Chinese Rituals of Chinese Rituals of DeathDeath

Death in World ReligionsDeath in World Religions

Session OverviewSession Overview We will:We will:

consider concepts and misunderstandings consider concepts and misunderstandings of Chinese religion (A)of Chinese religion (A)

consider the Chinese cosmos and death (B)consider the Chinese cosmos and death (B) consider the role and place of ancestor consider the role and place of ancestor veneration and filial piety in Chinese veneration and filial piety in Chinese beliefs about the afterlife (C)beliefs about the afterlife (C)

explore Chinese funeral and remembrance explore Chinese funeral and remembrance rituals (D)s of self immolation in rituals (D)s of self immolation in Buddhist tradition and the contemporary Buddhist tradition and the contemporary context of Falun Dafa/ Falun Gong (E)context of Falun Dafa/ Falun Gong (E)

Chinese Religion:Chinese Religion:An Overview (A)An Overview (A)

Chinese religions Chinese religions not distinct not distinct traditionstraditions

Key traditions:Key traditions: Daoism, Buddhism, Daoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Confucianism, Folk religionFolk religion

See Hedges, See Hedges, ‘Religion in the ‘Religion in the Practice of Daily Practice of Daily Life in China’Life in China’

TTwowo MythMythss of of Chinese Chinese Religion (A)Religion (A)

The The MythMyth of Daoism of Daoism Philosophical Philosophical Daoism – daojia (Daoism – daojia ( 道道道道 ) – ‘pure’ Daoism) – ‘pure’ Daoism

Dao De Jing (Tao Te Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching) (AKA Lao Zi) Ching) (AKA Lao Zi) (( 道道道道道道 ))

Zhuang Zi (Chuang Zhuang Zi (Chuang Tzu) (Tzu) ( 道道道道 ))

Lie Zi (Lieh Tzu)Lie Zi (Lieh Tzu) Religious Daoism – Religious Daoism – daojiao (daojiao ( 道道道道 ) – ) – superstitionsuperstition

The 2 Traditions The 2 Traditions MythMyth Two clearly defined Two clearly defined ancient traditionsancient traditions

DaoismDaoism Separate traditionSeparate tradition Origins in Dao De Origins in Dao De JingJing

ConfucianismConfucianism Separate traditionSeparate tradition Origins with Origins with Confucius (Kongzi)Confucius (Kongzi)

The Actual Traditions The Actual Traditions (A)(A)

DaoismDaoism as a tradition only begins in Han dynasty, or lateras a tradition only begins in Han dynasty, or later First Daoist School (Celestial Masters) outside of ‘Chinese First Daoist School (Celestial Masters) outside of ‘Chinese sphere’sphere’

Development of laterDevelopment of later traditions – create/ codify an indigenous traditions – create/ codify an indigenous Chinese traditionChinese tradition

Confucianism (name for rujiao – the tradition of the Confucianism (name for rujiao – the tradition of the scholars)scholars) No clearly distinct ‘religious’ tradition in early stagesNo clearly distinct ‘religious’ tradition in early stages

Various ‘Confucians’ engaged in ‘Daoist’ quests in Han and later Various ‘Confucians’ engaged in ‘Daoist’ quests in Han and later dynastiesdynasties

Until Song Dynasty, mainly a civil service ‘tradition’Until Song Dynasty, mainly a civil service ‘tradition’ associations with ancestor cult and imperial cultassociations with ancestor cult and imperial cult

All early works (to Han) combine elements of various All early works (to Han) combine elements of various traditionstraditions later called ‘Daoism’, ‘Confucianism’, ‘legalism’, ‘Mohism’, etc.later called ‘Daoism’, ‘Confucianism’, ‘legalism’, ‘Mohism’, etc.

Clear distinction of ‘Daoist’ and ‘Confucian’ only in Clear distinction of ‘Daoist’ and ‘Confucian’ only in Song-YuanSong-Yuan Development of Neo-Confucianism: rethinks Confucian lineageDevelopment of Neo-Confucianism: rethinks Confucian lineage Creates itself as an orthodox spiritual tradition vs. Daoism and Creates itself as an orthodox spiritual tradition vs. Daoism and BuddhismBuddhism

The Person and Her Souls The Person and Her Souls (B)(B)

Various views:Various views: Most common: 2 soulsMost common: 2 souls

PoPo Lower soul, controls bodily functionsLower soul, controls bodily functions Stays near body and/ or descendsStays near body and/ or descends

HunHun Higher soul, controls intellectual functionsHigher soul, controls intellectual functions Ascends to realm of ancestorsAscends to realm of ancestors

However:However: In practice dead seen as a unity – In practice dead seen as a unity – focus on hun in ritesfocus on hun in rites

Qi (Chi) Qi (Chi) (B)(B)

Fundamental to Chinese Fundamental to Chinese thinkingthinking

‘‘vital force’, ‘energy’, vital force’, ‘energy’, ‘breath’, ‘cosmic power’ ‘breath’, ‘cosmic power’ etc.etc. Chinese and Japanese martial Chinese and Japanese martial arts (soft styles: taijiquan arts (soft styles: taijiquan (taichi chuan)& aikido)(taichi chuan)& aikido)

‘‘strange mystical power’, strange mystical power’, ‘cosmic electricity’, or ‘cosmic electricity’, or ‘breathing’‘breathing’

More fundamentalMore fundamental Chinese cosmology qi = stuff Chinese cosmology qi = stuff of the universeof the universe yin and yang can only operate yin and yang can only operate upon qiupon qi

raw physical matter of the raw physical matter of the universeuniverse

Both physical stuff & more Both physical stuff & more refined/ spiritualrefined/ spiritual

related to moral characterrelated to moral character more transparent, clear qi = more transparent, clear qi = morally more puremorally more pure

grosser less translucent qigrosser less translucent qi Translations = generally Translations = generally misleadingmisleading ‘‘spiritual matter’spiritual matter’

Tai JiDao

HeavenYin Yang

Wu Xing

Five Elements

Sage

Nature

Society

Government

Yin-Yang (Yin-Yang ( 陰陰陰陰 ) (B)) (B) Perhaps, most fundamental distinction among Perhaps, most fundamental distinction among Chinese thinkersChinese thinkers

complementarycomplementary opposites, opposed yet unified opposites, opposed yet unified one cannot exist without the otherone cannot exist without the other

Not things, rather Not things, rather qualitiesqualities or or modes of beingmodes of being of of qiqi

Origins characters = relationship to the Origins characters = relationship to the seasonsseasons yang = sunny side of a hillyang = sunny side of a hill yin = shaded sideyin = shaded side Chinese astronomy, year two parts:Chinese astronomy, year two parts:

Winter solstice to just before summer solstice = YangWinter solstice to just before summer solstice = Yang Summer solstice to just before winter solstice = YinSummer solstice to just before winter solstice = Yin Daytime is Yang - before noon is Yang Daytime is Yang - before noon is Yang Nighttime is Yin - before midnight is YinNighttime is Yin - before midnight is Yin

ShenShen God, spirit – God, spirit –

No separate wordsNo separate words To be discussed further below…To be discussed further below…

The Chinese Cosmos and the The Chinese Cosmos and the Dead (B)Dead (B)

For more on this, see articles:For more on this, see articles: http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/prb/journey.htmcosmos/prb/journey.htm

http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/bgov/cosmos.htm#yyfscosmos/bgov/cosmos.htm#yyfs

These explain some key principles, These explain some key principles, i.e. the nature of the soul and i.e. the nature of the soul and some generic terms and principles some generic terms and principles in Chinese thought.in Chinese thought.

The Ancestor Cult 1 (C)The Ancestor Cult 1 (C) Background:Background:

From an early period it From an early period it was believed that the was believed that the next life resembled next life resembled this lifethis life

This led to the This led to the practice of placing practice of placing mortuary goods in tombsmortuary goods in tombs

The most famous example The most famous example is the terracotta army is the terracotta army in Xi’an, which is the in Xi’an, which is the tomb of Qinshi Huangditomb of Qinshi Huangdi

Follow this link for a Follow this link for a description:description:

http://http://www.ancientchina.co.uk/www.ancientchina.co.uk/tombs/home_set.htmltombs/home_set.html

• http://www.wayfaring.info/images/qin_terra_cotta_army.jpg

The Ancestor Cult 2 (C)The Ancestor Cult 2 (C) Filial PietyFilial Piety

Ancestor worship is Ancestor worship is strongly linked to filial strongly linked to filial piety, for a discussion piety, for a discussion see the extract, Hedges, see the extract, Hedges, ‘Ancestor Veneration and ‘Ancestor Veneration and Filial Piety’.Filial Piety’.

See the following article See the following article on the 24 paragons of on the 24 paragons of filial piety:filial piety:

http://muse.jhu.edu/http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journals/childrens_literature_assochildrens_literature_association_quarterly/ciation_quarterly/v024/24.1.mo.html v024/24.1.mo.html

Death Rites and Filial Death Rites and Filial Piety (C)Piety (C)

One of the most important One of the most important aspects of expressing filial aspects of expressing filial piety was to perform the piety was to perform the correct death rites.correct death rites. Aimed at moving ancestor/ Aimed at moving ancestor/ deceasewd to ancestral realm and deceasewd to ancestral realm and negotiating courts of hellnegotiating courts of hell

For more on this, in overview:For more on this, in overview: http://www.deathreference.com/Ce-Da/http://www.deathreference.com/Ce-Da/Chinese-Beliefs.htmlChinese-Beliefs.html

Gods, Ghosts and Humans:Gods, Ghosts and Humans:A Permeable Border (D)A Permeable Border (D)

At death the dead person At death the dead person joins the ranks of dead:joins the ranks of dead: 1) If correct rituals are 1) If correct rituals are performed they become an performed they become an ancestorancestor

2) Especially meritorious 2) Especially meritorious people join divine people join divine bureaucracy – become a Godbureaucracy – become a God

Also possible for other Also possible for other reasonsreasons

3) Incorrect rituals means 3) Incorrect rituals means the person becomes a hungry the person becomes a hungry ghost, vampire, etc.ghost, vampire, etc.

Heavens and Hells (D)Heavens and Hells (D) Another popular belief Another popular belief

was that the dead must was that the dead must pass through the 10 pass through the 10 (numbers vary) Courts of (numbers vary) Courts of Hell.Hell.

One must pass through for One must pass through for judgement and be tried judgement and be tried and punished according to and punished according to misdeeds, after this one misdeeds, after this one can become an ancestorcan become an ancestor

Such hells are also found Such hells are also found in Buddhist tradition – in Buddhist tradition – someone passes through someone passes through them before rebirththem before rebirth

Funerary rituals can help Funerary rituals can help reduce time spent here reduce time spent here and reduce punishmentsand reduce punishments

See link for details:See link for details:http://www.fulltable.com/VTS/h/hc/hc.htm

Death Rites (D)Death Rites (D) These are necessary to convert the dead from These are necessary to convert the dead from corpse into ancestorcorpse into ancestor

If not correctly performed the dead will return If not correctly performed the dead will return to create havocto create havoc

They also ensure body and soul kept close They also ensure body and soul kept close before ritualized departure (seen as important before ritualized departure (seen as important for correct performance)for correct performance)

Their basic role is to separate dead from the Their basic role is to separate dead from the livingliving

A standardized format existed from late feudal A standardized format existed from late feudal to modern periodto modern period Basis in ancient texts, e.g. Liji (attributed to Basis in ancient texts, e.g. Liji (attributed to Kongzi), and later texts, Zhu Xi, 1130-1200 CE, Kongzi), and later texts, Zhu Xi, 1130-1200 CE, Zhuzi Zhuzi JialiJiali

Still seen in Taiwan, HK, etc.; perhaps being revived Still seen in Taiwan, HK, etc.; perhaps being revived in PRC?in PRC?

The Rites (D)The Rites (D) Watson, (1988, ‘The Structure of Chinese Watson, (1988, ‘The Structure of Chinese Funerary Rites’, Watson and Rawski, Funerary Rites’, Watson and Rawski, Death Ritual Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern Chinain Late Imperial and Modern China, Berkeley: , Berkeley: University of California Press)University of California Press) identifies 9 identifies 9 stages of a traditional Chinese funeral:stages of a traditional Chinese funeral: Public notification of deathPublic notification of death

Wail, white paperWail, white paper Donning of white clothesDonning of white clothes

Not wear red, or cut hair for 49 daysNot wear red, or cut hair for 49 days Ritualized bathingRitualized bathing Transfer of food, money and goodsTransfer of food, money and goods Soul tabletSoul tablet Ritualized use of money to funerary professionalsRitualized use of money to funerary professionals Music to settle deadMusic to settle dead Sealing corpse in airtight coffinSealing corpse in airtight coffin

Probably fear of return, corpse watched before ceremonyProbably fear of return, corpse watched before ceremony Expulsion of coffin from communityExpulsion of coffin from community

Transfer of food, money Transfer of food, money and goods (D)and goods (D)

As the next life is like this As the next life is like this one it is customary to burn one it is customary to burn paper goods as an offering to paper goods as an offering to the deceased. This can provide the deceased. This can provide money and other goods, money and other goods, including food, in the including food, in the afterlife.afterlife. The following photos show some The following photos show some modern examples from HKmodern examples from HK

Burnt offeringsBurnt offerings

Soul Tablets (D)Soul Tablets (D)The dead is often remembereed through ‘soul tablets’ which would be the focus for the ongoing ancestor rites. Traditionally kept in ancestral temples, these days they are often kept in Buddhist or other temples

Food Offerings (D)Food Offerings (D) There are 2 prototypical food offerings to the There are 2 prototypical food offerings to the dead at funerals:dead at funerals:

RiceRice YangYang

PorkPork YinYin

These are seen as necessary to convert corpse to These are seen as necessary to convert corpse to ancestor:ancestor: At death:At death:

the flesh (= yin, matrilineal) decaysthe flesh (= yin, matrilineal) decays The bones (= yang, patrilineal) must be refleshedThe bones (= yang, patrilineal) must be refleshed

All things must have a harmony of yin & yangAll things must have a harmony of yin & yang The refleshing needs white, male/yang rice, which The refleshing needs white, male/yang rice, which represents the hard bones which last. However yang/ male represents the hard bones which last. However yang/ male on its own is impotent, it needs needs fertile yin on its own is impotent, it needs needs fertile yin flesh, which is associated with earth and blood. Both flesh, which is associated with earth and blood. Both growth and fertility are seen as feminine/yin qualities.growth and fertility are seen as feminine/yin qualities.

Aspects of the Funeral Aspects of the Funeral Rite in relation to Rite in relation to afterlife care (D)afterlife care (D)

Various levels/ themes:Various levels/ themes: Provide money:Provide money:

Ensures dead can live as they do here; can also negotiate Ensures dead can live as they do here; can also negotiate hells/ bribe guards: similarity/ dissimilarityhells/ bribe guards: similarity/ dissimilarity

Provide food:Provide food: As above, but also to create a new body: continuity/ As above, but also to create a new body: continuity/ discontinuitydiscontinuity

Prevent harm:Prevent harm: If not appeased ancestors may harm living; need correct If not appeased ancestors may harm living; need correct rites else will have ghostsrites else will have ghosts

Seek benefitsSeek benefits As dead may influence human world; will protect descendentsAs dead may influence human world; will protect descendents

Separate dead and livingSeparate dead and living Take dead from human realm; make sure potential harm is Take dead from human realm; make sure potential harm is removedremoved

Create bond of dead and livingCreate bond of dead and living Creates stronger links; make contactsCreates stronger links; make contacts

Annual ritesAnnual rites Ensure continuity of good relations; ensure well looked Ensure continuity of good relations; ensure well looked after; can also help them through hells, towards Pure Land, after; can also help them through hells, towards Pure Land, etc.etc.

Qing Ming and Other Qing Ming and Other Festivals (D)Festivals (D)

Some festivals are Some festivals are especially associated with especially associated with the dead:the dead:

Qing MingQing Ming Lit ‘clear and bright’Lit ‘clear and bright’ Aka ‘grave sweeping day’Aka ‘grave sweeping day’ Peeling of duck egg – Peeling of duck egg –

renewal of liferenewal of life Offerings of moneyOfferings of money

Seventh lunar monthSeventh lunar month 1414thth Night Night ‘‘ghost festival’/ ‘feast ghost festival’/ ‘feast

of souls’of souls’ Links between lower and Links between lower and

upper worlds openupper worlds open Prayers for all dead, dead Prayers for all dead, dead

can return, can be can return, can be benefittedbenefitted

Also, New Year, Also, New Year, anniversaries of deathanniversaries of death

Falun Gong Self-Falun Gong Self-ImmolationsImmolations 2323rdrd January 2001: January 2001:

5/7 people self-immolate 5/7 people self-immolate in Tiananmen Squarein Tiananmen Square

Chinese governement sees Chinese governement sees them as Falun Gong them as Falun Gong ‘fanatics’‘fanatics’

Falun Gong deny any Falun Gong deny any connectionconnection

Convoluted puzzle of who Convoluted puzzle of who is who/ what is whatis who/ what is what See links:See links:

CNN Report:CNN Report: http://web.archive.org/web/2007022211051http://web.archive.org/web/20070222110517/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/7/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/24/asia.falun.03/asiapcf/east/01/24/asia.falun.03/

Falun Gong Responses:Falun Gong Responses: http://clearwisdom.net/emh/special_columhttp://clearwisdom.net/emh/special_column/self-immolation.html n/self-immolation.html

However, may relate to a However, may relate to a tradition of protest/ tradition of protest/ religious identificationreligious identification

Chinese/ Buddhist Chinese/ Buddhist Traditions of Self-Traditions of Self-

ImmolationImmolation Self-Immolation (partial or complete) has a Self-Immolation (partial or complete) has a traditional Buddhist usagetraditional Buddhist usage Extolled in the Lotus SutraExtolled in the Lotus Sutra Found in Chinese precedentsFound in Chinese precedents Practiced as a basic initiation (incense burns)Practiced as a basic initiation (incense burns)

See: LN file on Buddhist self-immolationSee: LN file on Buddhist self-immolation Also, suicide has a precedent as a protest Also, suicide has a precedent as a protest in Chinese historyin Chinese history Sometimes: only way for voice to be heard – Sometimes: only way for voice to be heard – complain against an unjust officialcomplain against an unjust official

Raises the question:Raises the question: Can suicide be a form of legitimate and Can suicide be a form of legitimate and responsible protest?responsible protest?

Parallels to Buddhist monks in response to Parallels to Buddhist monks in response to Vietnam WarVietnam War

Disputes within Buddhism as to legitimacy of such Disputes within Buddhism as to legitimacy of such self-immolation in this contextself-immolation in this context

Session ReflectionsSession Reflections It should be clear that various aspects of the It should be clear that various aspects of the Chinese cosmos and worldview must be understood Chinese cosmos and worldview must be understood to comprehend funerary and death practices. These to comprehend funerary and death practices. These include:include: Understanding filial pietyUnderstanding filial piety Understanding yin/ yangUnderstanding yin/ yang Understanding the connection of divine and humanUnderstanding the connection of divine and human

In the light of this it is possible to reflect on In the light of this it is possible to reflect on how death rites perform various functions:how death rites perform various functions: Maintain a care for parents/ ancestors between this life Maintain a care for parents/ ancestors between this life and the nextand the next

Uphold a particular cosmological conceptionUphold a particular cosmological conception Balance a number of competing and often incompatible Balance a number of competing and often incompatible worldviews (e.g. ancestors and reincarnation)worldviews (e.g. ancestors and reincarnation)

Death is practice and understood in a variety of Death is practice and understood in a variety of contexts within the Chinese world:contexts within the Chinese world: E.g. diverse understandings of self-immolation in E.g. diverse understandings of self-immolation in contemporary contextcontemporary context

E.g. practice of funeral rites and death rituals – E.g. practice of funeral rites and death rituals – superstition, custom, etc.?superstition, custom, etc.?