Peace, power and righteousness (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON: Oxford University

Press.

Archibald, J. (2008). Indigenous storywork: Educat-ing the heart, mind, body and spirit. Vancouver,

BC: University of British Columbia Press.

Aveling, N. (2006). ‘Hacking at our roots’: Rearticu-lating White racial identity within the context of teacher education. Race Ethnicity and Educa-

tion, 9(3), 261-274.

Battiste, M. (Ed). (2000). Reclaiming Indigenous voice and vision. Vancouver, BC: University of British

Columbia Press.

Battiste, M. (2002, Oct). Indigenous Knowledge and pedagogy in First Nations Education – A litera-ture

review with recommendations. Prepared for the National Working Group on Education and the

Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada,

Ottawa.

Battiste, M. (2004, May). Animating sites of postcolo-nial education: Indigenous knowledge and hu-manities. Plenary Address made to the Cana-dian Society for Studies in Education, Winnipeg, MB. Retrieved from www.usask.ca/education/

people/battistem/csse_battiste.html

Battiste, M. (2009-2010, Win). Nourishing the learn-ing spirit: Living our way to new thinking. Cana-

dian Education Association, 50(1), 14 – 18.

Bell, D. (1991). Racism is here to stay: Now what?

Howard Law Journal, 35(79), 79 -93.

Bogdan, R. & Biklen, S. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods, 5th Ed. New York: Pearson Publica-

tions Inc.

Cannella, G., & Manuelito, K. (2008). Feminisms

from unthought locations: Indigenous world-views, marginalized feminisms, and revisioning an anticolonial social science. In N. Denzin, Y. Lincoln and L. Smith (Eds.), Handbook of critical and indigenous methodologies, (pp. 45 – 60).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Cajete, G. (1994). Look to the mountain: An ecology of Indigenous education. Skyland, NC: Kivaki

Press.

Causey, V., Thomas, C., & Armento, B. (2000). Cul-tural diversity is basically foreign to me: The

challenges of diversity for pre-service educators.

Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 33-45.

Creswell, J. (2007). Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and quali-tative research, 3rd Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Prentice Hall.

Crowshoe, C. (2005). Sacred Ways of life: Traditional Knowledge. Prepared for the First Nations Cen-

tre – National Aboriginal Health Organization.

Dei, G.S. (1996). Anti-racism education: Theory and

practice. Halifax, NS: Fernwood Publishing.

Dei, G.S. & Calliste, A. (2000). Mapping the terrain: Power, knowledge and anti-racism education. In G.J.S. Dei, & A. Calliste (Eds.) Power, knowl-edge and anti-racism education: A critical reader

(pp. 78-92). Halifax: Fernwood.

Delgado, R. (Ed.). (1995). Critical Race Theory: The cutting edge. Philadelphia: Temple University

Press.

Deloria, V. (1994). God is red: A native view of relig-

ion. Golden, CO: Fulcrum.

Donald, D. (2009). The curricular problem of Indigen-ousness: Colonial frontier logics, teacher resis-tances, and the acknowledgment of ethical space. In J.Nahachewsky, & I. Johnston (Eds.), Beyond Presentism: Re-Imagining the historical, personal, and social places of curriculum (pp. 23-

39). Rotterdam/Boston/Taipei: Sense Publishers.

Frideres, J. & Gadacz, R. (2008). Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, 8th Ed. Toronto, ON: Pearson Edu-

cation.

Gill, P. (2001). Narrative inquiry: Designing the proc-esses, pathways and patterns of change. Sys-tems Research and Behavioral Science, 18(4),

335-344.

Grande, S. (2004). Red Pedagogy: Native American social and political thought. Lanham, ML: Row-

man & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

Grande, S. (2008). Red Pedagogy. In Denzin, N., Lincoln, Y., & Smith, L. (Eds.), Handbook of criti-

72 cal and Indigenous methodologies. (pp.233-254). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,

Inc.

Grant, A. (1996). No end of grief: Indian residential schools in Canada. Winnipeg, MB: Pemmican

Publishers Inc.

Graveline, J. (1998). Circle works: Transforming Eurocentric consciousness. Halifax, NS: Fern-

wood Press.

Greenfield, T. B. (1974, July). Theory in the study of organizations and administrative structures: A new perspective. Paper presented to the third International Intervisitation Programme on Edu-

cational Administration, Bristol, England.

Guskey, T. (2005). Taking a second look at account-ability. Journal of Staff Development, 26 (1), 10-

18.

Harding, S. (1991) Whose science? Whose knowl-edge? Thinking from women’s lives. Ithaca, NY:

Cornell University Press.

Harding, S. (1995). Starting from marginalized lives: A conversation with Sandra Harding. JAC Rheto-ric, Writing, Culture, Politics, 15(2). Retrieved April 26, 2010 from http://www.jacweb.org/

archived_volumes/text_articles?V15

Helin, C. (2006). Dances with dependency: Indige-nous success through self reliance. Vancouver,

BC: Orca Spirit.

hooks, b. (1995). Killing rage: Ending racism. New

York: Holt and Co.

hooks, b. (2000). Feminism is for everybody: Pas-

sionate politics. Cambridge, MA: South End.

Ireland, B. (2009). “Moving from the head to the heart”, Addressing ‘The Indian’s Canada Problem in Reclaiming the learning spirit – Aboriginal learners in education. Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan, Aboriginal Education Research Centre and the First nations and Adult Higher Education Consortium, Calgary, AB. Retrieved

from www.aerc.usask.ca

Kailin, J. (1994). Anti-racist staff development for teachers: Consideration of race, class and gen-der. Teaching and Teacher Education, 10, 169-

184.

Ladson-Billings, G. (1995, Fall). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educa-

tional Research Journal, 32(3), 465-491.

LaFrance, B. (2000). Culturally negotiated education in First Nations communities: Empowering our-selves for future generations. In M. Brant Castel-lano, L. Davis & L. Lahache, (Eds.), Aboriginal

education: Fulfilling the promise, (pp. 101-113). Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia

Press.

LaRocque, E. (2007). Metis and feminist: Reflections from the margins. In J. Green (ed.), Making space for Indigenous feminism, (pp. 44-57). Hali-

fax, NS: Fernwood Publishing.

Lea, V., & Sims, E. (2008). Imaging Whiteness - He-gemony in the classroom: Undoing oppressive practice and inspiring social justice action. In V. Lea & E. Sims (Eds.), Undoing whiteness in the classroom: Critical educultural teaching ap-proaches for social justice activism (pp. 185-202).

New York: Peter Lang.

Leithwood, K., & Duke, D. (1999). A century’s quest to understand school leadership. In J. Murphy, & K. Seashore Louis (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational administration (2nd ed., pp. 45-72).

San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Leithwood, K., Seashore Louis, K., Anderson, S., & Wahlstrom, K. (2004). Review of research: How leadership influences student learning. Retrieved October 17, 2008 from http:/

www.wallacefoundation.org.

Levine-Rasky, C. (2000). The practice of whiteness among teacher candidates. International Studies

in Sociology of Education, 10(3), 263-284.

Lincoln, Y. & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry.

Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Littlebear, L. (2000). Jagged worlds colliding. In M. Battiste (Ed.), Reclaiming Voice and Vision, (pp. 77-84). Vancouver, BC: University of British Co-

lumbia Press.

Mitchell, M. & Egudo, M. (2003, November). A Re-view of Narrative Methodology. Edinburgh, South Australia: DSTO Systems Sciences Labo-ratory. Retrieved June 13, 2010 from http://www.cnr.uidaho.edu/CSS506/506%20Readings/Review%20of%20Narritive%20Methodology%

20Australian%20Gov.pdf

Picower, B. (2009). The unexamined Whiteness of teaching: How White teachers maintain and en-act dominant racial ideologies. Race, Ethnicity

and Education, 12(2), 197-215.

Smith, G., & Williams, D. (1999). A sense of place: Teaching children about the environment with picture books. Englewood, CO: Teachers Ideas

Press.

St. Denis, V. (2007). Aboriginal education and anti-racist education: Building Alliances across cul-tural and racial identity. Canadian Journal of

Education, 30(4) 1068 – 1092.

73

Abstract

Anti-oppressive education is a powerful tool that

could assist Faculties of Education in Manitoba in

moving pre-service and serving teachers even

further toward teaching and living in ways that are

socially just. The purpose of this article is to make

clear exactly what Anti-oppressive education is

and how it works. As well, this paper outlines

Kevin Kumashiro’s (2000) four approaches to anti

-oppressive education and explicates the

“Education that Changes Students and Others”,

which involves a significant emphasis on using

post-structural techniques to create opportunities

for personal growth for students.

I am new to the work of Anti-oppressive edu-

cation, and far from an expert, but from what I have read and seen, Anti-oppressive education could be a powerful tool that could assist Facul-ties of Education in Manitoba in moving pre-service and serving teachers toward teaching and living in ways that are socially just. The pur-pose of this article is to make clear exactly what Anti-oppressive education is, and how it works. Kevin Kumashiro has written extensively on this topic. Although he details concrete and practical approaches for teaching and learning using Anti-oppressive education in primary and secondary

schools (Kumashiro 2009; Kumashiro, 2001), this is not the context for my examination of anti-oppressive education. Rather, I will discuss the application of Anti-oppressive education as it applies to post-secondary education. I believe that pre-service and serving teachers, who learn about and understand anti-oppressive educa-tion, may have their thinking transformed, and may likely be more capable of providing anti-oppressive education in their classrooms, schools and communities. I believe that in addi-tion to the curricular adaptations suggested as a component of anti-oppressive education, it is fundamentally the changed attitudes, values and beliefs of the teachers that will have the greatest impact in schools and society.

People educating people about the need for kindness and equity, in spite of difference, is as old as time. And this, in its most uncomplicated form, is what anti-oppressive education is about. It is no accident that Kevin Kumashiro (2009) has found a connection between Buddhism, a religious movement spanning millennia based upon a practice of wisdom and morality, and anti-oppressive education (pp.45-48). One could argue that with the beginning of the enlighten-ment, overcoming oppression became less the work of the ‘church’ and more a rational pursuit undertaken by the emerging social sciences. Since that time, oppression has been conceptu-

An Overview of Anti-oppressive Education

- Christopher D. Brown, Brandon University

St. Denis, V. (2009). Rethinking cultural theory in Aboriginal education. In Levine-Rasky (ed.), Ca-nadian perspectives on the sociology of educa-tion, pp. 163 – 182, Don Mills, ON: Oxford Uni-

versity Press.

St. Denis, V. (2010, Mar 10). A study of Aboriginal teachers’ professional knowledge and experi-ence in Canadian schools. Canadian Teachers’

Federation.

St. Denis, V., & Schick, C. (2003). What makes anti-racist pedagogy in teacher education difficult? Three popular ideological assumptions. Alberta

Journal of Educational Research, 49(1), 55- 69.

Stewart, S. (2009). One Indigenous academic’s evo-lution: A personal narrative of Native health re-search and competing ways of knowing. First

Peoples Child and Family Review, 4(1), 57-65.

Stringer, E. (2007). Action Research, 3rd Ed. Thou-

sand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Tafoya, T. (1995). Finding harmony: Balancing the traditional values and western science in therapy. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 21

(supplement): 7-27.

Thompson, A. (2003). Tiffany, friend of people of color: White investments in antiracism. Interna-tional Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education,

16(1), 7-29.

Vaught, S., & Castagno, A. (2008). “I don’t think I’m a racist”: Critical race theory, teacher attitudes, and structural racism. Race Ethnicity and Edu-

cation, 11(2), 95-113.

74

be used to support educators interested in under-standing and ameliorating oppression through educational praxis (Kumashiro, 2009, p.25). Those living and working within this perspective would “agree that oppression is a situation or dy-namic in which certain ways of being (e.g., having certain identities) are privileged in society while others are marginalized” (Kumashiro, 2000a, p.25). These studies identify the historical and social imbalances that continue to disadvantage ‘Others’. Those who have been historically impli-cated in oppression usually take up studying how it operates based upon their ontology, and they work toward creating change to lessen its effects. As well, allies, because they are not identifiable within one particular oppressed group, generally do anti-oppressive work for the same reason as anyone else: to make the world a better place for them to live in, as well as a more inclusive and less hostile world for everyone else (Bishop, 1994).

Gloria Ladson-Billings (2009) writes in the foreword of Against Common Sense that when it comes to the messy and complex world of the classroom, teaching towards the ideals we hold for teachers “does not conform to the neat con-ceptions of anti-racist, anti-sexist, anti-homophobic, anti-oppressive education about what we theorize” (p. XVIII). With that being said, there are two purposes of anti-oppressive educa-tion. The first purpose focuses on understanding how oppression works to disadvantage those who have less power and privilege than others. This is primarily taken up through the discussions and elucidations of the diverse critical perspec-tives. The second purpose derives from the first and concerns itself with using teaching strategies that educate people to better understand and work against oppression (Kumashiro, 2000). These educational goals largely involve taking on power and privilege through critique, and by ex-posing students to positions that challenge their ‘common sense’ assumptions about the world. An example would be examining how rationalism and humanism have become taken-for-granted assumptions and why this knowledge needs to be contested. While the process and practice of anti-oppressive education is based upon critical the-ory, both parts integrate aspects taken from ‘post’ perspectives in the application of the approach.

Anti-oppressive education is positioned as a practical approach for educators in the class-rooms and lecture theatres of the here and now.

alized and critiqued in a vast number of different ways in the social sciences as well as the hu-manities. How oppression has been conceptual-ized within these very diverse theoretical tradi-tions, has largely determined the manner of re-sponse used to ameliorate it.

Anti-oppressive education is born out of a unification of disparate theories and a compila-tion of different educational strategies synthe-sized and brought to bear upon oppressive dis-course and practices (Kumashiro, 2009). Through anti-oppressive education, these differ-ent research orientations and pedagogical ap-proaches may be seen to have a collective pur-pose: the elimination of oppression and hege-monic injustice. Kumashiro constructs his theo-retical framework from a wide array of critical perspectives including critical race theory, femi-nism (poststructural and psychoanalytic strands), cultural and multicultural studies, post-colonial theories, and queer theories (Kumashiro, 2006, pp.133-135; Kumashiro, 2001, p.3). Common in almost all of the conver-sations regarding anti-oppressive education is using the tension that exists between the mod-ern and the postmodern. Whether it is through critical approaches that critique power and privi-lege, or through poststructural approaches, both seek to point out the nature of oppression that currently exists in the world. This requires that the methods used must allow a level of clarity to see through our own social construction (which we often consider to be “common sense”), to the self-obscured underpinnings of our social world. To examine what we believe to be ‘common sense’ requires a reflexive approach so that those doing research or learning in this area may see with clarity the problems that the mod-ern construct brings. For example, understand-ing how modernism has entrenched the neolib-eral agenda into how we approach education and how universalism has impacted how we un-derstand and treat learner differences in class-rooms.

It could be argued that it is through a post-structural framework that anti-oppressive educa-tors have the greatest capacity to lessen oppres-sion because poststructural theory has the theo-retical capacity to create the most compelling ar-guments against the structures of modernism that currently guide relationships in the social milieu. Anti-oppressive education is a collection of theo-retical tools and instructional techniques that may

75

Those who employ this approach, and use theo-retical notions that operate to challenge human-ism, do so within the humanistic environment and social milieu in which they teach. Universities and classrooms have been built to serve the modern ethos of emancipation and liberation through ra-tionalism. Therefore, this model is positioned in such a way that part of the power of the perspec-tive is also embedded in the modern. It is this du-ality that makes the model applicable and practi-cable today.

However, this strength, as seems typical for poststructural work, may also become its undo-ing. Part of what anti-oppressive education is challenged by is its reliance on the very social instruments that it wants to refashion. For in-stance, teachers learning better teaching prac-tices through largely rational approaches in order to have more of an impact on students is about critical transformation. For some, the problem is that this type of education is based on thinking from the era of enlightenment and does not call into question, to the degree some would like, the nature of power relations or the way knowledge and power co-exist (Butin, 2002). However, this emphasis on critical transformation provides a place where transformational learning may occur.

Because anti-oppressive education is well balanced in both critical theory and post-perspectives, this approach has the potential to create opportunities to deconstruct and recon-struct the identities of those who participate in the project. This may involve creating ‘crises’ for the participants which is very much akin to Piaget’s constructivist model of disequilibration and Freires’ conscientization (Woolfolk, Winne & Perry, 2006; Freire, 2003). Embedded within anti-oppressive education is a critical transformative approach that provides a link to transformative learning theory.

There are a number of social influences that

demonstrate the need to continue anti-oppressive

work. One of the more current and obvious exam-

ples is neoliberalism. A brief explanation about

neoliberalism and its impact will be provided in

order to create a context for a more detailed dis-

cussion of anti-oppressive education.

Neoliberal Influences

Those involved in research on anti-oppressive work are always operating to some degree in the realm of the political (Kumashiro,

2001). Anti-oppressive education and those who work in this area have become vulnerable to neo-liberal thinking through what Kumashiro has la-beled “the seduction of common sense” (Kumashiro, 2008). Sleeter (2008) dis-cusses how teacher education programs around the world are trying to develop teachers who can deal effectively with issues relating to “diversity, equity, and democracy” and how these attempts are being undermined by neoliberalism, particu-larly in the United States (p. 1948). David Harvey defines neoliberalism poignantly as a theory of political economic practices that proposes that human well-being can best be advanced by liber-ating individual entrepreneurial freedoms and skills within an institutional framework character-ized by strong private property rights, free mar-kets, and free trade. (Harvey as cited in Sleeter, 2008, p. 1948)

Magnusson (2000) explains that, unfortu-nately, neoliberalism is also alive and well in Canada as a hegemonic discourse, and it con-structs a “deregulated market as the purest form of democracy and social justice” (para. 15). She also states that Canada’s pluralism and multicul-tural policies legitimize hegemonic practices of race, class, and gender that are oppressive and work to marginalize the Other through political and economic marginalization (Magnusson, 2000, para. 17). Not only is it the strong advocacy for technical/rational instrumental thinking based on consumerism that is of concern, it is also the ‘numbing out’ to the way that oppression works that is quite disturbing. Hegemony works to qui-etly eliminate the voice of the disenfranchised and this is happening in the Canadian context as people abdicate the public sphere. The efforts to confront the hegemonic practices that seek to capitalize upon the removal of voice are at risk in this environment, as is democracy itself.

Kumashiro (2010) notes that teacher educa-tion programs are being molested by neoliberal thinking that “often coincide with initiatives to maintain the stratification functions of public schooling, be it along lines of religion, gender, race, culture, social class, and/or other mark-ers” (p.63). An example of this in operation would be the discontinuation of funding for a Canada Research Chair for The Centre for Social Justice and Anti-oppressive Education at the University of Regina. This centre has as an overall aim to support social justice work and an explicit educa-tional purpose of promoting, supporting and con-

76

ducting research in anti-oppressive education (University of Regina Website, 2010, para. 1). Another example comes from Manitoba where Young and Graham (2000) write about the fallout from government-driven educational reform based on ‘common sense’ and a “functionalist preoccupation with accountability and the raising of standards” in Manitoba (para.3). This top-down neoliberal approach to “curriculum reforms is in-consistent with a version of multicultural educa-tion for which the significance of race and culture to school experience is viewed as complex, con-textual, and which requires the active engage-ment of teachers in its daily construction” (para. 3). It is with great difficulty that social justice edu-cation occurs at all within the current social and political context of a dominating modern and neo-liberal discourse,but confronting the kind of knowledge currently taken as truth makes anti-oppressive education vital.

There are many approaches to teaching in anti-oppressive ways. Kumashiro recommends that in order to be an effective anti-oppressive educator today, an ‘amalgam’ of these practices is best used (Kumashiro, 2000a, p. 25). In par-ticular, approaches that critique power and privi-lege, and approaches that deconstruct and trou-ble taken-for-granted knowledge are seen to be the most efficacious (McLaren and Kincheloe, 2005). Youdell (2006) writes, “serious attention is increasingly being paid to the problematic rela-tionship between the ‘knowing’ subjects implicit to empirical research and the ‘troubled’ subjects of post-structural writing” (p.514). The use of the term, troubling, is an invitation to use poststruc-tural writers like Derrida’s concept of deconstruc-tion and Foucault’s concepts of power techniques and truth regimes.

In the article, Towards a theory of Anti-oppressive education, Kumashiro (2000) exam-ined current and past initiatives for anti-oppressive education in their social and historical context in order to move toward his current con-ception of anti-oppressive work that emphasizes post-structuralism. I have chosen to use these four cogently articulated approaches to explain the nature of anti-oppressive education. The fol-lowing section discusses these approaches. There is education for the Other, Education about the Other, Education that is Critical of Privileging and Othering, and Education that Changes Stu-dents and Others. It should be noted that these approaches are being presented as if they were

separate from one another, but this is not likely, as many of the approaches overlap with each other when they are applied.

Education for the Other

The first approach used to deal with oppres-sion revolves around educating students and teachers about who the ‘Other’ is and what their experiences have been in order to improve the experience of the “Other”. This type of education takes place to redress the harmful actions of stu-dents facing harassment, physical and verbal abuse, exclusion and isolation by their normative group in school.

Students cause much of the harmful behav-ior that ‘Other’ students often have to tolerate. Teachers and staff at schools may be complicit in harmful acts because they fail to respond to un-acceptable behaviors by the normative group (Kumashiro, 2000, p.26). The inaction of those in positions of authority works to marginalize and perpetuate oppressive behavior and language in schools. Some researchers point to faulty “assumptions about the expectations for the Other—especially those held by educators—that influence how the other is treated” (Kumashiro, 2000, p.27). Negative stereotypes and beliefs in assimilation and dysfunction are viewed as cen-tral deficits of this way of thinking which acts to disadvantage Other students. Programs intended to stop bullying or to provide awareness for gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgendered youth in schools are examples of this type of approach. These programs work to create a better climate for particular students who are vulnerable to be-ing ostracized by providing information and a safe place for the Other.

Another common strategy used in teacher education is to provide culturally appropriate teacher education programs that can deal with each type of marginalization and to provide in-service training for teachers in the field so that they can “acknowledge the diversity among their students, and also embrace these differences and treat their students as raced, gendered, sexualized, and classed individuals” Kumashiro, 2000, p.28). As an example, in the Faculty of Education at Brandon University, pre-service teachers are required to take a course focused on Aboriginal perspectives.

In this way, pre-service teacher programs teach directly about diversity and do not pretend it doesn’t exist. The goal is to have explicit con-

77

versations with pre-service teachers about how they can encourage diversity and support student learning. This past year, several colleagues and I put on an inservice about providing culturally rele-vant instruction. Programs like this often use cur-ricula based upon culturally relevant and respon-sive teaching (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Gay, 2000) or James Banks’ (1999) Model of Multicultural Education. Although the aforementioned models have the capacity to examine underlying domi-nant epistemology, and to critique power and privilege, in this example they are being used to explain how they can be used to promote learn-ing and fostering compassion for the Other. The goal here is to create, through teacher prepara-tion, programs that include dialogue and honest discussions about differences, so that staff in schools can provide safe and emotionally nurtur-ing classrooms and schools for students.

An example of one these models would be Peggy McIntosh’s (1988) Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack. This short but wonderful article draws attention to the Other and the nature of oppres-sion from a perspective of ‘Whiteness’. One of the objectives is to build empathy for the Other. Kumashiro (2000) wisely points out though, “the root of oppression does not reside solely in how individuals think about, feel towards, and treat one another, and thus, empathy cannot be the panacea. It is necessary, but not sufficient” (p. 35). Even if students are able to empathize with the Other, the binary that separates us and them is still intact (Kumashiro, 2000a, p. 35). This is the kind of education that is quite common today. One of the concerns of this method is that the ‘gaze’ is on the Other and learning about the other can become the Orientialism found in es-sentialist thinking (Cheang, 2007). Otherness be-comes the object of inspection and little attention is placed on how power and privilege operates within the school and the social world (Kumashiro, 2000a, p.29). This essentialist ap-proach is firmly entrenched in modern forms of education.

This approach, while seemingly positive, opens up spaces where those involved in learn-ing about the Other may contest the information and the ‘regime of truth’ which advocates for the Other. This is because, quite simply, oppression is situated: “oppression plays out differently for different people in different contexts” (Kumashiro, 2000a, p.30). This ‘wiggle room’ provides oppor-tunities for individuals to construct oppression as

a static ‘force’ operating upon the Other. People can make ‘truth claims’ of their own about those who have transgressed against them. There is also a failure to deal adequately with the many ways that people can recognize and feel a part of oppression from their own perspective that goes unrecognized by this approach. Certain kinds of oppression are seen to be more ‘worthy’ of dis-cussing and challenging. But, ensuring that we provide education for the Other is an important approach and a good starting point.

Education about the Other

Another approach is to examine the school curriculum and to try to redress the way in which the system works to reinforce dominant ideolo-gies and practises regarding the Other. In particu-lar, anti-oppressive education works to challenge the social construction of the ‘normal’ student as reinforced by the curriculum. Researchers in this area work to critique and correct current educa-tional discourses and propose alternatives.

There are a number of strengths to this ap-proach. First, this approach helps to dismantle the way in which the dominant ideology is per-petuated through the curriculum by ensuring other voices are heard and that the message reaches all students. As well, students are al-lowed and encouraged to question the nature of knowledge. Any attempt to broaden the definition of what is normal is beneficial. Examples of this kind of work come to us from researchers in the field. They seek to challenge the approaches found in schools in order to deconstruct how teachers and students within the current educa-tional system serve to perpetuate oppressive ide-ologies and practices. An example of this kind of research comes from Kanu (2002) who worked with students in Winnipeg, MB to discover ways to integrate Aboriginal perspectives into the cur-riculum and to determine how effective these dif-ferentiated instructional practices were in increas-ing student achievement.

Another example, born of the same social and historical perspective, also comes from Mani-toba. In 1995, the provincial government of Mani-toba implemented a policy mandating Aboriginal perspectives be infused into K-12 Manitoba cur-ricula (Manitoba Education, Citizen and Youth, 2009). In response to teacher demand, in 2003, Manitoba Education and Youth published a docu-ment titled Integrating Aboriginal Perspectives into Curricula: A resource for curriculum develop-

78

ers, teachers and administrators. The purpose of this document was to create a framework to sup-port teachers as they designed and infused Abo-riginal perspectives into the curriculum. The vi-sion of those who created the document was to expose students in Manitoba “to the various Abo-riginal perspectives, cultural items, and historical contributions made by Aboriginal peoples in the development of this country” (Manitoba Educa-tion, Citizenship and Youth, 2003, p. 3). The ra-tionale behind Manitoba’s mandate to infuse Abo-riginal perspectives into the curriculum was for all students in Manitoba to understand “the issues, challenges, and successes of Aboriginal peoples (Manitoba Education, Citizenship and Youth, 2003, p. 3). The purpose of the legislation was to direct teachers to integrate Aboriginal perspec-tives into existing curricula. The intention of the publication Integrating Aboriginal Perspectives into Curricula: A resource for curriculum develop-ers, teachers and administrators was to provide a framework for teacher driven curriculum design that would incorporate Aboriginal perspectives. As a function of teacher praxis, teachers were also expected to teach this infused curriculum through a model of ‘differentiated instruction and assessment’.

Writers in critical theory such as Giroux (1997), Apple (2004), and Kincheloe (2008) also adopt this perspective. They speak to the domi-nant ideologies that are reproduced in the cur-riculum and discuss how teachers in the class-rooms practice them. In Education about the Other, anti-oppressive education involves work-ing with teachers to clarify and better understand the implications of teaching the formal as well as the informal (or hidden) curriculum. Those who are not a part of the dominant perspective are, by definition, marginalized in the discourses and practices of teachers and students working through the curriculum. This also happens as teachers ‘teach’ the hidden curriculum. The knowledge that is communicated to students through teacher discourse and practice is only partial, and sometimes, distorted and may be based upon stereotypes and misconceptions (Kumashiro, 2000a, p.32). Researchers working in this area “have suggested that the ‘knowledge’ many students have about the Other is either in-complete because of exclusion, invisibility, and silence, or distorted because of disparagement, denigration, and marginalization” (Kumashiro, 2002, p.32).

Those who teach the current curricula may unintentionally or intentionally be producing a dis-torted and biased perspective of the Other. Walton (2005) discusses how bullying and homo-phobia are reinforced through the curricular em-phasis on individualization, and the behavioural techniques used to manage students in schools. In this case, education about the Other, through workshops for students and inservices for staff, does not provide a successful approach to chal-lenge these issues. Part of the problem is that education about the Other works to normalize those who are not the Other and abnormalize the Other. Changes to the curriculum, and the ration-ale explicated to justify these changes, do not take into account the nature or magnitude of rela-tions of power within society, the school or class-room as the changes are always filtered through the dominant ideology.

Of concern is that this process may be akin to just replacing one ‘fund of knowledge’ with an-other. That is, the discourses and practices of teachers and citizens who pass on the dominant ideology may just be changing, and another ide-ology may just be replacing current ideology. Such approaches do not “bring about structural and systemic change, they do not change the norm, and thus, they do not disrupt the process that differentiates the Other from the nor-mal” (Kumashiro, 2000a, p.34). This approach works to reconceptualize the Other from within the dominant ideology and it will always create a world of difference for the Other.

There is also a concern that the dominant perspective is working to create an ‘essentialized’ view of the Other. In this view, the essentialized other can be understood to be an expert based on their ‘Otherness” or people can become ex-perts in their knowledge of the Other. This per-spective, therefore, lacks the perspective of a fluid and changing construction of self that is em-bedded within a social constructionist perspective (Burr, 2003, p.6). Essentialism reifies “the social, cultural, and even intellectual space/division be-tween the norm and the Other” (Kumashiro, 2000a, p.34). This approach is an element of a modernist project where people see identity as fixed and that knowledge is something we can have in totality (Kumashiro, 2000a, p.34; Burr, 2003, p.10). Education For and About the Other is “built on the modernist notions of a collective ‘us’ and a unitary ‘we’. For instance, gay men and lesbians, women, and African Americans claim to

79

understand what it means to be members of these respective groups; the groups are essen-tialized” (Hill, 2008, p.85). These perspectives have done a lot to provide a greater understand-ing of the other as well as a sense of solidarity for those who have been marginalized. But within these perspectives is the belief that it is possible to know, define, and subjugate one’s identity and knowledge. These modern perspectives reinforce the binary between the dominant self and the Other. Kumashiro states that “lessons about the Other need to include learning to resist one’s de-sire to know, to essentialize, to close off further learnings. The goal is not final knowledge (and satisfaction), but disruption, dissatisfaction, and the desire for more knowledge” (Kumahsiro, 2000a, p.34). It is easy to understand the post-structural concern about identity construction be-cause the modern, unified view of identity does not lend itself to seeing the multiple and ever changing nature of identity. Students may even be able to partially identify with the identity of the Other, but because being Other is seen as illegiti-mate, identifying with the Other will always be problematic.

I have been a participant in a number of work-shops and presentations where an “Other” per-son has been brought in to represent his or her worldview and Otherness. I always thought about the positive stereotyping that was taking place as well as how the individual was expected to (re)present that which makes them different or not ‘the norm’. This plays into essentialized perspec-tives of the Other and works to reinforce differ-ence and the non-dominance of the Other. As well, this is itself problematic because it essential-izes and takes away voice from those who may be able to add to a conversation about Othering, and it puts forward the incorrect notion that one voice represents all. There is also the notion that learning about those who are the Other helps to build empathy and support. While this is likely to happen, it is not a certainty, and people may use the information they have understood or misun-derstood to further their own beliefs. This kind of resistance is particularly the case when someone believes that they need to protect their position of power and privilege. They may use what they have learned about the other to further an ethno-centric and unjust social position.

The theories that follow are, in my opinion, more likely to lead to the transformation of indi-viduals and have become the theories of choice

for many of those who are interested in making substantive social change. These theories are based upon non-essentializing perspectives and the critiquing of(?) power and privilege. There is a blurring of these two approaches even though they are described separately here. Generally what has happened over time is that the critiques have changed to incorporate poststructural per-spectives because understanding deconstruction and the analytics of power provides the most use-ful approach for critique. However, there are still significant epistemological differences between the two views, stemming from the postmodern dialectic that continues to provide separation.

Education and the Critique of Power and

Privilege

Anti-oppressive education also examines di-rectly how power and privilege work to advantage some and disadvantage the Other. This approach is largely drawn from critical pedagogy as well as other critical perspectives and “advocates a cri-tique and transformation of hegemonic structures and ideologies” (Kumisharo, 2000, p.36). People learning from these approaches may become motivated toward activism and become active participants in changing the dominant ideology as well as supporting the Other. This approach cre-ates empathy and a resistance to hegemonic ide-ology and inequitable social structures (Kumashiro, 2000a, p.38). It draws to one’s awareness the nature of what is taken-for-granted knowledge and truth. It also challenges people to reflect and take action. This perspective works from the realization that what is considered to be ‘normal’ is actually contested knowledge. It is this act of raising peoples’ consciousness to the ‘regimes of truth’ and the relative nature of normal that is at the centre of this approach. Schools are understood to be a microcosm of society as well as operating as a specific kind of institution within society. This approach works hand in hand with understanding the structures that support the varied and hierarchical systems of oppression and how they work to create ‘the subject’. Critical pedagogy comes to us from a number of places but it always involves looking at the unearned power and privilege that underlies the social world in which we live. Historically, this approach is based on a modern perspective, and structuralist and postfoundational epistemology.

Providing culturally relevant pedagogy would also be an example of this kind of transformative

80

approach because the focus is on critiquing power and privilege (Earick, 2009, p.97; Morri-son, Robins & Rose, 2008, p.441). Morrison, Robins and Rose who conducted a meta-study of 45 studies on culturally relevant pedagogy state that within culturally relevant pedagogy “it is through critical consciousness [raising] that stu-dents are empowered with the tools to transform their lives and ultimately the conduct of our soci-ety” (p.443). Teachers using this approach create awareness of hegemonic forces and make “explicit the power dynamics of mainstream soci-ety” (P.442), They also teach critical literacy skills, provide meaningful community work and, share and discuss power as fundamental compo-nents of creating critical consciousness.

Some of the challenges inherent in this ap-proach, born from the structuralist background from which it was created, are that social struc-tures are seen to be real but unseen forces that act on people. This modern assumption sees identities as fixed and affected by these social forces that appear to operate superfluous to the individual. The multiple nature of identity and the situated and multiple forms of oppression are de-natured into structured units of affect. The unit of analysis in this approach is the system and the structures that support it. The organic analogy is a dominant feature of the structuralist perspec-tive. In my experience, people are often aware of Others’ oppression and can identify with it through their own subjectivity. In this aspect of anti-oppressive education, identities are under-stood as modern and rational perspectives that may actually do harm as they perpetuate the ‘dominant ideology’ through the voice of the mod-ern conception of identity. Another problem with this aspect is that empowering and raising some-one’s social consciousness is modernist in pur-suit. People may choose not to act even though they understand and can relate to Others’ op-pression. As well, people may need to work through a crisis of understanding at their own pace. Another difficulty is that teachers are put into awkward educational situations. Students involved in instruction at this level may struggle with the nature of the dialogue and understand it to be the replacement of one form of hegemonic thinking for another: the ‘mythical norm’ that as-sumes a White, heterosexual, male perspective” stays intact (Kumashiro, 2000a, p.39).

However, this perspective has changed to the point where most critical pedagogues have

incorporated poststructural theory into their expla-nations of the social world. At the base of this newer perspective is the task of recognizing the multiple ways in which oppression and privileging works to advantage and disadvantage, using the deconstructive tools provided by Derrida and the theoretical framework of power relations provided by Foucault.

bell hooks is active in critical feminism and focuses on the need for critical reflection as a source of liberation (hooks, 1994, p.63). hooks is a strong advocate of cultural criticism, and in a video titled cultural criticism and transformation, she discusses “how learning to think critically was central to her own self-transformation and how it can play a role in her students’ quest for a sense of agency and identity”. In the video she states that in order to have a really significant impact on students who are seeking to address race, gen-der and class, students need to be given “the gift of critical thinking” (Jholly, 1997, 6:03).

Education that Changes Students and Others

It is a poststructural framework that we will turn to next in order to make explicit how anti-oppressive education works to deconstruct the nature of oppression. Kumashiro writes that those involved in educational research and the praxis of anti-oppressive education “need to make more use of poststructuralist perspectives in order to address the multiplicity and situatedness of op-pression and the complexities of teaching and learning” (2000a, p.21). It is from this perspective that the poststructural approach informs anti-oppressive education, and the focus shifts to dis-course and citation. From this newer perspective, Kumashiro (2000a) notes, “oppression originates in discourse, and in particular, in the citing of par-ticular discourses, which frame how people think, feel, act, and interact” where oppression may be understood through the “citing of harmful dis-courses and the repetition of harmful histo-ries” (p.40). Four aspects of anti-oppressive edu-cation form the context and provide a way for-ward. These include using the term the ‘Other’ in reference to those who have traditionally been denied power and privilege, creating useful ‘tension’ in the classroom, looking at what we un-derstand as common sense and questioning and challenging accepted dogma or knowledge.

Othering

The concept of the ‘Other’ and Othering are

81

important concepts in anti-oppressive education. This use of the term ‘Other’ stems from GWF Hegel’s writings in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, and was taken up by Lacan, the psychoanalyst who used the term with the capital ‘O’ to mean “the great other, in whose gaze the subject gains identity” (Othering, 2010, para.5). This term is also taken up in post-colonial studies where “Othering is a way of de-fining and securing one’s own positive identity through the stigmatization of an ‘other’” (Othering, 2010, para.1). It is through ‘Othering’ another that discourses and practices can work to oppress. The use of the term Other is significant because it refers to all of the intersections of difference. Therefore, the term ‘Other’ is used as an inclu-sive term. To me, it is similar to the re-appropriation of the term ‘queer’ in order to re-claim a signifier that had become a pejorative and debasing term and to own it anew. Doing this also places ‘Other’ in a binary where it is the first term.

By looking at Othering, anti-oppressive edu-cation does not claim a historical right to one kind of oppression or another. The technique does not create difference like this. It does not look at op-pression as if it was simple or uncomplicated, or that it belongs only to some other, because op-pression is so complicated. As Ann Bishop (1994) states: “no one form of oppression can stand alone without the others, and as long as the basic assumptions of competition, separation and hier-archy are present, oppression] follows” (p.18). Instead, what this approach does is bring people together to recognize Othering that is troubling for us all, to examine Othering that we were hitherto unfamiliar with. This form of the term provides opportunities to view Othering through a post-colonial and a psychoanalytic frame.

Troubling Knowledge

Almost one hundred years ago, John Dewey (1916) wrote in Democracy and Education that schools best serve students when they are places that correct unfair privilege and depriva-tion (p.92). A lot has changed in education since then, but we still have not realized this modern goal. In the last thirty years since the nascence of postmodern thought (and certainly before), there have been a number of theoretical perspectives brought forward to reduce and/or eliminate ineq-uity in schools, and though the paradigm has moved from pragmatism to social construction-

ism, the same concern is echoed almost 100 years later, but in a different way:

“The reason we fail to do more to chal-lenge oppression is not merely that we do not know enough about oppression, but also that we often do not want to know more about oppression. It is not our lack of knowledge but our resistance to knowl-edge and our desire for ignorance that of-ten prevent us from changing the oppres-

sive status quo” (Kumashiro, 2004, p.25).

Anti-oppressive education seeks to create cognitive dissonance and to trouble the knowl-edge students’ take for granted. Kumashiro (2000a) states, “changing oppression requires disruptive knowledge, not simply more knowl-edge” (p.34). It is also necessary for people to examine their own self-interests and to acknowl-edge the bias that can be introduced into the classroom. This can be done through a “’pedagogy of positionality’ that engages both stu-dents and teachers in recognizing and critiquing how one is positioned and how one positions oth-ers in social structures” (Kumashiro, 2000a, p.45). A reflexive approach to learning is impor-tant here and assists in this process. Those in education must keep in mind their own socially constructed history. In pre-service teacher educa-tion programs, “teacher candidates’ prior life ex-periences, beliefs and assumptions, … act as powerful filters through which they interpret teaching, students and communities” (Sleeter, 2008, p.1950). It is this self-reflection that be-comes a critical and potentially problematic en-counter for students and is one aspect that can lead to transformative learning.

Practitioners seek to provide opportunities for students to re-examine the knowledge they al-ready have. Kumashiro (2009) states that it is “ important that teachers know the limits in their knowledge” (p.126). I believe what Kumashiro is saying is that teachers need to have a better un-derstanding of how knowledge is constructed and how it becomes epistemology. This is a shift away from positivist paradigms toward construc-tivist paradigms.

Through poststructural learning, students are provided with opportunities to trouble the knowl-edge they already have in ways that disrupt, dis-comfort and problematize what they take for granted (Kumashiro, 2009, p.127). The shift away from humanism and structuralism toward post-

82

structural thinking is likely to induce disorienting dilemmas for students new to these perspectives as well as students who have been on the domi-nating side of hegemony. For Kumashiro (2009) troubling knowledge means “to work paradoxi-cally with knowledge, to simultaneously see what different insights, identities, practices, and changes it makes possible while critically examin-ing that knowledge (and how it came to be known) to see what insights and the like it closes off” (p.127). Kumashiro speaks to the notion of creating tension by troubling common sense learning.

Common Sense

The concept of common sense as being taken-for-granted knowledge that needs to be critically examined comes from a number of dif-ferent historical and socially situated perspec-tives. Within anti-oppressive education, it is the understanding that “schools should engage stu-dents in the process of separating the normal from the self, significantly changing how they see themselves and who they are” (Kumashiro, 2000a, p. 45).

St. Pierre (2000) refers to Antonio Gramsci’s use of the term in 1973 as an effort to make sense of the nature of knowledge and hegemony, in order to refer to the way that people uncon-sciously and uncritically perceive the world. Clif-ford Geertz (1973) uses common sense from a structural anthropological perspective to make sense of ethnocentric perspectives and the way that people take common sense to be ‘universal truths’ which are not critically examined. He states:

There are a number of reasons why treating common sense as a relatively organized body of considered thought, rather than just what anyone clothed and in his right mind knows, should lead on to some useful conclusions; but perhaps the most important is that it is an inherent characteristic of common-sense thought precisely to deny this and to affirm that its tenets are immediate deliverances of experience, not deliberated reflections upon it. (p.77) Chris Weedon (1997) speaks of common

sense as a constitutive force in society that main-tains difference in society through discourse. She suggests that common sense “relies on a naïve view of language as transparent and true,” but it is actually “contradictory and subject to

change” (p.74). For instance, she states that “common sense tells us [gender difference] is natural and looks to science, social science, and psychoanalysis to prove this assumption” (p. 73). She also notes that the power of common sense comes from “its claim to be natural, obvious and therefore true. It looks to ‘human nature’ to guar-antee its version of reality” (p.74). Weedon’s (1997) definition of common sense is simple and useful: common sense “consists of a number of social meanings and the particular ways of under-standing the world which guarantee them” (p.74).

Creating Tension

Anti-oppressive education seeks to find the hybrid zones where “our multiple strands of Self and Other rub up against each other in unex-pected ways” (Scholl, 2001, p. 144). Bhabha calls this the “interstitial or in-between perspective” where learning takes place in more discomforting ways (Scholl, 2001, p.144). It is about challenging people to “construct disruptive, different ‘knowledges’” (Kumashiro, 2000a, p.43). Teach-ing that serves to create uncertainty, difference, and the possibility of change is progressive, and finding the place where there is this tension can be an arduous journey for the learner and the

teacher. Kumashiro wrote:

Educators should expect their students to enter crisis. And, since this crisis can lead in one of many directions--such as toward liber-ating change, or toward more entrenched resistance, etc.--educators need to provide a space in the curriculum for students to work through their crisis in a way that changes

oppression.” (Kumashiro, 2000b, para. 5)

This tension is also created because it is generally about troubling the taken-for-granted knowledge and in some cases breaking loose common sense ideas that once anchored a per-son to the world of domination. Creating tension is difficult because modern education is based upon a rational and humanistic epistemological context.

There is not much opportunity for other kinds of knowing to be expressed in classrooms, or to place affective learning before rational learning. For example, it is difficult for teachers to leave their role as knowledge transmitters. Kumashiro explains that in order to move beyond the ration-ality expected in classes, he encourages people to be given the place and space to step outside of

83

their comfort zone in addressing what is taken as common sense: “the desire to teach students out-side the mythical norm, cannot revolve around solely the desire to reason; it must also involve a desire to attach and touch, a desire to enter stuck and uncontrollable places, and a desire for cri-sis” (Kumashiro, 2000b, para. 12). It is in this way that anti-oppressive education works to trouble what is taken-for-granted knowledge. While there are some similarities between Freire’s conception of recognizing students’ funds of knowledge and building conscientization, anti-oppressive educa-tion rejects common sense educational tools and instead embraces poststructural tools to create a hybrid zone.

Conclusion

It is clear that teacher education has tradi-tionally supported hegemonic thinking through its curricula and teaching practices. However, critical theorists and anti-oppressive educators are now able to trouble these hegemonic understandings by using critique and poststructural techniques in order to provide alternate approaches to educa-tors so that they can work to diminish oppression from schools and the community. This is the work of those who teach anti-oppressive education who may now have the capacity to promote anti-oppressive education and social justice with their eyes wide open.

References

Apple, M. W. (2004). Ideology and curriculum (3rd

ed.). New York: Taylor & Francis.

Banks, J. A. (1999). An introduction to multicultural

education (2nd ed.). USA: Allyn and Bacon.

Bishop, A. (1994). Becoming an ally: Breaking the cy-

cle of oppression. Halifax, Canada: Fernwood

Publishing.

Burr, V. (2003). Social constructionism. New York:

Routledge.

Butin, D. W. (2002). This ain't talk therapy: Problema-

tizing and extending anti-oppressive education.

Educational Researcher, 31(3), 14-16.

Center for anti-oppressive education homepage. Re-

trieved 2/5/2010, 2010, from http://

antioppressiveeducation.org/director.html

Cheang, S. (2007). Selling china: Class, gender and

orientalism at the department store. Journal of

Design History, 20(1), 1-16.

Cranton, P., & Roy, M. (2003). When the bottom falls

out of the bucket. Journal of Transformative Edu-

cation, 1(2), 86-98.

doi:10.1177/1541344603253928

Dewey, J. (1916, 2007). Democracy and education.

Middlesex, England: Echo Library.

Earick, M. (2009). Racially equitable teaching. New

York: Peter Lang.

Ellsworth, E. (1989). Why doesn't this feel empower-

ing? Working through the repressive myths of

critical pedagogy. Harvard Educational Review,

59, 297-324.

Ellsworth, E. (1997). Double binds of whiteness. In M.

Fine, L. Weis, L. C. Powell & L. M. Wong (Eds.),

Off white: Readings on race, power, and society

(pp. 259-269). New York: Routledge.

Faculty of Education, University of Regina: The Centre

for Social Justice and Anti-oppressive Education

Retrieved 4/4/2010, 2010, from http://

education.uregina.ca/index.php?

q=SocialJusticeAndAntiOppressive

Education.html

Freire, P. (2003). Pedagogy of the Oppressed (3rd

ed.). New York: Continuum.

Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: The-

ory, research & practice. New York: Teachers

College Press.

Geertz, C. (1973). Local knowledge: Further essays in

interpretative anthropology. New York: Basic

Books.

Giroux, H. (1997). Pedagogy and the politics of hope:

Theory, culture, and schooling. Boulder, CO:

Westview Press.

Hill, R. J. (2008). Troubling adult learning in the pre-

sent time. New Directions for Adult & Continuing

Education, (119), 83-92. doi:10.1002/ace.308

hooks, bell. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education

as the practice of freedom. Great Britain:

Routledge.

Jhally, S. (Producer, Director). (1997). bell hooks: Cul-

tural criticism & transformation. [Video/DVD]

Northampton, Maryland: Media Education Foun-

dation.

Kanu, Y. (2002). In their own voices: First nations stu-

dents identify some cultural mediators of their

learning in the formal school system. Alberta

84 Journal of Educational Research, 48(2), 98-121.

Kincheloe, J. (2008). Critical pedagogy primer (2nd

ed.). New York: Peter Lang.

Kincheloe, J., & McLaren, P. (2005). Rethinking critical

theory and qualitative research. In N. Denzin, &

Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of

qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 303-342). Thou-

sand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Kumashiro, K. (2000a). Toward a theory of anti-

oppressive education. Review of Educational

Research, 70(1), 25-53.

Kumashiro, K. (2000b). Teaching and learning through

desire, crisis, and difference: Perverted reflec-

tions on anti-oppressive education. Radical

Teacher, 58, 6-11.

Kumashiro, K. (2001). "Posts" perspectives on anti-

oppressive education in social studies, English,

mathematics, and science classrooms. Educa-

tional Researcher, 30(3), 3-12.

Kumashiro, K. (2002). Troubling education: Queer ac-

tivism and antioppressive pedagogy. New York:

Routledgefalmer.

Kumashiro, K. (2004). Uncertain beginnings: Learning

to teach paradoxically. Theory into Practice, 43

(2), 111-115.

Kumashiro, K. (2006). Toward an anti-oppressive the-

ory of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in

education. Race Ethnicity and Education, 9(1),

129-135. doi:10.1080/13613320500490879

Kumashiro, K. (2008). The seduction of common

sense: How the right has framed the debate on

America's schools. New York: Teachers College

Press.

Kumashiro, K. (2009). Against common sense: Teach-

ing and learning toward social justice (2nd ed.).

New York: Routledge Falmer.

Kumashiro, K. (2010). Seeing the bigger picture: Trou-

bling movements to end teacher education. Jour-

nal of Teacher Education, 61(1/2), 56-66.

Kumashiro, K., & Ngo, B. (Eds.). (2007). Six lenses for

anti-oppressive education : Partial stories, im-

probable conversations. New York: Peter Lang.

Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of cultur-

ally relevant pedagogy. American Educational

Research Journal, 32(3), 465-491.

Magnusson, J. (2000). Examining higher education

and citizenship in a global context of neoliberal

restructuring. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 32(1), 72-

88.

Manitoba Education, Citizenship and Youth. (2003).

Integrating Aboriginal perspectives into curricula:

A resource for curriculum developers, teachers,

and administrators. Winnipeg, MB: Manitoba

Education and Youth.

Manitoba Education, Citizenship and Youth. (2009).

Aboriginal education: Incorporating Aboriginal

perspectives: A theme-based curricular ap-

proach. Retrieved 3/26/2009, 2009, from http://

www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/abedu/perspectives/

index.html

McIntosh, P. (1988). White privilege and male privi-

lege: A personal account of coming to see corre-

spondences through work in women's studies.

Wellesley, MA: Wellesley College Center for Re-

search on Women.

Morrison, K. A., Robbins, H. H., & Rose, D. G. (2008).

Operationalizing culturally relevant pedagogy: A

synthesis of classroom-based research. Equity &

Excellence in Education, 41(4), 433-452.

doi:10.1080/10665680802400006

Morrow, R., & Torres, C. (2002). Reading Freire and

Habermas. New York: Teachers College Press.

Othering Retrieved 3/30/2010, 2010, from http://

www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~ulrich/rww03/othering.htm

Scholl, L. (2001). Narratives of hybridity and the chal-

lenge to multicultural education. In K. Kumashiro

(Ed.), Troubling intersections of race and sexual-

ity (pp. 141-161). Lanham, Maryland: Rowman &

Littlefield.

Sleeter, C. E. (2008). Equity, democracy, and neolib-

eral assaults on teacher education. Teaching and

Teacher Education, 24, 1947-1957. doi:10.1016/

j.tate.2008.04.003

St. Pierre, E. (2000). Poststructural feminism in educa-

tion: An overview. International Journal of Quali-

tative Studies in Education, 13(5), 477-515.

University of Regina. (2010). University of Regina

online course catalog entries. Retrieved

4/16/2010, 2010, from https://banner.uregina.ca/

prod/sct/bwckctlg.p_

display_courses

Walton, G. (2005). The notion of bullying through the

lens of Foucault and critical theory. The Journal

85

of Educational Thought, 39(1), 55.

Weedon, C. (1997). Feminist practice and poststruc-

turalist theory (2nd ed.). Victoria, Australia: Black-

well Publishing.

Woolfolk, A., Winne, P. H., & Perry, N. E. (2006). Edu-

cational psychology (3rd Canadian ed.). Toronto:

Pearson Allyn and Bacon.

Youdell, D. (2006). Subjectivation and performative

politics- Butler thinking Althusser and Foucault:

Intelligency, agency and the raced-nationed-

religioned subjects of education. British Journal

of Sociology of Education, 27(4), 511-528.

Young, J., & Graham, R. J. (2000). School and cur-

riculum reform: Manitoba frameworks & multicul-

tural teacher education. Canadian Ethnic Studies,

32(1), 143-156.

Presentations at MERN Forum # 20 Learning What Works for Social Justice

Keynote: "What won’t I do today?" Education’s Calcu-lations and Social Justice

- Catherine Taylor

Small-scale school projects that make a difference: The Manitoba grants for innovation in education pro-gram

- Nancy Buchanan

Brush out poverty

- Cameron Cross

Social justice: The risks of advocacy

- Randy Kroeker

Storytelling for social justice

- Marc Kuly

Manitoba’s ALL aboard strategy: Towards social inclu-sion

- Jan Forster

Working for Social Justice in Evergreen School Divi-sion

- Scott Hill

Developing educational leadership with a service-learning framework

- Vern Barrett, Allan Appel

Developing equity indicators for the Province of Mani-toba

- Sheila Giesbrecht, Tony Tavares

The student documentary: An implement of positive destruction

- Rob Jantz

An analytic update from the Manitoba Centre for

Health Policy: Scores on the early develop-ment in-strument and selection for reading recovery and re-sults from the child health atlas

- Noralou P. Roos, Marni Brownell, Carla Ens

Seeing teaching for social justice as part of preparing students (and teachers) for living sustainably

- Gary Babiuk, Thomas Falkenberg

Anti-racist Multiculturalism for a just society

- Khalida Tanvir Syed

Discover Canada: A deconstruction of the new citizen-ship and Immigration study guide

- Denis Hlynka

Declining participation in post-secondary education: Challenges and implications for Manitoba

- Kim Browning

Social justice in the math classroom

- Matt Reimer, Paul Betts

Finding the voices of the global south

- Charlotte Arnold, Don Metz

Education as community development: Working in solidarity to build more peaceful and democratic com-munities

- Alysha Sloane

State of the Inner City report 2009 - It takes all day to be poor

- Shauna MacKinnon

Relationship between adolescent girls’ psycho-social development and use of virtual social networking re-search

- Lesley Girling, Laura Sokal

Integrating social justice issues into the curriculum: Working toward intercultural competence

- Karen Magro

Youth citizenship programs provided through MB4Y-outh

- Chrystal Lynch

Success despite the odds: The voices of inner city youth

- Louesa Polyzoi, Laura Atkinson, Cathrine Froese

Klassen

Presentations at MERN Forum # 21

Teaching and Learning in the North

Bringing the teachings of the seven grandfathers into our classrooms: The Kenanow model of teaching

- David B. Anderson

Supporting the spirit of inclusion: Kenanow, teaching training and the L3 site

- Loretta Francois, Matilda Gibb, Brenda Firman

Science learning in the north

86

- Dawn Sutherland

What is a community school?

- Dori Hnidy, Michelle Jones

Teacher education, service learning, and community renewal

- Frederica Prince, Loretta Francois, Brenda Fir

man

Shine on north

- Kevin Chief, Gerry Zacharias

Television Conferencing and French Immersion Diplo-mas/The Science Ambassador Project

- Kathi McConnell-Hore

What makes a difference? Second year for full day kindergarten in Thompson

- Michelle Radley, Peggy Martin

Responding to community aspirations: The develop-ment, implementation and assessment of culture-

based science curricula in Canada’s North

- Barbara McMillan

How principal exchanges in an online community of practice ar e shaping conversations with teachers

- Juel Chouinard

Understanding the challenges and opportunities for recruitment and retention of in-school administrators in northern Manitoba.

- Amjad Malik

Embracing holistic pedagogy in the restorative justice program

- Rose Antsanen, John George Hansen Presentations at MERN Forum # 22 Education for Sustainability

Measuring knowledge, attitudes and behaviors con-cerning sustainable development among tenth grade students in Manitoba

- Alex C. Michalos

Towards anti-oppressive education in teacher educa-tion programs in Manitoba

- Chris Brown

Connectedness to nature

- Mike Klassen

Equity: Foundational to education for sustainable de-velopment

- Donna Michaels, Mathew Gustafson, Nance

Dane

An analysis of topics, abstracts, locations and issues in MEd research projects and theses completed at Brandon University 1990-2010

- Robin Enns, Lisa Maxwell

Water sustainability: An indigenous perspective

- Garry Abigosis

Learning today to improve tomorrow

- Paul Cuthbert, Tyler Moran

Sustaining students with disabilities in post-secondary education

- Chris Brown, Michelle Magnusson

Leaders of change

- Jacqueline Kirk

Developing scientific literacy through Education for sustainable development in a small school network

- Rodelyn Stoeber, Fernand Saurette

Teaching teachers about sustainability and global citi-zenship

- Peter Denton, Barbara McMillan

Education for sustainability in Manitoba: What is and what should be

- Gary Babiuk, Thomas Falkenberg

Sustainability for future generations through land based education

- Randy Koshel

Perspectives in education for sustainable development

- Carolee Buckler, Anne MacDiarmid

Final lines in the sand - a foundational concept in edu-cating for sustainability

- Gordon Robinson

Engaging learners using social networks in teacher education

- Michael Nantais, Jackie Kirk

Exploring different roles that universities play in facili-tating learning for sustainability

- Laura Sims

Exploring parental attitudes toward outdoor explora-tion

- Michael Link

Knowledge of the forest: Supporting sustainability edu-cation with teachers-in-training

- Betty Lynxleg

Launch of the Manitoba sustainability education direc-tory

- Christina McDonald, Lindsay Irwin

Supporting and sustaining schools toward indigenized curriculum: Exploring the possibilities of the indige-nous inquiry kit model

- Helen Armstrong Presentations at MERN Forum # 23 Transforming Practices for Teaching, Learning and Leading

The great divide between theory and practice in teacher education programs backdrop to the research and praxis

- Jerry Ameis

Urban and inner-city studies in Winnipeg’s North End

87

- Jim Silver

Transforming identities: Creating a vision of leadership in occupational therapy

- Natalie MacLeod Schroeder

The transformative practice of anti-oppressive educa-tion

- Chris Brown

Aligning hallway pedagogy with human rights: Learn-ings from the First National Climate Survey on Homo-phobia and Transphobia in Canadian High Schools

- Catherine Taylor

Exploring different roles that universities play in facili-tating learning for sustainability

- Laura Sims

School improvement as transformative practice

- Lesley Weisshaar, Scott Hill, Alyshia Sloane

Literacy with ICT: A model for the 21st Century

- Michelle Larose- Kuzenko

Project SILA: Exploration of Inuit concept Silarjuaq – understanding of constant flux

- Margaret Kress White

The [R]evolution of the Internet & higher education: Shifting paradigms

- Glenn Cockerline, Mike Nantais, Jackie Kirk,

Chris Brown

Belonging: A critical place-based art education re-search project

- Pam Reichert

Pause for a period: Caring and critical conversations for menstrual curriculum change

- Jennifer Watt

Working toward transformative learning and educa-tional change: Pathways and possibilities

- Karen Magro

Dancing with the elephant: Teacher education for the inclusion of First Nations, Métis and Inuit histories, worldviews and pedagogies

- Sherry Peden

Gift + passion = better world: Supporting teacher lead-ership for social justice

- Danielle Kolton

Transforming rural education through effective profes-sional development

- Candy Skyhar

From knowledge to action: Defining effective and func-tional school division planning practices to maximize organizational improvement and change

- Lesley Eblie Trudel

Teaching for empowerment, action and change (TEACH): A proposed forum for social justice educa-tors

- Cathryn Smith

Handing them the sword: Empowering First Nations and Métis students through the ELA curriculum

- Anne-Marie Rochford

Creating a culture of critique, justice & care in teacher education

- Mike Nantais, Lark Gamey

The rules of engagement: Innovation as professional practice

- Howard Kowalchuk, Adair Warren

The development of appreciative leadership in Sunrise School Division

- Ralph Mason, Wayne Leckie Presentations at MERN Forum # 24 Windows on the World: Career Development Mani-toba Children and Youth

Career development in the middle years: A pathway to keeping students engaged

- Karen Courchene

Manitoba’s career development strategy – “Your Fu-ture, Your Way”

- Gail Langlais, Lindsay Kaluznick

Career development guide for Manitoba school lead-ers

- Brad Couch

Transitioning from high school to post-secondary edu-cation in Manitoba

- Ann Barbour-Stevenson

Mentoring: A strategy for encouraging at risk youth to set career goals

- Alan C. Wiebe

Mentorship in the arts: Introducing youth to careers in the arts

- Thom Sparling

Through an essential skills lens

- Lindsay Laidlaw, Jonathan Cote

Building a culture of entrepreneurship

- Shaun Hampton

‘Selling’ career planning to youth - lessons we’ve learned

- Nora Murdock, Kelly Selkirk

Anokiiwin: Career development for the Aboriginal stu-dent

- Karen Courchene

Met school – from curriculum to community

- Adair Warren, David Zynoberg

Technical Vocational Initiative and the Professional Learning Group

- Peter Narth, Tony Fiorentino

L’influence des parents sur les intentions postsecon-daires de leur enfant

88

- Gilbert Michaud

Restoring the sacred program and honouring gifts pro-gram

- Raena Baker, Dana Connolly

Career Trek

- Darrell Cole

College and career readiness for all K-12 students: Need to help students to start the life journey effec-tively in order to finish well

- Grace Ukasoanya, Marlene Atleo

The green jobs and sustainable development careers guidebook

- Natalie Swayze

The career development paradigm shift - Tom Prins

Presentations at MERN Forum # 25 Reaching Out to All Learners Constructing, alternative learning for all Manitobans

- Amelia Gamvrelis

Special education students’ perceptions of classroom support

- John Kreshewski

Lost prizes: Recognizing and nurturing talent in at-risk populations

- Ken McCluskey

The importance of place/personal stories told through the map as art

- Andrea Bell Stuart

Career and technology studies: The action option

- Ernie Bart

Kenanow: Inclusivity in teacher education and practice

- Brenda Firman

Including sexual and gender minority students: Six key lessons learned from LGBTQ youth

- Catherine Taylor

Met school - From curriculum to community

- David Zynoberg

Using Elluminate to create learning communities

- Rodelyn Stoeber

Lines in the sand: Are at-risk students being forced from our schools?

- Ken McCluskey

"The 21st Century chalkboard" ... Extending the class-room walls

- Bradley Hampson

NOTES