A New Vision

Edicts ofKing Asoka

A New Vision

SukritiSahai

Edicts of King Asoka: A New Vision


Sukriti Sahai

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Sukriti Sahai

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Contents

Chapter 1 ASHOKA: THE GREAT ..................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 MAURYAN PERIOD ........................................................................................ 28

Chapter 3 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY .............................................................................. 83

Chapter 4 BUDDHIST EDUCATION SYSTEM ............................................................. 107

Chapter 5 ASHOKA AND BUDDHISM AS REFLECTED IN THE ASOKAN

EDICTS.............................................................................................................. 134

Chapter 6 ASHOKA: SOME INDIAN AND SRI LANKAN LEGENDS AND

THEIR DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................ 151

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ASHOKA: THE GREAT

EARLY LIFE OF ASHOKA

Ashoka Priyadarshi, ascended the Magadhan throne in the 273B.C. Ashoka was one of the greatest monarchs in the Indian historyand his consecration initiated a new epoch in the history of ancientIndia. Ashoka reigned over most of present-day India after a seriesof millitary conqest.

Stabilizing his empire in Magadha Ashoka expanded his Empirefrom Afganistan to the parts of Persia in the west and to the presentboundaries of West Bengal and Assam in the east and also to thedistant south upto Mysore. Ashoka with his sheer sophisticationintroduced the measures for the spiritual and the material welfareof his subjects and left an imperishable mark in the ancient historyof India.

However the information regarding Ashoka‘s early life andachievement is limited to the literary and the epigraphic records ofthe contemporary era. The inscriptions of the rock edicts and theepigraphic records of the contemporary era do not throw much lighton the early life and career of Ashoka.

Hence the scholars and the historians depend on the records ofthe Buddhist texts to etch out the details about the early life andcareer of Ashoka Priyadarshi. The principal source about thechildhood and gradual development of Ashoka are the Buddhist textof Divyavadana and Mahavamsa. These Buddhist texts narratesthat after the death of Bindusara disorder and anarchy crept upthe society and there was a severe fratricidal struggle among thesons of Bindusara for the throne.

Ashoka, in his early youth was involved in this struggle and issaid to have killed ninety-nine of his brothers who are the possiblesuccessor of the throne of Bindusara. He appeared only the life ofTishya, who was his younger brother. Ashoka walked through theblood of his brother to the throne of Magadha.

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In the early years of his career, Ashoka had a violent andtyrannical disposition and hence he was popular among his subjectswith he title of Chandasoka. However the story regarding the earlylife and the beginning of his career as a king have been refuted bythe scholars.

They have put forward several statements in support of theirviews. According to the scholars, apart from the Buddhist texts, therewas no such independent evidence, supporting the fact of thefratricidal struggle for the throne. Secondly in the Rock Edict V,Ashoka had expressed his deep love and anxious care for the familyestablishments of his brothers existing in the capitals and in thecountries.

The scholars at the same time pointed out that the Rock EdictV dated back to the thirteenth year of Ashoka‘s reign. This indicatesthat some of Ashoka‘s brother was still living and responsiblyholding the charge of the provinces under Ashoka.

Unless Ashoka was anxious about his family he would not havementioned about his brother in the rock edicts. Dr. Bhandarkar hasaptly pointed out that the Buddhist text emphasized the greatnessof Buddhism and tried to point out that how Chandasoka convertedinto Dharmasoka.

It was however concluded that there was probably a contestbetween the sons of Bindusara over the claim of the Magadhanthrone and Ashoka succeeded at least against the claim of hisstepbrother Susima. The career of Ashoka as the king of Magadhawas however initiated before the four years after his consecration.

The Ceylonese chronicles provide several information regardingAshoka‘s career as the king of Magadha. The historians opine thatif the Ceylonese sources are true then Ashoka‘s coronation wasdelayed probably due to the struggle for the throne of Magadha.But the scholars at the same time pointed out that there is noexisting evidence in support of this “gratuitous assumption” ofstruggle for the throne.

From the rock edicts of Ashoka it is revealed that he dated thechronology of his reign from the time of his coronation. Depending onthis fact, Dr Bhandarkar has rejected the theory of “four years gap”approached by the Ceylonese texts. Eggermott however made a criticalanalysis of the Ceylonese texts and holds that since the Ceylonese textsmaintained different chronological patterns and contained severalversions, it could not provide any authentic verification about the reignof Ashoka as a king. Henceforth the Ceylonese texts are less reliableto the historians in the modern days.


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The historians after a prolonged controversy regarding the earlylife of Ashoka have unanimously opined that when Ashoka was aprince, he was appointed as the Governor of Taxila and he performedhis responsibility competently. At that time he subdued successfullythe rebellion of the Taxilian people. He conquered the khasa countrysituated between the Jhelum and Kashmir.

When Bindusara fell ill Ashoka came to Pataliputra and beingthe most competent son ascended the throne of Magadha with thetitle Devanampiya Piyadasi Ashoka. Neither the contemporarymanuscripts nor his own inscriptions throw much light to theancestral parentage of Ashoka. However a group of historians haveopined that Ashoka was the son of the Brahmi wife of Bindusara.Dharma or Subhadrangi, the Brahmin wife of Bindusara had twosons- Ashoka and Vigatasoka.

Yet the modern scholars do not support the view and they holda different view that Ashoka was the son of a Greek Queen ofBindusara. Later the interpreters of ancient history has opined thatif the source of the modern scholars are to be believed then it maybe inferred that Ashoka must be of mixed descendants and contestedfor the throne.

The modern interpreters have also said that Ashoka‘s closerelation with the Greeks and his leanings towards Buddhism maybe due to his mixed ancestry. The Buddhist traditions depict thatin his early life, before being a king Ashoka was appointed as theviceroy of Ujjaini. In this course of time he fell in love with Devi,the daughter of the merchant of Vidisha. Ashoka married her andhad two children Mahendra and Sanghamitra by her.

Later becoming a king he married again and as the AllahabadPillar inscription depicts, Ashoka had many wives. Furthermore theAllahabad Pillar inscription narrated the story of Ashoka‘s secondwife Karuvaki and son Tivra. According to Dr Bhandarkar, Ashokain his early life enjoyed the closeness with different women andhad a number of concubines in different provinces under him.

However there is no authentic historical document supportingthe fact that Ashoka had many sons by his different wives. Aboutthe sons of Ashoka, his own inscriptions are the principal yetauthentic sources. Ashoka‘s inscription refers to four of kumaras(princes) who are appointed as the viceroy of three provinces namelyUjjaini, Toshila, Taxila and one Aryaputra (the crowned prince) asthe viceroy of Suvarnagiri. Ashoka‘s own rock edicts are the principalsurviving documents of his reign. In the Rock edict VI he depictedhis own private life.


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According to Ashoka himself, when he was freed from the royalduties he used to sit in the dining table and enjoyed the company ofthe inmates of the royal palace or harem. Sometimes he used tovisit the stud and enjoyed the horse ride. Rock edict VII narratedthat Ashoka enjoyed the Vihara Yatra and hunting excursion, whichwas abolished in the subsequent years when he turned out to be aBuddhist. It is again known from the Rock Edicts I that Ashokawas very fond of meat and pea-owls.

This is later corroborated by the statement of Buddhaghosa thatin the 4th Century B.C, people of Maddhyadesa was very much fondof meat and peafowl. Before embracing Buddhism as his religion,Ashoka‘s career was marked with mighty conquest and the valiantwarfare. Moreover he was a benevolent king and worked for thewelfare of his subjects.

Before being a Buddhist, he maintains the principles of toleranceand benevolence and he was popular among his subjects. Ashokaarranged festivals and or Samajas and sought to enlist theattachment of the people in order to provide them entertainment.

During the festivals the people were provided with sumptuousdishes and were entertained with music, dancing, wrestling etc. Inthe subsequent years, Ashoka became the advocate of non-violenceand abolished the sumptuous dish of the Samajas where meat wasthe principal food.

Moreover he introduced several administrative reforms includingthe release of the prisoners in every year of his coronation, in order.

Ashoka, the great is often ranked among the greatest monarchof ancient India. As the historical records depicting his early lifeand career suggest, Ashoka, before embracing Buddhism was amighty conqueror and a sophisticated solicitor of the welfare of thepeople.

CONQUEST OF KALINGA

While the early part of Ashoka’s reign was apparently quitebloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha’s teaching afterhis conquest of Kalinga, on the east coast of India in the present-day state of Orissa.

Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty anddemocracy; with its monarchical-cum-parliamentary democracy, itwas quite an exception in ancient Bharata, as there existed theconcept of Rajdharma, meaning the duty of the rulers, which wasintrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and Kshatriyadharma.


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The pretext for the start of the Kalinga War (265 BC or 263 BC)is uncertain. One of Susima’s brothers might have fled to Kalinga andfound official refuge there. This enraged Ashoka immensely. He wasadvised by his ministers to attack Kalinga for this act of treachery.

Ashoka then asked Kalinga’s royalty to submit before hissupremacy. When they defied this diktat, Ashoka sent one of hisgenerals to Kalinga to make them submit. The general and hisforces were, however, completely routed through the skilled tacticsof Kalinga’s commander-in-chief. Ashoka, baffled at this defeat,attacked with the greatest invasion ever recorded in Indian historyuntil then.

Kalinga put up a stiff resistance, but they were no match forAshoka’s brutal strength. The whole of Kalinga was plundered anddestroyed: Ashoka’s later edicts say that about 100,000 people werekilled on the Kalinga side and 10,000 from Ashoka’s army; thousandsof men and women were deported.

CONSEQUENCES OF THECONQUEST OF KALINGA

Following were the main consequences of the conquest ofKalinga—

1. The war of Kalinga changed the heart and mind of Ashoka.A revolutionary change was brought about in the life ofAshoka. The horrors of this war convinced him that it wasabsolute wrong and evil, which should have no place in hisscheme of affairs.

2. The conquest brought about a significant change in theimperialistic policy of Ashoks. Ashoka made up his mind toconquer the people not by sword but by following the path ofDharma. The place of ‘Digvijay’ was taken by ‘Dhram Vijay’.

3. Ashoka who was the worshipper of Shiva before Kalinga war,inclined towards the Buddhism. He took keen interests inthe study of the Buddhist literature and made necessaryarrangements to spread Buddhism throughout the countryand abroad.

4. The policy of peace and non-violence adopted by the Ashokaafter the war of Kalinga had brought into its train certainadverse effects. He made no use of the army in any sort ofwarfare. Hence, his soldiers became idle gradually. The idlenessof the army of Ashoka was responsible for the downfall of theMauryan Empire.


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5. A great change in the system of administration was observedafter the war of Kalinga. Ashoka devoted full time to thewelfare of the people. He did not pay attention to theluxuries and pleasures of the royal palace. The publicwelfare and the prosperity of the subjects became the goalof his life.

ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS OF ASHOKA

Ashoka was one of the famous rulers of the Mauryan dynasty,under whom the dynasty expanded to its largest magnitude.

The structure of Government that was set up by ChandraguptaMaurya in order to manage the administration of such a vast Empirewas maintained by His son, Bindusara. During Ashoka, expanse ofthe Mauryan Territory was extended because of his militaryexpedition.

To manage the administrative functions of a vast territory,Ashoka introduced several administrative reforms. With the helpof such reforms he continued to maintain a centralisedadministration and at the same time capably managed the provincialadministration thereby ensuring social harmony.

The structure of the Mauryan Government was a centralisedone. Ashoka was at the helm of his administration with his brotherTishya as the deputy. The crown prince and the other kumaras inthe sphere of provincial administration also assisted Ashoka.

He appointed a group of trusted ministers who always helpedhim in the matters of administrative policies. Historians have opinedthat consultation prevailed with the ministers during Ashoka‘s reignbefore adopting any administrative policies and during emergencies.From the Rock Edicts III and VI it is evident that Ashoka continuedhis grandfather‘s practice of consulting the inner ministers or“mantrins” for general and emergency matters.

Thus the structure of the central Government duringAshoka, remained more or less unchanged. The only differencewas that he had introduced a higher level of philanthropic spiritin his government and administrative policies compared to hismighty grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya. Ashoka, howeverdid not deviate from the policy of centralisation of hisforefathers.

Though he granted some autonomy to the Samghas like Brijji,Kambojas and Panchalas, he never let them loose to raise a revoltagainst the vast Mauryan Empire. Some historians describe Ashokaas a protector of laws and not the propagator of laws, but the Ashokan


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edicts do not justify this claim. Though he followed the policy of non-violence and benevolence as the king, he amended the criminal laws,whenever he felt it necessary.

That is why he also introduced the legal reforms like DandaSamahara and Vyavahara Samahara. Ashoka was the sovereignhead of the Mauryan Empire in every inch, as the Arthashastrainstructed him to be.

The traditional Mauryan concept of kingship was howeversoftened by the administrative policies adopted by Ashoka becauseof his paternalist concept. In the Kalinga Edict, Ashoka declared,“All men are my Children”.

In another Rock edict, Ashoka declared that he was indebted tohis subjects and he considered it to be his holy duty to serve thepeople. Therefore he appointed Pativedakas or reporters, who wouldreport to the king about the general and public affairs for the kingto take necessary steps.

Ashoka introduced several reforms in the sphere of provincialadministration, which brought about many improvements in theexisting system of provincial government. Ashoka retained thetraditional administrative divisions of the Empire into provincesor pradesas or districts. These Provinces were again subdivided intoAharas or Vishyas or subdivisions and Janapadas, which werefurther subdivided into villages.

During Ashoka there were only five provinces as the historianshave opined. In order to bring the troublesome provinces under fullcontrol of the centre and to administer good government to them,he appointed the crowned prince at the head of the provincialgovernment. The crowned prince acting as the provincial governorswere responsible for the administrative and general affairs of theseprovinces.

One of the important policies he adopted for the provincialadministration was that, Ashoka used to alter the provincialgovernors from time to time. Moreover Ashoka had appointed manyfunctionaries and dharma Mahamattas and dharma Yutas to copeup with the increasing burden of the missionary work and welfareschemes.

In Ashokan regime, Rajukas, Yutas, Pradesikas were entrustedwith special assignments in the sphere of provincial administration.The Mahamattas were invested with the specific departments withspecific titles.

The Dharma mahamattas appointed by him looked after thematerial and spiritual well being of the people. The Adhyaksha


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mahamattas were entrusted with the task of the well being of thewomen. The Anta mahamattas were appointed for the generaladministration of the frontier province.

The Nagara mahamattas were a class of mahamattas in chargeof the cities and towns. They were often engaged in periodical toursin order to collect news about the administrative and general affairsthroughout the empire. In Ashoka‘s regime, the Mahamattas hadbecome a highly responsible cadre of personnel.

The mahamattas in charge of providing justice, were asked byAshoka to follow the path of Dhamma and to be free from anger,fear and other passions while delivering justice. From Rock EdictXII, it is evident that there were a group of special officers calledVrajabhumika.

Dr Bhandarkar interpreted the term “Vrajabhumika” as theSuperintendent of the cow pen. But Dr. R. K Mukherjee interpretedthe term “Vraja” as the public utility department. So theVrajabhumika was a group of public utility department. So accordingto him Vrajabhumika was a Public Utility Officer supervising theexecution of the Ashokan welfare schemes like the construction ofroads, digging of wells, planting of shady mangroves etc. Duringthe reign of Ashoka, the officials called Rajukas had held asignificant place.

Ashoka in his administrative policy implemented the Rajukasas the sole agency to execute his plans of reforms. Originally theRajukas were the officials in charge of measurement of land andsettled those if there arose any dispute.

Since they were connected with the land revenue department,they normally had a great influence in the rural areas. Ashokaduring implementing the administrative policies, enhanced theirpowers and positions and made them the most important officersof Janapadas.

Gradually the Rajukas became the key officers and wereentrusted to execute Ashoka‘s most welfare projects andadministrative reforms. They not only acted as judges with the powerto justify wrong sentences and wrong judgments, moreover theymade charitable offers to the Sramanas and Bhikshus implementedby Danda Samata and Vyavahara Samata.

The function of the Rajukas is enumerated in the Ashokan Pillaredict IV. However Romila Thapar had pointed out that the Rajukaswere the junior officers employed in the village areas. But most ofthe historians have unanimously opined that Ashoka upgraded thestatus of the Rajukas. In the sphere of justice and civic life, Ashoka


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introduced many reforms because of his humanitarian and paternalsentiment.

He introduced the officials in order to execute justice properlyand to preach the principles of Dhamma. Moreover there werespecial groups of officials in order to organise charities, promotetoleration and reduce the burden of punishment of the criminals.Ashoka released the prisoners from jail on the anniversary of hiscoronation. The principles of uniformity of penalty and uniformityof judicial procedures were enforced.

Moreover during implementing administrative policies, Ashokatried to promote the spiritual welfare of his subjects by preachingdharma and by inculcating toleration among his subjects, he aspiredto have a social harmony. At the same time he issued ordinancesprohibiting animal sacrifices and injury to animals and initiatedwelfare programmes for the well being of the subjects.

Such a planned and balanced structure of Government witheffective administrative reforms, had established the MauryanEmpire under Ashoka as one of the supreme powerful empires inIndia.

During his time, the Mauryan Empire experienced a fair civicand social life and was free of any sectarian revolt and internal chaosand anarchy. Owing to his effective administration, Ashoka is oftenconsidered as one of the greatest monarchs of India.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ASHOKA’S DHAMMA

Ashoka was the first king of the Maurya dynasty who acceptedBuddhism not only as his personal religion but also established itas his state religion. Ashoka followed a religious policy of his ownand is remembered by posterity for his famous policy of “Dhamma”or “Law of Piety”.

After converting into Buddhism, Ashoka disseminated theteachings and knowledge of the Buddhist scriptures. He always hadfaith in morals and principles and had high ideals in life. Thesecame to be known as Dhamma of Emperor Ashoka.

The word “Dhamma” is the Prakrit version of the Sanskrit word“Dharma”. Ashoka`s Dhamma is a philosophical entity thathighlighted on the high ideals and spiritual enlightenment as a keyto successful life. When Pillar Edict II was translated, it describedthe “middle path”, the way to enlightenment through Dharma thatBuddha taught in his first sermon. Ashoka aspired for a harmoniousenvironment where everyone could co-exist peacefully irrespectiveof his or her caste creed and religion.


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Some of his ideals were to shun war and spread peace, stop animalsacrifices, respect elders, masters treating slaves like humans,promoting vegetarianism, etc. These ideals if followed correctly ledone to a higher level of living and one could finally attain “nirvana”.

As an able king, Ashoka took up the initiative and introducedwelfare programs for the subjects, which was also one of the policiesof his “Dhamma”.

Ashoka appointed Dhamma Mahamattas who were basicallyofficers looking after the spread of these principles across Ashoka`sempire. Ashoka propagated the principles of Dhamma not just inIndia but also in countries like Sri Lanka, Burma and other SouthEast Asian nations.

Ashoka`s religious policy of “Dhamma” had carved out apermanent place for him in the niche of ancient Indian history.However there is a keen controversy among the historians aboutthe religious policy of “Dhamma” and they have put forward severalqueries regarding the true character of Dhamma and its associationwith Buddhism. Historians have defined that Ashoka`s personalreligion and his attachment with Dhamma was completely differentfrom each other.

They have also added that Ashoka`s association with the highideals of Buddhism was gradual and not a sudden outcome ofimpulse. Since the rock edicts of Ashoka do not provide anyinformation about the association of Dhamma with Buddhism,historians are at variance regarding this point. MoreoverAshoka in his edicts do not mention the name of any Buddhistmonk or any guru or teacher who showed him the path forEnlightenment.

Dhamma as reported by the historians was a policy of Ashoka inorder to unify a nation so large that the people of one region couldshare the little in common with those of other regions. Dharma wouldbring harmony to India in the form of compassion. Serving as aguiding light, a voice of conscience, dharma can lead one to be arespectful, responsible human being.

Edward D`cruz interprets the Ashokan dharma as a “religion tobe used as a symbol of a new imperial unity and a cementing forceto blend the diverse and heterogeneous elements of the empire”.However, one of the elementary questions is the chronology ofAshoka`s preaching of Dhamma.

According to Bhandarkar, Ashoka became a Buddhist in the 9thyear of his reign, the year after the conquest of Kalinga. But otherscholars confirm his attachment towards Buddhist Church in the


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8th year of his reign. Bongard Levin however concluded a criticalstudy of the evidences gathered from Rock edict XIII.

According to him, Ashoka`s personal attachment towardsBuddhism and his propagation of the ideals of Dhamma arecompletely different from one another.

Personally Ashoka was a benevolent king who followed the dutiesof an ideal king before embracing Buddhism. “Dhamma” did not

influence the personal religion followed by Ashoka.

INFLUENCE OF ASHOKA’S DHAMMA ON HIS IMPERIAL POLICY

Emperor Ashoka undoubtedly has to be credited with the firstserious attempt to develop a Buddhist polity, this putting intopractice the Buddha’s own advice on kingship and governmentcontained in the Dasa Raja Dharma, including the following tenprecepts:

• Buddha’s ten precepts:– be liberal and avoid selfishness.– maintain a high moral character.– be prepared to sacrifice one’s own pleasure for the well-

being of the subjects.– be honest and maintain absolute integrity.– be kind and gentle.– lead a simple life for the subjects to emulate.– be free from hatred of any kind.– exercise non-violence.– practice patience.– respect public opinion to promote peace and harmony.

Ashoka published 14 edicts, as the basis on his new policy. Thesewere:

1. No living being were to be slaughtered or sacrificed.2. humans and animals are to be provided medical care

throughout his territory.3. Every five years his monks would tour the empire teaching

the dharma.4. All should respect parents, priests and monks5. Prisoners must be humanely treated.6. concers regarding the welfare of his people must be reported

to him at all times no matter where he is or what he is doing.7. Since all religions desire self-control and purity of heart, all

are welcome.


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8. He prefers to give to monks and Brahmans and to the needythan to receive gifts from others.

9. Reverence for the dharma and a proper attitude towardsteachers is better than marriage or other worldly celebrations.

10.Glory and fame count for nothing if his people do not repectthe dharma.

11.Giving the dharma to others is the best gift anyone can have.12.Whoever praises his own religion, due to excessive devotion,

and condemns others with the thought “Let me glorify myown religion,” only harms his own religion. Therefore contact(between religions) is good.

13.Conquest by the dharma is superior to conquest by force butif conquest by force is carried out, it should be ‘forbearanceand light punishment’.

14.He has written his edicts so that people might act inaccordance with them (summary of the 14 major rock edictsbased on Dhammika’s translation, 1993).

Ashoka replaced conquest by force with what he called “conquestby righteousness” (dhammavijaya). He was possibly the firstmonarch to renounce violence, yet he remained a powerful andinfluential king, although the empire did decline after his death.

MEASURES ADOPTED BY ASHOKA’S DHAMMA ON HISPROPAGATION OF BUDDHISM

PROPAGATION OF BUDDHISM

Ashoka is mainly remembered in the ancient texts as a patronof Buddhist missionary endeavor. His son Venerable Mahinda anddaughter Sanghamitta, a Bhikkuni (whose name means “friend ofthe Sangha”), were also prominent in this cause, establishingBuddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and taking copies of the Palicanon of Buddhist scripture (the Tipitaka) with them, which wasformalized at the third Buddhist Council convened by Ashoka.

Ashoka built thousands of stupas and Viharas (monasteries/temples) for Buddhist followers. Some of his missionary monks mayhave been Greek. The Stupas of Sanchi are world famous and thestupa named “Sanchi Stupa 1” was built by Emperor Ashoka. Duringthe remaining portion of Ashoka’s reign, he pursued an official policyof nonviolence (ahimsa). Wildlife became protected by the king’s lawagainst sport hunting and branding; even the unnecessary slaughteror mutilation of animals was immediately abolished.


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Limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons, butAshoka also promoted the concept of vegetarianism. Ashoka alsoshowed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them outside one dayeach year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of thecommon man by building universities for study (including provisionsfor women to study) and water transit and irrigation systems fortrade and agriculture.

He treated his subjects as equals, regardless of their religion,political leanings, or caste. The kingdoms surrounding his, so easilyoverthrown, were instead made to be well-respected allies. Ashoka’srole in helping to spread Buddhism cannot be underestimated.Bhikkunis in Sri Lanka today trace their lineage right back toAshoka’s daughter and to the retinue of nuns who traveled to SriLanka with her.

Although the order had a thousand-year absence in Sri Lanka,it was preserved in Korea and Japan and re-introduced into SriLanka in the last century. Sri Lanka remains one of the mostimportant Buddhist societies today and a center of Buddhistscholarship. Had Ashoka not helped to spread Buddhism beyondIndia, it may not have survived, as it was largely disappearing fromIndia (until re-introduced in the modern period) in the eleventhcentury C.E. (with the exception of the area of East Bengal borderingon Burma).

Instead, it spread to China, Japan and beyond. Origen refers toBuddhist missionaries reaching England. Buddhism may not havereached China until the first century C.E., but there are stories ofone of Ashoka’s missionaries visiting China. The revival of interestin Buddhism in India is also attributable to Ashoka, since it wasthe rediscovery of his edicts that helped to stimulate interest.

Ashoka is acclaimed for constructing hospitals for animals andrenovating major roads throughout India. After his change of heart,Ashoka came to be known as Dhammashoka (Sanskrit, meaning“Ashoka, the follower of Dharma”). Ashoka defined the mainprinciples of dharma (dhamma) as nonviolence, tolerance of all sectsand opinions, obedience to parents, respect for the Brahmans andother religious teachers and priests, liberality towards friends,humane treatment of servants, and generosity towards all.

These principles suggest a general ethic of behavior to which noreligious or social group could object. Indeed, from his twelfth edict,Ashoka appears to have pioneered not only inter-religious dialoguebut also the concept that all religions share common truths andvalues. Some critics say that Ashoka was afraid of more wars, but


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among his neighbors, including the Seleucid Empire and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom established by Diodotus I, none could match hisstrength.

He was a contemporary of both Antiochus I Soter and hissuccessor Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid dynasty as well asDiodotus I and his son Diodotus II of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom.His inscriptions and edicts demonstrate that he was familiar withthe Hellenic world (some were written in Greek) but he was neverin awe of it. His edicts, which talk of friendly relations, give thenames of both Antiochus of the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemy III ofEgypt.

The fame of the Mauryan Empire was widespread from the timethat Ashoka’s grandfather Chandragupta Maurya defeated SeleucusNicator, the founder of the Seleucid Dynasty. Some of the informationwe have on Mauryan history is from the work of Greek historiansand writers. As a result of Alexander the Great’s imperial andcultural project, the world of India and the Hellenic world were nowlinked—and to a certain degree, shared a common view of the widerworld both inhabited.

The Pillars of Ashoka at Sarnath are the most popular of therelics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, these pillars record thevisit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the third century B.C.E.. Intranslating these monuments, historians have learned the bulk ofwhat is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire.

It is difficult to determine whether certain events ever happened,but the stone etchings depict clearly how Ashoka wanted to bethought of and how he wanted to be remembered. Most of the pillarson which his edicts were inscribed are between 40 and 50 feet talland weigh up to fifty tons each. They have been found in about thirtylocations in modern-day India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.Ashoka’s own words as known from his edicts are: “All men are mychildren.

I am like a father to them. As every father desires the good andthe happiness of his children, I wish that all men should be happyalways.” Certainly, Ashoka’s dharma was intended to be a polityaround which all in his heterogeneous kingdom could unite, and ithas something in common with Akbar the Great’s sulh-i-kull policyof a later but not dissimilar time.

ESTIMATE OF ASHOKA

Asoka was “the greatest of kings” surpassing Alexander the Greatand Julius Caesar and other renowned Emperors of the world.


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According to H.G. Wells “Amidst the tens and thousands of namesof monarchs that crowd the columns of history, the name of Asokashines and shines almost alone, a star”.

Asoka was true to his ideals. He was not a dreamer but a manof practical genius. His Dhamma is so universal that it appeals tohumanity even today.

He was an example in history for his benevolent administrationand also for following the policy of non-aggression even after hisvictory in the war. His central ideal was to promote the welfare ofhumanity.

DOWNFALL OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

The Imperial fabric of the Mauryans became extinct with thedeath of Brihadratha, the last ruler of Mauryan lineage.

Historians have depicted that after the death of Ashoka,Mauryan Empire lost its former vitality. Though the Empirecontinued to exist for the next fifty years after Ashoka‘s death, thelater Mauryas clung to the throne of Pataliputra with receding glory.The vast Mauryan Empire was disintegrated and the provincialgovernors began to unfurl their flag of independence.

Moreover the sectarian conflict and foreign invasions weakenedthe strong foundation of the Mauryan Empire founded by the mightyChandragupta Maurya. Finally when Brihadratha, the last king ofMauryan lineage was assassinated by his general PushyamitraShunga, Mauryan Empire came to a complete extinction.

Though decay of the dynastic Empires was natural, both theclassical and modern historians have surmised several causesbehind the downfall of such a charismatic Mauryan Empire. Theyhave categorised the causes behind the downfall of the Mauryasinto two broad categories - Primary and secondary or other causes.

According to the historians, the sole cause behind the decline ofthe Mauryas after Ashoka was his weak successors. After Ashoka‘sdemise, there was none among his heirs to equal the gigantic taskof maintaining unity within the vast Empire. Moreover thesuccessors of Ashoka had been reared in the tradition of non-violenceand the policy of Dharma Vijaya.

To them, aggressive imperialism initiated by ChandraguptaMaurya was a dim idea. As a result they had neither will nor thestrength to bridle the process of disruption within the Empire. Noneof Ashoka‘s successors except Dasharatha could really understandand implement the Dharma Vijaya policy inaugurated by theenigmatic man. The later Mauryas followed the policy of Dharma


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Vijaya only by forbidding any armed resistance against the invadersand internal revolutionaries.

As a result the very foundation of the Mauryas was shattered.Apart from their weakness, another primary cause for thedismemberment of the Mauryan Empire was the ambition of theMaurya princes. The princes ruling in the provinces identifiedthemselves with the spirit of local autonomy. They denied theirallegiance to the central authority and raised the standard of revoltchallenging the sovereign authority.

Moreover the Rajukas were entrusted with the autonomouspower in the province, because after the death of Ashoka, the weaksuccessors could not control the revolts raised by the powerfulRajukas. Moreover since the Mauryan princes were too ambitious,they demanded for the partition of the Mauryan Empire. As a result,the vast Maurya Empire during its dying days was disintegratedinto several parts.

The governors or the independent head of the provinces, laterallied with the Yavanas to challenge the central authority atPataliputra. Thus Mauryan Empire began showing signs of breakingup after the death of Ashoka.

Thirdly, the Mauryan Government became unpopular becauseof the high handedness of the provincial governors. The provincialgovernors particularly committed oppression and the peoplerevolted. The indication of ministerial revolt is also found duringthe reign of Bindusara; the Kalinga Rock edicts testify theministerial revolt in his reign. Though the previous rulers werecompetent enough to subdue the revolt, the weak successors ofAshoka could not hold it back.

The theory of ministerial revolt is found in the Puranas and incontemporary literary records. The theory of the Puranas is alsocorroborated in the later ages by Romila Thapar. During the LaterMauryan period, the Maurya court and the nobilities were dividedinto two rival sections. One of these was headed by PushyamitraShunga and the other by a minister, who somehow managed toappoint his own sons as the governors of Vidarbha and Vidisha. Theclash between the rival groups in the Mauryan court destroyed thevigour of administration.

The downfall of the Mauryan Empire was inevitable under theincapable Mauryas in the later ages. But Dr. Koshambhi had pointedout that economic decline is the sole cause behind the downfall ofthe Mauryas. The Mauryas suffered from the exhaustion of the royalexchequer owing to the enormous charitable offerings made by


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Ashoka and his successors to the Buddhist Bhikshus and theSramanas.

Later the royal exchequer was so exhausted that the Mauryankings enhanced taxes and imposed tax revenue even on actors andprostitutes. The Mauryan punch-marked coins proved the sign ofdebasement. But Romila Thapar holds that material prosperity ofthe Mauryas do not present the picture of declining economy of theMauryan dynasty. However most of the historians hold that the solecause of the Mauryan downfall was exhaustion of economy and theweak successors could not restructure the shattered economy intime.

Apart from the above primary causes, historians havepointed out two other causes for the decline of the Mauryansupremacy in ancient India. According to them, the policy ofnon-violence introduced by Ashoka and his Buddhist policy wereno less important as a cause for the downfall of the MauryanEmpire.

A group of historians headed by Shastri had defined that Ashoka‘sBuddhist policies and the prohibition of animal sacrifices and hisintroduction of Dana Samata and Vyavahara Samata provoked theBrahmanical community. Antagonised with the contemporary policyof promoting only one religion-Buddhism, they organised a revoltagainst the last surviving king Brihadratha and assassinated him.

However the theory put forward by Shastri had been refutedby Dr. H.C. Roychowdhury on the ground that there are noauthentic reports supporting the views of the Shastri. Hesuggested that Ashoka was not a fanatic and was tolerant to otherreligions also. His successor Jalauka was praised by theBrahmana historian Kalhana. According to Roychowdhury, therewas nothing called the Brahmanical revolt, rather Pushyamitrawas merely coup d‘ etat and killed an effete ruler, who had almostlost his authority.

The policy of non-violence, according to some historians is apowerful cause for the downfall of the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka‘sadvocacy of non-violence and the principles f Dharma Vijayademoralised the army as well as bureaucracy in the successiveages.

However scholars have refuted the views of Roychowdhury onseveral grounds. According to them, Ashoka though had advocatedthe policy of non-violence, he did not let lose the grip of administrativemachinery. Rather during his time Mauryan administration was verymethodical and well maintained.


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Therefore the historians have opined that if his successorsfollowed the policy of non-violence initiated by Ashoka, they shouldhave also followed the technique of managing the administrativemachinery properly from him.

But the successors followed the policy of non-violence but couldnot maintain the Empire appropriately. Hence the policy of non-violence cannot be held responsible for the weak maintenance ofadministration during the later Mauryas. Hence there is a keencontroversy among the scholars regarding the fact that whether thepolicy of non-violence can be at all held responsible for the collapseof the Mauryan Empire.

Later scholars like Romila Thapar have surmised several basiccauses for the downfall of the Mauryan Empire. According to hersince the Mauryan Empire was highly centralised, a direct controland responsibility was highly demanding. After Ashoka, hissuccessors could not maintain that control, which resulted intocomplete disintegration of the Empire.

Moreover the officials were recruited from the privileged groupof men, who formed a community of their own detached from thecommon people as well as from the king himself. This resulted inpartisan politics, which threatened the very foundation of theMauryan dynasty. The centralised Mauryan government lacked thebalanced and extensive public contact.

Furthermore, when the internal conflicts accelerated the processof disintegration, the Yavana invasion under Euthydemus andDemetrius sped up the downfall of the Mauryan Empire. The impactof the Yavana invasion shattered the control of the Mauryas in theprovinces particularly in the northwest.

Finally, when the external and the internal forces wereaccelerating the breakdown of the Mauryan government, the coupd‘etat by Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 B.C. , ultimately culminatedin total ruination of the Mauryan Empire.

CAUSES FOR THE DECLINEOF THE MAURYAS

The causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire have beenwidely debated by scholars. The traditional approach attributes thedecline to Asoka’s policies and his weak successors.

Another approach holds the inadequate political and economicinstitutions to sustain such a vast empire. It was said that Asoka’spro-Buddhist policies antagonized the Brahmins who brought about


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a revolution led by Pushyamitra Sunga. But Asoka was never actedagainst Brahmins.

That Asoka’s policy of non-violence reduced the fighting spirit ofhis army was another charge against him. But Asoka had neverslackened his control over his empire despite following a pacifistpolicy. Therefore solely blaming Asoka for the decline of the Mauryanempire may not be correct because Asoka was more a pragmatistthan an idealist.

There are multiple causes for the decline of the Mauryan empiresuch as weak successors, partition of empire and administrativeabuses after Asoka’s reign. The combination of these factors speededup the breakup of the Mauryan empire and facilitated PushyamitraSunga to drive away the Mauryan power and establish the Sungadynasty.

INDIAN SOCIETY UNDER THE MAURYAS

Mauryan society was divided into seven categories namely thephilosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsman, artisans, magistrates andcouncilors. These divisions were referred as castes because themembers of a particular division were not allowed to marry outsidetheir group and were also not allowed to change their professions.The seven divisions of the society were not identical with each otherand differed in terms of rules and regulations.

The category of philosophers that were present in the societywas further divided into two categories. They were the Brahmansand Shramanas. The Shramanas in turn included the Buddhists,Jains, Ajivikas and others. The category of the Shramanas was bigenough to constitute a separate group.

During the time of the Mauryans the philosophers wereexempted from any kind of taxation. The farmers included thecultivators and labourers who worked on the lands and the landowners were excluded from the category of farmers. The farmerswere the largest group in the Mauryan society and they wereconsidered the central nerve of agriculture in the society.

They also were the military and civil infrastructure of theMaurya Empire. The cultivators were kept unarmed in order to keepaway any possibilities of peasant revolution. The soldiers of theMaurya Empire served as the armed force of the kingdom and theywere maintained at the royal cost.

During the times of peace the soldiers spent their time in idleness,drinking and merry making. In fact it can be said that during timesof peace the huge army of the Maurya Dynasty was an economic


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liability for the state. The herdsmen or the pastoralists of theMaurya dynasty generally included the tribes who still adhered toclan identities.

They herdsmen generally constituted of hunter-gatherers, shiftingcultivators and horticulturists. The status of artisans in the Mauryandynasty depended on the art works which they performed.Metalworkers who made armours and other expensive items weregiven a higher status as compared to weavers and potters. On theother hand the itinerant smiths, who catered to the needs of thehousehold, were accorded the lowest status in the society amongartisans.

The caste system was strongly prevalent in the Mauryan society.The twice-born that is the Brahmans and the kshatriyas enjoyed aspecial privilege in the society because of their status of being twiceborn. The Vaisyas though theoretically were twice born but theywere not able to enjoy a privileged position similar to the Brahmansand the kshatriyas.

A variety of activities have been related to women during theMaurya Empire. Women were employed as archers, royal bodyguards, spies and performers. Sometimes women who wereimpoverished like the widows and the ageing prostitutes were giventhe work of spinning the yarn.

It is true that women had the opportunity to get employed inthe state but several texts have given strong evidences that mostwomen during the Mauryan society were dominated by the malefigures of the household.

Thus it can be concluded that during the reign of the Mauryasthe society followed a strict division based on profession and takingcue from profession further division of caste was followed in thesociety.

RELIGION CONDITION

Mauryan dynasty was that prestigious and venerated ancientrealm, which can proudly call themselves the first ever potent andmastering empire to rule India triumphantly.

And considering the time in which they ruled, with India stilllingering in laid-back qualities and domains, the Mauryas wereunusual in everything they acted. Indeed, everything they performed,touched or accomplished, turned into gold, with India shining underthe incredible shadow of the Mauryas. Mauryan dynasty wasinitiated under the maverick Chandragupta Maurya, who hadparticularly risen with his utter intelligence and brilliancy to sublime


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heights to carry on his shoulders the terrible burden of ruling acountry. Chandragupta Maurya‘s successors after him, men likeBindusara and Ashoka did their ancestors absolute justice by makingthe Mauryan dynasty become known in international arena.

Withstanding even the bravest of Roman or Greek empires, theMauryas were influential enough to mould their countrymenaccording to their wish and whim. Assimilating umpteen aspects ofeveryday life under the Mauryan umbrella, religion during Mauryandynasty was one considerable feature that had fetched pretty muchattention from even the farthest Indian quarter.

While being extremely able administrators, paying meticulousattention to their subjects, the Mauryan rulers knew the key tounbeaten leadership. With economical ascent and politicalendeavours being vested and diffused upon every common capableman, the Mauryan dynasty were ardent God-fearing emperors, neverfor once deviating from the true line of ruling.

Resorting to falsehood was not the order for these enigmaticmenfolk, with religion and religious aspects and celebrations beingfollowed zealously. In fact, religion during Mauryan dynasty witnessedthe tremendous rise in faiths apart from Hinduism, like Jainism andBuddhism, with men like emperor Ashoka being in line.

This flourishing in religion of the Mauryas, can also blindly becredited to Chandragupta Maurya, who had been decisive enoughto make his subjects tow the line of faith and worship. EmperorChandragupta Maurya became the foremost significant Indiansovereign to kick off a religious renovation at the highest level whenhe had thoroughly espoused Jainism.

During that sensitive time period, the orthodox Hindu priestsattending to the royal court exceedingly objected to such a religioustransformation. During his much matured age, Chandragupta hadabdicated his throne and materialistic possessions to adhere himselfwith a nomadic group of Jain monks.

Chandragupta had turned a disciple of Acharya Bhadrabahu. Itis also supposed that in his last days, he had observed the rigid butself cleansing Jain ritual of santhara i.e. fast unto death, at ShravanaBelagola in Karnataka. Religion during Mauryan dynasty, it can beevidently witnessed, always took a centre position, irrespective ofage, time, place and status.

However, Chandragupta Maurya‘s successor, emperor Bindusara,strictly upheld Hindu traditions and remained cold and impassivetowards Jain and Buddhist movements. Samprati, grandson ofAshoka even also had espoused Jainism.


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Samrat Samprati was profoundly charmed by the teachings ofJain monk Arya Suhasti Suri. He is believed to have erected 1,25,000Jain temples traversing India. Some of them can still be witnessedin towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain and Palitana. Unheedingof what people might think or state, religion was one aspect duringMauryan dynasty that had overshadowed even perhaps their reignand rules itself.

It is also alleged that just like Ashoka, Samprati despatchedmessengers and preachers to Greece, Persia and middle-east for thecirculation and acceptance of Jainism. Hence, Jainism had becomea crucial force under the Mauryan Empire.

Chandragupta and Samprati have also been acknowledged forspreading Jainism in South India. An astounding number of Jaintemples and Jain stupas were sculpted during their reign. But dueto dearth of royal benefaction and its strict principles, coupled withthe ascension of Shankaracharya and Ramanujacharya, Jainism,once the principal religion of south India, declined miserably.

The picture in this Indian context was soon subject to change;religion during Mauryan dynasty was once more prepared to takea gigantic leap. When Ashoka embraced Buddhism, following thedestiny-defying Kalinga War, he absolutely did away withexpansionism and aggression. The harsher injunctions ofArthashastra pertaining to the use of force, demanding policing andpitiless measures for tax collection and against rebels were alsocompletely abdicated.

Ashoka despatched a deputation led by his son and daughter toSri Lanka, where king Tissa was so carried away with Buddhistethics that he espoused them himself and declared Buddhism thestate religion. Ashoka, following this enthusiastic reply, sent manyBuddhist deputations to West Asia, Greece and South East Asia.

The emperor also had accredited the building of monasteries,schools and publication of Buddhist literature across his empire. TheMauryan emperor is conceived to have built as many as 84,000 stupasspanning India and he was incidental in increasing the wide-acceptance of Buddhism in Afghanistan.

Ashoka helped in convening the Third Buddhist Council ofIndia and South Asia‘s Buddhist orders, near his capital. TheThird Council had successfully undertaken incredible work ofreform and expansion of the Buddhist religion. A curious factorabout emperor Ashoka is that while himself being a Buddhist, hehad wholly kept back the membership of Hindu priests andministers in his court.


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He had been capable enough to sustain religious freedom andpermissiveness, in spite of Buddhist faith rising in popularity underhis patronage. Religious zealousness, religious dependency was onecoinage that had never been tracked towards a negative angle inMauryan times. Religion during Mauryan dynasty was anoverspreading and spontaneous overflowing of veneration, that hadtouched the simplest of society. Indian society gradually begansweeping up the philosophy of ahimsa.

And given the amplified prosperity and improved lawenforcement, crime and internal differences decreased drastically.Massively discouraged also was the consciousness of caste systemand orthodox nepotism, as Hinduism began to assimilate the idealsand values of Jain and Buddhist teachings.

Mauryan empire also encouraged social sovereignty, which beganbooming in an era of peace and prosperity.

ECONOMIC CONDITION

Maurya Empire converted the revenue producing economy ofNorthern India to a predominant agrarian economy and large areasof land were brought under cultivation.

It was found that the land revenue was the most importantsource of income for the government and assessment at regularintervals brought about increase in land revenue. Collection of taxeswas a matter of concern for the administration during the Mauryanrule.

During this time it was not that economic activities other thanagriculture were unknown and discouraged. Maintaining herds ofanimals was an important economic activity of that age. Moreoverthe practice of keeping herds of animals was also considered ataxable activity.

It can be said that during that time all kinds of commercialactivities especially those in the coastal area was controlled by thegovernment and all taxes, tolls and customs that evolved from thecommercial activities went to the government. In fact the system oftaxation evolved from the system of collecting taxes from theagricultural produce.

Not only was the state involved in agriculture but private ownersin the form of farmers and landowners were also involved incultivation of the land. The farmers and land owners paid taxes tothe government and the large landowners collected taxes from thesmall scale tenants in turn.


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It was during this time that a number of wastelands were clearedand many people came to the new lands for settling. Among thenew group of people that had come to settle in the newly found lands,there were a large number of Shudras.

In the initial stage the Shudras were exempted from taxes butin the later stages, when they started working on the land, taxeswere imposed on them. Maurya Empire had two types of landrevenue. One was tax imposed on the area of the land producedand the other was taxed imposed on the production that was receivedfrom the area of the land.

Agriculture did not contribute alone to the economic activity ofthe state during the Mauryan reign, even various associations ofcrafts developed. The various associations of crafts that evolvedduring this time gave rise to trade activities of the region and addedto the economic activities of the state. In fact it can be said that itbecame an important component of the economic activities of thestate.

Megasthenes had recorded that the practice of tax evasion waspresent during the Mauryan dynasty but at the same time thepractice of tax evasion was heavily punished. The prices of goodswere also controlled to a large extent in the area so that merchantscould not get an opportunity to make huge profits.

There was no banking system present at that time but still therewas the presence of usury at that time. Generally the rate of interestthat was charged per annum was 15 percent.

However, transactions that were less secure charged an interestrate which was as high as 60 percent. As far as art and craft of thatera is concerned, mostly terracotta and stone sculpture flourishedduring that time. But stone sculpture was mostly the choice of thewealthy and the powerful in contrast to the terracotta forms of artwhich was the domain of the humble strata of the society.

Hence, it can be concluded saying that economy during the ageof the Maurya kings was mostly dependent on agriculture with alittle percentage of the economy coming from other commercialactivities.

DEVELOPMENT OF ARTUNDER THE MAURYAS

Art under the Maurya dynasty is a treasure house whichcomprises the remains of the royal palace and city of Pataliputra,the stupas at Sanchi, Sarnath and Amaravati, pillars of Ashoka,potteries, coins and paintings.


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The Maurya Empire from fourth to second century B.C. is animportant period in the history of Indian art. The Maurya Empirewas founded by Chandragupta Maurya and it reached its greatestmoment of political, religious, and artistic development in the middleyears of the third century B.C.

The prologue to the foundation of the Maurya Dynasty was theinvasion of India by Alexander the Great. The background of Mauryapower, together with Ashoka’s substitution of a kind of religiousimperialism is important in considering the art of his period.

The Maurya Empire indicates a significant transition in Indianart from use of wood to stone. The ruins of the fabulous city ofPataliputra near modern Patna, is extremely important for anunderstanding of the whole character of Maurya civilisation whichAshoka inherited and perpetuated.

Following not only Indian but ancient near eastern instance, thepalace walls, the splendid towers and pavilions, were all constructedof brick or baked clay that has long since crumbled to dust or beenswept away by periodic deluge of the swollen waters of the Ganga.

Beyond the evidence of the authentic excavations at Pataliputra,an idea of the appearance of the city in the elevations of towns thatform the backgrounds for Buddhist subjects in the reliefs of the earlyAndhra Period at Sanchi can be perceived.

The excavations of Pataliputra revealed that there is a presenceof moat which is surrounded by a palisade or railing of the typedeveloped in the Vedic period to the uses of urban fortification. It isassumed that all the super structures were built of wood.

The remains exposed in the actual palace area like a greataudience hall was preceded by a number of huge platforms built ofsolid wood in log-cabin fashion. They formed a kind of artificialeminence, like the palace platforms of ancient Mesopotamia andIran.

Undoubtedly, these wooden structures were projected asfoundations for the support of some kind of pavilions in front of thepalace itself. In addition to a ground plan of the palace area, a singleillustration of the remains of Pataliputra is reproduced todemonstrate the extraordinary craftsmanship and durability of thecity’s belt of fortifications.

Pataliputra with towers and gateways rivaling the ancientcapitals of Iran does give some slight suggestion, by its vast extentand the enormous strength of construction, of the great city of theMaurya Empire.


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Buddhism flourished during the reign of Ashoka whose toleranceand generosity to religious sects were not limited to his patronageof Buddhism but is illustrated by his donation of cells for thehabitation of holy men of the heretical Ajivika sect in the BarabarHills near Gaya.

The hermitage at Lomas Rishi cave is noted for its architecturalmagnificence. The carving of the facade of this sanctuary iscompletely Indian. It is an imitation in relief sculpture in stone ofthe entrance of a freestanding structure in wood and thatch, ofrepeated crescent shapes under an ogee arch that most probablyrepresents the contour of the thatched roof.

The principal decoration of the so-called ‘chaitya window‘ of theover door is a parade of elephants approaching a Stupa. Thenaturalistic depiction of the expression and gait of these elephantsseems almost like a continuation of the style of the Indus Valleyseals. The complete elevation of this small facade is repeated overand over again in the chaitya-halls of the Sunga and later periods,and is particularly significant in its showing that the forms of laterBuddhist architecture were already completely evolved in theMaurya Period.

The proper picture of Maurya period is revealed in its sculpture.The existing monuments divulge the same imperialist anddictatorial character as Ashoka’s rule in its essential structure; likeso much of Maurya culture, they are foreign in style, quite apartfrom the main stream and tradition of Indian art, and display thesame intimacy of relationship and imitation of the cultures of theHellenistic Western powers and of Iran as the language of Ashoka’sinscriptions and the Maurya court’s philhellenic leanings.

Side by side with this official imperial art, there existed a folkart, much more truly Indian in style and tradition and, in the finalanalysis, of far greater import for the future development of Indianart.

Another fabulous sculpture is the Sarnath Pillar, which has fourlions back to back at the top of the pillar. The extraordinary precisionand beauty associated with these sculptures is a fine instance of theproficiency that the artisans of that period possessed.

It has often been pointed out that one of the tangible results ofAlexander’s invasion of India and the continuation of Indian contactswith the Hellenic and Iranian West in the Maurya Period was theintroduction of the method of stone-carving and the first use of thispermanent material in place of the wood, ivory, and metal that wereused during the Vedic Period.


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The great Stupa at Sanchi is a stone monument erected as apart of Ashoka’s imperialist agenda of spreading Buddhismthroughout his empire. Art in Maurya period is noted for itsrefinement in potteries which consisted of many types of wares. Butthe northern black polished ware is distinguished for its developedmethod and is the trademark of Maurya pottery.

The coins are also an imperative part of Maurya art and weremainly made of silver and copper. The coins varied in shapes, sizeand weight and the common symbols that were used was that oftree, mountain and elephant.

After the Indus culture, the most primitive existing architecturalheritage in India is that of the Mauryas. The sculptures andarchitecture during this period is regarded as the finest example inIndian art.

The rock cut caves, stupas and palaces makes the art of Mauryaperiod as a landmark in the history of Indian art.


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2

MAURYAN PERIOD

ORIGIN OF MAURYAS

The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive andpowerful empire in ancient India, ruled by the Mauryan dynastyfrom 321 to 185 BC. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha inthe Indo-Gangetic plains (modern Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh andBengal) in the eastern side of the Indian subcontinent, the empirehad its capital city at Pataliputra (modern Patna).

The Empire was founded in 322 BC by Chandragupta Maurya,who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty and rapidly expanded hispower westwards across central and western India taking advantageof the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the withdrawalwestward by Alexander the Great’s Greek and Persian armies.

By 320 BC the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India,defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander. It was oneof the world’s largest empires in its time.

At its greatest extent, the empire stretched to the north alongthe natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretchinginto what is now Assam. To the west, it probably reached beyondmodern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan and much of what is nowAfghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces.

The Empire was expanded into India’s central and southernregions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but itexcluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested regionsnear Kalinga (modern Orissa), till it was conquered by Ashoka.

Its decline began 60 years after Ashoka’s rule ended, and itdissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of the Sunga Dynasty inMagadha. Under Chandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conqueredthe trans-Indus region, which was under Macedonian rule.Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Greekgeneral from Alexander’s army.

Under Chandragupta and his successors, both internal and

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external trade, and agriculture and economic activities, all thrivedand expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single andefficient system of finance, administration and security.

After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced half a centuryof peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyedan era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansionof the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya’s embraceof Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform acrosshis society, while Ashoka’s embrace of Buddhism has been said tohave been the foundation of the reign of social and political peaceand non-violence across all of India.

Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into SriLanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia and Mediterranean Europe.Chandragupta’s minister Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, one ofthe greatest treatises on economics, politics, foreign affairs,administration, military arts, war, and religion ever produced inIndia.

Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia fallsinto the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). TheArthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources ofwritten records of the Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Asoka atSarnath, is the national emblem of India.

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA

Chandragupta Maurya (born c. 340 BCE, ruled c. 320 BCE, –298 BCE died about 298 BCE) was the founder of the MauryaEmpire. Chandragupta succeeded in conquering most of the Indiansubcontinent.

Having defeated the Greek satrap in the Khyber mountainsaround 303 BCE, Chandragupta was crowned King at Taxila. As aresult, Chandragupta is considered the first unifier of India and itsfirst genuine emperor. In foreign Greek and Latin accounts,Chandragupta is known as Sandrokyptos, Sandrokottos orAndrocottus.

Prior to Chandragupta’s consolidation of power, small regionalkingdoms dominated the northwestern subcontinent, while theNanda Dynasty dominated the middle and lower basin of theGanges.

After Chandragupta’s conquests, the Maurya Empire extendedfrom Bengal and Assam in the east, to Afghanistan and Balochistanin the west, to Kashmir and Nepal in the north, and to the DeccanPlateau in the south. His achievements, which ranged from


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conquering Macedonian satrapies in the northwest and conqueringthe Nanda Empire by the time he was only about 20 years old, toachieving an alliance with Seleucus I Nicator and establishingcentralized rule throughout South Asia, remain some of the mostcelebrated in the history of India.

Over two thousand years later, the accomplishments ofChandragupta and his successors, including Ashoka the Great, areobjects of great study in the annals of South Asian and world history.

ORIGINS

Many Indian historians held the view that Chandragupta wasan illegitimate child of the Nanda Dynasty of Magadha in easternIndia, born to a Nanda prince and a maid named “Mura”, laterliterary traditions imply that Chandragupta may have been raisedby peacock-tamers (Sanskrit: Mayura-Poshaka), which earned himthe Maurya epithet.

Both the Buddhist as well as Jain traditions testify to thesupposed connection between the Moriya (Maurya) and Mora orMayura (Peacock). Yet there are other literary traditions accordingto which Chandragupta belonged to Moriyas, a Kshatriya clan of alittle ancient republic of Pippalivana (“Piparahiyan” in modern dayin Gorakhpur) located between Rummindei in the Nepali Terai andKasia in the Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh.

A kshatriya people known as the “Mauryas” who had receivedthe relics of the Gautama Buddha are also mentioned in theMahaparinibbana Sutta of the Digha Nikaya: “Then the Moriyas ofPipphalivana came to know that at Kusinara (known as KushiNagaras a district of Uttar Pradesh near Gorakhpur) the Blessed Onehad died.

And they sent a message to the Mallas of Kusinara, saying: “TheBlessed One was of the warrior caste, and we are too. We are worthy toreceive a portion of the relics of the Blessed One. We will erect a stupaover the relics of the Blessed One and hold a festival in their honor.

Yet there are other literary traditions according to whichChandragupta belonged to Moriyas, a Kshatriya (warrior) clan of alittle ancient republic of Pippalivana located between Rummindeiin the Nepalese Tarai and Kasia in the Gorakhpur district of UttarPradesh.

Tradition suggests that this clan was reduced to great straightsin the 4th century BCE under Magadhan rule, and youngChandragupta grew up among the peacock-tamers, herdsmen andhunters. The Buddhist text of the Mahavamsa calls Chandragupta


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a scion of the Khattya (Kshatriya) clan named Moriya (Maurya).Divyavadana calls Bindusara, son of Chandragupta, an anointedKshatriya, Kshatriya Murdhabhishikata, and in the same work, kingAshoka, son of Bindusara, is also styled a Kshatriya.

The Mahaparinnibhana Sutta of the Buddhist canon states thatthe Moriyas (Mauryas) belonged to the Kshatriya community ofPippalivana. These traditions, at least, indicate that Chandraguptahas come from a Kshatriya lineage. The Mahavamshatika connectshim with the Sakya clan of the Buddha, a clan which also claimedto belong to the race of Aditya i.e. solar race.

A medieval inscription represents the Maurya clan as belongingto the solar race of Kshatriyas.It is stated that the Maurya linesprang from Suryavamsi Mandhatri, son of prince Yuvanashva ofthe solar race.

Another popular legend among the common folks of India is thatChandragupta was a shepherd(Kuruba/Dhangar) boy who with thehelp of the Brahmin Chanakya revolted against the atrocities ofthe Nanda kings and established the Mauryan Empire.

FOUNDATION OF THE MAURYA EMPIRE

Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Chanakya defeated theMagadha kings and the bulk army of Chandravanshi clan anddefeated generals of Alexander settled in Gandhara (Kambojakingdom of Aryan Mahajanpad) which is called as Afghanistan now.

At the time of Alexander’s invasion, Chanakya was a teacher atTakshasila University. The king of Takshasila and Gandhara, Ambhi(also known as Taxiles), made a treaty with Alexander and did notfight against him.

Chanakya saw the foreign invasion against the Indian cultureand sought help from other kings to unite and fight Alexander. Porus(Parvateshwar), a king of Punjab, was the only local king who wasable to challenge Alexander at the Battle of the Hydaspes River,but was defeated.

Chanakya then went to Magadha further east to seek the helpof Dhana Nanda, who ruled a vast Nanda Empire which extendedfrom Bihar and Bengal in the east to eastern Punjab in the west,but he denied any such help.

After this incident, Chanakya began sowing the seeds of buildingan empire that could protect Indian territories from foreign invasioninto his disciple Chandragupta. Kautilya’s role in the formation ofthe Mauryan Empire is the essence of a historical/spiritual novelThe Courtesan and the Sadhu by Dr. Mysore N. Prakash.


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Chanakya

Chandragupta’s adviser or prime minister Chanakya, who is alsoknown as Kautilya and was the author of the Arthashastra, isregarded as the architect of Chandragupta’s early rise to power.

Chandragupta Maurya, with the help of Chanakya, began layingthe foundation of the Maurya Empire. In all forms of the Chanakyalegend, he is thrown out of the Nanda court by the king, whereuponhe swears revenge.

While in Magadha, Chanakya by chance met Chandragupta inwhom he spotted great military and executive abilities. Chanakyawas impressed by the prince’s personality and intelligence, andimmediately took the young boy under his wing to fulfill his silentvow.

Nanda Army

According to Plutarch, at the time of Alexander’s Battle of theHydaspes River, the size of the Nanda Empire’s army further eastnumbered 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, and 6,000war elephants, which was discouraging for Alexander’s men andstayed their further progress into India:

• “As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle withPorus blunted their courage and stayed their furtheradvance into India. For having had all they could do torepulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousandinfantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposedAlexander when he insisted on crossing the river Gangesalso, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-twofurlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks onthe further side were covered with multitudes of men-atarms and horsemen and elephants. For they were toldthat the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaitingthem with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundredthousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and sixthousand fighting elephants. And there was no boastingin these reports. For Androcottus, who reigned there notlong afterwards, made a present to Seleucus of fivehundred elephants, and with an army of six hundredthousand men overran and subdued all India.”

Conquest of the Nanda Empire

Chanakya had trained Chandragupta under his guidance andtogether they planned the destruction of Dhana Nanda.


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The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina workParisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta’s alliance with the Himalayanking Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus.

It is noted in the Chandraguptakatha that the protagonist andChanakya were initially rebuffed by the Nanda forces. Regardless,in the ensuing war, Chandragupta faced off against Bhadrasala –commander of Dhana Nanda’s armies.

He was eventually able to defeat Bhadrasala and Dhana Nandain a series of battles, ending with the siege of the capital cityKusumapura and the conquest of the Nanda Empire around 321BCE, thus founding the powerful Maurya Empire in Northern Indiaby the time he was about 20 years old.

Conquest of Macedonian Territories in India

After Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, Chandragupta, turned hisattention to Northwestern India (modern Pakistan), where hedefeated the satrapies (described as “prefects” in classical Westernsources) left in place by Alexander (according to Justin), and mayhave assassinated two of his governors, Nicanor and Philip.

The satrapies he fought may have included Eudemus, ruler inwestern Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE; and Peithon, sonof Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until hisdeparture for Babylon in 316 BCE. The Roman historian Justindescribed how Sandrocottus (Greek version of Chandragupta’sname) conquered the northwest:

• “Some time after, as he was going to war with the generals ofAlexander, a wild elephant of great bulk presented itselfbefore him of its own accord, and, as if tamed down togentleness, took him on its back, and became his guide in thewar, and conspicuous in fields of battle. Sandrocottus, havingthus acquired a throne, was in possession of India, whenSeleucus was laying the foundations of his future greatness;who, after making a league with him, and settling his affairsin the east, proceeded to join in the war against Antigonus.As soon as the forces, therefore, of all the confederates wereunited, a battle was fought, in which Antigonus was slain,and his son Demetrius put to flight. “

JAINISM

Chandragupta gave up his throne towards the end of his lifeand became an ascetic under the Jain saint Bhadrabahu, migratingsouth with them and ending his days in sallekhana at


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Shravanabelagola, in present day Karnataka; though fifth-centuryinscriptions in the area support the concept of a larger southernmigration around that time.

A small temple marks the cave (Bhadrabahu Cave) where he issaid to have died by fasting.

SUCCESSORS

Chandragupta Maurya renounced his throne to his son,Bindusara, who became the new Mauryan Emperor. Bindusara laterbecame the father of Ashoka the Great, who was one of the mostinfluential kings in history due to his important role in the historyof Buddhism.

CONQUESTS OF CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA

According to the historians, Chandragupta Maurya belonged toa Kshatriya origin and appeared in the political situation on theeve of Alexander‘s invasion. Chandragupta did not have any dynasticconnection, as is reported by most historians but he became the kingacquiring sole authority over the entire north India through a seriesof conquests.

In Indian history, Chandragupta is popularised as a greatconqueror. However the historians after a prolonged study ofthe available records of the Mauryan period have surmisedthe conquests of Chandragupta Maurya into four phases: - warof liberation from the Greeks, political revolution against theNandas, the war with Selucus and other fragmentedconquests.

There is a keen controversy among the scholars about thechronology of the war of liberation of northwestern India. Theinterpretation of Justin is the accepted authentic source in thisrespect. He puts that after raising an army, Chandragupta pleadedfor the Indians to overthrow the existing government.

The main point of debate lies in the term “existing government”because there is a difference among the modern interpreters thatwhether the term “existing government” refers to the Nandas orthe Greeks.

In spite of these controversies and differences, the modernhistorians have unanimously opined that by the term “existinggovernment”, Justin referred to the alien Greeks. Accordingto the historians, Chandragupta had unified the entire northIndia and became the sole master of the northern territory ofIndia.


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ADMINISTRATION OFCHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

The ascendancy of the Mauryas had resulted in the triumph ofmonarchy in India. Other systems like republics and oligarchies thatwere prevalent in the pre-Mauryan India had collapsed.

Although Kautilya the foremost political theorist of ancient Indiasupported the monarchial form of government, he did not stand forroyal absolutism. He advocated that the king should take the adviceof his ministry in running the administration. Therefore, a councilof ministers called Mantriparishad assisted the king inadministrative matters.

It consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati and Yuvaraja.There were civil servants called Amatyas to look after the day-to-day administration. These officers were similar to the IAS officersof independent India.

The method of selection of Amatyas was elaborately given byKautilya. Asoka appointed Dhamma Mahamatras to supervise thespread of Dhamma. Thus the Mauryan state had a well organizedcivil service.

REVENUE DEPARTMENT

Samharta, the chief of the Revenue Department, was in chargeof the collection of all revenues of the empire. The revenues camefrom land, irrigation, customs, shop tax, ferry tax, forests, minesand pastures, license fee from craftsmen, and fines collected in thelaw courts.

The land revenue was normally fixed as one sixth of the produce.The main items of expenditure of the state related to king and hishousehold, army, government servants, public works, poor relief,religion, etc.

ARMY

The Mauryan army was well organized and it was under thecontrol of Senapati. The salaries were paid in cash. Kautilya refersto the salaries of different ranks of military officers.

According to Greek author Pliny, the Mauryan army consistedof six lakh infantry, thirty thousand cavalry, nine thousand elephantsand eight thousand chariots. In addition to these four wings, therewere the Navy and Transport and Supply wings.


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Each wing was under the control of Adyakshas orSuperintendents. Megasthenes mentions six boards of five memberseach to control the six wings of the military.

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY

This department had controlled the retail and wholesale pricesof goods and tried to ensure their steady supply through its officerscalled Adyakshas. It also controlled weights and measures, leviedcustom duties and regulated foreign trade.

JUDICIAL AND POLICE DEPARTMENTS

Kautilya mentions the existence of both civil and criminal courts.The chief justice of the Supreme Court at the capital was calledDharmathikarin. There were also subordinate courts at theprovincial capitals and districts under Amatyas.

Different kinds of punishment such as fines, imprisonment,mutilation and death were given to the offenders. Torture wasemployed to extract truth. Police stations were found in all principalcentres. Both Kautilya and Asokan Edicts mention about jails andjail officials.

The Dhamma Mahamatras were asked by Asoka to take stepsagainst unjust imprisonment. Remission of sentences is alsomentioned in Asoka’s inscriptions.

CENSUS

The taking of Census was regular during the Mauryan period.The village officials were to number the people along with otherdetails like their caste and occupation. They were also to count theanimals in each house.

The census in the towns was taken by municipal officials to trackthe movement of population both foreign and indigenous. The datacollected were cross checked by the spies. The Census appears to bea permanent institution in the Mauryan administration.

PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL ADMINISTRATION

The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with theircapitals at Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. The provincialgovernors were mostly appointed from the members of royal family.They were responsible the maintenance of law and order andcollection of taxes for the empire.

The district administration was under the charge of Rajukas,whose position and functions are similar to modern collectors. He


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was assisted by Yuktas or subordinate officials. Village administrationwas in the hands of Gramani and his official superior was calledGopa who was in charge of ten or fifteen villages.

Both Kautilya and Megasthanes provided the system of Municipaladministration. Arthasastra contains a full chapter on the role ofNagarika or city superintendent. His chief duty was to maintain lawand order. Megasthenes refers to the six committees of five memberseach to look after the administration of Pataliputra.

These committees looked after:

• Industries• Foreigners• Registration of birth and deaths• Trade• Manufacture and sale of goods• Collection of sales tax

ACHIEVEMENTS OF CHANDRAGUPTA

A review of the life and career of Chandragupta can hardly becomplete without a survey of the importance of his achievements.

It is strange that a personage who, in ancient times, capturedthe imagination of Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Greek and Romanauthors alike, has been camparatively ignored in modern times. Weshall here discuss his place in history on the ground of hisachievements.

Chandragupta began his career as a mere rebel against theexisting order of things in India. His first achievement was, perhaps,the expulsion of Greek garrisons from the Punjab in about 317 BC.

Starting from that point, he became, in a brief space of twelveyears, the emperor of the greater part of India, entering intopossession of that scientific frontier “sighed for in vain by his Englishsuccessors and never held in its entirety even by the Moghulmonarchs of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries”.

In judging the extent of his conquests, we must remember thatIndia is geographically a continent and the conquest of nearly thewhole of this area is no mean achievement. Moreover, as Arrian hasnoted, a sense of justice prevented the ancient Indian kings frombringing foreign countries under their subjection.

They were satisfied by getting their superior poweracknowledged by foreign kings, and they performed their digvijayaonly to this end. Judged by this standard, Chandragupta was a


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successful digvijayi in as much as he defeated the most powerfulforeign king, Seleucus Nikator, who held all western Asia under hissway.

Thus there can be no doubt that Chandragupta was a greatconqueror. Chandragupta, moreover, was, in a real sense, one of thosefew men who have changed the destinies of nations. But for him,India, with her numerous warring rulers, would have surely fallena prey to the ambition of the successors of Alexander.

He was solely responsible for the redemption of India.Chandragupta, however, was no mere military adventurer andhis greatness does not depend only upon his military feats. Thechange he brought about in Indian politics was not flickering ortemporary. He knew to organize as well as to conquer a vastempire.

His organization was so thorough that his empire passed intactat least to his son and grandson. It is, therefore, obvious that hehad the will as well as the capacity to organize an empire rarelysurpassed in magnitude.

Chandragupta has been praised by Indian and foreign authorsalike for bestowing prosperity upon his country. Thus, Visakhadatta,the author of the Mudrarakshasa, has treated him as Deitydescended upon earth to restore peace in the country of Indiatroubled by barbarians.

Among foreign writers the only one who has accusedChandragupta of tyranny is the Roman historian Justin, but hisopinion is in contradiction with the earlier account of Megastheneswho everywhere refers to the prosperity of the Indian people.

Chandragupta thus distinguished himself in many directions.He was the conqueror of a vast territory, the emancipator of hiscountry, the capable administrator of a great empire, and theharbinger of peace to his people. He is usually considered as thefirst historical emperor of India.

He was undoubtedly the mightiest ruler of his time and one ofthe most lustrous stars in the firmament of monarchy. It is not easyto embark upon a comparison, but as it is one of the best ways ofunderstanding a person, it would be worthwhile to compareChandragupta with three of the world’s greatest Kings—Alexander,Akbar and Napoleon.

Alexander the Great was undoubtedly a great conqueror. We arebound to be dazzled when we recall to mind his wide conquests in abrief space of time—for he died quite young. Yet the truth is thatmuch of what Alexander accomplished had already been planned by


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his father, Philip, a man of uncommon ability. Alexander had foundhis field prepared by his father, and thus had no difficulties to faceat the outset of his career.

In the words of Mr. H. G. Wells “the true hero of the history ofAlexander is not so much Alexander as his father Philip”. Moreover,the countries conquered by Alexander gained nothing by the changeof masters. It may be argued that he had schemes of organizationwhich were frustrated by his early death.

But this is hardly borne out by his career. His vanity wasinsuperable, and his purpose seems to have been to dazzle the worldby his valor. His purpose accomplished, he literally drank himselfto death. Chandragupta, on the other hand, was a man of a differentmetal.

As brave and couragous as Alexander himself, his sole purposeseems to have been to bring peace and honor to his country. He hadno advantages of birth and was actually an exile at the outset ofhis career. He too was a young man when he came on the scene, butin a brief space of time he had not only conquered but thoroughlyorganized a vast empire, giving all the advantages of a goodgovernment to his people.

Thus Chandragupta, on the whole, has better claims forgreatness than Alexander. Akbar, the Moghul monarch, was indeedmuch like Chandragupta. He has often been compared with Ashoka,but in many respects his genius was more allied to that ofChandragupta than to that of Ashoka.

Like Chandragupta he was a man of ‘blood and iron’. Like himagain, he was a great conqueror and a great administrator. But itmust be remembered that Akbar had inherited the resources neededfor forming a great empire as against Chandragupta who struggledfrom poverty and exile to power.

Moreover, the success of Akbar’s administration was more dueto the personal qualities of his ministers than to his thoroughorganisation and even Dr. Vincent Smith has admitted that “Akbar’smachine of government never attained the standard of efficiencyreached by the Mauryas eighteen or nineteen centuries before histime.”

Napoleon certainly was one of the most brilliant figures inhistory. He resembles Chandragupta in as much as he also roseby dint of merit, and not by virtue of his birth. In his earlyyouth he dreamt of an independent Corsica, much asChandragupta seems to have dreamt of the independence of hiscountry.


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But later, Napoleon drifted towards a mere ambition for conquest,and failed to maintain his empire. In fact, his country gained nothingby his splendid exploits. In this respect, he too falls behind the greatMaurya.

Chandragupta was thus, on the whole, an uncommon genius. Hewas the founder of the greatest Hindu dynasty, to which also belongedthe most famous Buddhist and Jain monarchs.

His career supplied materials to many poets for writing uponand he is still a popular hero in modem vernacular literature.

MAURYAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The monuments before the period of Asoka were mostly madeof wood and therefore perished. The use of stone started from thetime of Asoka.

Even of the numerous monuments of Asoka, only a few haveremained. His palace and monasteries and most of his stupas havedisappeared. The only remaining stupa is at Sanchi. The artisticremains of the Mauryan period can be seen in the following heads:

PILLARS

The pillars erected by Asoka furnish the finest specimen of theMauryan art. Asokan pillars with inscriptions were found in placeslike Delhi, Allahabad, Rummindai, Sanchi and Saranath.

Their tops were crowned with figures of animals like lion,elephant and bull. The Saranath pillar with four lions standingback to back is the most magnificent. The Indian governmentadopted this capital with some modifications as its stateemblem.

STUPAS

Asoka built a number of stupas throughout his empire butmajority of them were destroyed during foreign invasions. Only afew have survived. The best example is the famous Sanchi stupawith massive dimensions.

It was originally built with bricks but later enlarged after thetime of Asoka.

CAVES

The caves presented to the Ajivikas by Asoka and his sonDasaratha remain important heritage of the Mauryas. Their interiorwalls are polished like mirror. These were meant to be residences ofmonks.


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The caves at Barabar hills near Bodh Gaya are wonderful piecesof Mauryan architecture.

ASHOKA AND HIS SUCCESSORS

Ashoka Priyadarshi, ascended the Magadhan throne in the 273B.C. Ashoka was one of the greatest monarchs in the Indian historyand his consecration initiated a new epoch in the history of ancientIndia.

Ashoka reigned over most of present-day India after a series ofmillitary conqest. Stabilizing his empire in Magadha Ashokaexpanded his Empire from Afganistan to the parts of Persia in thewest and to the present boundaries of West Bengal and Assam inthe east and also to the distant south upto Mysore.

Ashoka with his sheer sophistication introduced the measuresfor the spiritual and the material welfare of his subjects and left animperishable mark in the ancient history of India. However theinformation regarding Ashoka‘s early life and achievement is limitedto the literary and the epigraphic records of the contemporary era.

The inscriptions of the rock edicts and the epigraphic records ofthe contemporary era do not throw much light on the early life andcareer of Ashoka. Hence the scholars and the historians depend onthe records of the Buddhist texts to etch out the details about theearly life and career of Ashoka Priyadarshi. The principal sourceabout the childhood and gradual development of Ashoka are theBuddhist text of Divyavadana and Mahavamsa.

These Buddhist texts narrates that after the death of Bindusaradisorder and anarchy crept up the society and there was a severefratricidal struggle among the sons of Bindusara for the throne.

Ashoka, in his early youth was involved in this struggle and issaid to have killed ninety-nine of his brothers who are the possiblesuccessor of the throne of Bindusara. He appeared only the life ofTishya, who was his younger brother.

Ashoka walked through the blood of his brother to the throne ofMagadha. In the early years of his career, Ashoka had a violent andtyrannical disposition and hence he was popular among his subjectswith he title of Chandasoka. However the story regarding the earlylife and the beginning of his career as a king have been refuted bythe scholars.

They have put forward several statements in support of theirviews. According to the scholars, apart from the Buddhist texts, therewas no such independent evidence, supporting the fact of the


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fratricidal struggle for the throne. Secondly in the Rock Edict V,Ashoka had expressed his deep love and anxious care for the familyestablishments of his brothers existing in the capitals and in thecountries.

The scholars at the same time pointed out that the Rock Edict Vdated back to the thirteenth year of Ashoka‘s reign. This indicatesthat some of Ashoka‘s brother was still living and responsiblyholding the charge of the provinces under Ashoka.

Unless Ashoka was anxious about his family he would not havementioned about his brother in the rock edicts. Dr. Bhandarkar hasaptly pointed out that the Buddhist text emphasized the greatnessof Buddhism and tried to point out that how Chandasoka convertedinto Dharmasoka.

It was however concluded that there was probably a contestbetween the sons of Bindusara over the claim of the Magadhanthrone and Ashoka succeeded at least against the claim of hisstepbrother Susima. The career of Ashoka as the king of Magadhawas however initiated before the four years after his consecration.

The Ceylonese chronicles provide several information regardingAshoka‘s career as the king of Magadha. The historians opine thatif the Ceylonese sources are true then Ashoka‘s coronation wasdelayed probably due to the struggle for the throne of Magadha.But the scholars at the same time pointed out that there is noexisting evidence in support of this “gratuitous assumption” ofstruggle for the throne.

From the rock edicts of Ashoka it is revealed that he dated thechronology of his reign from the time of his coronation. Dependingon this fact, Dr Bhandarkar has rejected the theory of “four yearsgap” approached by the Ceylonese texts.

Eggermott however made a critical analysis of the Ceylonesetexts and holds that since the Ceylonese texts maintained differentchronological patterns and contained several versions, it could notprovide any authentic verification about the reign of Ashoka as aking. Henceforth the Ceylonese texts are less reliable to thehistorians in the modern days.

The historians after a prolonged controversy regarding the earlylife of Ashoka have unanimously opined that when Ashoka was aprince, he was appointed as the Governor of Taxila and he performedhis responsibility competently.

At that time he subdued successfully the rebellion of the Taxilianpeople. He conquered the khasa country situated between the Jhelum


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and Kashmir. When Bindusara fell ill Ashoka came to Pataliputraand being the most competent son ascended the throne of Magadhawith the title Devanampiya Piyadasi Ashoka.

Neither the contemporary manuscripts nor his own inscriptionsthrow much light to the ancestral parentage of Ashoka. However agroup of historians have opined that Ashoka was the son of theBrahmi wife of Bindusara. Dharma or Subhadrangi, the Brahminwife of Bindusara had two sons- Ashoka and Vigatasoka.

Yet the modern scholars do not support the view and they holda different view that Ashoka was the son of a Greek Queen ofBindusara. Later the interpreters of ancient history has opined thatif the source of the modern scholars are to be believed then it maybe inferred that Ashoka must be of mixed descendants and contestedfor the throne.

The modern interpreters have also said that Ashoka‘s closerelation with the Greeks and his leanings towards Buddhism maybe due to his mixed ancestry. The Buddhist traditions depict thatin his early life, before being a king Ashoka was appointed as theviceroy of Ujjaini. In this course of time he fell in love with Devi,the daughter of the merchant of Vidisha.

Ashoka married her and had two children Mahendra andSanghamitra by her. Later becoming a king he married again andas the Allahabad Pillar inscription depicts, Ashoka had many wives.Furthermore the Allahabad Pillar inscription narrated the story ofAshoka‘s second wife Karuvaki and son Tivra.

According to Dr Bhandarkar, Ashoka in his early life enjoyedthe closeness with different women and had a number of concubinesin different provinces under him. However there is no authentichistorical document supporting the fact that Ashoka had many sonsby his different wives.

About the sons of Ashoka, his own inscriptions are the principalyet authentic sources. Ashoka‘s inscription refers to four of kumaras(princes) who are appointed as the viceroy of three provinces namelyUjjaini, Toshila, Taxila and one Aryaputra (the crowned prince) asthe viceroy of Suvarnagiri.

Ashoka‘s own rock edicts are the principal surviving documentsof his reign. In the Rock edict VI he depicted his own private life.According to Ashoka himself, when he was freed from the royalduties he used to sit in the dining table and enjoyed the company ofthe inmates of the royal palace or harem.

Sometimes he used to visit the stud and enjoyed the horse ride.


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Rock edict VII narrated that Ashoka enjoyed the Vihara Yatra andhunting excursion, which was abolished in the subsequent years whenhe turned out to be a Buddhist.

It is again known from the Rock Edicts I that Ashoka was veryfond of meat and pea-owls. This is later corroborated by the statementof Buddhaghosa that in the 4th Century B.C, people of Maddhyadesawas very much fond of meat and peafowl.

Before embracing Buddhism as his religion, Ashoka‘s career wasmarked with mighty conquest and the valiant warfare. Moreoverhe was a benevolent king and worked for the welfare of his subjects.Before being a Buddhist, he maintains the principles of toleranceand benevolence and he was popular among his subjects.

Ashoka arranged festivals and or Samajas and sought to enlistthe attachment of the people in order to provide them entertainment.During the festivals the people were provided with sumptuousdishes and were entertained with music, dancing, wrestling etc.

In the subsequent years, Ashoka became the advocate of non-violence and abolished the sumptuous dish of the Samajas wheremeat was the principal food. Moreover he introduced severaladministrative reforms including the release of the prisoners inevery year of his coronation, in order.

Ashoka, the great is often ranked among the greatest monarchof ancient India. As the historical records depicting his early lifeand career suggest, Ashoka, before embracing Buddhism was amighty conqueror and a sophisticated solicitor of the welfare of thepeople.

ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS OF ASHOKA

Ashoka was one of the famous rulers of the Mauryan dynasty,under whom the dynasty expanded to its largest magnitude. Thestructure of Government that was set up by Chandragupta Mauryain order to manage the administration of such a vast Empire wasmaintained by His son, Bindusara.

During Ashoka, expanse of the Mauryan Territory was extendedbecause of his military expedition. To manage the administrativefunctions of a vast territory, Ashoka introduced severaladministrative reforms.

With the help of such reforms he continued to maintain acentralised administration and at the same time capably managedthe provincial administration thereby ensuring social harmony. Thestructure of the Mauryan Government was a centralised one.


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Ashoka was at the helm of his administration with his brotherTishya as the deputy. The crown prince and the other kumaras inthe sphere of provincial administration also assisted Ashoka.

He appointed a group of trusted ministers who always helpedhim in the matters of administrative policies. Historians have opinedthat consultation prevailed with the ministers during Ashoka‘s reignbefore adopting any administrative policies and during emergencies.

From the Rock Edicts III and VI it is evident that Ashokacontinued his grandfather‘s practice of consulting the innerministers or “mantrins” for general and emergency matters.

Thus the structure of the central Government during Ashoka,remained more or less unchanged. The only difference was that hehad introduced a higher level of philanthropic spirit in hisgovernment and administrative policies compared to his mightygrandfather, Chandragupta Maurya.

Ashoka, however did not deviate from the policy of centralisationof his forefathers. Though he granted some autonomy to theSamghas like Brijji, Kambojas and Panchalas, he never let themloose to raise a revolt against the vast Mauryan Empire.

Some historians describe Ashoka as a protector of laws and notthe propagator of laws, but the Ashokan edicts do not justify thisclaim. Though he followed the policy of non-violence and benevolenceas the king, he amended the criminal laws, whenever he felt itnecessary.

That is why he also introduced the legal reforms like DandaSamahara and Vyavahara Samahara. Ashoka was the sovereignhead of the Mauryan Empire in every inch, as the Arthashastrainstructed him to be. The traditional Mauryan concept of kingshipwas however softened by the administrative policies adopted byAshoka because of his paternalist concept.

In the Kalinga Edict, Ashoka declared, “All men are myChildren”. In another Rock edict, Ashoka declared that he wasindebted to his subjects and he considered it to be his holy duty toserve the people. Therefore he appointed Pativedakas or reporters,who would report to the king about the general and public affairsfor the king to take necessary steps.

Ashoka introduced several reforms in the sphere of provincialadministration, which brought about many improvements in theexisting system of provincial government. Ashoka retained thetraditional administrative divisions of the Empire into provinces orpradesas or districts.


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These Provinces were again subdivided into Aharas or Vishyasor subdivisions and Janapadas, which were further subdivided intovillages. During Ashoka there were only five provinces as thehistorians have opined. In order to bring the troublesome provincesunder full control of the centre and to administer good governmentto them, he appointed the crowned prince at the head of theprovincial government.

The crowned prince acting as the provincial governors wereresponsible for the administrative and general affairs of theseprovinces. One of the important policies he adopted for the provincialadministration was that, Ashoka used to alter the provincialgovernors from time to time.

Moreover Ashoka had appointed many functionaries and dharmaMahamattas and dharma Yutas to cope up with the increasingburden of the missionary work and welfare schemes.

In Ashokan regime, Rajukas, Yutas, Pradesikas were entrustedwith special assignments in the sphere of provincial administration.The Mahamattas were invested with the specific departments withspecific titles. The Dharma mahamattas appointed by him lookedafter the material and spiritual well being of the people.

The Adhyaksha mahamattas were entrusted with the task ofthe well being of the women. The Anta mahamattas were appointedfor the general administration of the frontier province. The Nagaramahamattas were a class of mahamattas in charge of the cities andtowns.

They were often engaged in periodical tours in order to collectnews about the administrative and general affairs throughout theempire.

In Ashoka‘s regime, the Mahamattas had become a highlyresponsible cadre of personnel. The mahamattas in charge ofproviding justice, were asked by Ashoka to follow the path ofDhamma and to be free from anger, fear and other passions whiledelivering justice.

From Rock Edict XII, it is evident that there were a group ofspecial officers called Vrajabhumika. Dr Bhandarkar interpretedthe term “Vrajabhumika” as the Superintendent of the cow pen. ButDr. R. K Mukherjee interpreted the term “Vraja” as the public utilitydepartment.

So the Vrajabhumika was a group of public utility department.So according to him Vrajabhumika was a Public Utility Officersupervising the execution of the Ashokan welfare schemes like the


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construction of roads, digging of wells, planting of shadymangroves etc.

During the reign of Ashoka, the officials called Rajukas had helda significant place. Ashoka in his administrative policy implementedthe Rajukas as the sole agency to execute his plans of reforms.

Originally the Rajukas were the officials in charge of measurementof land and settled those if there arose any dispute. Since they wereconnected with the land revenue department, they normally had agreat influence in the rural areas.

Ashoka during implementing the administrative policies,enhanced their powers and positions and made them the mostimportant officers of Janapadas. Gradually the Rajukas became thekey officers and were entrusted to execute Ashoka‘s most welfareprojects and administrative reforms.

They not only acted as judges with the power to justify wrongsentences and wrong judgments, moreover they made charitableoffers to the Sramanas and Bhikshus implemented by DandaSamata and Vyavahara Samata.

The function of the Rajukas is enumerated in the Ashokan Pillaredict IV. However Romila Thapar had pointed out that the Rajukaswere the junior officers employed in the village areas.

But most of the historians have unanimously opined that Ashokaupgraded the status of the Rajukas. In the sphere of justice andcivic life, Ashoka introduced many reforms because of hishumanitarian and paternal sentiment.

He introduced the officials in order to execute justice properlyand to preach the principles of Dhamma. Moreover there werespecial groups of officials in order to organise charities, promotetoleration and reduce the burden of punishment of the criminals.Ashoka released the prisoners from jail on the anniversary of hiscoronation.

The principles of uniformity of penalty and uniformity of judicialprocedures were enforced. Moreover during implementingadministrative policies, Ashoka tried to promote the spiritual welfareof his subjects by preaching dharma and by inculcating tolerationamong his subjects, he aspired to have a social harmony.

At the same time he issued ordinances prohibiting animalsacrifices and injury to animals and initiated welfare programmesfor the well being of the subjects. Such a planned and balancedstructure of Government with effective administrative reforms, had


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established the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka as one of the supremepowerful empires in India.

During his time, the Mauryan Empire experienced a fair civicand social life and was free of any sectarian revolt and internal chaosand anarchy. Owing to his effective administration, Ashoka is oftenconsidered as one of the greatest monarchs of India.

MEASURES ADOPTED BY ASHOKA’S DHAMMA ON HIS PROPAGATION OF BUDDHISM

Propagation of Buddhism

Ashoka is mainly remembered in the ancient texts as a patronof Buddhist missionary endeavor. His son Venerable Mahinda anddaughter Sanghamitta, a Bhikkuni (whose name means “friendof the Sangha”), were also prominent in this cause, establishingBuddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and taking copies of thePali canon of Buddhist scripture (the Tipitaka) with them, whichwas formalized at the third Buddhist Council convened byAshoka.

Ashoka built thousands of stupas and Viharas (monasteries/temples) for Buddhist followers. Some of his missionary monks mayhave been Greek. The Stupas of Sanchi are world famous and thestupa named “Sanchi Stupa 1” was built by Emperor Ashoka.

During the remaining portion of Ashoka’s reign, he pursued anofficial policy of nonviolence (ahimsa). Wildlife became protected bythe king’s law against sport hunting and branding; even theunnecessary slaughter or mutilation of animals was immediatelyabolished.

Limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons, butAshoka also promoted the concept of vegetarianism. Ashoka alsoshowed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them outside one dayeach year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of thecommon man by building universities for study (including provisionsfor women to study) and water transit and irrigation systems fortrade and agriculture.

He treated his subjects as equals, regardless of their religion,political leanings, or caste. The kingdoms surrounding his, so easilyoverthrown, were instead made to be well-respected allies. Ashoka’srole in helping to spread Buddhism cannot be underestimated.

Bhikkunis in Sri Lanka today trace their lineage right back toAshoka’s daughter and to the retinue of nuns who traveled to SriLanka with her.


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Although the order had a thousand-year absence in Sri Lanka,it was preserved in Korea and Japan and re-introduced into SriLanka in the last century. Sri Lanka remains one of the mostimportant Buddhist societies today and a center of Buddhistscholarship.

Had Ashoka not helped to spread Buddhism beyond India, it maynot have survived, as it was largely disappearing from India (untilre-introduced in the modern period) in the eleventh century C.E.(with the exception of the area of East Bengal bordering on Burma).Instead, it spread to China, Japan and beyond. Origen refers toBuddhist missionaries reaching England.

Buddhism may not have reached China until the first centuryC.E., but there are stories of one of Ashoka’s missionaries visitingChina. The revival of interest in Buddhism in India is alsoattributable to Ashoka, since it was the rediscovery of his edictsthat helped to stimulate interest.

Ashoka is acclaimed for constructing hospitals for animals andrenovating major roads throughout India. After his change of heart,Ashoka came to be known as Dhammashoka (Sanskrit, meaning“Ashoka, the follower of Dharma”). Ashoka defined the mainprinciples of dharma (dhamma) as nonviolence, tolerance of all sectsand opinions, obedience to parents, respect for the Brahmans andother religious teachers and priests, liberality towards friends,humane treatment of servants, and generosity towards all.

These principles suggest a general ethic of behavior to which noreligious or social group could object. Indeed, from his twelfth edict,Ashoka appears to have pioneered not only inter-religious dialoguebut also the concept that all religions share common truths andvalues. Some critics say that Ashoka was afraid of more wars, butamong his neighbors, including the Seleucid Empire and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom established by Diodotus I, none could match hisstrength.

He was a contemporary of both Antiochus I Soter and hissuccessor Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid dynasty as well asDiodotus I and his son Diodotus II of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom.His inscriptions and edicts demonstrate that he was familiar withthe Hellenic world (some were written in Greek) but he was neverin awe of it.

His edicts, which talk of friendly relations, give the names ofboth Antiochus of the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemy III of Egypt.The fame of the Mauryan Empire was widespread from the timethat Ashoka’s grandfather Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus


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Nicator, the founder of the Seleucid Dynasty.Some of the information we have on Mauryan history is from

the work of Greek historians and writers. As a result of Alexanderthe Great’s imperial and cultural project, the world of India and theHellenic world were now linked—and to a certain degree, shared acommon view of the wider world both inhabited.

The Pillars of Ashoka at Sarnath are the most popular of therelics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, these pillars record thevisit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the third century B.C.E.. Intranslating these monuments, historians have learned the bulk ofwhat is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire.

It is difficult to determine whether certain events ever happened,but the stone etchings depict clearly how Ashoka wanted to bethought of and how he wanted to be remembered.

Most of the pillars on which his edicts were inscribed are between40 and 50 feet tall and weigh up to fifty tons each. They have beenfound in about thirty locations in modern-day India, Nepal, Pakistan,and Afghanistan. Ashoka’s own words as known from his edicts are:“All men are my children.

I am like a father to them. As every father desires the good andthe happiness of his children, I wish that all men should be happyalways.”

Certainly, Ashoka’s dharma was intended to be a polity aroundwhich all in his heterogeneous kingdom could unite, and it hassomething in common with Akbar the Great’s sulh-i-kull policy of alater but not dissimilar time.

DOWNFALL OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

The Imperial fabric of the Mauryans became extinct with thedeath of Brihadratha, the last ruler of Mauryan lineage. Historianshave depicted that after the death of Ashoka, Mauryan Empire lostits former vitality.

Though the Empire continued to exist for the next fifty yearsafter Ashoka‘s death, the later Mauryas clung to the throne ofPataliputra with receding glory. The vast Mauryan Empire wasdisintegrated and the provincial governors began to unfurl theirflag of independence.

Moreover the sectarian conflict and foreign invasions weakenedthe strong foundation of the Mauryan Empire founded by the mightyChandragupta Maurya. Finally when Brihadratha, the last king ofMauryan lineage was assassinated by his general PushyamitraShunga, Mauryan Empire came to a complete extinction.


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Though decay of the dynastic Empires was natural, both theclassical and modern historians have surmised several causes behindthe downfall of such a charismatic Mauryan Empire.

They have categorised the causes behind the downfall of theMauryas into two broad categories - Primary and secondary or othercauses.

According to the historians, the sole cause behind the decline ofthe Mauryas after Ashoka was his weak successors.

After Ashoka‘s demise, there was none among his heirs to equalthe gigantic task of maintaining unity within the vast Empire.Moreover the successors of Ashoka had been reared in the traditionof non-violence and the policy of Dharma Vijaya.

To them, aggressive imperialism initiated by ChandraguptaMaurya was a dim idea. As a result they had neither will nor thestrength to bridle the process of disruption within the Empire. Noneof Ashoka‘s successors except Dasharatha could really understandand implement the Dharma Vijaya policy inaugurated by theenigmatic man.

The later Mauryas followed the policy of Dharma Vijaya onlyby forbidding any armed resistance against the invaders andinternal revolutionaries. As a result the very foundation of theMauryas was shattered. Apart from their weakness, another primarycause for the dismemberment of the Mauryan Empire was theambition of the Maurya princes.

The princes ruling in the provinces identified themselves withthe spirit of local autonomy. They denied their allegiance to thecentral authority and raised the standard of revolt challenging thesovereign authority. Moreover the Rajukas were entrusted with theautonomous power in the province, because after the death ofAshoka, the weak successors could not control the revolts raised bythe powerful Rajukas.

Moreover since the Mauryan princes were too ambitious, theydemanded for the partition of the Mauryan Empire. As a result, thevast Maurya Empire during its dying days was disintegrated intoseveral parts.

The governors or the independent head of the provinces, laterallied with the Yavanas to challenge the central authority atPataliputra. Thus Mauryan Empire began showing signs of breakingup after the death of Ashoka.

Thirdly, the Mauryan Government became unpopular because ofthe high handedness of the provincial governors. The provincial


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governors particularly committed oppression and the people revolted.The indication of ministerial revolt is also found during the reign ofBindusara; the Kalinga Rock edicts testify the ministerial revolt inhis reign.

Though the previous rulers were competent enough to subduethe revolt, the weak successors of Ashoka could not hold it back.The theory of ministerial revolt is found in the Puranas and incontemporary literary records. The theory of the Puranas is alsocorroborated in the later ages by Romila Thapar.

During the Later Mauryan period, the Maurya court and thenobilities were divided into two rival sections. One of these washeaded by Pushyamitra Shunga and the other by a minister, whosomehow managed to appoint his own sons as the governors ofVidarbha and Vidisha.

The clash between the rival groups in the Mauryan courtdestroyed the vigour of administration. The downfall of the MauryanEmpire was inevitable under the incapable Mauryas in the laterages. But Dr. Koshambhi had pointed out that economic decline isthe sole cause behind the downfall of the Mauryas.

The Mauryas suffered from the exhaustion of the royal exchequerowing to the enormous charitable offerings made by Ashoka andhis successors to the Buddhist Bhikshus and the Sramanas. Laterthe royal exchequer was so exhausted that the Mauryan kingsenhanced taxes and imposed tax revenue even on actors andprostitutes.

The Mauryan punch-marked coins proved the sign ofdebasement. But Romila Thapar holds that material prosperity ofthe Mauryas do not present the picture of declining economy of theMauryan dynasty.

However most of the historians hold that the sole cause of theMauryan downfall was exhaustion of economy and the weaksuccessors could not restructure the shattered economy in time.Apart from the above primary causes, historians have pointed outtwo other causes for the decline of the Mauryan supremacy inancient India.

According to them, the policy of non-violence introduced byAshoka and his Buddhist policy were no less important as a causefor the downfall of the Mauryan Empire. A group of historiansheaded by Shastri had defined that Ashoka‘s Buddhist policies andthe prohibition of animal sacrifices and his introduction of DanaSamata and Vyavahara Samata provoked the Brahmanicalcommunity.


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Antagonised with the contemporary policy of promoting only onereligion-Buddhism, they organised a revolt against the last survivingking Brihadratha and assassinated him. However the theory putforward by Shastri had been refuted by Dr. H.C. Roychowdhury onthe ground that there are no authentic reports supporting the viewsof the Shastri. He suggested that Ashoka was not a fanatic and wastolerant to other religions also.

His successor Jalauka was praised by the Brahmana historianKalhana. According to Roychowdhury, there was nothing called theBrahmanical revolt, rather Pushyamitra was merely coup d‘ etatand killed an effete ruler, who had almost lost his authority.

The policy of non-violence, according to some historians is apowerful cause for the downfall of the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka‘sadvocacy of non-violence and the principles of Dharma Vijayademoralised the army as well as bureaucracy in the successive ages.

However scholars have refuted the views of Roychowdhury onseveral grounds. According to them, Ashoka though had advocatedthe policy of non-violence, he did not let lose the grip ofadministrative machinery.

Rather during his time Mauryan administration was verymethodical and well maintained. Therefore the historians haveopined that if his successors followed the policy of non-violenceinitiated by Ashoka, they should have also followed the techniqueof managing the administrative machinery properly from him.

But the successors followed the policy of non-violence but couldnot maintain the Empire appropriately. Hence the policy of non-violence cannot be held responsible for the weak maintenance ofadministration during the later Mauryas.

Hence there is a keen controversy among the scholars regardingthe fact that whether the policy of non-violence can be at all heldresponsible for the collapse of the Mauryan Empire. Later scholarslike Romila Thapar have surmised several basic causes for thedownfall of the Mauryan Empire.

According to her since the Mauryan Empire was highlycentralised, a direct control and responsibility was highlydemanding. After Ashoka, his successors could not maintain thatcontrol, which resulted into complete disintegration of the Empire.

Moreover the officials were recruited from the privileged groupof men, who formed a community of their own detached from thecommon people as well as from the king himself. This resulted inpartisan politics, which threatened the very foundation of theMauryan dynasty.


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The centralised Mauryan government lacked the balanced andextensive public contact. Furthermore, when the internal conflictsaccelerated the process of disintegration, the Yavana invasionunder Euthydemus and Demetrius sped up the downfall of theMauryan Empire. The impact of the Yavana invasion shatteredthe control of the Mauryas in the provinces particularly in thenorthwest.

Finally, when the external and the internal forces wereaccelerating the breakdown of the Mauryan government, the coupd‘etat by Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 B.C. , ultimately culminatedin total ruination of the Mauryan Empire.

CAUSES FOR THE DECLINEOF THE MAURYAS

The causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire have beenwidely debated by scholars. The traditional approach attributes thedecline to Asoka’s policies and his weak successors.

Another approach holds the inadequate political and economicinstitutions to sustain such a vast empire. It was said that Asoka’spro-Buddhist policies antagonized the Brahmins who brought abouta revolution led by Pushyamitra Sunga. But Asoka was never actedagainst Brahmins.

That Asoka’s policy of non-violence reduced the fighting spiritof his army was another charge against him. But Asoka had neverslackened his control over his empire despite following a pacifistpolicy. Therefore solely blaming Asoka for the decline of the Mauryanempire may not be correct because Asoka was more a pragmatistthan an idealist.

There are multiple causes for the decline of the Mauryan empiresuch as weak successors, partition of empire and administrativeabuses after Asoka’s reign. The combination of these factors speededup the breakup of the Mauryan empire and facilitated PushyamitraSunga to drive away the Mauryan power and establish the Sungadynasty.

INDIAN SOCIETY UNDER THE MAURYAS

Mauryan society was divided into seven categories namely thephilosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsman, artisans, magistrates andcouncilors.

These divisions were referred as castes because the members ofa particular division were not allowed to marry outside their groupand were also not allowed to change their professions. The seven


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divisions of the society were not identical with each other anddiffered in terms of rules and regulations.

The category of philosophers that were present in the society wasfurther divided into two categories. They were the Brahmans andShramanas. The Shramanas in turn included the Buddhists, Jains,Ajivikas and others. The category of the Shramanas was big enoughto constitute a separate group.

During the time of the Mauryans the philosophers were exemptedfrom any kind of taxation. The farmers included the cultivators andlabourers who worked on the lands and the land owners wereexcluded from the category of farmers. The farmers were the largestgroup in the Mauryan society and they were considered the centralnerve of agriculture in the society.

They also were the military and civil infrastructure of the MauryaEmpire. The cultivators were kept unarmed in order to keep awayany possibilities of peasant revolution. The soldiers of the MauryaEmpire served as the armed force of the kingdom and they weremaintained at the royal cost.

During the times of peace the soldiers spent their time in idleness,drinking and merry making. In fact it can be said that during timesof peace the huge army of the Maurya Dynasty was an economicliability for the state. The herdsmen or the pastoralists of theMaurya dynasty generally included the tribes who still adhered toclan identities. They herdsmen generally constituted of hunter-gatherers, shifting cultivators and horticulturists.

The status of artisans in the Mauryan dynasty depended on theart works which they performed. Metalworkers who made armoursand other expensive items were given a higher status as comparedto weavers and potters. On the other hand the itinerant smiths,who catered to the needs of the household, were accorded the loweststatus in the society among artisans.

The caste system was strongly prevalent in the Mauryan society.The twice-born that is the Brahmans and the kshatriyas enjoyed aspecial privilege in the society because of their status of being twiceborn. The Vaisyas though theoretically were twice born but theywere not able to enjoy a privileged position similar to the Brahmansand the kshatriyas.

A variety of activities have been related to women during theMaurya Empire. Women were employed as archers, royal bodyguards, spies and performers. Sometimes women who wereimpoverished like the widows and the ageing prostitutes were giventhe work of spinning the yarn.


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It is true that women had the opportunity to get employed inthe state but several texts have given strong evidences that mostwomen during the Mauryan society were dominated by the malefigures of the household.

Thus it can be concluded that during the reign of the Mauryasthe society followed a strict division based on profession and takingcue from profession further division of caste was followed in thesociety.

ECONOMIC CONDITIONSUNDER THE MAURYAS

Maurya Empire converted the revenue producing economy ofNorthern India to a predominant agrarian economy and large areasof land were brought under cultivation.

It was found that the land revenue was the most importantsource of income for the government and assessment at regularintervals brought about increase in land revenue. Collection of taxeswas a matter of concern for the administration during the Mauryanrule.

During this time it was not that economic activities other thanagriculture were unknown and discouraged. Maintaining herds ofanimals was an important economic activity of that age.

Moreover the practice of keeping herds of animals was alsoconsidered a taxable activity. It can be said that during that timeall kinds of commercial activities especially those in the coastal areawas controlled by the government and all taxes, tolls and customsthat evolved from the commercial activities went to the government.

In fact the system of taxation evolved from the system ofcollecting taxes from the agricultural produce. Not only was the stateinvolved in agriculture but private owners in the form of farmersand landowners were also involved in cultivation of the land.

The farmers and land owners paid taxes to the government andthe large landowners collected taxes from the small scale tenantsin turn. It was during this time that a number of wastelands werecleared and many people came to the new lands for settling. Amongthe new group of people that had come to settle in the newly foundlands, there were a large number of Shudras.

In the initial stage the Shudras were exempted from taxes butin the later stages, when they started working on the land, taxeswere imposed on them. Maurya Empire had two types of landrevenue. One was tax imposed on the area of the land produced and


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the other was taxed imposed on the production that was receivedfrom the area of the land. Agriculture did not contribute alone tothe economic activity of the state during the Mauryan reign, evenvarious associations of crafts developed.

The various associations of crafts that evolved during this timegave rise to trade activities of the region and added to the economicactivities of the state. In fact it can be said that it became animportant component of the economic activities of the state.

Megasthenes had recorded that the practice of tax evasion waspresent during the Mauryan dynasty but at the same time thepractice of tax evasion was heavily punished. The prices of goodswere also controlled to a large extent in the area so that merchantscould not get an opportunity to make huge profits.

There was no banking system present at that time but still therewas the presence of usury at that time. Generally the rate of interestthat was charged per annum was 15 percent.

However, transactions that were less secure charged an interestrate which was as high as 60 percent. As far as art and craft of thatera is concerned, mostly terracotta and stone sculpture flourishedduring that time. But stone sculpture was mostly the choice of thewealthy and the powerful in contrast to the terracotta forms of artwhich was the domain of the humble strata of the society.

Hence, it can be concluded saying that economy during the ageof the Maurya kings was mostly dependent on agriculture with alittle percentage of the economy coming from other commercialactivities.

PUSHYAMITRA SHUNGA

In the dying days of the Mauryan Empire the weak successorsof Ashoka could not retain their former prosperity and magnificence,which the Empire had once earned. After the death of Ashoka, thepower of the imperial Mauryas diminished due to revolt of theprovincial governors and foreign invasion.

The Later Mauryas were not competent enough to subdue theprovincial revolts. Brahadratha, the last Maurya, was reigning in adiminishing glory. In a situation of complete failure of administrativemachinery, his principal general Pushyamitra Shunga organized acoup d‘ etat against him and assassinated him in 185 BC.

Finally Pushyamitra ascended the Magadhan throne and installedthe Shunga dynasty in Magadha. However Romila Thapar puts thatPushyamitra‘s coup assassinated the last Maurya in 180 or 181 BC.


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In this way the grandeur of the majestic Mauryas met a violentend and the new House established by Pushyamitra came to beknown as the Shunga Dynasty. The lineage or ancestry ofPushyamitra Shunga is shrouded in mystery. However severalconflicting theories have been put forward by the scholars regardingthe actual parentage of Pushyamitra Shunga.

According to Panini, Shungas were the Brahmans of BhradwajGotra. The Brahmana lineage of the Shungas was also supportedby the references to the Shunga teachers of the Vedic texts. The“Brihadaranyaka Upanishada” refers to Saungiputra as a teacher.Kalidasa in his “Malavikaagnimitram” mentions that, Shungas arethe descendants of the Baimbika family of Kashyapa gotra.

The Buddhist work “Divyavadana” suggests that PushyamitraShunga had kinship with the Mauryan House, but these views werehowever refuted by the scholars. Dr H.C Roychowdhury howeverprovides reconciliation of these conflicting theories.

According to him the term “Baimbika” does not refer to any caste,rather the term signifies “a gallant lover”. Further it has beenpointed out in the Puranas that the Shungas include two distinctgroup of kings- Baimbika family to which Pushyamitra belongedand the other is the group to which the successors of Pushyamitrabelonged.

Later the views established by the Puranas were generallyaccepted. Pushyamitra Shunga was a shrewd diplomat. His careerfor long 36 years is marked with his astute diplomacy in the field ofadministration and his relation with the neighbouring countries.

After the successful campaigning against the Mauryas and theusurpation of the Magadhan throne, Pushyamitra accelerated theconsolidation of his empire within his own stronghold. He hastenedto eliminate all the chances of counter-revolution.

In order to smother any pro-Mauryan disruption, Pushyamitraadopted several steps. According to the historians, Pushyamitra wasa perfect Machiavellian in managing the administration of theconsolidated Empire. Firstly he imprisoned the ministers of the lateMauryan kings, secondly he appointed his kinsmen to hold theresponsibility of the provincial kingdom so that they could quell anychance of revolt.

The reign of Pushyamitra Shunga was marked with his hugecareer of warfare. Though the valiant king Pushyamitra overran theMauryas, he did not enjoy unquestioned allegiance everywhere. Thesupremacy of Pushyamitra was opposed by the Andhras and theKalingas, who had unfurled the flag of independence.


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Pushyamitra was a valiant conqueror but he however could notextend his kingdom like the Mauryas. Pushyamitra howeverstrengthened his kingdom in the areas of Magadha, Oudh, Vidishaand parts of Punjab. Pushyamitra‘s relation with the Vidarbha rightfrom the beginning of his career was not in good terms.

During the reign of the last Mauryan Brahadratha, the courtierswere divided into two factions due to their different attitudes againstthe Vidarbha chief. The Vidarbha ruler Yajnasena was the relativeof a minister of the pro-Mauryan minister as is suggested byKalidasa.

The conflict between Pushyamitra Shunga and the Mauryansbegan at this point. The relative of the Mauryan minister revolted,Pushyamitra imprisoned the Mauryan minister but Yajnasena, theVidarbha chief did not accept the legality of Pushyamitra Shunga.

Consequently Yajnasena, imprisoned his cousin Madhavasena.Yajnasena was in bad terms with his cousin due to his pro-Shungaleanings. At that time, the crowned prince was Agnimitra, son ofPushyamitra, who demanded the release of Madhavasena.

Agnimitra, directed by Pushyamitra campaigned against theVidarbha king Yajnasena and defeated him. Vidarbha waspartitioned between the Yajnasena and Madhavasena and bothaccepted sovereignty of Pushyamitra Shunga. The reign ofPushyamitra Shunga is important in the history of India probablydue to his heroic struggle against the Yavanas or the BactrianGreeks.

During his reign, the renewed Greek invasion in northern Indiawas a threat to the consolidated empire of Pushyamitra Shunga.But Pushyamitra successfully subdued the Greek intrusion andestablished the powerful Hindu empire. However there is acontroversy among the historians regarding the relation ofPushyamitra with the Yavanas or about the date and place of thefirst Yavana invasion during the reign of Pushyamitra.

According to Patanjali, a contemporary of Pushyamitra, theYavanas besieged the areas upto Chitore. This theory is furthersupported by the Yuga Puranas section of the Gargi Samhita. Butother historians prefer to fix the actual date of the Yavana invasioneven before Pushyamitra ascended the throne.

In spite of enough differences among the scholars on the pointthat whether the first Yavana invasion took place in the reign ofPushyamitra Shunga, there is an unambiguous reference to a warof Pushyamitra with the Yavanas during the culmination of hisreign.


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However it has been suggested by a group of historians that theShunga Empire extended upto the extent of the Indus River inPunjab. To some historians, the credit of overthrowing the Yavanascannot be ascribed to Pushyamitra Shunga.

In the drama “Malavikaagnimitram” Kalidasa refers to a warbetween the Yavanas and the Shunga descendant Vasumitra,grandson of Pushyamitra. Both the classical and the modernscholars conform on the reference of Kalidasa. According to them,Pushyamitra in his advanced age performed an Ashwamedha Yajnaand let lose the sacrificial horse, which was seized by the Yavanason the banks of the river Sindhu.

However Pushyamitra was not able to guard his horse from theYavanas. It was Vasumitra, grandson of Pushyamitra, in a hotlycontested battle routed the Yavana and restored magnificence ofthe Shunga Dynasty. There is a good deal of controversy among thescholars regarding the identification of the area surrounding theSindhu River and the name of the Yavana ruler who seized thesacrificial horse.

To Professor Rapson, the river Sindhu mentioned by Kalidasarefers to the region around Kali Sindhu, a tributary of Chambalnear Chitore. R.C. Majumdar straightly refutes the view of Rapson,pointing conclusively that river Sindhu refers to the Indus River inPunjab.

Whatever the controversy is, modern scholars in the present dayshave made it clear in unequivocal terms that the Shunga Empireincluded the entire territory around the river Sindhu in Punjab.The historians, in spite of enough disputes among them, have clearlydefined the name of the Yavana chief who was defeated by theShungas as Menander. The historians though have unanimouslyopined that after overthrowing the Yavanas, the Shungas establisheda strong Hindu empire.

Yet in the later years the historians again are in controversy aboutthe nature and chronology of the Yavana invasion that took placeduring the reign of Pushyamitra Shunga. Kalidasa‘s drama“Malavikaagnimitram” is a main source regarding this controversy.

The theory as established by Kalidasa‘s “Malavikaagnimitram”mentions that the first Yavana invasion took place in the first partof Pushyamitra‘s reign and is completely silent about any Yavanainvasion at the closing of his reign.

According to Kalidasa, the leader of the Yavana invasion wasDemetrius, son of Euthydemus who was defeated by Vasumitra onthe banks of the river Sindhu. But Kalidasa differs with Professor


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Rapson about the exact location of the Sindhu. Since Kali Sindhuwas far from Vidisha, Kalidasa suggests that the Sindhu River,around which the battle took place, refers to the Sindhu river ofPunjab.

Secondly there was no archaeological evidence supporting thefact that Demetrius seized the areas near Kali Sindhu, rather thereare facts about the war between the Shungas and the Yavanas inthe surrounding region of Indus in Punjab.

Finally the “Gargi Samhita” narrates that Yavana chiefDemetrius penetrated upto Pataliputra, but could not proceedfurther being encountered by the formidable opposition ofPushyamitra Shunga. The second Yavana war, according to somehistorians, took place after the death of Pushyamitra Shunga.

The description of the second Yavana invasion is found in theYuga Purana. The fact of the second Yavana invasion is alsocorroborated by Mahabhasya of Patanjali.

Mahabhasya mentions that when the strong hands ofPushyamitra were removed from the administrative machinery, theYavanas hastened upto Pataliputra with a renewed attempt ofinvasion after attacking Panchala and Saketa.

However, the theory that there was a second Yavana invasionwas not free from inconsistencies. According to Yuga Purana, theYavana invasion mentioned in “Malavikaagnimitram” took placesometime after the reign of Salisuka, the Maurya King and the YugaPurana did not have any reference to Pushyamitra Shunga.

Secondly it is mentioned in the Yuga Purana, that when theYavana uprising took place in Pataliputra, there was no sovereignking there. Hence if the invasion during the Shungas would nothave occured, they would still have been in the throne of Pataliputra.

Pushyamitra Shunga performed the horse sacrifices and therebytriumphed in the Brahmanical revival in the history of ancient India.The horse sacrifice or the Ashwamedha Yajna signified the supremacyof Pushyamitra and Brahmanism during the Shunga period.

According to the Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva, Pushyamitraperformed two horse sacrifices or Ashwamedha Yajna. The first onewas probably during the time when Pushyamitra ascended the throneof Pataliputra, ousting the Mauryas and the second sacrifice wasdue to his victory over the Bactrian Greeks and to proclaim hisdominion.

Dr H.C Roy Chowdhury holds that the performance of theAshwamedha Yajna signified the beginning of the Brahmanical


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reactions, which fully developed during the Guptas. It wasPushyamitra who is credited to have established the strong HinduEmpire in India and according to scholars, Pushyamitra performedthe Ashwamedha Yajna in order to celebrate the triumph of theBrahmanical revival in ancient India. The huge career ofPushyamitra Shunga as a king of Magadha for 36 years was markedwith enormous wars and conquests.

He consolidated and annexed the fragmented parts under hisrule and established a powerful Shunga Empire. However the greatwarrior Pushyamitra had suffered several reverses at the completionof his reign according to Professor Rapson.

At the end of his reign, when the Shunga Empire was not strongenough to put an opposition to the alien invasion, Pushyamitra lostmost of the provinces. At that time, the Sattavahana king SatakarniI occupied the kingdom of Avanti, one of the important part of theShunga Empire. The downfall of the Shungas initiated with theconquering of Avanti by Satakarni I.

– But Professor Jagannath denied the views of Prof. Rapsonand conclusively proved that Avanti remained under the authorityof the Shungas. The Nanaghat pillar inscription by queen ofSatakarni I also corroborates Prof. Jagannath‘s view.

Naganika Devi, queen of Satakarni I, did not mention theconquest of Avanti by her husband. According to Prof Rapson, theconquest against the Yavanas, resulted into a huge loss of time andenergy, which Pushyamitra in his dying days could not recover.Moreover Pushyamitra was attacked by Kharvela of Kalinga twice,which finally dissolved the Shunga Empire.

However historians in the modern days are of the opinion thatthe downfall of Pushyamitra Shunga was the outcome of the hugeloss during the war against the Yavanas.

INDO-GREEKS: MENANDER

After the Macedonian conquest, Greek comedy moved away fromthe daring personal and political satire of Aristophanes. Lackingcomplete political independance, writers of this New Comedy foundthemselves moving towards safer more mundane subject matter.They found their inspiration in the daily life of Athens. Theircharacters were drawn from the cooks, merchants, farmers andslaves of the city. According to ancient report, the most gifted ofthese new writers was Menander. Menander, the child of adistinguished family, wrote more than 100 plays during a career thatspanned about thirty-three years.


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He was known for the delicacy and truthfulness of hischaracterizations, and his poetic style was often mentioned in thesame breath as Homer’s. Although he won first prize at only eightfestivals, he did much to move comedy towards a more realisticrepresentation of human life.

Menander’s characters spoke in the contemporary dialect andconcerned themselves not with the great myths of the past, butrather with the everyday affairs of the people of Athens. His plotsrevolved around young boys in love with young girls, parentsconcerned with the misbehavior of their children, unwantedpregnancies, long-lost relatives, and all sorts of sexualmisadventures.

His first play, The Self Tormentor, was written at the age oftwenty. And he won his first victory with a play entitled Anger in316 B.C. Menander’s plays held a place in the standard literatureof western Europe for over 800 years.

At some point, however, his manuscripts were lost or destroyed,and what we now know of the poet is based primarily on ancientreports, a few manuscripts which have been recovered in the lasthundred years, and adaptations by the Roman playwrights Plautusand Terence.

There is only one complete play—Dyskolos (The Grouch)—whichwas not rediscovered until 1957. A few long fragments have survivedas well from such plays as The Arbitration, The Girl from Samos,The Shorn Girl, and The Hero.

AN IMPORTANT INDO-GREEK KING

His territories covered the eastern dominions of the dividedGreek empire of Bactria (from the areas of the Panjshir and Kapisa)and extended to the modern Pakistani provinces of the NWFP, Punjaband parts of Himachal Pradesh and the Jammu region.

His capital is supposed to have been Sagala, a prosperous city innorthern Punjab (believed to be modern Sialkot), Pakistan. He is oneof the few Bactrian kings mentioned by Greek authors, among themApollodorus of Artemita, quoted by Strabo, who claims that the Greeksfrom Bactria were even greater conquerors than Alexander the Great,and that Menander was one of the two Bactrian kings, withDemetrius, who extended their power farthest into India:

• “The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew so powerfulon account of the fertility of the country that they becamemasters, not only of Ariana, but also of India, as Apollodorusof Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued by them than


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by Alexander— by Menander in particular (at least if heactually crossed the Hypanis towards the east and advancedas far as the Imaüs), for some were subdued by him personallyand others by Demetrius, the son of Euthydemus the king ofthe Bactrians; and they took possession, not only of Patalena,but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdomof Saraostus and Sigerdis. In short, Apollodorus says thatBactriana is the ornament of Ariana as a whole; and, morethan that, they extended their empire even as far as the Seresand the Phryni.”

Strabo also suggests that these Greek conquests went as far asthe capital Pataliputra in northeastern India (today Patna):

• “Those who came after Alexander went to the Ganges andPataliputra”.

The Indian records also describe Greek attacks on Mathura,Panchala, Saketa, and Pataliputra. This is particularly the case ofsome mentions of the invasion by Patanjali around 150 BC, and ofthe Yuga Purana, which describes Indian historical events in theform of a prophecy:

• “After having conquered Saketa, the country of the Panchalaand the Mathuras, the Yavanas (Greeks), wicked and valiant,will reach Kusumadhvaja. The thick mud-fortifications atPataliputra being reached, all the provinces will be in disorder,without doubt. Ultimately, a great battle will follow, with tree-like engines (siege engines).”

In the West, Menander seems to have repelled the invasion ofthe dynasty of Greco-Bactrian usurper Eucratides, and pushed themback as far as the Paropamisadae, thereby consolidating the rule ofthe Indo-Greek kings in the northern part of the IndianSubcontinent.

The Milinda Panha gives some glimpses of his military methods:• “Has it ever happened to you, O king, that rival kings rose

up against you as enemies and opponents?

• Yes, certainly.

• Then you set to work, I suppose, to have moats dug, andramparts thrown up, and watch towers erected, andstrongholds built, and stores of food collected?

• Not at all. All that had been prepared beforehand.

• Or you had yourself trained in the management of warelephants, and in horsemanship, and in the use of the warchariot, and in archery and fencing?


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• Not at all. I had learnt all that before.

• But why?

• With the object of warding off future danger.”

His reign was long and successful. Generous findings of coinstestify to the prosperity and extension of his empire (with finds asfar as Britain): the finds of his coins are the most numerous andthe most widespread of all the Indo-Greek kings.

Precise dates of his reign, as well as his origin, remain elusivehowever. Guesses among historians have been that Menander waseither a nephew or a former general of the Greco-Bactrian kingDemetrius I, but the two kings are now thought to be separated byat least thirty years. Menander’s predecessor in Punjab seems tohave been the king Apollodotus I.

Menander’s empire survived him in a fragmented manner untilthe last Greek king Strato II disappeared around 10 AD. Menanderwas the first Indo-Greek ruler to introduce the representation ofAthena Alkidemos (“Athena, saviour of the people”) on his coins,probably in reference to a similar statue of Athena Alkidemos inPella, capital of Macedon. This type was subsequently used by mostof the later Indo-Greek kings.

MENANDER AND BUDDHISM

The Milinda Pañha

According to tradition, Menander embraced the Buddhist faith,as described in the Milinda Pañha, a classical Pali Buddhist text onthe discussions between Milinda and the Buddhist sage Nâgasena.

He is described as constantly accompanied by a guard of 500Greek (“Yonaka”) soldiers, and two of his counsellors are namedDemetrius and Antiochus. This type of discussion was known toancient Greeks as a “sozo”, it is important for Buddhists tounderstand the cultural context in which this discussion was held.

In the Milindanpanha, Menander is introduced as:• “King of the city of Sâgala in India, Milinda by name, learned,

eloquent, wise, and able; and a faithful observer, and that atthe right time, of all the various acts of devotion and ceremonyenjoined by his own sacred hymns concerning things past,present, and to come.Many were the arts and sciences he knew—holy tradition andsecular law; the Sânkhya, Yoga, Nyâya, and Vaisheshikasystems of philosophy; arithmetic; music; medicine; the four


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Vedas, the Purânas, and the Itihâsas; astronomy, magic,causation, and magic spells; the art of war; poetry;conveyancing in a word, the whole nineteen.As a disputant he was hard to equal, harder still to overcome;the acknowledged superior of all the founders of the variousschools of thought.And as in wisdom so in strength of body, swiftness, and valourthere was found none equal to Milinda in all India. He wasrich too, mighty in wealth and prosperity, and the number ofhis armed hosts knew no end.”

Buddhist tradition relates that, following his discussions withNâgasena, Menander adopted the Buddhist faith:

• “May the venerable Nâgasena accept me as a supporter ofthe faith, as a true convert from to-day onwards as long aslife shall last!”.

He then handed over his kingdom to his son and retired fromthe world:

• “And afterwards, taking delight in the wisdom of the Elder,he handed over his kingdom to his son, and abandoning thehousehold life for the houseless state, grew great in insight,and himself attained to Arahatship!”

There is however little besides this testament to indicate thatMenander in fact abdicated his throne in favor of his son. Based onnumismatic evidence, Sir Tarn believes that he in fact died, leavinghis wife Agathocleia to rule as a regent, until his son Strato couldrule properly in his stead.

Despite the success of his reign, it is clear that after his death,his “loosely hung” empire splintered into a variety of Indo-Greeksuccessor kingdoms, of various size and stability.

Other Indian Accounts

• A 2nd century BC relief from a Buddhist stupa in Bharhut,in eastern Madhya Pradesh (today at the Indian Museum inCalcutta), represents a foreign soldier with the curly hair ofa Greek and the royal headband with flowing ends of a Greekking, and may be a depiction of Menander.In his right hand, he hold a branch of ivy, symbol of Dionysos.Also parts of his dress, with rows of geometrical folds, arecharacteristically Hellenistic in style. On his sword appearsthe Buddhist symbol of the three jewels, or Triratana.

• A Buddhist reliquary found in Bajaur bears a dedicatory


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inscription referring to “the 14th day of the month of Kârttika”of a certain year in the reign of “Mahârâja Minadra” (“GreatKing Menander”):– “Minadrasa maharajasa Katiassa divasa 4 4 4 11 pra-me...

(prati)[thavi]ta pranasame... Sakamunisa.”– “On the 14th day of Kârttika, in the reign of Mahârâja

Minadra, (in the year ...), (the corporeal relic) of Sakyamuni,which is endowed with life... has been established.”

• According to an ancient Sri Lankan source, the Mahavamsa,Greek monks seem to have been active proselytizers ofBuddhism during the time of Menander: the Yona (Greek)Mahadhammarakkhita is said to have come from “Alasandra”(thought to be Alexandria of the Caucasus, the city foundedby Alexander the Great, near today’s Kabul) with 30,000monks for the foundation ceremony of the Maha Thupa(“Great stupa”) at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, during the2nd century BC:– “From Alasanda the city of the Yonas came the thera

Yona Mahadhammarakkhita with thirty thousandbhikkhus.”

These elements tend to indicate the importance of Buddhismwithin Greek communities in northwestern India, and theprominent role Greek Buddhist monks played in them, probablyunder the sponsorship of Menander.

Coins of Menander

Menander has left behind an immense corpus of silver andbronze coins, more so than any other Indo-Greek king. During hisreign, the fusion between Indian and Greek coin standards reachedits apogee. The coins feature the legend.

• According to Bopearachchi, his silver coinage begins with arare series of drachms depicting on the obverse Athena andon the reverse her attribute the owl. The weight andmonograms of this series match those of earlier kingAntimachus II, indicating that Menander succeededAntimachus II.

• On the next series, Menander introduces his own portrait, ahitherto unknown custom among Indian rulers. The reversefeatures his dynastical trademark: the so called AthenaAlkidemos throwing a thunderbolt, an emblem used by manyof Menander’s successors and also the emblem of the Antigonidkings of Macedonia.


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• In a further development, Menander changed the legends fromcircular orientation to the arrangement seen on coin 4 to theright. This modification ensured that the coins could be readwithout being rotated, and was used without exception by alllater Indo-Greek kings.

• These alterations were possibly an adaption on Menander’spart to the Indian coins of the Bactrian Eucratides I, whohad conquered the westernmost parts of the Indo-Greekkingdom, and are interpreted by Bopearachchi as anindication that Menander recaptured these westernterritories after the death of Eucratides.

• Menander also struck very rare Attic standard coinage withmonolingual inscriptions (coin 5), which were probably intendedfor use in Bactria (where they have been found), perhaps thoughtto demonstrate his victories against the Bactrian kings, as wellas Menander’s own claim to that the kingdom.

• The bronze coins of Menander featuring a manifold variationof Olympic, Indian and other symbols. It seems as thoughMenander introduced a new weight standard for bronzes.

MENANDER’S DEATH

Plutarch reports that Menander died in camp while on campaign,thereby differing with the version of the Milindapanha.

Plutarch gives Menander as an example of benevolent rule,contrasting him with disliked tyrants such as Dionysius, and goeson explaining that his subject towns disputed about the honour ofhis burial, ultimately sharing his ashes among them and placing themin “monuments” (possibly stupas), in a manner reminiscent of thefunerals of the Buddha.

• “But when one Menander, who had reigned graciously overthe Bactrians, died afterwards in the camp, the cities indeedby common consent celebrated his funerals; but coming to acontest about his relics, they were difficultly at last broughtto this agreement, that his ashes being distributed, everyoneshould carry away an equal share, and they should all erectmonuments to him.”

Despite his many successes, Menander’s last years may have beenfraught with another civil war, this time against Zoilos I who reignedin Gandhara.

This is indicated by the fact that Menander probably overstrucka coin of Zoilos. The Milinda Panha might give some support theidea that Menander’s position was precarious, since it describes him


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as being somewhat cornered by numerous enemies into acircumscribed territory:

• After their long discussion “Nagasaka asked himself “thoughking Milinda is pleased, he gives no signs of being pleased”.Menander says in reply: “As a lion, the king of beasts, whenput in a cage, though it were of gold, is still facing outside,even so do I live as master in the house but remain facingoutside. But if I were to go forth from home into homelessnessI would not live long, so many are my enemies.”

Theories of Menander’s Successors

Menander was the last Indo-Greek king mentioned by ancienthistorians, and the development after his death is therefore difficultto trace:

• The traditional view, supported by W.W. Tarn andBoperachchi, is that Menander was succeeded by his QueenAgathokleia, who acted as regent to their infant son Strato Iuntil he became an adult and took over the crown.Strato I used the same reverse as Menander I, Athena hurlinga thunderbolt, and also the title Soter. According to thisscenario, Agathocleia and Straton I only managed to maintainthemselves in the eastern parts of the kingdom, Punjab andat times Gandhara. Paropamisadae and Pushkalavati weretaken over by Zoilos I, perhaps because some of Agathocleia’ssubjects may have been reluctant to accept an infant kingwith a queen regent.

• Against this, R.C. Senior and other numismatics such as DavidBivar have suggested that Straton I ruled several decades afterMenander: they point out that Straton’s and Agathocleia’smonograms are usually different from Menander’s, and overstrikesand hoard findings also associates them with later kings.In this scenario, Menander was briefly succeeded by his son Thrason,of whom a single coin is known. After Thrason was murdered,competing kings such as Zoilos I or Lysias may have taken overMenander’s kingdom. Menander’s dynasty was thus dethroned anddid not return to power until later, though his relative Nicias mayhave ruled a small principality in the Kabul valley.

LEGACY

Buddhism

After the reign of Menander I, Strato I and several subsequent


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Indo-Greek rulers, such as Amyntas, Nicias, Peukolaos, Hermaeus,and Hippostratos, depicted themselves or their Greek deities formingwith the right hand a symbolic gesture identical to the Buddhistvitarka mudra (thumb and index joined together, with other fingersextended), which in Buddhism signifies the transmission of theBuddha’s teaching.

At the same time, right after the death of Menander, severalIndo-Greek rulers also started to adopt on their coins the Pali titleof “Dharmikasa”, meaning “follower of the Dharma” (the title of thegreat Indian Buddhist king Ashoka was Dharmaraja “King of theDharma”).

This usage was adopted by Strato I, Zoilos I, Heliokles II,Theophilos, Peukolaos and Archebios. Altogether, the conversion ofMenander to Buddhism suggested by the Milinda Panha seems tohave triggered the use of Buddhist symbolism in one form or anotheron the coinage of close to half of the kings who succeeded him.

Especially, all the kings after Menander who are recorded to haveruled in Gandhara (apart from the little known Demetrius III)display Buddhist symbolism in one form or another. Both becauseof his conversion and because of his unequaled territorial expansion,Menander may have contributed to the expansion of Buddhism inCentral Asia.

Although the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and NorthernAsia is usually associated with the Kushans, a century or two later,there is a possibility that it may have been introduced in those areasfrom Gandhara “even earlier, during the time of Demetrius andMenander” (Puri, “Buddhism in Central Asia”).

Representation of the Buddha

The anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha is absent fromIndo-Greek coinage, suggesting that the Indo-Greek kings may haverespected the Indian an-iconic rule for depictions of the Buddha,limiting themselves to symbolic representation only.

Consistently with this perspective, the actual depiction of theBuddha would be a later phenomenon, usually dated to the 1stcentury, emerging from the sponsorship of the syncretic KushanEmpire and executed by Greek, and, later, Indian and possiblyRoman artists.

Datation of Greco-Buddhist statues is generally uncertain, butthey are at least firmly established from the 1st century. Anotherpossibility is that just as the Indo-Greeks routinely representedphilosophers in statues (but certainly not on coins) in Antiquity, the


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Indo-Greek may have initiated anthropomorphic representations ofthe Buddha in statuary only, possibly as soon as the 2nd-1st centuryBC, as advocated by Foucher and suggested by Chinese muralsdepicting Emperor Wu of Han worshipping Buddha statues broughtfrom Central Asia in 120 BC.

An Indo-Chinese tradition also explains that Nagasena, alsoknown as Menander’s Buddhist teacher, created in 43 BC in thecity of Pataliputra a statue of the Buddha, the Emerald Buddha,which was later brought to Thailand.

Stylistically, Indo-Greek coins generally display a very high levelof Hellenistic artistic realism, which declined drastically around 50BC with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians, Yuezhi and Indo-Parthians. The first known statues of the Buddha are also veryrealistic and Hellenistic in style and are more consistent with thepre-50 BC artistic level seen on coins. This would tend to suggestthat the first statues were created between 130 BC (death ofMenander) and 50 BC, precisely at the time when Buddhistsymbolism appeared on Indo-Greek coinage.

From that time, Menander and his successors may have beenthe key propagators of Buddhist ideas and representations: “thespread of Gandhari Buddhism may have been stimulated byMenander’s royal patronage, as may have the development andspread of Gandharan sculpture, which seems to have accompaniedit”.

KUSHANS: KANISHKA CONQUESTS

In the post-Mauryan era, central Asia and north-western Indiawitnessed hectic and shifting political scenes. The Great Yuehi-chidriven out of fertile lend in Western china migrated towards theAral Sea.

There they encountered the Sakas near Syr Darya river andevicted them. The Great Yuehi-Chi tribes settled in the valley of Oxusand with the occupation of the Bactrian lands the great hordes weredivided into five principalities. A century later the Kushan sectionor sect of Yuehi-Chi attained predominance over the otheres. Theirleader was Kadphises. Thus began the history of Kushans.

The unique geographical position of the Kushans empire made ita colossus astride on the spine of Asia uniting the Greco-Romancivilization in the west the Chinese civilization in the east and Indiancivilisation in the south-east.

The leader of the Kushans was kadphises and his rule probablybegan in 40 A.D. He attacked the regions south of Hindu Kush,


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conquered Kabul and annexed Gandhara including the kingdom ofTaxila.

Kadphises died in 77 A.D. or 78 A.D. By then the Kushans hadsupplanted the princes belonging to the Indo-Greek saka and Indo-Parthian communities along the frontiers of India. The successor ofkadphises was Vima-Kadphses. He conquered large parts of northerIndia. His coins show that his authority extended as far as Banarasand as well as the Indus basin.

In all likelihood his power extended as far as Narbada and theSaka satraps in Malwa and Western India acknowledged hissovereignty.

By that time the Chinese reasserted their authority in the northand this led to a collusion with the Kushans. The Chinese generalpan-chao conquered Chinese Turkistan and established the Chineseauthority in parthia that is on the territory south of the Caspiansea.

These advances frightened the Kushans. In 87 AD KadphisesII, claimed the hand of a Chiese princes, an acknowledgement ofhis equality with the son of Heaven. The proposal was rejected andKadphises, dispatched a large army, But the army was decimatedbecause of the difficult terrain.

And it was easily defeated by the Chinese. The Kushan rulerwas compelled to pay tribute the China and the Chinese records sothat the Kushans continued to send missions to Cnina till the closeof the century. Rossibly the reign of Kadphises II ended C. 110 A.D.

The next ruler, Kanishka probably belonged to the little Yuehi-chi section of the horde. His capital was Purushapura and here heerected a large number of Buddhist buildings. In his early years heannexed Kashmir and consolidated his rule in the Indus and theGangetic basin.

His army crossed the Pamirs and inflicted a defeat on theChinese. The chief of Khotan, Yarkand and the Ksshgar were madeto pay tribute. Tradition states that while Kanishka was on his returnfrom the Chinese Turkistan, he was sothered to death by his officerswho had got weary of his campaigns. Most of his time was spent onwaging wars.

A large number of inscriptions were incised during the times ofKanishka and his successor. According to evidence, Kanishka becamean active partron of the Buddhist Church during the later part ofhis reign.

Althouth the Buddhist records gloat over this fact and regardhim as the second Asoka, his coins prove that he honoured a medley


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of gods - zoroastrain, Greek, Mitraic, and Indian. The prominentIndian duty on the coins was Shiva. The peculiar assembly of deitiesby the Kushans offers a great deal of speculation.

May be Kansihka follwed a loose from of Zorostrianism and freelyvenerated the deities of other greeds.

Also, Kanishka covened a council of Buddhist theologians tosettle disputes relating to Buddhist faith and practices.

The conclusions of this council were engraved on copper sheetsand preserved in the stupa of the capital. The delgates to the councilprimarily belonged to the Hinayana sect.

The Buddhism of this period was definitely a lax one. TheMahayana sect was popular. But early Buddhism was an Indiaproduct and was based on the Indian ideas of rebirth, transmigrationof souls and the blessedness of escape from the pains of being.

This Buddhism was supported by a practical system of ethicsinculcating a stoic devotion to duty for its own sake. Such a teachingneeded fundamental changes to attract the sturdy mountaineer, thenomad horseman and the Helloe rized Alexandrian. The venerationfor a dead teacher passed into a worship of living seviour.

Soon the Kushan power declined. Within the Kingdom, harm wasdone to the Kushan Empire by the Nagas and Yaudheyas. A Nagaruler probably performed ten ashvamedha sacrifices. Apart fromthese two communities, a few other tribes also, like the Malavas andthe Kunindas, probably regained their importance at the expense ofthe Kushan empire.

Apart from the weaknesses to the successors of Kanishka,developments in the Persia influenced the history of North westernIndia. The Parthians were overthrown byArdashir in 226 A.D. whoestablished theSassanian dynasty. His successors annxed Peshawarand Taxila during the middle of the 3rd century.

And Kushan kings in the north-west became the vassals of theSasssanians. The successors of Kanishka, as established today, arethe following : Vashiska (102-106), Hyvishka (106-138), and Vasudeva(c. 152-176). The history after this period is extremely vague. Overthe ruins of the empire, in Central Asia and the west, rose theSassanian empire of Persia and in India. The Gupta empire.

Speaking in general about the achievement of the Kushans, thefirst is the economic prosperity. As the Kushan empire was situatedin a crucial geographical region. There was brisk trade.

Moreover, the very area covered by the Kushan empire helpedthe flow of trade between the east and the west. Some trade routes


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which came into existence in this period continued to serve the futurealso. Gold coins of great complexity were issued by the Kushans.

These coins speak of the prosperity of the people. The coins ofKanishka usually show the figure of Kanishka standing andsacrificing at altar, and on the obverse, deities belonging to variousreligions.

The coins of the Kushans also show that the Kushans were incontact with the Romans - the weight of the Kushan coins has certainsimilarities with the Roman coins. According to the author of thePeriplus god and silver species were imported at Barygaza (Broach).

As regards art and literature, we have to state that their greatestcontribution was the Gandhara art. It was in this period that thestone images of the Buddha and the Bodhisattavas were craved out.

The chief of quality of this art is the blending of Buddhist subjectswith Greek forms. Images of the Buddha appear in the likeness ofApollo, and theYakshakubera is posed in the fasino of Zeus. Theimprint of this school of art is still to be found in Mathura andAmarvati. Indeed, the carving of images and the building of templeswas not neglected in earlier days, but under the Kushans theyattained a refinement.

The Chaitya built at Peshawar was as high as four storeys. Fa-Hien, passing through Gandhara, during the fifth century, praisedthe images of the Buddha, Bodhisattavas and numerous otherdeities.

The early rulers fostered the Hellenistic art of Gandhara andalso the Bhikshu Bela, and from this place artistic products weresent to Sarasvati and Sarnath. Kanishka was a great builder - towerat Peshawar, a new city in Taxila, a town in Kashmir and finebuildings and sculptures at Mathura.

It was at the last place a portrait stature of Kanishka has beenfound but its head is not there. Further, the die-engravers employedby the Kushans were far from negligible. A special note is to be takenof coinage. The Kushan coins became the prototypes for manyvarieities of coins of Yadheyas, the imperial Guptas, some kings ofNepa and several Kings of Chedi. Eminent Buddhist writers -Nagajuna, Asvaghosha and Vasumitra were the names associatedwith Kanishka.

The first was a poet, musician, scholar and a zealous Buddhistmonk. Charaka was the court physician of Kanishka.

The next thing to be noted about the Kushana is their religion.In all likelihood, missionaries propagated Buddhism in central Asiaand China in this period. Possibly, it was during the time of Kanishka


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that Mahayana Buddhism was sanctified.The fourth Buddhist council that was summoned by Kanishka

canonized the doctrines of Hinayana and Mahayana. Thedeliberations of the conference were engraved on sheets of copperand were sealed and deposited in a stupa, but they have not beenfound so far.

But to regard Kanishka as the founder patron of the Mahayanasect, which came into existence under the Kushans, is a disputablepoint. Even though many scholars regard Kanishka as the secondAsoka some writers do not agree with this view. In addition to thesethings, we must mention that the Kushana kings patronized allkinds of religions, including Hinduism.

Kanishka was definitely and eclectic monarch as he honored amedley of gods belonging to the Greek, Zoroastrian and Hindu faiths.Not only Buddhism flourished under the Kushanas but there weredefinitely stirrings of Hinduism. Many brahminical sects startedmerging.

Along with religion, Sanskrit language received an impetus. In away the Kushan age constituted the prelude to the Gupta age.

In this ammner, the services rendered by the Kushanas arecommendable. A mere evaluation of the personality of Kanishka alonewould not help us to estimate the importance of the Kushanas asthe empire lasted for three centuries.

To a certain extent, the prosperious time of peace during the Guptaperiod was directly due to the Kushans undertaking the unconsciousrole of the shield and buckler of Indian civiliszation and culture.

The Kushan state was a buffer between the Aryan civilizationand the nomadic hordes in central Asia who from time to time, hadoverrun the civilized worlds with the sweep of avalanches.

It was also responsible for the exchange of ideas and goodsbetween different civilization because of the peculiar geographicalposition occupied by the Kushanas a clearing house for the ideasand goods of different civilization.

KANISHKA

Kanishka was a king of the Kushan Empire in Central Asia, rulingan empire extending from Bactria to large parts of northern Indiain the 2nd century of the common era, and famous for his military,political, and spiritual achievements. His main capital was atPurushpura (Peshawar in present day northwestern Pakistan) withregional capitals at the location of the modern city of Taxila inPakistan, Begram in Afghanistan and Mathura in India.


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A Great Kushan king

Kanishka was a Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity. He used an EasternIranian, Indo-European language known as Bactrian, which appearsin Greek script in his inscriptions, though it is not certain whatlanguage the Kushans originally spoke; possibly some form ofTocharian.

The “Aryan” language of the inscription was Middle Iranianlanguage, possibly the one spoken in “Arya” or “Ariana” (the regionaround modern Herat ans was, therefore, quite possibly unrelatedto the original language of the Kushans (or the Yuezhi), but adoptedby them to facilitate communication with local people.

Kanishka was the successor of Vima Kadphises, as demonstratedby an impressive genealogy of the Kushan kings, known as theRabatak inscription. A number of legends about Kanishka, a greatpatron of Buddhism, were preserved in Buddhist religious traditions.

Along with the Indian kings Ashoka and Harshavardhana, andthe Indo-Greek king Menander I (Milinda), he is considered byBuddhists to have been one of the greatest Buddhist kings.Kanishka’s era was used as a calendar reference by the Kushansand later by the Guptas in Mathura for about three centuries.Kanishka’s era is now by many believed to have begun in 127 CE onthe basis of Harry Falk’s ground-breaking research. The actual

source, however, gives 227 CE as Year One of a Kuc a century withoutmentioning Kanishka’s name. Since Kuc a centuries always “dropthe hundreds” an incept of 127 CE was deduced by Falk on the basisof Chinese and other sources.

Conquests in South and Central Asia

Kanishka’s empire was certainly vast. It extended from southernUzbekistan and Tajikistan, north of the Amu Darya (Oxus) in thenorth west to Northern India, as far as Mathura in the south east(the Rabatak inscription even claims he held Pataliputra and SriChampa), and his territory also included Kashmir, where there wasa town Kanishkapur, named after him not far from the BaramulaPass and which still contains the base of a large stupa.

Knowledge of his hold over Central Asia is less well established.The Book of the Later Han, Hou Hanshu, states that general BanChao fought battles near Khotan with a Kushan army of 70,000 menled by an otherwise unknown Kushan viceroy named Xie in 90 CE.

Though Ban Chao claimed to be victorious, forcing the Kushansto retreat by use of a scorched-earth policy, the region fell to Kushanforces in the early 2nd century. As a result, for a period (until the


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Chinese regained control c. 127 CE) the territory of the Kushansextended for a short period as far as Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkand,which were Chinese dependencies in the Tarim Basin, modernXinjiang. Several coins of Kanishka have been found in the TarimBasin.

Controlling both the land (the Silk Road) and sea trade routesbetween South Asia and Rome seems to have been one of Kanishka’schief imperial goals.

Kanishka’s Coinage

Kanishka’s coins portray images of Indo-Aryan, Greek, Iranianand even Sumero-Elamite divinities, demonstrating the religioussyncretism in his beliefs.

Kanishka’s coins from the beginning of his reign bear legends inGreek language and script and depict Greek divinities. Later coinsbear legends in Bactrian languageBactrian, the Iranian language thatthe Kushans evidently spoke, and Greek divinities were replaced bycorresponding Iranic ones. All of Kanishka’s coins - even ones with alegend in the Bactrian language - were written in a modified Greekscript, as in the word ‘Kushan’ and ‘Kanishka’.

On his coins, the king is typically depicted as a bearded man ina long coat and trousers gathered at the ankle, with flamesemanating from his shoulders. He wears large rounded boots, and isarmed with a long sword similar to a scimitar as well as a lance.

He is frequently seen to be making a sacrifice on a small altar.The lower half of a lifesize limestone relief of Kanishka similarlyattired, with a stiff embroidered surplice beneath his coat and spursattached to his boots under the light gathered folds of his trousers,survived in the Kabul Museum until it was destroyed by the Taliban.

Hellenistic Phase

A few coins at the beginning of his reign have a legend in theGreek language and Greek script, basileus basileon kaneshkou “[coin]of Kanishka, king of kings.”

KANISHKA CONTRIBUTION TO BUDDHISM

Kanishka’s reputation in Buddhist tradition is based mainly onthe Buddhist tradition that he convened in 78 AD the 4th BuddhistCouncil in Kashmir. He provided encouragement to both theGandhara school of Greco-Buddhist Art and the Mathura school ofHindu art (An inescapable religious syncretism pervades Kushanarule).


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Kanishka personally seems to have embraced both Buddhism andthe Persian cult of Mithra. His greatest contribution to Buddhistarchitecture was the Kanishka stupa at Peshawar, Pakistan.

Archaeologists who rediscovered the base of it in 1908-1909ascertained that this stupa had a diameter of 286 feet. Reports ofChinese pilgrims such as Xuan Zang indicate that its height was600 to 700 (Chinese) “feet” (= roughly 180–210 metres or 591–689ft.) and was covered with jewels.

Certainly this immense multi-storied building ranks among thewonders of the ancient world. Kanishka is said to have beenparticularly close to the Buddhist scholar Ashvaghosha, who becamehis religious advisor.

BUDDHIST COINAGE

The Buddhist coins of Kanishka are comparatively rare (wellunder one percent of all known coins of Kanishka). Several showKanishka on the obverse and the Buddha standing on the reverse,in Hellenistic style.

A few also show the Shakyamuni Buddha and Maitreya. Like allcoins of Kanishka, the design is rather rough and proportions tendto be imprecise; the image of the Buddha is often slightly corrupted,with oversize ears and feet spread apart in the same fashion as theKushan king, indicating clumsy imitation of Hellenistic types.

STANDING BUDDHA

The standing Buddha in Hellenistic style, bearing the mention“Boddo” in Greek script, holding the left corner of his cloack in hishand, and forming the abhaya mudra.

Only six Kushan coins of the Buddha are known (the sixth one isthe centerpiece of an ancient piece of jewelry, consisting in a KanishkaBuddha coin decorated with a ring of heart-shaped ruby stones).

All these coins were minted in gold under Kanishka I, but arequite small (about the size of an obol) compared to the other goldcoins of Kanishka. The Buddha is represented wearing the monasticrobe, the antaravasaka, the uttarasanga, and the overcoat sanghati.

The ears are extremely large and long, a symbolic exaggerationpossibly rendered necessary by the small size of the coins, butotherwise visible in some later Gandharan statues of the Buddhatypically dated to the 3rd-4th century CE.

He has an abundant topknot covering the usnisha, often highlystylicized in a curly or often globular manner, also visible on laterBuddha statues of Gandhara.


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In general, the representation of the Buddha on these coins isalready highly symbolic, and quite distant from the more naturalisticand Hellenistic images seen in early Gandhara sculptures.

On several design, a mustache is apparent. The palm of his righthand bears the Chakra mark, and his brow bear the urna. Anaureola, formed by one, two or three lines, surrounds him.

SHAKYAMUNI BUDDHA

The Shakyamuni Buddha (with the legend “Sakamano Boudo”,i.e. Shakamuni Buddha, another name for the historic BuddhaSiddharta Gautama), standing to front, with left hand on hip andforming the abhaya mudra with the right hand. All these coins arein copper only, and usually rather worn.

The gown of the Shakyamuni Buddha is quite light compared tothat on the coins in the name of Buddha, clearly showing the outlineof the body, in a nearly transparent way. These are probably the firsttwo layers of monastic clothing the antaravasaka and theuttarasanga.

Also, his gown is folded over the left arm (rather than being heldin the left hand as above), a feature only otherwise known in theBimaran casket and suggestive of a scarf-like uttariya.

He has an abundant topknot covering the ushnisha, and a simpleor double halo, sometimes radiating, surrounds his head.

MAITREYA BUDDHA

The Bodhisattva Maitreya (with the legend “Metrago Boudo”)cross-legged on a throne, holding a water pot, and also forming theAbhaya mudra. These coins are only known in copper and are badlyworn.

On the clearest coins, Maitreya seems to be wearing the armbandsof an Indian prince, a feature often seen on the staruary of Maitreya.The throne is decorated with small columns, suggesting that the coinrepresentation of Maitreya was directly copied from pre-existingstatuary with such well-known features.

The qualification of “Buddha” for Maitreya is inaccurate, as heis instead a Bodhisattva (he is the Buddha of the future). This mayindicate a limited knowledge of Buddhist cosmology on the part ofthe Kushans. The iconography of these three types is very differentfrom that of the other deities depicted in Kanishka’s coinage.

Whether Kanishka’s deities are all shown from the side, theBuddhas only are shown frontally, indicating that they were copied


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from contemporary frontal representations of the standing andseated Buddhas in statuary.

Both representations of the Buddha and Shakyamuni have bothshoulders covered by their monastic gown, indicating that thestatues used as models were from the Gandhara school of art, ratherthan Mathura.

KANISHKA CASKET

The “Kanishka casket” or “Kanishka reliquary”, dated to the firstyear of Kanishka’s reign in 127 CE, was discovered in a depositchamber under Kanishka’s stupa, during the archeologicalexcavations in 1908-1909 in Shah-ji-Dheri on the outskirts ofPeshawar.

It is today at the Peshawar Museum, and a copy is in the BritishMuseum. It is said to have contained three bone fragments of theBuddha, which are now housed in Mandalay, Burma.

The casket is dedicated in Kharoshthi. The inscription reads:• “(mahara)jasa kanishkasa kanishka-pure nagare aya gadha-

karae deya-dharme sarva-satvana hita-suhartha bhavatumahasenasa sagharaki dasa agisala nava-karmi anakanishkasa vihare mahasenasa sangharame”

The text is signed by the maker, a Greek artist named Agesilas,who oversaw work at Kanishka’s stupas (caitya), confirming the directinvolvement of Greeks with Buddhist realizations at such a late date:

• “The servant Agisalaos, the superintendent of works at thevihara of Kanishka in the monastery of Mahasena” (“dasaagisala nava-karmi ana*kaniskasa vihara mahasenasasangharame”).

The lid of the casket shows the Buddha on a lotus pedestal, andworshipped by Brahma and Indra. The edge of the lid is decoratedby a frieze of flying geese. The body of the casket represents a Kushanmonarch, probably Kanishka in person, with the Iranian sun andmoon gods on his side.

On the sides are two images of a seated Buddha, worshiped byroyal figures. A garland, supported by cherubs goes around the scenein typical Hellenistic style. The attribution of the casket to Kanishkahas been recently disputed, essentially on stylistic ground (forexample the ruler shown on the casket is not bearded, to the contraryof Kanishka).

Instead, the casket is often attributed to Kanishka’s successorHuvishka.


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KANISHKA IN BUDDHIST TRADITION

In Buddhist tradition, Kanishka is often described as a violent,faithless ruler before his conversion to Buddhism, as in the Sri-dharma-pitaka-nidana sutra:

• “At this time the King of Ngan-si (Pahlava) was very stupidand of a violent nature….There was a bhikshu (monk) arhatwho seeing the evil deeds done by the king wished to makehim repent. So by his supernatural force he caused the kingto see the torments of hell. The king was terrified andrepented.” Œri-dharma-pim aka-nidâna sûtra.

Additionally, the arrival of Kanishka was reportedly foretold bythe Buddha, as well as the construction of his stupa:

• “. . . the Buddha, pointing to a small boy making a mud tope….[said] that on that spot KaG ic ka would erect a tope

by his name.” Vinaya sutra.

The same story is repeated in a Khotanese scroll found atDunhuang, which first described how Kanishka would arrive 400years after the death of the Buddha. The account also describes howKanishka came to raise his stupa:

• “A desire thus arose in [Kanishka to build a vast stupa]….at thattime the four world-regents learnt the mind of the king. So forhis sake they took the form of young boys….[and] began a stûpa

of mud....the boys said to [Kanishka] ‘We are making the KaG ic ka-stûpa.’….At that time the boys changed their form....[and] said tohim, ‘Great king, by you according to the Buddha’s prophecy is a

SaE ghârâma to be built wholly with a large stûpa and hither relicsmust be invited which the meritorious good beings...will bring.”

Chinese pilgrims to India, such as Xuanzang, who travelled therearound 630 CE also relays the story:

• “KaG ic ka became sovereign of all Jambudvîpa (Indiansubcontinent) but he did not believe in Karma, and he treatedBuddhism with contumely. When he was hunting in the wildcountry a white hare appeared; the king gave a chase and thehare suddenly disappeared at [the site of the futurestupa]….[when the construction of the stûpa was not goingas planned] the king now lost patience and threw the [project]up….[but] the king became alarmed, as he [realized] he wasevidently contending with supernatural powers, so heconfessed his errors and made submission.These two topes are still in existence and were resorted to forcures by people afflicted with diseases.”


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TRANSMISSION OF BUDDHISM TO CHINA

Kanishka’s expansion into the Tarim Basin probably initiated thetransmission of Buddhism to China. Buddhist monks from the regionof Gandhara played a key role in the development and thetransmission of Buddhist ideas in the direction of northern Asia fromthe middle of the second century CE.

The Kushan monk, Lokaksema (c. 178 CE), became the firsttranslators of Mahayana Buddhist scriptures into Chinese andestablished a translation bureau at the Chinese capital Loyang.Central Asian and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to havemaintained strong exchanges for the following centuries.

Kanishka was probably succeeded by Huvishka. How and whenthis came about is still uncertain. The fact that there were otherKushana kings called Kanishka is just another complicating factor.


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3

BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY

Buddhist philosophy refers to the philosophical investigationsand systems of inquiry that developed among various Buddhistschools in India following the death of the Buddha and later spreadthroughout Asia. Buddhism’s main concern has always been freedomfrom dukkha (unease), and the path to that ultimate freedomconsists in ethical action (karma), meditation and in understandingthe nature of reality (prajña).

Indian Buddhists sought this understanding not just from therevealed teachings of the Buddha, but through philosophical analysisand rational deliberation. Buddhist thinkers in India andsubsequently in East Asia have covered topics as varied asphenomenology, ethics, ontology, epistemology, logic and philosophyof time in their analysis of this path.

Early Buddhism was based on empirical evidence gained by thesense organs (ayatana) and the Buddha seems to have retained askeptical distance from certain metaphysical questions, refusing toanswer them because they were not conducive to liberation but ledinstead to further speculation.

A recurrent theme in Buddhist philosophy has been thereification of concepts, and the subsequent return to the BuddhistMiddle Way.

Particular points of Buddhist philosophy have often been thesubject of disputes between different schools of Buddhism. Theseelaborations and disputes gave rise to various schools in earlyBuddhism of Abhidharma, and to the Mahayana traditions andschools of the prajnaparamita, Madhyamaka, Buddha-nature andYogacara.

PHILOSOPHICAL ORIENTATION

Philosophy in India was aimed mainly at spiritual liberationand had soteriological goals. In his study of Mâdhyamaka Buddhistphilosophy in India, Peter Deller Santina writes:

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• Attention must first of all be drawn to the fact thatphilosophical systems in India were seldom, if ever, purelyspeculative or descriptive. Virtually all the great philosophical

systems of India: SâE khya, Advaitavedânta, Mâdhyamakaand so forth, were preeminently concerned with providing ameans to liberation or salvation. It was a tacit assumptionwith these systems that if their philosophy were correctlyunderstood and assimilated, an unconditioned state free ofsuffering and limitation could be achieved. [...] If this fact isoverlooked, as often happens as a result of the propensityengendered by formal Occidental philosophy to consider thephilosophical enterprise as a purely descriptive one, the realsignificance of Indian and Buddhist philosophy will be missed.

The goal of Buddhist philosophy was nirvana and to achieve thisit needed to investigate the nature of the world. For the IndianBuddhist philosophers, the teachings of the Buddha were not meantto be taken on faith alone, but to be confirmed by logical analysis(pramana) of the world.

THE BUDDHA AND EARLY BUDDHISM

THE BUDDHA

The Buddha (circa 5th century BCE) was a north Indiansramana from Magadha. He cultivated various yogic techniques andascetic practices and taught throughout north India, where histeachings took hold.

These teachings are preserved in the Pali Nikayas and in theAgamas as well as in other surviving fragmentary textual collections.Dating these texts is difficult and there is disagreement on howmuch of this material goes back to a single religious founder.

While the focus of the Buddha’s teachings are about attainingthe highest good of nirvana, they also contain an analysis of thesource of human suffering, the nature of personal identity, and theprocess of acquiring knowledge about the world.

THE MIDDLE WAY

The Buddha defined his teaching as “the middle way”. In theDhammacakkappavattana Sutta, this is used to refer to the factthat his teachings steer a middle course between the extremes ofasceticism and bodily denial (as practiced by the Jains and othersramanas) and sensual hedonism or indulgence.

Many sramanas of the Buddha’s time placed much emphasis ona denial of the body, using practices such as fasting, to liberate the


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mind from the body. The Buddha however, realized that the mindwas embodied and causally dependent on the body, and thereforethat a malnourished body did not allow the mind to be trained anddeveloped.

BASIC TEACHINGS

Certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout theseearly texts, so older studies by various scholars conclude that theBuddha must at least have taught some of these key teachings:

• The Middle Way• The four noble truths• The Noble Eightfold Path• Three marks of existence (impermanence, unease, not-self)• Five aggregates• Dependent arising• Karma and rebirth• NirvanaCritical studies by Schmithausen, Vetter, Bronkhorst, Gombrich

and others have adjusted this list of basic teachings, and revealed amore nuanced genesis of the Buddhist teachings. According to Vetter,the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been assimple as the term “the middle way”.

In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in thedescription of the eightfold path. Vetter argues that the eightfoldpath constitutes a body of practices which prepare one, and lead upto, the practice of dhyana.

According to Vetter and Bronkhorst, dhyâna constituted theoriginal “liberating practice”, while discriminating insight intotransiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development.

According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have beenformulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliestBuddhism as a description of “liberating insight”.

Lambert Schmithausen concluded that the four truths were alater development in early Buddhism. Carol Anderson, followingLambert Schmithausen and K.R. Norman, notes that the four truthsare missing in critical passages in the canon, and states:

• The four noble truths were probably not part of the earliest strata of what came to be recognized as Buddhism, but that they emerged as a central teaching in a slightly later period that still preceded the final redactions of the various Buddhist canons.


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According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the four truthsbecame a substitution for prajna, or “liberating insight”, in the suttasin those texts where “liberating insight” was preceded by the fourjhanas.

According to some scholars, the philosophical outlook ofearliest Buddhism was primarily negative, in the sense that itfocused on what doctrines to reject more than on what doctrinesto accept.

Only knowledge that is useful in achieving enlightenment isvalued. According to this theory, the cycle of philosophical upheavalsthat in part drove the diversification of Buddhism into its manyschools and sects only began once Buddhists began attempting tomake explicit the implicit philosophy of the Buddha and the earlytexts.

THE NOBLE TRUTHS AND CAUSATION

The four noble truths or “truths of the noble one” are a centralfeature of the teachings and are put forth in theDhammacakkappavattana Sutta. The first truth of Dukkha, oftentranslated as suffering, is the inherent unsatisfactoriness of life.

This unpleasantness is said to be not just physical pain, but alsoa kind of existential unease caused by the inevitable facts of ourmortality and ultimately by the impermanence of all phenomena.It also arises because of contact with unpleasant events, and due tonot getting what one desires.

The second truth is that this unease arises out of conditions,mainly ‘craving’ (tanha) and ignorance (avidya). The third truth isthen the fact that if you let go of craving and remove ignorancethrough knowledge, dukkha ceases (nirodha).

The fourth is the eightfold path which are eight practices thatend suffering, they are: right view, right intention, right speech, rightaction, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and rightsamadhi (mental unification, meditation).

The goal taught by the Buddha, nirvana, literally means‘extinguishing’ and signified “the complete extinguishing of greed,hatred, and delusion (i.e. ignorance), the forces which powersamsara”. Nirvana also means that after a enlightened being’s death,there is no further rebirth.

The working of the rising and ceasing of suffering is explainedby dependent origination, the dynamic arising of events based oncausal conditioning. The Buddha understood the world in proceduralterms, not in terms of things or substances.


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His theory posits a flux of events arising under certain conditionswhich are interconnected and dependent, such that the processes inquestion at no time, are considered to be static or independent.

Craving, for example, is always dependent on, and caused bysensations. Sensations are always dependent on contact with oursurroundings. Buddha’s causal theory is simply descriptive: ‘Thisexisting, that exists; this arising, that arises; this not existing, thatdoes not exist; this ceasing, that ceases.’

This understanding of causation as ‘impersonal lawlike causalordering’ is important because it shows how the processes that giverise to suffering work, and also how they can be reversed.

The removal of suffering then, requires a deep understandingof the nature of reality (prajña). While philosophical analysis ofarguments and concepts is clearly necessary to develop thisunderstanding, it is not enough to remove our unskillful mentalhabits and deeply ingrained prejudices, which require meditation,paired with understanding.

According to the Buddha, we need to train the mind inmeditation to be able to truly see the nature of reality, which is saidto have the marks of suffering, impermanence and not-self.Understanding and meditation are said to work together to ‘clearlysee’ (vipassana) the nature of human experience and this is said tolead to liberation.

ANATTA

The Buddha argued that there is no permanent self, no ‘essenceof a person’ or ‘what makes me me’. This means there is no part ofa person which is unchanging and essential for continuity, it meansthat there is no individual “part of the person that accounts for theidentity of that person over time”.

This is in opposition to the Upanishadic concept of anunchanging ultimate self and any view of an eternal soul. TheBuddha held that attachment to the appearance of a permanentself in this world of change is the cause of suffering, and the mainobstacle to liberation.

The most widely used argument that the Buddha employedagainst the idea of an unchanging ego is an empiricist one, basedon the observation of the five aggregates that make up a personand the fact that these are always changing. This argument can beput in this way:

• All psycho-physical processes (skandhas) are impermanent.• If there were a self it would be permanent.


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• IP [There is no more to the person than the five skandhas.]• There is no self.This argument requires the implied premise that the five

aggregates are an exhaustive account of what makes up a person,or else the self could exist outside of these aggregates.

This argument is famously expounded in the AnattalakkhanaSutta. According to this argument, the apparently fixed self is merelythe result of identification with the temporary aggregates, thechanging processes making up an individual human being.

In this view a ‘person’ is only a convenient nominal designationon a certain grouping of processes and characteristics, an ‘individual’is a conceptual construction overlaid upon a stream of experiencesjust like a chariot is merely a conventional designation for the partsof a chariot and how they are put together.

The foundation of this argument is empiricist, for it is based onthe fact that all we observe is subject to change, especially everythingobserved when looking inwardly in meditation.

Another argument for ‘non-self ’, the ‘argument from lack ofcontrol’ and it is based on the fact that we often seek to changecertain parts of ourselves, that the ‘executive function’ of the mindis that which finds certain things unsatisfactory and attempts toalter them.

Furthermore it is also based on the Indian ‘Anti ReflexivityPrinciple’ which states an entity cannot operate on or control itself(a knife can cut other things but not itself, a finger can point atother things but not at itself, etc.).

This means then, that the self could never desire to change itselfand could not do so, the Buddha uses this idea to attack the conceptof self. This argument could be structured thus:

1. If the self existed it would be the part of the person thatperforms the executive function, the “controller.”

2. The self could never desire that it be changed (anti-reflexivityprinciple).

3. Each of the five kinds of psycho-physical element is such thatone can desire that it be changed.IP [There is no more to the person than the five skandhas.]

4. There is no self.This argument then denies that there is one permanent

“controller” in the person. Instead it views the person as a set ofconstantly changing processes which include volitional events seeking


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change and an awareness of that desire for change. According toMark Siderits:

“What the Buddhist has in mind is that on one occasion one partof the person might perform the executive function, on anotheroccasion another part might do so.

This would make it possible for every part to be subject to controlwithout there being any part that always fills the role of controller(and so is the self). On some occasions a given part might fall onthe controller side, while on other occasions it might fall on the sideof the controlled.

This would explain how it’s possible for us to seek to changeany of the skandhas while there is nothing more to us than justthose skandhas.”

The Buddha extended this argument to the Upanishadic beliefthat the self was indeed the whole world, or Brahman. Since wecannot control the world as we wish the world cannot be the self.

Also, the Buddha argued that the world can be observed to be acause of suffering (Brahman was held to be ultimately blissful) andthat an individual could not experience the suffering of the world.He used the example of someone burning wood; where the persondoing the burning does not feel pain, and hence the self cannot bethe whole world (MN 22, Alagaddupama Sutta).

The Buddha also held that understanding and seeing the truthof not self led to un-attachment, and hence to the cessation ofsuffering, while ignorance about the true nature of personality ledto further suffering.

EPISTEMOLOGY

All schools of Indian philosophy recognize various sets of validjustifications for knowledge, or pramâG a and many see the Vedasas providing access to truth.

The Buddha denied the authority of the Vedas, though like hiscontemporaries, he affirmed the soteriological importance of havinga proper understanding of reality. However, this understanding wasnot conceived primarily as metaphysical and cosmologicalknowledge, but as a knowledge into the arising and cessation ofsuffering in human experience.

Therefore the Buddha’s epistemic project is different than thatof modern philosophy, it is primarily a solution to the fundamentalhuman spiritual/existential problem.

The Buddha’s epistemology has been compared to empiricism, in


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the sense that it was based on experience of the world through thesenses. The Buddha taught that empirical observation through thesix sense gates (ayatanas) was the proper way of verifying anyknowledge claims.

Some sutras go further, stating that “the All”, or everything thatexists (sabbam), are these six sense spheres (SN 35.23, Sabba Sutta).Furthermore, in the Kalama sutta the Buddha tells a group ofconfused villagers that the only proper reason for one’s beliefs isverification in one’s own personal experience and denies anyverification which stems from personal authority, sacred tradition(anussava) or any kind of rationalism which constructs metaphysicaltheories (takka).

In the Tevijja Sutta (DN 13), the Buddha rejects the personalauthority of Brahmins because none of them can prove they havehad personal experience of Brahman. The Buddha also stressed thatexperience in the only criterion for verification of the truth in thispassage from the Majjhima Nikaya (MN.I.265):

• “Monks, do you only speak that which is known by yourselvesseen by yourselves, found by yourselves?”

• “Yes, we do, sir.”• “Good, monks, That is how you have been instructed by me

in this timeless doctrine which can be realized and verified,that leads to the goal and can be understood by those whoare intelligent.”

Furthermore the Buddha’s standard for personal verification wasa pragmatic and salvific one, for the Buddha a belief counts as truthonly if it leads to successful Buddhist practice (and hence, to thedestruction of craving).

In the “Discourse to Prince Abhaya” (MN.I.392–4) the Buddhastates this pragmatic maxim by saying that a belief should only beaccepted if it leads to wholesome consequences. This tendency ofthe Buddha to see what is true as what was useful or ‘what works’has been called by scholars such as Mrs Rhys Davids and Vallée-Poussin a form of Pragmatism.

However, K. N. Jayatilleke argues the Buddha’s epistemologycan also be taken to be a form of correspondence theory (as per the‘Apannaka Sutta’) with elements of Coherentism and that it iscausally impossible for something which is false to lead to sufferingand evil.

The Buddha discouraged his followers from indulging inintellectual disputation for its own sake, which is fruitless, and


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distracts one from the goal of awakening. Only philosophy anddiscussion which has pragmatic value for liberation from sufferingis seen as important.

According to the scriptures, during his lifetime the Buddharemained silent when asked several metaphysical questions whichhe regarded as the basis for “unwise reflection”.

These ‘unanswered questions’ (avyâkata) regarded issues suchas whether the universe is eternal or non-eternal (or whether it isfinite or infinite), the unity or separation of the body and the self,the complete inexistence of a person after Nirvana and death, andothers.

The Buddha stated that thinking about these imponderable(Acinteyya) issues led to “a thicket of views, a wilderness of views,a contortion of views, a writhing of views, a fetter of views” (Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta).

One explanation for this pragmatic suspension of judgment orepistemic Epoché is that such questions distract from activity thatis practical to realizing enlightenment and bring about the dangerof substituting the experience of liberation by conceptualunderstanding of the doctrine or by religious faith.

According to the Buddha, the Dharma is not an ultimate end initself or an explanation of all metaphysical reality, but a pragmaticset of teachings. The Buddha used two parables to clarify this point,the ‘Parable of the raft’ and the Parable of the Poisoned Arrow. TheDharma is a like a raft in the sense that it is only a pragmatic toolfor attaining nirvana (crossing to the other shore), once one hasdone this, one can discard the raft.

It is also like medicine, in that, the particulars of how one wasinjured by a poisoned arrow (i.e. metaphysics, etc.) do not matter inthe act of removing and curing the arrow wound itself (removingsuffering). In this sense the Buddha was often called ‘the greatphysician’ because his goal was to cure the human condition ofsuffering first and foremost, not to speculate about metaphysics.

After the Buddha’s death, some Buddhists went on to use thesayings of the Buddha as epistemological evidence equal toperception and inference.

TRANSCENDENCE

Another possible reason why the Buddha refused to engage inmetaphysics is that he saw ultimate reality and nirvana as devoidof sensory mediation and conception and therefore language itself isa priori inadequate to explain it.


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Thus, the Buddha’s silence does not indicate misology or disdainfor philosophy. Rather, it indicates that he viewed the answers tothese questions as not understandable by the unenlightened.

Dependent arising provides a framework for analysis of realitythat is not based on metaphysical assumptions regarding existenceor non-existence, but instead on imagining direct cognition ofphenomena as they are presented to the mind in yogic meditation.

The Buddha of the earliest Buddhists texts describes Dharma(in the sense of “truth”) as “beyond reasoning” or “transcending logic”,in the sense that reasoning is a subjectively introduced aspect ofthe way unenlightened humans perceive things, and the conceptualframework which underpins their cognitive process, rather than afeature of things as they really are.

Going “beyond reasoning” means in this context penetrating thenature of reasoning from the inside, and removing the causes forexperiencing any future stress as a result of it, rather thanfunctioning outside of the system as a whole.

META-ETHICS

The Buddha’s ethics are based on the soteriological need toeliminate suffering and on the premise of the law of karma.

The Buddha outlined five precepts (no killing, stealing, sexualmisconduct, lying, or drinking alcohol) which were to be followedby his disciples, lay and monastic. There are various reasons theBuddha gave as to why someone should be ethical.

First, the universe is structured in such a way that if someoneintentionally commits a misdeed, a bad karmic fruit will be the result(and vice versa). Hence, from a pragmatic point of view, it is best toabstain from these negative actions which bring forth negativeresults.

However the important word here is intentionally, for theBuddha, karma is nothing else but intention/volition, and henceunintentionally harming someone does not create bad karmicresults. Unlike the Jains who believed that karma was a quasi-physical element, for the Buddha karma was a volitional mentalevent, what Richard Gombrich calls ‘an ethicised consciousness’.

This idea leads into the second moral justification of the Buddha;intentionally performing negative actions reinforces and propagatesmental defilements which keep persons bound to the cycle of rebirthand interfere with the process of liberation, and hence intentionallyperforming good karmic actions is participating in mental purificationwhich leads to nirvana, the highest happiness.


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The third meta-ethical consideration takes the view of not-selfand our natural desire to end our suffering to its logical conclusion.Since there is no self, there is no reason to prefer our own welfareover that of others because there is no ultimate grounding for thedifferentiation of “my” suffering and someone else’s. Instead anenlightened person would just work to end suffering tout court,without thinking of the conventional concept of persons.

According to this argument, anyone who is selfish does so out ofignorance of the true nature of personal identity and irrationality.

ABHIDHARMA

The main Indian Buddhist philosophical schools practiced a formof analysis termed Abhidharma which sought to systematize theteachings of the early Buddhist discourses (sutras).

Abhidharma analysis broke down human experience intomomentary phenomenal events or occurrences called “dharmas”.

Dharmas are impermanent and dependent on other causalfactors, they arise and pass as part of a web of other interconnecteddharmas, and are never found alone. The Abhidharmic schools heldthat the teachings of the Buddha in the sutras were merelyconventional, while the Abhidharma analysis was ultimate truth(paramattha sacca), the way things really are when seen by anenlightened being.

The Abhidharmic project has been likened as a form ofphenomenology or process philosophy. They not only outlined whatthey believed to be an exhaustive listing of dharmas, or phenomenalevents, but also the causal relations between them.

In the Abhidharmic analysis, the only thing which is ultimatelyreal is the interplay of dharmas in a causal stream, everything elseis merely conceptual (paññatti) and nominal.

This view has been termed “mereological reductionism” by MarkSiderits because it holds that only impartite entities are real, notwholes. Abhidharmikas such as Vasubandhu argued thatconventional things (tables, persons, etc), “disappear under analysis”and that this analysis reveals only a causal stream of phenomenalevents and their relations.

The mainstream Abhidharmikas defended this view against theirmain Hindu rivals, the Nyaya school, who were substance theoristsand posited the existence of universals.

Some Abhidharmikas such as the Prajnaptivâda were also strictnominalists, and held that all things - even dharmas - were merelyconceptual.


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COMPETING PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS

An important Abhidhamma work from the Theravâda school isthe Kathâvatthu (“Points of controversy”), by the scholar-monkMoggaliputta-Tissa (ca.327–247 BCE). This text is importantbecause it attempts to refute several philosophical views which haddeveloped after the death of the Buddha, especially the theory that‘all exists’ (sarvâstivâda), the theory of momentariness

(khâG avâda) and the personalist view (pudgalavada) These werethe major philosophical theories which divided the BuddhistAbhidharma schools in India.

The Sarvâstivâda was one of the major Buddhist philosophicalschools in India, and they were so named because of their beliefthat dharmas exist in all three times: past, present and future.

Though the Sarvâstivâda Abhidharma system began as a merecategorization of mental events, their philosophers and exegetessuch as Dharmatrata and Katyâyâniputra (the compiler of theMahavibhasa) eventually refined this system into a robust realism,which also included a type of essentialism.

This realism was based on a quality of dharmas, which was calledsvabhava or ‘intrinsic existence’. Svabhava is a sort of essence,though it is not a completely independent essence, since all dharmaswere said to be causally dependent. Other Buddhist schools suchas the Prajñaptivadins (‘nominalists’), the Purvasailas and theVainasikas refused to accept the concept of svabhava.

The Sarvastivada system extended this realism across time,effectively positing a type of eternalism with regards to time, hencethe name of their school means “the view that everything exists”.

The Theravâdins and other schools such as the Sautrântikasattacked the realism of the Sarvâstivâdins, especially their theoryof time.

A major figure in this argument was the scholar Vasubandhu,an ex-Sarvastivadin, who critiqued the theory of all exists andargued for philosophical presentism in his comprehensive treatise,the Abhidharmakosa. This work is the major Abhidharma text usedin Tibetan and East Asia Buddhist today.

The Theravada also holds that dharmas only exist in the present,and are thus also presentists. The Theravâdin presentation ofAbhidharma is also not as concerned with ontology as theSarvastivadin view, but is more of a phenomenology and hence theconcept of svabhava for the Theravadins is more of a certaincharacteristic or dependent feature of a dharma, than any sort ofessence or metaphysical grounding.


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According to Y Karunadasa:• In the Pali tradition it is only for the sake of definition and

description that each dhamma is postulated as if it were aseparate entity; but in reality it is by no means a solitaryphenomenon having an existence of its own.If this Abhidhammic view of existence, as seen from itsdoctrine of dhammas, cannot be interpreted as a radicalpluralism, neither can it be interpreted as an out-and-outmonism. For what are called dhammas — the componentfactors of the universe, both within us and outside us — arenot fractions of an absolute unity but a multiplicity of co-ordinate factors.They are not reducible to, nor do they emerge from, a singlereality, the fundamental postulate of monistic metaphysics.If they are to be interpreted as phenomena, this should bedone with the proviso that they are phenomena with nocorresponding noumena, no hidden underlying ground. Forthey are not manifestations of some mysterious metaphysicalsubstratum, but processes taking place due to the interplayof a multitude of conditions.

An important theory held by some Sarvâstivâdins, Theravâdinsand Sautrântikas was the theory of “momentariness”.

This theory held that phenomena only last for minute moment(ksana) after they arise. The Sarvâstivâdins saw these ‘moments’in an atomistic way, as the smallest length of time possible (theyalso developed a material atomism). Reconciling this theory withtheir eternalism regarding time was a major philosophical projectof the Sarvastivada.

The Theravâdins initially rejected this theory, as evidenced by the KhaG ikakathâ of the Kathavatthu which attempts to refute

the doctrine that “all phenomena (dhamma) are as momentary as asingle mental entity.”

However momentariness was later adopted by the Sri LankanTheravâdins, and it is possible that it was first introduced by thescholar Buddhagosa.

All Abhidharma schools also developed complex theories ofcausation and conditionality to explain how dharmas interacted witheach other. Another major philosophical project of the Abhidharmaschools was the explanation of perception.

Some schools such as the Sarvastivadins explained perceptionas a type of phenomenalist realism while others such as the


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Sautrantikas preferred representationalism and held that we onlyperceive objects indirectly. The major argument used for this viewby the Sautrântikas was the “time lag argument.”

According to Mark Siderits: “The basic idea behind the argumentis that since there is always a tiny gap between when the sensecomes in contact with the external object and when there is sensoryawareness, what we are aware of can’t be the external object thatthe senses were in contact with, since it no longer exists.” This isrelated to the theory of extreme momentariness.

One major philosophical view which was rejected by all theschools mentioned above was the view held by the Pudgalavadin or‘personalist’ schools.

They seemed to have held that there was a sort of ‘personhood’in some ultimately real sense. This controversial claim was incontrast to the other Buddhists of the time who held that apersonality was a mere conceptual construction (prajnapti) and onlyconventionally real.

INDIAN MAHÂYÂNA PHILOSOPHY

From about the 1st century BCE, a new textual tradition beganto arise in Indian Buddhist thought which was called Mahâyâna(Great Vehicle) which would slowly come to dominate IndianBuddhist philosophy.

Buddhist philosophy thrived in large monastery-universitycomplexes such as Nalanda and Vikramasila, which became centersof learning in North India. Mahâyâna philosophers continued thephilosophical projects of Abhidharma while at the same timecritiquing them and introducing new concepts and ideas.

Since the Mahâyâna held to the pragmatic concept of truthwhichstates that doctrines are regarded as conditionally “true” in the senseof being spiritually beneficial, the new theories and practices wereseen as ‘skillful means’ (Upaya).

The Mahayana also promoted the Bodhisattva ideal, whichincluded an attitude of compassion for all sentient beings. TheBodhisattva is someone who chooses to remain in samsara (thecycle of birth and death) to benefit all other beings who aresuffering.

Major Mahayana philosophical schools and traditions include thePrajnaparamita, Madhyamaka, Tathagatagarbha, the Epistemologicalschool of Dignaga, Yogâcâra, Huayan, Tiantai and the Chan/Zenschools.


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PRAJNAPARAMITA AND MADHYAMAKA

The earliest Prajnaparamita-sutras (1st century BCE) emphasizethe emptiness (Shunyata) of phenomena or dhammas. The ‘perfectionof insight’ (Prajnaparamita) is said to be true knowledge of the natureof ultimate reality, which is illusory and empty of essence. TheDiamond sutra states that:

All conditioned phenomena:

• Are like a dream, an illusion, a bubble, a shadow, Like dewor a flash of lightning; Thus we shall perceive them.”

• The Heart sutra, famously affirms the emptiness or voidness(shunyata) of phenomena.

• “Oh, Sariputra, Form Does not Differ From the Void.• And the Void Does Not Differ From Form.

Form is Void and Void is Form; The Same is True For Feelings,Perceptions, Volitions and Consciousness”.

The Prajnaparamita teachings are associated with the work of the Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna (c. 150 – c. 250 CE) and the Madhyamaka (Middle way) school. Nagarjuna was one of the most influential Indian Buddhist thinkers; he gave the classical arguments for the empty nature of phenomena and attacked the Sarvâstivâda and Pudgalavada schools’ essentialism in his magnum opus, The Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way (Mulamadhyamakakarika).

In the Mulamadhyamakakarika, Nagarjuna relies on reductio ad absurdum arguments to refute various theories which assume an inherent essence or “own being” (svabhava). In this work, he covers topics such as causation, motion, and the sense faculties.

Nagarjuna asserted a direct connection between, even identityof, dependent origination, selflessness (anatta), and emptiness(uunyata). He pointed out that implicit in the early Buddhist conceptof dependent origination is the lack of any substantial being (anatta)underlying the participants in origination, so that they have noindependent existence, a state identified as emptiness (uunyata), oremptiness of a nature or essence (svabhava).

Later philosophers of the Madhyamaka school built uponNagarjuna’s analysis and defended Madhyamaka against theiropponents, these include Nagarjuna’s pupil Aryadeva (3rd centuryCE), Candrakîrti (600–c. 650) who wrote an important commentary onthe Mulamadhyamakakarika and Shantideva (8th century).


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Buddhapalita (470–550) has been understood as the originator of the ‘prasae gika’ approach which is based on critiquing essentialism only

through reductio ad absurdum arguments.He was criticized by Bhâvaviveka (ca.500–ca.578), who argued

for the use of syllogisms “to set one’s own doctrinal stance”. These two approaches were later termed the Prasae gika and the

Svatantrika approaches to Madhyamaka by Tibetan philosophersand commentators.

In China, the Madhyamaka school (known as Sanlun) wasfounded by Kumarajiva (344–413 CE) who translated the works ofNagarjuna to Chinese. Other Chinese Madhymakas includeKumarajiva ‘s pupil Sengzhao, Jizang (549–623), who wrote over50 works on Madhyamaka and Hyegwan, a Korean monk whobrought Madhyamaka teachings to Japan.

YOGACARA

The Yogacara school (Yoga practice) was a Buddhist philosophicaltradition which arose in between the 2nd century CE and the 4thcentury CE and is associated with the philosophers Asanga andVasubandhu and with various sutras such as the SandhinirmocanaSutra and the Lankavatara Sutra.

The central feature of Yogâcâra thought is the concept of Vijñapti-mâtra, often translated as “impressions only” or “appearance only”and this has been interpreted as a form of Idealism or as a form ofPhenomenology. Other names for the Yogacara school are‘Vijñanavada’ (the doctrine of consciousness) and ‘Cittamatra’ (mind-only).

Yogacara thinkers like Vasubandhu argued against the existenceof external objects by pointing out that we only ever have access toour own mental impressions, and hence our inference of the existenceof external objects is based on faulty logic. Vasubandhu’sVijnaptimatratasiddhi, or ‘The Proof that There Are OnlyImpressions’ (20 verses) begins thus:

“I. This [world] is nothing but impressions, since it manifestsitself as an unreal object, Just like the case of those with cataractsseeing unreal hairs in the moon and the like.”

According to Vasubandhu then, all our experiences are like seeinghairs on the moon when we have cataracts, that is, we project ourmental images into something “out there” when there are no suchthings. Vasubandhu then goes on to use the dream argument to arguethat mental impressions do not require external objects to (1) seemto be spatio-temporally located, (2) to seem to have an inter-subjective


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quality, and (3) to seem to operate by causal laws. The fact thatpurely mental events can have causal efficacy and be intersubjectiveis proved by the event of a wet dream and by the mass or sharedhallucinations created by the karma of certain types of beings.

After having argued that impressions only is a theory which canexplain our everyday experience, Vasubandhu then appeals toparsimony - since we do not need the concept of external objects toexplain reality, then we can do away with those superfluous conceptsaltogether as they are most likely just mentally superimposed onour concepts of reality by the mind. Inter-subjective reality forVasubandhu is then the causal interaction between various mentalstreams and their karma, and does not include any external physicalobjects. The soteriological importance of this theory is that byremoving the concept of an external world, it also weakens the‘internal’ sense of self as observer which is supposed to be separatefrom the external world. To dissolve the dualism of inner and outeris also to dissolve the sense of self and other. The later Yogacaracommentator Sthiramati explains this thus:

“There is a grasper if there is something to be grasped, but notin the absence of what is to be grasped. Where there is no thing tobe grasped, the absence of a grasper also follows, there is not justthe absence of the thing to be grasped. Thus there arises the extra-mundane non-conceptual cognition that is alike without object andwithout cognizer.”

Vasubandhu also attacked the realist theories of Buddhistatomism and the Abhidharma theory of svabhava. He argued thatatoms as conceived by the atomists (un-divisible entities) would notbe able to come together to form larger aggregate entities, and hencethat they were illogical concepts.

Later Yogacara thinkers include Dharmapala of Nalanda,Sthiramati, Chandragomin (who debated Candrakirti), and

Uilabhadra. Yogacarins such as Paramartha and GuG abhadrabrought the school to China and translated Yogacara works there,

�where it is known as Weishi-zong or F xiang-zong. As an importantcontribution to East Asian Yogâcâra is Xuanzang’s Cheng Weishi Lun,or “Discourse on the Establishment of Consciousness Only.

YOGACARA-MADHYAMIKA SYNTHESIS

Uantarakc ita (725–788 CE) brought together both schools intoa single philosophical synthesis, also known as the Yogacara-Svatantrika-Madhyamika system. He was also instrumental in theintroduction of Buddhism and the Sarvastivadin monastic ordination


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lineage to Tibet which was conducted at Samye. Uantarakc ita’sdisciples included Haribhadra and Kamalaúîla.

EPISTEMOLOGICAL SCHOOL

Dignaga (c. 480-540 CE) and Dharmakirti (c. 7th century) wereBuddhist philosophers who developed a epistemological system thatdeveloped into its own school, sometimes known as the “School ofDignaga” and includes later philosophers and commentators likeDharmakîrti’s disciple Ratnakirti (7-8th century), Santabhadra,Dharmottara (8th century), Jñanasrimitra (975-1025) andSamkarananda. This tradition is called “those who follow reasoning”(Tibetan: rigs pa rjes su ‘brang ba); in modern literature it is

sometimes known by the Sansrkit ‘pramag avada’, or “theEpistemological School.”

TATHAGATAGARBHA

The tathagathagarbha sutras, in a departure from mainstreamBuddhist language, insist that the potential for awakening isinherent to every sentient being. They marked a shift from a largelyapophatic (negative) philosophical trend within Buddhism to adecidedly more cataphatic (positive) modus.

Prior to the period of these scriptures, Mahayana metaphysicshad been dominated by teachings on emptiness in the form ofMadhyamaka philosophy.

The language used by this approach is primarily negative, andthe tathâgatagarbha genre of sutras can be seen as an attempt tostate orthodox Buddhist teachings of dependent origination usingpositive language instead, to prevent people from being turned awayfrom Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism. In these sutrasthe perfection of the wisdom of not-self is stated to be the true self;the ultimate goal of the path is then characterized using a range ofpositive language that had been used previously in Indianphilosophy by essentialist philosophers, but which was nowtransmuted into a new Buddhist vocabulary to describe a being whohas successfully completed the Buddhist path.

The word “self” (atman) is used in a way idiosyncratic to thesesutras; the “true self” is described as the perfection of the wisdomof not-self in the Buddha-Nature Treatise, for example. Languagethat had previously been used by essentialist non-Buddhistphilosophers was now adopted, with new definitions, by Buddhiststo promote orthodox teachings.

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represent a substantial self; rather, it is a positive languageexpression of emptiness and represents the potentiality to realizeBuddhahood through Buddhist practices. In this interpretation, theintention of the teaching of tathagatagarbha is soteriological ratherthan theoretical.

The tathagathagarbha, the Theravada doctrine of bhavaega, andthe Yogacara store consciousness were all identified at some pointwith the luminous mind of the Nikayas.

In the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Buddha insiststhat while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquishfixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced fromliberation and the Buddha-nature.

TIBETAN BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY

Tibetan Buddhist philosophy is mainly a continuation andrefinement of the Indian traditions of Madhyamaka, Yogacara andthe Dignaga-Dharmakirti school of epistemology or “reliablecognition”. The initial work of early Tibetan Buddhist philosopherswas in translation of classical Indian philosophical treatises andthe writing of commentaries, this initial period is from the 8th tothe 10th century CE. Early Tibetan commentator philosophers wereheavily influenced by the work of Dharmakirti and these includeNgok Lo-dza-wa (1059-1109) and Cha-ba (1182-1251). Their worksare now lost.

According to Georges B.J. Dreyfus, within Tibetan thought, theSakya school holds a mostly anti-realist philosophical position, whilethe Gelug school tends to defend a form of realism. The Kagyu andNyingma schools also tend to follow Sakya anti-realism (with somedifferences).

Sakya Pandita (1182–1251) was head of the Sakya school and ruler of Tibet. He was also one of the most important Buddhist philosophers in the Tibetan tradition, writing works on logic and epistemology and promoting Dharmakirti’s Pramanavarttika (Commentary on Valid Cognition) as central to scholastic study.

Sakya Pandita’s ‘Treasury of Logic on Valid Cognition’ (Tshad marigs pa’i gter) set forth the classic Sakya epistemic anti-realistposition, arguing that concepts such as universals are not knownthrough valid cognition and hence are not real objects of knowledge.

Later Sakyas such as Gorampa (1429-1489) and Sakya Chok-denwould develop and defend Sakya anti-realism, and they are seen asthe major interpreters of Sakya Pandita’s philosophy.


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Longchenpa (1308–1364) was a major philosopher of the Nyingmaschool and wrote an extensive number of works on the Tibetanpractice of Dzogchen (great completion) and on Buddhist Tantra.

These include the Seven Treasures, the Trilogy of Natural Ease,and his Trilogy of Dispelling Darkness. Longchenpa’s works providea philosophical understanding of Dzogchen, a defense of Dzogchenin light of the sutras, as well as practical instructions.

For Longchenpa, the ground of reality is luminous clarity, rigpa,or Buddha nature and this ground is also the bridge between sutraand tantra.

Another influential thinker is Dolpopa (Dol-bo-ba, 1292–1361),founder of the Jonang school, which developed a view calledshentong (Wylie: gzhan stong), which is closely tied to Yogacara andBuddha-nature theories.

Dolpopa’s shentong view taught that ultimate reality was trulya “Great Self” or “Supreme Self” by using works such as the

Mahayana Mahaparinirvan a Sutra, the AE gulimaliya Sutra andthe Urîmâlâdevî Sic hanâda Sûtra. This view had an influence onphilosophers of other schools, such as Nyingma and Kagyu thinkers.

In the late 17th century the Jonang order and its teachings cameunder attack by the 5th Dalai Lama, who converted the majority oftheir monasteries in Tibet to the Gelug order, although severalsurvived in secret.

Je Tsongkhapa (Dzong-ka-ba) (1357–1419) founded the Gelugschool of Tibetan Buddhism which came to dominate the countrythrough the office of the Dalai Lama and is the major defender of

the PrasaE gika Madhyamaka view, his work is influenced by thephilosophy of Candrakirti.

Tsongkhapa critiqued the ‘Svatantrika’ viewpoint. The keydistinction between these views is whether one works with assertionsabout the ultimate nature of reality (the Svâtantrika approach), orif one refrains completely from doing so and instead only critiquesstatements about reality (Prâsangika).

Tsongkhapa argued that because the Svatantrikaconventionally establish things by their own characteristics, theyfail to completely understand the emptiness of phenomena andhence do not achieve the same realization. Sakya scholars suchas Rongtön and Gorampa disagreed, and argued that thedistinction between these two views is merely pedagogical.Tsongkhapa’s students Gyel-tsap, Kay-drup, and Ge-dun-drupset forth an epistemological realism against the Sakya scholars’anti-realism.


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The more recent work of Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso (1846–1912)criticizes Tsongkhapa from a Nyingma perspective. Ju Mipham aswell as his teacher Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo was part of the Rimémovement, a non sectarian and eclectic movement involving theSakya, Kagyu and Nyingma schools.

The Rimé movement came to prominence at a point in Tibetanhistory when the religious climate had become partisan. The aim ofthe movement was “a push towards a middle ground where thevarious views and styles of the different traditions were appreciatedfor their individual contributions rather than being refuted,marginalized, or banned.”

EAST ASIAN BUDDHISM

TIANTAI AND THE LOTUS SCHOOL

The schools of Buddhism that had existed in China prior to theemergence of the Tiantai are generally believed to represent directtransplantations from India, with little modification to their basicdoctrines and methods.

However, Tiantai grew and flourished as a natively ChineseBuddhist school under the 4th patriarch, Zhiyi, who developed ahierarchy Buddhist sutras that asserted the Lotus Sutra as thesupreme teaching, as well as a system of meditation and practicesaround it.

HUAYAN AND AVATAMSAKA SUTRA

The Huayan developed the doctrine of “interpenetration” or“coalescence” (Wylie: zung-’jug; Sanskrit: yuganaddha), based on the

AvataC saka Sûtra, a Mahâyâna scripture.It holds that all phenomena (Sanskrit: dharmas) are intimately

connected (and mutually arising). Two images are used to conveythis idea. The first is known as Indra’s net. The net is set with jewelswhich have the extraordinary property that they reflect all of theother jewels. The second image is that of the world text.

This image portrays the world as consisting of an enormous textwhich is as large as the universe itself. The words of the text arecomposed of the phenomena that make up the world. However, everyatom of the world contains the whole text within it.

It is the work of a Buddha to let out the text so that beings canbe liberated from suffering. The doctrine of interpenetrationinfluenced the Japanese monk Kûkai, who founded the Shingon schoolof Buddhism.


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Interpenetration and essence-function are mutually informing inthe East Asian Buddhist traditions, especially the Korean Buddhisttradition.

CHAN/ZEN

The philosophy of Chinese Chan Buddhism and Japanese Zen isbased on various sources, these include the Madhyamaka school, the

Yogacara, the LaE kâvatâra Sûtra and the Buddha nature texts.An important argument in Chan over the concept of subitism or

“sudden enlightenment”, the idea that enlightenment happens allat once in a flash of insight, and this was promoted by Shenhui andis a central issue discussed in the Platform Sutra, an key Chanscripture composed in China. Guifeng Zongmi, who was also apatriarch of Huayan Buddhism, wrote extensively on the philosophyof Chan.

In Japan, the founder of Soto Zen, Dogen, wrote many works onthe philosophy of Zen and the Shobogenzo is his magnum opus.

MODERN PHILOSOPHY

In Sri Lanka, Buddhist modernists such as AnagarikaDharmapala (1864-1933) and the American convert Henry SteelOlcott sought to show that Buddhism was rational andcompatible with modern Scientific ideas such as the theory ofevolution.

Dharmapala also argued that Buddhism included a strong socialelement, interpreting it as liberal, altruistic and democratic.Important Sri Lankan Buddhist thinkers include WS Karunaratne,

Ven ÑâG ananda, Walpola Rahula, R. G. de S. Wettimuny, K. N.Jayatilleke and his student David Kalupahana.

In 20th century China, the modernist Taixu (1890-1947)advocated a reform and revival of Buddhism. His promoted an ideaof a Buddhist Pure Land, not as a metaphysical place in Buddhistcosmology but as something possible to create here and now in thisvery world which could be achieved through a “Buddhism for HumanLife” which was free of supernatural beliefs.

Taixu also wrote on the connections between modern scienceand Buddhism, ultimately holding that “scientific methods can onlycorroborate the Buddhist doctrine, they can never advance beyondit”. Like Taixu, Yin Shun (1906–2005) advocated a form ofHumanistic Buddhism grounded in concern for humanitarian issuesand his students and followers have been influential in promotingHumanistic Buddhism in Taiwan.


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This period also saw a revival of the study of Weishi (Yogachara),by Yang Rensan (1837-1911), Ouyang Jinwu (1871-1943) and LiangShuming (1893–1988).

In Southeast Asia, thinkers such as Buddhadasa, SulakSivaraksa and Aung San Suu Kyi have promoted a philosophy ofsocially Engaged Buddhism and have written on the socio-politicalapplication of Buddhism.

Likewise, Buddhist approaches to economic ethics (Buddhisteconomics) have been explored in the works of E. F. Schumacher,Prayudh Payutto, Neville Karunatilake and Padmasiri de Silva.

The study of the Pali Abhidhamma tradition continued to beinfluential in Myanmar, where it was developed by monks such asLedi Sayadaw and Mahasi Sayadaw.

Japanese Buddhist philosophy was heavily influenced by thework of the Kyoto School which included Kitaro Nishida, KeijiNishitani, Hajime Tanabe and Masao Abe. These thinkers broughtBuddhist ideas in dialogue with Western philosophy, especiallyEuropean phenomenologists and existentialists.

The most important trend in Japanese Buddhist thought afterthe formation of the Kyoto school is Critical Buddhism, which arguesagainst several Mahayana concepts such as Buddha nature andoriginal enlightenment. In Nichiren Buddhism, the work of DaisakuIkeda has also been popular.

The Japanese Zen Buddhist D.T. Suzuki (1870–1966) wasinstrumental in bringing Zen Buddhism to the West and hisBuddhist modernist works were very influential in the UnitedStates. Suzuki’s worldview was a Zen Buddhism influenced byRomanticism and Transcendentalism, which promoted a spiritualfreedom as “a spontaneous, emancipatory consciousness thattranscends rational intellect and social convention.”

This idea of Buddhism influenced the Beat writers and acontemporary representative of Western Buddhist Romanticism isGary Snyder. The American Theravada Buddhist monk ThanissaroBhikkhu has critiqued ‘Buddhist Romanticism’ in his writings.

Western Buddhist monastics and priests such as NanaviraThera, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Nyanaponika Thera, Taigen Dan Leighton,Matthieu Ricard have written texts on Buddhist philosophy. A featureof Buddhist thought in the West has been a desire for dialogue andintegration with modern science and psychology, and various modernBuddhists such as Alan Wallace, James H. Austin, Mark Epsteinand the 14th Dalai Lama have worked and written on this issue.


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Another area of convergence has been Buddhism andenvironmentalism, which is explored in the work of Joanna Macy.Another Western Buddhist philosophical trend has been the projectto secularize Buddhism, as seen in the works of Stephen Batchelor.

Contemporary westerners such as Mark Siderits, Jan Westerhoffand Jay Garfield have written various works which interprettraditional Buddhist ideas by using Western philosophy andcontemporary philosophical methods.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER PHILOSOPHIES

Baruch Spinoza, though he argued for the existence of apermanent reality, asserts that all phenomenal existence istransitory. In his opinion sorrow is conquered “by finding an objectof knowledge which is not transient, not ephemeral, but isimmutable, permanent, everlasting.”

The Buddha taught that the only thing which is eternal isNirvana. David Hume, after a relentless analysis of the mind,concluded that consciousness consists of fleeting mental states.Hume’s Bundle theory is a very similar concept to the Buddhistskandhas, though his skepticism about causation lead him toopposite conclusions in other areas.

Arthur Schopenhauer’s philosophy parallels Buddhism in hisaffirmation of asceticism and renunciation as a response to sufferingand desire.

Ludwig Wittgenstein’s “language-game” closely parallel thewarning that intellectual speculation or papañca is an impedimentto understanding, as found in the Buddhist Parable of the PoisonArrow. Friedrich Nietzsche, although himself dismissive ofBuddhism as yet another nihilism, had a similar impermanent viewof the self. Heidegger’s ideas on being and nothingness have beenheld by some to be similar to Buddhism today.

An alternative approach to the comparison of Buddhist thoughtwith Western philosophy is to use the concept of the Middle Way inBuddhism as a critical tool for the assessment of Westernphilosophies. In this way Western philosophies can be classified inBuddhist terms as eternalist or nihilist.

In a Buddhist view all philosophies are considered non-essentialviews (ditthis) and not to be clung to.


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4

BUDDHIST EDUCATION SYSTEM

LIFE AND TEACHING OF GAUTAM BUDDHA

Gautama Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. His original namewas Siddharth (meaning one who has accomplished). He was alsocalled Sakyamuni, i.e. the sage of the tribe of Sakya. He was born inthe year 563 B.C. in the village of Lumbini near Kapila Vastu, withinthe present borders of Nepal.

According to legend, an astrologer foretold his father, the king,that young Gautama would give up the throne and luxury andrenounce the world the day he would see four things:

• An old man.• A sick man.• A diseased man.• A dead man.Hence, the king confined Gautama in a special palace which was

provided with all worldly pleasures. He was married at the age ofsixteen to Yasoddhra.

At the age of 29 after the birth of his first son, Gautama on thesame day saw an old man, a sick man, a diseased man and a deadman.

The impact of the dark side of life made him renounce the worldthat same night and he left his wife and son and became a pennilesswanderer.

He studied and practised Hindu discipline initially, and later,Jainism. For several years he observed rigorous fasting along withextreme self-mortification.

On realising that tormenting his body did not bring him closerto true wisdom, he resumed eating normally and abandonedasceticism. At the age of 35, one evening as he sat beneath a giantfig tree (Bodh tree), he felt that he had found the solution to hisproblem and felt that he had attained enlightenment.

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Thus, he came to be known as “Gautama”, “The Buddha”, or“The Enlightened One”. Later, he spent 45 years in preaching thetruth that he felt he had discovered.

He travelled from city to city bare-footed, clean-headed, withnothing more on his self than his saffron robe, walking stick andbegging bowl. He died at the age of 80 in the year 483 BC. Buddhismis divided into two sects viz. Hinayana and Mahayana.

BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES

Historical criticism has proved that the original teachings ofBuddha can never be known. It seems that Gautama Buddha?steachings were memorized by his disciples.

After Buddha’s death a council was held at Rajagaha so thatthe words of Buddha could be recited and agreed upon. There weredifferences of opinion and conflicting memories in the council.

Opinion of Kayshapa and Ananda who were prominent disciplesof Buddha were given preference.

A hundred years later, a second council at Vesali was held. Onlyafter 400 years, after the death of Buddha were his teachings anddoctrines written down.

Little attention was paid regarding its authenticity, genuinenessand purity.

TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA

Noble Truths

The principal teachings of Gautama Buddha can be summarisedin what the Buddhists call the “Four Noble Truths”:

• First: There is suffering and misery in life.• Second: The cause of this suffering and misery is desire.• Third: Suffering and misery can be removed by removing

desire.• Fourth: Desire can be removed by following the Eight Fold

Path.

The Noble Eight Fold Path

1. Right Views.2. Right Thoughts.3. Right Speech.


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4. Right Actions.5. Right Livelihood.6. Right Efforts.7. Right Mindfulness.8. Right Meditation.

Nirvana

Nirvana’ literally means “blowing out” or “extinction”. Accordingto Buddhism, this is the ultimate goal of life and can be describedin various words.

It is a cessation of all sorrows, which can be achieved by removingdesire by following the Eight Fold Path.

PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM IS SELF—CONTRADICTORY

As mentioned earlier, the main teachings of Buddhism aresummarised in the Four Noble Truths:

1. There is suffering and misery in life.2. The cause of suffering and misery is desire.3. Suffering and misery can be removed by removing desire.4. Desire can be removed by following the Eight Fold Path.This Philosophy of Buddhism is self-contradictory or self-

defeating because the third truth says “suffering and misery can beremoved by removing desire” and the fourth truth says that ‘desirecan be removed by following the Eight Fold Path’.

Now, for any person to follow Buddhism he should first havethe desire to follow the Four Noble Truths and the Eight Fold Path.The Third great Noble Truth says that desire should be removed.

Once you remove desire, how can we follow the Fourth Nobletruth i.e. follow the Eight Fold Path unless we have a desire to followthe Eight Fold Path. In short desire can only be removed by havinga desire to follow the Eight Fold Path. If you do not follow the EightFold Path, desire cannot be removed.

It is self contradicting as well as self-defeating to say that desirewill only be removed by continuously having a desire.

CONCEPT OF GOD

Buddha was silent about the existence or non-existence of God.It may be that since India was drowned in idol worship andanthropomorphism that a sudden step to monotheism would have


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been drastic and hence Buddha may have chosen to remain silenton the issue of God. He did not deny the existence of God. Buddhawas once asked by a disciple whether God exists?

He refused to reply. When pressed, he said that if you aresuffering from a stomach ache would you concentrate on relievingthe pain or studying the prescription of the physician. “It is not mybusiness or yours to find out whether there is God? our business isto remove the sufferings of the world”.

Buddhism provided Dhamma or the “impersonal law” in placeof God. However this could not satisfy the craving of human beingsand the religion of self-help had to be converted into a religion ofpromise and hope. The Hinayana sect could not hold out any promiseof external help to the people.

The Mahayana sect taught that Buddha’s watchful andcompassionate eyes are on all miserable beings, thus making a Godout of Buddha. Many scholars consider the evolution of God withinBuddhism as an effect of Hinduism.

Many Buddhists adopted the local god and thus the religion of“No-God” was transformed into the religion of “Many-Gods” - bigand small, strong and weak and male and female. The “Man-God”appears on earth in human form and incarnates from time to time.

Buddha was against the caste-system prevalent in the Hindusociety.

CHARACTERISTICS OFBUDDHIST EDUCATION

• The Core of Buddha’s teaching: The Buddha teachingcontains three major points discipline, meditation andwisdom.Wisdom is the goal and deep meditation or concentration inthe crucial process toward achieving wisdom. Disciplinethrough observing the precepts, is the method that helps oneto achieve deep meditation; wisdom will then be realizednaturally. Buddhas entire teaching as conveyed in the sutrasnever really depart from these three points. Buddhismencompasses the entire collection of works by BuddhaShakyamuni and is called the Tripitaka.This can be classified into three categories sutra, Vinaya(precepts or rules) Sastra (Commentaries) which emphasizemeditation, discipline and wisdom respectively.

• The goal of Buddha’s teaching: The goal of Buddhist


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education is to attain wisdom. In Sanskrit, the language ofancient India, the Buddhist wisdom was called Anuttara-Samyak-Sambhodi meaning the perfect ultimate wisdom.The Buddha taught us that the main objective of our practiceor cultivation was to achieve this ultimate wisdom. The Buddhafurther taught us that everyone has the potential to realize thisstate of ultimate wisdom, as it is an intrinsic part of our nature,not something one obtains externally. The Buddhist educationsystem aimed at regaining our intrinsic nature.It also teaches absolute equality which stemmed from Buddhasrecognition that all sentient beings possess this innate wisdomand nature. Buddhas teaching helps us to realize that innate,perfect ultimate wisdom.With wisdom, we can then solve all our problems and turnsuffering into happiness.

• Admission in monastery: Monasteries was the centre forimparting education during the Buddhist period. Foradmission the student had to present himself before theteacher and request him for giving education. The teacherwas fully responsible for education of his pupil. In turn, thepupil had also to be responsive to the instructions receivedfrom the teacher. The student was not at all accountable toany other Bhikshuk in the monastery.

• Pabbajja: Pabbajji was an accepted ceremony of the Buddhistmonasteries. Pabbajji means going out.According to this ceremony the student after being admittedto a monastery had to renounce all his worldly and familyrelationship. An individual belonging to any caste could beadmitted to a monastery and after being admitted he did notbelong to any caste.After admission he had to change his old clothes and all oldways and the manners of living. For the Pabbajja ceremonythe minimum age was eight years.

• Upasampada: After the Pabbajja ceremony educationcontinued for twelve years. When the student received twelveyears education he had to undergo the Upasampadaceremony.This ceremony was democratic in nature. The Shraman hadto present himself before all other monks of the monastery.One could be admitted for the Upasampada ceremony onlywhen the majority of the monks voted in favors of the same.


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After the Upasampada ceremony the Shraman was regardedas a full-fledged member of the monastery. On this occasionall his worldly and family relationship ended.

• Duration of Education: The total period of education was22 years. Composed of 12years as Pabbajja and 10 yearsUpasampada.

• Curriculum: There were two types of education primary andhigher education. In primary education reading, writing andarithmetic were taught and in higher education religionphilosophy Ayurveda, military training was included.Everyone was free to choose his subject without anyrestriction.

• Method of teaching: The curriculum was spiritual in nature. The aim of education was to attain salvation. So the study of religious books was most important. Sutta, Vinaya and Dhamma Pitak were the main subjects prescribed for study. The method of teaching was mostly oral in nature. Teacher gives lecture on good behaviour and required topics and students were listen with attention.Afterwords students were expected to memories the same. The teacher educates the students through lectures and question answer method. Attendance of every monk was compulsory. The medium of Buddhist education was the common language of the people.

• Women education: Women education during Buddhist periodwas at its lowest ebb, as the women folk were despised in thesense that Lord Buddha had regarded them as the source ofall evils.

So he had advised during his life time not to admit womeninmonasteries.but after some time due to the insistence ofhis dear pupil Anand, Buddha had permitted about 500women along with his step mother for admission in the Viharswith many restriction and reservations. Strict rules wereenforced for women monks. The first two years was theirprobation period.

The women monks were not allowed to meet any malemonk in loneliness and their residence was arrangedseparately at a distant place. They were not given anypermanent post in the sangh. Some monk could give herreligious instruction twice a month in the presence ofanother monk.


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• Qualities and Responsibilities of the teacher: The teacherhimself must spend at least ten years as a monk andnecessarily must have the purity of character, purity ofthoughts and generosity. Both the teacher and student wereresponsible to the monastery. But regarding education,clothes, food and residence of the student monk, the teacherwas fully responsible. The teacher was also responsible forany treatment of the student whenever he fell ill.

• Daily routine of students: On rising in the morning thestudent will arrange everything for the daily routine of theteacher. He will cook food and clean his clothes and utensils.Whatever he required through begging alms, he would placebefore the teacher.The student was always to obey the teacher and none others.He would keep the monastery and its surroundings clean.The student had to prepare himself to receive education atany time whenever the teacher required him.

• Boarding and Lodging of the Students: In Buddhistperiod, there were no organized Gurukuls, but the educationwas imparted through monasteries and viharas.The teacherand the students lived together. Buddhist Vihara were fineand well furnished separate rooms for dining, bathing,sleeping, reading, studying and discussions. The monk andthe students in Buddhist period were following the simpleliving and high thinkingprinciple.their lives were full ofpurity, nobelness, dutifulness and humanity.

• Ashtanga Marga: The word Samma means ‘proper’, ‘whole’, ‘thorough’, ‘integral’, ‘complete’, and ‘perfect’:1. Samma-Ditthi: Complete or Perfect Vision.2. Samma-Sankappa: Perfected Emotion or Aspiration.3. Samma-Vaca: Perfected or whole Speech.4. Samma-Kammanta: Integral Action.5. Samma-Ajiva: Proper Livelihood.6. Samma-Vayama: Complete or Full Effort, Energy or

Vitality.7. Samma-Sati: Complete or Thorough Awareness.8. Samma-Samadhi: Full, Integral or Holistic Samadhi.

• Four Nobel Truths:

1. All life knows suffering.2. The cause of suffering is ignorance and clinging.3. There is a way to end suffering.4. This is the way to end suffering.


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• 14. Rules for shramner:

1. Not to kill any living being.2. Not to accept anything given to him.3. Live free from the impurity of character.4. Not to tell lie.5. Not to take food at improper time.6. Not to use luxurious things.

MERITS OF BUDDHIST EDUCATION

• Well organized centers: Buddhist education was impartedin well organized centers, monasteries and Vihara which werefit places for the purpose.

• Cosmopolitan: Buddhist education was free from communalnarrowness.

• Simple and austere: Bhikshus led a life of austerity andsimplicity.

• Total development: Buddhist education laid much emphasison the physical mental and spiritual development of thestudents.

• Disciplined Life: both the teachers and students leddisciplined life.

• Ideal student teacher relationship.• International importance: Buddhist education helped to

gain international importance it also developed culturalexchange between India and other countries of the world.

DEMERITS OF BUDDHIST EDUCATION

• Buddhist education could not give the proper attention to theoccupational, industrial and technical education.

• It gave severe blow to the social development because itderided family ties. Leaving their family life BuddhaBhikshus devoted their whole lives to sangh and Buddhism.

DEVELOPMENT OF BUDDHISM: 4 BUDDHIST COUNCILSAND RISE OF MAHAYANA

Buddhism starts with the birth of Buddha Siddhartha Gautamain Ancient India in what is now Lumbini, Nepal.

This makes it one of the oldest religions practiced today. Startingin the north eastern region of the Indian Subcontinent , the religionevolved as it spread through Central Asia, East Asia, and SoutheastAsia.


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At one time or another it affected most of the Asian continent.The history of Buddhism is also characterized by the development

of numerous movements and schisms among them the Theravâda,Mahâyâna and Vajrayâna traditions, with contrasting periods ofexpansion and retreat.

SIDDHARTHA GAUTAMA

Siddhârtha Gautama was the historical founder of Buddhism.He was born as a Kshatriya prince in Lumbini (in what is now Nepal)in 563 BCE.

His particular family of Sakya Kshatriyas were of Brahmin‘lineage’ as per their family name “Gautama”. 19th century scholarslike Dr. Eitel connected it to the Brahmin Rishi Gautama. In manyBuddhist texts Buddha is said to be a descendant of the BrahminSage Angirasa.

For example, “In the Pâli Mahavagga “Angirasa” (in PâliAngirasa) occurs as a name of Buddha Gautama who evidentlybelonged to the Angirasa tribe...”. Scholar Edward J. Thomas tooconnected Buddha with sages Gautama and Angirasa.

After asceticism and meditation, Siddhartha Gautamadiscovered the Buddhist Middle Way—a path of moderation awayfrom the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.Siddhartha Gautama attained enlightenment sitting under a pipaltree, now known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India.

Gautama, from then on, was known as “The Perfectly Self-Awakened One,” the Samyaksambuddha. Buddha found patronagein the ruler of Magadha, emperor Bimbisâra. The emperor acceptedBuddhism as his personal faith and allowed the establishment ofmany Buddhist vihâras.

This eventually led to the renaming of the entire region as Bihâr. At the Deer Park near VârâG asî in northern India, Buddha set in

motion the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to agroup of five companions with whom he had previously soughtenlightenment.

Together with the Buddha they formed the first Sae gha, thecompany of Buddhist monks, and hence, the first formation of the

Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma and Sae gha) was completed.For the remaining years of his life, the Buddha is said to have

traveled in the Gangetic Plain of Northeastern India and otherregions. Buddha attained parinirvâG a in the abandoned junglesof Kuúinâra. Just before Buddha died, he reportedly told his followersthat thereafter the Dharma (doctrine, teaching) would be their leader.


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The early arhants considered Gautama’s words the primarysource of Dharma and Vinaya (rules of discipline and communityliving), and took great pains to formulate and transmit his teachingsaccurately. Nonetheless, no ungarnished collection of his sayings hassurvived.

The versions of the canon (accepted scripture) preserved in Pâli,Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan are sectarian variants of a corpusthat grew and crystallized during three centuries of oraltransmission.

EARLY BUDDHISM

Early Buddhism remained centered around the Ganges valley,spreading gradually from its ancient heartland. The canonicalsources record two councils, where the monastic Sangha establishedthe textual collections based on the Buddha’s teachings and settledcertain disciplinary problems within the community.

1st Buddhist Council (5th c. BCE)

The first Buddhist council was held soon just after Buddha’sParinirvana , and presided over by Venerable Mahâkâúyapa, one of

His most senior disciples, at Râjag[ ha (today’s Rajgir) during the5th century under the noble support of king Ajâthaúatru.

The objective of the council was to record all of Buddha’steachings into the doctrinal teachings (sutra) and Abhidhamma andto codify the monastic rules (vinaya). Ânanda, one of the Buddha’smain disciples and his cousin, was called upon to recite thediscourses and Abhidhamma of the Buddha, and Upali, anotherdisciple, recited the rules of the vinaya.

These became the basis of the Tripim aka (Three Baskets),which is preserved only in Pâli.

2nd Buddhist Council (4th c. BCE)

The second Buddhist council was held at Vaisali following a dispute that had arisen in the SaE gha over a relaxation by some

monks of various points of discipline.Eventually it was decided to hold a second council at which the

original Vinaya texts that had been preserved at the first Councilwere cited to show that these relaxations went against the recordedteachings of the Buddha.

ASHOKAN PROSELYTISM (C. 261 BCE)

The Mauryan Emperor Asoka (273–232 BCE) converted to


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Buddhism after his bloody conquest of the territory of Kalinga(modern Orissa) in eastern India during the Kalinga War. Regrettingthe horrors brought about by the conflict (or using Buddhism as acover to protect his empire), the king decided to renounce violence(as non-violence prevents revolts, etc.).

He propagated the faith by building stupas and pillars urging,amongst other things, respect of all animal life and enjoining peopleto follow the Dharma. Perhaps the finest example of these is theGreat Stupa in Sanchi, India (near Bhopal).

It was constructed in the 3rd century BCE and later enlarged.Its carved gates, called Tohans, are considered among the finestexamples of Buddhist art in India. He also built roads, hospitals,resthouses, universities and irrigation systems around the country.

He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion,politics or caste. This period marks the first spread of Buddhismbeyond India to other countries.

According to the plates and pillars left by Asoka (the edicts ofAsoka), emissaries were sent to various countries in order to spreadBuddhism, as far south as Sri Lanka and as far west as the Greekkingdoms, in particular the neighboring Greco-Bactrian Kingdom,and possibly even farther to the Mediterranean.

3rd Buddhist Council (c.250 BCE)

King Asoka convened the third Buddhist council around 250 BCEat Pataliputra (today’s Patna). It was held by the monkMoggaliputtatissa. The objective of the council was to purify the

Sae gha, particularly from non-Buddhist ascetics who had beenattracted by the royal patronage. Following the council, Buddhistmissionaries were dispatched throughout the known world.

Hellenistic World

Some of the edicts of Asoka describe the efforts made by him topropagate the Buddhist faith throughout the Hellenistic world,which at that time formed an uninterrupted continuum from theborders of India to Greece.

The edicts indicate a clear understanding of the politicalorganization in Hellenistic territories: the names and locations ofthe main Greek monarchs of the time are identified, and they areclaimed as recipients of Buddhist proselytism: Antiochus II Theosof the Seleucid Kingdom (261–246 BCE), Ptolemy II Philadelphos ofEgypt (285–247 BCE), Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia (276–239BCE), Magas (288–258 BCE) in Cyrenaica (modern Libya), and


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Alexander II (272–255 BCE) in Epirus (modern NorthwesternGreece).

• “The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders,and even six hundred yojanas (5,400–9,600 km) away, wherethe Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the fourkings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule,likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and asfar as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka).” (Edicts of Asoka, 13th RockEdict, S. Dhammika).

Furthermore, according to Pâli sources, some of Asoka’semissaries were Greek Buddhist monks, indicating close religiousexchanges between the two cultures:

· “When the thera (elder) Moggaliputta, the illuminator of thereligion of the Conqueror (Asoka), had brought the (third)council to an end (...) he sent forth theras, one here and onethere: (...) and to Aparantaka (the “Western countries”corresponding to Gujarat and Sindh) he sent the Greek (Yona)named Dhammarakkhita”.

Asoka also issued edicts in the Greek language as well as inAramaic. One of them, found in Kandahar, advocates the adoptionof “piety” (using the Greek term eusebeia for Dharma) to the Greekcommunity:

• “Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses(Asoka) made known (the doctrine of) piety to men; and fromthis moment he has made men more pious, and everythingthrives throughout the whole world.”

It is not clear how much these interactions may have beeninfluential, but some authors have commented that some level ofsyncretism between Hellenist thought and Buddhism may havestarted in Hellenic lands at that time.

They have pointed to the presence of Buddhist communities inthe Hellenistic world around that period, in particular in Alexandriaand to the pre-Christian monastic order of the Therapeutae whomay have “almost entirely drawn (its) inspiration from the teachingand practices of Buddhist asceticism” and may even have beendescendants of Asoka’s emissaries to the West.

The philosopher Hegesias of Cyrene, from the city of Cyrenewhere Magas of Cyrene ruled, is sometimes thought to have beeninfluenced by the teachings of Asoka’s Buddhist missionnaries.Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic period have also been foundin Alexandria, decorated with depictions of the Dharma wheel.


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The presence of Buddhists in Alexandria has even drawn theconclusion: “It was later in this very place that some of the mostactive centers of Christianity were established”. In the 2nd centuryCE, the Christian dogmatist, Clement of Alexandria recognizedBactrian Buddhists (sramanas) and Indian gymnosophists for theirinfluence on Greek thought:

• “Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished inantiquity among the barbarians, shedding its light over thenations. And afterwards it came to Greece.First in its ranks were the prophets of the Egyptians; andthe Chaldeans among the Assyrians; and the Druids amongthe Gauls; and the œramanas among the Bactrians and thephilosophers of the Celts; and the Magi of the Persians, whoforetold the Saviour’s birth, and came into the land of Judeaguided by a star.The Indian gymnosophists are also in the number, and theother barbarian philosophers. And of these there are twoclasses, some of them called œramanas and others Brahmins.”

Expansion to Sri Lanka and Burma

Sri Lanka was proselytized by Aœoka’s son Mahinda and sixcompanions during the 2nd century BCE. They converted the kingDevanampiya Tissa and many of the nobility. In addition, Aœoka’s

daughter, SaE ghamitta also established the bhikkhunî (order fornuns) in Sri Lanka, also bringing with her a sapling of the sacredbodhi tree that was subsequently planted in Anuradhapura.

This is when the Mahâvihâra monastery, a center of Sinhaleseorthodoxy, was built. The Pâli canon was written down in Sri Lankaduring the reign of king Vattagamani (29–17 BCE), and theTheravâda tradition flourished there.

Later some great commentators worked there, such as Buddhaghoc a (4th–5th century) and Dhammapâla (5th–6th century),

and they systemised the traditional commentaries that had beenhanded down. Although Mahâyâna Buddhism gained some influencein Sri Lanka at that time, the Theravâda ultimately prevailed andSri Lanka turned out to be the last stronghold of it. From there itwould expand again to South-East Asia from the 11th century.

In the areas east of the Indian subcontinent (modern Burma andThailand), Indian culture strongly influenced the Mons. The Monsare said to have been converted to Buddhism from the 3rd centuryBCE under the proselytizing of the Indian Emperor Asoka, beforethe fission between Mahâyâna and Hinayâna Buddhism.


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Early Mon Buddhist temples, such as Peikthano in centralBurma, have been dated to between the 1st and the 5th centuryCE. The Buddhist art of the Mons was especially influenced by theIndian art of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, and their manneriststyle spread widely in South-East Asia following the expansion ofthe Mon kingdom between the 5th and 8th centuries.

The Theravâda faith expanded in the northern parts of SoutheastAsia under Mon influence, until it was progressively displaced byMahâyâna Buddhism from around the 6th century CE. Accordingto the Aúokâvadâna (2nd century CE), Asoka sent a missionary tothe north, through the Himalayas, to Khotan in the Tarim Basin,then the land of the Tocharians, speakers of an Indo-Europeanlanguage.

RISE OF THE SUNGA (2ND–1ST CENTURY BCE)

The Sunga dynasty (185–73 BCE) was established in 185 BCE,about 50 years after Aœoka’s death. After assassinating KingBrhadrata (last of the Mauryan rulers), military commander-in-chiefPusyamitra Sunga took the throne.

Buddhist religious scriptures such as the Aúokâvadâna allegethat Pusyamitra (an orthodox Brahmin) was hostile towardsBuddhists and persecuted the Buddhist faith. Buddhists wrote thathe “destroyed monasteries and killed Monks”: 84,000 Buddhiststupas which had been built by Asoka were destroyed and 100 goldcoins were offered for the head of each Buddhist monk.

In addition, Buddhist sources allege that a large number ofBuddhist monasteries (vihâras) were converted to Hindu temples,in such places as Nalanda, Bodhgaya, Sarnath, or Mathura.Following Aœoka’s sponsorship of Buddhism, it is possible thatBuddhist institutions fell on harder times under the Sungas but noevidence of active persecution has been noted.

Etienne Lamotte observes: “To judge from the documents,Pushyamitra must be acquitted through lack of proof.” Anothereminent historian, Romila Thapar points to archaeological evidencethat “suggests the contrary” to the claim that Pusyamitra was afanatical anti-Buddhist and never actually destroyed 84000 stupasas claimed by Buddhist works.

Thapar stresses that Buddhist accounts are probably hyperbolicrenditions of Pusyamitra’s attack of the Mauryas, and merely reflectthe frustration of the Buddhist religious figures in the face of thedecline in the importance of their religion under the Sungas.. Duringthe period, Buddhist monks deserted the Ganges valley, following


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either the northern road (uttarapatha) or the southern road( dakc inapatha).

Conversely, Buddhist artistic creation stopped in the old Magadhaarea, to reposition itself either in the northwest area of Gandhâraand Mathura or in the southeast around Amaravati. Some artisticactivity also occurred in central India, as in Bhârhut, to which theSungas may or may not have contributed.

GRECO-BUDDHIST INTERACTION (2ND CENTURY BCE–1ST CENTURY CE)

In Bactria (today’s northern Afghanistan), the areas west of theIndian subcontinent, neighboring Greek kingdoms had been in placesince the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great around 326BCE: first the Seleucids from around 323 BCE, then the Greco-Bactrian kingdom from around 250 BCE.

The Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I invaded India in 180 BCEas far as Pâtaliputra, establishing an Indo-Greek kingdom that wasto last in various part of northern India until the end of the 1stcentury BCE. Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, andit has been suggested that their invasion of India was intended toshow their support for the Mauryan empire and to protect theBuddhist faith from the alleged religious persecutions of the Sungas(185–73 BCE).

One of the most famous Indo-Greek kings is Menander (reignedc. 160–135 BCE). He apparently converted to Buddhism and ispresented in the Mahâyâna tradition as one of the great benefactorsof the faith, on a par with king Aúoka or the later Kushan kingKaniúka. Menander’s coins bear the mention of the “saviour king”in Greek, and sometimes designs of the eight-spoked wheel.

Direct cultural exchange is also suggested by the dialogue ofthe Milinda Pañha between Menander and the monk Nâgasenaaround 160 BCE.

Upon his death, the honor of sharing his remains was claimedby the cities under his rule, and they were enshrined in stupas, in aparallel with the historic Buddha. Several of Menander’s Indo-Greeksuccessors inscribed the mention “Follower of the Dharma” in the

Kharocm hî script on their coins, and depicted themselves or theirdivinities forming the vitarka mudrâ.

The interaction between Greek and Buddhist cultures mayhave had some influence on the evolution of Mahâyâna, as thefaith developed its sophisticated philosophical approach and aman-god treatment of the Buddha somewhat reminiscent ofHellenic gods.


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It is also around that time that the first anthropomorphicrepresentations of the Buddha are found, often in realistic Greco-Buddhist style: “One might regard the classical influence asincluding the general idea of representing a man-god in this purelyhuman form, which was of course well familiar in the West, and itis very likely that the example of westerner’s treatment of theirgods was indeed an important factor in the innovation.”

Central Asian Expansion

A Buddhist gold coin from India was found in northernAfghanistan at the archaeological site of Tillia Tepe, and dated tothe 1st century CE. On the reverse, it depicts a lion with a

nandipada, with the Kharocm hî legend “Sih vigatabhay” (“The lionwho dispelled fear”).

On the obverse, an almost naked man only wearing anHellenistic chlamys and a petasus hat (an iconography similar tothat of Hermes/ Mercury) rolls a Buddhist wheel. The legend in

Kharocm hî reads “Dharmacakrapravata” (“The one who turned theWheel of the Law”).

It has been suggested that this may be an early representationof the Buddha.

RISE OF MAHAYANA (1ST CENTURY BCE–2ND CENTURY CE)

The rise of Mahâyâna Buddhism from the 1st century BCE wasaccompanied by complex political changes in northwestern India.

The Indo-Greek kingdoms were gradually overwhelmed, andtheir culture assimilated by the Indo-Scythians, and then the Yuezhi,who founded the Kushan Empire from around 12 BCE.

The new form of Buddhism was characterized by the idea thatall beings have a Buddha-nature and should aspire to Buddhahood,and by a syncretism due to the various cultural influences withinnorthwestern India and the Kushan Empire.

The Two Fourth Councils

The Fourth Council is said to have been convened in the reign of the Kushan emperor Kanic ka around 100 CE at Jalandhar or

in Kashmir. Theravâda Buddhism had its own Fourth Council inSri Lanka about 200 years earlier in which the Pâli canon waswritten down in toto for the first time. Therefore there were twoFourth Councils: one in Sri Lanka (Theravâda), and one in Kashmir(Sarvâstivâdin).


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It is said that for the Fourth Council of Kashmir, Kanic kagathered 500 monks headed by Vasumitra, partly, it seems, tocompile extensive commentaries on the Abhidharma, although it ispossible that some editorial work was carried out upon the existingcanon itself.

Allegedly during the council there were altogether three hundredthousand verses and over nine million statements compiled, and ittook twelve years to complete. The main fruit of this council wasthe compilation of the vast commentary known as the Mahâ-Vibhâshâ an extensive compendium and reference work on a portionof the Sarvâstivâdin Abhidharma. Scholars believe that it was alsoaround this time that a significant change was made in the languageof the Sarvâstivâdin canon, by converting an earlier Prakrit versioninto Sanskrit.

Although this change was probably effected without significantloss of integrity to the canon, this event was of particular significancesince Sanskrit was the sacred language of Brahmanism in India,and was also being used by other thinkers, regardless of their specificreligious or philosophical allegiance, thus enabling a far wideraudience to gain access to Buddhist ideas and practices.

For this reason there was a growing tendency among Buddhistscholars in India thereafter to write their commentaries andtreatises in Sanskrit. Many of the early schools, however, such asTheravâda, never switched to Sanskrit, partly because Buddhaexplicitly forbade translation of his discourses into what was anelitist religious language (as Latin was in medieval Europe).

He wanted his monks to use a local language instead - a languagewhich could be understood by all. Over time however, the languageof the Theravâdin scriptures (Pâli) became a scholarly or elitistlanguage as well.

MAHAYANA EXPANSION (1ST CENTURY CE–10TH CENTURY CE)

From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries,Mahâyâna was to flourish and spread in the East from India toSouth-East Asia, and towards the north to Central Asia, China,Korea, and finally to Japan in 538 CE and Tibet in the 7th century.

India

After the end of the Kushans, Buddhism flourished in Indiaduring the dynasty of the Guptas (4th-6th century). Mahâyânacenters of learning were established, especially at Nâlandâ in north-


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eastern India, which was to become the largest and most influentialBuddhist university for many centuries, with famous teachers suchas Nâgârjuna.

The influence of the Gupta style of Buddhist art spread alongwith the faith from south-east Asia to China. Indian Buddhism hadweakened in the 6th century following the White Hun invasionsand Mihirkulas persecution.

Xuanzang reported in his travels across India during the 7thcentury of Buddhism being popular in Andhra, Dhanyakataka, andDravida, which area today roughly corresponds to the modern dayIndian states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

While reporting many deserted stupas in the area aroundmodern day Nepal and the persecution of Buddhists by Ssanka inthe Kingdom of Gouda in modern day West Bengal, Xuanzang

complimented the patronage of Harc avardana during the sameperiod.

After the Harc avardana kingdom, the rise of many smallkingdoms that led to the rise of the Rajputs across the gangeticplains and marked the end of Buddhist ruling clans along with asharp decline in royal patronage until a revival under the PâlaEmpire in the Bengal region.

Here Mahâyâna Buddhism flourished and spread to Tibet,Bhutan and Sikkim between the 7th and the 12th centuries beforethe Pâlas collapsed under the assault of the Hindu Sena dynasty.

The Pâlas created many temples and a distinctive school ofBuddhist art. Xuanzang noted in his travels that in various regionsBuddhism was giving way to Jainism and Hinduism. By the 10thcentury Buddhism had experienced a sharp decline beyond the Pâlarealms in Bengal under a resurgent Hinduism and the incorporationin Vaishnavite Hinduism of Buddha as the 9th incarnation of Vishnu.

A milestone in the decline of Indian Buddhism in the Northoccurred in 1193 when Turkic Islamic raiders under MuhammadKhilji burnt Nâlandâ.

By the end of the 12th century, following the Islamic conquestof the Buddhist strongholds in Bihar and the loss of political supportcoupled with social and caste pressures, the practice of Buddhismretreated to the Himalayan foothills in the North and Sri Lanka inthe south.

Additionally, the influence of Buddhism also waned due toHinduism’s revival movements such as Advaita, the rise of the bhaktimovement and the missionary work of Sufis.


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Central Asia

Central Asia had been influenced by Buddhism probably almostsince the time of the Buddha. According to a legend preserved inPâli, the language of the Theravâdin canon, two merchant brothersfrom Bactria named Tapassu and Bhallika visited the Buddha andbecame his disciples.

They then returned to Bactria and built temples to the Buddha.Central Asia long played the role of a meeting place between China,India and Persia. During the 2nd century BCE, the expansion ofthe Former Han to the west brought them into contact with theHellenistic civilizations of Asia, especially the Greco-BactrianKingdoms.

Thereafter, the expansion of Buddhism to the north led to theformation of Buddhist communities and even Buddhist kingdomsin the oases of Central Asia. Some Silk Road cities consisted almostentirely of Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and it seems that oneof their main objectives was to welcome and service travelersbetween east and west.

The Theravâdin traditions first spread among the Iranian tribesbefore combining with the Mahâyâna forms during the 2nd and 3rdcenturies BCE to cover modern-day Pakistan, Kashmir, Afghanistan,eastern and coastal Iran, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan.These were the ancient states of Gandhâra, Bactria, Parthia andSogdia from where it spread to China.

Among the first of these states to come under the influence ofBuddhism was Bactria as early as the 3rd century BCE. It was not,however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were alsoZoroastrians, Hindus, Nestorian Christians, Jews, Manichaeans, andfollowers of shamanism, Tengrism, and other indigenous,nonorganized systems of belief. Various Nikâya schools persistedin Central Asia and China until around the 7th century CE.

Mahâyâna started to become dominant during the period, butsince the faith had not developed a Nikaya approach, Sarvâstivâdinsand Dharmaguptakas remained the Vinayas of choice in CentralAsian monasteries. Various Buddhist kingdoms rose and prosperedin both the Central Asian region and downwards into the Indiansub-continent such as the Kushan Empire prior to the White Huninvasion in the 5th century where under the King Mihirkula theywere heavily persecuted.

Buddhism in Central Asia started to decline with the expansionof Islam and the destruction of many stupas in war from the 7th


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century. The Muslims accorded them the status of dhimmis as “peopleof the Book”, such as Christianity or Judaism and Al-Biruni wroteof Buddha as prophet “burxan”.

Buddhism saw a surge during the reign of Mongols following theinvasion of Genghis Khan and the establishment of the Il Khanateand the Chagatai Khanate who brought their Buddhist influence withthem during the 13th century, however within 100 years the Mongolswho remained in that region would convert to Islam and spread Islamacross all the regions of central Asia.

Only the eastern Mongols and the Mongols of the Yuan dynastywould keep Vajrayâna Buddhism.

Parthia

Buddhism expanded westward into Arsacid Parthia, at least tothe area of Merv, in ancient Margiana, today’s territory ofTurkmenistan. Soviet archeological teams have excavated in GiaurKala near Merv a Buddhist chapel, a gigantic Buddha statue and amonastery.

Parthians were directly involved in the propagation of Buddhism:An Shigao (c. 148 CE), a Parthian prince, went to China, and is thefirst known translator of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.

Tarim Basin

The eastern part of central Asia (Chinese Turkestan, TarimBasin, Xinjiang) has revealed extremely rich Buddhist works of art(wall paintings and reliefs in numerous caves, portable paintingson canvas, sculpture, ritual objects), displaying multiple influencesfrom Indian and Hellenistic cultures.

Serindian art is highly reminiscent of the Gandhâran style, and scriptures in the Gandhâri script Kharocm hî have been found.

Central Asians seem to have played a key role in the transmissionof Buddhism to the East. The first translators of Buddhistsscriptures into Chinese were Parthian like An Shigao (c. 148 CE) orAn Hsuan, Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity like Lokaksema (c. 178 CE),Zhi Qian and Zhi Yao or Sogdians like Kang Sengkai.

Thirty-seven early translators of Buddhist texts are known, andthe majority of them have been identified as Central Asians. CentralAsian and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to have maintainedstrong exchanges until around the 10th century, as shown by frescoesfrom the Tarim Basin.

These influences were rapidly absorbed however by the vigorous Chineseculture, and a strongly Chinese particularism develops from that point.


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China

Buddhism probably arrived in China around the 1st century CEfrom Central Asia, although there are some traditions about a monkvisiting China during Aœoka’s reign. Until the 8th century it becamean extremely active center of Buddhism.

The year 67 CE saw Buddhism’s official introduction to Chinawith the coming of the two monks Moton and Chufarlan. In 68 CE,under imperial patronage, they established the White Horse Templewhich still exists today, close to the imperial capital at Luoyang. Bythe end of the 2nd century, a prosperous community had settled atPengcheng (modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu).

The first known Mahâyâna scriptural texts are translations into Chinese by the Kushan monk Lokakc ema in Luoyang, between

178 and 189 CE. Some of the earliest known Buddhist artifacts foundin China are small statues on “money trees”, dated circa 200 CE, intypical Gandhâran drawing style: “That the imported imagesaccompanying the newly arrived doctrine came from Gandhâra isstrongly suggested by such early Gandhâra characteristics on this

“money tree” Buddha as the high uc nic a, vertical arrangementof the hair, moustache, symmetrically looped robe and parallelincisions for the folds of the arms.”

Buddhism flourished during the beginning of the Tang Dynasty(618–907). The dynasty was initially characterized by a strongopenness to foreign influences and renewed exchanges with Indianculture due to the numerous travels of Chinese Buddhist monks toIndia from the 4th to the 11th century.

The Tang capital of Chang’an (today’s Xi’an) became animportant center for Buddhist thought. From there Buddhismspread to Korea, and Japanese embassies of Kentoshi helped gainfootholds in Japan. However foreign influences came to be negativelyperceived towards the end of the Tang Dynasty. In the year 845, theTang emperor Wuzong outlawed all “foreign” religions includingChristian Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism in order tosupport the indigenous Taoism.

Throughout his territory, he confiscated Buddhist possessions,destroyed monasteries and temples, and executed Buddhist monks,ending Buddhism’s cultural and intellectual dominance. However,about a hundred years after the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution,Buddhism revived during the Song Dynasty (1127–1279).

Pure Land and Chan Buddhism, however, continued to prosperfor some centuries, the latter giving rise to Japanese Zen. In China,


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Chan flourished particularly under the Song dynasty (1127–1279),when its monasteries were great centers of culture and learning.

Today, China boasts one of the richest collections of Buddhist artsand heritages in the world. UNESCO World Heritage Sites such asthe Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu province, the LongmenGrottoes near Luoyang in Henan province, the Yungang Grottoes nearDatong in Shanxi province, and the Dazu Rock Carvings nearChongqing are among the most important and renowned Buddhistsculptural sites.

The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8thcentury during the Tang Dynasty and looking down on theconfluence of three rivers, is still the largest stone Buddha statuein the world.

Korea

Buddhism was introduced around 372 CE, when Chineseambassadors visited the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo, bringingscriptures and images. Buddhism prospered in Korea - in particularSeon (Zen) Buddhism from the 7th century onward. However, withthe beginning of the Confucian Yi Dynasty of the Joseon period in 1392,a strong discrimination took place against Buddhism until it wasalmost completely eradicated, except for a remaining Seon movement.

Japan

The Buddhism of Japan was introduced from Three Kingdomsof Korea in the 6th century. The Chinese priest Ganjin offered thesystem of Vinaya to the Buddhism of Japan in 754.

As a result, the Buddhism of Japan has developed rapidly. Saichôand Kûkai succeeded to a legitimate Buddhism from China in the9th century. Being geographically at the end of the Silk Road, Japanwas able to preserve many aspects of Buddhism at the very time itwas disappearing in India, and being suppressed in Central Asiaand China.

From 710 CE numerous temples and monasteries were built inthe capital city of Nara, such as the five-story pagoda and GoldenHall of the Hôryû-ji, or the Kôfuku-ji temple. Countless paintingsand sculptures were made, often under governmental sponsorship.

The creations of Japanese Buddhist art were especially richbetween the 8th and 13th century during the periods of Nara, Heianand Kamakura. From the 12th and 13th centuries, a furtherdevelopment was Zen art, following the introduction of the faith byDogen and Eisai upon their return from China.


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Zen art is mainly characterized by original paintings (such assumi-e and the Enso) and poetry (especially haikus), striving toexpress the true essence of the world through impressionistic andunadorned “non-dualistic” representations.

The search for enlightenment “in the moment” also led to thedevelopment of other important derivative arts such as the Chanoyutea ceremony or the Ikebana art of flower arrangement. Thisevolution went as far as considering almost any human activity asan art with a strong spiritual and aesthetic content, first andforemost in those activities related to combat techniques (martialarts). Buddhism remains very active in Japan to this day.

Around 80,000 Buddhist temples are preserved and regularlyrestored.

Tibet

Buddhism arrived late in Tibet - the 7th century CE. The formthat predominated, via the south of Tibet, was a blend of mahâyânaand vajrayâna from the universities of the Pâla empire of northIndia.

Sarvâstivâdin influence came from the south west (Kashmir)and the north west (Khotan). Although these practitioners did notsucceed in maintaining a presence in Tibet, their texts found theirway into the Tibetan Buddhist canon, providing the Tibetans withalmost all of their primary sources about the Foundation Vehicle.

A subsect of this school, Mûlasarvâstivâda was the source of theTibetan Vinaya. Chan Buddhism was introduced via east Tibet fromChina and left its impression, but was rendered of lesser importanceby early political events.

From the outset Buddhism was opposed by the nativeshamanistic Bon religion, which had the support of the aristocracy,but with royal patronage it thrived to a peak under KingRälpachän (817-836). Terminology in translation was standardisedaround 825, enabling a translation methodology that was highlyliteral.

Despite a reversal in Buddhist influence which began under KingLangdarma (836-842), the following centuries saw a colossal effortin collecting available Indian sources, many of which are now extantonly in Tibetan translation. Tibetan Buddhism exerted a stronginfluence from the 11th century CE among the peoples of CentralAsia, especially in Mongolia and Manchuria. It was adopted as anofficial state religion by the Mongol Yuan dynasty and the ManchuQing dynasty that ruled China.


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Southeast Asia

During the 1st century CE, the trade on the overland Silk Roadtended to be restricted by the rise in the Middle-East of the Parthianempire, an unvanquished enemy of Rome, just as Romans werebecoming extremely wealthy and their demand for Asian luxury wasrising.

This demand revived the sea connections between theMediterranean and China, with India as the intermediary of choice.From that time, through trade connection, commercial settlements,and even political interventions, India started to strongly influenceSoutheast Asian countries.

Trade routes linked India with southern Burma, central andsouthern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam, andnumerous urbanized coastal settlements were established there.Formore than a thousand years, Indian influence was therefore themajor factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to thevarious countries of the region.

The Pâli and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, togetherwith Theravâda and Mahâyâna Buddhism, Brahmanism, andHinduism, were transmitted from direct contact and through sacred

texts and Indian literature such as the RâmâyaG a and theMahâbhârata.From the 5th to the 13th century, South-East Asiahad very powerful empires and became extremely active in Buddhistarchitectural and artistic creation.

The main Buddhist influence now came directly by sea from theIndian subcontinent, so that these empires essentially followed theMahâyâna faith.

The Sri Vijaya Empire to the south and the Khmer Empire tothe north competed for influence, and their art expressed the richMahâyâna pantheon of the bodhisattvas.

Srivijayan Empire (7th–13th Century)

Srivijaya, a maritime empire centered at Palembang on theisland of Sumatra in Indonesia, adopted Mahâyâna and VajrayânaBuddhism under a line of rulers named the Sailendras. Yijingdescribed Palembang as a great centre of Buddhist learning wherethe emperor supported over a thousand monks at his court. Atiœastudied there before travelling to Tibet as a missionary. Srivijayaspread Buddhist art during its expansion in Southeast Asia.

Numerous statues of bodhisattvas from this period arecharacterized by a very strong refinement and technical


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sophistication, and are found throughout the region. Extremely richarchitectural remains are visible at the temple of Borobudur thelargest Buddhist structure in the world, built from around 780 CEin Java, which has 505 images of the seated Buddha.

Srivijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola rulers of India,before being destabilized by the Islamic expansion from the 13thcentury.

Khmer Empire (9th–13th Century)

Later, from the 9th to the 13th centuries, the Mahâyâna Buddhistand Hindu Khmer Empire dominated much of the South-East Asianpeninsula. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built inCambodia and in neighboring Thailand. Angkor was at the centerof this development, with a temple complex and urban organizationable to support around one million urban dwellers. One of thegreatest Khmer kings, Jayavarman VII (1181–1219), built largeMahâyâna Buddhist structures at Bayon and Angkor Thom.

Vietnam

Following the destruction of Buddhism in mainland India duringthe 11th century, Mahâyâna Buddhism declined in southeast Asia,to be replaced by the introduction of Theravâda Buddhism from SriLanka.

EMERGENCE OF THE VAJRAYÂNA (5TH CENTURY)

Vajrayâna Buddhism, also called tantric Buddhism, firstemerged in eastern India between the 5th and 7th centuries CE. Itis sometimes considered a sub-school of Mahâyâna and sometimesa third major “vehicle” (yâna) of Buddhism in its own right.

The Vajrayâna is an extension of Mahâyâna Buddhism in thatit does not offer new philosophical perspectives, but ratherintroduces additional techniques (upaya, or ‘skilful means’),including the use of visualizations and other yogic practices. Manyof the practices of tantric Buddhism are common with Hindutantricism: the usage of mantras, yoga and the burning of sacrificialofferings.

Early Vajrayâna practitioners were forest-dwelling mahasiddhaswho lived on the margins of society, but by the 9th century Vajrayânahad won acceptance at major Mahâyâna monastic universities suchas Nâlandâ and Vikramaúîla.

Along with much of the rest of Indian Buddhism, the Vajrayânawas eclipsed in the wake of the late 12th century Muslim invasions.


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It has persisted in Tibet, where it was wholly transplanted from the7th to 12th centuries, and on a limited basis in Japan as well whereit evolved into Shingon Buddhism.

THERAVÂDA RENAISSANCE

From the 11th century, the destruction of Buddhism in the Indianmainland by Islamic invasions led to the decline of the Mahâyânafaith in South-East Asia. Continental routes through the Indiansubcontinent being compromised, direct sea routes developed fromthe Middle-East through Sri Lanka to China, leading to the adoptionof the Theravâda Buddhism of the Pâli canon, introduced to theregion around the 11th century CE from Sri Lanka.

King Anawrahta (1044–1077); the historical founder of theBurmese empire, unified the country and adopted the TheravâdinBuddhist faith. This initiated the creation of thousands of Buddhisttemples at Pagan, the capital, between the 11th and 13th century.

Around 2,000 of them are still standing. The power of theBurmese waned with the rise of the Thai, and with the seizure ofthe capital Pagan by the Mongols in 1287, but Theravâda Buddhismremained the main Burmese faith to this day. The Theravâda faithwas also adopted by the newly founded ethnic Thai kingdom ofSukhothai around 1260. Theravâda Buddhism was furtherreinforced during the Ayutthaya period (14th–18th century),becoming an integral part of Thai society. In the continental areas,Theravâda Buddhism continued to expand into Laos and Cambodiain the 13th century.

From the 14th century, however, on the coastal fringes and inthe islands of south-east Asia, the influence of Islam proved stronger,expanding into Malaysia, Indonesia, and most of the islands as faras the southern Philippines. Nevertheless, since Soeharto’s rise topower in 1966, there has been a remarkable renaissance ofBuddhism in Indonesia.

This is partly due to the requirements of Soeharto’s New Orderfor the people of Indonesia to adopt one of the five official religions:Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism or Buddhism. Todayit is estimated there are some 10 millions Buddhists in Indonesia. Alarge part of them are people of Chinese ancestry.

EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM TO THE WEST

After the Classical encounters between Buddhism and the Westrecorded in Greco-Buddhist art, information and legends aboutBuddhism seem to have reached the West sporadically.


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An account of Buddha’s life was translated in to Greek by Johnof Damascus, and widely circulated to Christians as the story ofBarlaam and Josaphat. By the 14th century this story of Josaphathad become so popular that he was made a Catholic saint.

The next direct encounter between Europeans and Buddhismhappened in Medieval times when the Franciscan friar William ofRubruck was sent on an embassy to the Mongol court of Mongke bythe French king Saint Louis in 1253. The contact happened in Cailac(today’s Qayaliq in Kazakhstan), and William originally thought theywere wayward Christians (Foltz, “Religions of the Silk Road”). Inthe period after Hulagu, the Mongol Ilkhans increasingly adoptedBuddhism.

Numerous Buddhist temples dotted the landscape of Persia andIraq, none of which survived the 14th century. The Buddhist elementof the Il-Khanate died with Arghun. The Kalmyk Khanate wasfounded in the 17th century with Tibetan Buddhism as its mainreligion, following the earlier migration of the Oirats from Dzungariathrough Central Asia to the steppe around the mouth of the VolgaRiver.

During the course of the 18th century, they were absorbed bythe Russian Empire. At the end of the Napoleonic wars, Kalmykcavalry units in Russian service entered Paris.

Kalmykia is remarkable for being the only state in Europe wherethe dominant religion is Buddhism. Interest in Buddhism increasedduring the colonial era, when Western powers were in a position towitness the faith and its artistic manifestations in detail.

The opening of Japan in 1853 created a considerable interestin the arts and culture of Japan, and provided access to one of themost thriving Buddhist cultures in the world. Buddhism started toenjoy a strong interest from the general population in the Westfollowing the turbulence of the 20th century.

In the wake of the 1959 Tibetan uprising, a Tibetan diasporahas made Tibetan Buddhism in particular more widely accessible tothe rest of the world. It has since spread to many Western countries,where the tradition has gained popularity. Among its prominentexponents is the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet.

The number of its adherents is estimated to be between ten andtwenty million. Buddhism has been displaying a strong power ofattraction, due to its tolerance, its lack of deist authority anddeterminism, and its focus on understanding reality through selfinquiry.


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5

ASHOKA AND BUDDHISM AS REFLECTED IN THE ASOKAN

EDICTS

ASHOKA’S POLICY OF DHAMMA

Dhamma is a set of edicts that formed a policy of the Mauryanemperor Ashoka Maurya, who succeeded to the Mauryan throne inmodern-day India around 269 B.C. Many historians consider himas one of the greatest kings of the ancient India for his policies ofpublic welfare. His policy of Dhamma has been debated byintellectuals.

DEFINITION

The word Dhamma is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit wordDharma. There have been attempts to define and find equivalentEnglish words for it, such as “piety”, “moral life” and“righteousness” but scholars could not translate it into Englishbecause it was coined and used in a specific context. The wordDharma has multiple meanings in the literature and thought ofancient India. The best way to understand what Ashoka means byDhamma is to read his edicts, which were written to explain theprinciples of Dhamma to the people of that time throughout theempire.

Dhamma was not a particular religious faith or practice, oran arbitrary formulated royal policy. Dhamma related togeneralized norms of social behavior and activities; Ashoka triedto synthesize various social norms which were current in his time.It cannot be understood by assuming it is one of the variousreligions that existed that time. To understand why and howAshoka formulated Dhamma and its meaning, one mustunderstand the characteristics of the time in which he lived andto refer to Buddhist, Brahmanical and other texts where normsof social behavior are explained.

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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Socio-economic Conditions

The Mauryan period saw a change in the economic structureof the society. The use of iron resulted in surplus production, andthe economy changed from being a simple, rural economy to apattern of economy in which urban centres became important. Ithas been generally argued that the use of the Northern BlackPoliced Ware pottery is an indicator of material prosperity in theperiod.

The use of Punch-marked silver coins and some other varietiesof coins, the conscious intervention of the State to safeguard traderoutes and the rise of urban centers point to a structural change inthe economy, requiring adjustments in the society. The commercialclasses had come to the forefront of society. The emergence of urbanculture demanded a flexible social organization. The incorporationof tribes and peoples from the outlying areas into the social fabricalso presented a problem.

The response of the Brahmanical social order, which was basedon the four-fold verna division, was to make the caste system morerigid and deny a higher status to the commercial class.

The rigidity of the Brahmanical class system sharpened thedivisions within the society. The lower orders turned to variousheterodox sects and this created social tensions. It was this situationwhich emperor Ashoka inherited when he ascended the Mauryanthrone.

Religious Conditions

The Brahmanical hold over society, assiduously built throughthe later Vedic period, was coming under increasing attack. Theprivileges of the priests, the rigidity of the caste system and theelaborate rituals were being questioned.

The lower orders among the four sects began to favour new sects.The vaisyas, who were technically included in the higher socialcategory, were treated as inferior to both Brahmans and Kshatriya.The opposition of the commercial class to Brahmanism was to givea fillip to the other sects of the society. Buddhism began as schismaticmovement from the more orthodox outlook of Brahmanism. Its basictenet was an emphasis on misery and advocacy of the middle path.

It was a set of ethical principles. Buddhism opposed thedominance of the Brahmans and the concept of sacrifices and rituals.It thus appealed to lower social orders and to emerging social classes.


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The human approach to relations in society preached by Buddhismfurther attracted different sections to itself.

Polity

The Mahajanapada of sixth century B.C. marked the beginningof the state system in many parts of India. Only a small section ofsociety came to have a monopoly of power, which they exercised overthe rest of the society.

There were gana-samghas in which the rulers were a group ofhereditary Kshatriya or members of a clan. By the time Ashokaascended the throne, the state system had grown very elaborate. Itwas characterized by:

• The political supremacy of one region (Magadha) over a vastterritory which comprised many previous kingdoms, gana-samghas, and areas where no organised states had previouslyexisted.

• Existence within this vast territory of geographical regions,cultural areas, and of different faiths, beliefs and practices.

• Monopoly of force by a ruling class of which the emperor wasthe supreme head.

• Appropriation of a very substantial quantity of surpluses fromagriculture, commerce and other sources.

The complexity of the state system demanded an imaginativepolicy from the emperor which required minimal use of force in sucha large empire having diverse forms of economy and religions. Itcould not have been controlled by an army alone.

A more feasible alternative was the propagation of a policy thatwould work at an ideological level and reach out to all sections ofthe society. The policy of Dhamma was such an endeavour.

DISTRIBUTION OF INSCRIPTIONS

Ashoka expounded his policy of Dhamma through his edicts. Byengraving his views about Dhamma on these edicts, Ashoka triedto directly communicate with his subjects. These inscriptions werewritten in different years of his life.

The inscriptions can be divided into two categories. A small groupof inscriptions reveal that the king was a follower of Buddhism andwere addresses to the Buddhist church—the samgha. Theseinscriptions are declarations of Ashoka’s relationship with theBuddhist order.

Inscriptions of the other category are known as the Major and


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Minor Rock Edicts, which were inscribed on rock surfaces. This largergroup includes the Pillar Edicts inscribed on specially erected pillars.All the sites of Ashokan inscription were chosen carefully to ensurethat they were accessible to large numbers of people.

These edicts are proclamations to the public at large. They explainthe idea of Dhamma. One must make a distinction between Ashoka’spolicy of Dhamma which stressed social responsibility and Ashoka’sown commitment as a Buddhist.

There has been a tendency in the past among historians to studythe policy of Dhamma and Ashoka as Buddhist in the same contextwithout making any distinction. An examination of the inscriptionssuggests that Ashoka declared his personal association with aBuddhist order and on the other he tried to teach, through the policyof Dhamma, the importance of social responsibility and toleranceamongst different members of the society.

DHAMMA CAUSES

The policy of Dhamma was an earnest attempt at solving someof problems and tensions faced by a complex society. Ashoka’s privateempire were responsible for the formation of the policy. Theimmediate social environment in which Ashoka grew up influencedhim in later years.

The Mauryan kings adopted an eclectical outlook. Chandraguptatook recourse to Jainism in his later years and Bindusara favouredthe Âjîvika. Ashoka adopted Buddhism in his personal life, thoughhe never imposed Buddhism on his subjects.

By the time Ashoka ascended the throne, the Mauryan imperialsystem had become complex, encompassing various cultures, beliefsand social and political patterns.

Ashoka had to either maintain the structure by force—whichwould incur tremendous expenses—or to define a set of social normswhich would be acceptable to all social practices and religious beliefs.He was aware of the tensions which the heterodox sects—Buddhism,Jainism and Ajiviksim—had generated in society.

They were all opposed to the domination of the Brahmans andhad a growing number of supporters. But Brahmans continued tocontrol society and hostility was inevitable.

It was essential to bring about a climate of harmony and mutualtrust. There were many areas within the empire where neither theBrahmanical system or the heterodox sects prevailed. Ashokareferred to the country of Yavanas, where neither Brahmanical norSramanical culture were in vogue.


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In many tribal areas, people were unfamiliar with Brahmanicalor heterodox ideas. To make the empire survive and to bring somecohesion within the empire in the midst of this diversity, somecommon patterns of behaviour and common approaches to thesociety’s problems were needed.

EDICTS

The principles of Dhamma were formulated to be acceptable topeople belonging to different communities and following any religion.Dhamma was not given any formal definition or structure.

It emphasized tolerance of people and the notion of showingconsideration towards slaves and servants; there is stress onobedience to elders; generosity towards the needy, Brahmans andSarmanas. Ashoka pleaded for tolerance of different religious sectsin an attempt to create a sense of harmony.

The policy of Dhamma also laid stress on non-violence, whichwas to be practiced by giving up war and conquests and also as arestraint on the killing of animals. However, Ashoka realized that acertain display of his political might may be necessary to keep theprimitive forest-dwelling tribes in check.

The policy of Dhamma also included other welfare measures,like the planting of trees and digging of wells. Ashoka attackedceremonies and sacrifices as meaningless. A group of officers knownas Dhamma mahamattas were instituted to implement and publicizethe various aspects of Dhamma.

Ashoka made them responsible for carrying his message tovarious sections of society, However, they gradually developed intoa type of priesthood of Dhamma with great powers and soon beganto interfere in politics.

The aspects of Dhamma were developed chronologically.• Major Rock Edict I prohibits of animal sacrifice and

holidays of festive gathering.• Major Rock Edict II relates to measures of social welfare.

It mentions medical treatment for men and animals,construction of roads, wells and tree planting.

• Major Rock Edict III declares that liberality towardsBrahmans and Sramanas is a virtue, and that respecting one’sparents is a good quality.

• Major Rock Edict IV comments that because of the policy ofDhamma the lack of morality and disrespect towards Sramanasand Brahmans, violence, unseemly behaviour to friends,


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relatives and others, and evils of this kind have been checked.The killing of animals to a large extent was also stopped.

• Major Rock Edict V refers to the appointment of Dhamma-mahamatta for the first time in the twelfth year of his reign.These special officers were appointed by the king to look afterthe interests of all sects and religions and spread the messageof Dhamma.

• Major Rock Edict VI is an instruction to Dhamma-mahamattas. They are told that they could bring their reportsto the king at any time. The second part of the Edict dealswith speedy administration and the transaction of smoothbusiness.

• Major Rock Edict VII is a plea for tolerance amongst allsects. It appears from the edict that tensions among the sectswere intense perhaps in open antagonism. The plea is a partof the overall strategy to maintain unity.

• Major Rock Edict VIII states that Dhammayatras (tours)would be undertaken by the emperor. The earlier practice ofthe emperor going out on hunting expeditions was given up.Dhammayatras enabled the emperor to come into contactwith various sections of people in the empire.

• Major Rock Edict IX attacks ceremonies performed afterbirth, illness, marriage and before going on a journey. Acensure passed against ceremonies observed by wives andmothers. Ashoka instead lays stress on practice of Dhammaand the uselessness of ceremonies.

• Major Rock Edict X denounces fame and glory and reassertsthe merits of following the policy of Dhamma.

• Major Rock Edict XI is a further explanation of the policyof Dhamma. It emphases the respect of elders, abstaining fromkilling animals, and liberality towards friends.

• Major Rock Edict XII is another appeal for tolerance amongsects. This edict reflects the anxiety the king felt because ofconflict between sects and carries his plea for harmony.

• Major Rock Edict XIII is of paramount importance inunderstanding the Ashokan policy of Dhamma. The RockEdict pleads for conquest by Dhamma instead of war. This islogical culmination of the thought processes which began fromthe first Rock Edict, and by conquest what is perhaps meantis the adaptation of the policy of Dhamma by a country, ratherthan its territorial control.


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• Major Rock Edict XIV Ashoka said, My dominions are wide,and much has been written, and i shall cause still no more tobe written. And some of this has been stated again and againbecause of the charm of certain topics and in order that menshould act accordingly.

Text of the Edicts

“When he had been consecrated eight years the Beloved of theGods, the king Piyadasi Ashoka conquered Kalinga. A hundred andfifty thousand people were deported, a hundred thousand were killedand many times that number perished.

Afterwards, now that Kalinga was annexed, the Beloved of theGods very earnestly practised “Dhamma”, desired “Dhamma”. Onconquering Kalinga the Beloved of the Gods felt remorse, for, whenan independent country is conquered the slaughter, death, anddeportation of people in extremely grievous to the Beloved of theGods, and weighs heavily on his mind.

What is even more deplorable to the Beloved to the Gods is thatthose who dwell there, whether Brahmans, Sarmanas, or those ofother sects, or householders who show obedience to their superiors,obedience to their mother and father, obedience to their teachersand behave well and devotedly to their friends, acquiescence,colleagues, relatives, slaves and servants—all suffer violence, murderand separation from their loved ones.

Even those who are fortunate to have escaped, and whose loveis undiminished (by the brutalizing effect of war), suffer from themisfortunes of their friends, acquaintances colleagues andrelatives.

This participation of all men in suffering weighs heavily on themind of Beloved of the Gods. Except among the Greeks, there is noland where religious orders of Brahmans and Sarmanas are not tobe found, and there is no land anywhere where men do not supportone sect or another.

Today, if a hundredth or thousandth part of those people whowere killed or died or were deported when Kalinga was annexedwere to suffer similarly, it would weighs heavily on the mind of theBeloved of the Gods.”

“This inscription of Dhamma has been engraved so that any sonsor great sons that I may have should not think of gaining newconquests, and in whatever victories they may gain should besatisfied with patience and light punishment.

They should only consider conquest by Dhamma to be a true a


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conquest, and delight in Dhamma should be their whole delight, forthis is of value in both this word and next.”

This is Ashoka’s testament against war. It graphically depictsthe tragedy of war and shows why he turned against it. It is a uniqueevent in the annals of the ancient world because one does not knowsof any other contemporary monarch who renounced war. Ashokaembarked on the policy of Dhamma after Kalinga war.

DHAMMA AND THE MAURYAN STATE

Ashoka’s Dhamma was not simply a collection of high-soundingphrases. He consciously tried to adopt it as a matter of state policy;he declared that “all men and my children” and “whatever exertionI make, I strive only to discharge debt that I owe to all livingcreatures.”

It was totally new and inspiring ideal of kingship. In theArthashastra, the king owed nothing to anyone. His only job was torule the state efficiently.

Ashoka renounced war and conquest by violence and forbadethe killing of many animals. Ashoka set an example of vegetarianismby almost stopping the consumption of meat in the royal household.Since he wanted to conquer the world through love and faith, hesent many missions to propagate Dhamma.

Such missions were sent to far off places like Egypt, Greece andSri Lanka. The propagation of Dhamma included many measuresof people’s welfare. Centers of the treatment of men and beastsfounded inside and outside of empire. Shady groves, wells, orchardsand rest houses were laid out.

This kind of charity work was a radically different attitude fromthe king of the Arthashastra, who would not incur any expensesunless they brought more revenues in return.

Ashoka also prohibited useless sacrifices and certain forms ofgatherings which led to waste, indiscipline and superstition. Toimplement these policies he recruited a new cadre of officers calledDhammamahamattas. Part of this group’s duties was to see thatpeople of various sects were treated fairly.

They were especially asked to look after the welfare of prisoners.Many convicts—who were kept in fetters after their sentence hadexpired—were to be released. Those sentenced to death were to givengrace for three days. Ashoka also started Dhamma yatras.

He and his high officials were to tour the country propagatingDhamma and establishing direct contact with his subjects. Because


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of such attitudes and policies, modern writers like Kern called him“a monk in a king’s garb.”

INTERPRETATIONS

The Ashokan policy of Dhamma has been the subject ofcontroversy and debate amongst scholars; Some have said thatAshoka was a partisan Buddhist and have equated Dhamma withBuddhism.

It has also been suggested that it was the original Buddhistthought that was being preached by Ashoka as Dhamma and lateron certain theological additions were made to Buddhism.

This kind of thinking is based on some Buddhist chronicles. Itis believed that the Kalinga war was a dramatic turning point whereout of remorse for the death and destruction of war, Ashoka decidedto become Buddhist. The Buddhist records credit him with thepropagation of Buddhism in India and aboard.

As an emperor, Ashoka did not favour Buddhism at the expensesof other religions.

According to Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Dhamma was not thepolicy of a heretic but a system of beliefs created out of differentreligious faiths. There has been some discussion among historiansabout the results Ashoka’s propagation of Dhamma.

Some historians believe that Ashoka’s ban of sacrifices and thefavour that he showed to Buddhism led to a Brahmanical reaction,which in turn led to the decline of Mauryan empire. Others believethat stopping of wars and the emphasis on non-violence crippledthe military might of the empire, leading to its collapse after thedeath of Ashoka.

According to Romila Thapar, Ashoka’s Dhamma is a superbdocument of his essential humanity and an answer to the socio-political needs of the contemporaneous situation. It was not anti-Brahmanical because respect for the Brahmans and Sarmanas isan integral part of his Dhamma. His emphasis on non-violence didnot blind him to the needs of the state.

He warned the forest tribes that although he hates to usecoercion, he may be required to resort to force if they continued tocreate trouble. By the time Ashoka stopped war, the entire Indiansub-continent was under his control.

In the south he was on friendly terms with the Cholas andPandyas. Sri Lanka was an admiring ally. Thus, Ashoka’s decline ofwar came when his empire had reached its natural boundaries.


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The plea for tolerance was a wise course of action in an ethnicallydiverse, religiously varied, and class divided society. Ashoka’s empirewas a conglomerate of diverse groups; farmers, pastoral nomads andhunter-gatherers, there were Greeks, Kambojas, and Bhojas andhundreds of groups with different traditions. In this situation a pleafor tolerance was needed.

Ashoka tried to transcend the parochial cultural traditions witha board set of ethical principles.

Ashoka’s “Dhamma” could not survive him; as such it was afailure. However, he was not establishing a new religion but wastrying to impress upon the society the need for ethical and moralprinciples.

EDICTS OF ASHOKA

The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on thePillars of Ashoka as well as boulders and cave walls made by theEmperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire during his reign from 269BCE to 232 BCE. These inscriptions were dispersed throughout theareas of modern-day Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Afghanistan andPakistan and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism.

The edicts describe in detail the Ashoka’s view about dhamma,an earnest attempt to solve some of problems that a complex societyfaced.

According to the edicts, the extent of Buddhist proselytismduring this period reached as far as the Mediterranean, and manyBuddhist monuments were created.

The Edicts are divided into:

• Pillar Edicts

• Major Rock Edicts: 14 Edicts (termed 1st to 14th) and 2separate ones found in Odisha

• Major Rock Inscriptions: Minor Rock Edicts, the Queen’sEdict, Barabar Caves inscriptions and the Kandahar bilingualinscription

These inscriptions proclaim Ashoka’s adherence to the Buddhistphilosophy which, as in Hinduism is called dharma, “Law”.

The inscriptions show his efforts to develop the Buddhist dharmathroughout his kingdom. Although Buddhism and the GautamaBuddha are mentioned, the edicts focus on social and moral preceptsrather than specific religious practices or the philosophical dimensionof Buddhism.


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In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to himself as “Beloved of theGods” (Devanampiyadasi) The identification of Devanampiyadasiwith Ashoka was confirmed by an inscription discovered in 1915 byC. Beadon, a British gold-mining engineer, at Maski, a village inRaichur district of Karnataka.

Another minor rock edict is found at the village Gujarra in Datiadistrict of Madhya Pradesh. This also shows the name “Ashoka” inaddition to usual “Devanampiyadasi”.

The inscriptions found in the eastern part of India were writtenin Magadhi Prakrit using the Brahmi script. These edicts weredeciphered by British archaeologist and historian James Prinsep.

The inscriptions revolve around a few recurring themes: Ashoka’sconversion to Buddhism, the description of his efforts to spreadBuddhism, his moral and religious precepts, and his social andanimal welfare program.

ASHOKA’S PROSELYTISM

In order to propagate the Buddhist faith, Ashoka explains thathe sent emissaries to the Hellenistic kings as far as theMediterranean, and to people throughout India, claiming they wereall converted to the Dharma as a result. He names the Greek rulersof the time, inheritors of the conquest of Alexander the Great, fromBactria to as far as Greece and North Africa, displaying a clear graspof the political situation at the time.

Proselytism Beyond India

Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Godsconsiders to be the best conquest. And it [conquest by Dhamma]has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away,where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the fourkings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule,likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far asTamraparni. Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika).

The distance of 600 yojanas corresponds to the distance betweenthe center of India and Greece, roughly 4,000 miles.

• Amtiyoko refers to Antiochus II Theos of Syria (261–246BCE), who controlled the Seleucid Empire from Syria toBactria in the east from 305 to 250 BCE, and was therefore adirect neighbor of Ashoka.

• Turamaye refers to Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt (285–247 BCE), king of the dynasty founded by Ptolemy I, a formergeneral of Alexander the Great, in Egypt.


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• Amtikini refers to Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedon (278–239 BCE).

• Maka refers to Magas of Cyrene (300–258 BCE).• Alikasudaro refers to Alexander II of Epirus (272–258 BCE).In the Gandhari original Antiochos is referred to as “Amtiyoko

nama Yona-raja” (lit. “The Greek king by the name of Antiokos”),beyond whom live the four other kings: “param ca tena Atiyokenacature 4 rajani Turamaye nama Amtikini nama Maka namaAlikasudaro nama” (lit. “And beyond Antiochus, four kings by thename of Ptolemy, the name of Antigonos, the name of Magas, thename Alexander”. It is not clear in Hellenic records whether theseemissaries were actually received, or had any influence on theHellenic world.

Some scholars, however, point to the presence of Buddhistcommunities in the Hellenistic world from that time, in particularin Alexandria (mentioned by Clement of Alexandria).

The pre-Christian monastic order of the Therapeutae may havedrawn inspiration for its ascetic lifestyle from contact with Buddhistmonasticism, although the foundation and Scriptures were Jewish.

Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic period have also beenfound in Alexandria, decorated with depictions of the Wheel of theLaw. Commenting on the presence of Buddhists in Alexandria, somescholars have even pointed out that “It was later in this very placethat some of the most active centers of Christianity were established”(Robert Linssen).

Ashoka’s proselytism also expanded to the south of the Indiansubcontinent:

• The Cholas and Pandyas were south Indian peoples livingoutside Ashoka’s empire.

• Tamraparni(Sanskrit) & Tambapanni (Pali) is the oldname of Sri Lanka. Tamraparniya is also the name ofTheravada School from Sri Lanka.

Proselytism within Ashoka’s territories

Inside India proper, in the realm of Ashoka, many differentpopulations were the object of the King’s proselytism:

• Here in the king’s domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas,the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas,the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are followingBeloved-of-the-Gods’ instructions in Dhamma. Rock EdictNb13 (S. Dhammika).


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Greek Communities

Greek communities lived in the northwest of the Mauryan empire,in the region of Pakistan, notably ancient Gandhara near the Pakistanicapital of Islamabad, and in southern Afghanistan in the region ofGedrosia, following the conquest and the colonization efforts ofAlexander the Great around 323 BCE.

These communities therefore seem to have been still significantduring the reign of Ashoka. A notable mention references aspectsof Greek society. There is no country, except among the Greeks, wherethese two groups, Brahmans and ascetics, are not found, and thereis no country where people are not devoted to one or another religion.Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika).

Other Communities

• Kambojas are a people of Central Asian origin who had settledfirst in Arachosia and Drangiana (today’s southernAfghanistan), and in some of the other areas in thenorthwestern Indian subcontinent in Sindhu, Gujarat andSauvira.

• The Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, theAndhras and the Palidas are other people under Ashoka’s rule.

MORAL PRECEPTS

The Dharma preached by Ashoka is explained mainly in term ofmoral precepts, based on the doing of good deeds, respect for others,generosity and purity.

Right Behavior

Dharma is good, but what constitutes Dharma? (It includes) littleevil, much good, kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity. PilarEdict Nb2 (S. Dharmika).

And noble deeds of Dharma and the practice of Dharma consistof having kindness, generosity, truthfulness, purity, gentleness andgoodness increase among the people. Rock Pilar Nb7 (S. Dharmika).

Benevolence

Ashoka’s Dharma meant that he used his power to try to makelife better for his people and he also tried to change the way peoplethought and lived.

Kindness to Prisoners

Ashoka showed great concern for fairness in the exercise of


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justice, caution and tolerance in the application of sentences, andregularly pardoned prisoners.

It is my desire that there should be uniformity in law anduniformity in sentencing. I even go this far, to grant a three-daystay for those in prison who have been tried and sentenced to death.During this time their relatives can make appeals to have theprisoners’ lives spared. If there is none to appeal on their behalf,the prisoners can give gifts in order to make merit for the next world,or observe fasts. Pilar Edict Nb4 (S. Dhammika).

In the twenty-six years since my coronation prisoners have beengiven amnesty on twenty-five occasions. Pilar Edict Nb5 (S.Dhammika).

Respect for Animal Life

The Mauryan empire was the first Indian empire to unify thecountry and it had a clear-cut policy of exploiting as well asprotecting natural resources with specific officials tasked withprotection duty.

When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign,he brought about significant changes in his style of governance,which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquishedthe royal hunt.

He was perhaps the first ruler in history to advocate conservationmeasures for wildlife. Reference to these can be seen inscribed onthe stone edicts.

Twenty-six years after my coronation various animals weredeclared to be protected – parrots, mainas, aruna, ruddy geese, wildducks, nandimukhas, gelatas, bats, queen ants, terrapins, bonelessfish, vedareyaka, gangapuputaka, fish, tortoises, porcupines,squirrels, deer, bulls, okapinda, wild asses, wild pigeons, domesticpigeons and all four-footed creatures that are neither useful noredible.

• Those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young orgiving milk to their young are protected, and so are youngones less than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized,husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt and forests arenot to be burnt either without reason or to kill creatures. Oneanimal is not to be fed to another.—Edict on Fifth Pillar

• The edicts also proclaim that many followed the king’s examplein giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudlystates: Our king killed very few animals. — Edict on FifthPillar


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Ashoka advocated restraint in the number that had to be killedfor consumption, protected some of them, and in general condemnedviolent acts against animals, such as castration.

However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulersthan actual events; the mention of a 100 ‘panas’ (coins) fine forpoaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakersdid exist.

The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices then freelyexercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing andsetting fires in forests.

RELIGIOUS PRECEPTS

Buddhism

Beyond spreading the moral virtues of Buddhism, Ashoka alsoinsisted that the word of the Buddha be read and followed, inparticular in monastic circles (the Sanghas):

Piyadasi, King of Magadha, saluting the Sangha and wishingthem good health and happiness, speaks thus: You know, reverendsirs, how great my faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and Sanghais. Whatever, reverend sirs, has been spoken by Lord Buddha, allthat is well-spoken. Minor Rock Edict Nb3 (S. Dhammika).

These Dhamma texts – Extracts from the Discipline, the NobleWay of Life, the Fears to Come, the Poem on the Silent Sage, theDiscourse on the Pure Life, Upatisa’s Questions, and the Advice toRahula which was spoken by the Buddha concerning false speech –these Dhamma texts, reverend sirs, I desire that all the monks andnuns may constantly listen to and remember. Likewise the laymenand laywomen. Minor Rock Edict Nb3 (S. Dhammika)..

Belief in a Next World

One benefits in this world and gains great merit in the next bygiving the gift of the Dhamma. Rock Edict Nb11 (S. Dhammika).

Happiness in this world and the next is difficult to obtain withoutmuch love for the Dhamma, much self-examination, much respect,much fear (of evil), and much enthusiasm. Pilar Edict Nb1 (S.Dhammika).

Religious Exchange

Far from being sectarian, Ashoka, based on a belief that allreligions shared a common, positive essence, encouraged toleranceand understanding of other religions.


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All religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of heart. Rock Edict Nb7 (S. Dhammika).

Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered oroffered in sacrifice. Rock Edict Nb1 (S. Dhammika).

Contact (between religions) is good. One should listen to andrespect the doctrines professed by others. Beloved-of-the-Gods, KingPiyadasi, desires that all should be well-learned in the good doctrinesof other religions. Rock Edict Nb12 (S. Dhammika).

SOCIAL AND ANIMAL WELFARE

According to the edicts, Ashoka took great care of the welfare ofhis subjects (human and animal), and those beyond his borders,spreading the use of medicinal treatments, improving roadsidefacilities for more comfortable travel, and establishing “officers ofthe faith” throughout his territories to survey the welfare of thepopulation and the propagation of the Dharma.

Medicinal Treatments

Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi’s domain, andamong the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, theSatiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and where the Greekking Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos,everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for twotypes of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medicaltreatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans oranimals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherevermedical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported andgrown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefitof humans and animals. Rock Edict Nb2 (S. Dhammika).

Roadside Facilities

Along roads I have had banyan trees planted so that they cangive shade to animals and men, and I have had mango grovesplanted. At intervals of eight “krosas”, I have had wells dug, rest-houses built, and in various places, I have had watering-places madefor the use of animals and men. But these are but minorachievements. Such things to make the people happy have been doneby former kings. I have done these things for this purpose, that thepeople might practice the Dhamma. Pilar Edict Nb7.

Officers of the Faith

In past there were no Dhamma Mahamatras but such officerswere appointed by me thirteen years after my coronation.


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Now they work among all religions for the establishment ofDhamma, for the promotion of Dhamma, and for the welfare andhappiness of all who are devoted to Dhamma.

They work among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Gandharas,the Rastrikas, the Pitinikas and other peoples on the westernborders. They work among soldiers, chiefs, Brahmans, householders,the poor, the aged and those devoted to Dhamma – for their welfareand happiness – so that they may be free from harassment. RockEdict Nb5 (S. Dhammika).


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6

ASHOKA: SOME INDIAN AND SRI LANKAN LEGENDS AND

THEIR DEVELOPMENT

Theravada Buddhism is the religion of about 70% of thepopulation of Sri Lanka. The island has been a center of Buddhistscholarship and learning since the introduction of Buddhism in thethird century BCE producing eminent scholars such asBuddhaghosa and preserving the vast Pâli Canon.

Throughout most of its history, Sinhalese kings have played amajor role in the maintenance and revival of the Buddhistinstitutions of the island. During the 19th century, a modernBuddhist revival took place on the island which promoted Buddhisteducation and learning.

There are around 6,000 Buddhist monasteries on Sri Lanka withapproximately 15,000 monks.

According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles such as theDipavamsa, Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka in the thirdcentury BCE after the Third Buddhist council by Mahinda Bhikkhu,son of Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa ofAnuradhapura.

During this time, a sapling of the Bodhi Tree was brought to SriLanka and the first monasteries and Buddhist monuments wereestablished.

Among these, the Isurumuniya and the Vessagiri remainimportant centers of worship. He is also credited with theconstruction of the Pathamaka cetiya, the Jambukola vihâra andthe Hatthâlhaka vihâra and the refectory. The Pali Canon, havingpreviously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committedto writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE.

Mahavamsa 29 records that during the rule of the Greco-Bactrian King Menander I, a Yona head monk namedMahadharmaraksita led 30,000 Buddhist monks from “the Greekcity of Alasandra” (v, around 150 kilometres (93 mi) north of modern

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Kabul, Afghanistan) to Sri Lanka for the dedication of theRuwanwelisaya in Anuradhapura, indicating that Greco-Buddhismcontributed to early Sri Lankan Buddhism. See also the MilindaPanha.

CENTER OF PALI LITERATURE

As as a result of the work of Buddhaghosa and other compilerssuch as Dhammapala, Sri Lanka developed a strong tradition ofwritten textual transmission of the Pali Canon. The compilation ofthe Atthakatha (commentaries) along with the Nikâyas and otherPitakas were committed to writing for the first time in the AluvihareRock Temple during the first century BCE.

Buddhist literature in Sinhalese also thrived and by 410, SriLankan monks traveled widely throughout India and Asiaintroducing their works.

THERAVÂDA SUBDIVISIONS

Over much of the early history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, threesubdivisions of Theravâda existed in Sri Lanka, consisting of themonks of the three mahaviharas, Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya,Abhayagiri vihâra and Jetavanaramaya.

The Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya was the first tradition to beestablished while Abhayagiri vihâra and Jetavanaramaya wereestablished by monks who had broken away from the Maha Viharayatradition.

According to A.K. Warder, the Indian Mahîúâsaka establisheditself in Sri Lanka alongside the Theravadas, into which they werelater absorbed. Northern regions of Sri Lanka also seem to havebeen ceded to sects from India at certain times.

In the 7th century, Xuanzang wrote of two major divisions ofTheravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka, referring to the Abhayagiritradition as the “Mahayana Sthaviras,” and the Mahâvihâratradition as the “Hinayana Sthaviras.”

Abhayagiri appears to have been a center for Mahayana andVajrayana teachings; Xuanzang writes, “The Mahâvihâravâsinsreject the Mahâyâna and practice the Hînayâna, while theAbhayagirivihâravâsins study both Hînayâna and Mahâyânateachings and propagate the Tripim aka.

In the 8th century, both Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhismwere being practiced in Sri Lanka, and two Indian monksresponsible for propagating Vajrayana Buddhism in China,Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra, visited the island during this time.


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In Pali commentaries, terms used for the Mahayanins ofAbhayagiri were Vaitulya, Vaipulya and Vaidalya. According to HRPerera, the Theravada commentaries considered them heretical andtheir doctrines included:

They held the view that the Buddha, having been born in theTusita heaven, lived there and never came down to earth and itwas only a created form that appeared among men. This createdform and Ânanda, who learned from it, preached the doctrine.

They also held that nothing whatever given to the Order bearsfruit, for the Sangha, which in the ultimate sense of the term meantonly the path and fruitions, does not accept anything. According tothem any human pair may enter upon sexual intercourse by mutualconsent.

ACCOUNTS OF CHINESE PILGRIMS

In the 5th century, Faxian visited Sri Lanka and lived there fortwo years with the monks. Faxian obtained a Sanskrit copy of theVinaya of the Mahîúâsaka at the Abhayagiri vihâra c. 406.

The Mahîúâsaka Vinaya was then translated into Chinese in434 by Buddhajiva and Zhu Daosheng. This translation of theMahîúâsaka Vinaya remains extant in the Chinese Buddhist canon

as Taishô Tripim aka 1421.The 7th century pilgrim Xuanzang first learned for several years

at Nalanda and then intended to go to Sri Lanka to seek out furtherinstruction. However, after meeting Sri Lankan monks in the Cholacapital who were refugees, he decided not to visit:

At the time of Hiuen Tsang’s visit the capital was visited by 300Bhikshus of Ceylon who had left the island in consequence of famineand revolution there. On the pilgrim telling them of his intendedvisit to Ceylon for instruction, they told him that there were noBrethren there superior to them.

Then the pilgrim discussed some Yoga texts with them and foundthat their explanations could not excel those given to him byŒîlabhadra at Nâlandâ.

DECLINE AND REVIVAL

From the 5th century to the eleventh century, the island of SriLanka saw continuous warfare between local kings, pretenders andforeign invaders such as the South Indian Chola and Pandyandynasties.

This warfare saw the sacking of viharas and made the situationfor difficult for Buddhism. In 1070, Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa


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conquered the island and set about repairing the monasteries. Thestate of Sri Lankan Buddhism was so bad at this time that he couldnot find five bhikkhus in the whole island to ordain more monksand restore the monastic tradition; therefore, he sent an embassyto Burma, which sent back several eminent elders with Buddhisttexts.

The king oversaw the ordination of thousands of monks. Theroyal reforming of Sri Lankan Buddhism continued underParakramabahu I (c. 1153), who restored many stupas andmonasteries. During this period, Sri Lankan Buddhist literaturethrived once again and the three greats writers Mahakassapa ofDimbulagala Raja Maha Vihara, Moggallana Thera and SariputtaThera compiled Pali commentaries and sub-commentaries.Parakramabahu II of Dambadeniya (from c. 1236) was a learnedking and wrote several Sinhalese Buddhist texts.

ABOLITION OF OTHER THERAVADA TRADITIONS

Before the 12th century, more rulers of Sri Lanka gave supportand patronage to the Abhayagiris, and travelers such as Faxian sawthe Abhayagiris as the main Buddhist tradition in Sri Lanka.

The trend of Abhayagiri being the dominant sect changed in the12th century, when the Maha Viharaya gained the political supportof Parakramabahu I (1153–1186), who completely abolished theAbhayagiri and Jetavanaya traditions.

The monks of these two traditions were then defrocked and giventhe choice of either returning to the laity permanently or attempting

reordination under the Maha Viharaya tradition as sâmaG eras.Parakkamabâhu also appointed a sae gharâja “King of the Sangha,”a monk who would preside over the Sangha and its ordinations inSri Lanka with the assistance of two deputies.

MAHAYANA LEGACY

Veneration of Avalokiteœvara has continued to the present dayin Sri Lanka, where he is called Nâtha. In more recent times, somewestern-educated Theravâdins have attempted to identify Nâthawith Maitreya. However, traditions and basic iconography, includingan image of Amitâbha on his crown, identify Nâtha asAvalokiteúvara.

It is clear from sculptural evidence alone that the Mahâyânawas fairly widespread throughout [Sri Lanka], although the modernaccount of the history of Buddhism on the island presents anunbroken and pure lineage of Theravâda. (One can only assume that


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similar trends were transmitted to other parts of Southeast Asiawith Sri Lankan ordination lineages.) Relics of an extensive cult ofAvalokiteúvara can be seen in the present-day figure of Nâtha.

Early reports by Europeans from the 18th century describe theBuddhist monks of Sri Lanka as being engaged in the recitation ofmantras and using Buddhist prayer beads for counting as practicedin Mahayana Buddhism.

LINEAGE CONTINUITY

Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism ofany Buddhist nation, with the Sangha having existed in a largelyunbroken lineage since its introduction in the 3rd century BCE.During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage wasrevived through contact with Burma and Thailand.

COLONIALISM AND CHRISTIANITY

From the 16th century onward, missionaries and Portuguese,Dutch and British colonizers of Sri Lanka have attempted to convertthe local population to Christianity. The wars with the Portugueseand their allies weakened the Sangha.

In 1592, Vimaladharmasuriya I of Kandy sought aid from Burmain order to ordain Buddhist monks on the island as there was hardlya single properly ordained monk left. From 1612 to 1658, the Dutchand the Portuguese fought over the island with the Sinhalese caughtin the middle, the Dutch won and occupied the maritime sections ofthe island that had been occupied by the Portuguese until 1796 whenthey surrendered their territories to the British.

The Dutch were less zealous than the Portuguese in theirreligious proselytizing, though they still discriminated againstBuddhists which were not allowed to register with the localauthorities therefore many Sinhalese pretended to be Protestant.

During this period many religiously inclined Sinhalese rulersof the interior such as Vira Narendra Sinha of Kandy (1706-1739)and Sri Vijaya Rajasinha of Kandy (1739-1747) continued topatronize Buddhism, restoring temples and monasteries.

In the mid 18th century the higher ordination of Buddhist monksknown as upasampada, which was defunct at the time, was revivedwith the help of Thai Buddhist monks on the initiatives taken byWeliwita Sri Saranankara Thero during the reign of king KirthiSri Rajasinghe.

In 1813 the American Ceylon Mission (Protestant) was establishedin Jaffna. In 1815 a British army captured Kandy and deposed the


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Sinhalese king ending a line of Buddhist kings lasting 2301 years,they retained Sri Lanka until 1948. Like the Dutch, the Britishrefused to register unbaptized infants and to accept non-Christianmarriages.

They also always preferred Christians in governmentadministration. The British also supported various Christianmissionary groups who established schools on the island. Educationin these schools (which disparaged Buddhism) were a requirementfor government office.

Missionaries also wrote tracts in Sinhalese attacking Buddhismand promoting Christianity.

BUDDHIST REVIVAL

In the 19th century, a national Buddhist movement began as aresponse to Christian proselytizing, and was empowered by theresults of the Panadura debate between Christian priests andBuddhist monks such as Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera andHikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thero which was widely seen as a victoryfor the Buddhists.

In 1880 Henry Steel Olcott arrived in Sri Lanka with MadameBlavatsky of the Theosophical Society; he had been inspired whenhe read about the Panadura debate and after learning aboutBuddhism converted to the religion. Olcott and the SinhaleseBuddhist leaders established the Buddhist Theosophical Society in1880, with the goal of establishing Buddhist schools (there wereonly three at the time, by 1940, there were 429 Buddhist schools onthe island).

The society also had its own publications to promote Buddhism;the Sinhalese newspaper, Sarasavisandarasa, and its Englishcounterpart, The Buddhist. As a result of their efforts, Vesak becamea public holiday, Buddhist registrars of marriage were allowed, andinterest in Buddhism increased.

Another important figure in the revival is AnagarikaDharmapala, initially an interpreter for Olcott, who traveled aroundthe island preaching and writing. After traveling to India, heestablished the Maha Bodhi Society in 1891 whose goal was to reviveBuddhism in India, and restore the ancient Buddhist shrines atBodh Gaya, Sarnath and Kushinara.

His efforts saw the restoration of these sites and a renewal ofinterest in Buddhism among some Indians. The associations of theBuddhist revival also contributed much to the publication ofBuddhist texts, and promotion of Buddhist scholarship. Revivalist


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Buddhist scholars include Sir D. B. Jayatillake, F. R. Somnayake,Valisinha Harishchandra and W. A. de Silva.

Several Buddhist shrines were also rebuilt. Buddhist leaderswere also active in the movement for Sri Lankan independence.Since independence, Buddhism has continued to thrive on theisland.

Since the Buddhist revival Sri Lanka has also been an importantcenter of Western Buddhist scholarship. One of the first westernbhikkhus, Nyanatiloka Mahathera studied in Sri Lanka, establishedthe Island Hermitage there and ordained several western monks.

Western monks who studied in the island hermitage such asNanamoli Bhikkhu and Ven. Nyanaponika (who established theBuddhist Publication Society along with Bhikkhu Bodhi) wereresponsible for many important translations of the Pali Canon andother texts on Buddhism in English and German.

BHIKKHUNI ORDINATION

A few years after the arrival of Mahinda, BhikkhuniSanghamitta, who is also believed to be the daughter of EmperorAshoka, came to Sri Lanka. She started the first nun’s order in SriLanka, but this order of nuns died out in Sri Lanka in the 11thcentury.

Many women have been ordained in Sri Lanka since 1996. In1996 through the efforts of Sakyadhita, an International BuddhistWomen Association, Theravada bhikkhuni order was revived, when11 Sri Lankan women received full ordination in Sarnath, India, ina procedure held by Ven.

Dodangoda Revata Mahâthera and the late Ven. MapalagamaVipulasâra Mahâthera of the Mahâbodhi Society in India withassistance from monks and nuns of Korean Chogyo order. Somebhikkhuni ordinations were carried out with the assistance of nunsfrom the East Asian tradition; others were carried out by theTheravada monk’s Order alone.

Since 2005, many ordination ceremonies for women have beenorganized by the head of the Dambulla chapter of the Siyam Nikayain Sri Lanka.

BUDDHIST MONASTIC GROUPS

The different sects of the Sri Lankan Buddhist clergy are referredto as Nikayas, and three main Nikayas are:

• Siam Nikaya, founded in the 18th century by Ven. Upali Thera,a Siamese monk who was invited by the King Kirti Sri


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Rajasinha of Kandy, and on the initiative of Weliwita SriSaranankara Thero.

• Amarapura Nikaya, founded in 1800 with higher ordinationobtained from Myanmar (Burma).

• Ramanna Nikaya, founded in 1864 by AmbagahawatteSaranankara.

Within these three main divisions there are numerous otherdivisions, some of which are caste based. There are no doctrinaldifferences among any of them.


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A New Vision

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