COMPLETE GUIDE TO GRAMMAR RULES - AWS

COMPLETE GUIDE TO GRAMMAR RULES

https://guidely.in/pdf-course?utm_source=Exampundit&utm_medium=FreePDFs&utm_campaign=PDFCourse

TOPIC SLIDE NUMBER

NOUN 1

PRONOUN 50

TENSES 103

VERBS 209

MODIFIERS 286

SPEECH 357

VOICE 384

PREPOSITIONS 410

CONJUNCTIONS 447

CONDITIONALS 473

SENTENCES, CLAUSES AND PHRASES

497

PUNCTUATIONS 514

NOUN

But, before moving to details, I would

like to know, do you like cricket? Yes,

I am talking about that bat and the

ball. I know that your answer will be

Click Here to Download More Free PDFs | Click Here for High Standard Mock Test Series

Cricket is the most sought after sport in india. So, lets

talk about VIRAT KOHLI.

Holla Amigos! It gives

me an immense

pleasure welcoming

you to be a part of

this exciting journey. I

believe in two words:

Faith and Hard Work.

Have this two things

with you and the

world will be yours.

There is no substitute

for hard work. All

those great people

out there are great

because they had

faith in themselves.

So, lets begin our

journey with the first

stop called as

“NOUNS”

https://pdf.exampundit.in/

https://guidely.in/mock-test-subscription?utm_source=Exampundit&utm_medium=FreePDFs&utm_campaign=Platinum

Virat Kohli


Virat Kohli is an Indian cricketer and the

current captain of the India national team.

Virat Kohli was born on 5 November

1988 in Delhi .

Virat Kohli is currently the best

batsman in the world.

Virat Kohli scored huge amount of runs in IPL and overseas tour in

2016. He also took few wickets with the ball.



Virat Kohli


Virat Kohli’s bat has bagged a lot of

sponsorships over the past few years.Virat Kohli displays a great

sportsmanship.

Kohli first played for Delhi

Under-15 team in October

2002 in the 2002–03 Polly

Umrigar Trophy. He was

the leading run-scorer for

his team in that

tournament with 172 runs

at an average of 34.40.

For the first Test of the Australian tour in

December 2014, Dhoni was not part of the Indian

team at Adelaide due to an injury, and Kohli took

the reins as Test captain for the first time.



In all the above mentioned sentences, I have highlighted some words in red.

If we look carefully, we will get to know that all those highlighted words are actually

names.

All the naming words are called as ‘NOUNS’.

Let us try to categorize these words.

PEOPLE OR

PLACES

IDEA, QUALITY

OR STATETHINGS

VIRAT KOHLI

CAPTAINBALL

WICKET

BAT

TEAM

DELHI

WORLD

BATSMAN

NOVEMBER

SPORTSMANSHIP

YEARS

TOUR

2016




A noun is a word that indicates the name of a specific object or set of objects,

such as living things, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.

Remember that everything we can see or discuss is represented by a word that

names it. That word is called a noun.

All the words categorized above are examples of nouns.

More Examples:

• Living things – Man, animal, Plants, Michael, Tiger, etc.

• Places – Country, town, India, Australia, etc.

• Actions – Movement, Play, Jump, Eat, etc.

• Qualities – Honesty, Sincere, Loyal, etc.

• States of existence – Encouraged, Motivated, etc.

• Ideas – Intuition, Logic, etc.




TYPES OF NOUNSN

OU

N COUNTABLE

NOUN

UNCOUNTABLE

NOUN

PROPER

NOUN

COMMON

NOUN

COLLECTIVE

NOUN

MATERIAL

NOUN

ABSTRACT

NOUN




COUNTABLE NOUNS

Countable nouns indicate the things that can be counted. These nouns can be

used with articles such as a/an and the or quantifiers such as a few and many.

Example:

The Starks have a wonderful collection of cars.

(‘Cars’ here is a noun and we can count cars which makes it a countable noun)

Types of countable nouns:

➢ Proper Noun: A proper noun is the name given to something to make it more specific.

It denotes a proper person, place or thing.

Example: Krishna has his eyes all over this world and listens to everyone’s prayers.

(‘Krishna’ here is the name of a specific person which makes it a proper noun.)

➢ Common Noun: A common noun is the name given to a class of objects or entities. It

is the general, non-specific term for a person, place, thing, or idea.

Example: The English teacher has contributed a lot to the success of so many

students. (‘Teacher’ here refers to class of people and has been used in general

sense which makes it a common noun.)

➢ Collective Noun: A collective noun is a word referring to a collection of things taken as

a whole. It represents a group of people, animals, or things.

Example: A gang of thieves robbed the bank yesterday.

(‘Gang’ here refers to a group of persons which makes it a collective noun.)




UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Uncountable nouns are materials, notions etc. that we cannot divide into separate

elements and therefore we cannot "count" them. We do not usually use the

indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns.

Example:

The news related to the prime minister went viral at once over the internet.

(‘News’ here is an uncountable noun because we cannot count it.)

Types of uncountable nouns:

➢ Material Noun: A material noun is simply the names of various raw materials or

elements which exist in nature or the environment. These nouns are not countable

means we cannot count them because they are in the forms of liquid, semi-liquid or

solid.

Example: Joey bought a diamond ring to propose Rachael. (‘Diamond’ here refers to a

material that is found naturally in our environment which makes it a material noun.)

➢ Abstract Noun: An abstract noun is a noun that indicates an intangible thing such as

an emotion, a feeling, a quality, or an idea. In other words, an abstract noun does not

refer to a physical object. you cannot see, hear, touch, smell, or taste such things.

Example: Leonardo Di Caprio displays love at an excellent level in all of his movies.

(Here ‘love’ is an emotion which makes it an abstract noun.)




USES OF NOUNS

USE 1: AS THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE.

The subject is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea of a sentence. It shows

what the sentence is about, or who or what is performing an action in the

sentence. That action is called as verb. The subject is the noun that is doing or

being something.

EXAMPLES:

Sachin Tendulkar is the greatest batsman of all times.

(Now, the answer to the question ‘who is the greatest batsman of

all times?’ is Sachin Tendulkar. So, the answer to the ‘who’

question is always the subject.)

Mount Everest is the highest mountain above sea level.

(Now, the answer to the question ‘what is the highest

mountain above sea level?’ is Mount Everest. So, the answer

to the ‘what’ question is the subject.)




USES OF NOUNS

USE 2: AS THE DIRECT OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE.

First of all, an object is the person or thing that receives the action of the verb. It is the who

or what that the subject does something to.

Now, there are two types of Objects i.e. ‘Direct’ and ‘Indirect’ object.

Direct object is the thing being acted upon i.e. the receiver of the action. A direct object

answers the question 'what' or 'whom.' Finding the direct object is simple if we identify the

subject and verb in a sentence.

EXAMPLES:

The engineer built a marvelous house.

(Here, engineer is the subject and built is the verb. Now, the

answer to the question ‘what did the engineer built?’ is house.

Therefore house is the direct object.)

The detective questioned the criminal continuously for 6

hours. (Here, detective is the subject and questioned is the

verb. Now, the answer to the question ‘whom did the detective

question?’ is the criminal. Therefore, criminal is the direct

object.)Click Here to Download More Free PDFs | Click Here for High Standard Mock Test Series



USES OF NOUNS

USE 3: AS THE INDIRECT OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE.

The indirect object of a sentence is the recipient of the direct object. In effect, the

action moves from the subject, through the verb, to the direct object and then the

indirect object. An indirect object answers the question ‘for whom’, ‘for what’, ‘to

whom’, ‘to what’.

EXAMPLE:

My father built a tree house for me when I was a child.

(Here, father is the subject, built is a verb and tree house is the

direct object. Now, the answer to the question ‘For whom did

my father build a tree house?’ is ‘me’ and therefore ‘me’ is the

indirect object.)




USES OF NOUNS

USE 4: AS THE SUBJECT COMPLEMENT.

A subject complement is the noun that follows a linking verb.

The following verbs are linking verbs: any form of be (am, is, are, was, were, has

been, are being, might have been, etc.), become, and seem. Linking verbs do not

express any action.

A subject complement is something that completes our idea of the subject of a

sentence by giving us more information about it.

EXAMPLE:

Ms Dhoni is an excellent cricketer.

(Here, Ms Dhoni is the subject of the sentence and ‘is’ is the

linking verb. ‘Cricketer’ here tells us something about the

subject Ms Dhoni and therefore is the subject complement.)




USES OF NOUNS

USE 5: AS THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT.

An object complement is a noun that follows a direct object to indicate what it has

become. It may be a word that gives further meaning to the direct object. An

object complement completes our idea of the direct object of a sentence by giving

us more information about it.

EXAMPLE:

The music makes Alice happy.

(Here, Alice is the direct object and ‘happy’ describes the direct

object which makes it the object complement.)




USES OF NOUNS

USE 6: AS THE OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION.

Prepositions are followed by a noun which acts as their object. Prepositions

indicate relationships between other words in a sentence. Many prepositions tell

you where something is or when something happened. above, across, against,

along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, by,

down, from, in, into, near, of, off, on, to, etc. are examples of prepositions.

EXAMPLE:

This is one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.

(Quote of Niel Armstrong)

(Here, ‘for’ is the preposition and ‘a man’ is the object and

therefore the object of the preposition.)




USAGE OF ARTICLES

WITH NOUNS


THE GAME OF ARTICLES

An article is a word

that defines or

modifies a noun. We

are also aware that

each noun is either a

countable noun or an

uncountable noun.

DE

FIN

ITE

IND

EF

INIT

E

ARTICLES

ARE OF TWO

TYPES

The definite article THE is used when the noun is either

singular or plural, and it indicates a particular sense.

The indefinite articles “a” and “an” are articles that are

used when the noun is not specific and used in a

general sense.




THE GAME OF ARTICLES

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE• ‘A’ is used when the noun is

singular and begins with a

consonant or with a vowel that

sounds like a consonant.

Example: The local people say,

the earth is guarded by a warrior.

Warrior is the noun which starts

with a consonant sound.

• An is used when the noun is

singular and begins with a vowel

sound or with a silent “h” (as in

“hour”).

Example: It was an honor to

receive the academic

achievement award.

“Honor” is the noun in this

sentence and starts with a vowel

sound.

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

• The function of Definite

Article ‘The’ is to limit the

meaning of a noun to one

particular thing.

• The definite article can be

used with singular, plural, or

uncountable nouns.

Example: Kanhu and Arun

went mango picking in early

June. Just before Halloween,

they decided to make mango

pie out of the mangoes.In this sentence, the noun is

“mangoes.” The definite article

the is used because the reader

knows these are specific

mangoes, not just any mangoes.




USAGE OF ARTICLES WITH

PROPER NOUNS

We never use an Indefinite article with a proper noun.

Example: It is incorrect to say ‘A Michael’ or ‘A Ravi’.

The Definite article ‘The’ can be used in certain places as follows:

• We seldom use ‘The’ with a proper noun that refers to geographical terms such as river,

ocean, bridge, region, or building: the Indian Ocean, the Howrah Bridge, etc.

• We use ‘The’ with the names of plural mountains, lakes, and islands but not with singular

names: It is correct to say ‘the Hawaiian Islands, the Rocky Mountains, etc.’ but it is

incorrect to say ‘the Mount McKinley’.

• We do not use ‘The’ with the names of countries, continents or states. However, we use

‘The’ with the name of a country if it is plural or if it contains the word united or union.

Example: the Philippines, the United States, the United Kingdom, etc.

• We Do not use ‘The’ with the names of streets, parks, or squares.

• We do not use ‘The’ with the name of a college or university . However, we use it if it

contains an ‘of’ phrase. Example: The University of British Columbia.

• We Do not use ‘The’ with the name of a company unless the name includes the word

association, company, corporation or foundation: Example: The Hindustan company.



USAGE OF ARTICLES WITH

COMMON NOUNS


We can use an article with a Common noun.

• It is mandatory to use an article before a common noun when it is in singular

form. But it is not mandatory to use an article before a common noun when it is

in plural form. A plural common noun can have the article ‘the’ if we want to

make the noun specific or particular.

Examples:

I saw a tiger. (Refers to a random tiger)

I saw tigers in a zoo. (No article is required)

I have seen the tiger again. (Refers to the tiger I have already seen earlier)

• A or an - sometimes make a Proper Noun a Common Noun. Proper nouns

generally do not take any articles, but when a proper noun needs to be used as

a common noun, you must bring a or an - for it.

Examples:

He thinks he is a Virat Kohli. (Here, ‘Virat Kohli’ does not refer to the actual

person but someone like him.)




NOUN AND THE NUMBER

From the point of view of nouns, ‘Number’, generally, refers to the count.

Based on numbers, Nouns are divided in to two types.

NOUN

SINGULAR

PLURAL

If a noun tells about only one or if it refers to

the count of one, it is called a singular noun.

Example: A teacher.

If a noun tells about more than one or if it

refers to the count of more than one, it is

called a Plural noun. Example: The teachers.




NOUN AND THE NUMBER

Let us take a look on various rules that govern the change of singular nouns to

plural forms.

RULE - 1

Singular nouns, In general, are

transformed to plural forms by

adding “s” at the end.

SINGULAR PLURAL

PEN PENS

DOG DOGS

RIVER RIVERS

SHIRT SHIRTS

COMPUTER COMPUTERS




NOUN AND THE NUMBER

RULE - 2

If the Singular common noun ends

with s, ss, sh, ch, x and z, we add

‘-es’ at the end to make it plural.

SINGULAR PLURAL

BUS BUSSES

GLASS GLASSES

BUSH BUSHES

MATCH MATCHES

BATCH BATCHES

TAX TAXES

QUIZ QUIZES



Click Here to Download More Free PDFs | Click Here for High Standard Mock Test SeriesClick Here to Download More Free PDFs | Click Here for High Standard Mock Test Series

NOUN AND THE NUMBER

RULE - 3

When the pronunciation of ‘ch’ sounds like ‘K’, we just add ‘S’ at the end to make it

plural.

Examples: Monarch – Monarchs ; Stomach – Stomachs.

when there’s a “y” in the end and a

Consonant before that “y”, “i”

substitutes it and an “es” thereafter

to make it plural.

when there’s a “y” in the end and a

vowel before that “y”, we just add ‘s’

to make it plural.

SINGULAR PLURAL

STORY STORIES

HOBBY HOBBIES

FLY FLIES

SINGULAR PLURAL

DONKEY DONKEYS

TOY TOYS

DAY DAYS





Click Here to Download More Free PDFs | Click Here for High Standard Mock Test SeriesClick Here to Download More Free PDFs | Click Here for High Standard Mock Test SeriesClick Here to Download More Free PDFs | Click Here for High Standard Mock Test Series

NOUN AND THE NUMBER

RULE - 4

When the noun ends with ‘F’ or ‘FE’, it is replaced by ‘V’ and ‘ES’ added at the end

to make it plural.

Examples: Thief – Thieves ; Wife – Wives.

We add “es” to the noun if the noun

is finished by “o” and a consonant

placed before that ‘o’.

We add “s” to the noun if the noun is

finished by “o” and a vowel placed

before that ‘o’.

SINGULAR PLURAL

HERO HEROES

MANGO MANGOES

ZERO ZEROES

SINGULAR PLURAL

BAMBOO BAMBOOS

STUDIO STUDIOS

PORTFOLIO PORTFOLIOS








NOUN AND THE NUMBER

RULE - 5

Some Nouns require only their middle-vowel to be changed to become plural.

SINGULAR PLURAL

MAN MEN

WOMAN WOMEN

FOOT FEET

MOUSE MICE

TOOTH TEETH



Click Here to Download More Free PDFs | Click Here for High Standard Mock Test SeriesClick Here to Download More Free PDFs | Click Here for High Standard Mock Test Series

NOUN AND THE NUMBER

RULE - 6

Some Nouns just require only en, ren and ne at the end to become plural.

if “man” means human being in a

compound, “men” replaces that

“man”.

when “man” is just a part of the

word, or it refers to any ethnic

group, race or civilian, we add “s” at

the end to make it plural.SINGULAR PLURAL

FISHERMAN FISHERMEN

BOATMAN BOATMEN

SALESMAN SALESMEN

SINGULAR PLURAL

GERMAN GERMANS

MUSSALMAN MUSSALMANS

NORMAN NORMANS





Click Here to Download More Free PDFs | Click Here for High Standard Mock Test SeriesClick Here to Download More Free PDFs | Click Here for High Standard Mock Test SeriesClick Here to Download More Free PDFs | Click Here for High Standard Mock Test Series

NOUN AND THE NUMBER

RULE - 7

When the noun ends with ‘FUL’, ‘S’ is added at the end to make it plural.

Example: Handful – Handfuls ; Mouthful – Mouthfuls.

If compound noun contains several

words, “s” is added to the main part

of that noun to change it in to plural.

Sometimes, in a compound noun, ‘S’

is added to every part to change it to

plural.

SINGULAR PLURAL

BROTHER-IN-LAW

BROTHERS-IN-LAW

STEP-BROTHER

STEP-BROTHERS

SINGULAR PLURAL

LORD-JUSTICE LORDS-JUSTICES

MAN-SERVANT MEN-SERVANTS








NOUN AND THE NUMBER

RULE - 8

Some nouns do not change at all when they are pluralized.

Examples: Series – Series ; Deer - Deer

RULE - 9

Some singular nouns have no plural form, only used in singular.

Examples: Furniture, Scenery, etc.

RULE - 10

• some nouns are always used as a plural form. Example: Scissors, Trousers,

etc.

• Some nouns seem like singular, but actually they are plural. Example:

Government

• some nouns seem like plural though they are singular. Example: Physics,

Politics etc



COLLECTIVE NOUNS


Allow me to invite you to have a glance through the journey of Indian Freedom

Struggle.

Just imagine! If i ask you to give me an example in

history that would display the strength of Indians being

together, then what would be your answer?

I guess, your answer would be the Indian Freedom

Struggle because it was the first time, our country came

together to defeat the Britishers. That is the power of

collective, being together!

THE POWER OF BEING

COLLECTIVE




INDIAN FREEDOM

STRUGGLE

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 marked the first indian

uprising against the Britishers in which the indian

soldiers fought merely with swords against a squad of

British soldiers equipped with modern arms.

The Indian independence movement was a series of

historic events with the ultimate aim of ending the

British rule in India.

The British had come to india with an agenda of tasks to

derail the indian nation with ‘Divide and Rule’ policy.




INDIAN FREEDOM

STRUGGLE

Some nationalists like Mahatma Gandhi, Bhagat Singh

and Lal Bahadur Shastri came upon the British rule like

an ambush of tigers.

If unity can come alive, then it would like the Indians of

20th century against the Britishers, that shattered them

as a herd of elephants.

Subhas Chandra Bose, whose defiant patriotism made

him a hero in India, stood tall against the British by

forming The Indian National Army in 1942.



COLLECTIVE NOUNS


Let us list all the words and that I have made bold in all

those sentences mentioned above also categorize them as

follows.

1. Soldier

2. Event

3. Task

4. Tiger

5. Elephant

6. Fighter

1. A squad of British

soldiers

2. A series of historic

events

3. Agenda of tasks

4. An ambush of tigers

5. Herd of elephants

6. Army

INDIVIDUAL COLLECTIVE




If we carefully look at those six words, then we would be able to know that those

words indicate a collection or a group.

Collective nouns are words that refer to a group or collection of people or things in

a way that the group is discussed as a single entity. Basically, it is a word referring

to a collection of things taken as a whole.

For example, the word Army is a collective

noun. There are more soldiers in an Army but

when discussing something that happens to

the Army as a whole, the Army would be

referred to as a single thing.

ARMY

SOLDIER

COLLECTIVE NOUNS




Nouns in the collective class can be used in either the singular or plural form,

depending on the context of the sentence.

EXAMPLES:

The Family that resides along the coast of Port Blair is a

native of Kashmir.

All the families that live along the coast have been

evacuated successfully as there is a warning of cyclone.

COLLECTIVE NOUNS




USING COLLECTIVE NOUNS CORRECTLY IN SENTENCES

Using collective nouns in sentences can be perplexing as it is very often difficult to

judge whether to use plural or singular verbs and pronouns with them. It is

important to identify whether the collective noun refers to the group working in

unison as a unit, or to members of the group acting on their own.

When the unit is acting in unison,

it is appropriate to use the

singular form of verbs and

pronouns. For example, The

class (collective noun) waits

(singular verb) for its (singular

pronoun) teacher quietly.

Here, the class is referred to as a

unit acting in unison; the

students are all doing the same

thing at the same time.

When the members of the unit are acting as

individuals, it is appropriate to use plural

forms of verbs and pronouns. For example:

The class (collective noun) members

(added for clarity) began their (plural verb

and pronoun) homework assignments while

waiting for their (plural pronoun) teacher.

The class of students is a unit, but the

students are acting as individuals. Each

student is doing his or her own homework

assignment.

COLLECTIVE NOUNS




LIST OF COLLECTIVE NOUNS FOR PEOPLE .

• A circle of friends

• A class of pupils

• A horde of savages

• A host of angels

• A house of senators

• A joint of osteopaths

• A lie/An equivocation of

politicians

• A line of kings/rulers

• A melody of harpists

• A mess/An execution

of officers

• A meter of

percussionists

• A mob of rioters

• A morbidity of

majors

• A mug/A reflection of

narcissists

• A multiply/An

unhappiness of

husbands

• A wisdom of

grandparents

• A number/A set of

mathematicians

• A pack of Brownies

• A pack of thieves

• A pan of reviewers

• A panel of experts

• A party of friends

• A patrol of

policemen

• A peck of

Frenchmen

• A picket of strikers

• A pint of Irishmen

• A pity/A gang of

prisoners

• A plush/A rascal of

boys

• A pomposity of

professors

• A posse of police

• A posse of sheriffs

• A pound of

Englishmen

COLLECTIVE NOUNS




LIST OF COLLECTIVE NOUNS FOR THINGS.

• A piece of jewellery

• A pile of money

• A drop of rain

• A ray of sunshine

• A pinch of salt

• A bar of soap

• A tube of toothpaste

• A ball of wool

• A bar of soap

• A battery of tests

• A bolt of lightning

• A bunch of books

• A bunch of keys

• A bunch of keys

• A chest of drawers

• A clump of reeds

• A deck of cards

• A fleet of ships

• A fleet of vehicles

• A flight of stairs

• A gallon of gasoline

• A group of friends

• A group of islands

• A grove of trees

• A hedge of bushes

• A library of books

• A pack of cards

• A pair of shoes

• A piece of furniture

• A piece of paper

• A quiver of arrows

• A ream of paper

• A roll of film/cloth

• A series of events

• A set of books

• A set of tools

• A shelf of books

• A stack of chairs

• A suite of furniture

• A suite of rooms

COLLECTIVE NOUNS



ABSTRACT NOUNS


Let us observe some facts regarding the legendary indian, Swami Vivekananda.

Born into an aristocratic Bengali Kayastha family of

Calcutta, Vivekananda was inclined towards spirituality.

He was influenced by his guru, Ramakrishna, from

whom he learnt that all living beings were an

embodiment of the divine self; therefore, service to God

could be rendered by service to humankind.

THE INVISIBLE YET POWERFUL




SWAMI VIVEKANANDA

Vivekananda conducted hundreds of public and private

lectures and classes, disseminating tenets of Hindu

philosophy in the United States, England and Europe.

Vivekananda blended humor with his teachings, and

his language was lucid. His Bengali writings testify to

his belief that words (spoken or written) should clarify

ideas, rather than demonstrating the speaker (or

writer's) knowledge.

After the Parliament of Religions at the US, he toured

many parts of the US as a guest. His popularity opened

up new views for expanding on "life and religion to

thousands".




those sentences mentioned.


ABSTRACT NOUNS

Spirituality philosophy knowledge humor

Religions belief ideas embodiment

divine service

Now, what do you mean by Spirituality? It is the quality of being concerned

with the human spirit or soul. Tell me, Can you see or touch Spirituality? No!

Is it possible to say ‘Give me one kilogram of spirituality’? Obviously No!

Similarly all the words mentioned above indicate the same purpose as

Spirituality.

The type of noun that you can’t see or touch is called as Abstract Noun.

Generally, a noun is a person, place or thing. However, in many cases, that

'thing' may be an intangible concept, or an abstract form of noun.




In this instance, abstract refers to something that exists apart from concrete

existence. An abstract noun may include an aspect, concept, idea, experience,

state of being, trait, quality, feeling, or other entity that can’t be experienced with

the five senses.

ABSTRACT NOUNS

Recognizing an Abstract Noun.

Concrete nouns are people, places, or things that we can experience with our five

senses. Abstract nouns are the opposite. We can’t experience them with our senses.

If a noun is abstract, it describes something you can’t see, hear, touch, taste, or

smell.

A word can function in more than one way. Therefore, It can be difficult to recognize

when a noun is abstract. Examples:

I love my son. [In this sentence, the word love expresses an action and is, therefore,

acting as a verb.]

Send them my love. [In this sentence, the word love functions as an abstract noun

because it is a thing that exists beyond the five senses.]




FORMING ABSTRACT NOUNS

ABSTRACT NOUNS

Abstract forms are derived by adding a suffix or alteration to the base word. Child is

a concrete noun, for example, but childhood is an intangible state, so it is abstract.

Nouns with the following suffixes are often abstract:

• -tion

• -ism

• -ity

• -ment

• -ness

• -age

• -ance

• -ence

• -ship

• -ability

• -acy




ABSTRACT NOUNS

Abstract forms are also derived from Adjectives, Nouns and Verbs



MATERIAL NOUNS


Let us observe some facts regarding our planet EARTH.

Earth, as a matter of fact, has been bestowed with lots

of natural resources such as Oil, coal, natural gas,

metals, stone and sand.

Water is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless,

and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the

main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids

of all known living organisms.

THE MATERIAL OF ALL



EARTH AND NATURAL

RESOURCES


As a cereal grain, domesticated rice is the most widely

consumed staple food for over half of the world's human

population, especially in Asia and Africa.

Copper is one of the few metals that can occur in nature

in a directly usable metallic form

Coal is primarily used as a fuel. While coal has been

known and used for thousands of years, its usage was

limited prior to the Industrial Revolution.



MATERIAL NOUNS



those sentences mentioned above.

Water Copper

Fluids rice

Coal Fuel

Oil coal

natural gas

metals stone

sand.

If we look carefully, these are nouns that indicate names

of materials or substances out of which things are made.

Material nouns are not countable means we cannot

count them because they are in the forms of liquid,

semi-liquid or solid.

This noun is especially called as material noun because nouns in this class are

almost materials like cloth, air, metal, gold, salt, iron, silver, steel, brass, bronze,

copper, aluminium, lead, coal, coral, gem, diamond, glass, fibre, calcium, plastic,

rubber, paper, cement, paint, plywood, synthetics, shampoo, soap, perfume, wine,

tar, chemical, rexene etc. Sometimes we cannot make the plural forms of material

noun.



MATERIAL NOUNS


Following are the rules you need to remember in order to make use of material

nouns in the sentence.

Rule 1 - Generally, articles (a, an or the) are not used with material nouns

when they are uncountable such as:

Honey is wholesome food and beneficial to health.

Water boils only at 100°C temperature.

Rule 2 - Articles (a and an) may be used with material nouns when they

are countable (denoting types of material or showing helping nature) such

as:

I would like to eat a Dutch cheese.

It is a very healthy wine.

Rule 3 - Use of 'the' and 'some' can also be done in the following way:

The honey in the bottle is mine. Don’t give it others!

I saw there is some milk in the glass.



COMPOUND NOUNS


A compound noun is a noun made up of two or more words. Each word makes up

part of the meaning of the noun.

Compound nouns can be written three ways:

A single word Two words Hyphenated

haircut rain forest self-esteem

toothpaste ice cream brother-in-law

Compound nouns can be

formed in following ways.



PRONOUN

Hello! We graciously introduce you to one of

the important constituents of English Language

called as ‘PRONOUN’.

I am pretty sure that most of you

will say ‘BHISMA’.




BHISMA


Bhishma was born as Devevrata .

He is the grand sire of the heroes

and villains of the epic

Mahabharata.

'Bhishma' means 'He of

the terrible oath', referring

to his vow of life-long

celibacy.

In the process of finding a

bride for the young king

Vichitravirya (son of

Shantanu and Satyavati) for

whom he was the regent,

Bhishma challenged the

assemblage of suitors at the

swayamvar of princesses

Amba, Ambika and Ambalika

of Kashi (Varanasi) and

defeated all of them.



BHISMA


In the great battle at Kurukshetra,

Bhishma, bound by his oath to

serve the ruler of Hastinapura or

the Kauravas , fought very

reluctantly on their side.

There were many great

warriors on Kauravas

side, but they got

shadowed by the

greatness of Bhishma.

Bhishma was finally

grievously wounded on

the tenth day of the battle

by Arjuna, who hid behind

another warrior Shikhandi,

and rained arrows on the

grandsire.

Bhishma also admitted he

had been wrong to fight for

Duryodhana even though he

was the king's employee

since one's only allegiance

is towards righteousness.




In all of the above sentences, I have made some words Bold.

Let us mention those words here:- He, His, Whom, Them, His,

Their, There, Many, They , One’s, Who, and Another.

Don’t you

think, these

words have

actually taken

the place of

some names?

Pronouns are those words

which can be used to

replace Nouns.

I, me, he, she, herself, you,

it, that, they, each, few,

many, who, whoever,

whose, someone,

everybody, etc. are

examples of pronouns.



For example, just go through the following sentence:

Krishna was teaching Krishna’s students in Krishna’s

house.

Now, go through another sentence:

Krishna was teaching his students in his house.

Its definitely the

second one.

A word that replaces, indicates a noun or similar is called Pronoun. It also

functions as a subject, object (Direct and Indirect), Subject or Object

complements and objects of prepositions.


Using nouns in all the places, makes our reading as well

as writing awkward.

Pronouns are different from common

nouns because pronouns normally do

not come after articles or other

determiners. For example, people do

not say "the it".

Pronouns are the same as nouns

because they both change for

number, case and gender. Nouns

and pronouns can be used in almost

all the same places in sentences.



Basically, there are three types of persons, that we need to learn before going in

detail about Pronouns. Following are the types of pronouns.


When we talk about

ourselves, our

opinions, and the

things that happen to

us, we generally

speak in the first

person. I, me, my,

mine, us, our , etc.

are first-person

pronouns.

The second-person

belongs to the

person (or people)

being spoken to.

you, your, yours,

yourself, yourselves,

etc. are Second -

person pronouns.

The third-person

belongs to the

person (or people)

being talked about.

The third-person

pronouns include he,

him, herself, it, its,

itself, they, them,

their, theirs, and

themselves.




FUNCTIONS OF PRONOUNS

Pronouns function in three ways namely, Subject, Object and Possession. Lets get

in to detail of each function.

FOLLOW

THE TABLE





PRONOUNS AS SUBJECTS

Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence.

For example: He did the work in an excellent way.

If we observe, then I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever, etc., all qualify for the place

of ‘He’ in the sentence and are, therefore are subject pronouns.

Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They will follow to be

verbs, such as is, are, was, were, am, will be, had been, etc.

For example: It is you who are responsible for success of the project.

FUN FACTIn informal English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object pronouns like me, her, them. Many English scholars tolerate this distinction between formal and casual English. Example: It could have been them.Technically correct: It could have been they.





PRONOUNS AS OBJECTS

An object pronoun is a type of pronoun that is used as an object, either as the

direct or indirect object of a verb, or as the object of a preposition. These

pronouns always take the objective case, whether they are indirect object

pronouns or direct object pronouns. For example:

❖ Krishna saw him.

Him is the direct object of the verb saw.

❖ Give her the pen.

The direct object of give is book, and her is the indirect object. Indirect objects

always have an implied to or for in front of them: Give [to] her the book. Do [for]

me a favor.

❖ Are you talking to me?

Me is the object of the preposition to.





PRONOUNS AS POSSESION

The possessive pronoun is used for showing possession . The possessive case

relates to nouns, pronouns, and determiners.

For example:

❖ Possessive Nouns: With a noun, the possessive case is usually shown by

preceding it with "of" or by adding 's (or just ') to the end.

For example – The King’s crown is made of gold.

❖ Possessive Pronouns: The possessive-case pronouns are "mine," "yours,"

"his," "hers," "its," "ours," and "theirs.“

For example: The book is mine.

❖ Possessive Determiners: The possessive-case determiners are "my," "your,"

"his," "her," "its," "our," and "their."

For example: Your cat always makes my lawn dirty.



PRONOUN


TYPES OF PRONOUNS



PRONOUN


PERSONAL PRONOUNS

A personal pronoun is a word that replaces a proper name of a person.

These kinds of pronouns are generally associated with a particular person –

first person (as I), second person (as you), or third person (as he, she, it,

they). [Refer to Pronoun-1 for explanation of different ‘persons’]

Different forms of Personal Pronouns are depicted in the following Table

E

X

A

M

P

L

E

S

1. Krishna looks cute, but she thinks he is evil.2. I walk around the park at 6 PM.3. They are looking forward to the banking

examinations.All the bold words are personal pronouns.

The issue with personal pronouns is that they change depending on how

they're used. Let's start by looking at all the forms.



PRONOUN


PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Let’s have a look on different forms of Personal Pronouns.

PersonSubjective

Case

Objective

Case

Possessive

Determiner

Possessive

PronounsReflexive Pronouns

First

Person Singular

I me my mine myself

Second

Person Singular

you you your yours yourself

Third

Person Singular

he/she/it him/her/it his/her/its his/hers/its himself/herself/itself

First

Person Plural

we us our ours ourselves

Second

Person Plural

you you your yours yourselves

Third

Person Plural

they them their theirs themselves



https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/person.htm

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/subjective_case.htm

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/objective_case.htm

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/possessive_adjectives.htm

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/possessive_pronouns.htm

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/reflexive_pronouns.htm

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/first_person.htm

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/singular.htm

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/second_person.htm


https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/third_person.htm


https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/first_person.htm

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/plural_definition.htm

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/second_person.htm


https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/third_person.htm


PRONOUN


IMPERSONAL PRONOUNS

1. It is snowing.

Here ‘it’ describes the verb snowing.

2. It is a tasty pasta.

Here ‘it’ describes the food item, pasta.

3. I could not see the spider, but it bit me.

Here ‘it’ describes the insect ‘spider’.

The pronoun which describes a particular thing or a verb or any non-living thing but

not for a person is called as Impersonal Pronoun.

E

X

A

M

P

L

E

S

Impersonal Pronouns are also called as Indefinite pronouns because these

pronouns do not refer to particular people or things in the way that you, me, it,

they, them, ourselves etc. do.



PRONOUN


DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

Demonstrative Pronouns, such as this and that, are used to indicate which things

are being referred to and to distinguish those things from others.

A demonstrative pronoun represents a noun and expresses its position as near or

far (including in time). The demonstrative pronouns are "this," "that," "these," and

"those."



PRONOUN



Like all pronouns, demonstrative pronouns replace nouns . It stands in for

something that has been previously mentioned which is also called as its

antecedent.

1. Do you remember the pen with the blue cap? Can I have that please?

(Here, "that" stands in for something previously mentioned. The antecedent

of "that" is the noun phrase "the lobster with the blue claw.")

2. This is beautiful.

(Here, the context tells us what "this" represents. The antecedent of "this" is

pen.

3. Do you remember the two pens with pointed caps? Can I have those

please?

(The antecedent of "those" is shown in bold.)

4. These are beautiful.

(Remember that, with demonstrative pronouns, the antecedent does not

always appear in nearby text. The antecedent is often understood from the

context of the speaker's surroundings.)

E

X

A

M

P

L

E

S



PRONOUN



SOME EXCEPTIONS

A demonstrative pronoun doesn't always stand in for something known to audience.

For example:

1. Fear not those who argue but those who dodge.

2. That which is unjust can really profit no one; that which is just can really harm no

one.

In the examples above, we don't know what "those" or "that" stands for.

In some cases, the thing the demonstrative pronoun indicates comes after the

demonstrative pronoun. When this happens, it's called a "postcedent") not an

antecedent. For example:

1. That is why every politician fights elections – so there may be order.

The phrase in bold is called as postcedent.



PRONOUN


DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS

Distributive pronoun is a pronoun which denotes persons or things of group

separately, rather than collectively.

This pronoun is used to indicate all the members of representative group. Some of the distributive pronouns are like each, either, neither, everyone, any, none, no one, etc.

These kinds of pronouns are always singular in nature and are always followed by singular verbs.

E

X

A

M

P

L

E

1. Each new day is different. (NOT Each new days are different.)

2. Either girl can do that. (NOT Either girls can do that.)

3. Neither answer is correct. (NOT Neither answers is correct.) (NOT Neither answers are correct.)



PRONOUN


DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS

Each of, neither of and either of are followed by plural nouns and singular verbs.

1. Each of the solutions is correct. (NOT Each of the solution is correct.)

2. Neither of the boys can do that. (NOT Either of the boy can do that.)

Either and neither should be used only in speaking of two persons or things. When more than two persons or things are spoken of, any, no one or none should be used.1. None of the three answers is correct. (NOT Neither of the three answers is correct.)2. We invited several friends, but none came. (NOT … but neither came.)3. You can take any of the three shirts. (NOT You can take either of the three shirts.)

Each is used to refer to every one of two or more people or things of a group.

For Example: Each car is custom-manufactured. (here we are thinking of every car

individually.)

Every is used with singular nouns to refer to all the members of a group of things or

people collectively.

For Example: Every applicant for the job was interviewed. (Here, we are thinking of

all the people that applied for the job.)



PRONOUN


RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS

The term ‘RECIPROCAL’ means bearing on or binding each of two parties equally.

Therefore, we use reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting

in the same way towards the other.

For example, A is talking to B, and B is talking to A. So we say:

A and B are talking to each other. - The action is said to be "reciprocated".

Krishna and Arjhun hate each other.

(Note that Krishna hates Arjhun, and Arjhun hates Jack. The action is reciprocated.)

There are only two reciprocal pronouns,

and they are both two words:

each other

one another



PRONOUN


RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS

Each Other

Use each other when there are two things.

1. They gave each other presents.

2. Have you seen each other 's solution?

(Note: Each other is treated as singular. Therefore, the possessive apostrophe is

placed before the s.)

Each Other

Use one another when there are two more than things.

1. The crayfish started eating one another.

2. The competitors were deliberately blocking one another's view to gain an

advantage.

(Note: One another is treated as singular. Therefore, the possessive apostrophe is

placed before the s.)

If you need the possessive form, write each other's and one another's (not each

others' and one anothers').



PRONOUN


RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS



PRONOUN


REFLEXIVE AND EMPHATIC

PRONOUNS

EMPHATIC PRONOUNS

When Reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize the noun, they are called

Emphatic pronouns.

They are compound personal pronouns such as 'himself', 'myself' and 'yourself'

used for emphasis.

For Example:

1. I will build the house myself.

2. We will watch the show ourselves.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

Reflexive pronouns are used when the action of the verb done by the subject turns

back on the subject.

Reflexive pronouns are usually objects of the verb.

For Example:

1. I fed myself the mangoes.

2. Why do you always cut yourself while cooking?



PRONOUN



PRONOUNS

Difference between reflective and emphatic pronouns

Reflexive pronouns show that the action of the subject reflects upon the Subject.

However, an Emphatic pronoun simply emphasizes the action of the subject.

For Example:1. He cut himself. – Himself is a reflexive pronoun since the subject's (the boy’s) action

(cutting) refers back to the subject (the boy).

2. He himself cut the cake. – Himself is an emphatic pronoun because it is emphasizing the

subject (the boy).

Reflexive pronouns are formed by the addition of the suffix self (singular) or selves

(plural) to personal pronouns such as my, your, her, him, it, them and our.

For Example:

My + self = Myself

Your + self = Yourself

Our + self = Ourselves

When self is used independently, it is a noun and not a pronoun.

For Example: An honest man keeps his self free from all vices.



PRONOUN



PRONOUNS

The Emphatic Pronouns cannot be used as subjects. It is therefore wrong to say:

1. John and myself went there.

2. Herself swam in the river.

The correct sentences are as follows:

1. John and I went there.

2. She swam in the river.

An Emphatic pronoun can be removed from the sentence and the meaning would

not be affected. A Reflexive pronoun, however, cannot be removed. The sentence

wouldn’t make complete sense if you remove the reflexive pronoun.

For Example:

1. He himself cut the cake. He cut the cake.

2. He cut himself. He cut …what?

You will notice that in the first sentence, the meaning doesn’t change when the

emphatic pronoun himself is removed from the sentence. In the second sentence,

the meaning becomes incomplete when the reflexive pronoun is removed.



PRONOUN



PRONOUNS

If the Reflexive pronoun in a sentence is replaced by the reciprocal pronoun ‘each

other’, the meaning of the sentence changes drastically.

Compare:

1. Krishna and Arjhun blamed themselves for the loss. (Krishna blamed himself and

Arjhun blamed himself.)

2. Krishna and Arjhun blamed each other for the loss. (Krishna blamed Peter and

Arjhun blamed Krishna.)



PRONOUN


RELATIVE PRONOUNS

A Relative pronoun is one which is used to refer to nouns mentioned previously,

whether they are people, places, things, animals, or ideas.

A Relative Pronoun is introduces a relative clause.

Who, whom, what, which, and that are all relative pronouns.

Relative clauses are also sometimes referred to as adjective clauses, because they

identify or give us additional information about the subject of the independent clause

they relate to.

Relative pronouns, like conjunctions, are words that join clauses—in this case, a

relative clause to its main clause.

Who: Refers to a person (as the verb’s subject)

Whom: Refers to a person (as the verb’s object)

Which: Refers to an animal or thing

What: Refers to a nonliving thing

That: Refers to a person, animal, or thing



PRONOUN


RELATIVE PRONOUNS



PRONOUN


RELATIVE PRONOUNS

The Function of Relative Pronouns

A Relative pronoun introduces an adjective clause. An adjective clause follows a

noun:

(1) To identify it.

For example:

1. The man who stole the purse is outside.

(The adjective clause (highlighted) identifies the man.)

(2) To tell us something interesting about it.

For example:

Inspector Krishna, who solved the case, is outside.

(The adjective clause (highlighted) tells us something interesting about Inspector

Krishna.)



PRONOUN


RELATIVE PRONOUNS

The Story of “COMMA”

There are two situations. Observe the below two sentences:

1. The boy who stood first in the class gave a beautiful speech in the farewell.

2. The boy, who stood first in the class, gave a beautiful speech in the farewell.

Both of the above sentences are identical but the second sentence has comma

and the first one doesn’t. Both are correct.

We use comma when the adjective clause (the highlighted text) doesn’t specify its

noun and just gives additional information.

If we observe the first sentence, then the adjective clause specifies "the boy“ and

the same adjective clause in the second sentence gives additional information

about “the boy“.

"Who" is used for people. "Which" is used for things. "Whose" is used for people

and things. For Example: Never go to a doctor whose office plants have died.



PRONOUN


RELATIVE PRONOUNS

When to use ‘”Who” and When to use “Whom”.

We use Who when it is the subject of the verb.

For Example:

Do not advise anyone who disrespects you..

("Who" is the subject of the verb " disrespects.").

Now, observe the following sentence:

Do not advise anyone whom you do not know well.

("Whom" is not the subject of a verb.)

Therefore we use whom when it is not the subject of the verb.

That and Whose can be used for people or things. For Example:

1. The cat that bit the maid.

(Here, "that" is used with a thing (“cat").)

2. The maid that hit the cat.

(Here, "that" is used with a person (“maid").)



PRONOUN


RELATIVE PRONOUNS

That vs. Which

“That” introduces a restrictive clause, and “Which” introduces a nonrestrictive clause.

A restrictive clause is an important part of its sentence; if it were taken out of the sentence, the sentence’s meaning would change.Example:The car that has four wheel drive goes the fastest.If we remove the clause (bold part) then meaning of the sentence would change. We would no longer know which car goes the fastest. This kind of clause gets a that.

Which introduces a nonessential clause that can be removed from a sentence without changing the sentence’s meaning.The car, which has four wheel drive, goes the fastest.Here, if we remove the clause (bold part), then the meaning would not change materially.Nonrestrictive (or nonessential) clauses are set off with commas.



PRONOUN


INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS



PRONOUN


INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

“Who” vs “Whom”.

you can only use "who" when it is the subject of a verb. "I," "he," "she," "we," and

"they" are just like "who" because they are also used as the subjects of verbs.

"Me," "him," "her," "us," and "them" are just like "whom" because they are not used

as the subjects of verb.

question answer

Who told you? John told me. subject

Whom did you tell? I told Mary. object

What's happened? An accident's happened. subject

What do you want? I want coffee. object

Which came first? The Porsche 911 came first. subject



PRONOUN


POSSESIVE PRONOUNS

A possessive pronoun replaces a noun and shows ownership. The possessive

pronouns are "mine," "yours," "his," "hers," "ours," and "theirs."



PRONOUN


POSSESIVE PRONOUNS

Possessive pronouns can take the following forms.

Number Person Gender (of "owner") Possessive pronouns

singular 1st male/ female mine

2nd male/ female yours

3rd male his

female hers

plural 1st male/ female ours

2nd male/ female yours

3rd male/ female/ neuter theirs



PRONOUN


POSSESIVE PRONOUNS

Here are some examples in possessive pronouns .

1. The Americans are the only people who love bread in breakfast with the

exception of Latin people who like to eat theirs.

(Here, "theirs" replaces the noun phrase " Latin people")

2. A wife should no more take her husband's beating than he should hers.

(Here, "hers" replaces the noun phrase "wife's beating.")

Don't put an apostrophe in "yours," "hers," "ours," or "theirs."



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 1 - When the subject becomes the receiver of the action, then the verb

becomes reflexive. In case a verb is being used reflexively we use reflexive

pronouns.

Example:

1. We enjoyed ourselves during the picnic.

2. He applied himself to the job.

List of reflexive and non reflexive verbs

Reflexive verbs: Acquit, Absent, Avail, Amuse, Avenge, Apply, Adapt, Adjust, Enjoy,

Exert, Overreach, Pride, Resign, Revenge.

Non reflexive verbs: Keep, Stop, Turn, Hide, Rest, Move, Qualify, Bathe.



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 2 - Reflexive pronouns can’t be used as the subject of a sentence.

Example:

1. I cut myself so deep that I could not sleep at all.

2. I whistled to myself to calm down.

3. She cannot teach herself.



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 3 - If there is a complement in the sentence then the verb ‘to be’ is followed

by the subjective case pronoun.

Example:

1. It was he who caught the winning touchdown Friday night.

2. It was we who are dancing.

In the above example sentences:

“who caught the winning touchdown Friday night” is the complement of the

sentence. ‘”to be” verb here is “was” and hence the subjective case pronouns are

“he” and “we”.



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 4 - Verbs and prepositions are followed by the objective case of pronoun.

Example:

1. Let them play.

2. Between you and me, he is intelligent.

3. I am teaching you and he.

4. He wanted her to drive the car.



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 5 - When all the three pronouns are used altogether in singular number, then

we observe following order.

[231] = [2nd person, 3rd person, 1st person]

Example:

1. You, jack and I will go for a movie.

2. You, Sam and we go for a tour.

3. You, Tina and we are to perform.



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 6: When all the three pronouns are used altogether in plural number or if

there is an unpleasant act to be mentioned then we observe following order.

[123] = [1st person, 2nd person, 3rd person]

Example:

1. I and you will go for a movie.

2. You and he are the toppers.of duty.



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 7: Possessive case of pronoun will be used according to the first subject if

the two subjects are joined by the followings.

As well as, Together with, Along with, Like and not, in addition to, Rather than,

Except, No less than, nothing but, More than one.

Example:

1. Krishna as well as his wife has returned to his village.



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 8: Possessive case of pronoun is used according to the nearest subject if two

subjects are joined by the following:

Either – or, Neither – nor, not only – but also, none-but.

Example:

1. Neither the principal nor the students were in their uniform.



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 9: Possessive case will be third person singular if the following pronouns are

used as subject.

Each, Every, Either, Neither, Anyone, Many a, More than one.

Example:

1. Anyone can donate his blood to me.

2. Each boy is supposed to be disciplined.



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 10: When a pronoun is used for more than one noun or pronouns of different

persons then the possessive case is in the form of first person plural (our) and

second person plural (your).

Example:

1. You and she completed your assignment.

2. Only you and I have brought our projects.



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 11: Pronouns such as

Either, Neither, Each other are

used for two persons or things.

Pronouns anyone, none, one

another are used for more than two

persons or things.

Example:

1. People love one another

unconditionally.

2. The two sisters fight each

other.

3. Anyone from the team is to be

appointed as a leader.

4. Either of the two men is a

dancer.



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 12: Subject of a question tag

is always a pronoun agreed to the

number, gender and person.

Example:

1. They were not playing, were

they?

2. she is writing, isn’t she?

3. He has not slept, has he?



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 13: If the subject of the

sentence contains ‘Both’ then

it will be followed by ‘And’.

Also, negatives are avoided

with ‘Both’.

Example:

1. Both the boys are not

sleeping, [wrong]

2. Neither of the boys is

sleeping. [correct]

3. Both Krishna and Arjhun

are cricketers.



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 14: We generally use

[who, whom and whose] for

person and [which] for things.

[That] is used for persons

and things. But, if we refer to

choice between two or

among more than two ‘which’

will be used.

Example:

1. Of the two teams which is

the best team?

2. Which is your best dress

in this shop?



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 15: ‘But’ can be used

as a relative pronoun.

Example:

1. There is nothing but

dresses.

2. There is no men but lies.

3. There is a pant but fixed

rate.

After a negative, the word but

is used as a relative pronoun

in the sense of who…not or

which…not.

There is no rose but has

some thorn. (= There is no

rose which does not have

some thorn.)



PRONOUN


RULES RELATED TO

USAGE OF PRONOUNS

RULE 16: ‘But’ can be used

as a relative pronoun.

Example:

1. There is nothing but

dresses.

2. There is no men but lies.

3. There is a pant but fixed

rate.

After a negative, the word but

is used as a relative pronoun

in the sense of who…not or

which…not.

There is no rose but has

some thorn. (= There is no

rose which does not have

some thorn.)



TENSE


Bonjour et bienvenue aspirants! We

appreciate

your

determination

to learn and

allow us

today to

introduce to

you, one of

the most

important

topic called

‘TENSES’

Before going in to the

topic, let me ask you

a question. Who is

Steve Jobs?

I bet you

know!

Let us have a look in to the life of one of the

greatest Entrepreneur of all time, “STEVE

JOBS”




Let us have a look in to the life of one of the

greatest Entrepreneur of all time, “STEVE

JOBS”

JOBS

Jobs is recognized as

a pioneer of the

personal computer

revolution of the

1970s and 1980s.

Jobs is credited with

revolutionizing the

computer industry

with Apple by

democratizing the

technology.

In 1976, when Jobs was

just 21, he and Wozniak

started Apple Computer

in the Jobs’ family

garage.

Jobs was raised by

adoptive parents in

California, located in

what is now known as

Silicon Valley. Though

he was interested in

engineering, his

passions of youth

varied. He dropped out

of Reed College, in

Portland, Oregon, took a

job at Atari Corporation

as a video game

designer in early 1974,

and saved enough

money for a pilgrimage.




Try to observe the commonness between all

the words that are made bold in the above

slide.

Tense expresses time

reference. It is a method

that indicates the time,

and sometimes the

completeness of an action

in relation to the time of

speaking. The concept of

tense is a method that we

use to refer to time - past,

present and future.

Look carefully and you

will get to know that the

words are actually

helping us to know about

‘time’.

It is important to

know the

connection

between two or

more time periods

or the exact time

an activity

occurred.

They can be used

to create different

meanings from the

same verbs and

help to anchor the

listener understand

the meaning

behind your story.




Since, Tense is all about time, there can be

only three different times i.e. Present, Past and

Future.

Tense shows when

the work is done.

What is a verb? A verb is a word that denotes

action. For Example: Swimming, Walking, Hit,

Fight, etc.

Now, how do the tense denote or indicate time?They do so through verbs. Tense represents what forms the verbs take in order to understand the situation referred to in time.

Some Key Terminologies:

Main Verbs: Also called as lexical verbs, this is the important verb in the sentence

which shows the action or state of being of the subject. Main verbs can be used

alone or with an auxiliary verb.

Auxiliary verbs: Also called as helping verbs, their name suggests their function.

They help or support the main verbs. One of the ways, in which they help is by

showing the tense. For example: I am driving to the school. Here, ‘am’ is the

helping verb and ‘driving’ is the main verb.




Let’s have a look on the following sentence:

Krishna studied for science but in the exams, questions came from mathematics.

The words ‘studied’ and ‘came’ are past tense verb forms which indicate the time of

the actions in the past. So, in this way tense functions.

Lets hop in to some more details.

Tenses, like time, are divided in to three parts:

TENSE




PRESENT TENSE

What is ‘PRESENT’? It is nothing but a time existing or occurring now. So,

‘PRESENT TENSE’ is used to describe a current activity or state of being.

It is a grammatical tense whose principal function is to locate a situation or event in

the present time.

For example: I swim in the sea every Saturday. (This is a current activity.)

The present tense is categorized further depending on

whether the action is in progress or completed.




SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Simple Present Tense indicates an action which happens in the present or when it

happens regularly. It also helps to identify unchanging situations, general truths,

scientific facts, habits, fixed arrangements and frequently occurring events.





FORMATION OF SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Broadly, There are three ways in which the Simple Present Tense is formed.

POSITIVE FORMS (+) :

❖ Subject ( I, You, We, They ) + V1 ( First Form of Verb )

❖ Subject ( He, She, It ) + VERB – S / ES / IES

NEGATIVE FORMS (-) :

❖ Subject ( I, You, We, They ) + do not / don’t + V1 ( First Form of Verb )

❖ Subject ( He, She, It ) + does not / doesn’t + V1 ( First Form of Verb )

QUESTION FORMS (?) :

❖ Do + Subject ( I, You, We, They ) + V1 ( First Form of Verb )

❖ Does + Subject ( He, She, It ) + V1 ( First Form of Verb )





EXAMPLES OF POSITIVE VERSION

❖ I walk along the park everyday at 5

P.M.

❖ You try so hard but at the end, it is

the luck that matters.

❖ We long for happiness so much that

it seems vague now.

❖ They look in to your eyes and tell

the truth

❖ He writes so well that all the

newspapers ask him to write

articles.

❖ She cares for you.

❖ It looks interesting.





EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE VERSION

❖ I do not like sleeping.

❖ You do not think while dreaming.

❖ We do not shower at 10 A.M in the

morning.

❖ They do not look so well.

❖ He does not care for anyone while

being hungry.

❖ She does not go to school anymore.

❖ It does not look like raining.





EXAMPLES OF QUESTION VERSION

STRUCTURE: "do" or "does" +

subject+ base form of verb

❖ Do you like pasta?

❖ Does Krishna run the club?

❖ Do we live near the graveyard?

STRUCTURE: question word + "do"

or "does" + subject + base form of

verb

❖ Why does Krishna eat so much

curd?

❖ When do the teachers hold the

meeting?STRUCTURE: "do" or "does" +

subject + base form of verb +

choice A + or + choice B

❖ Does Krishna study or sleep?

❖ Do they want rice or roti?




PRESENT CONTINUOUS

TENSE

As the name suggests, the PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE indicates an action

which is continuing at the present moment or at the time of speaking.

For Example:

❖ Krishna is looking for the soap.

❖ Krishna and Arun are playing badminton.




PRESENT CONTINUOUS

TENSE

USES OF PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

Present Continuous Tense highlights the idea that something is ongoing or

happening now, at this moment.

EXAMPLES:

❖ She is listening the music

now.

❖ We are learning English at this

moment.

❖ My mother is cooking dinner in

the kitchen now.

❖ The gardener is working in the

garden at this time.

❖ At present, children are doing

a lot of things that can not be

done before.




PRESENT CONTINUOUS

TENSE


Also called as present progressive, Sometimes Present Continuous Tense

expresses longer actions not at the moment but in progress .

EXAMPLES:

❖ She is studying to become a

physics teacher.

❖ We are working on a new

assignment.

❖ I am learning to play violin.




PRESENT CONTINUOUS

TENSE


Present Continuous Tense is used to indicate that something will or will not happen

in the near future.

EXAMPLES:

❖ You are helping me tomorrow.

❖ My brother is coming with us to

the church tonight.

❖ I am talking to the professor

after this class.




PRESENT CONTINUOUS

TENSE


Present Continuous Tense used with “always’’, ‘’constantly’’, ‘’ forever’’ expresses

the idea that something often happens in a negative sense. In other words, we use

it to complain.

EXAMPLES:

❖ She is always sneezing.

❖ These students are constantly

talking through out the class.

❖ You are always coming to work

late.

❖ He is forever speaking.

Someone should silence him.




PRESENT CONTINUOUS

TENSE

FORMATION OF PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Broadly, There are three ways in which the Present Continuous Tense is formed.


❖ Subject + BE (am / is / are) + Verb-ING (Present Participle)


❖ Subject + BE ( am / is / are ) + NOT + Verb-ING (Present Participle)


❖ BE ( am / is / are ) + Subject + Verb-ING (Present Participle)

The verb be is used as an auxiliary verb and it can also be used as a main

verb.

It has eight different forms: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been.




PRESENT CONTINUOUS

TENSE


Choose "am," "is," or "are"

based on the following table:

SUBJECT Verb "to be" Present Participle

I AM

[verb] + "ing"

YOU ARE

HE/ SHE/ IT (OR SINGULAR NOUN)

IS

WE ARE

YOU ARE

THEY (OR PLURAL NOUN)

ARE

❖ She is running through

the woods.

❖ I am helping my mom in

the kitchen.

❖ You are being late

everyday.

THE FORMATION

OF PRESENT

PARTICIPLE IS

COVERED IN

NEXT SLIDE




PRESENT CONTINUOUS

TENSE

FORMATION OF PRESENT PARTICIPLE

1. In most cases, simply ‘-ing’ is attached to the verb without changing it:talk → talkingspy → spying2. However, if the verb ends with an ‘-e’, the same is omitted:take → takingBe careful: If there is a double ‘e’ at the end of the verb, the vowel stays:see → seeing3. If the verb ends with a stressed vowel + consonant, the consonant is doubled:run → runningfit → fittingprefer → preferringBe careful: Verbs whose last syllable is not stressed are not subject to a doubling of the consonant (for exceptions see differences in American and British English below):render → renderingSimilarly, after a double vowel, the consonant is not doubled either:conceal → concealing




PRESENT CONTINUOUS

TENSE

FORMATION OF PRESENT PARTICIPLE

4. For verbs ending in ‘-ie’, the ‘-ie’ is replaced by ‘-y’ in order to avoid three vowels in a row:tie → tyinglie → lying

5. Verbs that have an ‘-ic’ at the end get an additional ‘-k’ inserted before the ending ‘-ing’:panic → panicking




PRESENT CONTINUOUS

TENSE


❖ She is not running

through the woods.

❖ I am not helping my

mom in the kitchen.

❖ You are not being late

everyday.




PRESENT CONTINUOUS

TENSE


STRUCTURE: "am," "is," or "are" +

subject + present participle

❖ Am I disturbing you?

❖ Is Krishna doing the assignment?

❖ Are you going to the class?

STRUCTURE: question word + "am,"

"is," or "are" + subject + present

participle

❖ Why am I listening to you?

❖ Why is Krishna doing the

assignment?

❖ Why are you going to the class?STRUCTURE: "am," "is," or "are" +

subject + present participle + choice

A + or + choice B

❖ Is Caroline looking for the latest

brochure or her chair?




PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE refers to an action that occurred in the recent past

or began in the past and continued to the present time. It can also be the fact

that, the event might have started in the past and the impact of the event is now

continuing.

For Example:

❖ I have done my dinner. (It means this action happened today only)

❖ My brother has broken his arm. His arm is still broken. (The impact of this

event is now continuing)

❖ The student has studied history for six months. (It means this action began in

the past and continued to the present time.)





USES OF PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

Present Perfect Tense is used to express an action that happened at a recent time

in the past and the impact of the event is still continuing.

EXAMPLES:

❖ He has lost his dog. (he can’t

find it)

❖ We can’t reach Krishna by

phone. Have you seen him?

❖ Krishna isn’t at school. I think

he has gone to the park.

❖ My brother has broken his arm.

His arm is still broken.






Present Perfect Tense is used to express an event that ended recently. We often

use words like “just” or “recently” for the events taking place a very short time before

now.

EXAMPLES:

❖ I have just finished my

assignment.

❖ My father has just cleaned the

house.

❖ We have recently eaten supper.






Present Perfect Tense is used to talk about unfinished actions or habits that started

in the past and still continue in the present. In such sentences, it is important that

how long the action has continued. So we usually use ‘since’ or ‘for’ to express

“how long”.

EXAMPLES:

❖ The student has studied Hindi for six

months.

❖ I have lived in kolkata for five years.

❖ My son has been sick since Thursday.

❖ He has worked in Delhi since he

graduated from the university.

❖ She hasn’t been calm since the

accident.






Present Perfect Tense is used to express repeated actions in an unspecified time

between the past and now.

For Example:

❖ We have watched that movie three times.

Present Perfect Tense is used when we talk about life experiences.

For Example:

❖ I have never been to England in my life.

Present Perfect Tense is used when we talk about accomplishments.

For Example:

❖ Scientists have found a new way to get cancer cells to self-destruct.

Present Perfect Tense is used when we talk about changes that have occurred over

periods of time.

For Example: Her behavior and attitudes have changed a lot since you last saw her.





FORMATION OF PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

The Present Perfect Tense is formed by putting “to have ( have or has )” before

the past participle of the verb. Past participle is created by adding -ed, -d, or -t to

the base form of a regular verb.

Broadly, There are three ways in which the Present Perfect Tense is formed.POSITIVE FORMS (+) :

❖ Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY ) + HAVE + V3 ( third form of main verb – past

participle )

❖ Subject ( HE, SHE, IT ) + HAS + V3 ( third form of main verb – past participle )


❖ Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY ) + HAVE + NOT + V3 ( third form of main verb –

past participle )

❖ Subject ( HE, SHE, IT ) + HAS + NOT + V3 ( third form of main verb – past participle )


❖ HAVE + Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY ) + V3 ( third form of main verb – past

participle )

❖ HAS + Subject ( HE, SHE, IT ) + V3 ( third form of main verb – past participle )






❖ I have slept.

❖ She has worked.

❖ They have done the

project.

FORMATION OF

PAST

PARTICIPLE IS

ON NEXT PAGE





FORMING THE PAST PARTICIPLE IRREGULAR

VERBSREGULAR

VERBS

❖ Add "ed" to most verbs: jump – jumped❖ If a verb of one syllable ends [consonant-

vowel-consonant], double the final consonant and add "ed": chat – chatted

❖ If the final consonant is "w," "x," or "y," don't double it: sew - sewed

❖ If last syllable of a longer verb is stressed and ends [consonant-vowel-consonant], double the last consonant and add "ed": incur - incurred

❖ If the first syllable of a longer verb is stressed and the verb ends [consonant-vowel-consonant], just add "ed": open -opened

❖ If the verb ends "e," just add "d": thrive -thrived

There is no certain set of rules to form

the past participle of irregular verbs. We

just need to learn them. Following are

some ways to form them:

❖ arise - arisen

❖ catch - caught

❖ choose - chosen

❖ know - known

We will learn about verbs

in ‘VERBS’ lesson.






❖ The school has not

decided to uphold the

examination.

❖ I have not taken the

leave.





STRUCTURE: "has" or "have" + subject +

past participle

❖ Have I disturbed you?

❖ Has Krishna done the assignment?

STRUCTURE: question word + "has" or

"have" + subject + past participle

❖ Why have I listened to you?

❖ Why has Krishna done the

assignment?

❖ Why have you gone to the class?





PRESENT PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

In English, ‘Perfect’ means “complete” where as “progressive” means

“continuing”.

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE refers to an action that started

in the past and is continuing at the present time. It indicates a continuous

action that has been finished at some point in the past or that was initiated in

the past and continues to happen. The action is usually of limited duration and

has some current relevance.

For Example:

❖ He has been sitting in the shop since early this morning. (The action, sitting,

is continuing.)

❖ I have been waiting for 20 minutes. (The emphasis is on how the finished

activity relates to the present.




PRESENT PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

USES OF PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

We use the present perfect continuous to show that something started in the past

and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since

Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the present perfect continuous.

EXAMPLES:

❖ They have been playing for the last hour.

❖ She has been working at that project for

three years.

❖ What have you been doing for the last

50 minutes?

❖ Krishna has been teaching at

EXAMPUNDIT since April.

❖ Why has Nancy not been taking her

medicine for the last three days?




PRESENT PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE


We use the present perfect continuous WITHOUT a duration such as "for two

weeks." Without the duration, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately." We

often use the words "lately" or "recently" to emphasize this meaning. In other words,

it shows temporary habits or situations.

EXAMPLES:

❖ I've been going to the guitar class

a lot recently.

❖ They've been living with his

father while they look for a

house.

❖ I've been sleeping a lot recently.

❖ Mary has been feeling a little

depressed.




PRESENT PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE


We use the present perfect continuous to refer to actions which have recently

stopped (though the whole action can be unfinished) and have a result, which we

can often see, hear, or feel, in the present. We don't use a time word here.

EXAMPLES:

❖ I'm so tired, I've been studying.

❖ I've been running, so I'm really

hot.

❖ It's been raining so the pavement

is wet.




PRESENT PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

FORMATION OF PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

The Present Perfect Progressive Tense is formed by putting “to have ( have or

has )” before the past participle of the verb ‘Be’ i.e. ‘Been’ and the Present

Participle of the verb.

Broadly, There are three ways in which the Present Perfect Progressive Tense is

formed.POSITIVE FORMS (+) :

❖ Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY ) + HAVE BEEN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE❖ Subject ( HE, SHE, IT ) + HAS BEEN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE


❖ Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY ) + HAVE NOT BEEN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE

❖ Subject ( HE, SHE, IT ) + HAS NOT BEEN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE)


❖ HAVE + Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY ) + BEEN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE

❖ HAS + Subject ( HE, SHE, IT ) + BEEN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE





❖ I have been working since

yesterday evening.

❖ She has been chewing for

two minutes.

PRESENT PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE





❖ Julie has not been relying

on a pay rise to pay her

student loan.

❖ Mr and Mrs Cox have not

been taking the wrong

pills for years.

PRESENT PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE




PRESENT PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

STRUCTURE: "has" or "have" + subject +

"been" + present participle

❖ Has Julie been relying on a pay rise to

pay her student loan?

❖ Have Mr and Mrs Cox been taking the

wrong pills for years?

STRUCTURE: question word + "has" or

"have" + subject + Been + Present

participle

❖ Why has Julie been relying on a pay

rise to pay her student loan?

❖ Where have Mr and Mrs Cox been

taking the wrong pills?


It is important to remember that non-continuous verbs cannot be used in any

continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for mixed verbs cannot

be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using present perfect continuous with

these verbs, you must use present perfect.

Examples:

Sam has been having his car for two years. Not Correct

Sam has had his car for two years. Correct




PRESENT PERFECT VS PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

Present Perfect Present Perfect Progressive

irregular verbs: form of 'have' + 3rd column of irregular verbs

regular verbs: form of 'have' + infinitive + ed

form of 'have' + been + verb + ing

Exceptions

Exceptions when adding 'ed' :

• when the final letter is e, only add d

• after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled

• final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English) after a consonant, final y becomes i (but: not after a vowel)

Exceptions when adding 'ing' :

• silent e is dropped. (but: does not apply for -ee)

• after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled

• after a vowel, the final consonant l is doubled in British English (but not in American English).

• final ie becomes y.

F

O

R

M





R

E

S

U

L

T

O

R

D

U

R

A

T

I

O

N

Present Perfect Present Perfect Progressive

Result (what / how much /

how often)

I have written 5 letters. / I have been to London twice.

Duration (how long)

I have been writing for an hour.

Certain verbs

The following verbs are usually only used in Present Perfect Simple

(not in the progressive form).

❖ state: be, have (for possession only)

Example: We have been on holiday for two weeks.

❖ senses: feel, hear, see, smell, taste, touch

Example: He has touched the painting.

❖ brain work: believe, know, think, understand

Example: I have known him for 3 years.





Emphasis on completion or duration?

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive

Emphasis on completion

I have done my homework. (Meaning: My homework is completed now.)

Emphasis on duration

I have been doing my homework. (Meaning: That's how I have spent my time. It does not matter whether the homework is completed now.)


desired result

I have washed the car. (Result: The car is clean now.)

unwanted side effect

Why are you so wet? - I have been washing the car. (side effect: I became wet when I was washing the car. It does not matter whether the car is clean now.)

Result or side effect?






permanent

James has lived in this town for 10 years. (Meaning: He is a permanent resident of this town.)

temporary

James has been living here for a year. (Meaning: This situation is only temporary. Maybe he is an exchange student and only here for one or two years.)

Permanent or temporary?


since the last time

I haven't played that game for years. (Meaning: It's years ago that I last played that game.)

since the beginning

I haven't been playing that game for an hour, only for 10 minutes. (Meaning: It's not even an hour ago that I started to play that game.)

Time + negation: last time or beginning of an action?




PRESENT TENSE

What is ‘present’? It is nothing but an action occurring or existing at the moment or

now. So, ‘PRESENT TENSE’ indicates such actions.

The present tense is a verb tense that describes a current activity or state of being.

For example: I play in the field every Saturday. – This is a current activity.

The present tense is categorized further into four parts,

depending on whether the action is completed or

progressive:




PAST TENSE

What is ‘past’? It is nothing but a time before now. So, ‘PAST TENSE’ indicates an

action event or condition that has happened in the past.

The past tense is a verb tense that describes a finished activity or state of being.

For example: I played in the field yesterday. – This is a past activity.

The past tense is categorized further depending on

whether the action was in progress or has been

completed.




SIMPLE PAST TENSE

The simple past tense is used to describe a completed activity that happened in the

past. It is used to indicate or describe something that happened or existed in the

past and ended in the past.




USES OF SIMPLE PAST TENSE

Simple Past Tense is a basic past tense. We use it whenever we want to talk about

the past. Following are the uses of simple past tense.

SIMPLE PAST TENSE

Finished actions, states or habits in the past.

1. We use it with finished actions, states or habits in the past when we have a

finished time word (yesterday, last week, etc.).

EXAMPLE: I went to the cinema yesterday.

2: We use it with finished actions, states or habits in the past when we know from

general knowledge that the time period has finished. This includes when the

person we are talking about is dead.

EXAMPLE : Leonardo painted the Mona Lisa.

Unreal or imaginary things in the present or future.

We use the past simple to talk about things that are not real in the present or

future. EXAMPLE : If I won the lottery, I would buy a house.

I wish I had more time!




SIMPLE PAST TENSE

FORMATION OF SIMPLE PAST TENSE

Broadly, There are three ways in which the Simple Past Tense is formed.


❖ Subject (I / He / She / It You / We / They) + V2 (Verb + d, ed, ied or irregular

form (second form of the verb)


❖ Subject (I / He / She / It You / We / They) + did not / didn’t + V1 ( First Form of

Verb )


❖ Did + Subject (I / He / She / It You / We / They) + V1 ( First Form of Verb )




SIMPLE PAST TENSE

FORMATION OF SECOND FORM OF VERB (V2)

FOR REGULAR VERBS:

1. If a verb of one syllable ends in the pattern of: consonant-vowel-consonant,

double the final consonant and add "ed":

EXAMPLE: chat > chatted

2. If the final consonant is w, x, or y, don't double it:

EXAMPLE: sew > sewed

play > played

3. If the verb ends "e", just add "d":

EXAMPLE: thrive > thrived

4. If the verb ends AS: consonant + "y", change the "y" to an "i" and add "ed":

EXAMPLE: cry > cried

FOR IRREGULAR VERBS:

If it's an irregular verb, the simple past tense is formed in all sorts of different

ways. You just have to learn them. EXAMPLE: break > broke, catch > caught,

find > found, see > saw.




SIMPLE PAST TENSE

EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE PAST TESNE




PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

As the name suggests, the PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE indicates an action

which was continuing in the past. Basically, it refers to a continuing action or state

that was happening at some point in the past.

For Example:

❖ Krishna was working at ExamPundit in 2007.





USES OF PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE

The past progressive tense can be used to describe an activity in the past that was

interrupted.

EXAMPLES:

❖ Krishna was painting the door

when a bird struck the

window.

❖ They were sleeping when the

alarm went off.

❖ You were eating when my

baby woke up.

❖ Jasmine was uploading the file

when the current went off.

❖ We were editing the file when

you broke the tab.






The past progressive tense can be used for describing an action taking place when

another occurred.

EXAMPLES:

❖ While they were painting the

door, Krishna painted the

windows.

❖ While she was editing the file, I

uploaded another one.

❖ Were they painting the door

when I painted the windows?

❖ Weren't they painting the door

when I painted the windows?






The past progressive tense can be used for describing an action that was taking

place at the same time as another.





FORMATION OF PAST CONTINUOUS

TENSE

Broadly, There are three ways in which the

Present Continuous Tense is formed.


❖ Singular Subject + was + Verb-ING

(Present Participle)

❖ Plural Subject + were + Verb-ING



❖ Singular Subject + was not+ Verb-ING


❖ Plural Subject + were not + Verb-ING



❖ Was/ Were + Subject + Verb-ING






Choose was/ were based on

the following table:

❖ She was running through

the woods.

❖ I was helping my mom in

the kitchen.

❖ You were being late.

SUBJECT Verb "to be" Present Participle

I WAS

[verb] + "ing"

YOU WERE

HE/ SHE/ IT (OR SINGULAR NOUN)

WAS

WE WERE

YOU WERE

THEY (OR PLURAL NOUN)

WERE






❖ She was not running

through the woods.

❖ I was not helping my

mom in the kitchen.

❖ You were not being late.






STRUCTURE: "was" or "were" +

subject + present participle

❖ Was Krishna painting the door

when a bird struck the window?

❖ Were they sleeping when the

alarm went off?

STRUCTURE: question word +

"was" or "were" + subject + present

participle

❖ When was Krishna painting the

door?

❖ Where were they sleeping when

the alarm went off?

STRUCTURE: "was" or "were" + subject + present

participle + choice A + or + choice B - Was John

painting the door or the window?

"was" or "were" + [subject] + present participle A +

or + present participle B - Were they sleeping or

playing when the alarm went off?




PAST PERFECT TENSE

PAST PERFECT TENSE describes a completed activity in the past. It is used to

emphasize that an action was completed before another action took place.

Basically, it describes an event that happened in the past before another event in

the simple past tense was completed in the past.

For Example:

❖ Krishna had baked a cake before you arrived. (It means Krishna’s action

happened before his/her arrival)

❖ They had painted the fence before I had a chance to speak to them.




PAST PERFECT TENSE

USES OF PAST PERFECT TENSE

Past Perfect Tense is used to indicate an event that has occurred and been

completed in the past.

EXAMPLES:

❖ Krishna had borrowed money

from the bank to buy her new

car.

❖ Jasmine had baked the cake

for my birthday.

❖ Arun had completed the

assignment for me.




PAST PERFECT TENSE


Past Perfect Tense is used to describe an event or action which happened before a

definite time in the past.

EXAMPLES:

❖ We had cleaned up the terrace

before the watchman arrived.

❖ Krishna had finished his

homework before I called him.

❖ We had cooked the food before

you went out.

❖ The teachers had left college

before I woke up.




PAST PERFECT TENSE


Past Perfect Tense is used to describe an action that happened in the past before

another action took place. This is the past in the past.

EXAMPLES:

❖ We had reached their house

after the dinner was over.

❖ The train left at 9am. We arrived

at 9:15am. When we arrived,

the train had left.




PAST PERFECT TENSE

FORMATION OF PAST PERFECT TENSE

The past Perfect Tense is formed by putting “had” before the past participle of the

verb. Past participle is created by adding -ed, -d, or -t to the base form of a

regular verb. Irregular verbs take variety of forms.

Broadly, There are three ways in which the Past Perfect Tense is formed.POSITIVE FORMS (+) :

❖ Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY, HE, SHE, IT ) + HAD + V3 ( third form of main verb

– past participle )


❖ Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY, HE, SHE, IT ) + HAD + NOT + V3 ( third form of

main verb – past participle )


❖ HAD + Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY, HE, SHE, IT ) + V3 ( third form of main verb

– past participle )




PAST PERFECT TENSE


❖ I had slept.

❖ She had worked in the

garage before you came.

❖ They had done the project

in 2020.

FORMATION OF

PAST PARTICIPLE

HAS BEEN

COVERED IN

PRESENT

PERFECT TENSE




PAST PERFECT TENSE





PAST PERFECT TENSE

STRUCTURE: "had" + subject + past

participle

❖ Had Silverfinger taken the pill before

the team reached him?

❖ Had the team planned its next move

before the weather changed?

STRUCTURE: question word + "had" +

subject + past participle

❖ Why had Silverfinger taken the pill

before the team reached him?

❖ Where had the team planned its next

move before the weather changed?





PAST PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE is used to describe actions that were

going on in the past up until another action in the past happened. It is used to

show that an ongoing action in the past has ended.

For Example:

❖ She had been painting the door before the dog scratched it.

❖ The jury had been considering its verdict for several hours when the judge

effectively ordered them to find Jones guilty.




PAST PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

USES OF PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

The Past Perfect Progressive Tense is used for an action that has occurred over a

period of time having begun in the past.




PAST PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

USES OF PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

The Past Perfect Progressive Tense is used to describe an action which started and

finished in the past before another past action.




PAST PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

FORMATION OF PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

The Past Perfect Progressive Tense is formed by putting “had” before the past

participle of the verb ‘Be’ i.e. ‘Been’ and the Present Participle of the verb.

Broadly, There are three ways in which the Past Perfect Progressive Tense is

formed.POSITIVE FORMS (+) :

❖ Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY, HE, SHE, IT ) + HAD BEEN + PRESENT

PARTICIPLENEGATIVE FORMS (-) :

❖ Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY, HE, SHE, IT ) + HAD NOT BEEN + PRESENT

PARTICIPLE


❖ HAD + Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY, HE, SHE, IT ) + BEEN + PRESENT

PARTICIPLE



PAST PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE






PAST PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

STRUCTURE: "had" + subject + "been" +

present participle

❖ Had she been painting the door?

❖ Had the jury been considering its

verdict for very long when the judge

ordered them to find Jones guilty?

STRUCTURE: question word + “had" +

subject + Been + Present participle

❖ When had she been painting the door?

❖ Why was he so tired? Why had he

been working at the dock all

afternoon?


It is important to remember that non-continuous verbs cannot be used in any

continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for mixed verbs cannot

be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using past perfect continuous with these

verbs, you must use past perfect.

Examples:

Sam had been having his car for two years. Not Correct

Sam had his car for two years. Correct




PAST PERFECT

AND

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS:

USEFUL DIFFERENCES

F

O

R

M

Past Perfect Tense:

We form the Past Perfect with had and the past participle:

Had + Past Participle

Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

We form the Past Perfect Continuous with had been and the -ing form of the

verb:

Had been + V-ing




PAST PERFECT

AND


USEFUL DIFFERENCES

I

N

U

S

A

G

E

❖ The past perfect tense expresses a past action, already finished when

another past action happened; the past perfect continuous tense

describes a past action which started in the past and continued to happen

after another action or time in the past.

Examples:

I met them after they had divorced. (past perfect)

Sara had been working here for two weeks when she had the accident. (past

perfect continuous)

❖ The past perfect tense emphasizes the result of an activity in the past; In

contrast, the past perfect continuous tense emphasizes the duration of an

activity in the past.

Examples:

I had been to London twice by the time I got a job in New York. (past perfect)

Richard needed a holiday because he had been working hard for six months.

(past perfect continuous)




PAST PERFECT

AND


USEFUL DIFFERENCES

I

N

U

S

A

G

E

❖ The past perfect tense shows two events in the past that are linked, while

the past perfect continuous tense shows the cause of a past action.

Examples:

I couldn’t take my flight because I had forgotten my boarding pass. (past

perfect)

I had been travelling all night, so I was tired. (past perfect continuous)




FUTURE TENSE

What is ‘FUTURE’? It is nothing but a time regarded as still to come. So, ‘FUTURE

TENSE’ marks the event as not having happened yet, but expected to in the time to

come.

The future tense is a verb tense used for a future activity or a future state of being.

For example:

Krishna will jump in the lake.(This is a future activity.)

Krishna will be happy.(This is a future state of being.)

The future tense is categorized further depending on whether

the action will be in progress or will be completed.




SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

In layman terms, the simple future tense is used to describe an action that will occur

in the future or in the time ahead. It is a verb tense that’s used to talk about things

that haven’t happened yet. The Future Simple tense is often called the "will tense"

because we make the Future Simple with the modal auxiliary will.




USES OF SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

We use the Simple Future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something

before we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking.

SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

EXAMPLES:

❖ Hold on. I'll get a pen.

❖ We will see what we can do to

help you.

❖ Maybe we'll stay in and watch

television tonight.

Observe carefully, In these

examples, we had no plan before

speaking. The decision is made

spontaneously at the time of

speaking.





We often use the Future Simple tense with the verb “to think” before it:

EXAMPLES:

❖ I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.

❖ I think I will have a holiday next year.

❖ I don't think I'll buy that car.

SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

We often use the Future Simple tense to make a prediction about the future. We are

saying what we think will happen.

EXAMPLES:

❖ It will rain tomorrow.

❖ People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.

❖ Who do you think will get the job?





When the main verb is “be”, we can use the Future Simple tense even if we have a

firm or definite plan or decision before speaking.

EXAMPLES:

❖ I'll be in London tomorrow.

❖ I'm going shopping. I won't be very long.

❖ Will you be at work tomorrow?

SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

The Future Tense is basically used to:

❖ to express willingness / unwillingness to do something

I’ll do the washing up

We will never eat at that restaurant again.

❖ to make promises or threats

I’ll come over at 8 p.m.

I’ll tell on you.




SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

FORMATION OF SIMPLE PAST TENSE

The future simple Tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb ‘will’ together with

the base form of the corresponding verb. The auxiliary verb ‘will’ remains

unchanged for all grammatical persons.

Broadly, There are three ways in which the Simple Future Tense is formed.


❖ Subject (I / He / She / It You / We / They) + Will + Base form of the verb


❖ Subject (I / He / She / It You / We / They) + Will Not + Base form of the verb


❖ Will + Subject (I / He / She / It You / We / They) + Base form of the verb




SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE FUTURE TESNE




FUTURE CONTINUOUS

TENSE

As the name suggests, the FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE indicates an ongoing

action that will occur in the future. Basically, it is used as a way to talk about

something happening at a given point in the future.

For Example:

❖ Krishna will be working at ExamPundit in 2022.




FUTURE CONTINUOUS

TENSEUSES OF FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

The Future Continuous tense indicates action at a particular moment in the

future. The action will have started before that moment but it will not have

finished at that moment.

For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm:

At 4pm tomorrow, I will be working.

past present future

4pm

At 4pm, I will be in the middle of working.




FUTURE CONTINUOUS

TENSEUSES OF FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

We use the FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE to talk about an action that usually

starts before and might continue after the second action or time. The verb after

'when' is usually in the present simple.

EXAMPLES:

❖ I'll be waiting when you arrive.

❖ At eight o'clock, I'll be eating dinner.

We can use the FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE to talk about something that will

happen if everything happens as we expect. It's usually possible to choose the

future simple as well, but we often choose the future continuous because then it's

clear that we are not making a request or offer.

EXAMPLES:

❖ The Government will be making a statement later.

❖ When will you be leaving? (This is more polite than 'when will you leave?'

because it's definitely not a request for you to leave.)




FUTURE CONTINUOUS

TENSE

FORMATION OF FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

The future continuous tense is basically formed by combining the auxiliary verb ‘will’ with the

base form of ‘to be’ (be) and the ing-form (present participle) of the corresponding main

verb.

Broadly, There are three ways in which the Future Continuous Tense is formed.


❖ Subject + Will be + Verb-ING (Present Participle)


❖ Subject + Will not be + Verb-ING (Present Participle)


❖ Will + Subject + Be + Verb-ING (Present Participle)




FUTURE CONTINUOUS

TENSE





FUTURE CONTINUOUS

TENSEEXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE VERSION




FUTURE CONTINUOUS

TENSEEXAMPLES OF QUESTION VERSION

STRUCTURE: "will" + subject + "be"

+ present participle

❖ Will the Moscow State Circus be

performing in Washington?

❖ Will we be celebrating like kings?

STRUCTURE: question word + “Will"

+ subject + Be + present participle

❖ When will the Moscow State

Circus be performing in

Cheltenham?

❖ Why will we be celebrating like

kings?

STRUCTURE: "will" + subject + "be" + present

participle + choice A + or + choice B- Will the

Moscow State Circus be performing in New York or

Washington?

will" + subject + "be" + present participle A + or +

present participle B- Will we be celebrating like

kings commiserating like paupers?




FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE describes an action that will have been completed at

some point in the future. It is a verb tense used for actions that will be completed

before some other point in the future.

For Example:

❖ “By the end of the week, I will have done all the work.”

action = do the work

point in time = the end of the week





USES OF FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

The Future Perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the

future. This is the past in the future.

EXAMPLE:

The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am.

When you arrive, the train will have left.

The train will have left when you arrive.

past present future

Train leaves in

future at 9am.

9 9:15

You arrive in

future at 9.15am.





USES OF FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

We use the FUTURE PERFECT TENSE to say 'how long' for an action that starts

before and continues up to another action or time in the future. Usually we need

'for'. If we use 'when', we usually need the present simple.

EXAMPLES:

❖ When we get married, I'll have known Robert for four years.

❖ At 4 o'clock, I'll have been in this office for 24 hours.

We can use the FUTURE FUTURE TENSE with a future time word, (and often with

'by') to talk about an action that will finish before a certain time in the future, but we

don't know exactly when.

❖ By 10 o'clock, I will have finished my homework. (I will finish my homework

some time before 10, but we don't know exactly when.)

❖ By the time I'm sixty, I will have retired. (I will retire sometime before I'm sixty.

Maybe when I'm fifty-nine, maybe when I'm fifty-two.)





FORMATION OF FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

For the formation of the future perfect tense, the modal auxiliary verb ‘will’, the

base form of ‘to have’, and the past participle of the respective verb are needed.

Broadly, There are three ways in which the Future Perfect Tense is formed.POSITIVE FORMS (+) :

❖ Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY, HE, SHE, IT ) + Will Have + V3 ( third form of main

verb – past participle )


❖ Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY, HE, SHE, IT ) + Will Not Have + V3 ( third form of

main verb – past participle )


❖ Will + Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY, HE, SHE, IT ) + Have + V3 ( third form of main

verb – past participle )





STRUCTURE: "will" + subject + "have" +

past participle

❖ By the time you arrive, will we have

finished the meal and the speeches?

❖ Will I have read every magazine in the

waiting room before I see the dentist?

STRUCTURE: question word + "will" +

subject + "have" + past participle

❖ Where will the guests have gathered

by the time we arrive?

❖ When will I have done enough work to

make her happy?





FUTURE PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE describes an ongoing action that will

be completed at some specified time in the future. It looks at the past from the

future.

For Example:

❖ By six o'clock, John will have been baking a cake for an hour.

("By six o'clock" specifies a time in the future. "For an hour" tells us the length of

the activity.)



Ram will have been waiting for one hour when I arrive.

past present future

Ram starts waiting at 9am.

9 10

I will arrive in

future at 10am.


FUTURE PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

USES OF FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

The Future Perfect Continuous tense is like the Future Perfect tense, but it

expresses longer actions or states extending up to some specific event or time in

the future.

EXAMPLE:

Ram starts waiting at 9am. I am late and cannot arrive before 10am. Ram will have

been waiting for an hour by the time I meet him.




FUTURE PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

USES OF FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

we can use the future perfect continuous to say 'how long' for an action that

continues up to another point in the future. The second point can be a time or

another action. Generally, we need 'for + length of time' and if we use 'when' or 'by

the time', we usually use the present simple.

EXAMPLE:

❖ In April, she will have been teaching for twelve years.

❖ By the time you arrive, I'll have been cooking for hours!

We can use the future perfect continuous, like the other perfect continuous tenses,

to talk about something that finishes just before another time or action (in this case,

in the future). It's often used because there will be a result at the second point in

the future. (Again, if we use 'when' we usually need the present simple.)

EXAMPLE:

❖ When I see you, I'll have been studying, so I'll be tired.




FUTURE PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

FORMATION OF FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

The form of the future perfect continuous includes the modal auxiliary verb ‘will’,

the present perfect form of ‘to be’ (which is ‘have been’), and the present

participle form of the verb. Note that this form does not change in any person

and, therefore, ‘has’ is not used in the third person singular.

Broadly, There are three ways in which the Future Perfect Tense is formed.


❖ Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY, HE, SHE, IT ) + Will Have been + Present

Participle


❖ Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY, HE, SHE, IT ) + Will Not Have Been + Present

Participle


❖ Will + Subject ( I, YOU, WE, YOU, THEY, HE, SHE, IT ) + Have Been + Present

Participle




FUTURE PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE





FUTURE PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

STRUCTURE: "will" + subject + "have

been" + present participle

❖ In July next year, will you have been

studying for 3 years?

❖ Will I have been playing poker for 30

years by then?

STRUCTURE: question word + "will" +

subject + "have been" + present participle

❖ When will you have been studying for 3

years?




VERBS


Holla Amigos! What a wonderful journey it has been

till now. Always remember, Excellence is a habit,

not an act.

Let’s explore the world of “actions”!

Hey, Wait! Have I told you

the story of the greatest

business magnet of India?

Certainly not!

He is none other

than, the legend

Ratan naval Tata

Let’s have an insight

and take our course

through the story of

this legendary person!




TATA

Becoming the chairman

of the Tata Group in 1991

in his 21 , he brought

international recognition

for the Tata Group.

Nano cars are the

dearest project of Ratan

Tata. In 2009, he

promised to make a car

that would cost only a

lakh rupee. He spared

the best of his efforts to

keep up his promise to

society.

When Ratan Tata was just

10 years old, his parents got

separated in 1940 and then

he was raised by his

grandmother.

Ratan Tata’s first job

was at the Tata Steel.

His first responsibility

was to manage the and

shovel limestone.

Ratan Tata

accomplished some

historical mergers

including Land Rover

Jaguar with Tata Motors

and Corus with Tata

Steel.

The Tata Group plays a

central role in the economy

and is currently at the fore in

the internationalization of

Indian companies.

Ratan Tata has

donated mainly

for healthcare

and education

needs from

Tata Sons'

income.

Truly, He is a

living legend

and inspiration

for us




In the previous slide, I have made some words bold. Can you

identify them?

Let us note them down: manage , plays, accomplished,

promised , spared , raised , brought, donated.

Do you think, if we remove these words from

the sentences, will they make any sense?

Definitely not! These words help the

sentence to imply a certain meaning.

They meaning they imply

are nothing but, “actions”.

In this lesson, we will

explore “HOW”.

The Words, made in bold,

in the above mentioned

sentences indicate

“actions”. What are

actions? Actions are

nothing but an act or the

fact or process of doing

something. Now, all those

words in English language

that indicate actions are

called as “VERBS”.




Look at the below sentence:

Jacob walks in the morning.

VERBS

The word “walks” indicates a

physical action performed.

Look at the below sentence:

Anna is a good girl..

The Word “is” indicates a

state of being. State of being

means “the overall physical

condition of a person.”A verb is a word or a combination

of words that indicates action or a

state of being. A verb is the part of

a sentence that tells us what the

subject performs. Verbs are the

hearts of English sentences.




Verbs are the action words in a sentence that describe what the subject is doing.

Along with nouns, verbs are the main part of a sentence or phrase, telling a story

about what is taking place. In fact, without a verb, full thoughts can’t be properly

conveyed, and even the simplest sentences, such as Krishna sings, have one.

Actually, a verb can be a sentence by itself, with the subject, in most case you,

implied, such as, Sing! and Drive!

VERBS

When learning grammar, We are often taught that verbs are ‘doing’ words,

meaning they signify the part of the sentence which explains the action taking

place: He ran away, she eats chocolate cake on Sundays, the horses gallop

across the fields. Ran, eats and gallop are the ‘action’ parts of those sentences,

thus they are the verbs. However, it can be confusing because not all verbs are

easily identifiable as action: I know your name, Jack thought about it, we

considered several applications. These are non-action verbs, i.e. those that

describe a state of being, emotion, possession, sense or opinion. Other non-action

verbs include love, agree, feel, am, and have.




How to Recognize a Verb?

VERBS

Let’s look at some clues which help us to recognise a verb.

❖ Verbs, in almost all sentences, come after a noun or pronoun. These “nouns or

pronouns” are referred to as the subject of the sentence.

EXAMPLE: Krishna eats his dinner quickly.

Subject = Krishna & Verb = eats.

❖ If you’re not sure if a word is a verb, ask yourself, “Can I do ______?”

EXAMPLES: Can I think, wonder, walk, yawn? Yes, so these are verbs.

❖ You can also ask, ”What is happening?”

In the sentence “Krishna eats his dinner quickly”, what is happening? Eating is

happening, so “eats” is the verb.

The subject is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea of a sentence. It shows

what the sentence is about, or who or what is performing an action in the sentence.




PHYSICAL VERBS

VERBS

Physical verbs are action verbs. They describe specific physical actions. If you can

create a motion with your body or use a tool to complete an action, the word you

use to describe it is most likely a physical verb. For example, “Krishna sat in his

chair”, “the dog breathes quickly after she chases her ball”, and “should we vote in

the election?” Even when the action isn’t very active, if the action is done by the

body or a tool, consider it a physical verb.

Mental verbs have meanings that are related to concepts such as discovering,

understanding, thinking, or planning. In general, a mental verb refers to a cognitive

state. They do not imply any actions.

EXAMPLES:

❖ I know the answer.

❖ She recognized me from across the room.

❖ Do you believe everything people tell you?

MENTAL VERBS




STATES OF BEING VERBS

VERBS

Also known as linking verbs, state of being verbs describe conditions or situations

that exist. State of being verbs are inactive since no action is being performed.

These verbs, forms of to be, such as am, is, are, are usually complemented by

adjectives.

EXAMPLES:

❖ I am a student.

❖ We are circus performers.

❖ Please is quiet.




We learnt a bit about regular verbs and irregular verbs in tense. Please find below

a list of examples of verb forms.

VERBS



VERBS


TYPES OF VERBS

Basically, there are nine types of verbs as follows:



VERBS


FINITE VERBS

Finite verbs are the actual verbs which are called the roots of sentences. It is the

form of verb that:

❖ shows agreement with a subject

❖ Indicates the tense.

❖ is performed by or refers to a subject

Finite verbs change their form when there is a change in the subject or the tense.

EXAMPLES:

❖ I work hard for my family.

The verb work becomes works when the subject is a singular noun/pronoun.

❖ Maya works hard for her family.

❖ He works hard for his family.

Work becomes worked when the sentence is in the past tense.

❖ I worked very hard yesterday.

❖ He worked very hard yesterday



VERBS


FINITE VERBS

Table 1. FINITE VERB FORMS ACCORDING TO PERSONS AND TENSE

NUMBER PERSON PRESENT PAST

SINGULAR

•FIRST

•SECOND

•THIRD

•I walk

•you walk

•he/she/it walks

•I walked

•you walked

•he/she/it walked

PLURAL

•FIRST

•SECOND

•THIRD

•we walk

•you walk

•they walk

•we walked

•you walked

•they walked



VERBS


FINITE VERBS



VERBS


NON - FINITE VERBS

Non-finite Verbs are not actual verbs. They do not work as verbs in the sentence

rather they work as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc. Non-finite verbs do not change

according to the number/person of the subject because these verbs, also called

verbals, do not have any direct relation to the subject. Sometimes they become the

subject themselves. Basically, Non-finites are of three types: gerunds, infinitives

and participles.



VERBS


NON - FINITE VERBS

GERUNDS:

Gerunds are words that are formed with verbs but act as nouns. They’re very

easy to spot, since every gerund is a verb with “ing” tacked to its tail. There are

no exceptions to this rule.

EXAMPLES:

❖ Acting is fun.

(The gerund is the subject of the sentence.)

❖ Playing football is fun.

(The gerund is the subject of the sentence. The word football is the gerund

complement of the gerund playing.)

❖ Acting is merely the art of keeping a large group of people from coughing.

(Acting is a gerund as a subject. The gerunds keeping and coughing are objects

of prepositions. The phrase a ”large group of people” is the gerund complement

of keeping.)



VERBS


NON - FINITE VERBS

FUNCTION OF GERUNDS:

As they are nouns, gerunds can function as one of the following:

❖ The Subject of a Verb.

For example: Visiting New York is always an experience. ("Visiting" is the

subject of the verb "is.")

❖ The Object of a Verb.

For example: I love visiting New York. ("Visiting" is the direct object of the verb

"love.")

❖ The Object of a Preposition.

For example: I surprised them by visiting New York. ("Visiting" is the object of

the preposition "by.")

❖ A Subject Complement.

For example: My highlight was visiting New York. ("Visiting" is a subject

complement. It completes the linking verb "was" and renames the subject,

making it a subject complement.)



VERBS


NON - FINITE VERBS

INFINITIVES:

The infinitive form of a verb is the verb in its basic form. An infinitive is formed

from a verb but doesn’t act as a verb. The infinitive form of a verb is usually (but

not always) preceded by "to" (e.g., "to run," "to dance," "to think").

EXAMPLES:

❖ I need to run every day.

(The infinitive form with the word "to" is called the "full infinitive" or "to-infinitive.")

❖ I must run every day.

(After certain verbs, the "to" is dropped. The word "to" is not a preposition. It is

often called the "sign of the infinitive.")

❖ I run every day.

(This is not in the infinitive form. This is a finite verb, i.e., a verb functioning as

the main verb.)



VERBS


NON - FINITE VERBS

USES OF INFINITIVES:

An infinitive is a non-finite verb. In other words, it cannot be the main verb in a

sentence. An infinitive can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

AS NOUNS:

❖ To dance was her passion.

(The infinitive , “To dance” is the subject of "was" and therefore, the noun)

❖ He likes to hunt.

(The infinitive “to hunt” is the direct object of "likes” and hence, the noun)

AS ADJECTIVES:

An adjective modifies a noun to tell us something about the noun (e.g., its color,

type, or number).

❖ Give him an ornament to polish.

(The infinitive, “to polish” modifies "ornament." This means it is functioning as an

adjective.)

An infinitive that acts as an adjective usually appears immediately after the noun

it is modifying.



VERBS


NON - FINITE VERBS

USES OF INFINITIVES:

AS ADVERBS:

An adverb usually modifies a verb to tell us when, where, how, in what manner, or

to what extent an action is performed.

❖ The officer returned to help.

(The infinitive, “to help” modifies the verb "returned." This means it is functioning

as an adverb.)



VERBS


NON - FINITE VERBS

BARE INFINITIVE:

The word “to” is frequently used with an infinitive, but it is not an essential part

or sign of it. When an infinitive is used without the marker “to” it is called a bare

infinitive.

Uses of the bare infinitive:

❖ The infinitive is used without “to” after certain verbs like bid, let, make, see,

hear, need, dare etc.

I bade him go. (NOT I bade him to go.)

Let him sit there. (NOT Let him to sit there.)

❖ The bare infinitive is also used after the modal verbs will, would, shall,

should, may, might, can, could and must. (Modal verbs are covered in later

part of the lesson)

I will wait. (NOT I will to wait.)

You must obey my instructions. (NOT You must to obey my instructions.)

❖ The infinitive is also used without “to” after had better, would rather, sooner

than and rather than.

You had better ask his permission. (NOT You had better to ask his permission.)



VERBS


NON - FINITE VERBS

PARTICIPLES:

A participle is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and

functions of both verbs and adjectives.

Read the following sentence:

Hearing a loud noise, the boy woke up.

Here the word hearing qualifies the noun boy as an adjective does. It is formed

from the verb hear and has an object – noise. The word hearing, therefore, has

the properties of a verb and an adjective and is called a participle.

A participle is a word which is partly a verb and partly an adjective.

There are basically, three types of participles:



VERBS


NON - FINITE VERBS

We know that, a participle can function as both adjectives and Verb tense, let us

explore each type of participle through the functions.

PRESENT PARTICIPLES: A present participle is a word that (1) ends "-ing," (2)

is formed from a verb, and (3) is used as an adjective or to form verb tense.

❖ AS ADJECTIVES –

1. Always be wary of any helpful item that weighs less than its operating

manual. (Here, “operating” qualifies the noun, “manual” and hence it is

working as an adjective.)

2. Love is the big booming beat which covers up the noise of hate.

❖ AS VERB TENSES –

1. She is singing a song. (Here, the participle “singing” indicates present

continuous tense.)

2. We had been walking for 30 minutes before a friend picked us up. (Here, the

participle “walking” indicates past perfect continuous.)

The formation and usage of present participle is covered in tenses.



VERBS


NON - FINITE VERBS

PAST PARTICIPLES: A past participle is a word that (1) is formed from a verb,

(2) is used as an adjective or to form verb tense, and (3) probably ends with "-

ed," "-d," "-t," "-en," or "-n."

❖ AS ADJECTIVES –

1. Here is a laminated copy to replace your torn one. (Here, “laminated” and

“torn” qualify the nouns, “copy” and “one” and hence they are working as

adjectives.)

2. The enemy is anybody who's going to get you killed, no matter which side

he's on.

❖ AS VERB TENSES –

1. Sandra has worked there for a long time. (Here, the participle “worked”

indicates present perfect tense.)

2. By the end of next year, Carmen will have finished all her exams. (Here, the

participle “finished” indicates Future perfect tense.)

The formation and usage of past participle is covered in tenses.



VERBS


NON - FINITE VERBS

PERFECT PARTICIPLES: Perfect participle represents an action as completed

some time in the past.

The perfect participle indicates completed action. You form the perfect participle

by putting the present participle “having” in front of the past participle.

EXAMPLES: having done, having finished, having read, having spoken. Etc.

1. Having delivered the message, he left immediately.

2. Having finished his work, Harry was ready for play.

3. The child, having found its mother, was again happy.

In the sentences above, the expressions having delivered, having finished, and

having found partake of the nature of the verb, as each expresses action, and

each has a noun as its object.

Having delivered, in the first sentence, is descriptive of he, and therefore has

the force of an adjective.

Each of the expressions having finished and having found, in the second and

third sentences, has the force of the verb and of the adjective. We see,

therefore, that they are participles.



VERBS


DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A GERUND AND A PARTICIPLE

Basic of difference Gerund Participle

Definition

A gerund in English is a

progressive form (ing) of a

verb that works as a noun in

a sentence.

A participle in English is a

verb (V1+ing or V3) form

that works as an adjective

or as a verb in a sentence.

Types

A gerund can play the

following roles:

1. The subject

2. The object of a verb

3. The object of a

preposition

4. The object of a

possessive adjective

5. The subject complement

There are two types of

participles in English:

1. Present participle

2. Past participle





Position

A gerund can take the

following places:

1. Before the main verb

(linking or action verb)

2. After an action verb

(transitive)

3. After a preposition

4. After a possessive adjective

5. After the main verb (linking

verb)

Examples:

1. Teaching is fun. (before the

main verb)

2. I love teaching. (after an

action verb)

3. He is

passionate about teaching.

(after a preposition)

4. Your teaching is amazing.

(after a possessive adjective)

5. My passion is dancing.

(after the main verb)

A participle can take the

following places:

1. Before a noun

2. After a noun

3. After a main verb (linking

verb)

Examples:

1. A motivated person can do

anything.

2. Look at the burning train.

3. The movie was exciting.

4. The class is motivated.





Functions

A gerund functions only as a

noun.

Ex– Teaching is my passion.

A participle can function

either as a verb or as an

adjective.

Examples:

1. He is teaching English.

(verb)

2. I hate teaching jobs.

(adjective)

GERUND VS PRESENT PARTICIPLE

Both gerunds and present participles look the same; they both are a progressive

form of a verb. If you just look at them, you might not be able tell the difference,

but if you know how they function, there is no confusion as they are worlds apart.

So let me tell you the trick:

❖ If an ing form of a verb (progressive) functions as a noun, it is a GERUND.

❖ If it functions as an adjective (modifies a noun), it is a PRESENT PARTICIPLE

or PRESENT PARTICIPLE ADJECTIVE.

❖ If it functions as an action verb(modifies a noun), it is a PRESENT

PARTICIPLE.



VERBS


STATIVE VERBS

Stative verbs are verbs that express a state rather than an action. They usually

relate to thoughts, emotions, relationships, senses, states of being and

measurements.

Stative verbs can be recognized because they express a state rather than an

action. They typically relate to thoughts, emotions, relationships, senses, states

of being, and measurements. The best way to think about stative verbs is that

they are verbs that describe things that are not actions. The stative verbs are all

expressing a state: A state of doubting, a state of believing, a state of wanting.

These states of being are often temporary.

EXAMPLE:

The doctor disagrees with your analysis.

(Disagree is a stative verb here, as it describes the doctor’s state of being –

disagreement.)

These verbs are not usually used with “ing” in progressive (continuous) tenses

even though they may take on time expressions such as now and at the

moment. We use the simple tenses for them.

Incorrect: I’m smelling your wife’s wonderful spaghetti sauce.

Correct: I smell your wife’s wonderful spaghetti sauce.



VERBS


STATIVE VERBS



VERBS


ACTION VERBS

Action verbs express specific actions and are used any time you want to show

action or discuss someone doing something. It’s important to remember that the

action does not have to be physical.

Action verbs indicate what the subject of a sentence performs. Action verbs can

make the listener/reader feel emotions, see scenes more vividly and accurately.

EXAMPLES:

❖ I run faster than David.

❖ He does it well.

❖ She thinks about poetry all day long

ACTION VERBS are of two types -

TRANSITIVE VERB and INTRANSITIVE VERB

We will cover both the verbs in next slides.



VERBS


TRANSITIVE VERBS

A transitive verb is one whose action must be used in relation to an object, also

called as direct object, and when using the verb, it only makes sense if the verb is

transferring action upon an object. That means the verb doesn’t sound good or

work on its own without an object. In other words, the action of a transitive verb is

done to someone or something.



VERBS


TRANSITIVE VERBS

Consider the verb to bring: The verb will not make sense if the action of the verb is

not acting on something, i.e. you have to bring something or someone. Simply

saying I bring will not make sense on its own, you must bring something, an object

or a person or a feeling. That something or someone – Joe, a book, your brother, a

good mood – is the direct object of the sentence, i.e. the thing that the verb is

acting upon.

Consider these examples and see how the verb exerts action on an object:

❖ I love.

❖ Please carry the books for me.

❖ Can we buy these ones?

❖ Johnny kicked the ball.

Consider how these verbs need to confer the action upon the object. This makes

them transitive verbs:

❖ Love – you need to love something or someone for the verb to make sense.

❖ Carry – you need to carry something or someone for the verb to make sense.

❖ Buy – you need buy something for the verb to make sense.

❖ Kick – you need to kick something or someone for the verb to make sense.



VERBS


INTRANSITIVE VERBS

Contrary to transitive verbs, an

intransitive verb is one that does not

need to transfer action on an object in

order to make sense.

Consider the verb to run. You can run

without transferring the action of running

on a direct object.

How did you get here so quickly? I ran.

(There is no need for a direct object).

An intransitive verb may be followed by

an adjective, adverb, preposition, or

another part of speech.

EXAMPLES:

❖ She smiled. (The verb ‘smile’ cannot

have any object since the action of

‘smiling’ does not fall upon

anything/anyone)

❖ I wake up at 6 AM. (No object is

needed for this verb)



VERBS


RECOGNIZING TRANSITIVE

VERBS WHEN YOU SEE THEM

Unfortunately, it can sometimes

be tricky to know if a verb is

transitive because some verbs

aren’t only transitive or

intransitive. Consider the verb to

eat, and look at these examples:

❖ I eat fried eggs for breakfast.

❖ I eat quickly at breakfast.

In the first example, the verb eat

is a transitive verb because the

action has a direct object – the

fried eggs. However, the second

example shows eat as an

intransitive verb. There is no

action upon a direct object;

quickly is an adverb describing

the action of eating.

RECOGNIZING INTRANSITIVE VERBS

WHEN YOU SEE THEM

Consider the verb to sing, and look at

these examples:

❖ The birds sang the mating call.

❖ The birds sang.

❖ The birds sang

In the first example, sang (the past tense

of sing) is a transitive verb. The birds are

conferring the action of singing on a

direct object – the mating call.

But sang is an intransitive verb in the

other two examples. We know this

because the first example requires no

direct object for the action and the

second example is followed by an

adverb. Therefore, we can recognize an

intransitive verb if it makes sense on its

own (without a direct object) or is

followed by an adverb or preposition.



VERBS


LINKING VERBS

A linking verb is used to re-identify or to describe its subject. A linking verb is called

a linking verb because it links the subject to a subject complement.



VERBS


LINKING VERBS

All forms of be verbs are linking verbs. For example: are, am, is, were, was etc.

Besides, verbs that have to do with the five senses are linking verbs: feel, look,

smell, sound and taste.

So we come to the point that linking verb is not an action verb. It tells about what

the subject is not what it’s doing. For example: Sneha’s cat is tired, here shows the

condition of Sneha’s cat, not what it’s doing. So here “is” is working as a linking

verb.

EXAMPLES:

❖ The tomato smells rotten.

❖ The professor is absolutely sure.

❖ My brother gets mad when he’s hungry.

The highlighted words are linking verbs. They're all examples of states of being. In

fact, we could replace the verbs smell, gets and stays with the verb "is" and the

meaning would remain the same.

❖ The tomato is rotten.

❖ My brother is mad when he’s hungry.



VERBS


AUXILIARY VERBS

An auxiliary verb (or a helping verb as

it's also called) is used with a main verb

to help express the main verb's tense,

mood, or voice.

The main auxiliary verbs are to be, to

have, and to do. They appear in the

following forms:

❖ To Be: am, is, are, was, were, being,

been, will be

❖ To Have: has, have, had, having, will

have

❖ To Do: does, do, did, will do

Auxiliary verbs are used in the

continuous (progressive) and perfect

tenses.



VERBS


AUXILIARY VERBS

HOW TO IDENTIFY AN AUXILIARY VERB

You probably know that every sentence has at least one verb in it. There are

two main types of verbs. Action verbs are used to depict activities that are

doable, and linking verbs are used to describe conditions. Both action verbs and

linking verbs can accompany auxiliary verbs including the three main ones: do,

be, and have.

Sometimes actions or conditions occur only one time and then they’re over. It’s

at times like these that some of the same verbs that are used as auxiliary verbs

are instead used as action or linking verbs. In this example, we see the word

“is”. This is one of the most common auxiliary verbs, but because it stands alone

here, it is not functioning as an auxiliary verb.

Jerry slammed the car door on his thumb. He is in horrible pain.

“Is” is a linking verb in this sentence. Because it stands alone, it is not an

auxiliary verb.

A main verb indicates the kind of action or condition taking place. An auxiliary or

helping verb accompanies the main verb and conveys other nuances that help

the reader gain specific insight into the event that is taking place.



VERBS


AUXILIARY VERBS

Read the following sentences and explanations to gain greater insight into how

auxiliary verbs work.

❖ Jerry caught his thumb in the car door as coffee spilled from his cup onto his

favorite shirt.

❖ Jerry is always spilling things.

❖ Since Jerry is also accident prone, he should have been drinking coffee from a

mug with a lid, which would not have spilled on his favorite shirt.

In sentence one, caught and spilled, single-word verbs, describe quick, one-time

actions of both Jerry and his messy coffee. This sentence does not contain an

auxiliary verb.

Since Jerry often has unfortunate accidents, is spilling communicates the

frequency of his clumsy actions in sentence two. In sentence three, the auxiliary

verbs that make up should have been drinking and would have stained express

time relationships as well as an evaluation of Jerry’s actions.



VERBS


AUXILIARY VERBS

Examples of Auxiliary Verbs Expressing Tense

Here are some examples of auxiliary verbs expressing tense.

❖ She was waiting for an hour.

❖ She is waiting in the hall.

❖ She will be waiting outside.

(In each of these examples, the auxiliary verb to be helps to form the

progressive tense, which is the tense used for ongoing actions.)

❖ She had drunk it before we arrived.

❖ She has drunk it already.

❖ She will have drunk it by then.

(In each of these examples, the auxiliary verb to have helps to form the perfect

tense, which is the tense used for expressing an action's completion.)

❖ She had been studying before the incident.

❖ She has been studying.

❖ She will have been studying for a month at that point.

(In each of these examples, the auxiliary verbs have and been help to form the

perfect progressive tense, which is the tense used for expressing ongoing

action's completion.)



VERBS


AUXILIARY VERBS

Examples of Auxiliary Verbs Expressing Voice

Here are some examples of auxiliary verbs expressing voice.

❖ Our dessert was eaten by the dog.

❖ The geese are driven through the snicket.

❖ The phone will be disconnected tomorrow.

(In these examples, the auxiliary verb to be helps to form the passive voice. A verb

is said to be in the passive voice when its subject does not perform the action of

the verb but has the action done to it.)

Examples of Auxiliary Verbs Expressing Mood

Here are some examples of auxiliary verbs being used to express mood.

❖ Did you win?

(Here, the auxiliary verb to do is used to form the interrogative mood, i.e., to ask a

question.)

❖ Don't forget your wallet.

(Here, the auxiliary verb to do (in its negative form) is used to form the imperative

mood, i.e., to give an order.)



VERBS


MODAL VERBS

A modal verb is a kind of an auxiliary verb. It assists the main verb to indicate

modality – that is: likelihood, ability, permission, request, capacity, suggestions,

order, obligation, or advice.

The modal verbs are can, could, must, may, might, ought to, shall, should, will,

would.

In a broader meaning, the modals are said to be:

❖ Can/could/be able to

❖ May/might

❖ Shall/should

❖ Must/have to

❖ Will/would



VERBS


MODAL VERBS

CAN, COULD, BE ABLE TO

Can, could and be able to are used to express a variety of ideas in English:

1. Ability/Lack of Ability

PRESENT AND FUTURE

STRUCTURE: can/can’t + base form

of the verb

EXAMPLES:

❖ Tom can write poetry very well.

❖ I can help you with that next

week.

❖ Lisa can’t speak French.

STRUCTURE: am / is / are / will be + able to + base form of the verb oram not/ isn’t / aren’t/ won’t be + able to + base form of the verbEXAMPLE: Mike is able to solve complicated math equations.

PAST

STRUCTURE: could / couldn’t +

base form of the verb

EXAMPLES: When I was a child I

could climb trees.

STRUCTURE:

❖ was / were + able to + base form

of the verb

❖ wasn’t / weren’t + able to + base

form of the verb

❖ hasn’t / haven’t + been able to +


EXAMPLE: I wasn’t able to visither in the hospital.



VERBS


MODAL VERBS

2. Possibility / Impossibility

STRUCTURE: can / can’t + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES:

❖ You can catch that train at 10:43.

❖ He can’t see you right now. He’s in surgery.

STRUCTURE: could + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES: I could fly via Amsterdam if I leave the day before.

3. Ask Permission / Give Permission

STRUCTURE: Can + Subject + base form of the verb (informal)

EXAMPLES: Can you lend me ten dollars?

STRUCTURE: Can + base form of the verb (informal)

EXAMPLES: You can borrow my car.

STRUCTURE: Could + subject + base form of the verb (polite)

EXAMPLES: Could I have your number?

Could I talk to your supervisor please?



VERBS


MODAL VERBS

MAY, MIGHT

May and might are used to express a variety of ideas in English:

1. Formal Permission / Formal Prohibition

STRUCTURE: may / may not + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES:

❖ You may start your exam now.

❖ You may not wear sandals to work.

2. Polite Request

STRUCTURE: May + subject + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES: May I help you?

3. To Make a Suggestion (when there is no better alternative)

STRUCTURE: may as well / might as well + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES: You may as well come inside. John will be home soon.

We might as well take Friday off. There’s no work to be done anyway.



VERBS


MODAL VERBS

4. Possibility / Negative Possibility

STRUCTURE: may/ might + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES:

❖ We may go out for dinner tonight. Do you want to join us?

❖ Our company might get the order if the client agrees to the price.

STRUCTURE: may not / might not + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES:

❖ Adam and Sue may not buy that house. It’s very expensive.

❖ They might not buy a house at all.

5. Polite Suggestion

STRUCTURE: might + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES:

You might like to try the salmon fillet. It’s our special today.



VERBS


MODAL VERBS

Shall, Should, Ought to

Shall, should and ought to are used to express a variety of ideas in English:

1. To Offer of Assistance or Polite Suggestion (When you are quite sure of a

positive answer)

STRUCTURE: Shall + subject + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES: Shall we go for a walk?

2. To Offer of Assistance or Polite Suggestion (When you are not sure of a

positive answer)

STRUCTURE: Should + subject + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES: Should I call a doctor?

3. A Prediction or Expectation that Something Will Happen

STRUCTURE: should/shouldn’t + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES:

❖ The proposal should be finished on time.

❖ I shouldn’t be late. The train usually arrives on time.



VERBS


MODAL VERBS

4. To Give Advice

STRUCTURE: should / ought to + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES:

❖ You should check that document before you send it out.

❖ You ought to have your car serviced before the winter.

5. To Give Advice (about something you think wrong or unacceptable)

STRUCTURE: shouldn’t + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES: James shouldn’t teach him words like those.



VERBS


MODAL VERBS

Must, Have to, Need to, Don’t have to, Needn’t

These are used to express a variety of ideas in English:

1. Necessity or Requirement

STRUCTURE: must / have to / need to + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES:

❖ You must have a passport to cross the border.

❖ Elisabeth has to apply for her visa by March 10th.

❖ I need to drop by his room to pick up a book.

STRUCTURE: had to / needed to + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES:

❖ I had to work late last night.

❖ I needed to drink a few cups of coffee in order to stay awake.

Note: have to and need to are often used in the same context, but many times,

need to is used to express something that is less urgent, something in which you

have a choice.



VERBS


MODAL VERBS

2. Almost 100% Certain

STRUCTURE: must + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES: Thomas has lived in Paris for years. His French must be very good.

3. To Persuade

STRUCTURE: must / have to + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES:

❖ You must try this wine. It’s excellent.

❖ You have to visit us while you’re in town.

4. Prohibited or Forbidden

STRUCTURE: must not / mustn’t + base form of the verb

EXAMPLES:

❖ You must not drive over the speed limit.

❖ You mustn’t leave medicines where children can get to them.



VERBS


MODAL VERBS

5. Lack of Necessity

STRUCTURE: don’t

/doesn’t /didn’t + have to +


EXAMPLES:

❖ You don’t have to park

the car. The hotel valet

will do it for you.

❖ Tim doesn’t have to go

to school today. It’s a

holiday.

❖ You didn’t have to shout.

Everyone could hear

you.

STRUCTURE: needn’t +


EXAMPLES: You needn’t

worry about me. I’ll be fine.



VERBS


LINKING VERBS VS HELPING VERBS

Now we need to know about the differences between linking and helping verbs

to have a constructive idea of linking verb.

❖ A linking verb doesn’t always act like a linking verb. Well, that’s because a

word like “is” can also play an auxiliary or helping role in a sentence.

For example, in the sentence, Malcom is drawing a picture, the word “is” isn’t a

linking verb. It’s a helping verb. It’s there to “help” the main verb in the sentence

(drawing).

So, how do we tell whether a linking verb is playing the part in a given

sentence?

❖ If it’s followed by a predicate adjective or predicate noun, then it’s a linking

verb. But if it’s next to an “-ing” verb, then it’s a helping verb.

For example:

My friends are dancing at Stella’s tonight.

Here, “-are” is a helping verb because the –ing verb follows it.

The girls are happy because they’re eating all together.

Here “-are” is a linking verb because a predicate adjective follows it.



VERBS


In the context of verbs, lets talk about the process of changing a verb form to

show tense, mood, number (i.e. singular or plural), and person (i.e. first person,

second person, or third person).

Broadly, depending on the above context, there are two forms of verbs:

1. Regular verbs

2. Irregular verbs

All English verbs are either regular or irregular, depending on how they are

conjugated (It means to give the different forms of (a verb in an inflected

language such as Latin) as they vary according to voice, mood, tense, number,

and person.). The majority are regular verbs, which means that “-d” or “-ed” is

added to their base form (the infinitive of the verb without to) to create both the

past simple tense and past participle.

The past simple tense and past participles of irregular verbs, on the other hand,

have many different forms that do not adhere to a distinct or predictable pattern.

Much of the time, their past tense and past participle forms are completely

different from one another. Unfortunately, this means that there is no way of

determining how to conjugate irregular verbs—we just have to learn each one

individually.



VERBS


WHAT'S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS?

REGULAR VERBS

Many English verbs are regular, which means that they form their different tenses

according to an established pattern. Such verbs work like this:

Verb

3rd person

singular

present tense

3rd person

singular

past tense

past participle present participle

laugh he/she laughshe/she

laughedlaughed laughing

love he/she loves he/she loved loved loving

boo he/she boos he/she booed booedbooing



VERBS


FORMATION OF REGULAR VERBS:

1. PRESENT TENSE FORMATION

In the present simple tense, the basic form of a regular verb only changes in the

3rd person singular, as follows:

❖ Most verbs just add -s to the basic form (e.g. take/takes, seem/seems,

look/looks).

❖ Verbs that end with a vowel other than e add -es (e.g. go/goes, veto/vetoes,

do/does).

❖ Verbs that end with -s, -z, -ch, -sh, and -x add -es (e.g. kiss/kisses, fizz/fizzes,

punch/punches, wash/washes, mix/mixes).

❖ If the verb ends in a consonant plus -y, change the y to an i before adding -es

(e.g. hurry/hurries, clarify/clarifies). But if the verb ends in a vowel plus -y, just

add -s (e.g. play/plays, enjoy/enjoys).



VERBS



2. PAST TENSE FORMATION

Forming the past simple tense of regular verbs

is mostly straightforward, and you use the

same form for the first, second, and third

persons, singular and plural:

❖ If the basic form of the verb ends in a

consonant or a vowel other than e, add the

letters -ed to the end (e.g. seem/seemed,

laugh/laughed, look/looked).

❖ For verbs that end in -e, add -d (e.g.

love/loved, recede/receded, hope/hoped).

❖ If the verb ends in a consonant plus -y,

change the y to an i before adding -ed (e.g.

hurry/hurried, clarify/clarified). But if the

verb ends in a vowel plus -y, just add -ed

(e.g. play/played, enjoy/enjoyed).



VERBS



3. FORMING PARTICIPLES

To form the past participle of regular verbs, follow the same rules as for the past

simple tense above.

To make the present participle of regular verbs:

❖ If the basic form of the verb ends in a consonant or a vowel other than e, add

the ending -ing (e.g. laugh/laughing, boo/booing).

❖ If the verb ends in e, drop the e before adding -ing (e.g. love/loving,

hope/hoping).

❖ If the basic form ends in y just add -ing (e.g. hurry/hurrying, clarify/clarifying).

We have also covered formation of present and past participles in Tenses.



VERBS


Verb3rd person singular

present tense

3rd person singular

past tensepast participle present participle

be is was been being

begin begins began begun beginning

bite bites bit bitten biting

break breaks broke broken breaking

buy buys bought bought buying

choose chooses chose chosen choosing

drink drinks drank drunkdrinking

IRREGULAR VERBS

several verbs whose past simple and past participle tenses either remains the

same or modifies completely without having to follow any conjugation patterns are

known as Irregular verbs.

Here are the forms of some of the most common irregular verbs. There is no rule or

pattern to form the irregular verbs and hence, we need to learn them.



VERBS


SUBJECT – VERB AGREEMENT

One of the most important topic in grammar is the SUBJECT – VERB

AGREEMENT.

What this means is that the characteristics of the subject should be reflected in the

verb. For example, if a subject is singular, the verb form must also be singular.

Basically, the verb should and must agree with the subject for the sentence to

make sense. Lets discuss some basic and important rules of SUBJECT – VERB

AGREEMENT.



VERBS



RULE 1:

If two subjects are joined by ‘and‘, plural verb will be used.

Example: Ram and Shyam are coming.

RULE 2:

If two or more than two nouns or subjects are joined by ‘and’ but only a single

person or thing or idea is discussed, singular verb will be used. In such situations,

the nouns or subjects convey a singular meaning.

Examples:

❖ My friend, philosopher and guide have come. (We are talking about the same

person here and therefore we need to change ‘have‘ to ‘has‘)

❖ Slow and steady win the race. (Incorrect! change ‘win‘ into ‘wins‘)

❖ Fish and chips is my favorite dish. (no error)



VERBS



RULE 3:

If two uncountable nouns are joined by

‘and‘ and if two different subjects are

discussed, plural verb will be used.

Example: Poverty and misery come

together.

RULE 4:

If the subject is joined by ‘as well as‘,

‘with‘, ‘along with‘, ‘together with‘,

‘and

not‘, ‘In addition to‘, ‘but‘, ‘besides‘,

‘except‘, ‘rather than‘, ‘accompanied

by‘,

‘like‘, ‘unlike‘, ‘no less than‘, ‘nothing

but‘, the verb will agree with the first

subject.

Examples:

❖ Ram, as well as his parents, is

coming.

❖ The captain along with the sailors

was drowned.

❖ My father, unlike my uncles, is

very strict.



VERBS



RULE 5:

If an article is placed just before the

1st subject, it means

the person/thing is the same for which

two nouns are used.

Hence singular verb will be used.

Example:

❖ A white and black gown was

bought by her.

❖ Churchil was a great orator and a

great politician of his time. (wrong)

❖ Churchil was a great orator and

politician of his time. (right)

But if an article is used before every

subject, it refers to different

people/things. Hence plural verb will

be used. Example: The director and

the producer have come.

RULE 6:

If two subjects are joined by

‘neither….nor‘, ‘either … or‘, ‘not

only‘, …’but also‘, ‘nor‘, ‘or‘, ‘none-

but‘, the verb will agree with the

nearest subject.

Examples:

❖ Neither Ram nor Shyam has

come.

❖ Either Ram or his friends have

come.

❖ Has Ram or Shyam come?



VERBS



RULE 7:

‘Neither of‘ means ‘not either of the two things or people‘.

Example:

❖ Neither of the judges of the division bench knew about the facts of the case.

(Correct).

‘None of‘ means ‘not one of the groups of things or people‘.

Example:

❖ Neither of his four sons looked after him. (incorrect)

❖ None of his four sons looked after him. (Correct).

‘Either of‘ means ‘one of the two things or people‘.

Example:

❖ Either of the five members is at fault. (incorrect)

❖ One of the five members is at fault. (correct)

Note: ‘Not’ is not used with ‘both‘. For this purpose ‘neither of‘ is

used.

❖ Both of them did not take the exam. (incorrect)

❖ Neither of them took the exam. (correct)



VERBS



RULE 8:

Certain nouns are plural in form but singular in meaning. Hence they

take singular verb.

Some of the examples are:



VERBS



RULE 9:

Usually, we match the verb with the

nearest subject but this is not a strict

rule and hence be careful! The verb

should match with the main subject of

the sentence.


❖ The quality of apples is good.

❖ He and not his parents is guilty.

❖ The appeal of the victims for the

transfer of the cases related to riots

to some other states has been

accepted.

RULE 10:

Collective noun always takes

singular verb.


❖ The herd of cows is grazing in the

field.

❖ The committee has unanimously

taken its decision.

NOTE: If there is a division among

the members of the collective noun

or we talk

about the members of the collective

noun, plural verb and plural

pronoun are used.

EXAMPLE:

❖ The jury are divided in their

opinion

❖ The audience have taken their

seats.



VERBS



RULE 11:

Plural number will always take plural

verb.

EXAMPLES:

❖ Hundred boys are in my class.

Note: If plural noun is used after

cardinal adjectives (one, two, three,

four etc.) and if plural noun denotes

certain amount, weight, height or

period, singular verb will be used.

In other words we can say that plural

number used as a singular unit will

take singular verb.

EXAMPLES:

❖ Hundred rupees is in my pocket.

❖ Ten miles is a long distance to

cover on foot.

RULE 12:

If a subject and the verb are joined by

a relative pronoun, the verb used

will agree with the antecedent to the

relative pronoun.

EXAMPLES:

❖ She is one of the noblest women

that has ever lived on this earth.

(That is a relative pronoun whose

antecedent is “women” and hence,

here we use ‘have‘ in place of ‘has‘)

❖ I am not one of those who will trust

everyone whom I meet.

(who is a relative pronoun, so here we

use ‘they meet‘ in place of ‘I meet‘)



VERBS



RULE 13:

Each, Every, Everyone, Someone,

Somebody, Nobody, None, One, Any,

Many a, More than one, are singular.

Hence they will take singular verb,

singular noun, and singular pronoun.

EXAMPLES:

❖ Each student has come.

❖ Each boy/ Each girl has come.

❖ One must tolerate one’s friend as

well as his enemy. (Use ‘one’s‘ in

❖ place of ‘his‘)

❖ Many a student has not done their

homework. (Use ‘his‘ in place of

‘their‘)

❖ More than one man was present

there.

RULE 14:

If ‘of‘ is used after each, every, one,

etc. the noun or pronoun that comes

immediately after ‘of‘ will be plural in

form. However the verb, pronoun,

adjective, etc. that comes in the latter

part of the sentence will be singular in

form.

EXAMPLES:

❖ One of the boys/them has done his

work.

❖ Each of the planets revolves around

the sun.



VERBS



RULE 15:

If ‘each‘ is used after Plural noun or

plural pronoun, plural verb is

used.

EXAMPLES:

❖ We each have a duty towards our

nation.

RULE 17:

If a sentence states an imaginary

position, it starts with if, as if, as

though, suppose, I wish, in case, would

that etc. In such sentences ‘were‘ is

used as the verb irrespective of the

number of the subject.

EXAMPLES:

❖ I wish, I were bird.

❖ If he were rich, he would help others.RULE 16:

If Indefinite Pronoun ‘One‘ comes as

the subject of a sentence, it takes

singular verb and singular pronoun

‘one‘, ‘one’s‘, and ‘oneself‘ and not

‘he‘, ‘him‘, ‘his‘ or ‘himself‘.

EXAMPLES:

❖ One should keep his promise.

(incorrect)

❖ One should keep one’s promise.

(correct)



VERBS



RULE 18:

In optative Sentences, singular subject

takes plural verb.

Example:

❖ Long live the Queen.

(‘live‘ = plural verb, ‘queen‘ = singular

subject)

RULE 20:

A number of / ‘a large number of ‘/ ‘a

great number of’ is used

with plural countable noun. Hence

they will take plural verb.

Examples:

❖ A number of students were present.

(correct)

Note: A number of denotes the

number of plural countable noun.

It will take singular verb.

Examples:

❖ The number of boys are fifty.

(incorrect)

❖ The number of boys is fifty.

(correct)

RULE 19:

With uncountable nouns we use

‘Amount of /Quantity of’ followed by

a singular verb.

Examples:

❖ The amount of money are not

sufficient. (Incorrect)

❖ The amount of money is not

sufficient. (correct)



VERBS



RULE 21:

‘All‘ can be used in both countable and uncountable sense. When used

as uncountable, it takes singular verb and when used as countable, it

takes plural verb..

Examples:

❖ All is well that ends well.

❖ All are well at home.



VERBS



RULE 22:

Scenery, Poetry, Furniture, Advice, Information, Hair, Business, Mischief,

Bread, Stationery, Crockery, Luggage, Baggage, Postage, Knowledge,

Wastage, Jewelry, Breakage, Equipment, Evidence, Work (works means literary

pieces), News, Percentage, Dirt, Dust, Traffic, Electricity, Music, Confectionery,

pottery, Bakery, Behaviour, Word (When used in sense of discussion) Fuel and

Cost are uncountable nouns and hence will take singular verb. These nouns will

not take articles like ‘A/An‘, ‘many‘, ‘few‘, ‘number of‘, and ‘plural form‘.

Examples:

❖ The scenery of Kashmir has enchanted us.

❖ I passed the exam but the percentage of marks was not good.

❖ The mischief committed by him is unpardonable.

Such nouns have no plural form but sometimes we need the singular/plural

form of some of these nouns. The singular/plural form is made by adding

certain words before the uncountable nouns.

Examples:

❖ All pieces of information given by her were reliable.

❖ Many kinds of furniture are available in that shop.



VERBS



RULE 23:

Certain nouns exist in plural forms only. Thus ‘s’ cannot be removed from

such nouns to make then singular. They take plural verb with them.

Scissors, tongs, pliers, bellows, trousers, pants, pajamas, shorts, Spectacles,

goggles, binoculars, sunglasses, gallows, fangs, alms, amends, archives, arrears,

auspices, congratulations, embers, fireworks, lodgings, outskirts, particulars,

proceeds, regards, riches, remains, savings, shambles, surroundings, tidings,

troops, tactics, thanks, valuables, wages, belongings, braces, etc.

Examples:

❖ Where are my pants?

❖ Where are the tongs?

❖ The proceeds were deposited in the bank.

RULE 24:

News, innings, politics, summons, physics, economics, ethics, mathematics,

mumps, measles, rickets, shingles, billiards, athletics are certain nouns that

are plural in form but singular in meaning. They take singular verb.

Example: No news is good news.



VERBS



RULE 25:

Cattle, cavalry, infantry, poultry, peasantry, children, gentry, police, and

people are certain nouns that are singular in form but plural in meaning. Examples:

❖ Cattle are grazing in the field.

❖ Our infantry have marched forward.

❖ Police have arrested the thieves.

RULE 26:

Deer, sheep, series, species, fish, crew, team, jury, aircraft, counsel, are

certain nouns that are used in both singular and plural form. If they are used

in a singular sense, they take a singular verb and if they are used in the

plural sense, they take a plural verb.

Example:

❖ Our team is the best./Our team are trying their new uniform.

❖ There are two fish in the pond.

❖ There are many fishes in the aquarium. (Here the word ‘fishes‘ refers to different

species of fish.)



VERBS



RULE 27:

WORDS NOUN / PRONOUN VERBS

No + U.N Singular Verb

No + S.C.N Singular Verb

One-third of /three-fourth

of / The rest of /A quarter

of / Part of / Ten percent of

/ Twenty percent of

+ U.N. Singular Verb

One-third of / three-fourth

of / Part of / Ten percent of

/ Twenty percent of

+ P.C.N Plural Verb

Most of / Some / Some of /

Half of / Enough / Enough

of / Not enough of / Plenty

of / A lot of / Lots of

+ P.C.N Singular Verb

U.N = UNCOUNTABLE NOUN ; S.C.N = SINGULAR

COUNTABLE NOUN; P.C.N = PLURAL COUNTABLE NOUN



VERBS



RULE 27:

WORDS NOUN / PRONOUN VERBS

Most of / Some / Some of /

Half of / Enough / Enough

of / Not enough of / Plenty

of / A lot of / Lots of

+ U.N Plural Verb

The percentage of + U.N./P.C.N Singular Verb

More than one + S.C.N Singular Verb

More than two/three etc. + P.C.N Plural Verb

More + P.C.N + Than

one

Plural Verb

U.N = UNCOUNTABLE NOUN ; S.C.N = SINGULAR

COUNTABLE NOUN; P.C.N = PLURAL COUNTABLE NOUN



VERBS



The following sentences show how the rules given in the table are followed:

1. No air is present on Mars.

2. No students was interesting in taking the exam.

3. One-third of the word has been finished.

4. One-third of the students have passed.

5. Ninety percent of the work is done.

6. Most of the knowledge is gained by experience.

7. Most of the girls are absent today.

8. Ninety percent of the students have passed the exam with good

marks.

9. Half of the candidates have passed with flying colors.

10. Some of the students have no taken the exam

11. The percentage of successful candidates is less.

12. More than one city was ruined.

13. More cities than one were in ruins.

14. More than two thieves have been caught.

15. More plans than one were made.



MODIFIERS


Do you feel

modified? Of

course, you are!

When I mention

“modified”, I mean

to ask whether you

feel any change in

yourself after this

wonderful journey

that we have

experienced since

last some lessons.

I bet, you do.

So, let’s travel to

another point

where we will

explore

“MODIFIERS”

So, what does “modifier”

means?

Generally, “Modifier”

means something that

makes changes to

something.

Similarly, in grammar, a

“MODIFIER” changes,

clarifies, qualifies, or limits a

particular word in a sentence

in order to add emphasis,

explanation, or detail.

To illustrate the power of modifiers, consider the

following simple sentence:

Sarah was a sure fit for junior prom queen.

Now consider the same sentence with multiple modifiers

added: The blonde girl named Sarah, who was a foreign

exchange student from England, quickly climbed the

ladder of popularity during her junior year, smiling her

way through cheerleading and an ASB presidency term

she inched near the top and was a sure fit as junior

prom queen.

The additional details in the sentence, by way of

modifiers, engage the reader and hold their attention.



MODIFIERS


A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes something or makes its

meaning more specific. To be specific, a modifier is either an adjective or an adverb.



MODIFIERS


ADJECTIVES

An adjective describes or modifies noun/s and pronoun/s in a sentence. It

normally indicates quality, size, shape, duration, feelings, contents, and more

about a noun or pronoun.

Adjectives are words that describe or modify other words, making your writing

and speaking much more specific, and a whole lot more interesting. Words like

small, blue, and sharp are descriptive, and they are all examples of adjectives.

Because adjectives are used to identify or quantify individual people and unique

things, they are usually positioned before the noun or pronoun that they modify.

Adjectives usually provide relevant information about the nouns/pronouns they

modify/describe by answering the questions: What kind? How many? Which

one? How much? Adjectives enrich your writing by adding precision and

originality to it.

Example:

❖ The team has a dangerous batsman. (What kind?)

❖ I have ten candies in my pocket. (How many?)

❖ I loved that red car. (Which one?)

❖ I earn more money than he does. (How much?)



MODIFIERS


ADJECTIVES



MODIFIERS


DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES

A descriptive adjective is a word which describes nouns and pronouns. Most of

the adjectives belong in this type. These adjectives provide information and

attribute to the nouns/pronouns they modify or describe. Descriptive adjectives

are also called qualitative adjectives.

The descriptive adjectives can be simply defined as the type of adjectives that

are used to express the size, color, or shape of a person, a thing, an animal, or

a place. They are used to provide more information to a noun by describing or

modifying it.

a descriptive adjective adds meaning to the noun that it modifies. This kind of

adjective describes a noun in detail by giving an attribute to that particular word.

You should know that descriptive adjectives usually express things that are

observable through the five senses (touch, taste, sight, smell, and sound).

Participles are also included in this type of adjective when they modify a noun.

Examples:

I have a fast car. (The word ‘fast’ is describing an attribute of the car)

I am hungry. (The word ‘hungry’ is providing information about the subject)

The hungry cats are crying.

I saw a flying Eagle.



MODIFIERS



FUNCTIONS OF DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES:

As the name suggests, the descriptive adjective is a kind of adjectives which is

used to describe a noun. It does not only add meaning or provide additional

information to a noun, but adds color to the entire text in general. Since there are a

lot of nouns in the English language, there is also a very long list of descriptive

adjectives available that can modify them.



MODIFIERS



There are two types of Descriptive Adjectives:

ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES

An attributive adjective modifies a noun, and comes before that noun, in the first

position.

They are called "attributive" because they tell the qualities or attributes of nouns.

It is possible to leave attribute adjectives out of the sentence - they are optional

additions.

Examples:

❖ He was carrying two big cardboard boxes.

❖ Sweet, ripe, red strawberries are my favorite!

❖ The beautiful new beach house is on an island!

❖ When I turn sixteen, I want a fast red sports car!

❖ We have to read seven long, difficult books by next Tuesday!

If you can, though, it's a really good idea to use attributive adjectives, because

they give your audience more information about the nouns, so that they can

picture what you are talking.



MODIFIERS



There are two types of Descriptive Adjectives:

PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVES

Predicative adjectives go after the verb, in the second position.

They often function as the object of the verb. Since the verb and the object are

the predicate of the sentence, we use the term "predicative."

They are describing the subject of the sentence.

These adjectives are essential information in the sentence - in fact, the goal of

sentences is usually to share this information.

Examples:

❖ This milk smells rotten.

❖ That movie star is handsome.

❖ The store is too far to go on foot.

❖ Our teachers seem tired on Mondays.

❖ I hate it when our school books are so boring.

These adjectives are not optional - they play the role of predicate, so they

cannot be left out.



MODIFIERS


Limiting adjectives help to define, or "limit," a noun or pronoun. They tell "which

one," "what kind," "how many," or "whose."

Limiting adjectives RESTRICT nouns rather than DESCRIBING them. They can

point out a specific object (the cat, this house, my car) or set a numerical limit to it

(two dogs, the third book). This, some and first are all examples of limiting

adjectives.

Now, since both Descriptive adjectives and Limiting adjectives modify nouns and

pronouns, how to tell whether an adjective is descriptive or limiting?

LIMITING ADJECTIVES

Descriptive adjectives – as their name implies – describe places, people and

things relating to their color, size, shape, and the like. They add meaning to the

noun or pronoun that they modify and come right before it. For instance, in the

phrase “a new car” the word “new” is a descriptive adjective as it defines the noun

“car” and describes its age or state.

Example: The fat boy teased the small kids in the park.

‘Fat’ is a descriptive adjective, it modifies the noun ‘boy’; ‘small’ is a descriptive

adjective, it modifies the noun ‘kids’, both of them relate to size.



MODIFIERS


LIMITING ADJECTIVES

Limiting adjectives, or determining adjectives (often classified as determiners),

limit the meaning of nouns or pronouns they modify. They tell “which one,” “how

much,” “how many,” or “whose.” For example, notice how the limiting adjective

‘four’ in the following sentence restricts the meaning of the noun ‘women’.

Four women were talking in the street.

The word ‘four’ is a limiting adjective as it limits the noun ‘women’ to definite

numbers.

Lets explore different types of limiting adjectives.



MODIFIERS


ARTICLES

The first type of Limiting Adjectives is Articles.

An article is a word used to modify a noun, which is a person, place, object, or

idea. Technically, an article is an adjective, which is any word that modifies a noun.

Usually adjectives modify nouns through description, but articles are used instead

to point out or refer to nouns.

There are two different types of articles that we use in writing and conversation to

point out or refer to a noun or group of nouns:



MODIFIERS


ARTICLES

DEFINITE ARTICLE

This article is the word 'the,' and it refers directly to a specific noun or groups of

nouns.

EXAMPLES:

❖ The freckles on my face

❖ The alligator in the pond

❖ The breakfast burrito on my plate

Each noun or group of nouns being referred to - in these cases freckles,

alligator, and breakfast burrito - is direct and specific.

INDEFINITE ARTICLES

Indefinite articles are the words 'a' and 'an.' Each of these articles is used to

refer to a noun, but the noun being referred to is not a specific person, place,

object, or idea. It can be any noun from a group of nouns.

EXAMPLES:

❖ A Mercedes from the car lot

❖ An event in history

In each case, the noun is not specific. The Mercedes could be any Mercedes

car available for purchase, and the event could be any event in the history of

the world.



MODIFIERS


ARTICLES

Articles determine the standard of nouns. Therefore, they are called as determiners.

RULES OF USING ARTICLES

Using Indefinite Article: a & an:

Rule 1: A common noun in the singular number always requires an article before

it. But a plural common noun does not require an article always.

Examples:

❖ I saw a snake. (Refers to a random snake)

❖ I saw snakes in a zoo. (No article is required)

❖ I have seen the snake again. (Refers to the snake I have already seen earlier)

❖ I have seen the snakes again before leaving the zoo. (Refers to the particular

snakes of the zoo which I saw earlier.)

Rule 2: The choice between the two indefinite articles – a & an – is determined by

sound. Words beginning with consonant sounds precede ‘a’ and words beginning

with vowel sounds precede ‘an’. There are some special cases also.

Examples:

❖ a university, a union, a useful book, etc.

❖ an MA, a BA, an LLB, a BSC, etc.



MODIFIERS


ARTICLES

Rule 3: A or an - sometimes makes a Proper Noun a Common Noun. Proper

nouns generally do not take any articles, but when a proper noun needs to be

used as a common noun, you must bring a or an - for it.

Examples:

❖ He thinks he is a Shakespeare. (Here, ‘Shakespeare’ does not refer to the

actual person but someone like him.)

❖ He seems to be an Australian. (‘Australia’ is a proper noun but ‘Australian’ is a

common noun because there is only one Australia but a million of Australians.)

Rule 4: Sometimes indefinite articles are used to refer the number

one’/’each’/’per’.

Examples:

❖ I earned a thousand dollar in that job. (One thousand dollar)

❖ I have a car. (One car)

❖ It goes 50 miles an hour. (Per Hour)

Rule 5: Indefinite articles often precede descriptive adjectives.

Examples:

❖ He is a good boy.

❖ What a nice car!



MODIFIERS


ARTICLES

Rule 6: ‘A’ sometimes comes before determiners, for example, a few, a little, a lot

of, a most, etc. but in the case of many, a or an - comes after.

Examples:

❖ I have a few friends coming over.

❖ There is a little milk in the jar.

❖ Many a fan welcomed



MODIFIERS


ARTICLES

Using Definite Article: the

Rule 1: ‘The’ is used to indicate a particular person(s) or thing(s) in the case of

common nouns. Proper nouns generally do not take an article.

Examples:

❖ The man is running. (A particular man)

❖ I saw the boy stealing.

❖ Where is the pen I gave you last year?

❖ I gave him a ball, but he lost the ball. (‘a ball’ became ‘the ball’ in the second

clause because that ball was not a random ball anymore.)

Rule 2: Sometimes ‘the’ is used to generalize a group/whole class.

Examples:

❖ The dog is a faithful animal. (Refers to the whole species of dog.)

❖ The English are industrious. (Refers to the people of England as a nation)

Rule 3: To particularize a non-count noun ‘the’ is required before it.

Examples:

❖ The water of the Arctic ocean is freezing.

❖ Please return the money I lent you last year.



MODIFIERS


ARTICLES

Rule 4: ‘The’ is mandatory before a thing which is only one of a kind in the

universe.

Examples:

❖ The moon is shining tonight.

❖ The earth is moving around the sun.



MODIFIERS


ARTICLES

Rule 5: Use of ‘the’ before geographical places :

Using ‘the’ with geographical nouns generally depends on the size and plurality

of the things those nouns refer to. ‘So, it’s better to know those exceptions first.

‘The’ must not precede:

❖ Names of continents: Asia, Europe, Australia, Africa, South America, North

America, Antarctica.

❖ Names of countries: Australia, Bolivia, England, France, Spain, etc.

❖ Names of states, cities, or towns: Los Angeles, Alaska, Sydney, London,

❖ Names of streets: George street, Albion Street, New town street,

❖ Names of singular lakes and bays: Lake Carey, Lake Eyre, Lake Hillier,

Shark Bay,

❖ Names of single mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Solitary, Mount Bindo,

Mount Fuji, etc.

❖ Names of single islands: Easter Island, Bare Island, Bird Island, Fatima

Island,

❖ Names of languages: Spanish, Russian, English, (When ‘the’ precedes

these nouns, they refer to the population of those languages.)

❖ Names of sports: cricket, football, basketball,

❖ Names of discipline/subject of studies: biology, history, mathematics.



MODIFIERS


ARTICLES

‘The’ must precede:

❖ Names of oceans, gulfs, seas, and rivers: the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Coral

Sea, the Timor Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Nile, the Murray River, the Darling

River, etc.

❖ Names of countries with united states or islands: the United States of America

(the USA), the UK, the UAE, the Philippines, etc.

❖ Names of great lakes: the Great Lakes, the African Great Lakes

❖ Names of mountain ranges: the Himalayas, the Alps, the Andes, etc.

❖ Names of a group of Islands: the West Indies, the Andamans, etc.



MODIFIERS




MODIFIERS


POSSESIVE ADJECTIVES

A possessive adjective indicates

possession or ownership. It suggests the

belongingness of something to

someone/something.

Some of the most used possessive

adjectives are my, his, her, our, their,

your.

All these adjectives always come before a

noun.

Examples:

❖ My car is parked outside.

❖ His cat is very cute.

❖ Our job is almost done.

❖ Her books are interesting.

In the sentence, 'The dog chewed up my

new sneakers,' the word 'my' is a

possessive adjective that tells us who

owns the shoes. It limits the noun to the

ownership of a specific person.

Personal Pronoun

Possessive Form

Possessive Adjective

Possessive Pronoun

I my mine

you your yours

he his his

she her hers

it its [not used]

we our ours

they their theirs

who whose whose



MODIFIERS


DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES

A demonstrative adjective is a special

adjective (often called a determiner) that

identifies a noun or pronoun by

expressing its position as near or far

(including in time). The demonstrative

adjectives are 'this,' 'that,' 'these,' and

'those.‘

Examples:

❖ That building is so gorgeously

decorated. (‘That’ refers to a singular

noun far from the speaker)

❖ This car is mine. (‘This’ refers to a

singular noun close to the speaker)

❖ These cats are cute. (‘These’ refers to

a plural noun close to the speaker)

❖ I will remember this day forever.

("This" tells us the day is near; i.e.,

today.)



MODIFIERS


INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES

Like the articles a and an, indefinite

adjectives are used to discuss non-

specific things.

An indefinite adjective describes or

modifies a noun unspecific ally. They

provide indefinite/unspecific information

about the noun. The common indefinite

adjectives are few, many, much, most, all,

any, each, every, either, nobody, several,

some, etc. You might recognize them,

since they’re formed from indefinite

pronouns.

Examples:

❖ I want a few moments alone.

❖ Several writers wrote about the recent

incidents.

❖ Each student will have to submit

homework tomorrow.



MODIFIERS


INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES

An interrogative adjective is a word that

modifies a noun by asking a question.

Interrogative adjectives are also known as

interrogative determiners.

An interrogative adjective must be

followed by a noun or a pronoun. The

interrogative adjectives are: which, what,

whose. These words will not be

considered as adjectives if a noun does

not follow right after them.

Examples:

❖ Which phone do you use?

❖ What game do you want to play?

❖ Whose car is this?

Use "what" when the options are

unknown. Use "which" when the options

are known.



MODIFIERS


NUMERAL ADJECTIVES

Numerals are adjectival words which are used to express the relation of number

and quantity.

They are useful in denoting the number of nouns (people or things) or the order in

which they stand and maintain clarity by giving exact information.

There are two types of Numerals – Cardinal and Ordinal.

CARDINAL NUMERALS:

The Cardinal numerals (such as one, two, three, etc.) express number in its

simplest form, and answer the question “how many?” as, one, two, three, four, and

so on indefinitely.



MODIFIERS


NUMERAL ADJECTIVES

ORDINAL NUMERALS

Also known as ordinals, the ordinal numerals indicate a series of entities, and

answer the question “which one in the series?” as— first, second, third, fourth etc.



MODIFIERS


PROPER ADJECTIVES

Proper adjectives are the adjective

form of proper nouns. When proper

nouns modify or describe other

nouns/pronouns, they become

proper adjectives. ‘Proper’ means

‘specific’ rather than ‘formal’ or

‘polite.’

Examples:

❖ American cars are very strong.

❖ Chinese people are hard

workers.

❖ I love KFC burgers.

❖ Marxist philosophers despise

capitalism.

proper adjectives:

❖ are derived from proper nouns

❖ act just like adjectives

❖ should be capitalized



MODIFIERS


NOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES

As you know, a noun is a person, place or thing, and an adjective is a word that

describes a noun. However, sometimes in the English language, a noun is used

to describe another noun; in other words, the first noun performs the function of

an adjective. Look at the following examples:

– Basketball coach – here the noun basketball is being used to describe the

noun coach.

– Garment shop – here the noun garment is being used to describe the noun

shop.

– Painting exhibition – here the noun painting is being used to describe the noun

exhibition.

RULES:

Rule 1:

The ‘nouns as an adjective’ always come first or before the second or main

noun. Let’s see a few more examples:

– A cricket bat

– A soccer ball



MODIFIERS



Rule 2:

In general, like adjectives, nouns being used as adjectives are used in the

singular form, although in the case of certain words, like clothes, customs,

sports, etc., an exception is made. For example:

– Bathroom or bathrooms, and not bathsroom or bathsrooms

– Badminton racket or badminton rackets, and not badmintons racket or

badmintons rackets

In short, the plural form will always appear on the second noun only.

Some nouns are always written or spoken in the plural forms, but we generally

treat them as a singular form. For example:

– A billiards player

– A news editor

Some nouns are always treated in the plural forms when used as an adjective.

For example:– Sports museum

– Clothes outlet



MODIFIERS



Rule 3:

Multiple nouns can also be used as adjectives. For example:

– School cricket team coach

– Motor production cost

– Child health care research center



MODIFIERS


ORDER OF ADJECTIVES

When two or more adjectives are strung together, they should be ordered according

to the following list:

ORDER TYPE OF ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES

1

Article,Demonstrative

Determiner, orPossessive

Determiner

a, an, the, this, that, those,

these, my, your, his, our

2 Quantity one, three, ninety-nine

3 Opinion or Observationbeautiful, clever, witty, well-

mannered

4 Size big, medium-sized, small

5 Physical Quality thin, lumpy, cluttered

6 Shape square, round, long

7 Age young, middle-aged, old

8 Colour/Color red, blue, purple

9 Origin or Religion French, Buddhist

10 Material metal, leather, wooden

11 TypeL-shaped, two-sided, all-

purpose

12 Purpose, orAttributive Nounmixing, drinking, cooking

service, football, head



https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/articles.htm

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/demonstrative_adjective.htm

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/possessive_adjectives.htm

MODIFIERS


Here is an example of a 14-adjective string (shaded) that is ordered correctly:

my two lovely XL thin tubular new white Spanish metallic hinged correcting knee

braces.



MODIFIERS


DEGREE OF ADJECTIVES

Adjectives have three degrees that compare one thing to another.

Every adjective has three degrees of its own. They are : Positive, Comparative,

Superlative degrees.

1. The Positive Degree

The positive degree of an adjective makes no comparison. In positive degree, the

adjective is said to be in its base form.

❖ A tall building.

❖ She runs fast.

❖ This is a beautiful car.

2. The Comparative Degree

The comparative degree compares two people, things, actives, or qualities.

❖ A taller building than this one.

❖ She runs faster than I do.

❖ This car is more beautiful than yours.



MODIFIERS


DEGREE OF ADJECTIVES

Adjectives have three degrees that compare one thing to another.

Every adjective has three degrees of its own. They are : Positive, Comparative,

Superlative degrees.

3. The Superlative Degree

The superlative degree compares a person, thing, activity, or quality with the group.

An adjective is in superlative degree when it is used to compare more than two

nouns/pronouns. We use the article 'the' before the superlative degrees.

❖ The tallest building in the town.

❖ She is the fastest runner among the students.

❖ This is the most beautiful car I have ever seen.



MODIFIERS


RULES FOR MAKING COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

One syllable adjectives.

1. Form the comparative and superlative forms of a one-syllable adjective by adding –

er for the comparative form and –est for the superlative.

One-Syllable Adjectives

Positive Comparative Superlative

tall taller tallest

old older oldest

short shorter shortest



MODIFIERS




2. If the one-syllable adjective ends with an –e, just add –r for the comparative form

and –st for the superlative form.

One-Syllable Adjectives With an -e


large larger largest

wise wiser wisest

wide wider widest



MODIFIERS




3. If the one-syllable adjective ends with a single consonant with a vowel before it,

double the consonant and add –er for the comparative form and double the

consonant and add –est for the superlative form.

One-Syllable Adjectives With Single Consonant and a Vowel Before it


thin thinner thinnest

big bigger biggest

sad sadder saddest



MODIFIERS



Two syllable adjectives.

1. With most two-syllable adjectives, you form the comparative with more and the

superlative with most.

Two-Syllable Adjectives


peaceful more peaceful most peaceful

careless more careless most careless

famous more famous most famous



MODIFIERS




2. If the two-syllable adjectives ending with –y, change the y to “i” and add –er for the

comparative form, and for the superlative form change the “y” to “i” and add –est.

Two-Syllable Adjectives Ends with -y


pretty prettier prettiest

happy happier happiest

angry angrier angriest



MODIFIERS




3. Two-syllable adjectives ending in –er, -le, or –ow take –er for the comparative form

and –est to for the superlative form.

Two-Syllable Adjectives Ending in -er, le or ow


clever cleverer cleverest

narrow narrower narrowest

gentle gentler gentlest



MODIFIERS



Three syllable adjectives.

1. For adjectives with three syllables or more, you form the comparative with more

and the superlative with most.

Three-Syllable Adjectives


beautiful more beautiful most beautiful

convenient more convenient most convenient

comfortable more comfortable most comfortable



MODIFIERS



Some adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms.

Irregular Comparative and Superlative Forms


Good better best

bad worse worst

many more most

much more most

well better best

far farther farthest/furthest

little less least



MODIFIERS


Since, Adverbs are modifiers, they must modify words like adjectives.

An adverb is a word/a set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, and other

adverbs. It tells when, where, and how an action is performed or indicates the

quality or degree of the action.

Examples:

❖ Robin is always hungry for success.

❖ I love her very much.

❖ He is running fast.

❖ Alex works hard.

❖ He wrote that willingly.

Adverbs can tell you how something is done, for example, speak nicely or work

hard. Adverbs can also tell you how much or how many of something you have.

A good way to understand adverbs is to think about them as the words that

provide context. Specifically, adverbs provide a description of how, where,

when, in what manner and to what extent something is done or happens.

Normally, we can spot an adverb by the fact that it often ends in –ly, but there

are lots of adverbs that don’t end in this way. Moreover, adverbs can be used in

many combinations with each other.

ADVERBS



MODIFIERS


Traditionally considered a single part

of speech, adverbs perform a wide

variety of functions, making it difficult

to treat them as a single, unified

category. However, spotting an

adverb, especially one that ends in -

ly is easy. Adverbs normally help

paint a fuller picture by describing

how something happens, such as:

❖ When? She always arrives early.

❖ How? He drives carefully.

❖ Where? They go everywhere

together.

❖ In what way? She eats slowly.

❖ To what extent? It is terribly hot.

This function of providing more

information about how something is

done is called the adverbial function

ADVERBS



MODIFIERS


There are many rules for using adverbs, and these rules often depend upon

which type of adverb you are using. Remember these basics and using adverbs

to make sentences more meaningful will be easier for you.

❖ Adverbs can always be used to modify verbs. Notice that the second of these

two sentences is much more interesting simply because it contains an

adverb:

➢ The dog ran. (You can picture a dog running, but you don’t really know

much more about the scene.)

➢ The dog ran excitedly. (You can picture a dog running, wagging its tail,

panting happily, and looking glad to see its owner. You can paint a much

more interesting picture in your head when you know how or why the

dog is running.)

❖ Adverbs are often formed by adding the letters “-ly” to adjectives. This makes

it very easy to identify adverbs in sentences. There are many exceptions to

this rule; everywhere, nowhere, and upstairs are a few examples.

❖ An adverb can be used to modify an adjective and intensify the meaning it

conveys. For example: He plays tennis well. (He knows how to play tennis

and sometimes he wins.)

ADVERBS



MODIFIERS


ADVERBS



MODIFIERS


TYPES OF ADVERBS

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

SENTENCE ADVERBS:

ADVERBS OF TIME/FREQUENCY (WHEN?)

ADVERBS OF PLACE/DIRECTION (WHERE?)

ADVERBS OF DEGREE (HOW MUCH?)

ADVERBS OF MANNER (HOW?)

ADVERBS OF PURPOSE



MODIFIERS


CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

Conjunctive adverbs are parts of speech that are used to connect one clause to

another. They are also used to show sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and

other relationships.

It provides transitions between ideas and shows relationships. Conjunctive

adverbs are also called connectors.

Examples:

❖ It rained last night. Nonetheless, the final match has not been canceled.

❖ We are still confused, however, if the umpires will come.

❖ Jeremy kept talking in class; therefore, he got in trouble.

❖ She went into the store; however, she didn’t find anything she wanted to buy.

❖ I like you a lot; in fact, I think we should be best friends.

❖ Your dog got into my yard; in addition, he dug up my petunias.

❖ You’re my friend; nonetheless, I feel like you’re taking advantage of me.

❖ My car payments are high; on the other hand, I really enjoy driving such a

nice vehicle.

Lets look at the rules of using these kind of adverbs.



MODIFIERS


CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

RULES FOR USING CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS FOLLOW

❖ Always use a period or semicolon before the conjunctive adverb when

separating two independent clauses. Conjunctive adverbs are not strong

enough to join independent clauses without supporting punctuation.

❖ Use a comma if a conjunction such as and, but, or, or so appears between the

conjunctive adverb and the first clause.

❖ Use a comma behind conjunctive adverbs when they appear at the beginning

of a sentence’s second clause. The only exception to this rule is that no

comma is necessary if the adverb is a single syllable.

❖ If a conjunctive adverb appears in the middle of a clause, it should be enclosed

in commas most of the time. This is not an absolute rule and does not normally

apply to short clauses.

A clause is a group of words with a subject-verb unit; the 2nd group of words

contains the subject-verb unit the bus goes, so it is a clause. A phrase is a group of

words without a subject-verb unit.



MODIFIERS


SENTENCE ADVERBS

A sentence adverb starts the sentence and modifies the whole sentence.

Example:

❖ Hopefully, we will win the match.

❖ Apparently, the sky is getting cloudy.

❖ Certainly, I did not think of coming here.

Here in the third sentence, the sentence adverb “certainly” modifies the whole

sentence, and it expresses the speaker's opinion about what is being said. Here

are some more examples:

❖ Clearly, he has no excuse for such behaviour

❖ Frankly, I don't care about your problems

❖ Unfortunately, no refunds can be given

Some sentence adverbs link a sentence with a preceding one:

England played well in the first half. However, in the second half their

weaknesses were revealed.

Other sentence adverbs of this type are accordingly, consequently, hence,

moreover, similarly, and therefore.



MODIFIERS



Adverbs of frequency are used to express time or how often something occurs.

Adverbs of frequency can be split two main groups.

The first, adverbs of indefinite frequency, are terms that have an unclear

meaning as to how long are how often something occurs: usually, always,

normally. These adverbs will usually be placed after the main verb or between

the auxiliary verb and infinitive.

Examples:

❖ The adverb is usually placed before the main verb.

❖ I can normally make the shot.

❖ I will always love

Adverbs of definite frequency will usually be placed at the end of the sentence.

❖ We get paid hourly.

❖ I come here.

❖ The situation seems to change monthly.

❖ The newspaper is bought daily.



MODIFIERS



Adverbs of time, while seemingly similar to adverbs of frequency, tell us when

something happens. Adverbs of time are usually placed at the end of a

sentence.

Examples:

❖ Harvey forgot his lunch yesterday and again today.

❖ I have to go now.

❖ We first met Julie last year.

While it’s almost always correct to have the adverb of time at the end of the

sentence, you can place it at the start of the sentence to put a different

emphasis on the time if it is important to the context.

Examples:

❖ Last year was the worst year of my life.

❖ Tomorrow our fate will be sealed.

❖ Yesterday my troubles seemed so far away.

ADVERBS OF TIME/FREQUENCY answer the question ‘when/how frequently is

the action performed?’.



MODIFIERS



An adverb of place, sometimes called spatial adverbs, will help explain where an

action happens. Adverbs of place will be associated with the action of the verb

in a sentence, providing context for direction, distance and position: southeast,

everywhere, up, left, close by, back, inside, around. These terms don’t usually

end in -ly.

DIRECTIONS:

❖ New York is located north of Philadelphia.

❖ They traveled down the mountainside.

❖ First, I looked here, and then I looked there, but I can’t find them anywhere.

Notice that here and there are often used at the beginning of a sentence to

express emphasis or in exclamation.

❖ Here comes the sun.

❖ There is love in the air.

❖ Here you are!

DISTANCE:

❖ Jane is moving far away.

❖ Carly is sitting close to me.



MODIFIERS



POSITION:

❖ The treasure lies underneath the

box.

❖ The cat is sleeping on the bed.

❖ Why are you standing in the

middle of the dancefloor?

In addition, some adverbs of position

will refer to a direction of movement.

These often end in -ward or -wards.

❖ Oscar travelled onward to Los

Angeles.

❖ Hannah looked upwards to the

heavens.

❖ Molly, move forward to the front of

the queue, please.



MODIFIERS


ADVERBS OF DEGREE (HOW MUCH?)

Adverbs that express the

importance/degree/level of the action

in the sentence are called adverbs of

degree. They answer the question

‘how much is the action performed?’.

Completely, nearly, entirely, less,

mildly, most, thoroughly, somewhat,

excessively, much, etc. are common

adverbs of degree.

Examples:

❖ She completely forgot about her

anniversary.

❖ I read the newspaper thoroughly.

❖ I am so excited about the new job.

❖ Robin hardly studies.



MODIFIERS


ADVERBS OF MANNER (HOW?)

An adverb of manner will explain how

an action is carried out. Very often

adverbs of manner are adjectives

with -ly added to the end, but this is

certainly not always the case. In fact,

some adverbs of manner will have

the same spelling as the adjective

form.

They answer the question ‘how is the

action performed?’.

Beautifully, equally, thankfully,

carefully, handily, quickly, coldly,

hotly, resentfully, earnestly, nicely,

tirelessly, etc. are common adverbs

of manner.



MODIFIERS


ADVERBS OF PURPOSE

Adverbs of purpose, sometimes

called adverbs of reason, help to

describe why something happened.

They can come in the form of

individual words – so, since, thus,

because – but also clauses – so that,

in order to. Notice in the examples

that the adverbs of purpose are used

to connect sentences that wouldn’t

make sense if they were formed

alone.

Examples:

❖ I was sick, thus didn’t go to work

today.

❖ I started jogging so that I wouldn’t

be late.

❖ Because I was late, I jogged a

little faster.



MODIFIERS


POSITIONS OF ADVERBS

The positions of adverbs are not a fixed or set thing. As you have seen,

adverbs can appear in different position in a sentence. However, there are

some rules that help us decide where an adverb should be positioned. The

rules will be different depending on whether the adverb is acting to modify an

adjective or another adverb, a verb or what type of adverb it is.

ADVERB POSITION WITH ADJECTIVES AND OTHER ADVERBS

These adverbs will usually be placed before the adjective or adverb being

modified:

❖ We gave them a really tough match. The adverb really modifies the adjective

tough.

❖ It was quite windy that night. The adverb quite modifies the adjective windy.

❖ We don’t go to the movies terribly often. The adverb terribly modifies the

adverb often.



MODIFIERS


POSITIONS OF ADVERBS

ADVERB POSITION WITH VERBS

This can be a bit trickier because, it will depend on the type of adverb – place,

position, time etc. – and there are many exceptions to the rules. However, a

basic set of guidelines is shown below:

❖ Adverbs of manner or place are usually positioned at the end of the

Sentence:

She laughed timidly.

I stroked the cat gently.

Janine lived here.

There is money everywhere.

As mentioned, if the adverb is of definite time it will be placed at the end of the

sentence.

❖ I did it yesterday.

❖ We can discuss it tomorrow.

❖ Let’s go to Paris next week.

However, if it is an indefinite period of time, it will go between the subject and

main verb.

❖ We often go to Paris in the springtime.



MODIFIERS


ORDER OF ADVERBS

Adverb order is so important it has clear rules. It’s already mentioned that some

adverbs will act to modify another, but how do you decide the structure of a

sentence with several adverbs? Thankfully, there is a simple set of rules to

follow, called the order of adverbs. Handily, the order of adverbs, sometimes

also called the royal order of adverbs, can help us determine sentence structure

too. In short, the adverbs get preference (are placed first) in the following order:

1. Adverbs of manner.

2. Adverbs of place.

3. Adverbs of frequency.

4. Adverbs of time.

5. Adverbs of purpose.

Consider this sentence:

I run (verb) quickly (manner) down the road (place) every morning (frequency)

before school (time) because (purpose) I might miss the bus.

While it is good to remember the order of adverbs, there is always flexibility with

language, and we have already mentioned that adverbs of time and frequency

can be placed at the start of a sentence to change the emphasis. So, bottom

line: think of the order of adverbs as more of a guideline than a rule that can’t be

broken.



MODIFIERS


There are three degrees of comparison in adverbs the positive, the comparative,

the superlative. The adverbs form their comparatives and superlatives using –er

and –est and more and most. Adverbs that end in –ly use the words more and

most to form their comparatives abd superlatives.

Adverbs follow the same rules that the adjectives follow to form different degrees

of comparison.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS



MODIFIERS


There are three forms of adverbs: adverbs formed by adding -ly to an adjective,

adverbs that share identical words with an adjective, and adverbs not derived from

an adjective or any other word.

FORMS OF ADVERBS

1. Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective

❖ He had a sudden heart attack while jogging. (Adjective)

❖ He suddenly had a heart attack while jogging. (Adverb)

❖ She had a quick walk to get there on time. (Adjective)

❖ She walked quickly to get there on time. (Adverb)

2. Adverbs that share identical words with an adjective

❖ He found the exam quite hard. (Adjective)

❖ He failed his exam as he didn't try very hard. (Adverb)

❖ The two brothers live on opposite sides of the city. (Adjective)

❖ She has a brother who lives opposite to her. (Adverb)



MODIFIERS


There are three forms of adverbs: adverbs formed by adding -ly to an adjective,

adverbs that share identical words with an adjective, and adverbs not derived from

an adjective or any other word.

FORMS OF ADVERBS

3. Adverbs such as as, even, how, never, next, now, rather, so, soon, still, then,

too, etc. are not derived from an adjective or any other word.

❖ He doesn't even know where the Pacific Ocean is.

❖ He said he had never been to a circus.

❖ She has got rather a lot of money to spend at this time of the month.

❖ She has eaten two big pizzas and is still hungry.

4. Converting a number of adjectives to adverbs by adding -ly entails removing a

letter as shown in the following:

❖ by adding –ly or –ally to the end of an adjective (quick –quickly, heroic –heroically),

❖ by adding –ly after removing the last –e from an adjective (comfortable–

comfortably, possible–possibly), or

❖ by dropping the last y from an adjective and replacing it with –ily (easy–easily,

happy–happily).



MODIFIERS


Adverbs are also formed from other parts of speech such as noun (accident)and

verb (hurry), and from present participle (frightening).

❖ She deleted my file by accident. (Noun)

❖ She accidentally deleted my file. (Adverb)

❖ Nick hurried to answer the telephone. (Verb)

❖ Nick moved hurriedly to answer the telephone. (Adverb)

❖ He's frightening us with the speed he's driving. (present participle)

❖ He's driving frighteningly close to the edge of the pavement. (Adverb)

FORMS OF ADVERBS



MODIFIERS


A dangling modifier is a type of misplaced modifier. It’s a grammatical error in

which a phrase at the beginning of a sentence doesn’t have the right word to

modify, so it ends up modifying the wrong part of the sentence. When a modifier

dangles, it changes the intended meaning and creates confusion.

Take the following sentence: “Running at top speed, his wig fell off.” In this

example, the clause “running at top speed” is a modifier, and it modifies the

noun phrase immediately after it—in this case, “his wig.” Thus, this sentence

erroneously sounds as if the wig is the thing running at top speed, when really

it’s supposed to be a noun that’s not mentioned in the sentence at all—the man.

Dangling refers to something that has been left hanging awkwardly. A modifier

becomes dangling when the subject being modified by it goes missing. The

subject that is supposed to be modified is absent from the sentence. The writer

of the sentence fails to mention the subject of the modifier. The modifier is left

hanging; it does not get support of the subject it intended to modify.

DANGLING MODIFIERS



MODIFIERS


Resolution – The dangling modifier problem can be resolved when we provide

the modifier with its appropriate subject. Once the modifier receives the support

of this subject, it does not remain dangling any longer

Example:

Incorrect: Walking on the grass, a snake bit him. (‘Walking on the grass’ is the

dangling modifier as the sentence does not mention the person (the subject)

who was walking.)

Correct: While he was walking on the grass, a snake bit him. (Now, ‘he’, the

subject has been mentioned)

Incorrect: When choosing the right coaching institute, many aspects should be

considered. (‘When choosing the right coaching institute’ is the dangling

modifier as the sentence does not mention who is choosing the institute.)

Correct: When choosing the right coaching institute, students should consider

many aspects. (Now, ‘students’, the subject has been mentioned)

DANGLING MODIFIERS



MODIFIERS


RULE 1: To modify a Verb, an Adjective or another Adverb, we use an Adverb.

Carefully is an Adjective which cannot modify the Adverb very, therefore

carefully (Adverb) must be used in place of Adjective careful. Too means more

than required and it is used with Unpleasant Adjective. So, we cannot use too

glad, too happy, too pleasant, too healthy.

For example:

❖ Incorrect- She writes very careful.

❖ Correct- She writes very carefully.

❖ Incorrect- I am too glad to meet you.

❖ Correct- I am very glad to meet you.

RULE 2: A sentence which is based on ”Too and To” format, we cannot replace

“to” with “so that”. If we replace “to” with “so that”, “too” must not be used with

“cannot”.

For example:

❖ Incorrect- He is too weak so that he cannot walk.

❖ Correct- He is too weak to walk. Correct- He is so weak that he cannot walk.

BASIC RULES RELATED TO ADVERBS



MODIFIERS


RULE 3: Much too is followed by Unpleasant Adjective, whereas too much is

followed by Noun.

Much too + Unpleasant Adjective.

Too much + Noun.

For example:

❖ Incorrect- His failure is too much painful for me.

❖ Correct- His failure is much too painful for me.

❖ Incorrect- His wife’s rude behavior gives him much too pain.

❖ Correct- His wife’s rude behavior gives him too much pain.

RULE 4: Quite and all are not used together.

For example:

❖ Incorrect- He is quite all right.

❖ Correct- He is quite right or He is all right




MODIFIERS


RULE 5: A/An + Fairly + Adjective + Noun or Rather + A + Adjective

For example:

❖ a fairly good book

❖ rather a difficult problem.

RULE 6: But we cannot use Pleasant Adjective with rather and Unpleasant

Adjective with fairly. For example,

❖ Incorrect- It was a rather good book.

❖ Correct- It was a fairly good book.

RULE 7: Enough, when used as an Adverb, is preceded by a positive degree

Adjective or Adverb. For example,

❖ Incorrect- He is greater enough to pardon you.

❖ Correct- He is great enough to pardon you.

RULE 8: Two negatives cancel each other. Hence two negatives should not be

used in the same sentence unless we make an affirmation.

❖ Incorrect-I have not got none.

❖ Correct- I have not got any.




MODIFIERS


RULE 9: ‘At present’ means ‘at the present time’, ‘presently’ means ‘soon’.

These should not be confused.

❖ Incorrect- Nothing more can be done presently. Correct- Nothing more can

be done at present.

❖ Incorrect- He will come back at present. Correct- He will come back

presently.

RULE 10: ‘Much’ is used before past participles and Adjectives or Adverbs of

comparative degree. ‘Very’ is used before the present participles and Adjectives

and Adverbs of positive degree.

❖ Incorrect- The news is much surprising. Correct- The news is very surprising.

❖ Incorrect-I was very surprised at hearing the news. Correct- I was much

surprised at hearing the news.

RULE 11: Hardly is an Adverb which means rarely. Whereas hard is an

Adjective which means tough, rigid. For example,

❖ Incorrect- It is a hardly job.

❖ Correct- It is a hard




MODIFIERS


RULE 12: Ago is always used with Past Indefinite Tense. So, if ago is used in a

sentence, that sentence must be in the Past Indefinite Tense. For example,

❖ Incorrect- He has come a month ago.

❖ Correct- He came a month ago.

RULE 13: Early means “just after the beginning of anything” and soon means

just after a point of time. For example,

❖ Roses bloomed early this spring.

❖ Come back soon after completing your work

RULE 14: The sentence which starts with seldom, never, hardly, rarely or

scarcely takes an inverse structure, (i.e) Verb + Subject – Structure. For

example,

❖ Incorrect- Seldom I had seen such a beautiful sight.

❖ Correct- Seldom had I seen such a beautiful sight.

RULE 15: Inversion is also used in a sentence which starts with here/there/

away/out/up/indoor or outdoor and Main Verb, or Aux + Main Verb is used

before the Subject. For example,

❖ Incorrect- Away Sita went

❖ Correct- Away went Sita.




SPEECH


I bet, everyone

present here with

me must have

given a speech,

either in school or

somewhere else.

Even I remember,

how I used to get

Goosebumps

when I used to get

called to deliver a

speech in front of

an audience.

So, lets begin our

Bon Voyage, to

another stop called

as

“SPEECH”.

So, what does “Speech”

means?

Speech is the expression of or

the ability to express thoughts

and feelings by articulate

sounds.

But, we definitely do not want this meaning in our

context.

Almost every person has a voice. Therefore, everyone

speaks. Now, what a person speaks or says, is

sometimes needed or wished to be described by

someone to someone else.

There are many occasions in which we need to describe

an event or action that happened, and very often that

includes repeating what someone said.

In order to describe what people said there are two

different types of speech – direct speech and indirect

speech (or reported speech).



SPEECH


Basically, we need to learn about

“speech” so that we could narrate the

spoken words of a person in a correct

and meaningful way.

So, there are two ways to narrate:

These two ways are usually used to convey

a message of one person to another. For

example, you are at your college. Mr.

Krishna, your teacher, says to you: “I want

to meet your parents.” When you come

home, you will inform your parents in

following to says:

Direct Speech: Mr. Krishna said, “I want to

meet your parents”

Indirect Speech: Mr. Krishna said that he

wanted to meet my parents.



SPEECH


DIRECT SPEECH

Direct speech is exactly what it sounds like—text that reports the exact thoughts

expressed by a person in their original form. It is often enclosed in quotation

marks so that the reader understands that the quoted text is the speaker's

original narrative.

When we want to describe what someone said, one option is to use direct

speech. We use direct speech when we simply repeat what someone says,

putting the phrase between speech marks: Paul came in and said, “I’m really

hungry.”

It is very common to see direct speech used in books or in a newspaper article.

For example:

❖ The local MP said, “We plan to make this city a safer place for everyone.”

As you can see, with direct speech it is common to use the verb ‘to say’ (‘said’ in

the past). But you can also find other verbs used to indicate direct speech such

as ‘ask’, ‘reply’, and ‘shout’. For example:

❖ When Mrs Diaz opened the door, I asked, “Have you seen Lee?”

❖ She replied, “No, I haven’t seen him since lunchtime.”

❖ The boss was angry and shouted, “Why isn’t he here? He hasn’t finished that

report yet!”



SPEECH


INDIRECT SPEECH

When we want to report what someone said without speech marks and without

necessarily using exactly the same words, we can use indirect speech (also

called reported speech). Indirect speech is also known as reported speech,

indirect narration, or indirect discourse. In grammar, when you report someone

else’s statement in your own words without any change in the meaning of the

statement, it is called indirect speech.

For example:

Direct speech: “We’re quite cold in here.”

Indirect speech: They say (that) they’re cold.

When we report what someone says in the present simple, as in the above

sentence, we normally don’t change the tense, we simply change the subject.

However, when we report things in the past, we usually change the tense by

moving it one step back. For example, in the following sentence the present

simple becomes the past simple in indirect speech:

Direct speech: “I have a new car.”

Indirect speech: He said he had a new car.



SPEECH


THE BASIC RULES OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

THE THREE IMPORTANT RULES:

Changes in Person of Pronouns:

❖ First-person pronouns in reported speech are always changed according to the

subject of the reporting speech.

❖ Second-person pronouns in reported speech are always changed according to

the object of the reporting speech.

❖ Third-person pronouns in reported speech are not changed.



SPEECH



KEY TERMINOLOGIES:

During the process, you will come across many important terms that you need

to know better:

Direct Speech: She says, “I am a little bit nervous.”

Indirect Speech: She says that she is a little bit nervous.

Now consider the different grammatical aspects of both.

Reporting Speech: The first part of the direct speech is called reporting speech

(she says).

Reported Speech: The second part of the sentence, which is enclosed in

inverted commas or quotation marks, is called reported speech (I am a little bit

nervous).

Reporting Verb: The verb of the reporting speech is called the reporting verb

(says).

Reported Verb: The verb of the reported speech is called the reported verb

(am).



SPEECH



CHANGES IN VERBS:

RULE 1: If the reporting speech is in the present or future tense, then it is not

required to change the verb in the reported speech. This verb could be in any

tense, i.e., present, past, or future.

EXAMPLES:

Direct Speech: He says, “I am ill.”

Indirect Speech: He says that he is ill.

Direct Speech: She says, “She sang a song.”

Indirect Speech: She says that she sang a song.

Direct Speech: You say, “I shall visit London.”

Indirect Speech: You say that you will visit London.



SPEECH



CHANGES IN VERBS:

RULE 2: If the reporting verb is in the past tense, then the reported verb will be

changed per the following criterion:

❖ Present indefinite tense is changed into past indefinite tense. For example:

Direct Speech: They said, “They take a walk every day.”

Indirect Speech: They said that they took a walk every day.

❖ Present continuous is changed into past continuous tense. For example:

Direct Speech: They said, “They are taking a walk every day.”

Indirect Speech: They said that they were taking a walk every day.

❖ Present perfect is changed into the past perfect tense. For example:

Direct Speech: They said, “They have taken a walk.”

Indirect Speech: They said that they had taken a walk.

❖ Present perfect continuous tense is changed into past perfect continuous

tense. For example:

Direct Speech: They said, “They have been taking a walk since morning.”

Indirect Speech: They said that they had been taking a walk since morning.



SPEECH



CHANGES IN VERBS:

❖ Past indefinite is changed into past perfect tense. For example:

Direct Speech: They said, “They took a walk.”

Indirect Speech: They said that they had taken a walk.

❖ Past continuous tense is changed into past perfect continuous tense. For

example:

Direct Speech: They said, “They were taking a walk.”

Indirect Speech: They said that they had been taking a walk..

❖ No changes are necessary to change into past perfect and past perfect

continuous tenses. For example:

Direct Speech: They said, “They had taken a walk.”

Indirect Speech: They said that they had taken a walk..

❖ In future tense, no changes are made except shall and will are changed into

would. For example:

Direct Speech: They said, “They will take a walk.”

Indirect Speech: They said that they would take a walk.




Important Word Changes: How Words Are Used Differently in Direct vs. Indirect

Speech

Word in Direct Speech Word in Indirect Speech Direct Speech Indirect Speech

This That He says, “I want to buy this

book.”

He says that he wants to

buy that book.

These Those He says, “I want to buy these

books.”

He says that he wants to

buy those books.

Here There She says, “Everybody was

here.”

She says that everybody

was there.

Now Then They say, “It’s ten o’clock

now.”

They say that it’s ten

o’clock then.

Sir Respectfully They said, “Sir, the time is

over.”

They said respectfully that

the time was over.

Madam Respectfully They said, "Madam, the time

is over."

They said respectfully that

the time was over.

Today That Day She said, “I am going to

London today.”

She said that she was going

to London that day.

Yesterday The Previous Day She said, “I visited Oxford

University yesterday.”

She said that she had

visited Oxford University

the previous day.

Tomorrow Following Day or Next

Day

She said, “I am going to

London tomorrow.”


to London the next day.

Tonight That Night She said, “I am going to see

him tonight.”


to see him that night.

Good Morning, Good

Evening, Good Day

Greeted She said, “Good morning, Sir

David.”

She greeted Sir David.




Direct Speech Indirect Speech

She says, “I eat an apple a day.” She says that she eats an apple a day.

He will say, “My brother will help her.” He will say that his brother will help her.

We said, “We go for a walk every day.” We said that we went for a walk every

day.

You say, “I went to London yesterday.” You say that you went to London the

previous day.

He said, “My father is playing cricket with

me.”

He said that his father was playing cricket

with him.

They said, “We have completed our

homework.”

They said that they had completed their

homework.

She said, “I have been waiting for him

since last morning.”

She said that she had been waiting for

him since last morning.

She said, “I bought a book.” She said that she had bought a book.

They said, “We were celebrating Eid

yesterday.”

They said that they had been celebrating

Eid the previous day.

We said, “We had been waiting since

morning.”

We said that we had been waiting since

morning.

He said to me, “I will not give you any

medicine without prescription.”

He said to me that he would not give me

any medicine without a prescription.

EXAMPLES:



SPEECH


Understanding Direct and Indirect Speech in Different Types of Sentences

ASSERTIVE SENTENCES:

Sentences that make a statement are called assertive sentences. These

sentences may be positive, negative, false, or true statements. To convert such

sentences into indirect narration, use the rules mentioned in our previous lesson

(file), except said is sometimes replaced with told. Look at the following

examples:

Direct Speech: She says, “I am writing a letter to my brother.”

Indirect Speech: She says that she is writing a letter to her brother.

Direct Speech: She says, “I was not writing a letter to my brother.”

Indirect Speech: She says that she was not writing a letter to her brother.

Direct Speech: She said to me, “I am writing a letter to my brother.”

Indirect Speech: She told me that she was writing a letter to her brother.



SPEECH



IMPERATIVE SENTENCES:

Imperative sentences give an order or direct command. These sentences may

come in the form of advice, appeal, request, or order. Either a period or

exclamation point is used at the end of the sentence, depending on the

forcefulness of the speaker. For example:

❖ Shut the door!

❖ Please shut the door.

❖ Repair the door by tomorrow!

To convert these types of sentences into indirect speech, follow the rules below

along with the previously-mentioned rules.

❖ The reporting verb is changed according to reported speech into order if the

sentence gives a direct command. For example:

Direct Speech: The teacher said to me, “Shut the door.”

Indirect Speech: The teacher ordered me to shut the door.



SPEECH



IMPERATIVE SENTENCES:

❖ The reporting verb is changed according to reported speech into request if

the sentence makes a request. For example:

Direct Speech: He said to me, “Shut the door.”

Indirect Speech: He requested me to shut the door.

❖ The reporting verb is changed according to reported speech into advise if the

sentence gives a piece of advice. For example:

Direct Speech: He said to me, “You should work hard to pass the exam.”

Indirect Speech: He advised me that I should work hard to pass the exam.

❖ The reporting verb is changed according to reported speech into forbade if

the sentence prevents someone from doing something. For example:

Direct Speech: He said to me, “Not to smoke.”

Indirect Speech: He forbade me to smoke.

More examples on next page.



Examples

SPEECH




We said to him, “Mind your own

business.”

We urged him to mind his own

business.

She said to him, “Consult a

doctor.”

She suggested him to consult a

doctor.

He said to me, “Write it again.” He asked me to write it again.

You said to your father, “Please

grant him leave for some time.”

You requested your father to

grant him leave for some time.

My mother said to me, “Never

tell a lie.”

My mother forbade me to tell a

lie.



SPEECH



INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES:

Sentences that ask questions are called interrogative sentences. Every

interrogative sentence ends with a question mark. For example:

❖ Do you live here?

❖ Have you ever watched Terminator III?

❖ Is it raining?

To convert interrogative sentences into indirect speech, follow the following

rules along with the previously-mentioned rules:

❖ The reporting verb said to is changed into asked.

❖ If the reporting speech has the reporting verb at its start, then if is used in

place of that.

❖ If the reporting speech has interrogative words like who, when, how, why,

when, then neither if is used nor any other word is added.

❖ A period is placed at the end of the sentence instead of a question mark.

Examples are on the next page.



SPEECH




I said to her, “When do

you do your homework?”

I asked her when she did

her homework.

We said to him, “Are you

ill?”

We asked him if he was

ill.

You said to me, “Have

you read the article?”

You asked me if I had

read the article.

He said to her, “Will you

go to the Peshawar

Radio Station?”

He asked her if she

would go to the

Peshawar Radio Station.

She says, “Who is he?” She says who he is.

Rashid said to me, “Why

are you late?”

Rashid asked me why I

was late.



SPEECH



EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES:

The sentences that express our feelings and emotions are called exclamatory

sentences. Exclamation marks are used at the end of an exclamatory sentence.

For example:

❖ Hurray! We have won the match.

❖ Alas! He failed the test.

❖ How beautiful that dog is!

❖ What a marvelous personality you have!

To change exclamatory sentences into indirect speech, follow the rules below

along with the previously-mentioned rules:

❖ If there is an interjection, i.e., alas, aha, hurray, etc., in the reported speech,

then they are omitted along with the exclamation point.

❖ The reporting verb, i.e., said, is always replaced with exclaimed with joy,

exclaimed with sorrow, exclaimed joyfully, exclaimed sorrowfully, or exclaimed

with great wonder or sorrow.

❖ If there is what or how at the beginning of the reported speech, then they are

replaced with very or very great.

❖ In an indirect sentence, the exclamatory sentence becomes an assertive

sentence.



SPEECH




He said, “Hurray! I have won

the match.”

He exclaimed with great joy

that he had won the match.

She said, “Alas! My brother

failed in the test.”

She exclaimed with great

sorrow that her brother had

failed in the test.

They said, “What a beautiful

house this is!”

They exclaimed that that

house was very beautiful.

I said, “How lucky I am!” I said in great wonder that I

was very lucky.

You said to him, “What a

beautiful drama you writing!

You said to him in great

wonder that he was writing

a beautiful drama.



SPEECH



OPTATIVE SENTENCES:

Optative sentences express a hope, prayer, or wish. Usually, there is an

exclamation mark at the end of an optative sentence. For example:

❖ May you succeed on the test!

❖ May you get well soon!

❖ Would that I were rich!

To change optative sentences into indirect speech, follow the rules below along

with the previously-mentioned rules:

❖ If the reported speech starts with the word may, then the reporting verb said

is replaced with the word prayed.

❖ If the reported speech starts with the word would, then the reporting verb said

is replaced with the word wished.

❖ May is changed to might.

❖ The exclamation mark is omitted.

❖ In indirect speech, the optative sentences become assertive sentences.

Examples are on the next page.



SPEECH




He said to me, “May you

live long!”

He prayed that I might

live long.

My mother said to me,

“May you succeed in the

test!”

My mother prayed that I

might succeed in the

test.

She said, “Would that I

were rich!”

She wished she had been

rich.

I said to him, “Would that

you were here on

Sunday!”

I wished he had been

there on Sunday.

You said to me, “ May you

find your lost camera.”

You prayed that I might

find my lost camera.



SPEECH


CHANGE OF MODALS IN REPORTED SPEECH:


Can Could

May Might

Must Had to/ Would have to

Should Should

Might Might

Could Could

Would Would

Ought to Ought to



SPEECH


CHANGE OF TENSE IN REPORTED SPEECH:


Present simple

(Subject +V1st + Object)

Past simple

(Subject +V2 + Object)

Present continuous

(Subject +is/am/are+V1 +ing+

Object)

Past Continuous

(Subject +was/were+V1 +ing+

Object)

Present perfect

(Subject + has/have+V3+Object)

Past perfect

(Subject+had+V3+Object)

Past simple

(Subject+V2+Object)

Past perfect

(Subject+had+V3+Object)

Past Continuous

(Subject +was/were+V1 +ing+

Object)

Past perfect continuous

(Subject +had been+V1 +ing+

Object)

Future simple

(Subject+ will/shall+V1+object)

Present Conditional

(Subject+ would+V1+object)

Future Continuous

(Subject +will/shall+be+V1

+ing+ Object)

Conditional Continuous

(Subject +would+be+V1 +ing+

Object)



SPEECH


CHANGES IN PLACE AND TIME IN REPORTED SPEECH:


Now Then

Here There

Today That day

Tomorrow The next day

Last week The previous week

This That

Tonight That night

Ago Before

Thus So

Hither Thither

Come Go

Hence Thence

Next Following



SPEECH


CHANGES IN PRONOUNS IN REPORTED SPEECH:


I He/she

You He/she/they

We They

They They

He He

She She

It It

Us Them

Our Their

His His

Her Her

Its Its



VOICE


Till now, we have

had an impeccable

journey! But, it is

not over yet!

We are half-way

down the line and

so many

interesting topics

are waiting for us

to be explored.

So, lets begin our

adventure by

embarking the

footsteps of

“VOICE”.

But, what is a voice? In

simple terms, voice is

nothing but the sound of a

living being or anything. Is

it what we are looking for?

NO!

We are learning Grammar and hence, we need to define

“VOICE” in terms of grammar only.

“A Grammar of Contemporary English” defines Voice as

“voice is a grammatical category which makes it possible

to view the action of a sentence in two ways, without

change in the facts reported”.

Voice refers to the form of a verb that indicates when a

grammatical subject performs the action

or is the receiver of the action.

One and the same idea can often be expressed in two different ways, by means of

an active, and by means of a passive construction.



VOICE


There are two types of voice:



VOICE


ACTIVE VOICE

Active voice is used to indicate the grammatical subject of the verb is performing

the action or causing the happening denoted by the verb. With the active voice,

you learn ‘who’ or ‘what’ is responsible for the action at the beginning of the

sentence. In other words, the subject performs the action denoted by the verb.

In simple terms, In the active voice, the subject performs the action expressed

by the verb.

EXAMPLE: Ram sings a song.

Here ‘Ram” is the subject and the verb is ‘sing’ and ‘song’ is the object. Here the

action of ‘singing’ is being done by the subject i.e. ‘Ram’.

Use of active voice:

1. Active voice is used in a clause whose subject expresses the agent of the main

verb.

2. Subject can be easily identified by asking ‘who’ or ‘what’ to the verb.

3. Sentences are short and easily understandable.



VOICE


PASSIVE VOICE

In Passive voice the sentence focus on object i.e. who/what is receiving the

action and not on who/what is performing the action. In passive voice, the actor

of the of the verb (action) is either understood at the end of the sentence or

maybe not told.

In simple terms, In passive voice subject receives the action expressed by the

verb.

EXAMPLE: A song is sung by Ram.

Here the ‘song’ is subject ‘sing’ is the verb and ‘Ram’ is the entity who did the

action of singing and ‘song’ is the entity on whom action has been done.

Use of passive voice:

1. It is used if it doesn‘t need to know or we don‘t know the actor performing the

job.

2. In the end of the clause or sentence “by” is prefixed to know the actor

performing the job.

3. It is used if we are more interested in the job than the actors who work.



VOICE




VOICE


VOICE


When a sentence is written in the active voice, the subject

performs the action; in the passive voice, the subject receives the action. In

academic writing, it is generally preferred to choose an active verb and pair it with

a subject that names the person or thing doing or performing the action. Active

verbs are stronger and usually more emphatic than forms of the verb “be” or

verbs in the passive voice.

Active: The award-winning chef prepares each meal with loving care.

Passive: Each meal is prepared with loving care by the award-winning chef

In the above example of an active sentence, the simple subject is “chef” and

“prepares” is the verb: the chef prepares “each meal with loving care.” In the

passive sentence, “meal” is the simple subject and “is prepared” is the verb:

each meal is prepared “by the award-winning chef.” In effect, the object of the

active sentence becomes the subject in the passive sentence. Although both

sentences have the same basic components, their structure makes them

different from each other. Active sentences are about what people (or things) do,

while passive sentences are about what happens to people (or things).





VOICE


HOW TO IDENTIFY THE ACTIVE / PASSIVE VOICE?

❖ Ask who/what performed the action(verb)? -- if the ‘who or what is at the

beginning of the sentence, the sentence is active voice.

Example : Jack is eating the apple.

❖ In the passive voice, the main verb is always a combination of the verb “be” and

the past participle of another verb.

Example: Many mistakes were [verb be] made [past participle of make] by her.

Also, Look for the word “by”, if present it is passive voice.



VOICE


STRUCTURAL FORMULA

For the purpose of deriving a Structural formula for Active and Passive voice, we

will study one example sentence in both the voices, written below-

Active Voice- I write a letter.

Passive Voice- A letter is written by me.

❖ First analyze the ‘Active Voice’ statement: “I write a letter” - ‘I’ is the subject,

the verb is ‘write’ and the object is ‘letter’.

Therefore, the Structural Formula for Active Voice Statement can be written as-

Subject + Verb + Object

❖ Moving on to the Passive statement: “A letter is written by me” - we realize

that the Object appears first followed by the Verb and Subject respectively.

Therefore, the structural formula for Passive Voice can be given as-

Object + Verb + Subject.

Therefore an Active Voice statement always begins with the Subject, followed by

the verb and the Object respectively. On the contrary a Passive Voice statement

begins with the Object, followed by the verb and then the Subject at last.



VOICE


USING THE AUXILIARY VERB “BE”

The passive voice is formed by using a form of the auxiliary verb “be” (be, am, is,

are, was, were, being, been) followed by the past participle of the main verb.

Active Passive

He loves me. I am loved.

We took our children to the circus. The children were taken to the circus.

A thief stole my money. My money was stolen.

NOTE: Notice how the “be” auxiliaries change the meaning of the verbs from

action to condition or from “doing” to “being.”

He remembers his grandmother. (“he” is doing an action: remembering)

His grandmother is remembered. (“she” is in a condition: being remembered)

In this way, the past participle functions very much like an adjective; it describes

the subject.

The woman is pretty. >>>> She is a pretty woman

The woman is married.>>>>>>>>> She is a married woman



VOICE


RULES FOR PRONOUNS IN ACTIVE TO PASSIVE CONVERSION

Active voice Passive voice

I me

you you

we us

they them

it it

PRONOUN NUMBER AND PERSON TABLE

Person I II III

Number

SingularI -> am you -> are

he,she,it -> is

John,Sara -> is

Plural

we ->

areyou -> are they -> are



VOICE


GENERAL RULES OF CONVERSION ACTIVE VOICE TO PASSIVE VOICE:

1. The subject in the active voice becomes the object in the passive voice and

the object in the active voice becomes the subject in the passive voice.

2. Put ‘by’ in front of the subject in the passive voice.

3. Use 3rd form of verb + is/ am/ are/ was/ were/ been/ being according to the

tense in passive voice.

4. There is no passive voice of present/ past/ future perfect continuous

sentences and future continuous.

5. Generally, passive voice can be made of transitive verb i.e. verbs which have

an object attached to them.

6. Sentences of an intransitive verb cannot be converted into passive voice.

They laughed- No passive

The laughed at- The teacher was laughed at by them.

In the first sentence, there is no object thus it cannot be converted into passive

voice.

But in the second sentence ‘teacher’ is the object thus its passive voice is

possible.



VOICE


THE FOLLOWING PRONOUNS ARE USED IN THE PASSIVE VOICE AS:

Active Voice Passive Voice

I me

He him

You you

We us

She her

They them

It it

Who whom



VOICE


GENERAL RULES OF CONVERSION : PASSIVE VOICE TO ACTIVE VOICE:

1. The subject of passive voice becomes object in active voice and the object in

passive voice becomes the subject in active voice.

2. Remove the preposition ‘by’.

3. Use 1st form of the verb.



VOICE


RULES FOR CONVERSION OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES IN PASSIVE

VOICE:

Interrogative sentence starting with:

(a) Is/ am/ are

Passive rule: Is/ am/ are + subject + 3rd form of verb + by + object ?

Active: Is he writing a letter?

Passive: Is a letter being written by him?

(b) Does/ do

Passive rule: Is/ am/ are + subject + 3rd form of verb + by + object?

Active: Does he need a pen.

Passive: Is a pen needed by him.

(c) Did

Passive Voice: was/ were + subject + 3rd form of verb + by + object?

Active: Did Ram write a letter?

Passive: Was a letter written by him?



VOICE



VOICE:


(d) was/were

Passive Rule: was/ were + subject + being + 3rd form of verb + by + object?

Active: Was she cooking food?

Passive: Was food being cooked by her?

(e) Has/ have/ had

Passive Rule: Has/ have/ had + subject + been + 3rd form of verb + by + object?

Active: Has she written a book?

Passive: Has a book been written by him?

(f) Modal auxiliary verb like.- may/ can etc.

Passive Rule: Modal Auxiliary + subject + be + 3rd form of verb + by + object?

Active: Can she control the situation.

Passive: Can the situation be controlled by her?



VOICE



VOICE:


(g) ‘Wh’ words e.g. Why, when, where etc.

Passive Rule: The sentence will start by ‘wh’ word and then convert according to

the above rules.

Active: Who broke this beautiful glass?

Passive: By whom was this beautiful glass broken?

We do not use an object in the passive sentences if in active sentences the

subject is unknown or is not required to be written i.e. it is understood from the

very sentence like someone, somebody, nobody, people etc.

Active: Someone has stolen has my watch.

Passive: My watch has been stolen. (herein it is no need to write ‘someone’ or

mention the object.)



VOICE


RULES FOR CONVERSION OF IMPERATIVE SENTENCES IN PASSIVE VOICE:

Imperative sentences are those sentence which empress order, request advice or

suggestion.

(a) Order

Passive Rule: let+ subject+ be+ 3rd form of verb

Active: shut the window.

Passive: Let the window be shut.

(b) Request

Passive Rule: You are requested + to + 1st form of verb + object.

Active: Please open the door.

Passive: You are requested to open the door.

(c) Suggestion

Passive Rule: subject + should be + 3rd form of the verb

Active: Always speak the truth.

Passive: The truth should always be spoken.



VOICE


RULES FOR CONVERSION OF IMPERATIVE SENTENCES IN PASSIVE VOICE:

Imperative sentences are those sentence which empress order, request advice or

suggestion.

(d) Advice

Passive Rule: You are advised + to + object

Active: Work hard.

Passive: You are advised to work hard.



VOICE


VERB TENSES USED IN ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

The following is a summary of active and passive forms of all verb tenses.

Remember that in active forms the subject of the sentence is the person or thing

that does the action. In passive constructions, the verb is performed by someone or

something other than the subject; often, the action is done to the subject by

someone else.

Following are the rules that both the voice follow in different tenses.



VOICE


PRESENT TIME

SIMPLE PRESENT:

Use the simple present tense to make a generalization, to present a state of being,

or to indicate a habitual or repeated action.

Active Passive

base form or “-s/-es” form am/is/are + past participle

Professor Brown teaches at Hunter. Sonia is taught by Professor Brown.

All humans are equal. All humans are created equal.

Maria eats in the cafeteria. The cafeteria is cleaned

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE:

Use the present progressive to describe an ongoing activity or a temporary action.

Active Passive

am/is/are + -ing am/is/are + being + -ed/-en

The students are learning Spanish. Classes are being conducted

in Spanish.

I am working at McDonald’s until I finish school. He is being hired to work at

McDonald’s.



VOICE


PRESENT TIME

PRESENT PERFECT:

Use the present perfect to describe an action occurring in the past but relevant to

the present, or extending to the present.

Active Passive

has/have + -ed/-en has/have + been + -ed/-en

Hunter has opened a language institute in The language institute has

East Harlem. been opened to relocate

students off the main campus. .

main

campus.

East Harlem.

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

Use the present perfect progressive to describe an ongoing action beginning before

now and is still relevant to the present.

Active Passive

has/have + been + -ing has/have + been + being + -ed/-en

Hunter has been awarding BA and MA

diplomas for over one hundred yearsNote: Because of awkward construction, the perfect progressive form is not used in the

passive voice. Instead, an adverb may be used to show continuing action: “We have been

repeatedly scolded for being late.”



VOICE


PAST TIME

SIMPLE PAST:

Use the simple past to indicate a general or habitual action occurring in the past

or at a specific time in the past.

Active Passive

base + -ed or irregular form was/were + -ed/-en

Our family bought all our clothes at Sears The clothes were bought by my

when I was young. Mother.

On my fifteenth birthday, my uncle gave The money was given to me to buy me

one hundred dollars. new clothes.

When I was in high school, my friends We were always driven to the mall and I

drove to the mall on weekends. by my friend's older brother.

In informal conversation, speakers of English often express habitual behavior in

the past using the modal “would.”

Active Passive

would + base would + be + -ed/-en

We would usually eat burgers in the food Most of the french fries court.

would be eaten before we got to the

table.

court.



VOICE


PAST TIME

PAST PROGRESSIVE

Use the past progressive to indicate an ongoing action in the past or an action

continuing through a specific past time.

Active Passive

was/were + -ing was/were + being + -ed/-en

Mary and Paul were fighting in those days. One afternoon, Mary was being

kicked by Paul when her mother

passed by.

PAST PERFECT

Use the past perfect to indicate an action completed prior to a particular time or

before another action in the past.

Active Passive

had + -ed/-en had + been + -ed/-en

Mary's mother was shocked because she Mary had been kicked many times had

forbidden her daughter to fight. before that day.



VOICE


PAST TIME

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

Use the past perfect progressive to indicate a continuing action that began before a

past action or time.

Active Passive

had + been + -ing had + been + being + -ed/-en

Mary had been trying to tell her mother

about Paul for a long time.

Note: Because of awkward construction, the perfect progressive form is not used in

the passive voice. Instead, an adverb may be used to show continuing action: “We

have been repeatedly scolded for being late.”



VOICE


FUTURE TIME

SIMPLE FUTURE:

Use the future to indicate an action that is expected to take place at a future time.

Active Passive

will + base will + be + -ed/-en

Paul and Mary will marry in June. They will be married by a priest and a

rabbi.

or or

am/is/are going to + base am/is/are + going to be + -ed/-en

Mary is going to wear her grandmother's The gown is going to be adjusted to fit

gown. Mary.

FUTURE PROGRESSIVE:

Use the future progressive to indicate an action in future with emphasis on

continuing action.

Active Passive

will + base + -ing will + be + being + -ed/en

Mary and Paul will be spending lots of Note: Not used in the passive time on

the beach. voice.



VOICE


FUTURE TIME

FUTURE PERFECT:

Use the future perfect to indicate a future action expected to be completed before

another future action or time.

Active Passive

will + have + -ed/-en will + have + been + -ed/en

By their wedding date, they will have Note: Not used in the passive voice.saved enough money to buy a house.

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:

Use the future perfect progressive to indicate an action projected to have been

going on for a while before a time in the future.

Active Passive

will + have + been + -ing will + have + been + being + -ed/-en

When they celebrate their first Note: Not used in the passive voice.anniversary, they will have been living

together for a full year.



PREPOSITIONS


Where are you

right now? I bet,

you are at home

enjoying our

grammar lessons!

Where do birds

fly?

I guess, they fly

above the clouds.

Where do I sleep

in night?

I sleep in dreams. I

know I am funny.

So, basically i am

about to take you

to our next stop

called

“PREPOSITION”.

What do you mean by “POSITION”? It is nothing but a

place where someone or something is located or has

been put.

So, what is “PREPOSITION”?

Prepositions express relationships such as space

(place, position, direction), time, or figurative location.

Observe the sentence:

❖ The centrifuge will finish in 3 hours.

Do you think the sentence makes any sense without the

word “in”? Obviously not.

The word “in” establishes relation between the words

“finish” and “3 hours”. It gives more clarity and meaning

to the sentence. That’s what prepositions do.

Lets explore them.



PREPOSITIONS


WHY ARE PREPOSITIONS IMPORTANT?

Prepositions are often called the biggest small words in English because although

they are generally short words, they are very important to the meaning of the

sentence. A misused preposition can make a big difference between a clearly

stated sentence and a confusing jumble of words. When used properly, however,

prepositions provide the glue between parts of a sentence that allows you to share

your scientific research more precisely and professionally.

Prepositions are used to connect nouns, pronouns, or phrases (called the object of

the preposition) to other words within a sentence. They reveal the temporal,

spatial, or logical relationship of their object to another word or part of the

sentence. For example:

❖ The flask is on the lab bench. (space)

❖ The waste basket is below the lab bench. (space)

❖ The centrifuge is beside the lab bench. (space)

❖ The fume hood is across from the lab bench. (space)

❖ He broke the flask during the experiment. (time)

In each of these examples, the preposition (bold) is used to show the relationship

in space or time of one noun (red) to another noun (blue). The second noun (blue)

is called the object of the preposition. Note that a preposition can comprise

multiple words (e.g., across from).



PREPOSITIONS




PREPOSITIONS


HOW DO I USE PREPOSITIONS?

Prepositions are usually short words, and are normally placed directly in front of

nouns, noun phrases, or pronouns. Because they are somewhat vague,

learning about prepositions and using them correctly in English sentences

takes practice. Here are some rules for using prepositions:

❖ Prepositions are followed by a noun, and never by a verb.

❖ A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with the

preposition’s object (either a noun or pronoun).

❖ The subject of the sentence cannot be part of a prepositional phrase.

❖ Verbs cannot be part of a prepositional phrase

One important guideline for using prepositions is that they are usually followed

by nouns (any form of noun, including noun phrases and pronouns). Examples

of forms of nouns acceptable for this purpose are:

Noun : scientist, article, hypothesis

Proper Noun (name): Einstein, Albert

Pronoun: you, him, us

Noun group: our current research

Gerund: swimming



PREPOSITIONS




PREPOSITIONS


HOW DO I USE PREPOSITIONS?

Many prepositions are also used idiomatically, meaning that there is no specific

rule to guide you but that some expressions must be memorized, such that

certain verbs and adjectives are followed by specific prepositions. Here are

some examples:

❖ applied to

❖ depend on

❖ identical to

❖ opposed to

❖ preoccupied with

❖ prohibited from

❖ recover from

Avoid using unnecessary prepositions. If the meaning of the sentence is not

changed by omitting the preposition, then the preposition is not necessary.

Incorrect: We discussed about the experiment.

Correct: We discussed the experiment.

Incorrect: She entered into the room.

Correct: She entered the room.



PREPOSITIONS


EXAMPLES OF PREPOSITIONS

In the following sentences, examples

of prepositions have been made bold.

As you read, consider how using

different prepositions or even different

types of prepositions in place of the

examples might change the

relationship between the rest of the

words in the sentence.

❖ I prefer to read in the library.

❖ He climbed up the ladder to get

onto the roof.

❖ Please sign your name on the

dotted line after you read the

contract.

❖ Go down the stairs and through the

door.

❖ He swam across the pool.

❖ Take your brother with you.



PREPOSITIONS


TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS:

There are three types of prepositions, including time prepositions, place

prepositions, and direction prepositions.

Time prepositions are those such as before, after, during, and until.

Place prepositions are those indicating position, such as around, between, and

against.

Direction prepositions are those indicative of direction, such as across, up, and

down.

PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions of Time

Prepositions

of MovementPrepositions

of Place



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS OF TIME:

Basic examples of time prepositions include: at, on, in, before and after.

They are used to help indicate when something happened, happens or will

happen. It can get a little confusing though, as many different prepositions

can be used.

Prepositions of time examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy

identification.

For example:

❖ I was born on July 4th, 1982.

❖ I was born in 1982.

❖ I was born at exactly 2am.

❖ I was born two minutes before my twin brother.

❖ I was born after the Great War ended.

The above makes it seem quite difficult, with five different prepositions used

to indicate when something happened. However, there is a set of guidelines

(ON NEXT PAGE) that can help decide which preposition to use.



PREPOSITIONS



❖ For years, months, seasons, centuries and times of day, use the

preposition in:

➢ I first met John in 1987.

➢ It’s always cold in January

➢ Easter falls in spring each year.

➢ The Second World War occurred in the 20th century.

➢ We eat breakfast in the morning.

❖ For days, dates and specific holiday days, use the preposition on.

➢ We go to school on Mondays, but not on Sunday

➢ Christmas is on December 25th.

➢ Buy me a present on my birthday.

❖ For times, indicators of exception and festivals, use the preposition at.

➢ Families often argue at Christmas time.

➢ I work faster at night.

➢ Her shift finished at 7pm.



PREPOSITIONS



Before and after should be much easier to understand than the other

examples of prepositions of time. Both are used to explain when something

happened, happens or will happen, but specifically in relation to another

thing.

❖ Before I discovered this bar, I used to go straight home after work.

❖ We will not leave before 3pm.

❖ David comes before Bryan in the line, but after Louise.

Other prepositions of time could include: During, about, around, until and

throughout.

❖ The concert will be staged throughout the month of May.

❖ I learned how to ski during the holidays.

❖ He usually arrives around 3pm.

❖ It was about six in the morning when we made it to bed.

❖ The store is open until midnight.



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE:

To confuse matters a bit, the most common prepositions to indicate time – on,

at, in – are also the most common prepositions to indicate position. However,

the rules are a little clearer as place prepositions are a more rigid concept than

time prepositions.

Prepositions of place examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy

identification.

❖ The cat is on the table.

❖ The dogs are in the kennel.

❖ We can meet at the crossroads.



PREPOSITIONS


TPREPOSITIONS OF PLACE:

he guidelines can be broken down as follows:

❖ On is used when referring to something with a surface:

➢ The sculpture hangs on the wall.

➢ The images are on the page.

➢ The specials are on the menu, which is on the table.

❖ In is used when referring to something that is inside or within confined

boundaries. This could be anything, even a country:

➢ Jim is in France, visiting his aunt in the hospital.

➢ The whiskey is in the jar in the fridge.

➢ The girls play in the garden.

❖ At is used when referring to something at a specific point:

➢ The boys are at the entrance at the movie theater.

➢ He stood at the bus stop at the corner of Water and High streets.

➢ We will meet at the airport.



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT:

Prepositions of movement are quite easy to understand as they are less

abstract than prepositions of place and time. Essentially, they describe how

something or someone moves from one place to another. The most

commonly used preposition of movement is to, which usually serves to

highlight that there is movement towards a specific destination.

Prepositions of movement examples in the following sentences are in bold

for easy identification.

❖ He has gone on vacation to France.

❖ She went to the bowling alley every Friday last summer.

❖ I will go to bed when I am tired.

❖ They will go to the zoo if they finish their errands.

Other more specific prepositions of movement include: through, across, off,

down and into. These prepositions can sometimes get mixed up with others.

While they are similar, they have individual meanings that add context to the

movement.



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT:

❖ Across refers to moving from one side to another.

➢ Mike travelled across America on his motorcycle.

➢ Rebecca and Judi are swimming across the lake.

❖ Through refers to moving directly inside something and out the other end.

➢ The bullet Ben shot went through the window.

➢ The train passes through the tunnel.

❖ Into refers to entering or looking inside something.

➢ James went into the room.

➢ They stare into the darkness.

❖ Up, over, down, past and around indicate directions of movement:

➢ Jack went up the hill.

➢ Jill came tumbling down after.

➢ We will travel over rough terrain on our way to Grandma’s house.

➢ The horse runs around the track all morning.

➢ A car zoomed past a truck on the highway



PREPOSITIONS


HOW TO RECOGNIZE A PREPOSITION?

Recognizing prepositions can be challenging as

they do not always follow a consistent pattern in

terms of their position in a sentence, nor do

they have a discernible structure or spelling.

We do know, however, that prepositions are

almost always short words, with the majority

having less than six letters. One technique

people use to identify a preposition is to think of

a preposition as anywhere a mouse can go.

Above, below, next to, between, beyond,

through, by, with…It won’t cover them all, but it

can be a useful question to ask when trying to

identify and recognize a preposition. While

there are over 100 prepositions, there are

around 500,00-700,000 nouns in English! It is

unlikely anyone will learn so many nouns, but

recognizing and then mastering prepositions

might be a worthwhile and attainable goal.



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS WITH NOUNS:

There are lots of different nouns that carry specific prepositions to consolidate

their meaning. These are called dependent prepositions. Again, there isn’t a set

rule that says a particular type of noun will take a dependent preposition,

although they normally follow the noun. Moreover, there are many possible

combinations. Essentially, it’s case of familiarizing yourself with the different

possibilities of nouns and dependent prepositions. Examples:

❖ He displayed cruelty towards his dog.

❖ She had knowledge of physics.

❖ The trouble with Jack.

❖ 21 is the age at which you are allowed to drink.

❖ Bolt made another attempt at the world record.

❖ The police held an inquiry into the murder.



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS WITH VERBS:

Prepositional verbs – the phrasal combinations of verbs and prepositions – are

important parts of speech. The prepositions again act as links between the

verb and noun or gerund, giving extra meaning to the sentence. The

prepositions most commonly used with verbs are: to, for, about, of, in, at and

from. The good news is that these will always come after the verb in the

sentence. However, it should also be noted that the prepositional verbs can

have slightly different meaning compared to the original verb. For example, to

relate a story simply means to tell a story, to relate to a story means you

identify with it, find some personally meaning in that story.

❖ Verb + to:

➢ He admitted to the charge.

➢ I go to Vancouver on vacation twice a year.

➢ William can relate to the character in the play.

❖ Verb + for:

➢ He must apologize for his actions.

➢ We searched for ages before we found the perfect apartment.

➢ I provide for my family by working two jobs.



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS WITH VERBS:

❖ Verb + with:

➢ I don’t agree with your claim.

➢ The lawyer said he will meet with your representatives.

➢ They began with a quick warm-up.

❖ Verb + of:

➢ I dream of a better life.

➢ Have you heard of Shakespeare?

➢ The bread consists of dough, raisins and a little honey.

❖ Verb + in:

➢ Does Rick believe in miracles?

➢ Fallon lives in New York.

➢ The bus accident resulted in my being late to work.

❖ Verb + at:

➢ We arrived at our destination.

➢ Ilene excels at singing.

➢ Will the baby smile at her mother?



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS WITH

VERBS:

❖ Verb + on:

➢ We should really

concentrate on our

studies now.

➢ Helen insisted on

Brenda’s company.

➢ Morris experimented on

some canvas.

❖ Verb + from:

➢ Since turning 80, she

suffers from lapses in

concentration.

➢ Dad retired from the

navy in the 1970s.

➢ Billy Bob, please refrain

from doing that.



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS WITH ADJECTIVES:

Prepositions can form phrases with adjectives to give further context to the

action, emotion or thing the adjective is describing. Like verbs and nouns,

adjectives can be followed by: to, about, In, for, with, at and by.

❖ I am happily married to David.

❖ Ellie is crazy about this movie.

❖ Michelle is interested in politics.

❖ We are sorry for your loss.

❖ Jane will be delighted with her results.

❖ Is he still angry at the world?

❖ The entire room was astonished by the election results.

There can sometimes be a pattern in deciding which prepositions go with

adjectives, for example, when adjectives have the same or very similar meaning

to each other, they might take the same preposition:

Frightened of, afraid of, scared of, terrified of



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS WITH ADJECTIVES:

Indeed, when adjectives have opposite meaning they might also take the same

preposition:

Good at, great at, superb at, wonderful at, Bad at, terrible at, woeful at, inept at

There are always many exceptions to the above, but it can help that there

seems to be some consistency when adjectives have the same meaning or

opposite meaning.

Nevertheless, perhaps a more general rule is that English speakers simply

need to learn which prepositions go with which adjectives, as meaning can

change significantly by using a different preposition.

❖ I am good at sports means I have some athletic talent.

❖ The nurse was good to my mother means she took care of her and was

nice, kind, and helpful.

❖ I am good with animals means I get along with them and handle them well.

❖ Swimming is good for your health.

❖ That was good of you to come means you were begin nice and good to visit.

❖ My little brother is good inside (his body) means even though you can’t see

how he thinks and feels, he is good. Even if his behavior is bad.

❖ The blueberry jam will be good on toast.



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS

FORMS OF PREPOSITIONS



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS

SIMPLE PREPOSITION:

When a preposition consists of one word is called single or simple preposition.

Examples: in, at, on, to for, of, from, up, after, over, under, with, till, etc.

DOUBLE PREPOSITION:

When a preposition consists of more than one word, it is called double

preposition.

Examples: into, within, upto etc.

COMPOUND PREPOSITION :

Compound preposition consists of two or more words.

Examples: on behalf of, according to, in front of, from across etc.

PARTICIPLE PREPOSITION:

Participle preposition consists of words that end in “ing”.

Examples: regarding, barring, concerning, considering, etc.



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONSPREPOSITIONS



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS


DISGUISED PREPOSITIONS:

Examples: ‘by’ can be changed into ‘be’, ‘on’ into ‘a’, and ‘of’ can be changed

into ‘o’ for example, 5 O’ clock.

PHRASE PREPOSITIONS

Group of words used with the force of a single preposition is called phrase

preposition.

Examples: according to, by means of, owing to, with a view to, in place of, in

front of, in spite of, instead of, in order to, by virtue of, by way of, etc.

There are a few interesting linguistic facts about preposition.

First, they are a closed class of words which means no new preposition gets

added to the language. We use a fixed set of prepositions.

Second, prepositions do not have any other form. They cannot be plural,

possessive, inflection, or anything else.

Third, most of the prepositions have many different contextual and natural uses.

So, it is easy to be confused about preposition.

Fourth, sometimes a preposition works as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS

THE ROYAL RULES OF PREPOSITIONS

RULE 1 – When verbs are placed after prepositions (other than ‘to’) , they

should be in the gerund form (v1+ ing) except when they are used in infinitive

form.

EXAMPLES:

❖ Mohit insisted on going to Mumbai.

❖ P. V. Sindhu was confident of winning the tournament.

❖ I don’t believe in wasting time.

Note – The following phrases end in ‘to’ and are followed by ‘ing’ form of verb

(gerund).

Be used to, accustomed to, averse to, addicted to, look forward to, with a view

to , owing to, devoted to, in addition to, object to, taken to, prone to.

Examples

❖ I am looking forward to meet her. ❌

❖ I am looking forward to meeting her. ✔

❖ He is addicted to smoke. ❌

❖ He is addicted to smoking. ✔



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS


RULE 2 – “since, because and as ” are not followed by so/therefore /that’s why.

EXAMPLES:

❖ Since she was unwell, so she didn’t go there. (Incorrect)

❖ Since she was unwell, she didn’t go there. (correct)

RULE 3 – When an infinitive qualifies a noun, the preposition is placed after

infinitive.

EXAMPLES:

❖ Shivangi gave me a pen to write.❌

❖ Shivangi gave me a pen to write with.✔

❖ It’s not a safe place to live.❌

❖ It’s not a safe place to live in. ✔

RULE 4 – when two words/adjectives require different prepositions, appropriate

prepositions should be used with both the words.

EXAMPLES:

❖ Her dress is different and cheaper than mine.❌

❖ Her dress is different from and cheaper than mine. ✔



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS


RULE 5 – A preposition is usually placed before its object but when the object of

the preposition is a relative pronoun ‘that’, it is placed after it.

EXAMPLES:

❖ This is the restaurant of that she always talks.❌

❖ This is the restaurant that she always talks of. ✔

RULE 6 -Omission of preposition before indirect object. There are two objects in

the sentence.

❖ I will fetch you a dress from the city mall. ✔

❖ I will fetch a dress for you from the city mall.✔

Dress – direct object

You – indirect object

So to keep the sentence simple we may omit preposition before indirect object.

Let’s see other examples:

❖ I will buy you a smartphone this year. ✔

❖ I will buy a smartphone for you this year. ✔



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS


RULE 7- ‘come across’ means to meet suddenly or by chance. Hence

‘suddenly’ or ‘by chance’ can’t come with come across.

Q. When I was going to the market ,(a) / I suddenly came across (b) /my

childhood friend(c) /No error

Solution – The error is in (b)

Remove ‘suddenly’

Q. I came across with my(a) / best friend while I(b) / was going to market(c) /No

error

Solution – The error is in (a)

Remove ‘with’

Note – ‘with’ is not used with ‘come across’.

Note – ACROSS and OVER are both prepositions and adverbs. They are in

most cases interchangeable. Look at these sentences:

❖ Shivangi had to go across the river to get to their house.✔

❖ Shivangi and Shweta walked over the bridge in the misty morning.✔

However, when the meaning is ‘from side to side’, ACROSS is preferred:

❖ I ran across the street.✔



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS


Note - We use ‘OVER’ to talk about movement or position at a higher level than

something else:

❖ A beautiful yellow bird flew over the lake.✔

❖ With an umbrella over her head, she was able to protect herself from the

midday sun.✔

RULE 8 – ‘Enter’ without the preposition ‘into’ is used to enter physical spaces.

But in case of any agreement ‘enter’ takes ‘into’ after it.

❖ Suraj entered into the classroom.❌

❖ Suraj entered the classroom. ✔

❖ We regret entering a financial agreement with them.❌

❖ We regret entering into a financial agreement with them.✔

RULE 9 – Verbs of communication ( advise, tell, inform, ask, beg, command,

request, encourage , order ,urge etc) don’t take preposition ‘to’ before the direct

object.

EXAMPLES:

❖ I informed to the police of the accident. ❌

❖ I informed the police of the accident. ✔



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS


RULE 10 – It’s a simple sentence but still we tend to make mistakes, so keep in

mind that Mode of transportation takes preposition ‘by’ when it comes with

go/come/arrive etc.

❖ Sohan is going in car. ❌

❖ Sohan is going by car. ✔

Note – ‘By’ is used for ‘point of time’ (not later than) as a preposition of time.

My mother told me to return home by 8 pm. ✔

❖ We shall have finished the syllabus in the end of next month.❌

❖ We shall have finished the syllabus by the end of next month. ✔

RULE 11 – ‘of’ is used when there is mention of any disease.

❖ He died from cancer. ❌

❖ He died of cancer. ✔

❖ He died of thirst. ❌

❖ He died from thirst. ✔



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS


RULE 12 – If two Verbs /adjectives take two different prepositions, we must

mention both the preposition.

❖ He is conscious and engaged in his work. ❌

❖ He is conscious of and engaged in his work. ✔

RULE 13 – Stress, Emphasize, Investigate, resembles, Comprise , Accompany,

Consider, Pervade, Precede, Succeed, Discuss, Describe etc are not followed

by any preposition if they are used in active voice.

❖ Sneha resembles as her mother. ❌

❖ Sneha resembles her mother. ✔

Q. The saint emphasized (a) /on the need of (b) /discipline in life(c) /No error

Solution – You guess!

RULE 14 – ‘to’ is used after say, suggest, propose, speak, reply, explain,

complain, talk, listen, write, report etc if the object is a living being.

Q. Shivani suggested me (a) /that I should(b) / leave that job(c)/No error

Solution – The error is in (a)

Add ‘to’ after suggested



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS


SOME CONFUSING PAIRS OF PREPOSITION:

1) Between and Among

❖ Between is used in reference to the association of two.

Example – The sweets will be distributed between Suhana and Ananya.

Note – Between can be used in reference to more than two when

a) we talk about a definite number of people, things etc

Example – There is a tournament to be played between India, Srilanka and

England.✔

b) When we talk about mutual relationship

Example – There is an alliance between the three Asian countries. ✔

KEEP IN MIND – Between is followed by ‘and’. ‘Between…. and’ takes objective

case of pronoun.

❖ There is no friendship between he and I. ❌

❖ There is no friendship between him and me. ✔



PREPOSITIONS


PREPOSITIONS


Among is used in reference to the association of more than two.

Example – Sweets are to be distributed among them.✔

2) BESIDE AND BESIDES

Beside – Adjacent

She was standing beside me. ✔

Besides – Apart from

Besides Kareena Kapoor her husband was also there in the party. ✔

3) BY AND WITH

By – indicates the doer

With – indicate the means

Let’s see examples :

❖ A fish is caught by him with a rod. ✔

❖ The snake was killed by him with a rod. ✔



CONJUNCTIONS


How well do you

connect with

grammar? Yes! I

am asking you, the

reader. I hope you

do it well and here

I am again trying to

help you do that

better and may be

best. You connect

with grammar and

grammar helps you

connect with

english and that

might help you

connect with your

exams better. So,

lets arrive at a

similar thing called

as

“CONJUNCTIONS

”.

So, what does

“JUNCTION” means?

Generally, it is a point

where two or more

things are joined.

Similarly, in grammar, a

“JUNCTION” should mean

something similar to that. It

has to be a word that joins or

connects or combines other

words.



CONJUNCTIONS


Conjunctions are used to join clauses, phrases, and words together for

constructing sentences. Conjunctions make a link between/among words or

groups of words to other parts of the sentence and show a relationship

between/among them.

Examples:

❖ Alex and Robin are playing together.

❖ Alex plays well, but Robin plays better than him.

❖ I play cricket, and Robin plays football.

❖ When he was sick, I went to see him.

Without conjunctions, you’d be forced to express every complex idea in a series

of short, simplistic sentences: I like cooking. I like eating. I don’t like washing

dishes afterward.

It is a fact that a single sentence may contain several ideas, feelings, and other

elements in English.

Therefore, we need something to help us combine them or keep them together.

That something is called as “conjunctions”.



CONJUNCTIONS




CONJUNCTIONS


TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS

There are several different types of conjunctions that do various jobs within

sentence structures. These include:

Subordinating conjunctions – Also known as subordinators, these conjunctions

join dependent clauses to independent clauses.

Coordinating conjunction – Also known as coordinators, these conjunctions

coordinate or join two or more sentences, main clauses, words, or other parts

of speech which are of the same syntactic importance.

Correlative conjunction – These conjunctions correlate, working in pairs to join

phrases or words that carry equal importance within a sentence.

Conjunctive adverbs – While some instructors do not teach conjunctive adverbs

alongside conjunctions, these important parts of speech are worth a mention

here. These adverbs always connect one clause to another, and are used to

show sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and other relationships.

When people first learn to write, they usually begin with short, basic sentences

like these: “My name is Ted. I am a boy. I like dogs.” One of the most important

jobs conjunctions do is to connect these short sentences so they sound more

like this: “I am a boy named Ted, and I like dogs.”



CONJUNCTIONS


CONJUNCTION RULES

There are a few important rules for using conjunctions. Remember them and

you will find that your writing flows better:

❖ Conjunctions are for connecting thoughts, actions, and ideas as well as

nouns, clauses, and other parts of speech. For example: Mary went to the

supermarket and bought oranges.

❖ Conjunctions are useful for making lists. For example: We made pancakes,

eggs, and coffee for breakfast.

❖ When using conjunctions, make sure that all the parts of your sentences

agree. For example: “I work busily yet am careful” does not agree. “I work

busily yet carefully” shows agreement.

Examples of Conjunctions

In the following examples, the conjunctions are in bold for easy recognition:

❖ I tried to hit the nail but hit my thumb instead.

❖ I have two goldfish and a cat.

❖ I’d like a bike for commuting to work.

❖ You can have peach ice cream or a brownie sundae.

❖ Neither the black dress nor the gray one looks right on me.



CONJUNCTIONS




CONJUNCTIONS


CONJUNCTION RULES

There are a few important rules for using conjunctions. Remember them and

you will find that your writing flows better:

❖ Conjunctions are for connecting thoughts, actions, and ideas as well as

nouns, clauses, and other parts of speech. For example: Mary went to the

supermarket and bought oranges.

❖ Conjunctions are useful for making lists. For example: We made pancakes,

eggs, and coffee for breakfast.

❖ When using conjunctions, make sure that all the parts of your sentences

agree. For example: “I work busily yet am careful” does not agree. “I work

busily yet carefully” shows agreement.

Examples of Conjunctions

In the following examples, the conjunctions are in bold for easy recognition:

❖ I tried to hit the nail but hit my thumb instead.

❖ I have two goldfish and a cat.

❖ I’d like a bike for commuting to work.

❖ You can have peach ice cream or a brownie sundae.

❖ Neither the black dress nor the gray one looks right on me.



CONJUNCTIONS


SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Subordinating conjunctions are words that join dependent clauses to

independent clauses. Sometimes referred to as subordinators or subordinate

conjunctions, these important words and phrases may also introduce adverb

clauses.

Subordinating conjunctions are essential parts of complex sentences with

include at least two clauses, with one of the clauses being main (independent)

and the other being subordinate (dependent).

There is only one rule to remember about using subordinate conjunctions:

A subordinate conjunction performs two functions within a sentence. First, it

illustrates the importance of the independent clause. Second, it provides a

transition between two ideas in the same sentence. The transition always

indicates a place, time, or cause and effect relationship.

For example: We looked in the metal canister, where Ginger often hides her

candy.

Examples of Subordinating Conjunctions

In the following example, the subordinating conjunctions are in bold for easy

identification:

❖ As Sherri blew out the candles atop her birthday cake, she caught her hair

on fire.



CONJUNCTIONS




CONJUNCTIONS



A subordinating conjunction joins elements of an

unparallel sentence structure. These elements are

usually a dependent clause and an independent

clause.

Most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are:

After, how, than, when, although, if, that, where, as,

in order that, though, which, as much as, inasmuch

as, unless, while, because, provided, until,

who/whom, before, since, what, whoever/whomever.

Examples:

❖ Before we left home, I had had my breakfast.

❖ Provided they come, we can start class Tuesday.

❖ When he was washing my car, I went to the store.

❖ Even though the weather was horrible, they still

went outside.



CONJUNCTIONS



Subordinating conjunctions join independent and dependent clauses. A

subordinating conjunction can signal a cause-and-effect relationship, a contrast,

or some other kind of relationship between the clauses. Common subordinating

conjunctions are because, since, as, although, though, while, and whereas.

Sometimes an adverb, such as until, after, or before can function as a

conjunction.

I can stay out until the clock strikes twelve.

Here, the adverb until functions as a subordinating conjunction to connect two

ideas: I can stay out (the independent clause) and the clock strikes twelve (the

dependent clause). The independent clause could stand alone as a sentence; the

dependent clause depends on the independent clause to make sense.

The subordinating conjunction doesn’t need to go in the middle of the sentence. It

has to be part of the dependent clause, but the dependent clause can come

before the independent clause.

Before he leaves, make sure his room is clean.

If the dependent clause comes first, use a comma before the independent clause.

I drank a glass of water because I was thirsty. Because I was thirsty, I drank a

glass of water.



CONJUNCTIONS




CONJUNCTIONS


COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Coordinating conjunctions coordinate or join two or more sentences, main clauses,

words, or other parts of speech which are of the same syntactic importance. Also

known as coordinators, coordinating conjunctions are used to give equal emphasis

to a pair of main clauses.

As there are only seven of these words, there are just a few rules for using

coordinating conjunctions correctly:

It’s a good idea to use the mnemonic “FANBOYS” to memorize coordinating

conjunctions so you’ll never forget them. They are only seven of them:

F = for

A = and

N = nor

B = but

O = or

Y = yet

S = so



CONJUNCTIONS


COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

❖ Coordinating conjunctions always connect phrases, words, and clauses. For

example: This batch of mushroom stew is savory and delicious.

❖ Some instructors warn that starting a sentence with a coordinating conjunction

is incorrect. Mostly, this is because they are attempting to help prevent you

from writing fragments rather than complete sentences; sometimes though, it’s

just a personal preference. The fact is, you can begin sentences with

coordinating conjunctions as long as you follow these three rules for doing so:

➢ Ensure that the coordinating conjunction is immediately followed by a main

clause

➢ Don’t use coordinating conjunctions to begin all of your sentences. Do so only

when it makes your writing more effective.

➢ Although commas typically follow coordinating conjunctions used in areas

other than the beginning of a sentence, they should not be used after

coordinating conjunctions used to open sentences unless an interrupter

immediately follows.

EXAMPLES:

❖ You can eat your cake with a spoon or fork.

❖ My dog enjoys being bathed but hates getting his nails trimmed.



CONJUNCTIONS




CONJUNCTIONS


CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

As suggested by their name, correlative conjunctions correlate, working in pairs to

join phrases or words that carry equal importance within a sentence. Like many of

the most interesting parts of speech, correlative conjunctions are fun to use. At the

same time, there are some important rules to remember for using them correctly.

❖ When using correlative conjunctions, ensure verbs agree so your sentences

make sense. For example: Every night, either loud music or fighting neighbors

wake John from his sleep.

❖ When you use a correlative conjunction, you must be sure that pronouns agree.

For example: Neither Debra nor Sally expressed her annoyance when the cat

broke the antique lamp.

❖ When using correlative conjunctions, be sure to keep parallel structure intact.

Equal grammatical units need to be incorporated into the entire sentence. For

example: Not only did Mary grill burgers for Michael, but she also fixed a steak

for her dog, Vinny.



CONJUNCTIONS


CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

A correlative conjunction uses a set of

words in a parallel sentence structure to

show a contrast or to compare the equal

parts of a sentence. The words of

correlative conjunctions have a special

connection between them.

The correlative conjunctions are not

only - but also, either- or, neither - nor,

both - and, not - but, whether - or.

Examples:

❖ Neither Alex nor Robin can play

baseball.

❖ I want both ice cream and

❖ He ate not only the ice cream but

also the chocolate.



CONJUNCTIONS




CONJUNCTIONS


CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

Conjunctive adverbs are words that are used to connect one clause to another.

They are also used to show sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and other

relationships.

Like other adverbs, conjunctive adverbs may be moved around in the sentence

or clause in which they appear. This is just one of the things you’ll need to

remember; additional rules for using conjunctive adverbs follow:

❖ Always use a period or semicolon before the conjunctive adverb when

separating two independent clauses. Conjunctive adverbs are not strong

enough to join independent clauses without supporting punctuation.

❖ Use a comma if a conjunction such as and, but, or, or so appears between

the conjunctive adverb and the first clause.

❖ Use a comma behind conjunctive adverbs when they appear at the beginning

of a sentence’s second clause. The only exception to this rule is that no

comma is necessary if the adverb is a single syllable.

❖ If a conjunctive adverb appears in the middle of a clause, it should be

enclosed in commas most of the time. This is not an absolute rule and does

not normally apply to short clauses.



CONJUNCTIONS


CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

Examples of Conjunctive adverbs

The conjunctive adverbs in the

following examples are in bold for

easy identification.

❖ Jeremy kept talking in class;

therefore, he got in trouble.

❖ She went into the store; however,

she didn’t find anything she

wanted to buy.

❖ I like you a lot; in fact, I think we

should be best friends.

❖ Your dog got into my yard; in

addition, he dug up my petunias.

❖ You’re my friend; nonetheless, I

feel like you’re taking advantage of

me.

❖ My car payments are high; on the

other hand, I really enjoy driving

such a nice vehicle.



CONJUNCTIONS


RULES OF CONJUNCTIONS:

Rule 1: The conjunction both is followed by and.

EXAMPLE: He is both intelligent and hard

working.

Rule 2: The conjunction so....as / as....as is

used to make comparison between two persons

and things. so as is used in negative sentences.

EXAMPLE: He is not so good as you.

But as....as is used in both affirmative and

negative sentences.

EXAMPLE: He is as good as you. He is not as

good as you.

Rule 3 : Although/ Though is followed by yet or

a comma(,)

EXAMPLE: Though he worked hard, he failed.

Although these books are costly yet the

students buy them because these are useful.



CONJUNCTIONS



Rule 4:

Always use the correct pair

No sooner........than

Hardly.... when or before

Scarcely.... when or before

Barely.... when or before

EXAMPLE: No sooner had he solved the riddle than he was applauded.

❖ Hardly had I come out of the room before I saw him dying.

❖ Scarcely had he asked the question when Agnes slapped him.

❖ Barely had he bought the car before it was stolen.

Hardly, scarcely, and barely are negative words. Do not use not, no, never with

the clause containing these words. If a sentences starts with a negative word,

use inversion form i.e. helping verb before the subject.



CONJUNCTIONS



Rule 5:

Lest is followed by should or first from of verb. Lest is a negative word. Do not

use not, never, no with lest.

Example: Walk carefully lest he should fall.

Walk carefully lest he fall.

Rule 6:

Until is time oriented and unless is action oriented. Until and unless are

negative words.

Do not use not, never , no, with the clause containing these words.

Example: Wait here until I return.

Unless you work hard, you will not pass.

Rule 7:

In affirmative sentences doubt and doubtful are followed by if/ whether. In

negative or interrogative sentences doubt and doubtful are followed by that.

Example: I doubt if he will come.

I do not doubt that he will come.



CONJUNCTIONS



Rule 8 :

Always use the correct pair not only....but also.

Example: He cheated not only his friends but also his parents.

Rule 9 :

Between is followed by and from is followed by to.

Example: You will have to choose between good and bad.

She keeps singing from morning to evening.

Rule 10 :

Neither of means none of the two. when more than two person or things are

present none of is used.

Either of means one of the two. when more than two person or things are

present one of is used.

Example: None of his friends helped him.

One of the students of your class is responsible for this loss.



CONJUNCTIONS



Rule 11 :

Do not use seldom or ever in place of seldom or never.

Example: The national network seldom or never telecasts good programmers.

Rule 12 :

After rather /other, the subordinating conjunction than should be used.

Example: He has no other object than to get a handsome job.

I would rather buy a scooter than a cycle.



CONDITIONAL SENTENCES


I will let you go

ahead with this

lesson on one

condition!

You need to

promise me that

you put your heart

and soul in

learning the

concepts and this

condition should

not only apply

here, but in your

real life.

So, let’s begin our

next journey called

as

“CONDITIONALS”.

So, what is a

condition?

The word "condition"

means "situation or

circumstance"

A conditional sentence is a sentence that gives a

condition (e.g., If it snows) and the outcome of the

condition occurring (e.g., the game will be cancelled).

Examples:

❖ If you rest, you rust. (Actress Helen Hayes)

❖ If you think you can, you can. And if you think you

can't, you are right. (Business magnate Henry Ford)

❖ You do ill if you praise, but you do worse if you

censure, what you do not understand. (Polymath

Leonardo da Vinci)





CONDITIONALS: AN OVERVIEW

Conditional tenses are used to speculate about what could happen, what might

have happened, and what we wish would happen. In English, most sentences

using the conditional contain the word if. Many conditional forms in English are

used in sentences that include verbs in one of the past tenses. This usage is

referred to as "the unreal past" because we use a past tense but we are not

actually referring to something that happened in the past. There are five main

ways of constructing conditional sentences in English. In all cases, these

sentences are made up of an if clause and a main clause. In many negative

conditional sentences, there is an equivalent sentence construction using

"unless" instead of "if".

A conditional sentence is often made up of two parts, that is, the if-part and the

main part. A conditional sentence is a sentence that expresses a condition. A

condition is something that can only happen if something else occurs.

EXAMPLES:

❖ If you come, we shall welcome you. “If you come” is the if-part and “we shall

welcome you” is the main part.

❖ If you come, we shall welcome you.

❖ We shall welcome you if you come.





Basically, there are five types of conditional sentences.





ZERO CONDITIONALS

The zero conditional is used for when the time being referred to is now or always

and the situation is real and possible. The zero conditional is often used to refer

to general truths. The tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple present.

In zero conditional sentences, the word "if" can usually be replaced by the word

"when" without changing the meaning. The zero conditional follows the following

structure:

If clause Main clause

If + simple present simple present

If this thing happens that thing happens.

If you heat ice it melts.

If it rains the grass gets wet.





ZERO CONDITIONALS





ZERO CONDITIONALS

FUNCTION:

The zero conditional is used to make statements about the real world, and

often refers to general truths, such as scientific facts. In these sentences, the

time is now or always and the situation is real and possible.

Examples

❖ If you freeze water, it becomes a solid.

❖ Plants die if they don't get enough water.

❖ If my husband has a cold, I usually catch it.

❖ If public transport is efficient, people stop using their cars.

❖ If you mix red and blue, you get purple.

The zero conditional is also often used to give instructions, using the

imperative in the main clause.

Examples

❖ If Bill phones, tell him to meet me at the cinema.

❖ Ask Pete if you're not sure what to do.

❖ If you want to come, call me before 5:00.

❖ Meet me here if we get separated.





TYPE 1 CONDITIONAL/ FIRST CONDITIONAL

The type 1 conditional is used to refer to the present or future where the situation

is real. The type 1 conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable

result. In these sentences the if clause is in the simple present, and the main

clause is in the simple future. The type 1 conditional follows the following

structure:


If + simple present simple future

If this thing happens that thing will happen.

If you don't hurry you will miss the train.

If it rains today you will get wet.





FUNCTION:

The type 1 conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable result.

These sentences are based on facts, and they are used to make statements

about the real world, and about particular situations. We often use such

sentences to give warnings. In type 1 conditional sentences, the time is the

present or future and the situation is real.

Examples:

❖ If I have time, I'll finish that letter.

❖ What will you do if you miss the plane?

❖ Nobody will notice if you make a mistake.

❖ If you drop that glass, it will break.

In type 1 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause

instead of the future tense to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a

recommendation about the outcome.

Examples:

❖ If Bill phones, tell him to meet me at the cinema.

❖ Ask Pete if you're not sure what to do.

❖ If you want to come, call me before 5:00.






The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a time that is now or any time, and a

situation that is unreal. These sentences are not based on fact. The type 2

conditional is used to refer to a hypothetical condition and its probable result. In

type 2 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the simple past, and the main

clause uses the present conditional. The type 2 conditional follows the following

structure:

TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL/ SECOND CONDITIONAL


If + simple past present conditional or present

continuous conditional

If this thing happened that thing would happen. (but I'm not sure

this thing will happen) OR

that thing would be happening.

If you went to bed earlier you would not be so tired.

If it rained you would get wet.

If I spoke Italian I would be working in Italy.





FUNCTION:

The type 2 conditional refers to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its

probable result. These sentences are not based on the actual situation. In type

2 conditional sentences, the time is now or any time and the situation is

hypothetical.

Examples:

❖ If the weather wasn't so bad, we would go to the park. (But the weather is

bad so we can't go.)

❖ If I was the Queen of England, I would give everyone a chicken. (But I am not

the Queen.)

❖ If you really loved me, you would buy me a diamond ring.

❖ If I knew where she lived, I would go and see her.

It is correct, and very common, to say "if I were" instead of "if I was" (subjunctive

mood).

Examples

❖ If I were taller, I would buy this dress.

❖ If I were 20, I would travel the world.






FUNCTION:


instead of "would" to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a


Examples:

❖ We might buy a larger house if we had more money

❖ He could go to the concert if you gave him your ticket.

❖ If he called me, I couldn't hear.


THE PRESENT CONDITIONAL TENSE:

The present conditional of any verb is composed of two elements:

would + the infinitive of the main verb, without "to“.

Example: To Go: present conditional

Affirmative Negative Interrogative Interrogative

negative

I would go I wouldn't go Would I go? Wouldn't I go?

You would go You wouldn't go Would you go? Wouldn't you go?





The type 3 conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation

that is contrary to reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is

expressed. The type 3 conditional is used to refer to an unreal past condition and its

probable past result. In type 3 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the past

perfect, and the main clause uses the perfect conditional.

The type 3 conditional follows the following structure:

TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL/ THIRD CONDITIONAL


If + past perfect perfect conditional or perfect

continuous conditional

If this thing had happened that thing would have happened. (but

neither of those things really

happened) OR

that thing would have been happening.

If you had studied harder you would have passed the exam.

If it had rained you would have gotten wet.

If I had accepted that promotion I would have been working in Milan.





FUNCTION:

The type 3 conditional refers to an impossible condition in the past and its

probable result in the past. These sentences are truly hypothetical and unreal,

because it is now too late for the condition or its result to exist. There is always

some implication of regret with type 3 conditional sentences. The reality is the

opposite of, or contrary to, what the sentence expresses. In type 3 conditional

sentences, the time is the past and the situation is hypothetical.

Examples:

❖ If I had worked harder I would have passed the exam. (But I didn't work hard,

and I didn't pass the exam.)

❖ If I had known you were coming I would have baked a cake. (But I didn't know

and I didn't bake a cake.)

❖ I would have been happy if you had called me on my birthday. (But you didn't

call me and I am not happy.)






FUNCTION:


instead of "would" to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a


Examples

❖ If I had worked harder I might have passed the exam.

❖ You could have been on time if you had caught the bus.

❖ If he called you, you could go.

❖ If you bought my school supplies for me, I might be able to go to the park.

REMEMBER 2 RULES:

1. would never appears in the if-clause so if 'd appears in the if clause, it must

be abbreviating had.

2. had never appears before have so if 'd appears on a pronoun just before

have, it must be abbreviating would.

Examples:

❖ If I'd known you were in hospital, I'd have visited you.

❖ If I had known you were in hospital, I would have visited you.






The mixed type conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a

situation that is ongoing into the present. The facts they are based on are the

opposite of what is expressed. The mixed type conditional is used to refer to an

unreal past condition and its probable result in the present. In mixed type

conditional sentences, the if clause uses the past perfect, and the main clause uses

the present conditional. The mixed type conditional follows the following structure:

MIXED TYPE CONDITIONAL


If + past perfect or simple past present conditional or perfect

conditional

If this thing had happened that thing would happen. (but this thing

didn't happen so that thing isn't

happening)

If I had worked harder at school I would have a better job now.

If we had looked at the map we wouldn't be lost.





FUNCTION:

This type of mixed conditional refers to an unreal past condition and its probable

result in the present. These sentences express a situation which is contrary to

reality both in the past and in the present. In these mixed conditional sentences,

the time is the past in the "if" clause and in the present in the main clause.

Examples:

❖ If I had studied I would have my driving license. (but I didn't study and now I

don't have my license)

❖ I would be a millionaire now if I had taken that job. (but I didn't take the job

and I'm not a millionaire)

❖ If you had spent all your money, you wouldn't buy this jacket. (but you didn't

spend all your money and now you can buy this jacket)

In these mixed conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main

clause instead of would to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a


Examples:

❖ If you had crashed the car, you might be in trouble.

❖ I could be a millionaire now if I had invested in ABC Plumbing.






We now know that a conditional sentence is made up of two elements, i.e.

“if-clause” and “Main Clause”. Based upon these two elements, lets observe how

the structure of the sentence changes according to different sentences.

IF CLAUSE IN PRESENT TENSE:

General formula - If + Simple present, simple future

❖ In this type of sentences ‘If Clause’ is in Simple Present and ‘Main clause’ is in

Simple Future.

➢ If I will come to Delhi, I will meet you. (Incorrect)

➢ If I come to Delhi, I will meet you. (Correct)

❖ If two work is in future back to back, and second work is depend on first work,

then first work is in Simple Present Tense and second work is in Simple Future

Tense.

Examples on the second slide.

A CLASSIC SET OF RULES





Some examples:-

1. She will come to meet you as soon as you will reach Delhi. (Incorrect)

She will come to meet you as soon as you reach Delhi. (Correct)

2. If the government will be become strict, corruption will surely

finish. (Incorrect)

If the government becomes strict, corruption will surely finish. (Correct)

3. I will help him provided he will mend his ways. (Incorrect)

I will help him provided he mends his ways. (Correct)

4. Unless he will not take care of his health, he will not recover. (Incorrect)

Unless he takes care of his health, he will not recover. (Correct)

5. There will be rush at the platform when the train will arrive. (Incorrect)

There will be rush at the platform when the train arrives. (Correct)

NOTE:

❖ We don’t use “will/ shall/ would” in sentences of “if”. (See second sentence in

above examples)

❖ After sub+ will/shall don’t use If, as soon as, provided, before, after, until,

unless, in case, when, lest.

❖ With ‘Unless or until’ don’t use ‘not’.(See sentence 4)

❖ In Conditional Sentences after when don’t use will/ shall.(See sentence 5)

A CLASSIC SET OF

RULES





IF CLAUSE IN PAST TENSE

General formula - If + Simple Past, Subject + would + V1

EXAMPLES:

❖ If I had money, I would lend it to you.

This type of sentence shows ‘improbability’.

In above sentence ‘If I had money’ clearly shows that ‘there is no money.

A CLASSIC SET OF

RULES

‘IF’ CLAUSE IN PAST PERFECT TENSE

General formula - If + Past Perfect, Sub + would + have +V3

EXAMPLES:

❖ If I had seen you, I would have stopped my car.

In this type of sentence. The work has shown in ‘If clause’ sentence, that work

has shown not done. Means ‘If I had seen you’ shows that ‘I had not seen you’.

In this type of sentence ‘If’ can be replace by ‘had’. Then the formula becomes:

Had + Subject + V3 + object, subject + would + have + V3

Examples:

❖ Had I seen you, I would have stopped my car.



SENTENCES


A sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with a

capital letter and ends with a full-stop, or a question mark, or an exclamation

mark.

The sentence is generally defined as a word or a group of words that

expresses a thorough idea by giving a statement/order, or asking a question,

or exclaiming.

Example:

He is a good boy (statement), Is he a good boy? (question), What a nice

weather! (exclaiming).

Ideally, a sentence requires at least one subject and one verb. Sometimes the

subject of a sentence can be hidden, but the verb must be visible and present

in the sentence. Verb is called the heart of a sentence.

Example:

Do it. (In this sentence, a subject ‘you’ is hidden but verb ‘do’ is visible)

“[A sentence is] a group of words, usually containing a verb, that expresses a

thought in the form of a statement, question, instruction, or exclamation and

starts with a capital letter when written.”



SENTENCES


A complete English sentence must have three characteristics:

❖ First, in written form, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a

period (i.e., a full stop) [.], a note of interrogation (i.e., a question mark) [?],

or a note of exclamation (i.e., an exclamation mark) [!].

❖ Second, it must express a complete thought, not fragmented.

❖ Third, it must contain at least one subject (hidden/visible) and one verb

comprising an independent clause. (An independent clause contains an

independent subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.)

Types of Sentences

Structurally, sentences are of four types:

❖ Simple sentence

❖ Compound sentence

❖ Complex sentence, and

❖ Compound-complex sentence.



SENTENCES


SIMPLE SENTENCE:

A simple sentence must have a single clause (a single verb) which is

independent, and it cannot take another clause.

Examples:

I always wanted to become a writer. (One clause – one verb)

COMPOUND SENTENCE:

A compound sentence must have more than one independent clause with no

dependent clauses. Some specific conjunctions, punctuation, or both are used

to join together these clauses.

Examples:

I always wanted to become a writer, and she wanted to become a doctor. (Two

independent clauses – two verbs)



SENTENCES


COMPLEX SENTENCE

A complex sentence also has more than one clause but of one them must be

an independent clause and the other/others must be (a) dependent

clause(es). There are also some particular connectors for the clauses of a

complex sentence to be connected.

Example:

I know that you always wanted to be a writer. (Here, a dependent clause is

followed by a connector and an independent clause. The other way around is

also possible.)

COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE

A compound-complex sentence (or complex–compound sentence) is a

mixture of the features of compound and complex sentences in one sentence.

So, it must contain at least two independent clauses and at least one

dependent clause.

Example:

I know that you always wanted to become a writer, but I always wanted to

become a doctor. (Here, one dependent clause is followed by a complex

connector and two independent clauses with a compound conjunction

between them.)



SENTENCES


FUNCTIONALLY, SENTENCES ARE OF MAINLY FOUR TYPES:

❖ Declarative sentence

❖ Imperative sentence

❖ Interrogative sentence, and

❖ Exclamatory sentence

DECLARATIVE SENTENCE:

An assertive sentence (declarative sentence) simply expresses an

opinion/feeling, or makes a statement, or describes things. In other words, it

declares something. This type of sentence ends with a period (i.e., a full-stop).

Examples:

I want to be a good cricketer. (a statement)

I am very happy today. (a feeling)

IMPERATIVE SENTENCE:

We use an imperative sentence to make a request or to give a command.

Imperative sentences usually end with a period (i.e., a full stop), but under

certain circumstances, it can end with a note of exclamation (i.e., exclamation

mark).Examples: Please sit down.

I need you to sit down now!



SENTENCES


INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE:

An interrogative sentence asks a question. Interrogative sentences must end

with a note of interrogation (i.e., question mark)

Examples:

When are you going to submit your assignment?

Do you know him?

More Examples of Interrogative Sentence

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE.

An exclamatory sentence expresses overflow of emotions. These emotions can

be of happiness, wonder, sorrow, anger, etc.

Examples:

What a day it was!

I cannot believe he would do that!



CLAUSES


A clause is comprised of a group of words which includes a subject and a finite

verb. A clause contains only one subject and one verb. The subject of a clause

can be mentioned or hidden, but the verb must be apparent and distinguishable.

Example:

❖ I graduated last year. (One clause sentence)

❖ When I came here, I saw him. (Two clause sentence)

❖ When I came here, I saw him, and he greeted me. (Three clause sentence)



CLAUSES


INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

An independent clause functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence

and looks much like a regular sentence.

In a sentence two independent clauses can be connected by the coordinators:

and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet*.

Examples:

❖ He is a wise man.

❖ I like him.

❖ Can you do it?

❖ Do it please. (Subject you is hidden)

❖ I read the whole story.

❖ I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money. (Two independent

clauses)

❖ He went to London and visited the Lords. (Subject of the second clause is

‘he,' so “he visited the Lords” is an independent clause.)

❖ Alex smiles whenever he sees her. (One independent clause)



CLAUSES


DEPENDENT CLAUSE:

A dependent clause cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or

thought unfinished. It is also called subordinate clause. Dependent clauses

help the independent clauses complete the sentence. A dependent clause

alone cannot form a complete sentence.

The subordinators do the work of connecting the dependent clause to another

clause to complete the sentence. In each of the dependent clause, the first

word is a subordinator. Subordinators include relative pronouns, subordinating

conjunctions, and noun clause markers.

Examples:

❖ When I was dating Daina, I had an accident.

❖ I know the man who stole the watch.

❖ He bought a car which was too expensive.

❖ I know that he cannot do it.

❖ He does not know where he was born.

❖ If you don’t eat, I won’t go.

❖ He is a very talented player though he is out of form.



CLAUSES


NOUN CLAUSE:

A noun clause is a clause that plays the role of a noun. For example (noun

clauses shaded):

❖ I like what I see. (Like all clauses, a noun clause has a subject and a verb.

In this example, the subject of the clause is "I" and the verb is "see.")

❖ I know that patience has its limits.(In this example, the subject of the clause

is "patience" and the verb is "has.")

The Function of Noun Clauses

Like any noun, a noun clause can be a subject, an object, or a complement.

Here are some more easy examples of noun clauses as subjects, objects, and

complements.

❖ Whoever smelt it dealt it.

(Here, the noun clause is a subject.)

❖ My command is whatever you wish.

(Here, the noun clause is a subject complement.)

❖ I will give what you said some thought.

(Here, the noun clause is an indirect object. That's pretty rare.)



CLAUSES


ADJECTIVE CLAUSE:

An adjective clause is a multiword adjective that includes a subject and a verb.

When we think of an adjective, we usually think about a single word used before

a noun to modify its meanings (e.g., tall building, smelly cat, argumentative

assistant). However, an adjective can also come in the form of an adjective

clause. An adjective clause usually comes after the noun it modifies and is

made up of several words, which, like all clauses, will include a subject and a

verb.

Examples of Adjective Clauses

❖ The carpets that you bought last year have rotted.

❖ The follies which a man regrets most in his life are those which he didn't

commit when he had the opportunity.

❖ Bore: a person who talks when you wish him to listen.



CLAUSES




CLAUSES


ADVERB CLAUSE:

A dependent adverb clause is a group of words that plays the role of an adverb

and that contains a subject and a verb. A dependent clause usually tells us

when, where, why, how, how often, or under what condition the main verb in the

sentence takes place. For example:

The otter surfaced occasionally.

(This is a normal adverb. It tell us when the otter surfaced. "Surfaced" is the

main verb in the sentence.)

The otter surfaced when we looked the other way.

(This is a dependent adverb clause. It still tells us when the otter surface. This

time though, the adverb is an adverb clause.)

Like all dependent clauses, a dependent adverb clause cannot stand alone as a

complete sentence. Like all clauses, a dependent adverb clause includes a

subject and a verb.



PHRASES


Phrase and clause are the most important elements of English grammar.

Phrase and clause cover everything a sentence has. Clauses are the center of

sentences and phrases strengthen the sentences to become meaningful. If

the clauses are the pillars of a building, the phrases are the bricks. A phrase

usually is always present within a clause, but a phrase cannot have a clause

in it.

The basic difference between a clause and a phrase is that a clause must

have a finite verb and a phrase must not.

A phrase, therefore, is a group of words which has no finite verb in it and acts

to complete the sentence for making it meaningful.

The phrases are generally of six types.

❖ Noun Phrase

❖ Adjective Phrase

❖ Adverbial Phrase

❖ Prepositional Phrase

❖ Conjunctional Phrase

❖ Interjectional Phrase



PHRASES


NOUN PHRASE

A noun phrase is usually assembled centering a single noun and works as a

subject, an object or a complement in the sentence.

Examples:

❖ I like to swing the bat hard when I am at the crease. (An object)

❖ Reading novels is a good habit. (A subject)

❖ The probability of happening that match is not much. (A subject)

❖ We are sorry for her departure.

ADJECTIVE PHRASE

An adjective phrase is comprised of an adjective and works as a single

adjective in the sentence.

Examples:

❖ Alex is a well-behaved man.

❖ He is a man of friendly nature.

❖ Julie is a woman of gorgeous style.

❖ She leads a very interesting life.

❖ A lot of people do not sleep at night.



PHRASES


ADVERBIAL PHRASE

An adverbial phrase modifies the verb or the adjective and works as an

adverb in the sentence.

Examples:

❖ The horse runs at a good speed.

❖ I was in a hurry then.

❖ I ran as fast as possible.

❖ He works very slowly.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

A prepositional phrase always begins with a preposition and connects nouns.

Examples:

❖ He sacrificed his life for the sake of his country.

❖ In the end, we all have to die.

❖ He is on the way.

❖ By working aimlessly, you will not get success.

❖ In spite of working hard, he was insulted by his boss.

Note: Prepositional phrases include all other types of phrases.



PHRASES


CONJUNCTIONAL PHRASE

A conjunctional phrase works as a conjunction in the sentence.

Examples:

❖ As soon as you got in, he went out.

❖ We have to work hard so that we can win the next match.

❖ I will attend the ceremony provided that you come.

❖ John started working early in order that he could finish early.

INTERJECTIONAL PHRASE

Interjections that have more than one words are called the interjectional

phrases.

Examples:

❖ What a pity! He is dead.

❖ What a pleasure! I won the first prize.

❖ Oh please! Don’t say that again.



PUNCTUATIONS


There was no punctuation in any languages of ancient times. With the

advancement of civilization, punctuation was introduced in the written form of

the language to help a reader distinguish words and ideas from each other and

to mirror the natural rhythms of the spoken language.

Punctuation has a way of adding emphasis and cadence to our written

sentences. Still, many people, from native English speakers to people learning

English as a foreign language, aren’t always sure when and where to use

punctuation marks.

If you find punctuation confusing, rest assured you’re not the only one. Plenty of

people, even native English speakers, have trouble when it comes to using the

right punctuation marks. The good news is that the 14 different punctuation

marks aren’t as confusing as you’d think when you break them all down.

There are 14 punctuation marks that are used in the English language. They

are: the period, question mark, exclamation point, comma, colon, semicolon,

dash, hyphen, brackets, braces, parentheses, apostrophe, quotation mark, and

ellipsis.



PUNCTUATIONS


PERIOD (.):

The period is also called full stop. A period

declares the end of a sentence. It also indicates

the separation of sentences so that the readers

cannot mix up different sentences. A period is

used at the end of a sentence which is complete

and not a question or an exclamatory sentence.

Example:

❖ Alex was a little boy when he first saw a

person dying. He was so shocked and

panicked that he could not sleep for several

days. He still fears the sight of someone’s

death.

The period is also used in abbreviations.

Example:

❖ Saint = St.

❖ Exempli gratia = e.g.

❖ Nota bene = N.B.



PUNCTUATIONS


NOTE OF INTERROGATION (QUESTION MARK) (?)

The note of interrogation is used to complete sentences that form

a direct question. Indirect questions are regarded as statements,

and they take periods, not question marks.

Example:

❖ Have you had your breakfast?

❖ Where are you going?

❖ I don’t know where he is going. (A statement, not a direct

question)

❖ Do you know he was watching TV all day long while I was

cleaning the house for the party that we want to throw on this

weekend? (It’s a long sentence, yet it is a direct question.)

Did you once think about your family? Your career? Your future?

Your life? (Series of questions using the same subject and verb)

Note:

What? – So? – Right? (Single word questions are used only in

informal writing.)



PUNCTUATIONS


NOTE OF EXCLAMATION (EXCLAMATION

MARK/POINT) (!)

The note of exclamation indicates

excitement, either positive or negative. It can

also be used for giving additional emphasis

to sentences, phrases, or single words, and

especially to commands and interjections.

Example:

❖ Wait! Don’t take another step!

❖ I can’t believe she could say that!

❖ What a gorgeous house!

Note: It is best to avoid using a note of

exclamation whenever the excitement can be

described in words. You should be

meticulous in using this punctuation in any

form of writing.



PUNCTUATIONS


COMMA (,)

The comma is the most useful and common

punctuation mark in English. It has many important

roles in making a written form of English easy to read.

Commas usually add breathing scope for the readers

in sentences, so that their thoughts cannot get all

jumbled up. A comma has many uses.

i. Comma between Independent Clauses

Usually, a comma separates two Independent

clauses when they are connected by certain

coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, or for).

However, if the clauses are very short, no comma is

needed.

Example:

❖ They finished dinner in pin-drop silence, but Alex

knew that he would have to apologize.

❖ I wanted to watch a movie after dinner, but I could

not tell her as I was confused about her reactions.



PUNCTUATIONS


COMMA (,)

ii. Comma after Introductory Clauses, Phrases, and Expression

Commas are used not only between independent clauses but also after

introductory clauses and phrases. Some expressions and connectors which are

placed at the beginning of a sentence also require a comma after them.

Example:

❖ If you take off your jacket, you’ll catch a cold. (If the subordinators are used at

the beginning of the sentences, the comma marks the separation of the two

clauses)

❖ Being insulted, the piper went to the hill. (Participial phrases are always

separated from the clauses by commas.)

❖ Before start riding it, you should read the instructions.

❖ When you came here, Alex was the general manager.

❖ Well, I cannot play in the next match.

❖ However, Alex will play in the next match.

❖ In winter we usually stay at home most of the time. (Short phrases like “in

winter” don’t need commas.)

Note: A good way to clear the confusion about commas is to read the sentence

aloud to make sure whether there is enough pause taken or not for using a

comma.



PUNCTUATIONS


COMMA (,)

iii. Series Comma

Commas are used to separate multiple items of the same category in a series.

These items can be a series of words, phrases, or clauses.

Example:

❖ We brought pizzas, burgers, chocolate, and a chocolate cake on tour.

❖ The batsman set up his pads, put on his helmet, and played a good knock.

(verb phrases)

❖ He is a player, a singer, an actor, and a director.

iv. Comma before Tag Question

Commas are used before a tag question which is usually a reassuring

statement of a sentence’s overall idea.

❖ They’re ready to go, aren’t they?

❖ They’ll never do it, will they?

❖ He loves you, doesn’t he?



PUNCTUATIONS


COMMA (,)

v. Comma in Direct Address

Commas are used in vocative uses. Calling someone by name or directly

referring to them requires separation by commas.

Example:

❖ Hey, Joe, what are you doing?

❖ Listen, Lee, you have to bowl well today.

❖ You know, kid, when I was your age, I used to go out a lot.

vi. Comma for Adding Nonessential Ideas and Nonrestrictive Clauses

Commas can be used to add nonessential ideas or facts in the form of words,

phrases, or clauses into a sentence. Usually removing these ideas from

sentences does not affect the grammatical accuracy of the sentences.

Example:

❖ There’s a palace in London, just across the river, where I visited last week.

❖ The new player, you know him, scored a brilliant century.

❖ I suggest if that’s okay, that you let him go.



PUNCTUATIONS


COMMA (,)

vii. Commas in Names and Dates

Commas are used to separate names of places and dates.

Example:

❖ Jefferson City, Missouri, is one of the biggest cities in the world.

❖ Brisbane, Queensland, is a big city.

❖ They were married April 05, 2013, in Melbourne. (No comma is necessary

only for month and day – g., they were married on April 5 in Melbourne.)

❖ He was born June 24, 1993, in London.

viii. Commas in Dialog

Commas are used in the dialog to set off the indirect speech from the direct

speech.

Example:

❖ I told him, “Don’t go there!”

❖ “When we were going there,” she said, “we saw thousands of palm trees.”

❖ “Please, give me that ball”, said the boy.



PUNCTUATIONS


COMMON MISTAKES WITH COMMAS

1. Commas do not separate two verbs or verb phrases joined by a coordinator.

Incorrect: I cleaned, and painted the box.

Correct: I cleaned and painted the box.

2. Commas do not separate two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses which

are joined by a conjunction.

Incorrect: My coach, and our board president both sent letters.

Correct: My coach and our board president both sent letters.

3. Subordinate clauses do not need commas when they are joined by a

conjunction between them.

Incorrect: I’ll be late if you don’t let me go now.

Correct: I’ll be late if you don’t let me go now. (If you don’t let me go now, I’ll be

late.)



PUNCTUATIONS


COLON (:)

Colons are the least used punctuation mark. The usage of colons is limited. Yet,

if you know how to use them, you will be able to use them in your writing.

i. Colons are used in the salutations of formal letters.

Example:

❖ Dear Sir:

❖ To whom it may concern:

❖ To all members:

ii. Colons sometimes introduce a series/list to describe some new information

after a complete sentence.

Example:

❖ Incorrect: The fruit seller had: bananas, apples, and oranges.

❖ Correct: The fruit seller had three kinds of fruit: bananas, apples, and

oranges.



PUNCTUATIONS


COLON (:)

iii. A colon is also used to connect two independent clauses where the first one

explains the second clause or logically follows it. The first word after a colon

usually is not capitalized unless the colon introduces a series of new sentences

or independent clauses.

Example:

❖ He was just thinking only one thing: what was his dog doing then?

❖ I knew the clue: you just had to read it in the mirror.

iv. Colons are used for expressing TIME in figures.

Example:

❖ 1:30 AM (Not o'clock)

❖ 7:35 PM

❖ 6:30 in the morning



PUNCTUATIONS


SEMICOLON (;)

Semicolons are almost like periods, but they

connect two independent clauses or sentences

together instead of using a coordinating

conjunction. Semicolons between the two clauses

or sentences indicate that the clauses are closely

related. Semicolons can be replaced by the

coordinating conjunctions.

Example: We do not need a car now; we want to

sell it. (This semicolon could be replaced by ‘and’.

Common transitional expressions such as

therefore, for instance, namely, indeed,

additionally, further, moreover, likewise, and finally

are used after a semicolon to start a new clause.

Example:

❖ We used to love hunting; however, it is not legal

❖ He does not like me; likewise, I do not like him.

❖ It’s too cold out here; indeed, it’s winter.



PUNCTUATIONS


Hyphen (-)

Hyphens combine words together to make Compound Nouns/Adjectives.

Hyphens are also used with some suffixes and prefixes, such as -like, -wise,

anti-, and post- to make new adjectives.

Example:

❖ Anti-violent

❖ Dog-like

❖ Ability-wise

❖ Decision-making

❖ City-owned

Compound numbers and continuous numbers require hyphen in them. A

hyphen is used with compound numbers from 21 to 99 in words and with

fractions which work as adjectives in the sentence. Fractions which are nouns

don’t need hyphens.

Example:

❖ Sixty-five

❖ Twenty-five

❖ Their age is 23-25.



PUNCTUATIONS


Dash (–)

A dash hints a brief break in thought or helps to add information to a sentence.

A dash has no space before or after it.

Example:

❖ The man was running around the building—I couldn’t see his face—and

disappeared down the alley.

❖ This house—and every house on the street—will be connected by this wire.

❖ Russel Crow—you know him, I think—is coming to our locality.

A dash can replace the conjunctions such as namely, that is, or in other words

to add new information or explanation.

Example:

❖ I was thinking about another road—the one through New York.

❖ There’s only one way not to lose—don’t even participate in the game.



PUNCTUATIONS


APOSTROPHE (’)

An apostrophe indicates possession and the exclusion of letters in contractions.

Example:

❖ They’re going to Canada.

❖ I’m not going.

❖ Robert’s watch

❖ Someone's glasses

❖ Trees’ leaves (If there is an ‘s’ before the apostrophe, no ‘s’ is needed for it)

❖ Teams’ scores

❖ Jones’ pen

PARENTHESES - ()

Parentheses block off materials that interrupt the text to add information.

Example:

❖ The parks (in Boston) are always crowded.

❖ We provide a lot of services. (See our website)

❖ We provide a lot of services (see our website).



PUNCTUATIONS


BRACKETS

Brackets enclose the additional things in the quoted material. These additions

are used for clarifications of the words or phrases of the quoted materials.

Example:

❖ “It [the river] taught me all I ever knew about life.”

❖ “Yeats used to love her [Maude Gonne], and he wrote many poems about

her.”

❖ “Every man[sic] must die one day.”

❖ “I told [Spielberg] I wouldn’t do the movie.”

Brackets are also required to block off materials that fall within materials which

are already enclosed by parentheses.

Example:

❖ We provide a lot of services. (See the website [Table 23] for the details)



PUNCTUATIONS


QUOTATION MARKS (‘...’/“... ... ..”)

Quotation marks are used for enclosing direct quotations of written or spoken

words of others, or dialog said by characters in fiction.

They are also called quote marks or just quotes for short. The first of the pair is the

opening or open quote. It curves to the right: “ ‘. The second one is the closing or

close quote. It curves to the left: ’ ”.

Example:

❖ Have you seen the music video for the song “Despacito”?

❖ “Play with aggression” shouted the coach.

❖ Your exact words were “get out of my room.”

❖ “I'd never dreamed that I'd lose somebody like you”–this line from the song

‘Wicked Games’ always makes me sad.

Notes: Commas and periods must always be placed inside the quotation marks,

according to most citation systems.

Colons, as well as, semicolons, on the other hand, should be placed outside the

quotation marks.Note of interrogation and note of exclamation should be placed

inside the quotation marks when they are part of the quoted elements. Seemingly,

when the note of interrogation and exclamation are not a part of the quoted

materials, they are not placed outside the quotation marks.



COMPLETE GUIDE TO GRAMMAR RULES - AWS

Documents

Transcript of COMPLETE GUIDE TO GRAMMAR RULES - AWS