Chinese Political thoughts

Farhana Razzak||DU-IR 2012

Confucianism and Taoism have been two main streams of ancient Chinese political

thought. But, there has been much other school of thoughts during that time (roughly from 5th

through the 3rd

century). The Chinese referred to them as the “hundred school” iSsu-ma T’am has

distinguished them into six schools in his “historical records”.ii These are:

Yin-Yang Chia or Yin-Yang school: Containing major principles of Chinese cosmology.

Originated form Astronomers.

Ju chia or School of Literati: In western literature it is known as the Confucianist School.

But it’s regarded as misleading as the inner meaning means a lot than just literature of

philosophy.

Mo Chia or Mohist School: its political doctrine developed under strict principles of Mo

Tzu. Originated from guardians of the temple.

Ming Chia or School of Names: It related to the distinctions between “names” and

“actualities”. Originated from debaters.

Fa chia or Legalist School: It’s related to Law. Its believers are a group of statesman who

argue about characteristics of good government. It opposes stressing objects like moral

institution to run government. It is originated from Ministry of Justice.

Tao-te Chia or School of the Way or its Power: It is simply knows as Taoist school of

thought. It’s distinct from Maoist religion.

According to the relevancy of the discipline of International Relations, notable thoughts are

given though.

CONFUCIUS

Confucius believed that men are essentially social beings whose interaction forms

society. iii

According to him, a state exits because it is ought to exist. He also adds that only a

sage can be a ruler and should do many things for the people. When developed sufficiently, the

sage’s personal virtue spreads beneficent influence throughout the kingdom.

Another key Confucian concept is that in order to govern others one must first govern

oneself. Thus he was strongly in favor of ruling qualities such as education, character and

ability. And only a sage can possess such qualities.

To define the characteristics of a ruler, his political doctrine assumed that a proper

sovereign leaves the actual ruling of the country to the chosen ministers. iv Later he will conduct

his duties according to the principles. He recognized the need of good government and traced

the abuse of his own day which is caused by the lack of education. He argues that the best

Ancient Political Thoughts (Confucius to Legalists)


government is one that rules through "rites" and people's natural morality, rather than by using

bribery and coercion

In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his

son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. He advocated the process in

which the ruler chooses his ministers. The minister thus must have a high degree of moral

responsibility. This particular thought of Confucius was largely criticized for being highly

elitist. But his revolutionary ideals are still admired throughout china while the communist

regime also supported it. Even though most of his thought were religious and sociological rather

than political; are precious. The contemporary Chinese leaders are most often found as his

believers. Even modern Chinese political doctrines are also nourished in the shades of

Confucianism. His ideals have contributed to form a national character of china.

MO TZU

He is regarded as the first opponent of Confucius. He lived sometime within 479-381 B.

C. His thoughts are found in the book by his name Mo-tzu. He is the founder of the Mohist

School. Unlike Confucius, he questioned the validity and usefulness of the early Chou dynasty

and tried to replace them with something simpler and useful. Confucius was the rationalizer and

the justifier of the ancient civilization, while Mo was its critic and a militant preacher.v

In his book Mo-tzu explained his theory of the origin of the state.vi

According to that, the

authority of the ruler of a state comes from two sources:

-The Will Of The People

-The Will Of God.

The main task of the ruler is to supervise the activities of the people, rewarding those who

practice all-embracing love and punishing those who do not. In order to do this the authority

must be totalitarian. And people must accept such authority as they have no alternative choice. vii

It has a very deep rooted similarity with the Hobbesnian concept of state of nature. Because Mo

perceived that the world was disordered a men were like beast as there was no political ruler.

Thus god selected Son of Heaven who was the most virtuous and able above all to rule the

world. So like this god himself has established the state, cities and rulers. According to the

Mohists, the state exists because it is useful. Mo also said that the government should correspond

to the desires of the common people. viii

His thoughts on Political Hierarchy also reflect in his writings. According to him

upon hearing good or evil, one shall report it to one’s superior. What the superior thinks to be

right, all shall think to be right and vice-versa. That’s why he says, ‘always agree with the

superiors, never follow the inferiors’. ix It helps to sustain the order and unity of a state. In this

process no other standards can be tolerated. That’s why Mo-tzu was in strong favor of all-

embracingness.


MENCIUS

He was most likely being known as the defender the teachings of Confucius against

Mohists and Yang Zhu as well. He had a similar view that “human nature is good”.x He held that

the human being was naturally good, that virtues were innate and simply needed cultivating.xi

Such in this way he preserved the Confucian ideal and developed an account of the self-

cultivation process. Thus he was always conscious of environmental influence on human nature .

Concept about ‘Foreign Relations’: He was an obedient of King Hui of Liang. In order to

suggest him about this matter he came up with certain ideas. All of them are codified in The

Book of Mencius as dialogue between him and the king. According to that, oppressive rulers and

impure ministers are sure to neglect this defining of the boundaries. He believed that feudal

rulers were ‘not human beings’, to have lost their humanity and become animals.xii

Along with

that the rulers of those States rob their people of their time, so that they cannot plough and weed

their fields, in order to support their parentsxiii

. In such tyrannical situation the Majesty (who

fulfills the ethical criterion) will go to punish them. As to make it easy people of kingdoms who

feel aggrieved by their rulers can come and complain to the Majesty. That’s the point in which he

supports righteous war despite of being such ideal.

HSUN-TZU

Thoughts on Rationalism: Xunzi had an opposite view to Mencius even though

both were Confucian. He that believed man's inborn tendencies need to be curbed through

education and ritual. Thus he disagreed with Mencius’s view that man is innately good. He also

believed that ethical norms had been invented to rectify mankind.

Thoughts on Realism: As he belonged to the realistic wing of Confucianism he

argued that, human nature is basically evil. xiv

He added that only through study and moral

training can one attain goodness. This realist approach of Hsun-tzu has relevance with Thomas

Hobbes’s thoughts on “State of Nature”. Both of them agree that, human naturally possesses

some bad instincts.

TAOISM

The term Tao means "way", "path" or "principle". Taoism is one of five religions

recognized by the People's Republic of China. The basic principle of Taoism is that one should

be in harmony with, not in rebellion against the fundamental law of the universe. xv

The believers

of Taoism or Taoists desire to maintain personal purity. In this case, Taoist cosmology for

political purposes argues that the ruler should be thought of as a transcendent being, far above all

human concerns.xvi

Among the Taoists, Yang Chu has been the earliest prominent exponent. He

was born and lived between Mo Tzu and Mencius. xvii

In Taoist work known as Led-Tzu; one

entire chapter is dedicated to Yang Chu.xviii

His thoughts were very much self-centric. His


fundamental Idea was: “each man for himself”. It is said that Yang Chu would not sacrifice a

single hair even in order to profit the whole world. xix

Lao-tzu or Laozi is the next phase of Taoism. In this point, Taoism was nourished and

its’ understanding developed more. The ideas of Laozi attempted to reveal the laws underlying

the changes of things in the universe. It agrees with the Confucianist view of having only sage as

ruler but argues that the duty of a ruler is not to do things, but rather to undo or not to do at all.

This idea is found to be related with ancient liberalism. He also said that too much tax will result

people to starve and more law will multiply number of thieves and bandits.xx

It adds that the

sharper weapon the people have, the more troubled will be the country. xxi

Because; weapons are

of evil omen. That’s why a ruler must keep people simple (without any knowledge or desire) to

empower over them. A sage ruler must treat his people like children.xxii

Because the more

ignorant they are, the more innocent they will be. Like this the sage ruler will undo all the

causes of trouble in the world. Later, greater development was seen in the next phase: Chuang-

tzu.

Chuang Chou or his writing Chuang-tzu is most likely to regard as the greatest of the

early Taoists. He lived from 369 to 286 B.C. In his Taoist political thoughts he points the

purpose of a government: establish uniformity and suppress difference which is wholly

admirable by people. xxiii

He also sticks with the view where the best way of governing is through

non-government. He opposes the conventional wisdom of formal governing. According to him

mankind needs no government. xxiv

Thus the whole political perceptions of Taoist thoughts

indicate its support and advocacy for laissez-faire government.

POLITICAL THOUGHTS FROM THE LEGALIST SCHOOL

This ancient house of thoughts has contributions in the political aspects. It proposed new

ways of government.xxv

To ensure its sustainability thinkers suggested setting up laws. These

laws will define to ‘do’ and ‘do not’ of the people. The government will act as a watchdog for

the implementation of the laws. Government will reward those who will maintain the laws and

also punish the violators. It will ultimately decide the success of a ruler. Again, they advocated

strong centralized government which will exercise absolute power by the threat of harsh

punishment. xxvi

The first prominent legalist was Kuan Chung.xxvii

Another thinker from that

school name shang Yang is remembered for introducing private ownership of land in the ch’in

province. xxviii

He lived before Han Fei. His contributions empowered the army, solved disputes,

created fear among people to abide by the laws and may more.

Han Fei Tzu is a notable exponent of the legalist thoughts. According to Han Fei Tzu a

ruler must prevent the matters which can make people go wrong. Thus the entire sate can stay

peaceful. Thus with the law and authority, the ruler rules his people. xxix

In this process the ruler


needs ability and knowledge to make laws. Again he need not to do all this all by himself. Thus

the ruler must attach particular names to particular individuals to look after offices. They will

also be rewarded or punished. Han Fei addressed this as the “two handles of the ruler”. xxx

Despite of being a student of Hsun Tzu, a conficianist, he advocated his doctrine which accepts

man’s real nature; which is naturally evil. After Han Fei, the Han dynasty was founded and

ancient Legalism was dead.

For thousands of years; due to geographic reasons, illiteracy, poverty and lack of

communication, China has been in darkness and isolation. Even thought there have been

somewhat interactions with the outer world. For example, during the late Ch’ing China, foreign

governments and representatives wished to see china moving in a progressive direction. xxxi

It

helped western products and institutions to enter Chinese society. Foreigners were much more

interested on the Chinese maritime customs. Because the underlying intention of the west was to

make china depended on foreign advice. Thus they posed humiliating and unequal treaties. They

actually did not want true modernization of China. Thus in this circumstances she lacked a push

of modernization.

Early Chinese thoughts provoked aristocratic ruler-ship. This monopoly existed for more

than two thousand years. It might have been a critical tradition but it ultimately result a high

degree of homogeneity and nationalism among Chinese people. This mentality later on has

helped and influenced modern political thoughts.

DR. SUN YAT-SEN

The first shift of modernity in Chinese political thoughts came by the revolutionary

activities of Dr. Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925), a Western trained physician. He believed in solving

China’s problem by a complete revolution. Carrying the torch of nationalistic-racial revolution,

he advocated overthrow of the Manchu rule. xxxii

He received massive support. Because; people

of China were devastated by the Monarch. His political thoughts received massive support by the

young Chinese intellectuals. Scholars believe that this revolution is a continuation of foreign

influence. xxxiii

Dr Sun was very much inspired by western revolutions such as Revolution in

England, American Revolution, and French revolution. The success of the revolution in 1911

was followed by the establishment of a Western style republic in 1912. Dynastic rule ended after

4000 years. xxxiv

The republic of China was established. The motivation of his political thoughts

The Modernization

(Sun Yat-sen to Present China)


was nationalism, democracy, and republicanism to bring change in existing Chinese political

system. He believed that the Monarchial institution of china has contributed to the sustainability

of feudalism. But his revolutionary political thought did not resulted benefit later. The spirit of

government remained the same. Corruption, warlordism, attempts o reviving monarchism and

political disorder increased. xxxv

Political institutions also did not function well as expected.

1919 is a very significant year for the Chinese philosophy. It was the first time when two

western philosopher John Dewey and Bertrand Russell delivered speech in China.xxxvi

It opened

new dimensions in Chinese thinking after the disappointing outcome of the revolution. Its

implications were seen thus in the Chinese political philosophy too. Because; it was the first time

when china realized the need of their development in this case to compete in the international

arena. But before that, in 1917, Chinese intellectual movement names ‘new tide’ or ‘Chinese

renaissance’ was occurred under Sun’s lead.xxxvii

It brought revolutionary development in

traditional Chinese culture. Among the intellectuals, Hu shish is best known. In the meantime

World War 1 was over and the world was facing new realities and challenges. The west was also

ready to get touched with Chinese thoughts. But the influence of western political thoughts went

heavy onto many extends.

CHINESE COMMUNIST DOCRITNE

The ancient and traditional Chinese political thought has contributed to develop a one-of-

a-kind Chinese communism in the modern age. If we closely examine them, we shall find that

Communist principles of government by an elite group and subservience to an authoritarian

dogma are not without precedents in Chinese tradition. xxxviii

Thus Chine communist bureaucracy

was a reflection of traditional political monopoly. Moreover, people were used to with such

similar systems for thousands of years thus they accepted its doctrines reasonably. The

communists tend to provoke the people to subscribe ‘the universal truth of Marxism-Leninism’.

The revolutionary ideals of class struggle were thus rooted in Chinese culture. It created such a

far reaching impact. As a tiny part of that, Chinese policy is still now considered as an aggressive

one. Again, the characteristics of Chinese Communism are thus not purely identical to western

Communism.

For several millenniums, China has held the position of primacy in East Asia and

regarded herself as the centre of civilization. But in the nineteenth century she became an object

of Western aggrandizement, first in the economic then in the political, military and cultural

fields.xxxix

Thus for leaders like Mao, communism was the way to re-gain the lost hegemonic

position. Chinese awareness on communism developed around 1905 after a publication of Karl

Marx’s biography. xl Lenin’s idea on imperialism also inspired Chinese intellectuals. As a result

of this political thought, China voluntarily offered friendship to the soviet regime.xli

The success

of Bolshevik revolution also created a powerful ideological impact on china. As its long term


impact, we see Stalin determining revolutionary strategy of the Containment Policy of the

Chinese Communist Party.

MAO TSE TUNG/ MAO ZEDONG

Mao’s thoughts on independence: In his political career, he has operated outside

of the jurisdiction of the CCP central organization. This phenomenon certainly has a

background. San Yat-sen’s party KMT was an allied force with CCP. Mao’s duty was to

maintain the communication between these two. Mao was very much willing to incorporate the

peasant to develop revolution because China was an agricultural nation that time. Mao then

founded a CCP branch in Hunan and organized workers' strikes throughout the province. It

created differences among two parties.

Mao’s Thoughts on Foreign Relations and Policies: Mao did not forget the past

mistakes of China. Thus he was deeply committed to international communism. xlii

He desired to

restore China’s rightful position as the big power. He also wanted to revive the national

confidence and respect that were lost by foreign humiliation. Again he was against Imperialism

too. So he took a bold step toward western powers. For example, the newly established

government began to requisition western counselors’ properties.xliii

He also expelled and abused

many foreign diplomats. Moreover his government forces had even openly humiliated Soviet

diplomats. All these were signs of new Chinese foreign policy adopted by Mao. It was an open

challenge towards west. Mao believed that there are only two ways: capitalism or communism.

Thus he rationally became allied with USSR right after 1949. Stalin immediately granted Mao a

military alliance, $300 million in credit and a promise to provide help with Chinese military

modernization.xliv

To Mao, this axis was lasting, unbreakable and invincible. Besides political

support, Mao’s doctrine helped China with huge financial assistance too.

But After 1956 Mao’s alliance with USSR began to split. It resulted withdrawal of Soviet

aid from China in the summer of 1960.xlv

But Mao accepted this challenge and acted rationally.

He began to expand China’s relationship with Japan and Western Europe. He established

diplomatic relations with many non-communist countries like Canada, Italy, Australia, and Latin

American countries. It ultimately helped him to change China’s status quo.

Mao also involved China in Asian affairs too. For example, under the border agreement

of March 1963; Peking handed over 700 sq miles of territory to Pakistan and exchanged land

with Burma before in 1960.xlvi

Peking became the site for international conferences and China

also joined many others held abroad. The most significant thing done by Mao was to supporting

Ho Chih-minh’s movement in Vietnam. China became the first country to recognize Democratic

republic of Vietnam.

China also helped to maintain the primacy of the soviet socialist bloc during early Cold

War period.xlvii

Thus Mao made Soviets agreed to assist China in her nuclear development.

During that time Mao also developer Chinese relations with Korea. During Korean War, in 1950


Mao sent a large number of troops naming them as volunteers in North Korea against the

American ‘Invasion”. Mao also supported North Vietnam during its war against South Vietnam

and USA.

In his writing “on policy” his noted a theory named ‘Three World Theory’. There he stated that

the world should be divided into three parts such as first, second and third world based on

political, military, economic, historical, and strategic terms. xlviii

He also stated how the second

and third world should engage in building the broadcast possible international united front to

oppose the two super powers.

CHOU EN-LAI/ ZHOU ENLAI

In the 60s during the Cultural Revolution Chou cannot concentrate his thought on

foreign affairs. He was more into domestic politics implementing Mao’s decision. More than

Institutional power, controlling the unrest all over China was depending on Chou’s personal

ability to convince people. To deal with it, he adopted his own style. In order to direct the Red

Guards and negotiating agreements between revolutionary groups, he adopted double stance. It is

most likely to known as the Dual Tactic to achieve such contradictory goals.

To follow that, Chou spoke a strong revolutionary line, but then would suggest practical

policies that would, if carried out, restrain the violent excesses and factionalism of the Red

Guards.xlix

His basic proposition was that revolution must not be allowed to endanger production.

This particular tactic of Chou worked in a micro level but was threatened in terms of dealing

with massive movements of the Red guards.

Later on Chou maintained his revolutionary ideals through speeches and favoring the

rebels. He preferred bureaucratic solutions to political problems. But, till the end of Cultural

Revolution in 1969 he was very far from foreign relations.

Chou began to concentrate over international relations after the end of Cultural

Revolution. As for his foreign policy, Chou Enlai opened the face of China to the world and

established a top priority: friendship with all people.l After a long process initiated by Mao,

during Chou’s regime; Nixon paid a visit to China in 1972. In the following years, economic,

social and diplomatic change released the innate power and intelligence of the Chinese people, to

build their nation and connect with the world community.

Chou titled Cold War as the Great Disorder. He strongly believed that this

disorder will continue and relaxation is a superficial phenomenon. li During Korean War he

assigned troops to protect American intervention inside Chinese border. On the other hands,


they were strictly ordered not to move into North Korea or engage UN or USA forces unless

they engaged themselves. But he also believed that Cold War is good as it throws enemies

(capitalist countries) into confusion and causes division among them. So as a result it will harm

imperialism. He related it with the rise of third world.

The rise and unity of third world in the struggle against hegemonism and power politics

will play significant role in international affairs.lii

The referred the victory of Laos, Cambodia

and Vietnam against USA as its implication. Thus he always supported the fight of Korean,

Palestinian and Latin American people. In the Bandung at the African-Asian conference in

1955, Chou En-lai won recognition as the upholder of Asian-African nationalism against

western power. liii

He always wanted freedom over colonialism and imperialism.

In the same conference he skillfully presented China in favor of peace and progress of

mankind.liv

As an aftermath China's international political situation began to gradually improve.

Many NAM (non-aligned movement) members turn in favor of China. Thus finally in 1971,

China became member of the United Nations.

Chou Enlai has been regarded as a skilled negotiator, a master of policy implementation,

a devoted revolutionary, a great leader in the history of modern China. His dedication cannot be

confided with in boundary of criticism.

DENG XIAOPING/ TENG HSIAO-PING

Mao’s political doctrine dominated Chinese politics for three decades. After him China

remembers Deng Xiaoping (1904 -1997) as their ultimate leader who changed Chinese e vision

on politics. Deng Xiaoping was the First Vice-Premier (1974) of Peoples Republic of China. He

started his political career with the communist revolutionary vision. In 50s he had supported Mao

in mass campaigns, in which Mao attacked the bourgeois and capitalists, and promoted the

ideology of Maoism. But soon Deng’s vision began to change when the economic failure of the

Great Leap Forward brought criticism of the economic management capacity of Mao. In the long

run he became the one who nourished intense Chinese desire for modernization.

But here the fact is that in the beginning many were against him while he turned form

Maoism. For example his opponents released a text through Hsinhua about dismissing him from

all posts both inside and outside the party. lv

Again when, Deng Xiaoping began to implement

economic reforms by reversing the policies of the Great Leap Forward; Mao himself launched

the Cultural Revolution, which encouraged to root out the right-wing capitalists of the party, one

among was Deng.

Even after the death of Chou, Hua Kuo-feng was chosen above him as the chairman of

communist party as well as premier. Hua was very little known than Deng and was unable to rule


properly. Thus by 1977 China was in massive political unrest.lvi

On the other hands, national

movement for Deng’s rehabilitation was increasing rapidly. So in the end after a great instability,

Deng was reinstalled as the deputy premier and his strongest opponent force “gang of four” was

expelled from the party. In December 1978, during the Third Plenum of the 11th Central

Committee Congress of the Communist Party of China, Deng Xiaoping took over the reins of

power. He was then 74 years old. Beginning in 1979, the economic reforms accelerated the

capitalist type, while maintaining the old Communist-style rhetoric.

Political Thoughts: After being the deputy premier again, he put his mind on internal

affairs as well as externals. Even though he seems too old; he had sharp watch on spies. He was

in favor of warning those who secretly passes China’s information over foreigners. He also had a

worry about Chine reputation overseas. Thus he has denounced Chinese who complained about

allege violations of human rights in posters and letters sent to US president Jimmy Carter. lvii

He

addressed them as traitors and warned that the government would not deal gently with them. It

thus resulted a crackdown against protestors of that time by Chinese authorities.

Under Deng’s “one country, two systems” Theory, he managed to do territorial

adjustments. From 1980, Deng led negotiations with the United Kingdom to return the territory

of Hong Kong, meeting personally with British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. It resulted

Sino-British Joint Declaration signed on 19 December 1984.

Following that, United Kingdom returned Hong Kong to China by 1997. Similarly, in

1987, Portugal, agreed to arrange the return of its colony of Macau by 1999. According to this

doctrine, he suggested that there would be only one China, but independent Chinese regions such

as Hong Kong, Macau could have their own capitalist economic and political systems, while the

rest of China uses the socialist system. Taiwan could continue to maintain its own military force,

thus evading recognition of Taiwan as part of the Republic of China.

But one of his most criticized attempts simply destroyed his earned reputation in his long

career. That was his leading role in ordering the June 1989 military crackdown on pro democracy

demonstrators in Beijing.lviii

The armed assault on students and bystanders that came to be

known as the Tiananmen massacre diminished his prestige as a world leader and isolated China

politically for years afterward.


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