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AUTHORTITLE

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SPONS AlfENCY

PUB DATRCONTRACTNOT?IAILABLS Oppm

Dyrenfurth4 Michael J.* Householder, 'Daniel:L.Industrial Arts Hducationt A Review and' Stirthesirs of

°the Research, 196911979. .Information Series 1SAII,Anorican VocatiOnal Association, Vtebitniftite, .0

ERIC Clearinghouse on Adurt, Career, and yocatontia a 1Bducation* Columbus, Ohio.'

National Tngt. Edtfcation washington

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Ohio State Univ., Columbns, National enter fo; '.e .., .

' 64 , 0Z %Pesearch in Vocational EduCat:ion. ....1 179 .

1400-76-V222214 . , , k ii,Nter Publications, The4National Cetter :',Sot ,

vecational Educaticip, The phito Stapi , A

11960 Kenny Road, Columbus,' OH (4421'0 t . -,

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Nat:anal CenPesearchUniyersitv,012.251'. C .

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ENS PRI6E MP01/pC09 Plus Rootage.D,TSCRIVTORS Administration( ,Curriculum Di6ve*lOpan: iielivery

a Systeas: Tducattonal Pacili4iesi..?*Bducational S

Research: Plucetional Theories: .Guiglapce Prograist;k *Industrial Ai0: *tndustrial RducattJ,9n;

'Instructional,taterials: Leaining PFoOssess *ProiramEvaluation: 1*Pesearch Proiects: 94perv1sioat TeacherEducation; *Te,.oclang Methods . ..

.. . ' 0 ti.i.

ABST1t*1 ,

. *.

. )This mohoors0 presents a mompilation of resear.ch iniindustrial arte education from 1969 through 1979.. Tiie first sectionreviews studiesi which deal with thetvhilosophioal bases *I Indestrial 1

arts and ihicb examine its9.hiOcirical developmentl, The inacond Ititicgon 411.

identifies 'studies' that ,eimpha sized industrial irtal rd,143.asNani .

integral component of a comprebenoiiie human resciurcesidelivery ,.. system. The next section cites prolects ipertainitig to the . ., to \

programmatic aspects of iandustrial artsi: The development of .2 industrial arts curricullum is investigated .in the fourth section.

a Situdies in the fifth-secli.ion -sxamine varia?bles ,af fectiw the leaFaningocess. The-next section discusses studies devoted to i*structional a

v media, methods, and materials.'iSiudies investigating the guidange )6characteristics of industrial ries are found in the seventh section.The studies reviewed in .the.lef.ohth section ekamined' facility-programinteraction in terms of facilities, eguiptent, and safety.. Next,

.* studies on evaluation are divided into four mirror categories:development of tests/instruments, interaction analysis, program 1

evaluation techniques, and he'effects of evaluatior. The final t iltet4secttions review, respec+ivelv, studies in teacher edithation,

.1-administration and) supervisienl, and professional concerns. 'A summary(chapter and bibliography conclude the document. (CT)

a

Peproductionssupplind, by VIPS *.re the best that can be made' , *

from the original document.***************************************************4*******************

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iNDUSTRIAL ARTS .14DUCAt'ION:.A REVIEW AND SYNTHESIO

OF,THE RESEARCH1948-197# ..\

written by

Michael. J. DyrefurthUniversity of Missouri-ColuMbia

and

.Daniel L. HouseholderTexas. A and M University

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in collaboration with theResearch Committee of the Industrial Arts Division

of the American Vocational Association

The ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational EducationThe National Center for Research in Vocational EducaticT

The Ohio State University.1960.Kenny Road

Columbus., Ohio 43210

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EDUCATION

THIS 000MENT HAS BEEN Rt-PROIRKED EXACTLY AS RECENED ;ROMTHE PER1ON OR ORGANIZATIoN ORIGIN.MING IT RoiNTS 01 vIEW OR OficroOnicSTATT O 00 HOT NECESSARIt PRF

se NT 0111( At NATIONAL INSTILL) T I Of

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Project Title,

Contract Number:

Educational ActUnder Wfiich theFunds wereAdministered: .

Source ofContract:

Contractor:

Prolect Director:

Disclaimer:

oisciinftnationProhib4ed:

AMU 01FORMATION.

ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational .-. .

Education. 7,

,

.

NIE-C-400,76-0122o

Sec. 405 of the General EdUcation Provisions Aci, 20 U.S.Code 1221p, (PL 92-3e) As amended by PL 93-380 and PL94-482

Department of Health,. Education, and WelftreNational Institdte of Education

,

Washington, D.C: .

.

The National Center for Research, in Vocational EducationThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, Ohio

E.,

Marla Peterson

This publication was prepared pursuant to a contract withthe National Institute. of Education, U.S.'Department ofHealth, Education, and Welfare. Contractors undertakingsuch projects under government sponsorship are encburagedto freely express their fudgment in professional andtechnical matters. lioints oof view or cipinions do not,therefore, necessarily represent official NationalInstitute of Education position,or pplicy.

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 states: "Noeerson in the United States shall, on the ground of race,aolor, or national origin, be excluded from participationin, be denied the 'benefits of,' or be subjected todiscrimination under any program or activity receivingfederal financial assistance:"Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 states:"No gerson in the United States shell,,on the basis ofsex, be excluded from participation in, be denied theber'lfits of, or be subjected to discriminition under'anyeducation program or activity receiving federalassistance." The ERIc Clearinghouse Projet, like everyprogram or activity receiving financial assistance fromthe U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfate,must comply with these laws.

This publication wet prepared with hinding from the Nationel Institute ofI. Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare under Con-trtat No. NIEC-400-730122. The Opinions etpreend in this.report do notriacemarlly refloat the Position gr policies 00 ME orliEW.

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This Educational Resources Information gentet on'Adult7Career, and Vocational Educatvtosl (ERIC/CE) is one'of

sixteen clearinghousess.in a Aationwide lnformation_...:system that is ftInded by theOlational Instjtutp of'

.

& Education.' One of the functions of the Cltaringhbuse .4

.S.,,is to %interpret the literature that 'is entered in4phe '

,ERIC data base. This paper shoUld be of partibulat 24 '

interesp to industxial arts teachers,and administrators,1 .

curriculum development specialists, teabher educators, re"

e researchers, andlgraduateastudents. . 4 ..

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..: The profession is indebted tO Michael Dyrenfurth'and.

.

Daniel Householdvr*fo*Ntheir.scholarship in-the prep-

'avition of thisTapati. RecOgnition,arso is due JaMes .

'44.Yales, Purdue University, Carl' Wallis, Utah State,

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g University and Stanley Cohem, the Nationdl Centersfor, e

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*Reseafch in Vocational Educationp.for their critical, ,4

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.review of'the manusbript pr;01% to Its final revision

..

. and publicatiod. .Robert D. Vhaerman, 'Assistant Director..

for Careen Education at the ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult,'

p..Career, and Vocational Education, coordinatedi4the ,s,publication's development. Cathy Thompsoh assiSted im "\.... .0

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.the editing of the manuscript and Carol HaitleyBon '' .

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.Somerlott, Andrea,Ardito, and Colleen Donaldson.type i

,the final draft.

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'ABSTRACT

4 ..sA This monograph presents a compilation of research°inindustrial arts edubation from 1968 through 1979. Thefirst section reviews studies which deal with thephilodOphical basesof ihdustrial arts and which examine

° .its historical Ovelopment. The second section i4entifiesstudies that emphasized industrial Arts' role as anintegral component 9f a coMprehensive human resourcesdelivery system. Thti next. section cites projects pertaining-

,

to the programmatid aspecti of industrial arts. The '

development cf industrialtarts curriculum is investigatedin the fourth section. Stucipies'in the,lifth sectionexamine'variablesaffecting the learning process. Thenext section discusses studiep devoted to instructional

,,media, methods, and materials. ltudies investigatingthe guidance characteristics of industrial arts are foundin the seventh section. The.studies reviewed in theeighth section examined facility-program interaction interMs of.fobilities, equipment, and safety. Next, studieson ev4uation are divided into four major 4ategories:developmen of tests/instruments, interaction analysis,program evaluation techniques, and the effects of evaluation.The final thrseqsections review, respectiyely, studies inteacher education, administration and superVision, andprofessional concerns. A summary Chapter and bibliographyconclude the document. (CT)

DESC::AdministrationvSupervision; Delivery Systems;Educational Theoriee; *Educational Research; EducationalFacilities; Guidance Programs; *Industrial Education;*Industrial Arts; Curriculum Development; InstructionalMaterials; Learning Processes; *Program Evaluation;*Research Projects; Teacher Education; *Teaching Methods

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'; INTRO CTION

.1.° SELECTION STRAtE6IES. 2

HISi'ORY; PHIOSOPHY, AND 08JiCTIVES

HIdTORY. OF INDUMIAL ARTS

FSTORt TECkiNOLOGY

e HISTORICAL STUDIES IN RETROSPECT

.

PHILOSOOkIpAL FOUNDATIONS .

t!.

t iME FRONTS'.. 4

17

PHILOSOPHT,I9.7ROSpECT.. .

yOU4DATIOT4'0F.INDUSTRAL ARTS: OHJECTIVZS. . .

SUMMARY 0 .

1

A

HUMAN RESOURCES RELATED STUDIEt

EQUITY

k RECRUITMENT

HUMAN RESOURCE NEEDS AND INDUSITY

SUMMARY

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7

10

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21

23

23

24

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EDUCATIONAL1ROGRAMS

',CIA': NEEDS

STATUS ST'UDIfSt' GENERAL

S S STUDIES i STATE SP

FOREIGN PROGRAMS

SUMMARY

CURRICULUM,

'COMPREHENSIVE EFFORTS:.

CUltRICULUM PROCESZ

INDUSTRY EDUPATION ANALYSIS0

INSTRUCTIONAL UNITS

77..4

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400

,

TgE IND6S/TRIAL ARTS CURRICULUM PROJECT (IACP)4.

.

EVALUATION OF. CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTA' V EFFECTIVENESS

SUMMARY0.4.

LEARNING PROCESS VARIA ES

PROBLEM SOLVING

OFGANIZATIONAL PATTANS'qb

SPECIAL NEEOS ASPECTS

pERFORMANCE DOMAINS

RELATIONSHIPS AMONG' LEARNING PROCESS VARIABLES

EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS

SUMMARY

viii

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INTUCTIONAL MEDIA, METHODS, AND MATERIALS

INSTRUCTION= ME'THOD

INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

MATERIALS

SUMMARY

1

STUDENT'PERSONNEL AND GUIDANCE

OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE

STUDENT CHARACTk

ERISTICSl.

EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS

SUMMARY

FACILITY AND RELATE6 STUDIES

1;ACILAEs'

. .1

SUMMARY AA.

1r

EVALUATION

'TEST DEVELOPMENT

INTERACTION ANALYSIS

PROGRAM EVALUATION

it EFFECTS OF EVALUATION

SUMMARY

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88

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99'

97'

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99

100

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TEOER EDUCATION'

'4404 RECRUITMENT

7

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ORGANIZATION AND AVKINISTRATION

UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMS

STUNINT TEACHING

GRADUATE PROGRAMS

PROGRAki FeALUATION

insr YEAR TEACHERS

INSERVICE EDUCATION

SUMMARY

ADMINISTRAfION AND SUPERVISION

ATTITUDE STUDIES

ROLE PERCEPTIONS

ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES

ADMINISTRATOR PREPARATION

SUMMARY

PROFESSIONAL CONCERNS

ASSbCIATIONS

LEADERSHIP

SUMMARY

so-

a 1

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102

106

107

112

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134 VA

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lOrt.

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

OVERVIEW

AN ANALYSIS

WEAKNESSES

STRENGTHS

NEEDS AND 'RECOMMENDATIONS

REFERENCES

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149

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TABLES

TABLE 1REVIEW AND SYN/HESIS Or RESEARCH XN INDUSTRIALARTS: 1968-1979

TABLE 2CITATIONS BY YEAR AND TYPE

TABLE 3AGEMY INVOLVEMENT

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INTRODUCTION4

a

This monograph 'seeks to present a compilation of accessibleresearch in.industrial arcs education from 1966,through 1979.In some ways, it is expected that it will serve mainly as a.

- large scale map to identifiable topics in research ratherthan an'actilal synthesis of 641 possible findings, As such,

.it is.hoped'that this publication.will provide an overview ofthe variety of research during this period. While 'the document.'could not be a fully definitive in-depth analysis of the staie-of-the-art, it seeks to.provide a description of the stage ofdevelopment.attained'bY research in this area. To placethis perspective in its proper context, readers aril, encouragedto review the first two :review and synthesis papers.auihoredby Streichler (1966)' and Householder 'And Stess (1969).

I..j.ke its predecessors, the intent of this review and synthesisis to establish a useful, benchmark for reference, thevalidation of opinion, and the stimulat.ion of further research.While the sumMary chapter focuses on suggestions for additionalwork, other inferences are discussed in each section. Apparentresearch voids also.are identified. This information can beusefwl'to ,establish a frame of reference for further research.

It is hoped that this document also will be useful 'to stimulateresearch'by ttose who do not typically engage in such activity.It is generally recignized that all too frequently thedissertation reipresents the sole significant research of thevast majority of doctoral recipients. However, there seemsto be an abundance of pararesearch. Administrators frequentlycollect data to support their decision aMong alternatives,evaluators devise analytical.approaches, and supervisorsrender judgments. While these efforts -mayt,fall short of theideal in terms of methodology, reliability: validity, and

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dieseminatio*, if wglIdesItignedAnd barefully:condudtted, they.-- mai prov.ide 4aluabla insights for the field. Ste4hdpe'-this

' review and,einthesie will facilitate feuch. methodological. . action by providing a coticise reference to leasons learned

, and a guide, to .solutAoris 'endo prO'ciiduree ,:employed: . .

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°. SELECTION 6RWTEGIES .. ...,

.

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tems. splecterdqor'incluSion hadto:a0pear in,the literatureJ..

4 du00.4.the perio0 1964 through 1979. 6nly tteis copsidezed to,himf direct relevance tovindustrial,Arte wbreyeviewed. The

. major search' targets were thi3 Eilp .data base iind the ACIATS/WAITTE, Summaries of,Studiecin IndustriakArtee.,:rade andIndustrial and Technical Edudation(anhuil1y),colapils4 so; .

faithfullk cir the profei*ion Vy 'David JeIdenotof the, Univeteityof Norther 1310rado.1 'The latter Was manually searched;

011. .

throuih eiti*.pport Orthe TRIO Clearinghous9. jonAult,t.

,

.1 Career nd Wicitiorkal EducAtion, the ERth.bala was systematically. c?mpute searched. ,Supplementary articles and:research

reports were identified by a sCan of the AIAA a matspubfication lists, ACIAft*Yearbook lisie, and he' ACIATE and

I4S monograph titlei.. ,

. '

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' 4 %.. .0 .4 . .. .......

The initial sgan of therliterature sought to' idbntify item..-swith the key words "iAdustrial 'arts" or."industrIal *edupation"in the title. Since thie rather. alirtificiel restrictiOn.limited.the result, the selection process wakexpanded to

:et

- include entries Ccintaiding these key words in the abstract.'Since even this expahde4 review.failed,to exicompass alldo6umeitts of sigriifiganCe, °the reviewers selected a,ltmited

iinumber of additional' studies that had significant imp4icationsand/or which dreW conclusions Of dikeet iiportance tolin ustrial arts education. Because the field encompasses/se eral divergent points of view, it is recognized thlat noteve yone may agree wiih'the selection. They should note,however, that an attempt wasJdade\tó Include documentsrepresentative of major poinfs of yfew -specifically relevantto industrial arts education, whetritir they used that term orn6t." Wh4le t is zecognized that this "closed system".notion*of 4ndustriat/arts is inappropriate to the true scopeof academic endeavor, 'for purposes of achieving closure iniome reasonable period, it was necessary.to impose suchdelimitations..

it .

1. For a description of this resource, see Jelden, Journalof Induetrial Teacher Elucation, 11 (Fall, 1973): 92-.95.

414

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The reviewers also.expexiended.coneiderable difficulty inattempting to delineate between resparch and non-researchpublicati ns. Research,in industrital education should beexpected o exhibii the 'cheracteristics of disciplinedInquiry. he repprte should provide evidence of the existence

. of an apprOpriate data base. Analytical, historical, anddescripti've studies were 1.n.cluded fbr they demonstrated areasOnable scope of inquiry, Utilized generally accepted'methodologies, ahd, provided some expectation that the results %

4 might be generalizable. Studies whish relied on a theoreticalQframework as the base for lurther inquiry.also.were inclOed,aa'were expeiimental and,predictiVe studies.

,.

.Unfortunately, not all relevant studies that could be includei

.were cited. "Which studies-should have b:tm added is, ofcoirse, a matter of judgment: It-*is hop d that those whosestudies were omitted will excuse our oversight and/orjudgment and that those who would prefer to.see their studiesinterpreted.difterently will accept our apologies/1n advance.

A The'reviewers made a consci6usiffort '0)'provide a brOad-.scale.review contrasted to:a more in-depth treaeinent of

'fewer studies, Xn.attempting this challenge, considerablesubj,ectivity was required. Because .of this; we recognize thatalternative interpretationeare possible. .Readers, therefore,are encouraged to consult the sources,and form their own

.

...1 opinions.rdgarding the implications of any finding.w Sincethe review's overall structure reflected similar subjectivity,readers-also are en0ouraged to review all subsections of 0

relevance to their tbpic of interest. In this way reader-.

author differences in organiiation will be.less of a problem.

-

In the interest of.future review and synthesib.efforts,researchers, administrators, curriclaum developers, t'eachers,and students are, encotwaged to submit their produL:ta to the

ERIC siystem. As documents are entered in ehe system, they

become .readily available thiough computerized retrievalsystems.

The authors wish to express their gratitude to Dr. Robert E.Taylor, ,Director of the National Centersfor Research inVocatiorial Education. Additionally, both thUniversity ofMissopri-Columbia and Te,xas. A .s,f4 Universitygdaserve,4ecognitio:nfor their support. The efforts of the industrial educationsecretarial staffs of both institutions particularly deserve

commendation.

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HISTORY,'PHILCISOPHY, AND OBJECTIVES

4

Tate section reviews studies ,c,itich deal with the plailosolihicalbases of industrial arts and 44ich examine its historical .

development. Studies dealing-i/ith the evolution cie,objectivesalso are included. Theie foundational areas &tufa ittention'upon babic issues of purpose and goals.

)

4 .

liSTORY OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS

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Invaria1441 all fields sooneror later document'their evoluttan.Perhaps because industrial arts is a rel4ive 'flyoungster" onlya small numbir of historical studies ware fou 4. Theielassig .

works of Bennett (1926, 1937) and Barlow (1961) have beenexamined by students of the profession. Undoubtedly Sredl's .

(1966a0, b, d, 1967) multi-part article also has Leen reviewed.But have the others?. While it seisms that no majorcomprehensive'historical work has appeared during the decade undercohsiderationla number of valuable descriptive, works have

appeared. Thee

..tributions of Johann crottliebJleusinger,

in terms of.tHei effects on Dewer and Bonserl-hav been ,,

P documunted by Luetkemeyerland Vogel (1978). Similarly, ..-'.

Luetkemeyer and McPherson4 (1975) charted the contributionsof Frederick Gorden 13,9nser and Wirth (1972) provided an f

interest'ing contrast Of Johd Dewey's perspectives versvs

is Bzowliki.,e" (1969) ana*sis of.the influence of kinderga ten,those of. the social efficiency ihi1osophers. Another ex mple,

,

mantial training, art eAueation,* and the arts and crafts e4

'e.infl eaces of aducational psychology on the pedagogy oftheistn manual arts education. In.adaition, he investigated

tt,

:

the aay and explored the transition from max1qa1 arts to .

-2

industrial education. His Aaracterization of the evolutionary .

environ'ment of'"that time.ad mutually coopera ve -.- untfl'theindustrial education movement, emerged 7 mig t..hold a lesson %

for all of us: Herschbaok (1976) and HbPherion ,(1976) alsohave.traced the development of the profession (and soie of

the current problems that beset it..

. ..

Hoste'tter's chapter ini,:th:e .hrower and Weber, (1 -74),,\teeatment

of indudtrial arts in'the ettementary schools pr vided.theprofeesicn with a set of histdrical reflections on eleientaryschool industrial arts that illustrates the importance of

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retrospectivit analysis. Wimilarly many today's debatesmay.'be found in Bleeke's (1968) documentat on of the .devel9pmenit.

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o44,th;O roject letthod as "An identifiable entity'hin,Amerl.can -4duCatior%., He gave particular attention to the role of,.. i

Y.'KilpatriCk ip the infusion of this methodology. The work , o, of.Kilpatfick and his followers is cxedited with establishihg 0

A.

the method with such strength that it remained in the activity _.

. curriculum despite subsequent disenchantment withprogressive eduoation. One can note in *Bleeke's review the

. forerunners ciik the.relevance, experiential, and activity.

movements. Oith similar continuity in an extensiVe review ofthd development of industrial arts in thrintermediate

/school, Allen felt that practitioners weril frequently unable.

.

o fully undfrstand and'implement the basic objectiTes in .

tileir intermediate school qourses,'particularly as they *t,pertained to the role of junior high sdhool industrial arts

in career education..

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.

yArtin *(1979) ataembled a cogent treatment of historioalan4 philosophical'issues. His ACIATE Yearbook contained .

relevant chapters on industrial arts' precursor movements ,

.and the evolution of elementary school industrlal arts. .'

k. Klso.included were reviews Of industrial arts' rilationships. to genexal and vocational education, both crucial aspects of

, ,

.. our profession's future..

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'The baslc purposes of black vocational, tethnical, and industrialarts* education-were presented by Hall (1974)', who also chronicledits evolution. A more restrictive trektment of.black industFialarts history was documented by Cobbins," Jr. (1975).Although formally restricted to Miasissippi, this investigatiomyieAde4 etiges of industrial devalopment that probably had ...

'simifai iatillItcations fqr blick.industrial education, e1sewherej,1Theie stages -t slave, reconsiruction,".regression, .emerqing,and transition 1 eras.--Ndepicted ..a gradually.increasingpreserice (excep during theregressjon era) of in-dustrial ,

education opportunities until 1965. 4.At that time, due tostate initiatives to dissolve segre§ation, the trace-abilityof blacic industrial education as a distinct entity becamedifficult:

.Another historical study with relatively stringent s.cope was.

` Stuart's (19068) docUmentation of the evolution of industrialatts and vocational education in Texas. He observed that ,,,,

pnless the trend towards moiec.special4ed courses reverses,industrial arts cannbt justiiy its,claim of being a part. .

of general education. On aenational front and as one possiblesolution, 13-6nsen.(l977) attempted to organize the spectrumof innovative industrial arts curricula tflat, in part, soilght

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to'address'the pverspedialization refer00 to 61, Stuart.'

The.historical studies reviewe4 bontaineddeAatied analyses. '

of individuil contributions to the profession, e.g., as thoseby'William Everett Warner. LatImer, (1974) Presented adefailed, and sometimes permonally interpretivo, account of

. Warner's contributions. Latimer recognized the contributionWarner made to the,philosophy of industO.al arts, to industrial

'arts curriculum, and io the development of industriir artslaboratory organizational 'patterns. Warner's invoLvementin the founding of Epsilon Pi Tau and im irbternational

, curriculum efforts also were explored.

HISTORY., OF TECHNOLOGY

Sheffield (1969) reviewed the-historical development of basicfilsnd tools.used in industrial arts. Earch of the'mekjor tool,. 0

groups was studred from its origin, witOrattention given tio- theutilization of materials in the construction of the tool,the sequehce of improvements as th'e tool was developed, arid Olerelationship of the specific to thegeneial tool development,processes. Three phases were identified, i.e., utilization,fashioning, and standard zation, The role'of these processesin advancing techno.logica_ development was explored.

yDistinctions were made between tools which were developedduring and after the industrial reVoluti n and those ,whichevolved gradually during the preceding. years. A morecomprehensive treatment of theshistorical perspective,ofindustry is presented by Luetkemeyer (1968). Thi4 ACIATEYearbook provided treatments of people's relationship to,techno4ogy, the evolution of technology, the role ofcapitalism, management, labor, and automation and cybernetics.

A different perspective on our industrial herieagelis found ,

in the Mississippi Valley Conference's 1974 debate on'thethird revolution in work. Here Wiens described the conceptand Bjorkquist and. Kagy exaMined its ineplications in terme4.

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of work values. While at first glamce subh issues may seemfar Ufield from thes,eather pragmatic nature of industrialarts, when the reader considers the profession's focuson technolvgical literacy and technology'sda.pact on work,/the' .issues examined certainly draw closer to the mainstream ofour profession.

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I.HISTORitAL STUDIES IN°RETROSPECT

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It should,not be slippriting that these studies do not by

themselyes yield A t'oherant view of -the developmen o the

profeseion. Despite thislfacte the body ok literatW for Ihe

period'covered does seem tb-Teflect improvement:37'in methodology.

Howeva, there is still need for historical research dealingwith major problem areas in induatrial-arts. As prOklehs

are carefully telected and delimited, rigorous invesXigation

couleyreld valpable suggestions for future,pctions. °.It .

is unfortunate-that the field of industrial, arts educaiion

seems too small t'o encouvage the development of frequent,full-fiedged historical reviews. For.this reagon, it ieems

imperativ, that.the profession)naintairi. its archive21.41pIti,

care. Nture,schiaaFs will need.access to many sourcedocuments 'The profeision is still.in its infancy. As it

.matures, increased intVirtzt will be ..piviced.upoW the ..

contributions oi,indivi6als and grotps duxing hesis formative

years. SOme of this wOrk'hgs'already.X.eglin, howeVer, much

iemains to be done....

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PHILOSOPAIL FOUNDATIONS41)

It Is fittin4 to begih.,thisiection by biting the wprk of

Brown (1917). n thisIfirst monograph.of the AIAA'sAcademy o'f FellóWs series, Brown.intr6spectively'developed*the foundatioil of a. model containing.ite coponents of its

identification process, Subject matter', instructionalmethodologl,.and. implementatios. AnOther, and even more

personalc view. Of the salient.aspects of industrial arts is

found in Micheels' (1978) monograph, the second in tyet

series.

PhilosopAical studiess 'ranged from 'the relatively baslc to

the specifically. applied. Koble (1970) promided a terse,

yet useful, description of the foundations §f the industrial

arts. Swanson (1976) advocats4 concern with acceleratingtechnologicaradvance, social problems and the reappraisal

of personal values in outlining purposes for industrial arts.

He recommehded that industrial arts be involved in thr study

of industry, career education, and areas of,technolostical.

responsibility. He suggested that industrial arts is a key

element.ln'understanding and'solving technological and

social problems. A.

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Simj.larly, Bellihil'OherS (1976) attempted totasseSs theprocesSes by whigh individuAl, Adapt to technological change.This miilidisciplinary resSatch has impact upon induetr4a1

i.

A . AO a result 'of the analysis, Bell a colleagues developedallts ad perceived by those who su ort Swanson's ideas.

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a to techriologiCal change. This concept;offersi igniOcant potential tor reotganising approaches to .

"industti.al.arts educatton.

,.Teqhnology., envirqpment, career', and vocational educAtion

)all figure promin!liftly here. The concept,of technology,asa new theoretical base for industrial arts has been exhaustively .

'....-treated by Kaeprzyk (1973). After'A somewhat critical .

analysis. of eaflier version* 0 technology-based iedustrial

.. arts (e.g., Werner's) Kasprzyk set out to clarify the meaning

f of technology and'outline a dcheme,fbr identifying andstructuring the essential eloments of technology in any given

- realm Of work. , He:reasoned that industrial Arts should\

study scientific and technological suhj'ect matter from thefield of engineering. While the judgment of..iiie.successof this venture will be left tt.o the readersi-this document.'

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urepresented one' of thi milestone* that serious scholars I.

\will want to review. Lauds (1976) also exprIssed 'the opinionthat teOhnology should serve as4tAe basis for industrialarts education programs. His argument is based upon the.permeation of technology throughoa contemporary'society and"4the ability.of industrial arts to assist ineoliing with the coMplexities Of the tedhno 'ogical society.

'fere-Lauda (in Technology,Valuee, and,education, 1971) ,

141sd backg.round.usefUi in understanding the technologythrust in industrtai arts.

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.dessential variations on thas theme also are tiddressed by,

Kranzberg (1972), Pinder and Ritz (1977), Blankenbaker andKiller (1970), Lux (1977) and by the California StateColleges (1970). The most fundam'ental and far-x.eachingasiemblies of the argument are found in')Kranzberg's analysisof technology's implications for industfial arts and inLux's statement. Piiper and Ritz, and Blankenbaker and Md.iersupported the rationale by providing somewhat more application-oriented items. The, forme,r do so by detailing the implicationsof the p duction alspect oi technology; the lattere do so byvirtue o their annotated bibliography on tttle intirpretationof industry, ,.

The topic of bup.ding an industry-education partnershipescalated i/1 siiitificance tp become,a toPic in a series of

- forums that addresse4 the relationships ofsmain, society,and technology. Supported by EPDA funds, this projectresulted in a major report (A1AA, 1972) that included the

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pdrepectiv f industry,.the profess and' some carefillyselectedschola 04 Contained in the 4eport are mehy ot 'the.technology's ma tenets (e.g.., technological literacy),althOugh in.terms Oat may be mors obtuste than.desirdd bypractitioners. (The September/October Isue of Mari/So9Setid1;eahnology (AIAA, 19721 41so is direct& related to t)Us.)Perhaps th goat practical danifeitatión of this is embodie4in the California State College treatmeht of it.! Theirproposed policy and recommendationi .realistIcally, grapplewith key issdes,'at.least at the four-year colliege level.At the secoridary level,'Stadt (1969) provided a detailed writtendegcription of one possible implementation of this; he namedit "Man and Technology."

Another approach to dealing withlthe implications oftechnolo4ica4 society is contained An the conference liroceedingsedited by DdVore and Smith (1979)'.' Considerably more ,prOvocativw than.the California'doc'ument, this conference.wisp& humaneresources perspectiVe .1/4to direcits attemptat identifyieg how "educational.institutions become part ofthe solution rathei than part of.the problem of technologicalsocieeri (page 44i).. Sedides the cogent expositions ofrelationships among technoloch, social purpose,leducation,and change, the prodeedings includeasimportant analyses ofthe role of values and the future of4Aan. 4

s.

'Bothlioote (ih ihrower & Weber, 1974).and Miller (1976)examined philosophies related to elehentary school programs.Miller identified five philoiophipal groupings in elementaryindustrial.arts: .developing'habits, attitudes, abilities,.and interests) mositing the devwlopmental needs oechildren;producing usetui objects; serving as' a vehicle, for occupationalawareness; and enriching the elementery curriculum. Eachposition was ieen avrcontemporary and tenable; each Offereda specisfic dimensioh to the 44ementary industrial artS program.

Parker (1972) °identified written philosophical expressionsdealing with industrial arts. 'These were submitted toindustrial arts teacher educiators in order to identify thedegree of concurrence between their opinions and those.expressed in the literature. A general concensus was found;however, Parker felt that the groups studied were notbesserily in close correspondence with more contemporary

p 14.osophical positions'in' industrial arts.

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EMERGING FRONTS,

Riy11978) evolved a cogent rationa1e for a practical Arts .experience for intermediate level students. Envisionedas involving the integration of learning in agriOulture,.home and family living, health, industry, burliness, office,and distributive.arenas, the careful procedures and.documentation lend themselves to the author's self-avowed.intent of serving as a vehicle for major restructuring ofthe formal and intended learning experiences of students.'

:The iteratUre on recreation was reviewed by Tate (1970),who souljht eb identify theappropriate recreational purposesTor industrial arts education. A set of g4idelines wasdeveloped for industrial arta currlculum, methodology,meedicG.eacilities, and evaluation for meeting the recreational,function itn industrial arts education.

Acker .(1971) reviewed the literature in order'to'.clarify.the nature of the consumer function of industrial 'arts

education. His study indicated that industrial arts could'provide.a unique contribution to. consumer education as apart of general educatiop. Consumer studies in industrialarts were recommended in such areas as economic planning,expanditure standards, information about consumer goods,and maintenance guidelines. He inclicated that industrialarts needs to coordinate its inirolvement with other subjects.

Open edUcation was considered by Donald (1974) to haveimp1icat.i9ns,for industrial arts, He presented the historical,backgrouria of thia movement and related it to learners,facilitators, and environments by formulating the methods'implications, for industrial arts.' Ln doing so, 14 drewextensively from Piaget. Industrial arta in the openaccess curriculum also is systematically explored in Anderson's(1978) ACIATE Yearbook.

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Several other emergihg thrusts have been studied: Environientaleducation was.found by Bame (1973) to receive little emphasis,particularly as it' related to the technology-environthentinterface. H*Es jury cCncluded theet these objectives should'receive major emphasis. In this same year, the AIAA's (1913)Environmental Education Committee issued a.booklet thatin essence, implemented Bame's recommendation for a rationaleto guide infusion of this thrust into the practice of theprofestion.. ,

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Career, industrial arts, and vocational education 4ereconsidered'by Smith (1974) , who reported that they did notdiffer in meaning, that is, by-career eduOation and industrial

arts/vocational 'education practitioners. A more pervasivse'

overview was\,..embodied in eunico's (1974) Delphi study of the

future of industrial edUcation.. In an attempt tosystematically and specifidally identify which emerging thrusts.wi4,1 shape the future, Cunico's Delphi panel of twenty-fourleaders determined that industrial education must provideexperiences needed to allow students to. become a part af

the complex industrial and technological society in Ahich

they find themselves.. This is surely a challenging, if

not, a definitely helpful, conclusion. However, reasenableoptimism is appropriate in that he 'also found that his,

sample grpup of industrial education teachers, supervisors,.

and administratori concurred with the Delphi panel as to

future goals, Objectives, and orientation of industrial

education. From this, the profession might optimistically,conclude that a greater degree of convergence isa possible

in the future than has been the case in the past'

Cunico's forecasting,efforts were paralleled by Starkweather(1976) 'and Pautler (1978).. Starkweather, using a Delphi .

process, identified a host Of potential futures for industrial

arts that deserve the /attention of planners. Pautler, on the

other hand, used a more introspective approach in interpreting

presentations delivered at the' Bicehtennial Conference

on Vocational Education in te.cms of their implications tor

industrial arts.

A whole new emerging thrust -- the one that is probably the

most significant in terms of actual impact on theopiactice

and the future of industrial arts -- is centered on the

vocational contribut4ons that industrial arts can mike.

Specifically, the considered opiniqn of-key professionalleaders resulted in the inclusion of industrial arts as.ah

activity fundable by federal vocational education money. An

historical perspective of this thtust was presented by both

Good (1975) and Householder (1970) . /The mechanics of

such possibilities are described by'Good ind Steel) (1977).

However, the implications of such legislai:ive permutatkons

are not clearly tteated anywhere. As early as 1969, olearassualts were being made on indUstrial arts objectives in

favor of occupational development ones (Pratzner, 1969).

These authors were not'abre to surface any study that'pursued

the implications of this recent 'and most significantlegislative change in terms of its effect on recasting the

objectives, or their empnasis, toward vocational education.

While a broad scale evaluation Of such impacts was not

evidenced, it seems that this thrust and its antecedents did

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generate a series of .studies that sought to clarify theindustrial arts-vocational education relationship. Lathropand Farr (1968) andColorado State University (1976)each conducted thi:s kind of investigation. In essence, bothreaffirmed the iultifaceted role of industrial arts interms of its contribvtions to general educatibn, careereducation, and, vocational-technical education. The 1969.dialogue amon.g Venn, Carre11,'Olson, and Woodwardrevresented another treatment of the industrial arts-vocational education relationship. .

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,L.Aree'r education, as another new.thrust, also Oas *ell-.documented in the literature. Some of the basic philosophidalconcerns regarding the industrial area career educationinterface were dealt with,in Kagy and Lockette (1972), AVA.(1971), AIAA (19/1-1973a, f)-, and EdwarAs (1974), the .

first three sources represented compilations that evolvedfrom the assumption that the career education thTust'is'Inherently positive and that industrial arts' own goalattainment is enhanced by active partikipation 1in careereducation. The AVA and Kagy documents were the outgrowth.ofs'Ystematic, professional, 4nd consensasrseeking activitiesthey 4enuine14rout1ined the key industrial arts/career ,

education relationships ai well ad useEul imPlementationgUidelines. The careful nationwide effort that 4ent-Intothese reports merits their special value. The AIkA'd6cument.contrasted-the preceeding dpproach by presenting a set okindividual viiws as'contained in three 'years of Man/Society/Technology.

In sharp contrast to the preTBding positive views, onlyrarely do the adverse effedts of career educakion surface inthe literatuke; Edwards (1974) pointed out 'the possiblemisuses of widpprobleml with career education, e.g., theemphasis of continuing the present corporate orderf.the'increased confubion generated hy yet another term, ihe lackof decinition, and the apparent anti-intellectualism of theprogrim. 4

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In a position paper that reviewed the career education,vocational education, and avocational potentials of industrialarts, Drrenfurth (1978) extended the range oflindustrialarts to the postsecondary, adult arena. The review, togetherwith its subsequent objectiv'e-program-pop'ulation matrix, .attempted.to detail .a new projection for industrial arts.

The nation's recent awareness of human resource developmentimperatives, such as those embod,i.ed in the ComprehensiveEmployment and Training Act, also is relevant. While no

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industrial arts'reseaich directly treated-this tqpic, thereviewers' perception ot the worth of our pmfession wasconsiderably enhanced by the-profession's early treatment ofthe concept f work. Lauda (1970* DeMore'(1970), andKabakjian (1970) all documented some of#the concerni.df

profession, as well as its human resource developmentpotentials.

PHILOSOPHY IN RETROSPECT%

Lerwick°s (1977) efforts have provided'a useft.11 steppingstone to a more coherent future, at least in philosophicalterms. His analytical epproach to leadsrship models in .

euucation yielded the conclusion that there exists aconsiderable mismatch between these leadershiP models andtheir.root philosophies, particulerly ir their ethicaland moral aspects...Lerwj.ck called for the recomition Of thisproblem and the focus of a more systematic effort on solving it.Scholars versed in analytic philosophy will find thiswork an important perspective. Other students may.simplywish to refer to Lerwick's subsequent descriptive treatment(1979) 'of vocational education according .to each.of the\schbols. Another Contribution of Lerwick (1978)- oUtlinett

his View of 'industrial education's position within today'sforce field. His historical review led him to concludethe existence of a serious decline in industrial education'sphilosophical conviction and initiatave. Despite the .

apparent methodologicalprecision exercised by.this author,the reviewers were somewhat disappointed by the negativism .implicit in his "Coho salmon" analogy, particularly sinceLerwick committed the analytical philosopher's cardinal errorby omXtting definitions of key terms (in this case,'industrialeducation). A terse example of what could halle.been'wes

pro..ripled. by Glazener (1970) . Because other.end more positiveanalyses exist, attention also should be paid to anotherand more specific focus of philosophy presented by Pierson

(1974b).

FOUNDATAONS OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS: OBJECTI ES

Ie seems commonplace for regular AIAA conference attendees tbexperience at least two types of presenters:' those woclaim our profession has.reached agreement on its fundamentalgoals and those whO point out that convergence) is npt the case.Bdaison (1973) represented one of the lattier.el He forcibly

pointed out that a continuing problem of this field has beenits inability to develop a generally acceptable definition,'or statement of objectives, and to define a body of knowledge

*!

from which Its 11(Fogram should be drawn. Evidence of the depthof these issues Nay be found in the AIAA's special volume ofMan/Society/Teohnotogy (1970) which described the Nation4Forum ofiIndustrial Arts.

Atkins (1974) attempted.to make order out of disoider. His. valuable Contribution, because it transcended mere'

cataloging and tallying., identified more than 550 purposesand-classified.them into coitinui(Ig, fluctuating, *and newercategories.. He found that the.occupational,'recreational,consumer, skill, industry understanding, persZhal-socialgrowth, critical th.inklaq, and exploration purposes hadconsiderable durability; all had experienced varying degrees, '

.mof .emphasiii Van byke (1970) Also identified commonalitiesin.terms.df what school personnel and community-leadersth6ught should be the objectives of industrial arts forsmall high .schooli. His respondents agredd that industrialarts should,be an aspect df the general education curricdlum

4 and that it Should offer a broad in,troduction,to many4.occupationil areah cif industry. C,oncerned with the elementary'school level of industrial Arts,Olichols and Young (1973)repprted on an investigation with essentially similarpurpdpes. Their article summarized the commonalities oiobjectives;iFontent and method aspong leading elementary 1,evelindustrial arts program directors. Particularlky noteworthy.in the light of considerable intuition4.to the,cdotrary,..they, reportep general agreement on the majority of theirsurvey questions.

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Another approach to seeking .k.Irder and explinadOn isexemplified by a group of studies that compared the varyingperspectives of teachers, administrators, and other schoolpersonnel. Burns (1975), Sucharski (1111)" and Backus (1968)-used this.approach. Becatise it.is frequently claiMed thatindustrial arts teachers', principals, and counselor's arethought not to understand industrial arts' objectives,

:Burns systematicalay-tested this hypothesis. He ,concluded'that the'three groups did not perceive the priority ofindustrial arts objectives differently; in fact, he notedthat there was a high, degree of concensus but that imstructorswere mcA.e confident of their attainment than are principalsand codhselors. Mason's (1970) earlier study aldo found.principals and counselors stronsrly.agreeing with theobjectives,of industrial arts., The strong'positive attitudeof these groups was related to industrial arts as a partof general education. Principals and'odunlelors in largerschools were more'rositive toward industrial.aFts than *ereProfessionals in smaller schools. mason's.finding arepartly supported and partly contradicted by Mosely (1970).

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Like Mason, Mosley iopnd that Florida educators exhibiteda high degree of agrWement on the purportes of industrial

arts as percelved by teachers and supervisors in the. field.

A Q-eort techniqpe IndicateCthat iost participants emphasized

traditional industriel'al7ts Concepts, such as skillful use

of.tools and materials in working on projects. However,

the contradictory element was that counselor,s and industrialaits teachers did not avec op the importance of the various

objectilles identified for industrial arts.

Iklso contradicting the suggestions .of similar'perceptions ofi\pdustrialarts are the findings of Russell (19,70), Sucharski

975.),"Back.us (1968) , and Ryerson 11978). RusselltfoUnd.

thpt industrial,arts teacheks and high school .principal\ditfer substantkally in their views toward industrial arts

goaLs, purposes, content, and direction. The principalstended,to feel that industrial arts should provide a broad

exposure to .the worldvof work, assist in the ueveloPment

of work habitsd appropriate social attitudes. Industrial

arts ,educator,s, on'the other hand, rated technical knowledge,

problem solving abilities, and an unders.tanding of the

American industry'as important concepts. Sucharski also

found that these was little agreement among industrial ar'ts

in.struCtors when ranking goals. In hics'study, industrial

arts teachers placed relatively.low piiority'on goalspertaining to the relationship'of induEltry and society and

on the interdisciplinary functions'of industrial arts. '

Comparatively, they placed theiligh'est*tpriOritieson safety,skill, and problem solving goals. The divergence of opinion

found by Sucharski essentially verified Backus' earlier

findings regarding the perceptions cif industrial artsobjectives by superintendents, iodustrial arts coordinators,

and industrial arts teachers. Backus identified considerable0 conflicts in priorities bdth within and between local.districts.

In addition, his results predicted.Sucharski's finding ofdisparity between the thought of practitioners and that'

exprftsed in the professional literature with an essentiallysimilax one. The Pact that --'despite.the seven years

between these two stdidies -- the leadership/practitionerdisparity continues seeme-grounds for.seritus professionalattention. Another finding of Back, namely that

superintendent/teacher *disagreement over tA objectives ofindustrial arts increases with school system size,.alsoshould serve toNhindicate an important direction for professionalaction.

Ryerson summarized.his .study of the percepti.ons of industrial

\ arts objectives with %the observation of a shift from "lofty"

\ to more "practical" obj*ectives. However, because the writers

of this paper were privileged to attend the presentation of

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4 -tpa survey's results, it is onLy'fair tct state that otherattendees interpreted the findings.differently. ,Howeveil, if

- the met.hodological,limita44.ons are Aept in mind, Ryerson did;present th.e. views ot induitrial. arts teachers, students, andthe. lay public in an interesting manner.

The effeats.ofikhe varying interpretationsof industrial artsServed as stimuluslor the'proje*s of Nelsen ,(1975), Gill(1972), Jennivist(1968), and Mat/Oon (197.4). The consistencY,Jetween the iitOlidit objectives of SValuAion models and,those of industrial arts teachers was investiga d.by the' .

former. Nelsen concluded that.it was apparent t at ikdustrial."artsAligh school teachers' evaluation practice r-are nott,ini'agreement with the emphasis which they felt sho ld be given'tothe five goals of industrial arts. \

Gilk reviewed industrial arts objectives fox Specific groupsof studeniji (1972). While most industrial arts teecher4

1 did not have prdparation in special education or in dealingwith students with special needs, iheir rating of objectivesof industrial arts foy Mentally.retardectstudentswere clospiycorrelated to the ratings prvided by special eduattion '

teachers. ,.Dif,ferences existed between the relative emphasisplaced upon objectives of industrial arts when the program

"et

was considered to be for average students and that assignedwhen it was intended to serVe students with special needs. ')

' However, ratings given by teachers appeared,to be related .

:3 the difficulty they experienced in teaching students wl.thspecial needs.

Mattson's study compared the achievement of basic industrialarts objectives as affected by learning experiences intraditional industrial arts, Industrial Arts CurriculumProject (IACP) manufecturing and construction programs.While the results did:not consistently support eitherprogram, he concluded that both tpnovative treatments allowstudents the same cpportunity.to attain the basic industrialarts objectives as does the traditional program. However,there were differences in the attainment of objectives beyondthose in the basic core.

.4The prev:ously mentioned leadership-practitioner gap alsowas documented by Jennings' (1968) analysis .c)f the roleof industrial airts in the achieyement of economic objectives.In what might b4 a gloomy.precu'rsor to today's economic.education thrust, the researcher.found that teachers oflower'sociosconomic class'students perceived the role ofindustrial arts in the achievement of objectives of economicefficiency as less important than teachers of middle orupperclass students. Perhaps as serious as these teachers'

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145as.of faith in the power of, education as a social changeAgent is the profession's internal inoonsistency and, not

f ,surprisingly, varying perceptions.of our nation's4'elected'leadershiP.

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A swrvey of legislatdrs indicated that membera of the 91st .

Congress did not igree.with the cothmonly accepted objectives6f intustrial atta (McClellan, 1971). The misperceptions ofthe legislator's seemed to indicate theit they perceived quitelit different typ industrial arts from that tollisioned bytha p;ofession. '

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Tshe disparity among the iltudies of-the perceptions ofteacher educators, and administrators Inclicated.the need forfurther c4arifiCation. Without more consistent results, itis not poasible'to generalize concerning the actual perceptionheld yliverioue, populations. While some of'the Officultymay be related to regional samplee, theobverall lack ofgeneralizability is disappointing.

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SUMMARY

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Probably because.our profession is_still relativ ly young, ) .

historical studies are less common'than in Profe sions thatare more established. However, the studies that exist seem

#relatively welldocumented.. They enable one,to assemble.an overview of the profession's evolution. enuine histOl.icalstudies with emphasis on original do,luments and/or first handdata aria., of course, in the.minority -- but then it,may4 bethat Bennet and;Harlow have supplied us with 070At ii needed a

in this regard. It seems to the writerso

that thererfs a gap .

in what exactly has been documented. Specificallrl'ii4-seemS mthat there is a host of "intermediate history" &terns that Nare neglected. Only recently have the AIAA and its'various- ; 4.couneils begun to-show Significant concern about the value 6.

of archives. The entire evolution ak! our profession ai thestate level appea-rs to be haphazardiA chronicled. To be sure,the effects of. major evehts such as legislation and km.. 41

philosophical and theoretical events have been.chartedk butthe evoldtionary aspects of the Practice haie not been. We ....: ,

4 are left with a nagging question all,to where the histornofgenuine practice of the profession is being recvaed. Wes

wouldrecommend systematic attention to the'chartiV,g of the ,1 .

.profession's "grass roots," to its process.iiid product, and-j .

most imporiantly--to the .reasons for its actions.. . , 0 .

Tge philosophical .foundations have received.considerabAy moreattention than the historical 'studies. It,is unfortunate,however, that the attention seems to be relatively ixtimal interms-of studies that investigated the relatively pure aspects

1 of epistomology, metaphysics, ethics, and axiology. At leastthe writers were unable to identify any. significant number%of studies that invOlved the use of formal lo9ic as applied .

to these realms and their'subsequent extensite

sn to industrialarts. Rather, the existing philosophical tudils appearedto be poet hoc im nature in that they seeti to be'an attemptto use philosophy to support pre-existing ideas. A formalizedprocess of inductive or deductive reasoning to establishfrom a "blank slate" the implications of philosophy were not

, existent.

Furthermore, in a profession that has been influenCed mainly,by individuals identified with certain key concepts (i.e., theMaley Plan, the Ziel Plan, etc.),.systematic philosophicaainvestigations of the impact of an individual's contributions.and/or the evolution of that perion's ideas' also are strangelylacking. The closest facsimile to such documents was provided

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by Bohnet et ai. (1970). Nefistheless, it elbarly dienotmeet the preceding call, nor was it in fact so intended.Of the.various professiOnalthrusti that do exist, the dneboncerned with.technology'is 'oat carefully described.Interestingly,.this thrust deemi to us *to be furthest from .

aCtual 'practice. (Yet, of the various isSUei,.ite treatmentseems tb be diepreportionately extensive. One must wonder,,_whether.the issue itgerfis inherentlY more philosophical III :

nature, wheer.it is the Aost important issue faced by theprofe'ssion, or whither a sense oY profeisional opportunism .

preitails.4.

i<fr

The latter., in fact, may be evidenced by the fict that thissectiom identified a series of explorations on a.variety of

.

emerging fronts. Environmental education, open education--,.futurisml.andthe like have beep'explored in terms of"their

p.implications for-our profession. Perhaps this is as ttihould.be. Until a careful exainination..is conductedeote.cannotdiatinguilih between fad and 4ehuine dbriciept.. Certainly it*would appear that the initial investigations of such conceptsare lagitimate academic endeavors that the profession needs

,to encourage. Parenthetically, rt seeft realionable to note./ that there,have b'eno.kare fads in the larger fieldfbf education

than'in.i.sdustrial arts..

)

c Another well-documented thrust is4he ole dealing with futurism,Educational,futurism -- the concernsfor what the future willhold, the prbjection of a variety og scenarios, and the .

delineation of the implications of such scenarios -- hasreceived considerable I-attention. An increasing, number ofpractitioners seemingly feel that such studies are useful.However, 14e are a,little cbncerned because i may be that,like the philosophical-studies oonducte0 to prove a point,the futurist studies may be conduCted for a similarpurpose. Additionally, there is some concern as to Ohetherour profession is capable of handling such studies. We are.reminded of the insight of Rupert Evanslto the effect thathe does not perceive himself as omnipotent eoiigh to be A '

futurist. A

0

Omnipotence would undoubtedly be a,useful characteristic ofnew researchers in the area of indu,strial arts objectivep.

...,

This segment of the prbfession seemb, to be somewhat in adisarray; the confusiort might even be appropriate. We recommend -

that nationwide studies be conducted, particularly owes thatare carefully strattfied in termsof urban and rural dimensionsand various levels of education. Ourfprofession's' elaiivevalues,on the'cognitive-affective and psychomotor do ainsremains uncharted, even thouvh global, parameters have beenaddressed. As might be,expected of other disciplines, but

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.....7() whicil is somewhat.surprising.for industrial arts, the psycho-.' motor, domain eucriously as bgan neglected in terms of studies

dealing with actual spec.ification of objectivWs. It alsowould be safe to obsve that affectiye educational objectives

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industrial arts co d merit,increase4 attention. Besidesthose who point(tEd way.4toward'.new teOhnical content andprocess,,those who would have the profession qoAcentrate on

.goa14 otheethan cognitive and psychomotor also are eviatnt...SuchitOci (1975J is ,one who' clearly,called for attention to .

'affective dom4ns, partfcularly in'teachek.education programs.

o.

In'short, the strtidies,dea1ing with industrial arts objectives'. leave the, profession's general educatibn claim in ponsiderablejeoprdy. This centrar tenet has in no way received thesupport commensurate with its importance to our rationale.Clearly it presents an importallt area open lor riesearch;

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HUMAN RESOURCES RELATED aTUDIES

The identification of only a'small number of studies in thisarea undoubtedly refAects'a com/pination°of the:effects of ..

a search strategy that emphasizsid indust ial arts and ifle,C. /

profesfsion's relativeXy recent accepbance of its role as an t

integral ccildloonent of a comprehensive ,ium n resourceede1i'verr ,

system. Of the studies identified, most ocused on the'infusion of minorities and sex.equity. hers iddressed i

'an industrial survey to determine human esource needs and aneXposition ofsthe contributions that i dUstrial arts makes to .

.America's, population. .

4

EQUiTY4

Two studies (Spende, 1976; Bakamis, 1977) pursued data

.delicriptive ofthe composition of college and universityfaculty involvedUn industcrial teacher edueation: While

both used the Induetrial Te cher Education Directory (Dennis,by Goodheart-Wilcox, the Ameri6ananngally), jointly publishe

Council on Industrial Arts reacher Education, and theNational Association of IndUstrial and Technical TeacherEducators to ideny,fir the baeic-institutional populatidn,Spence augmented his sample with engineering technology

institutions. tNOTE: While technically not a reseirch atuAy

in tetdias of our criteria, thisdecument deserves special isention.

It has served as a population and sampling toot in mangy studies.

Additionally, its dedicated compilers, presently Ervin Dedvis

and formerly Gus Wall, included a brief annual analysie of r

some key 8haracteristics.of.the'teacher education protession.A detaal d ten year longitudinal analysis of these :

Chiract Dyrenfurth (1977) is described.elsewherein t eption.]

Ff.>

Reporting by percent of faculty, our teacher eddcation

profession was found by Spence to be'comprised of wilftes,

non-Hispanic (90.8 percentY; blacks, non-Hispanic (5.2'percent);

Asian/Pacific'Islanders (1.8 percent); Hispanics (1.4 percent):

Native Americans and Alaskan natives,(0.4 percent); andno4resident aliens (0.4 pekcent). Similar data ere presented .

by Bakamis in his summary of'institutiOns. The latter, however,

indicated an equal percentage of institutions with black apd,

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oriental facult10-116 percent). According:to Bakamise 81percent*of the institutiOns indicated a total absence offelale faculty' in industrial education programs. In termsof absolite*numberse Spence's findingC were that there were217 females employ de 9.4 percent of the indatrial education

pence and Bakamls concurred 4

ty between population'and°racial and, gender

ibnal research on infusion

teacher education ofession. Bothteat theri was a si nificant di airofession profiles in terms ofcopposition. Both called for addstrategiLesand longitudinal monitoring,of progregs.

. X study of women teaching and preparing tot tefach in secondaryschool induNtrial arts'wai conducted by Baron (1974) who,sampled the population orfemale industrial arts teachersand teachers in training to determine persodal characteristics°,educational backgrounds, profesiiohal responsibilities, .

prdblemse'and opinions. His reaults indicated that whilefemales-are majoring and 'teaching in,all technical.areas ofeindustrial akts.--.as Aagaard:0(1975) also d4sclosed -- mostof those.yresently Ceaching did.not major in.industrial arts.Baron also palled for effort on the part of colleges to addressthemselyds to infusion Strategies for Women. One such .strateg-yeAlthait' within a larger perspective of nontraditional vocationalprogramseowas developed by Kane et il. (1976). Their modelpertained to both industrial arts lind trade and ilndustrialteacher. targets. Probably dde to the fact that this project .

repreOented doneducational sysiem research, t contaifieddata sources and insights4that are,worthy of eftrtherinvestigatA.on. *Retraining of women industrial irts giaduatesand skillid women with work experience were!posited as twoviable entry mechanisms into the practice of] industrial Aft

1.

teaching.I.

. The difficultx of the task of inducing a scgtificantli greaterproportion of.females to participate in industrial aits isabundantly clear. These difficulties apply equally toparticipation as K-12 students, as instructors of theseetudents, or even as teacher educators of these instructqrs.A valuable historical retrospective.on these difficultieswas provided by ichter (1971). Unfortunatelye.While thearticle is t in explaining .some of the reasonsNbehindthe current sit ition, Richterld.id not provide much cause foroptimism in terms of the dellelpment of.a pore equitable state

.of affairs.

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RECRUITMENT

With today's affirmative action Programe;'invariablr the issueof' pi`ofessional choice and recruitment ariaes. Baron, as wellas Aagaard (l075), investigatlid these issues. Both concluded

t that.much of the.resistance to';women besotting' industrial artse toichers is found within the.prOfession itslf. Aagaard

noted that many, women felt school administrative hierarchies,teachers, and students were slrejudiced-in regard to femalepresence and 'abilitied. If this conclusiOn is.correct,Baron's earlier point tfiat teacher preparatory ihstitutionsneed to be mole supportive of female par,ticipation in ourprofession is appropriate and*neids to be broadened to includethe public school system. ,In terms Of the factors actually

.

infiluencing femalechoice qf industr4pLarts, Baron idefttifiedthe traits of liking to work with bneNt hands and.with.childrenas the most important determinants. Testing indicated thatthese factors were the saMe for female practitioners as well

.'as college students.

Recruitment techniques involving radio and televisionannouncements were ranked most effeptive by Aagaard's sample;parents and relatives together:with faculty 'weremostinfluential in terms of.personal adyice. He. concluded thatthere was a relationshipobetween the quantity of recruitment'information and its relative influence. Accoidingly, he r.

recommended provision of more recruitment information toparents, guardians, and rellatives.

.HUMAN RESOURCE AND INDUSTRY. NEEDS

.Envick (197'e) surveyed plastic converters and processors in

order to identify both the criteria for.use in developingplastics education programs as well as th'e industry's.perceptioni of the importance of such an education. Thevariability of responses led to the conclusions that therelative importance of a process needs to be determined byprocessors specifically concerned with it as well as by the

overall industry. With respett to his second objective,Envick found that while reipondents indicated the importanceof industrial education courses, they attributed slightlyhigher values...4p general education courses. However, theindustry also pointid out the difficulty in finding "pre-train4.1"-employees and indicates.that plastics education weuldgenerate''substantially better employment opportunity.

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SUMMARY

In sharp contrast to other authors who merely exhort titeirreaders to become aware of industiial arts' contriburtionV tothe nation's human resouice pool,. Maley (1979) careftillydelineated the areas of contribution.. He systematically .

documented the Profession's contributions to citizenghiP,industry, leisure, and consumer skills. Particularlynoteworthy is.the presentation of evidence and rationale in*support of the 'claims..

Hopefully the next review and synthesis will show an increasedreCognition ,of thesi.mportance of the nation's human resourceand delivery eystem. Such evidance hopefully will be reflectedin an increasing number of studies Aevoted to examination ofindustrial arts' role as a component of this overall*system.As is obvioue.bV the shortness.of this section, few suchstudies exist now. Those that ao deal. largely with equityconcerns do so at a surface level. It may be that this is theresult of the relatively.gew emergence of these concernsor it may be that as a profession we are too inwardly focused.Perhaps we consider ourseives separate from contributionsto the nation's human resource deliveri? system. Certainly wefound little eVidence of systematic Aata analysis of the inflowof our graduates into society. Nor were industry's needscarefully charted. On an empiricalbasis, the needs of societyand industry were strangely'absent. ,It seems that somemethodologically supportable research is needed to 4:-cumentthe impact of industrial arts,in terms of our human resources.Ii would appeari too, that it is1time for studies that transcendthe intuitive, exhortation, and reasoning approach used inthe philosophically-oriented etudies. A move to a morefactually and/or demonstrable "end or the continuum seemsdesirable at this time.

Additional needed human resource itudies are those concerned withthe supply and demand.. In his initial treatmen,t of thissubject, Dyrenftith (1977) presented a useful longitddinalanalysis of eight,years of teacher education supply. Thepresent avowed shortage of industrial arts teachers wasforeshadowed by hii'observation that the portion of teachereducation represented by industrial arts declined from68 percent to 49 percent (of the.total industrial educationeffort). Still,..there are many facets.to be developed. Thedemand side of:.the equation seems paiti,cularly appropriatefor future research such as that provided by Smith. (1979) -andeairlier by Zook (1976). This report of the AIAA's Recruitment

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/CommiAteegdocui4nted industrial arts teacher supply:shortages,as avidenced by glapement,director and itate.industrial arts

supervisor impresSions.i. 19 states reported.cruril needs. An

earlier, but reiated.larticle, by Ohanneson (1975) providedcomparible information' regarding.the iden'tification,preparation, and deployment of career education teachers.

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EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS

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Numerous projects pertaining to the pTogrammatic aspects ofindustrial Arts were cited In the.literature. %They includeda set of documette related to speEial needs populations,status studies, and programs in.other countries.

4 SPECIAL NEEDS

While' earlier and,more def4nitive treatments of this,topiCare found in Buffer (1973), in bugger's (1977) summary of'the participation of special need students in industrial arts,

0 ) and Gallington (1970), Us have ikncludedaome relevant,specialneeds studies for purposes.of context. Zeyond the few listedin this section, other special needs documents will be foundthroughout this review as they relate to other areas.

41\ Industrial arts'actkivities for the educable mentally retardedwere investigated by Wentz (1969). He produced a guide ofsuggested junior high school activities, tools,'equ4ipment, anddiscussion to'pics. Additionally, during 1968-1969, hesurveyed 146 inpstrial arts and special education teachers todetermiile whether a difference existed in terms of the typesof programs that were being implemented. The ull hypothesiswas not able to be rejected on the strength of his data.

The similarity between practices employed by specialists ofdifferent backgrounds also.was identified by Baugrud (1968) ina 5tudy of industrial education for the visuAlly limited.Both.industrial education teachers and education specialIstsfor!the blind generapy concurred on the approaches thatcould'be used and those considered illost important in servingVisually impaired students... Beligrud conciuded that theprofessional preparation oe industrial education teachersis inadequate. in terms of special preparation for the educationof thft visually impaired. A .related study by Black (1970)-surveyed businesses and industrieS7in Ibwa regarding hiringgoodiccies related to the blind. As`Might be expected fromhis%use of self-reporting techniquee, favorable interpretatigos,resulted. Black concluded, however,tht this was only ',lipservice." Another finding with perhaps more-direct impllcationis7that, despite the fact that the majority of clientsindicated industrial arts programs gave them self-confidence,

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onehalf of the respondents 'stated thlit the primary'reasonfdr taking industrial arts was because it was reqVired.

Correctional education was another4 extension of industrialarts and one that seemed to have potvtial, according toNielson (1970). His survey of the California JuvenileDetention Program found that the therapeutic objectives'ofindustrial arts kere deemed most importint. Additiqnally,some of the.confuiicin Eeported in a preceding section dealing

' with industrial arts' obiectives resurfaced ih his findings.He reported that respondentsjfrom small correctional facilities

. tended to interpret industrial arts to be vocational in nature., urther evidence of the 'versatility of industrial arts in

serving students.with special needs mlay .be found i Shenck's-

et al. (1968) description of industrial arts' contributionto Upward Bound.

STATUS STUDIES: GENE/tAL

One version of status studies is represented by the ACIATE'sthree yearbook series by Thrower and Weber (197c, Lockette.11973), and Householder (1972a). The approach'in theéeyearbooks.is to commission a cadre of experienced leadereto prepare.a synthesis of practice and to envisicin thb future.

,The yearbooks constituted legitimate staus studies. They alsoqualify as research. Each addresses the relevant aspectsof the role of industrial arts, the learner at various lifestageA, desirable program characteristics and cbntent, andfaculty charactekistics and'c'epabilities.4 N

The establishment of a benchmark, such as the one provided bySchmitt and Pelley (1966) against which.to measure growth:1'change, progYess, and achievement, often is a given rationalefor status studies. At othe'r times, iuch studies serve to

',provide a background context and, ostenibly, a documentationfor the author's primary cause. Both pf these legitimatepurposes were addressed by Underhill.'s (1968) determinationof the status of and need for indu6trial arts instructionin the United States'Seventh Day Adventist schools. His

conclusion that an expansion of such industrial arts programs,was warramted was supported by findings that showed the.attitudes of,Seventh Day Adventist educators to be favorableto industrial arts and that tyhe enrolled students exhibitedan "average" interest in Industrial arts.

aPinelli and West*(1973) repbrted the findings of anothernational survey, one that focused on the status ofelementary school industrial arts. While they concludedthat it was difficult to speak to the 'expansiort, of such

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programs, they did identify commonalitoieg much as thedependence on federal funds, the corikinatiom Use of classroomtoachers ana industrial'arts specialilits, and th'e,preferencefor self-contained classrooms and lAboratories:

Both Bailey (1968) .and Leith (1973). conddcted more globalAtudies'than Underhill: 'The formei"s sUryeY,tof changes from1957 to 1967 in curriculum and organizatj,on of 'junior highschool instruction dilsclbsed that desp e teictershortages in some tZgions, art, hom econ6mics,and industrial..arts daintained their pl e7rrthe curriculum.

. The occupatibnal abpectscof this "place" served as the3iafodus for his 504state eurveY. While this 1971 to 1013projecA identified thirty-four states 44.th,course offeringsesignted as°cereer or occupational education, the majorityreporeed such of.ferings in less than,20 percent of the-schools. . The data4did not evidence the replacement of pre-existing .courses.with4the "new" offerings. Leith also preMented

. data detailing the status of teacher education, pilot programs,-fullding sourbes, and exaluation procduress Significantly,,he found that beepidei an increase in the overall incidenceof career education, the vast majority of schools used existingvehickes to pkovide such education. The most frequently.mentiongd were.agriculture, business education, home economics,amd, industrial arts. :An i.nsightful conclusidn was hisobgervation'of the needIfor-carefully coordinated effortamong all disciplines.

In-addressing the issue of "how well are we daina our job,"Walker (1977) interpreted the effects of declining schoolenrollments on industrial arts. perhapg ominously, he alertedteachers to impending faCulty evaluation systems and similarcauses of concern. Similarly, Wilkinson (1972) developeda procedure f r Aeicribin4 a large urban (philadelphia)system's indus ritl arts component for purposes of.monitoringprogram qualit . The trial application of the proeess resulted'in the conclusi..s.that improver:lents were needed in all areas:.the preparatiori an continuin§,professional de lopment of.teachers, the organization, and the content of the industrial,arts program, and the equipment and facilities employed.

Another facet of industrial arts was investigated by Mayfield(1970) in a survey pertaining to the educational corittibutions'of industrial, arts student clubs. His 1,011-member sAmple ofsOnsors, principals, and supervisors indicated that such clubactivities encouraged student interest and achievement andthat curriculum development resulted in better programs andimproved student.4teacher-administration7community relations.MoAt significantly, contributions to general edudation goalsal&o were identified by the respondents,,as was the somewhat

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surprising .yet .positive,,*- finding that administratorseihibited moxe favftable attitudas,than teachers andstudents suspected. ta

A national random sample of high'schools served as theinitial respondents for Jeneen's (1968 surimy of concurrent

' work education (CWE) far handicapped students. Mhile 44percent of-the:schools reported no ,11E, the remainder offeredCWE for handicapped, work study, reimburs'erd,CWE; and non-reimbursed CWE in order of increasing Zreqkiency:' Of particularsignificance is *Jenilen's recommendat4On that exploratoryCWE, industrial 'arts, and vocational.guidance.be assimilatedinto the stru.cture of vocational. edugatioa as essentialprevocationalservicea,for effective vocational education.Additionally, his'identification 6f California's'exploratory,general, and vocational CWE as a nationa/ model ane7ttssuggestion of an integrated diagnostic, prevocatiOmal,work experience, job placement, and f6llow-up programrepresent useful guidelinee for theefvture.

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Biewald)(1969) provided data pextaining to,the national

populatibp of students in technical dfiwingo His estimates,based on a.national saAtple, are thaetechnival drawinginvolved grades to the following extent: 10 percent, 'ninth grade; 23 percent, tan'th grade; 30 percent, eleventhgrade:, and 37 per.cent,twelfth graae. . Females. comprised

; only.2 PerCent of his population., 4

The preceding emphases are clearly in K-12 implementations_of industrial arts. Themreader should not fnfer that statusstudies pertaining to teacher education are.absent. While

the bulk of,themlare incorporate% intp the teacher educationsection of this.paper, some mention of such studies isappropriate here. The most comprehensive is by Chaplin !

(note both reports, ED 069 886, 1972 and ED 099 651, 1974)relatinq'to industrial arts teacher education programs.Incorporating the sanction of the 4.CIATE, ,NAITTE, and theIndtistrial Atte Division of the'AVA, Chaplin let the effort's

of a cammittee that painstakingly.detatled a picture'ofour profession's industrial arts.teacher education profilein terms of admfnistration and finance, faculty andassignmehts, degree patterns, departmental changes,articulation with other units, facilitfes and equipment,course offerings, and services available. Bakamis' (1970)status report of teacher educator professional and edonomiccharacteristics served as a uieful precursor to the preceding.

Related, but more unidimenssional in focus, teacher educationstatus studies were conducted by Coleman (1971) and Baker

(1970). The former identified the status of woo instruction

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.in industrial arta teacher education. The.látter focussed!..

on content related to automation and.cybernetics. 4'

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l'imally, this section on the status of our profpssion couldI:. not be comple.te without mention of the ACIATE's annual

yearbooks'. While thie series does not represent the\ typicalsuevey-genexatied status atl-pdy methodology, they

constitute an important Varallei.tio such approaches. In. .

them., the profeision's status is deicriped by the analYke'r,. .

conceptualizef, and dre.amer. These books represent a.-significant milepost.in the evolution orour professionand, as such, they qualify as status studies. Furthermore,the suppart of the McMnight Publishing Company in publishing'the'se volumes is evidence of the .health of our profession.Such sUpport deserves our genuine gratitude, particularly inteims of what ttie documents genekate. For the periodincluded in this review, the topics addressed by the siilesincluded: A Historical PerApect*ve of Industry (Luetkemeyer,1968): Industrial Technology Eaucation (Dean and Hauer, 1969) ,

Industrial Arts for Disadvantaged_youth (Ga.lin'gtbn,1970)94CoMponents of,Teaqher Education, fifely and Streighler, 1971),Industrial Arts for the Early Adolescent (Householde, 1972a),Industrial Arts in Senior Iligh .qchool (Lockette, 1973),Industrial AOs for,the Elementary School, (Throw4k and Weber,1974) , A Guide to the Planning of Industridl.Arts Facilities -

(Moonf, 19 , Future Alternatives for Industrial Arts (Smalley,1976)1: setency Based Industrial Arts Teaciler Education.(Brueckman and. Brooks, 1977), In.dustrial Arts in the OpenAccess Curriculum (Anderson, 1978) , and Industrial Education':Retrospect, Prospect (Martin, 1979).

Insofar as.the conditibn ofOthe profession is characterized .

by the ideas of its practitioners, one other series documentsour status, namblx, thei AIAA annual conferenCe proceedings.Available from the assockation (and in some from ERIC) ,

these.compilations depict a tota,1 vivv of 'the pr fession.(Note:t The volumes are listed in theireferences under thename oP6--he AIAA). Similarly, the American VocationalAssociation's conference proceedings.-for the brief /ieriodthat they were pUblished, represent an equally valuabledocumentatiOn of the- pUlse of t1 profession. The readeris directed to the Industrial Art Divirsion section ofthese proceedings. (Nii)te: The p oceeclings are listed inthe references under the name of the AVi

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STATUS STUDIES: STATE SPECIFIC

A host of disser4tions este lished ppollections of basic )

descriptive stttistics for i dividuat states. These include$:Pennsylvania (Kabafiji n, 1 9 and Dellinger, 1974), Tennessee(.Ephraim, 1969), Was ngion (Edmison, 1973), Iowa (Teig,1975) , Arkansas (Cru p, 1968), Idaho (Bird, 1973), Texas(Stuart, 1968; Richa a., 1970) , Hawaii (G ovei; ,1968), a d

Maryland (Wilson, 1940). Using a more comprehensive scope&Mamely, that of vocational education, the comptnion studies.,

6 of Milam (1968) 'and M-Neil (1968) also provided usefuldocumentation of the.profession's status in Alabama, Arkansts, .

Louisiana, Mississippi, Florida, and ,South Carolina. There

were mahy,similarities id ,the items surveyed. For example, ;

Grover, Kabakjian,.Edrison, Bird, Richards, and Wilson1

ldcluded content and objective queAtion areas. The last,

three rdsearchers htmed investigated those as well as/

teacher credentials and facility characteristics. Among

the aspects investigated were expense's incurred by'industrial

arts students and the amount offoccivational in4rmationreceived (Kabakjiin), inservice needs (Teig), ttachingmethods (Edmison and Kabakjian), and seate supervisorservices (Bird). A historical pecspective was presehted

by Stuart. ,

In'terms.of research methodology, these,studies broachedno ney frontiers. All employed conireptional questionnaireprocedures; some used juries. Perhaps the most innovativewas Edmison's use of the Q-Sort technique. While allsurveyed teachers, Bird and Richards also sampled principals.Edmison included teacher educators'and supenNisors/coordinators; Ephraim also included the latter group.

The findings from such widely dispersed surveysophowedremarkable similarities. Courses in general.shop, woods,drafting, and metals all were reported as being bhe mqst

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prevalent offertngs in reports by Kabakjian, Richards, Bird,and Edmison.. Two statistics provided additional indight:Bird reported 26 percent in woods; Grover repotied 53 percentin general Shop at the 7th grade level. Kabakjian'S randomsample indicated an incidence of 98 percent responding school'soffering Woods; 90 percent metals; and 71 percent drawing, Therewere-relatively few reports of industrial arts for the elementary cgrades (Bird); graphic arts, plastics, elec'tricity-electronics,and energy and power (Bird); energy and power were also found tobe offered infrequently (Kabakjiall). The latter observed that

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the size of schools positively affects the nuMber and breadthof technical offerin4s. It also is interesting to note thatEdmison'z comparison of practice to innovative ideas, whilenot a status study, clearly showed,that practitioner groupsrated the. more traditional industrial arts areas (woods, metals,dr:afting) pore highly than they did the store innovative aspectsof new curricular thrusts.

Enrollment in industrial arts is% of course, affectedby the0 availability Of opPortunity. 'If these are restricted, as in.

Ephraim's survey (in Tennessee)4 a large portion of secondarystudents will not be -sbl Ito take industrial arts. This is incontrast to the 70 perde t of Hawaii's schools which offerindustrial arts. Beyon availability, counselor guidance andteacher ibput also ofte4i affect enrpllment. However-, Crump'siinding directly contfadicted this'. This leaves iischool policy ,

"As a major determinant. Wilson's review of graph.ic.artsa programs in Maryland indicated that even in this active state,

there is an absence pf school requireatents that would have i..11students take industrial arts. At the time of his surirey (1969),Wilson found some industrial arts, requirement for junior high.%sChool boys; however, less than PO percent are required to:.do soin senior high sChoól. Bird's survey produced an essentiallyparallel finding.with enrollments of 88 percent male' and 12.percent female&

,In terms of instructional methodology, the studiei typicallyshowed our profession as relatively conservative. Dellingerreported the overhead projector as the most frequently'usedaudio-visual device, buterclassroom management by students,role-playing team projects, and diagrostic evaluation allmerited relatively little teacher interest, according to Edmison..Similarly, Kabakjian found mass and line production, film, andvideo techniques infrequently used. He also identified theindividual project as the most Commonly employec instructionalteChnique.

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Teracher credentials were a bright spot in all surveys thatfolcussed upon them. Grover, Kabakjian, Richards, Bird, andEphraim all reported qualified insluctors and such data as:94 percent holding baccalaureate.a §4 percent master's.degrees(Kabakjian), 50 Percent to 93.6 percent having work experience(Wilson adik Bird respectively), an average of 6.9 percent yearsteaching .experience (Bird) , an average of 35 (Bir(d), and only2 percent temporarily or provisionally certificated (Bird).Bird also noted the statistic that 51. Percent of the teacherssupplemented their income with second jobs.

Teachers reparted with consistency the inadequacy of their .

instructional facilities (Bird) and; with Wilson's respondents,

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0

such judgments were in the majority. Small wonder thatteachers felt administrator supibrt was vital for successfulprograiming (Richards) and that,they aalled for facilityimpro.vments necissacy to offertechnplogical7basj'dinstruction: Richards even advocatea the ,restructuring pf ./Texas' iadUstrial arts program to fefleot techiology./ ./ /

44

'In the light of such findings, ii is not sltprising that, A 1

(abakjian, Teig, Dphraim, Wilson, and Richarditall urgedvmater professional development, *loth preservice gild)inservice.Richards specified the need for more 'poWer technology,'electricity-electronics, research and'developme.nt, and graphicarts presence in the state's degree programs.

Minnesota's Industrial Arts-Industrial gducation tension led *to the state's Division of Vocational Téchnical1X4ucatioli/award of a grant to a private contrictor. Its purpose was ,

to identily opinions and Perceptions pertaining.to statesupervision, industrial arts funding, and certificatioh: t

,"reachersi'administrators, And teacher educators served asfthe sampled population. A large amount of descriptive datawas incorporated in the final report by MohrenWeiser'(1978),along with the folloWing conclusions; the image of industrialarts needed bolstering; priority areas for state i.ndeistrial

arts supervision activities included curriculum developmentand public ielations; ebachers.did not falior a work experVencelicense requirement; tee.chers supported master,,s programs'with greater technical emphasis; and equipment, curriculumand inservice funding were desired. -

ak

More specific in focus was Szekely's (1977) development of aprofile of New York C.qy's newly sex-integrated)junior highschool home economics and industial arts classes. Her datasubstantiated significant differences between student and'

teacher perception of coed classes, skills, and abilities,changing male and female roles, vocational anA leisureinterests, and teacher treatment. Not surprisingly, Szekelyfound tl;at teachers with such coed experiences Viewed the.laboratory program differently than those who had notexperienced it.

In contrast to szekely's analysis of a single city°b program,Collins' (1968) study Of industrial arts in the public secdhdaryschools of tht southern Appalachian region represented adifferent approach than the precedkpg city, state, and m,ational

perspectives. Conducteld.as part of an overall study of;these'schools, the investigaeion resulted in one of the\fewdescriptions of rural industrial arts..

.4 .

3 3 -

7'14

temzEga..

e

YOREIGN PROGRAMS4

0

Some foreigh studentsovho have studied in this.1ountry quite.

111;i3

)

naturally have foculptn Oipting what they have learnedto the needsndif their countries.' Together with itudentsfrom the United States, who are interested in internatipnalissues, a number of foreign students have conducted studie'swhich cionstitute a useful mirror foi.our profession.. Targetcountries have included Jordoh (A1-8ukhari, 1968), Taiwen(Chinese *Ministry of Education, 19694 Chang, 1974), Trinidadand Tabago,(Dyer, 1974)a Ecuador (Gildtan, 1969), Aouth Vietnam'(Long, 1974), Amexican Samoa (Thomas et al., 1973) , Japan j

(iaship, 1975), and East'Pakistan (Mohee, 1968).A .

v

Thmost prevalent objectives were the attempts to.develop a.'PrOram vduitable for implementation in*the targe,t country.,

:Chang did this for an industrial technical teacher educationpreparation in Taiwan. Y rhio did the.same for the industrialarts teacher education p ram at Tokyo''s Gakugei Univdisity.

, Dyer plannttd a junior h h and secondary 'school industrial. arts OurriCulum for Trinidad and Tabago. Mohee'Apabliished

I an overall industrial arts program foe East Pakistan/ These

-A***studies often provided insights"useful to the hosts as-well

.

.as t4e-guest3. Examples included Chang's form4atifoi-the ..:'

(

prediction,of teacher demand and Mohee's suggesied stagingo nus ar a cf idtrial.ts nd voa'tfonal education offerings in

t

, 0 ,

the-contexp of an overall, program;.

.

% .

. Essential features. of)thve "exportar progrAss includedCaang's catl far inaervice teacher ddixcation, Dyer's 'f .

i.. -identification of the imperative nature og vocational guidance

4as well as a dbmi3lementing vockitional education program, andMohee's emphasis ,ah y(a general education aspects of industrialarts. The latte al o are embodied an_Aer's demand for

,

careful .00rrela on between scienc *ana. dustrial arts.0 Additional redommendations paralle4 to Un ted States practice

is 'found in Mohee'S call for genera ifso laboratoriesand in Dyer's adaptation of IACP and is .bjective thap allstudente should experience industrial

,

The studies, by the Chinele Ministry ot Education and by Thomaset al. provided evaluativ descriptionsof for4ign projects.The former presented a major UNICEF and.UNESCG effart towardenhancing industrial arts and vocational guidance in, Taiwan.Thomas found a need for curriculumsdevelopment, follow-upstudies, community surveyf, scheduling changes, inserviceeducation, 'and support system improvements in industrial

0 :,- 34 -

.

A,

°so

C.

4

a

'4

,

arts aAd vocational eductionas pi4cti 4d in laiterican.;Stimoa."a

.

i. 4',z,

.

* ..

k.4

In 'witching now trom ,a4 export colitloois to anAlysihg oiWercountries' industrial arts-related proiramsf,. the.,chiauvinism ..

of "one wa "AtAonsideraticins become .appirent. ..For .ex#mple,Yoshio's .(1 0- review of JapariedeOnduetrial atts'predenteda parallel pr gram mot:leaf:one that obvioug1 67. eiciSts in asociety radically different from ours. AeVertheleas, manyof the perceived problems bea\a marked 'Similarity tf.thosefaced by indu"trial arts pracettioners in this couRtry.-Similarly, Eggleston's (1976) perspectives bn th* transformationof industrial arts in Britain provided equivalent ihRut fromthat country. The three otlier foreign studies were.fessdirectly related to industrial arts, but each.had implicationsfor foreign applications. .Eseeptially, all employed case,'study approaches. Al-Bukhari pursued a human resourcesperspective a4d.combined it wl.th a review of the relative.cost,effectiveness of Jordan'i alternative occupational educationdelivery eysiems: Gilman used a similar-methodolbgy to identifylinks between education and the larger economic and socialplanming issues of Ecuador. Long pursued these links forSouth Vietnam and presented historical documentation.q1vocational and technical education. Ad did Chang, Lon,gprojected educational demands. .Both Long and Al-Bukhariidentified the need for Careful coordination i:setweep industry

'and education. Lond echoed,Dyer's recogn4tion of the. -

importance .of vocational guidance. . 0

4

%0

0

.a

S.!

.140

The preceding three studies were provoCiltive.in that' eachfailed to address the crucial as ect of career developmentand prevocational'education, as ll as the more pervasiveone of technological,literacy. C mprehensive documentationof foreigh developmental approaches, such as GilmanIcompiled,

.seemed to neglect industrial arti and its contribution to the

foundations of industrial development. Ourcnation's comparativeeducation thrusts might lry well be able t6 assist ourprofession in developimg a strategy to combat thisshortsightedness.

C.

6. SUMMARY1,

'PerLps due to the decision to summaq.ze special needs programsas they pertained to other aspectk-"Of thit review, no.significant, overall system was oberved that would suggestthat the special needs research was comprehensive,in nature orsystematically pursued. In fact, the number of uch studies issurprisingly small compared to the amount of j rnal space it .

has occupied. The obvious morality, of the iasue seems soheavily loaded in favor of its careful tgeatment that it

P .

- 35 -

4

4.)

,e7

(.441

6.

't

'15

I

}

kap,

4

generally immoral for'it to have recei ved such lAtik,attention.Since.we do not ,cohsider ourselves to be experts ig sp,cial.needs education, it may,be that such experts would take,issuewith'these obitarvatiohs.

FStatus studiss presented 4rather curious contradIction. AF4zsab1e n4mber have'been onducted at tbe.state 'levels. They.

° typiaally have been done in a relatively.traditiona; surveytapproach ahd have been coriterned with'rather Iimitea descriptiveAtatistice. What is strangel'however, is t,hit, despite alltheir simikarities, there is little In the form'of an overallaggregation of these proje0s. 'It seems that'individualbuilding blocks exist, but%no one as yet has put the walltogether. PerhAis Schmt.tt and Palley,,s,research in 1966 (and,hence, putside the tipte eeope of this review) is the onlynátidnal perspective available. There is hot:43,in thit theUSOE has recovazed this need and hasr in fact, commissidneda natlonal study to develop a data base koi our profession.°It will be pertkpularly interesting to compare the finding'sofe this,study to the projedtions for 1980 that eere advancedby Mannion and (9,71). What is almost fnexculableC 4however, is that he existing data-gathering mechanipms haveapparently.allowed industrial arts information to "fall

. between the 'cracks:" More specifically, kt seems nconscioriablefor state,division of vocational education.to coll ct detailed

. program inlormation for the traditional service ar as and then--although industrial arts is:treated as a member of thevocational family -- not collect equim4lent data for industrialarts. It also appears that considerable practitionerresentment would be aroused if there were greater awarelhessof the fact that little of tha abundant data that principals, .superintendents, and teacheri supply to state departmenti isretrievable.

It also appears that there ate some status studies that-areuseful contributions.to the teacher. Specifically, it wouldseem that 4 careful analysis of industrial arts in statecareer education plans, in plans for the eiducation of thedisacWantaged and the-,handicapped, and as part- of various , k.

: state human resource plans'all Would be signficant. tEven moredhallenging would be a careful'analysis 4f industtial artsana its presence in state plans for vocational education.,iFor different reasonp, another difficult -- yet important --0C- .

study is for a review of the 'contribution and activities ofA.44*

state industrial arts associations,.and particu,Wly on,esfocussed on the effects -of industrial arts assoctilition kbaAVA relateAmericanin its memseems appr

activities; With the r4cent incorporation of thedustrial Arts Student Association and the increaseerehip, a status study of.student groups alsopriate. An urgent,need f4r a description of current

- 36 -4 ts,

0.

d'i

practice seemingly is llerl'for by the 'nation's increasag.attention to urbap ed pion. "This thrlst suggeate a

a

corresponding one in terms of iUraliireas% .

)1 .

, le. .

7..4 .

:.

'The contributions of the American Council.of Ipduserical'Aets .

Teacher Educators yearbooks to the documentation Of "theprofession'is views on educational programs cannot be overstated:.This contributitin,°which'can only be made possible by a joipt

. .

.. effort b tweenthe profession and the publighere.in t4is casethe M ght'Publishing 'Company, is.particularly signifiCant inthat autherdikmarshalled research effort in ways that are

c .

relak ly no tfadiiional iwour profession. The rpsultingdocumlin s ar .nob depprtment oriented or individual, oriOnted;they are truly ,prOfedgiopally oriented. Similarly, the .

contributions of AIAnd AVA conference proceedings should be.i- noted along with the fact that it is inconceivable that'the

latter havd been discontinued. ilifhep one considers the, magnitude of the person hours.and financial investment by.

.six to nine thousand professionals' in a coriferenice that.lasts for fourintensive days, ode cannot conceive.of anyreason for nptdocumepting the fruits ci,f thoge fabors.

C. N Certapily the AVA's Ydarbooks are a significant contribution;...9- however, they caanot begin to substitute for conference

prpcdeplings. The industrial arts seator of the vocationaleducation,profession needs to be cognizant of th:ls omissionand take 'steps toward rectifying this situation.

. . . ,.

Foreign studies were presented but only toa limited degree.Truly, comparative efforts are nonexist t. We would recommenda study of the roles of technological ltery in a varietyof societies, and in the ways educationai,prcigrams attempt todevelop this type of literacy knAheir you$1: Clearly, our

4 profession's evolution is beyond ?the stage'where we meidlywant to "exhort" what we.aredoing. The investment in humanresources.in countries such ag Japan, Great Britain, and WgstGermany certainly..,could provide useful insighti,'As couldreviews of such agencies as UNESCO,and the InternationalLabor Qeganization.

To conclude: "The'.current industrial artscukriculum Apes noteven mea4Are up to the program recommended by the professioqten to t4entyoyea,rs.ago"(16. 30). From the data revivewed in thissectioh, we would find it difficult to argue with thisguotatiZn. What is tremendously disquietingLis that the quoteis abstracted directly from Schmitt and Pelley's research --publiahed in 1966. Now, some thi2teen years later, we stillask wi\iran we riot take issue 1.44th such a concern.

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,4{.1

CURRICULUM. \\0

9.

.1;15.he development of industrial arts curriculum occupied the.

....

. attention of a substantial portion of researchers. Studies

\%

;Tanged rougCrigorous investigations to speculatiyea inquiries.', Their nature and number make accurate evaluation impossible

'a andcclassitd.ciNt4on almoit impossible. For operational purposes. Moe/ever, studips were assigned to one of the followingclassificabIonWAcomprdhensive efforts, curriculum processes

-:. atvd.anakysest.indrustry-education analyses, instructional unis,IACf, and evatUation of curiculum implementation effectiveness.

. ,.4 '4

COMPREHENSIVE EFFORTS.,

4 general foRus:has beew4provided in a number of studies. Forexample,. Wftte (.1974)1.studied c_urriculum developers to identifytheir location, involvement, problems, and needs. Householder's(1972b) review.and evaluaponsprindustrial arts cuciiculumefforts analyzed and cotpared4the innovative programVof the1960s. He Concluded that, despite a concern for improvement,there wail still no instance where an innovative progiamhas been%implemente4 across all grade levels.

,

HoUseholder also'devtV.oped A? updated review of the cuvridulubmovements of the 1960s it an ACIATE Yearbook (Martin, 1979).

. .

Ziegler did the same for the 1970s. Also relevant to theoverview is(t is tearbook'i treatment of deve).opment processesused by two i novative rnduatrial arts programs, the impactof technology,on industrial arts subject mattert.and industrial

, arts as a .discipline.'for studying the future. Another usefulOverview was provided by Wolaitsky arld,puVall's (1975)discussion of curriculum models and relevancp.

. .

, t

Some solations tto the lack of imPlementation, as identified byHouseholder, may be found in Mason (1971). Also..includedthere is A perceptive analysis of change related industrial .

Arts curriculum literature, an exposition of Cochran's (1970).and the AVA's (1970) classifications of innovative curricula.qte AVA'S earlier booklett(1968). on improving instruction in

t iztdutrial arts also was an attempt to advance apprdpriatepr ctice in industrial arts. Besides its useful treatmentoV ntent, it also bresented work'ible suggestions for facilitiesand valuat.is that will4suppOrt the desired curriculum.

4,.

.

3 8

-/nndvative approaclies.to industrial Itrts education insecondary schools weee studied by both Mongerson an4 Cochranin 1968. The former reported that desOite the apparentdiversity, methods, content, gnd organi'xation were similarin the programs studied. Cochran (1968)\examined the aspirationsof the devogopers of innovative curricula as contrastedwith Mongerson's focus on implementation. He utiwi.ized fattoranalysis techniques to compare contemporary progiims inan attempt to identify common elements, basi directions,,and contributions to the field. Cochran's la er publication(1970) served asia milestone comparative stud of.innovativeinduArial education programs. The AVA's bookl t on innovative'

,procirams in industrial arts (1970) provided simi ar and evenmore concise treatment.

a

-Maley's repeort (1969) on the Maryland Plan provide a useful'description af a process for establishing a coheren systemof'objectives, program, and outcomes. The relations ips,betweem theory and practice are brought to the fore; theresulting contrast to traditional approaches becomes 'obvious.Other innovative industrial arts prograps are described inthe AIAA's (1971 - 1973 d) Foeus.! Curriculum Projecte reprintof seven articles.

During this same 'time period, the implications advanced by .advocates of innovative programs frequently suggested.thedesirability of a uniform nationwide industrial arts curriculum.Carter's (1970) responses from 360 college industrial artschairpersons, state supervisors, and industrial arts teachersrevealed plat while considerable importance was attributedto curricular reform, the concept of a national curriculumdid not receive endorsement. However, the sample allowed thata "common core" of industrial arts learning experience shouldbe established., Essentially the same position Was reportedby Ande'rson (19470).

0 .

Relevance, an essential criterion for industrial artsc'urriculum development, was described by Martin (1973). Budke(1970) developed guidelines for vocational programs at thejunior high school level. Principals were selected froma review of the literature and validated by a jury. , Thirteenprogram areas were consj.dered to be important in the juniorhigh'school prevocational program. Such guidelines forcurriculum development also were the core of Burroughs' (1970)

study. He developed criteria for an adequate industrialarts program by reviewing'literature, research, and curriculumguides. These criteria were used in a survey to ascertain theappropriateness of industrial arts programs. Similarly,Bender (1976) represented the efforts of a core of NorthDakota's industrial arts leadership in systematically reviewing

- 3 9 - '1

dr

and- applyinv curriculum guidelihes. The result was a curriculumstructure aneguide for secondary school industrial'artsthat is effectiveay integrated with the state's indusErialartsomaster plan. Such articulation is, of course, mandatoryif genuine implementation is expected.: It also is importantthat the developed materials comprise a representativl facetOf thealarger national industrial artso context.

For these reasons, it seems fortunate that such state-wideefforts are increasing in frequency. New Jersey (Dyrenfurth,1978), North Dakota (Master PlanCommittee, 19.75), Texas(Pierson, 1974 a, c), Virginia (Virginia Industrial Arts.Education Service, 1977), Oregon (Tri-toun y Goal Development-Project, 1973 a, b, c), an Iowa'(Iowa Department of Public'Instruction, 1.975) are som states for which documentation isreadily available. As mig t be expected, these materialsrange.considerably in cont nt. In some, such 4a New Jersey,only the precursors to cur iculum action are described.An emphasis on the establi hment of a rationale is evidentin Pierson's (1974 a, b, c) and Iowa's-(Iowa Department ofPublic Ins'truction, 1975) , and Oregon's (Tri-County GoalDevelopment Project, 1973a) project descriptions. Recommendedcurriculum processes comprised a large portion of Pierson(1974c) and the Tri-County Goal DevelopMent Project (1973b).Key curricuiuin products resulting from.,these projects includes1a'detailed settof K-11 course goals'in industrial education(Tri-County Goal Defrelopment Project, 19730 and a set of clustercurricufum guideg's in North Dakota and /owa. The latter arediscussed in the seciion on instructional units. Riti andWright (197') reported on another state approach 'by providinguseful flow charts that depicted hoist to work with industrialarts guIdes once they are developed.

ith the relatively recent emergence of career education,Rauley's (1978) development of a model is not unexpected.° Whatid unusual is 'that it is the only one that 4ocdmented an approachwhereby denior high school students achievid career objectivesby means of an emphasis on the concepts of industry.incomprehensive industrial education program.

CURRICULUM PROCESSES

DeVore (1968) provided the profession with a pervasive.overviewof.-key curriculum development pr6pesses as well as significant.introduction to the implications pf discipline-based effort.

He also laid the foundation for the case of the technologyeducation thrust. Furthermore, he even evolved an implementationof his structural concepts and possible school application.

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Studies by Byle (1975) and Cremer (1970) gdheraied importantcurriculum process information. The fcqmer used and veriiiedan occupational analysis model to identify metfric measurementcompetencies for preservice and inservice graphic artsedpcation. Cremer, in addressing objectives rather than contentidentification, developed planning guides to ass,ist teachersih wri4ng behavioral objectives. His comparison of teachers,supported and not supported with these guides, indicated.thatthe use of guides consistently allbwed greater succesS'inwriting objectives to various levels of the cegnitive taxonomy.

Like Cremer, Dyrenfurth (1976) sought to evolve a system tofacilitate instructor'development of a comprehensive andarticulated set of objectives from very global program goalsto the extremely specific behavioral objectivei.used to guideeach learning episode. Contained in this AIAA presentationare examples and descriptions of procedures that allow classroom

. instructors to conveniently chart such a.continuum of objectives..

The recent emphasis upon criterion referenced instruction hasled to the publication of performance objective statementsfor industrial arts. In most instances, these statements ofperformance objectives have been developed' and field tested.However, many await systematic validation studies. Barrimgtonet al. (1970) recommended behavioral objectives fo'r elementaryindustrial arts programs. Goldsbury et al. proposed performanceobjectives with criterion measuresafor American Industriescourses (1975a, 1975b). Related publications presentedperformance objectives in woods (Bunch et al., 1972a) , metals(Bunch et al. 1972b) , graphic communications (*Duvall CountySchool Board, 1973) , and power and transportation (Goldsburyet al., 1975c).

The issue of competency-based content was addressed at a.two-day conference at the University of Wisconsin-:Stout.In the proceedings (Wright, 1973a) , Bensen referred a "paintby number" analogy as indicative of a major weakness ofcompetency based instruction, one can paint but ohly in 'a

compartmentalized fashion. The need for careful specificationis acknowledged. However, instructional implementation requiressignificant attention to humaneness of instruction as wellas to the integration of competencies into a whole. Bensenemphasized the need for an overall systems model so' thatboth instructors and students can establish accountabilityat all times.

A complete statewide plan for'tdeveloping competency-basedinstruction and a catalog of competencies, objectives, andcriteria was reported by Ritz and Joyner (1978) . Theyrecommended fifteen task area catalogs be developed for

.

Virginia. Another statewide effOrt was documented in theNorth DakOta, State board for Vocational Education's introduction '

to their Levell 1 Cuiciculum Guide (1977a). Although this guide .

waif not competency-based, it was designed to assist industrialarts teacheri to develop prdgrams consistent with overall staterationale.

The careful,analysis of purpose and peiformance.required todevelop behayioral objective statements can be a useful.research process in industrial arts education. At this writing,,.there is little significant body of knowledge which enablesa regbarcher to predict the probable attainment of behavioralobjectives. In altrelated'pracess inVestigation, computeranalysia of the body of know,Xedg& of industrial technOlogy warutilized in the curriculum development process by Rosser (1968).Computer assistance was utilized totformulate objectives,identify curriculum content and experience combinations, andmonitior continuity. Computer util4zation was found to be cost-and time-effective in the curricu,liim development process.Computer-based plknning (Paulter, 1972) in the form Of mahine-generated4research units, was another effective.,applicatign Of

contemporary technology.

Another application of systerds theory was reported by the

University of4Alberta's Departi . nt of Induiqrial and VocationalEducation (1,7l). The report outlined the results of anapplication of network methods.to curriculum organization.As a product these networks have the advantage of providing:a visual overview of a curriculuth as well as the sequences init. Mongerson'(1971) also illustrated the use of.,.networkapproaches) critical path methods we're described as a toolfor developing curriculum, . .The precursor to the.two previously-Cited studies may well. haVe 1:;een Yoho (1969),.'since hisSNAP Map application of his,systims analyses technique toindustrial arts .curriculum Aevelopment Clearly establishesprecedence in,the use of the technique.

Educational systems design provided a basis for the developmentof guidelines (O'Hara, 1972). The technique, designed for'afreshman course in engineering, was modified to develop aunit for beginning industrial arts students. . Based on aninitial study WAth junior high school students, the techniqueAppeared to be appropriate for the higher level of cognitivebehavior, i.e., analysis.; synthesis, and evaluation. Israel(1973) field-tested an organizational:pattern focused on ahierarthical task'drganization pattern. .While not definitive,the findings offered some substantiation for the system.

Working closely with a curriculum revisidn process, Wright(1976) identified the type of change agency situation: Boththe formal and the informal organizational structures were

4

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studied to idiniify the key,individuals in th'e Setting.Pierson (1974a, b, c) developed a'rationale fot selectinglearning activities in industrial tats 'on the basis of theindividual utilization of the competency. Roth philosophicalAnd psychological bases were identified in the curriculumderivation =del. Similarly, Aliman (1971) outlined somekey psychological principles in.curriculutpf design. Pierson(,,1914c) pointed out that thp link b4t4een*ICognitive andaffective aspec'ts of learning has been neglected by ttraditionalcurriculum development processes. The analysis of transLactions.procedure which he described is specifically desivned toderive a curriculum that is more humanistic', concrete, andinductive than those developed by others.

For:a more speciffc Subset of.industrial arts students, asimilar intent was pur.sued by Davis (1971)i. Industrial artsprograms for mentally retarded students were the subjectoffs survey in junior and senior high schools. . Davit reported

,on factors Consideradsimportant in selecting industrial artscourse content for mentally ratarded:.students and suggestedshbjects of'interest to them in this area.

SAcondary school students served as the sdbjects in a surveyby Hilton (1970), who identified which experiences in industri'alarts would b'e most significant for students. Whale hissampTe was.drawn from only one school, thi technique ofseeking student response ii ()lie whibh is long overdue inindustrial arts. If siMilar studies were conducted, it wouldbe possible to generalize d'n the student appeal of industrialarts courses.

Along these lines, Trocki (1977).attempted to develop a modeldescribing student adoption of an industtial arts .currictluminnovation. While the empirical nature of the studr willrequire interested researchers to peruse the complete.lAfork,it is impiortant to note that.Trocki identified relativeadvantage, compatibility, indtstrial arts grade point averages,total number of courses taken, and the level of 'innovativenessas iml5ortant factors -- first two for both groups with andwithout industrial arts enrollment experience and the lastthree for those with industrial arts enrollment experience.Subjects without industrial arts enrollment experiencealso indiCated the importance of utility, junior high schoolindustrial arts experi'ence, grade level, 'sex, and the levelaf innovativeness%

Content identification was the object of DeVore's report (1970).Additional insights into his perspectives are available in hisearlier article (1968). He posited the need for industrialarts to identify conten't through discipline-based structures

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and process. He also presented one research procedure thatcould accomPlish this. Sarapin (1978) presented a detailedmodel for.the formative evaluation'and revision of curriculummaterials. Curriculum evaluation also was the focus of 0

CarreX (1978) who assessed the extent te which.MississippiValley Industrial Teacher Education Conference members usedclusters .as an'organizer for their cuvicula. Considerably:less implementation was noted.

Before concluding, we must refer to Operation Resource asconducted by the Undergraduate Studies Committee of the gACIATE.,This fire contained abstracts of key industrial arts teachereducation curriculum development activi,ties. The 1977 ACIATEsupplement updated the 1976 volume. (See ERIC document, ED 126265).

INDUSTRY-EDUCATION ANALYSIS

One of the more popular techniques in industrial arts curriculumA research has been the survey of industrial representativep

in order to identify potenti'al content for industrial.artgin a specifiC.area. Existing industrial arts programs aresurveyed and the degree of correspondence between such programsand.recommendations from industry are analyzed. In manyways, the outcome is predictable, since industrial aftsnever has pretendtd to precede.industry in title deveLopmento'f technological processes. However, the studies are valuablein.that they identify contemporary industry related,Aontent.For example, Envick (1968) studied 'the equipment, materials,and' processes utilized in the plastics industry and comparedhis findings with those used in secondary schools. Suggestions

.14

Wer,e made to improve the low correspondence between the two.Fall P (1968) studied metal and woodworking utilization in

both manufacturing industries and in the junior high school-industrial 'arts program purporting to teach about thóseindustries. He noted that industrial representatives wereless interested in the development of skills than were the

teachers. However; the content of the courses seemedrel tively well selected in the opinion of indUs-trial.personneldirectors.

Quier (1969) , Boyd (1973) , and Calhoun (1973) studied someAspects of wood technology. Their findings were consistentin noting a discrepancy between the processes utilized inthe woodworking industry and those included in the programssurveyed. Similarly, Grannis (1970) reported substantialdiscrepancies between industrialiy recommended contentand programs in power mechanics. Hildebrand's study (1974 of

drafting led him to recommend that the educational irstitutions

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seek 'to duplicate industrial practices and provide.Oontmporarymaterials. Glogovsky (1970) reviewed the relationship betweencpntent i cpllegiate-level graphic arts programs as reportedby ttle ins ructore and the recommendations of representativesfrom the graphic arts industries'. Brown (1975) published amiati-summary of rele'arch studies in the communications arena.The programs were found to lag behind content in the industries.yhotogz'aphic technology was studied by Salvagin (1974)who found a substantial need for increased instruction insuch techniques at the se.condary and postsecondary levels. Asubst ntial disparity occurred between the recommendations ofthe iudustries and the educational practices. Industrialistsidentified content' they considered appropriate for manufacturingtechnology courAes in a.study by Brueckman (1969) . The collegeindgstrial arts educators surveyed were not in agreement amo411gtheitselves, reflecting the wide variability in instructional.practices. Specific suggestions were offered.tor appropriatetechniques in content selection'for manufacturings.ftecinologycourses.

. Kale and Schmidt presented equivalent goals in more narrowlyfocused projects. The status of microwave electronics'was thesubject of a study by Kale (1974). Manufacturers and. usercomibanies were consulted in an attempt to define curriculummaterial related to microwave communications. Schmidt (1971)identified thirteen high school programs in which experimentalaircraft had been constructed; ten of the programs were inoperation during 1969-100.

INSTRUCTIONAL. UNITS

.As might be expected, res.!arch efforts have provided variousinStructional units on a number of topics. Koonce's (1968)overview of state-prepared industrial arts 'resource materialsprovided a useful starting point for surveying the status ofexisting instructional units. He noted (1968 data) thatover 50 percent of the states plInned to publish or revisesuch materials, that states typially recommend that teachersadapt state materials (contrasted to direct and stringentadoption) , that the majority of teachers develop their own 1

materials, that over 90 percent of. the teachers reportedstate developed materials were inappropriate for directadoption, that over 50 Percent of the teachers wanteddescriptions of available state kervices, and that theperceived value of the state materials is greater for expelliencedrathet thark begin teachers.

\

\

state developed matelials also were studied by Johnson (1968).He compared the content of these materials to that expressed

by the judimentS of key readers. in the field.. Johnsonrecommended that more detail be 'Included in such documents.He alio provided nipeteen recommendations to'assist tevelopersin future effort!. Should readers.wish a .partial compilationof instructionak materials in industrial arts, A two-yearbibliography (1967-1969) of AIM Citatrons was compiled byEshelby (1970), A similar list was published by the'Centerfor Vocational and-Technical Educatibn (100'. Furtherupdating and continuation of sucii efforti would serve theprofession wefl. 1

Elementary school industrial arts implereentations weredevribed in the AIAA's (1971-1973e) Focus on ElementarD\SchootIndustrial Arts. The contents included descriptions of fa\ve

approaches to K-6 industrial arts progiams: Project LOOM,Learning Experiences in Techno-Togy, ABLE.Model Program, aTechnological Expj.oratorium, and the World of Work. Thenext'educational tier's industrial arts program was outlinedin the ACIAS' (W1) pamphlet, "Industrial Arts in the MiddleSchool," i.4-111.,ch contained'a cursory overView of thi's level's '

curriculum and objectives, philosophy, plant re,quirements,

and teacher preparation'aemands.. .

An initial overview of the state-of-the-art in materials andprocesses was provided by Andrews (1978) . Metal finiShing,metrics, and the wo19.d of work were the units developedby Singletary (3,96801-, Byle (1975) , and Podell (1973) ,respectively. Besides the analysis and descrip'tion of metalfinishing technology produced by Singletary, Andrews presentedthe results of a national survey of the incidence of suchexperiences in baccalaureate industrial education programs.The results indicated a weak exposure ,tg tilis curricular '

area. With respect to the occupational function of industrialarts, Podell assumed a similar lack of strong,exposure.AccordiAgly, he historically documerited the changing natureo4 work, and subsequently, develOped a study guide. The guidesought to support the potential of industrral arts in contributingto student infbrmation on the changing na'ture of work, activities,and occupations. Blankenbaker and Miller's (1970),annotatedbibliography related the interpretation of industry and provided.additional information in Podell's' area. Byle's unit on metricmeasurement competencies alsc was initiated on an assumption ofneed.' His graphic arts specific package involved instructiondifferentiated by target occupation in a way that focused the

most intensive treatment on pressmen and the least training forcopy preparers and strippers.

The major nationwidemetrification project headed by Feiror alsoproduced curriculum products (Feirer, 1976a, b, c)systematically treated both curriculum and implementation aspect:3

(DI. metrification. It included re:iourco lil;ts, transparencyoriginals and inservice guides.

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4.

4.

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A numbei/of investigators identified content from 'industpialfields and use it to develop curriculum. qraham (1971)investigated foundry industry practices in basic metal casting .

, and recommended the invlusion of a number of experiences* inexploratory, introductory, and advanced industrial arts.4urses.. Design was the focus of a study, by Froknei (1968). anAIsom W70);tboth made specific.rpcommendations for additionalinstruction. Micklustes (1978) ,teacher and student manualson industrial design in education provided a codprehensivevehicle by which the earlier recommendationk for increaseddesign emphasist can be implemented.

An overall,picture of energli. "lt4rnatives and the Tole ofindustrial arts wap..published y Owens and Pinelli (1977). A

very substantial rationale for industzial arts teaCher educationin enrgy and power was develoi!ed by White 1979). Mocip .

specific'than these was Bender's (1973) vi w of alteriiativeenergy systems which might be used for, utomotive-propulsion.These systems eerved as-a basis for, a knowledge stru.cture

.

in trahsportation technology. Energy ¶nd power has beenstudied by Texas A & M Universitt (197 ) and CakTlhan (1978).The latter provided a.complete power tecTrolog.y curriculum'guide along with recommended objectives, texts, lectures,

/ demonstrations, and laboratory experiences. The Texas,

.. project provided sets of tppics, tests, and activities forexploring conventional and,alternative energy sources, ,

production,land conservation. Iowa's statewide efforts°also resulte4 in a handbook *(Bro, 1978a) for introductory,r,,,level energy and p"ower classes and one for graphiccommunications'(Beo, 1976b). Graphic communication technolowas rev,iewed by Gysler (1971). A theoretical framework ofconcePts of managemerit, production, and personnel servedas a guide in'developing a program in this technology. A

similarly.focused curriculum geide was delieloped in North ,

Dakota'as part of a statewide effort. The comprehensive -

guide (,North Dak9ta-4,tate Board for Vocational Education,'1977b) includel a ratWonale,.content objectives, activities,and.appropriate resources.

/p

A resource guide in aerospace 6ducation was developed byPackard and Haggett (1968) which included an outline for thepres6ntation of aerospace materials in'the industrial artsprogram. An industrial,pilot mechanics study was developed.by Woodward and Meyers (1970) in which forty units Were .

,

included. CharleswOrth_(14968) reviewed the literature,considered human factors,. explored the' specific causes of/accidents, and subsequently built the case'for a prograp;in safety education in industrial arts. It is surprisingth`a.t more safety.instructional programs did not surface.

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A source btok for teaching material science in,t high edloolwas 'devialo ed by.Keplan (1970). The unifying theme heldthat the stricture and cOmpositim of materials determinetheir propertfes and behaviors. Field testing,of thisunit was donaucted in order/to improve tbo dratt. The final,,outcome, a source book,..is recOmmended for students who havecompleted basic sci,ence courses. I

1.

Dunn (1977) developed a similar mattocial scien.ce unit on thq \-

properties of clay and it/ applications. A..ustetql, bibliographyvovering resources for librarians 'to tixpand thele ollections

d

in the technological scope'of indistrial arts was t reParedby the New York State Education Department (1970), Thistechnoloiy-based perspectisie iS exemplified irphe followingStudies. An analytical study V'y.Ritx, Wright., and Trocki (1976)reviewed technology and identiiied four major subclassjfications:'natural, physical, psychic, and social. The physicaltechnologies ware recommended for inclusion in industrialarts programs. The Canadian Industri41 Arts Program,descrkbed by the Alberta DePartment of Education' (1979),prPvidedlbackground for the development of,a,broad,technologically-based general education program. In additionto ctirriculum developmeht, the.study alsci.outlined special

y induitrial arts programs and-illustrated laborator larining

and equipment selection. Detailed insight into the.t. nkingpf the.initiator of this program was detailed by Zid1 ,(1921).

, .

.

d a .

Studies by Larson and Krueger (1978) , Gilbert.et al. (1978) , and

Bender i1977) presented comprehensive approaches to curriculum1

reforM. Gilbert used a four-column format .to outlirie content,critteria, instructional resources and the like for industiialartszecourses in general industrial arts, manufa,cturing atdConstruction, *graphic communications, anil powe.r, and energy.

, Bender *reported on North Dakota's_clusteB-based project torove teaching in the following clusters: industry4and*

tJchnology, graphic communications; man.ufacturing; construction*,

.and enebrgy and power. In cclAtrast to_tzhe preceding *cluster-

based approach,'Larson and Krueger itemIzed industrial artscompetencies in the specific.areas of auto mechanics,electronics,.metals, resideAtial planning, techn,ical drawing,

woods, apd graphic arts. Same (1973) identified several '

conbept groups. Technology and environment represented twomajor areas; the interface between them was the focal pointqf his sfudy. A list of.eighty7one concepts was consideredta be important by a jury of, teacher educators. However,

they felt that these concepts rareived little emphasis inongoing industrial programs.

Instructional materials dealing with the manufacturing industrywere'reviewed by Nelson and Selvidge (1972) . The project

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,14.

was intended to assist cuxricglum elopers in:incorporatingc4

.,t

concepts from industrial technology to industrial artt,courses. Major components of the model werejotructure ofenterprise, managemeni,.researkeh and development, pio4uction,Marketing, finance and control, personnel administrationmAxternal relations, and secretarial lnd legal ,unctioni.

Manufacturing akso was the scope of a curriculum guide pieparedby the North Dakota curriculum effort previouely described.The uide (North Dakota State Board for Vocational Educatt.on,1977 is one of six pluster-based guides. It contained. a ,.

ratioha !olusteyr content and objectives, dn,i,ts on .

manufa,c. 11.1g1 kfistructional activities, projects, and abibliogra hy of resoueces, films, and equipment. a

; *

4 .

, A*

. . A mere speCific aspect of manufacturing was investigeted by4) irtrkson (1969) yho studied the peed of the industriga17'manufacturing oPerative for, specific categories of industrial/knowledge..)A modified Q-sort was used to ask operatives,anagers,,,and industrial arts teacher educators\to egtimatehe re/ative importance of personnel, managementl production,a d.industrial practices. A substantial area of agreementoCcurred. However, differences occurred between groups asthey described the importance of specific knowledge.

Another.extension of manufacturing was otpiled by Umstattd'(1979). His article presented a produc Aervicing curriculum'srationale and structure. Enwisioned as a high school sequel tothe 1ACP's World.of Man9facturing, this curriculum model stillneeds to be developed to a stage of implementation. Curriculumguides in career education fiequently have Included industrialarts. Missouri's. Depatment of Education and the Mid-HudsonCareer Development and 'Information Center both includedindustrial arts for early adolescents. The elementaryindustrial arts curriculum guide developed by Barrington andothers (197,0) provided an outline and suggested projects inseveral areas. Heasley (1975) rtported on the effectivenessof a'program in t..he elementary school. The technological-based activities in conjunction with other programs resulted insulostantially higher achievement, increased creativity, andimproved "affective" scores.

Guidelines and principles for the development of industrialarts prowams for visually handicapped adolescents werepresented by the American Foundation for'the Blind (1968) in alist which emphasized 'practicality, usefulnesS and concretevocational opportunities. Williams and others (1976) alsodeveloped a guide outlining-industrial arts a7tivities forchildren with emotional prcAlems.

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The compilatiOn of resources assembled by Anderson et al. (:1969)

is supportive of special needs ,efforts, in this case, forthe culturally disadvantaged and the exceptional. Thishighly :selected resource book included positively evaluateditems that,P9rtaine4 to Industrial arts and motor learningas well as T.ther 'school subjects.

The development and field-testing of units has occupied many -

industrial arts reselavhers. Abitia tested a self-instructionalsystem in industrial design methodology,(1971). A programmed '

unit on construction Occupations was tested by Tripp (1974).She found the unit to be effective in a field test with 120secondary school students. Naroff (1971) prepared a 'unitproviding occupational information on metal-working careers.The unit, field tested with 9th and 10th grade students,worked satisfactorily, though sortie concern was expressed for its

format. Instructional units in electronics were developedby Igram (1971), Brown (1971) , and Maness (1969). A graphicarts resource unit was developed by Banzhaf (1972). Wolansky(1968) identified technical content and developed an outline (

for fluid power instruction in industrial educationoteacherpreparation. Wallis (1969) performed a detailed Analysisof tolerances and decreloped a uriit'of potational and formtolerancing for drafting courses. Environmental conceptswere tested bye Cauley (1 1),; a set of concepts was validatedby a panel of teacher educ tors.

THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS CURRICULUM PROJECT (IACP)

,

, of the Industrial Arts Curriculum Project. This is one of th,41,few innovative efforts to have reached enough students in

a variety of settings to 'permit substantial research. The -

program was found to be generally effective ,(Poneiac city SchoolDistrict,.1971) in terms of cognitive content mastery. lqystudents.' Students expressed positive reactions to the Worldof Manufacturinr portion. Most felt it would assist themin understanding the world of manufacturing. However, theywere less than enthAiastic about the more abstract concepts .in the program. In a comparison study, Fazzini (1970)explored the effects of IACP's manufa turing program onstudent attitude. Somewhat surprisin ly, the conventionallytreated students reported more positii4 .attitudesc, towardsbanufacturing, automatiOn, and production than those wi.thIACP experience.

.

Substantial research has been conducted on the effectiveness

The possibility that the project might contribute tooccupational selection was invesgated by West. skghthgrade students exhibited tendencies toward clarifying.their

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occupational selection was investigated by West. Eighthgrade students exhibited tenden*ies 'toward clarifyinte.theiroccupational interests and 'towird selIcting work actiyitiesrelated to thej.r occupational choices, though these tendencieadid not attain statistical significance at the .05 level (liest,1.969)'. A followw-up oh the original population of highssdhoolseniors indicated that 14 of the 86 responses retained theirchoices, 54 bitlicatea°that they were still considering oneof their top three choices (West, 197,6). Such a longitudinalstudy is notfworthy. While the results Ray pot have attainedthe desired impietls.they are w rkthwhile in thit:West'iwork can serve as a model for ther researchers.

J.

Since.the project utilized a, body ems( which were unusualin industrial arts at the time, Mason inVestigated themeaning of those terms utilized by pe'rsOnnél in managementin manufacturing *rms.(1969). Most of the malot termswere considered vdlid on.the basis of,the returhs. Specificsuggestiohs were Tnade for modifying five terms in thecurriculum.

Attainment of cognitive knowledge has been of interest'toresearcher Miller (1971) Who studied the performance ofstudert from the IACP Field Evaluation'Conters in comparisonto stuae ts enrolled in a conventional-junior high schoolindustr al arts program. He concleded that stddents receivingIACP instructlion performed as well, as those receivingconventidnal programs when the cognitive content dealt withconvehtional industrial arts subject matter. When ghetests relaied to the IACP program students scored siynificantlyhigher than those from the conventional,program. Attitudeswere not found to differ significantO.y between the two groups.e....Students enrolled only in the World of Construction.portionscored significlantly'.higher on a capital constructionindustry, interèst, and inventory than did traditional \

students (Brpwder, 1972). The performance of thes two groupsbn an AchieVement test desiglied to evaluate-mastery f

World of 6onstruction did not show a significant,dif erence.Duvger (1970) and Dugger and Buffer (1972) reported n a comparison

4-....4etween conventional instruction and project instruction inthe World of Construction, using seventh grade students.students completing the portion'performed significantiv betterthan conventional students on the World of Constructioncomprehensive examination. However, the mean scores on thegeneral industrial arts test did not differ significantly.Kuwik (1970) conducted a quasi-experimental study io determineif the sequencing of two design experiencep -- in constructionfollowed by manufacturing -- had an additive effect comparedto jutt one experience. Although some methodological concerns,surfaced, Kuwik felt that the findings.indicated a measurably

a

.s.,

4,1

additive effect..

4

liattson' develOpedian instrument which attempted to assess. learning in both traditional and innovative curriculums

(1974). ffhe instruments were used to rissess cognitivkack4vement ofindustrial arts o jectives and studentAattitudes towalt courses. StUde ts from World of Construction

fpand World of Manufacturing coueses and those from traditionalcourses 'were .preeested. They then received one year of therespective prqgram and subsequently were administered.theposttest3 The findings indicated that IACP students achieveapproximately the same progress*toward, obSectives of industrialarys but made additional gains in objectiwes specific to IACP.Preeference for the industrial arts Course0 indicated studentsvalued the World of Construction more highly than traditional.industrial arts courses which.they in turn valued morehighly than the World of anufactiaring course. Anothercomparative study (Schum, 1973) sought to identify differential

.teffects on industrial arts achievement and on the critical*thinking ability of studEnts. Whl.le both IACP and conventionalindustrial arts 'student groups demonstrated equivalentachievement in industrial arts knowledge, the conventionallytaught group developed greater critical thinkinvability.

'These researchers ate to be commended for focusing on.thedevelopment of knowlbdge regarding the effectiveness of thisapproach. In particuftr, synthesizing studies (e.g., Buffep)set al., 1971) represented a:valuable building block for the''profession. While the findings have not always been consistentor favorable for the innovative program, they encouragedsubsequent researcher.s to validate curriculum develOpments.Optimism is justified when note is taken of the "spin-offs"on the initial experience. Umstattd's .(1976) overview of theManufacturing Education Curriculum project is one of these.Clearly the impact of the IACP is present in how it affectedits students as well as the impetus for change it.p-rovided.The profession owes these researchers a debt of gratitude.

EVALUATION OF CURRZCULUMIMPLEME1TATION EFFECTIVENESS

Teacher -attitudes towards participation in innovative prOgramswere se diaa by Renkdn (1974) . Althoug nehrly half his,

sample ad fewer than five years of exp ,i4nce, most desired .

inserv ce courses in the new curricula p'Lrior to implementation.Nevert eless, the majority were intereAsted in changing theirexisting pro$pragt H9wever, lack of money, facilities, equipment,and time were listed as. barriersi The objective, "Understanding

/ of Industry," has been adv9eated as one of the purposes of

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industrial arts. Spencer (1969) developed a test cOveringth% body of knowledge implied by this objective and administeredit to senior high school students. Higher scores were attainedby those who completed industrial arts courses han by thosewho did not. General shop and unit she') courses were equallyeffective inostering an understanding of industry, although'it was helpful if the teacher,considered that objective'important..

An assessment of the acceptance of innovation was conducted.by Edmison'(1973), who used an instrument developed byCochran (1968.). Edmison found that his random sample ofsecondary school tetchers were less accepting of Q-sortitems which reflect Rew empliases than were the innovators.Similarly, tbe random sample reflected traditional elements ,

in their choices. However, both groups suggested includingboth seys in the courses, individu41izing instr#ction, andfocusing on the impact of industry.

4

Starr (1973) studied eighth grade students in the. Occupation.Versatility project', in terms of their performance in problemsolving. .Improved performance in this dimension wis attributedtooparticipation in the project classes. Another comprehensiveapproach that has many concepts in commbn.with the OtcupationalVersatility Project was the Utah model for"industrial arts.Evaluation of it was conducted by the AIAA. The final report(AIAA, 1978) cOmplimented the project by indicating that itspecifically targeted on "grass roots" needs, enjoyed highstudent enthusiasm, and generated increased awareness of therelationship between prokftct activities and the specificindustrial occupation underNsVudy. However, evaluatorscited methodological problems as well as Severe de-emphasis ofindustrial art's technological 1J,teracy goal (in favor ofcareer edutation imperatives) as key weaknesses.

Much evaluation research has focused on the impact of the IACPand its adoption. This project was developed from a research-oriented basecand it collected much data. While many of the

,reports are reeiewed in the section on IACP, one is citedhere. An attempt was maae to consider school organizationalfactors and teacher professionalism in a'study of adoptionof the IACP (Caron, 1975) . Considerable difficulty wasexperienced in obtaining accurate measurements of the relevantfactors in this pioneering study. While the availablesample was restricted in its characteristics and the difficultiesof measuring variables were apparent, the study producedprovocative findings. Caron concluded that innovation, definedas participation in the field testing and adoption of IACPprograms, was more likely to be implemented in schoolshaving stable organizational structures and staffing patterns.

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Teachers of the implefented programs, however, were notconsidered to be more professional than teachers who were

'tanoli innovators. Caron(noted the need fq,r standardized measuresand terminology.

Using a semantic diffeiential Scare, Smith (1974) conducteda unique assessment of attitude change of elementiary school .teachers as an effect of their participation .in the

implementation of career .education units in kesa, Arizona.Career education, industrial arts, and vocational educationconcept meanings were measured'using a stratified randomsample of 100 control and 100 experimental teachers. Smithreported positive changes for industrial arts accompaniedparticipation in the implementation. Additionally, he found that

444A

industrial arts was viewed more positively by males and byintermediate grade teachers, rather than primary grade teachers.

SUMMARY

It appears that the applied nature of industrial arts hascome to the Tore in terms of the tremendously diverse andrich field of curriculum research. Obviously, much significantresearch is being conducted relating to instructional unitsthat Anterpret various aspects of the industrikl-tèchnological'World. There is no shortage of ideas. It seems clear thatsuch problems as exist do not do so in terms of conceptualizingunits but rather in implementing them. Despite this relativestrength, there is a clear area of weakness, Aamely, the seniorhigh school curriculum. This area probably represents purgreatest challenge.in terms of developing curriculum thatcogently distinguishes it from.vocational education and yetthat provides for Advanced study in industrialaarts. For

some reason, thefiombers who practice our profession do notseem.to be Content with a notion of breadth as the measureof advanced knowledge or program quality. .

The existance of a large number of instructional units alsosuggests a.possible difficulty, specifically.aCcessing andidentifying units on topics of relevance to a person4sparticular needs. Clearly, an improved disseminatiorOmethodis needed and/or the existing vocational curriculum mechaulismsneed to be given a clear mandate by'their leaders in orderto serve industrial arts in a systematic way and to informpractitioners of the services that are provided. Another arenawhere the vocational community can assist is that of fiefUtesting. In this review, this aspect of curriculum developmentis less evident, particularly in terms of controlled aspects,

than might be desirable. It, therefore, seems clear thatwhat is needed are some very rigorous implementations of the

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developed curricula ;Ind the careful evaluation of.theirimplicatioe and 'effectiveness. ,

I

Considerable competency-based instructional efforts were.eVidenced in the research, largely at ,the teacher educationlevel. ,

Tbis direction, in connection with significant attentionto the establishment of systematiccurr.iculum process, isdeemed'Most desirable by'the reviewer. Competency-basedinstruction at the K-12 level was not evidenced anywhere nearthe degree that teacher education was, but it appeared thatmany of'the careful delineations of objectives have movedthe field in that direction. Perhaps more than any otherproject, the IACP was an.example of a systematic effortillustrating some of the best professional practices. .'

Certainly the individuals involved with the IACP disseminationand field testing deserve the gratitude of Our profession.,Even if individual persuasions wuill.not allow acceptance ofsome of the basic premiseas'that are. essential to the project,one must recognize the contributions made by the process.

' One of the very attractive results uncovered in this review .

is the significant increase in leadership and developmentefforts exerted by the industrial arts constituency as

.

compared to its teacher education effort. Such siatewideefforts are important in that they draw the profession togetherat the unit- of practice that makes most sense in terms of. ,

rganizational structure. Systematic efforts are commendableb cause they typically focused on the estäblishmen"t of arationale and detailing of individual conponents necessary

A, to implement it. However, they suffer from the same weakness

that other cuiriculum development activities suffer, that is,

there appears to be considerable attention paid to curriculumdevelopment but less to the use of the developed unitse It seemsthat the local.imperatives of control are just too strongto encourage large scale adoption. Of courte, the other issuethat is clear -- particularly in terms of curriculum -- is thatdespite the fact that the leaders at the cutting edge wouldhave curriculum efforts move in certain directions, it seemsobvious that there remains a significantly large portion ofthose who do not agree with the leaders. For reasons oftheir own -- inertia, commitment to other ideals, or whatever --these professionals are not involved in an effort to implefient

new curriculum efforts. Since the disparity between leadershipopinion and general public opinion is at least equally great,this suggests that considerable effort should go into newcurriculum and develoPmentactivities that incorporate

N "Dublic awareness and sensitivity to the primary objectivesbf industrial arts as part of the development proces's. This is

compared to public awareness activities that are tacked ononly after a curiiculum is assembled!

LEARNING PROCESS ,VARIABLES

The study of variables affecting the learning process is ofcentral interest to industrial arts researchers. Whilerelatively little ,basic research was expected.in industriaairts, studies incfUded ih this section investigated theapplication of basic pedagogical and psychological'principles .

as well,as the derivation and validation of such condepts.

PROBLEM SOLVING

Rasmussen (1973) studied the operations of subjects who worked .

on solutions to mechanical insight problems.. Tape recordingsof their verbalizations and direct observational data wereanalyaed to 'identify characteelitic thinking patterns.Organization schemes did not appear to be primary, butpersistence and associational flexibility were useful incomposing solutions comprised of combinations of set elements.A procedural plan was developed for a systemiqtic analysisof indiv4dual problem solving. behaviors.

+

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Weiseman (1969) tested the effectiveness of a training unitdesigned to increase the ability of undergraduate industrialeducation students to identify malfunctioni in rotatingequipment. The one-half hour training session was foundto be effective in improving the performance of theexperimental group. In addition, the group showed significantlyimproved ability'to diagnose faulty machine conditions+in

'a tiansfer task. Weiieman concluded that vibrotactileperformance in machine diagnosis was amenable to training.

Starr (1973) also investigated problem solving. In termsof the, effects of an innovative industrial arts program,occupational versatility and problem solving performance andbeliefs were enhanced by such participation. A significantrelationship was reported between student class performanceand problem solving belief& for treatment and control groups:

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS

Ziegler (1975) attempted to'validate Bloom's Taxonomy ofEducationaL Objectives (1956) with regard to applicationsin an introductory industrial arts electricity course.

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Behavioral'objectives were developed a't each of the six .

taxonomic levelsfor the course. Student's were asked todiscriminate between the objActives in a pair-wise manner.While it was possible to identify an application-theorycontinuum and an operational-comRutational continuum by multi-flimensional 'scalinganalysis., the analysis tid not supportthe basic taxonometfic model with its hierainhial structure.

100tit (1968) studied the effect of prior knowledge of educationalobjectives and practice conditions on immedi'ate leapling. Hofound that'prior 'knowledge of educational objectives, beforea unit was studied, resulted in more efficient student learning.Provision of the actual objects for practice in a kaboraiorysetting, as compared to a written description of the obiects,did not yield a significantly higher learning effect. If .

this study could be replicated with similar findings utilizingpublic school students, it would cast some doubt upon a numberof principles long espoused by industrial arts educatori.Actual objects always.have been considered necessary foreffective learner programs. Because such an identical elementapproach is futile for industrial arts to attempt, Doty'sfindings could be very significant -= particularly if it

becomespossible to identify conditions under which the actual

object is especially helpful.

SPEC;AL NEEDS ASPECTS

The relationshiT of special needs ancA learning process variableshas been treated in a variety of ways ranging iron generalarticles to.specific experimental studies. Sullivan's (1978)article on who the special needs students are and how specialeducation and industrial teacher education can help them isan example of the former. Wargo (1977) addressed this task

in developing an outline for preservice practicums and inserviceworkshops .designed to aid industrial arts instructors in working

with handicapped students.

Miller t(l977) and Buffer and Miller (1978) reported an example

of the latter categoryin wainvestigation of the. effects ofindustrial arts on mentally retarded students' achievementand retention of linear metric met!urement concepts. Usingindustrial arts activities as the treatment and a workbookas an alternative method, this four-group pretest/posttest/control group design failed to support the superiority ofindustrial art,; over workshop methods.

In a study of the variables affecting the acquisition and

tot.,,ntion ut a psychomotor task, Gaulden (1.1731 found that

c.tucablt! ment.illy retarded children with high perceptual ability

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1

performed the task more efficiently than students whoseperceptual abilities were'idwer. However, variations ininformational feedback did not result in differential performanceon the psychomotor task. In a study on the use of woodworkinghandtools, Olson (1969) suggested that educable mentallyretarded students could benefit from woodworking instructionwhen using carefully-seleCied tools. He recommended shortdemonstrations and the integration of informationalpresentations with other experiences.

Drebnan (1970) also Lought to determiA the impact of industrialeducation on mentally, retarded individuals. He found thatmunaelors were anxious for educable mentally retarded studentsto enrcill in industrial education classes. He albo foundthat stuaents who had been enrolled in the classes receivedhigher ratings by employers. Hep therefore, conzludedthat it.n industrial educatn background would be beneficialto students who would be working in close relationship withother pevple or in positions mere safety precautions neededspecial emphasis.

some of the specifice of industrial arts facility modifications'necessitated by special.neods.students were presented by'Worrell and Mrowka (1978). A different approach to thespecial needs aspects of learning process variablls wasemployed by Herrick (1969). He investigated the knowledgeof basic industrial terminology possessed by inneT cityand suburban male youth. Overall, the suburbam youth .

displayed more knowledge of,verbal symbols for selectedtools and for uses of tools. In the AIAA's,(1971-1974,)Focus on Culturally Different Students, various writere'presented an overview of this special needs gopulationserved by industrial arts. The report included a treatmentof implications for teacher education, three perspectivesof students in urban environments, and an exploration of theuse of simulation and gaming with disadvantaged students.

PERFORMANCE DOMAINS

Sensory Motor

While motor performance is crucial to successful laboratoryexperiences for industrial arts students this domainrepresents a relatively unexplored territory in*terms ofresearch. To be sure, a few studies exist, but were itnot for a systematic effort at the University of Missouri-'Columbia and more recently some work by Shemick, thesituatior would be more pronounced. Herschbach (1)79) also

9

recognized the void; his compilation and analysis of variouspsychomotor taxonomies provided a most valuable synthesis.At the University of MissoUri, 'a series of ,exploratory,studies by Waisner (1970) , BOutwell (1971) , Chastain (1972) ,

Meers (1972) , Hudson (1972) and Holm (1972) sou'ght to identifyrelationships between various independent variables andpsychomotor performance as the dependent variable.' Stress 't

(Holm), audio visual presentation and grip'stredgth (Boutwell),visual and verbil presentations (Chastain) , informitionalachievementv contiplity (Hudson) , and feedback media (Meeis)were the independent variables explored: *The findings°included the following points:

Psychomotor perfdrmance was not afiected bycontiguity (Hudson).

There'were no signifficant psychomotor achiev.em entdifferences attributable to mental ability level(Chistain)..

LThere was no siqnificant difference in nail-drivingeAlity due to high *ad low test anxiet9) lepvelt or

to stress and nonstress treatmeAts (Holm).c

Groups exp9sed using auditory lead of filmed visualTresentations demonsob,rated psychomotor task-superiority over groups viewing a dynchronizedpresentation (Cha3tain).

Students receiving qualified directive feedbackperformed at a higher level of psycliomoeor ach,levementthan those using serf-evaluation techniques (Meerq.

The amount of transfer was significantly relstedto differences in amounts of practice time (Maisner).

.There were no significant differences in the amountof transfer due to initial task domplexity, theinteraction of practice time .and task coMplexity,or learning task performahce time (Waisner).

A study by Jenkins (1969) ?..aralleled,the precediqg in, manyways. He compared the.effettiveness of slides and audio tapesto teacher demonstrations in generating student performanceon graphic arts psychomotor tasks and concluded thatdemonstrations were superior to the mediated presentation.Because feedback is deemed to be as importadt in learningsk led behaviors as it-- the initial instructional methodology,HurJ.ey (1971) investigated the effects of different feedbackmethods and found that video7taped feedback, when augmented

7.1

tjl

s/

t.

with a check slieet, was more effective than the hole use ofa checksheet or video feeabadk alone.

Also concerned with motor learning, Lutz (1969) identifiedfactors in kinesthesis adross a variety of. tasks. Factokanalysis identified a strong factor labeled "tactilekinesthetic sensitiNiity" but was not successful' in establishingdimensionality. Some instances of relationships be:tweenkinesthetie.functioning and levels of cLgnitive curictiOningwere identified. Lutz's instrumentation, however, was uniqueta our field And represented a contribution in itself.'KinesthetiC sensitivity also was the subject of White,sstudy (1970) of the influence of visual-spatial andkinesthetic seniitivity on learning complex tracking tasks.The visual-spatialization measure was an effective predictor

success on the tracking task; however, the kinestheticAeasure did not predict success.

In'cont.rist to these studies, Shemick sOught Iiirst to establishan overall framework for the psychomotor doulAin and thento'pursue specific research activity. He piesented theresults of his search in a paper entitled "A TentativeTaxonomy 'of Psicho-Motor-Skilled Tasks" (1976). Subsequeutly,he described a coding process in his 1977 presentation at theAIAA. Both papers dealt'with his views of the applicabilityof.Fleidchman's taxonomy to industrial arts. Because, ofthe ,axonomy's dichotomous decision trpe approach toclassifying tasks, it seems to hold considerable valueto the profession's future'research efforts.

Andrews (1975). attempted .to establish the appropriate agelevels for introducing two common psychomotor tasks in

inthistrial arts eduqation: the squaring ok a small pieceaf saft pine using a plane and crosS-cutting a piece of wood .

along a line. Subjects aged seven, nine, eleven, andth:rtee cbmpl dn

teted the tasks der controlled conditions.

IlAndrews ,eggested that'boys and girls were capable of usingthe pla24 by the time they reachela the age of nine. However,the cross-cut saw appeared to be suited more for boys and

girls ten akd older.i4 \

.

The development of measuring ability is one of tile more

exasperating tasks faced by indlistrial arts teachers. Malehigh school students were the subjects in a gtudy by Shih(1969), who found correlations.between melsuring abilityand finger dexterity, spatial reception, kinestheticsensitivity, shop work achievement, mechanical knowledge,and numerical ability. Measu'ring ability was nie. siguificantlycorrelated with intelligence test scores, visual acuity,the number of machine shop courses taken, or the level of

60

%.

J

maturity. In iew of the substantial prOportion of timeexpended on eaching measurement concepts and procedures,it would appear profitdble to follow this study with additionalones in order to provide guidelines for practice in teachingmeasurement%

D'Ambrosio (19692 sought to identify psychomotor achievementdifferehces betwten students participating'in the IACP WorldOf Construction courses And those enrolled in,traditionalcourses. Im general, the groups were similar in achle.vementafter the aompletion of the courses. Several cognitive.achievement factors° were identified as relited.to Rerformanceon the4.psychomotor task. One prerequisite competency alsowas identified: measdrement achievement, the ability tomake linear measurements, was signiffcantly correlated *

with.achievement on a psychomotor task. Careful attentionshould be focused on the contradictory findings of D4Ambrosio'sand Shih's studies. Also part of the IACP developmentaleffort was. BuCkingham's (1973).exploration of the effectsof Pognitive enablers on task performance. Se concludedthat thegreater the number of enablers, the 'higher aperformnce level was selected as appropriate by a panel ofjudges. This provided considerable support for the maximthat knowledge is the better part of skill.

Jordan (1974) studied the psychomotor performinde of jliniorhigh school ip,tudents on a task in whi;ch their initialperformance was judged to be failing. He found that highability students made fewer errors in completing thea task,even though tf:ey. equired an equal period of time as studentsWith low mental bilit1es.. It,was found thelpfUl to removea student from t e failure and permit them 'to work on adifferent task b fore they we're asked to return to theperformance on which they 'had faildd initially.

Obeeite_ (1978) studied thl effect of using behavioralobjectives on drafting penciling skill. The 'study is notablein that Obreiter introduced the notion of p.sychomotor skillstability. Student performance typically Was enhanced bythe use of behavioral objectives. Both 16-19 year oldmale and female students performed bett'er than students13-15 years old. This suggested the.applicabijity of adirect,. mhturati.on.link to performance. Bortz (1967)inveqtigated.maturation an.d intelligence in terms of theeffeckts on-male 7th, 8th and 9th grade students' sawing andhamme'ring skills and concluded that the independent variablesaccounted for 1e4 than one half the variance required topredict performance. A large-scale project by Drummondand Vitro (1)7';) investigated the eff*.cts of practice onhammering aud sawing and reported that practice resulted in

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higher scores. They'also investigated the effects ofseilected strategies on 'learning efficiency in vocational-technical edubation, using readouts in cognitive, affective,and psychomotor domains (Drummond and Vitro, 1974).

1e

4

Creativity

Creativity in rndustrial arts was investigated by Clay (1965).Afer developing and verifying an operational definition ofthe term, Clay constructed and administered an inventoryto a random .sample of 297 Michigan junior and senior highschools industrial arts instructors. The findings revealeda crossover Affect in that while junior high school teachersin multi.ple area laboratories indicated greater enCouragement0* creative behavior than junior .high, s..chool teachers inlimitAU area or unit Shops, senior hOlh school teachershad exact4y the .opposiete tendencies. Clay also identifieda relationihip'in.thaV teachers emphasizing the self-realizektion objectives of industrial arts tended to,encouragecreative bqlavior more than those who advocated skilldevelopment4and/or interpreting of industry.

t.

Irvine (1966) pursued the definition of cre"Oivi.,ty in terms.of ideAifying the-relationship of creative thinking topsychomotor ability, mtchanical reasoning ability, vocationalaptitude, and overall industrial arts performances ofhigh school industrial arts studgnts. Using data obtainedfrom 177 scores on the Torrance Tests of Creative T4nkingand.the Differentia/ Aptitude MiNetranical Reasoning Test,he concluded that creati*.ve thinking was a separate abilityfrom those investigated. He also noted that industrial artsprograms were geared more to.verbal .than figural dimensionsof creative thinking ability:

IlLATIONSHIPS AMONGLEARNING PROCESS VARIABLES.

Some of the key psychological principles affecting learni%gis contained 1..11-Pierson's (1974a).monograph. This overviewof research findings was specifically conducted as part ofan industrial arts-curriculum project and deserves theattention of industrial arts learning process researchers.Pierson emphasized a holistic view of behavior in whicheach act is understandab;e only in terms of its context.As auch, the model is considerably antagbnistic to much ofthe competency-based curri'culum disection activity. Initially,

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44,

concept learning al-so may .seem at varA,ance with competency-.

based efforts but it need not be so. Much of what researchevidences about concept learning (Clark, 1977) can in factbe incorporated in curriculum-based instruction (CBI).Likeltwise, the Piagethian principles outlined by Gore andSchwaller (1977) also have direct application to industrialarts and to CBI. A comprehensive overview, albeit a

1 brief one; of learning process and motivational variables wassynthesized by Rosser (1976).

Vogel (1968) compared the effectiveness of common methodsof teaching electricity in a study encompassingh1290 juniorhigh school students. He sought to attribute performancedifferences to method, teacher, or classroom variables. Hisfinding*isuggested that.student achievement was affectedmore by teacher variables than by the other factors, althoughmethod variables explained some differences. Teacher

'subject matter competency in terms of college creditsreceived, also.affected student.. achievement. Since classsize was another important process variable, Olender andDyrenfurth (1979) reported the findings.of a literaturesearch and survey synthesis and concluded that the availableresearch was more provocative than explanatory. Despitethe difficulty in identifyingthe specific influences ofclass si2e, it was clear that some mechanism was operating.

Three additional studies involving a facet of creativitysought to document learning process variables. Abromaitis(1969) examined the relationship between adolescent creativeability and the ability to perform, or,the motiliation toward,typical industrial arts activities. Teacher creativity.also was investigated. In a seemingly contr4dictory findingthe data showed that the two.orelatively noncreative teacherswere significantly more successful kn',selecting creativeand noncreative students (as measured by the TorranceTests of Creative Thinking and a Creativitir Ratinq Scale)than were the two creative teachers. Additionally, Abromaitisfound a limited positivee relationship between Creativity andIQ and another between teacher ratings of.student creativityand student industrial,arts achievement.

Rather than investigating the.effects of creativityl Babcock(1969) studied the-effect.of problem solving on creativethinking and visual thinking ability. The studyt, which useda random assignment of college students to treatment groups,showed that creatil.e problem solving -- in a descriptivegeometry cl#ss -- did not improve vis.ual thinking abil'ties\but enhanted creative thinking.

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*

'Pursuing the'effects of treatmegt on creativity, Joyner (1941)carefully structured a two by two, posttest only doeign.thatmatrixid high:and low intelligence against_strUctured andunstructured desigh problems as treatments.' .Nefther. treatmentmethod nor intelligence yielded significant*results. Anallristo identify interaction effects.also failed to surffacesignificant links. The reseqrcher concluded that krothhigh and low IQ studepts can 'achieve equally well in situitionsrequiring creativity'and that structured and unstructured °

2. design problems may.be employed for both Categories ofstudents.

Ipansfer

In a study using seventh grade in'dustrial arta; students,Waisner (1970) identified conditions which would facilitatetransfer of learning. Subjects performed better on thetransfer task if they had performed a previous learningtask. Somewhat suirprisingly, however, an increased numberof performances of the initial task did not improve transferperformance. The complexity of the initial learning taskwas not related to subsequent ability to master a trarisfertask of moderate complexity. Nor was the quallty of theproject produced on the transfer task significantly relatedto the coimpléxity of the initial learning task or to theamount of time spent on practticing the initi.ar learnrhgtask. Howeveri there was significAnt interaction betweenpractice time and taik complexity.

Laboratory-Achievement° Links

Francis (1973) found that measured laboratory performancewas correlated significantly with achievement in a college-level electricity odass. Armbrust (1969) identifie0 non-verbal factors relating to success in a high school blsginningdrafting course. Nonverbal intelligence traitst,abetractreasoning, spatial relations, and mechanical reasoningaccouneed for 36 percent of the variability in draftingcourse grades. Medium to high levels of two or mare ofthe traits typically were present among the successfuldrafters. Previous industriall arts experience and .

chronological age were negatively related to success in thedrafting course. As might be expected from Armbrust'sfindings, a later investigation of the relationship betweensuccess in woodworking and differential aptitude test scoresby Cliffe (1978)/found tIvat significant positive correlationsexisted.

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SprOling (1974) studied,the relationship 44'tweign laboratory.

expViiences and performante in a college 14ivel bas4celectronics course. He found that performance of laboratoryactivities had a positive effect upon the dognitive.attainmentin electronics. However, the number-of hours devoted to,laboratory activities were negatively related to the cognitivescores attained. While this study was not conclusive,it provided provocative evidence that college industrial

,education courses might consider experimenting with asmaller number of lab hours when cognitive attainment is

the primary goal.

In a study 'which cut across areas of teacher education andstudent lierformance, Johnston (1974) investigated overtwo thousand students enrolled in industrial arts machineshop and yocational machine shop programs. Achievementtest scores attained by the students served as the criterion.The industrial arts students and vocational students didnot differ significantly in terms of test scores. The amountof industrial work experience possessed by the teacher wasnot significantly related to mean scores attained bystudents. The number:of years of teaching experience andthe academic preparation of teachers also were found tolack significant relationship to student scores. Thisbit of evidence, if it can be replicated, provided persuasivearguments against many of our traditions. One could argue thatthe achievement on a test is not the appropriate criterionfor success in a machine shop course. However, it siems tobe one valid measure; we would expect any real differencesto show up with,a sample this large. Thomas (1968) foundthat high school industrial arts experiences were relatedto performance on a test of manipulative ability. Seniorhigh school boys in woodworking and metalworking demonstrated .

higher levels of performance on several tests of manipulativeability than were attained by students who had no industrialarts experience. Interpretation of such results are, ofcourse, difficult since students who enroll in industrialarts courses may well be those who have higher manipulativeability.

Scott (1973) tested the effect of a concentrated learningprogram on work habit 'skills, attitudes toward work, and

1

psychomotor achievement of eighth grade students. Thefifteen slide-tape presentations in the program did notincrease work habit skills, attitude ratings; or psychomotorachievement. However, the study identified a significantrelati,onship between attitudes toward work originally held bythe students and their work habit skill development, aswell as the increase in their positive attitudes towardwork. It provided an admirably concentrated program

65 -

Aesigned to effect change in an area of interest to manyinduistrial arts educators. The fact that it was not .

. successful in terms'of the measured criteria indicated the. long-term cqmplexity of theproblem.

Zffects of Practice

By employing random treatment assignments to five groups,Asper (1969) investigated the effects of conceptual studyas compared to practice (physical activity) on the learningof a manipulative skill. Both treatment groups receivedidentical video-taped content information. Asper observedthat while praxilogical learning increased with practice,the curvilinear relationship ceased to be significant asthe percentage of practice approached 80 percent. Hegeneralized that 60 to 80 percent practice time representedthe optimum for praxiological learning..

The interaction of ability traits and the distribution ofpractice also was studied by White (1970). Senior high schoolindustrial arts.students were asked to learn a complex trackingtask under varying conditions of distributed practice. 'Whitereported that short, massed practice sessions interspersedwith long periods of rest to permit practice of the taskover a period of several days yielded better results thanfully massed practice in which the task was learned in aone-day period. Performance on a test of visual-spatialability was a better predictor of success on the trackingtask than was performance on a test of kinesthetic sensitivity.

EFFECTS OF.INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Griffin (1970) identified the major relationships betweenhigh school grades (GPA) for mathematics, science, andindustrial arts, and performance in industrial arts teachereducation programs. He also investigated the factors of thenumber of industrial arts units taken and overall studentscholastic ability. Record examinetion of 273 collegestudent industrial arts baccalaureate graduates surfacedsignificant relationships among industrial arts teachereducation grade point averages earned in technical coursesand scholastic ability interacting with mathematics andscience GPAs; mathematics and industrial arts GPAs; andprofessional courses and scholastic ability interactingwith mathematics and industrial arts GPAs. Negativerelationships were found to link the number of high schoolindustrial arts units to college industrial arts GPAs.

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Similarly, a negative relationship coasted between GPAs earnedin college professional courses and high school industrialarts grades. No other significant interactions were found.

In an attempt to assess the relationship bettween differentamounts and types of high school industrial arts experienceand performance in college four-year technology programs,Wells (1974) analyzed the records of 558 technology gpaduatesand dropouts. He found no significant differences betweenthe two groupi of technology graduates, those without priorindustrial.arts high school experience and those with asmany as five semesters of inclustrial arts, when comparedon the basis of overall achievement in collegel.achievemedtin technology courses, achievement in technological laboratorycourses, age upon entering the first technology course,and the number of units accumulated before entering atechnology program. Nor were the effects of prior industrial

arts experience significant in predicting the tendency todrop out or the number of.semester.units accumulated beforedropping out of college. Wells, therefore, concluded thatcollege teshnology students without industrial Arts highschool exposure achieved similarly to students with suchexposure and that industrial arts exposure did not significantlyaffect the time spent exploring other college majors. He

was able, however, to pre.dict technology student achieyement'on the basis of high school GPAs.

Determining the influence of industrial arts on the careerawareness of third grade students was the focus of a studyby Goodness (1977). He found industrial arts to have asignificant effect on career awareness as measured by theWorker Activities Test. He also indicated a significantdifference between the amount of learning exhibited by highmental ability compared to low mental ability students: He

concludes that mental Ability had a greater influence oncareer awareness of third grade students'than instructional'strategy. Elementary education was also the focus of

Chorost's (1976) assessment of the contributions of NewYork City's Career Awareness Program to reading and mathematics

achievement. The instructional vehicles employed were the

Publishing Activity Center and the mobile indutrial artsunit. Teachers reported favorable results for both treatments;pretest and posttesting indicated career awareness increasedwith the use of the mobile unit.

Spencer (1969-1970) investigated the effects of industrialarts in terms of its contribution to secondary schoolstudents' understanding of industry. The study demonstratedthat students who studied industrial arts scored significantly

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hlgher on the Industrial Understanding Test than those'whohad not. However, a relatively large number of semestersbf industrial arts-exposure (five or more) was needed before'significantly greater achievement was evident. Teacheremphasis on the objective was found to impact directlyand positively on studenf understanding. The variablesof general or unit shop exposure were not found to be directlyrelated.

Like the preceding study, Pierce's (197S) investigation ofthe relationShips between industrial arts and mechanicalaptitude was not particularly supportive. Students wit0industrial arts experience,oeven those with longer orearlier expokure, revealed no higher mechanical aptitudethan those without such an opportunity. While'taking

'woodworking produced no increase in mechanical reasoning,space relation, or manual dexterity, participation indrafting helped space relation and abstract.reasoning.

Jageman (1968) investigated the values of industrial artsexperiences for mentally tetarded girls and boys, ages 11to.,15. Subjects were randomly assigned to an experimentalgroup which received a ten-week, 45-minute industrial artaexperience; a comp.arison group received homemping andmaintenance experiences and a control group remained in

.their special classroOms. After ten weeks,,no significantgains were noted in personal and social adjustment, perceptual-motoc development, academic.achievement. 0211_,Nork habits andattitudes among the groups. It may be' at ten weeks istoo soon for differences to emerge. 1towever,.rnst educatorgwould like to feel that 371/2 hours is -sufficient/ for a.program to make a difference, especially when the measuresare undertaken immediately following treatment.

SUMMARY

Perhaps in no other section is the lack of an overall systemor structure on which to frame research more obvious thanin this one. The researCh investigating problem solving,organizational patterns, special needs factors, psychomotorbehavior, and creativity all were major directions of research.Yet the studies in each area tended not to form a coherentor cumulative picture of what we know about learning ineach particular sector. For example, tlie opportunitiesfor researching the various organizational patterns ofindustrial arts, the differential effects of curricularanging from specifir- to general, the comparative effects ofcurrictIld favoring breadth versus depth, and the varioussequences of curriculum presentation all are largely unexplored

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f .While a considerable number Of studies did address psychomotorlearning, they did so without Significant reliance on an ;

overall taxonomy such as is available inAhe coghitive domain..There appeared to be; no widespread acCeptanpe of alrof the

alternative 15sycho/sensory-motor taxonomi*s that presentlyexist. For a field that is so conaerned with praCtice and"hands'-on." applications of learning, it seem& strange thatthis particular area has not been investigated.:More thoroughly.

Many of the variables in the contexvt of learning piocesseswere researched. Yet, in the'absence of some overallresearch scheme, one cannot identify which relationshipsare yit to be researched. The mere quantity of the individuulvariables reviewe.d to date, and the possibflities broachedby their permutations, points.out rather clearly that,research efforts have just be/gun. The challenge is toformulate,a large scale picture of key variables thatoperate within the environMent. However, while the procedingis imperative, it would be foolish for the profession tobelieve that a process that is so dependent on technological,situational, and individual characteristics can ever befully explained in terms of a learninsk theory that neatly

allowsus to make necessary decisions that teachers have

to make daily.

Our major concern is thAt many of the research efforts seemedto reflect common methodological errors. These errorsinclude the failure to maximize the systematic variance,develop measures of sufficient sensitivity to measureanticipated effects, and design investigations in such away as to yield answers to real questions. The result isthat the prossion has relatively little empirical evidenceto Support its aspiration. Clearly it is incumbent on thosewho guide and conduct research to tighten the controls andencourage more careful'procedures.

Among t'he areas that would appear of most significant promisefor future research is the one of laboratory-achievement links.In conjunction with this, the effects of practice need tobe more carefully investigated, as do the overall effectsof industriaL arts.

What is the long range impact of our curriculum? The questionis.particularly difficult to construct and, certainly,it cannot easilj be done in retrospect due to the differencebetween practice and what the be-St thoughts of the professionwould suggest as being the ideal program. Since an idealprogram is seldom found in reality, we cannot use extantmeasures to identify what the effects of such a program are,at least not in an ;',L,!,,o way. We would note that,

-

as in4many other educational fields, the systematic study ofthe longitudinal effecti of industrial arts is not beingdocumented. With the increaiing significance of the basiceducation thrust, it would appear that .-- if, in fact,we can document longitudinal effects -- the kignificanceof industrial arts would be enhanced in terms of contributingto technological literac-y.' We would then be on a.moie solidbasis than we are presently with our exhortations and'attempts at inductive retasoning. The challenge faced by theprofession is simply to Aemonstrate.that it, indeed, has the

kind of impact that it claims to have.

INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA, METHODS, AND MATERIALS

This section reviews studies dealing primarily with teachingtechniques. This general irea of research has been popularin industrial arts education during the ,ast decade.Because of the breadth of the area, the variety of subjectarvas concerned, and the educational levels involved,selection and classification was extraordinarily challenging.Of neCessity, individUal studies received only brief menticn;constraints of time, space, and accessibility served to.limitthe numb-er of studies reviewed.

The reader is encouraged to check throughout the sectionfor studies of interest, since the classification schememay not generally be agreed upon. The primary categorizationalapproach has been related to methodology rather than subjectmatter. Consequently, individuals interested in researchon wais.of teaching,drafting, for example, will need toreview virtually the .entire,section.

Partiodlar concern ie noted regarding the saipling ofstudies to be reviewed. This section is heavily dominatedby dissertations and most of the reviews had to be completedfrom the abstracts. Serious researchers in instructionalmedia, methods, and materials will want to explore thoroughlythose studies in their area of interest.

L.

INSTRUCTI.ONAL METHOD

Different strategies for organizing the inst'ructional settinghave occupied the interest of industrial arts researchersfor soma time. Dukes (1974) found that achievement testperformance could be increased by focusing student attentionupon specific critical portions of the Instruments duringinstruction on the micrometer and vernier caliper. On theother hand, in teaching orthographic projection, Papp (196g)reported that the whole method and the part method -)f solv ngthese problems were equally effective in developing theability to solve graphics problems and understl-end technicalinformation and spatial relations. tn teaching basicelectronics, Chawhan (l373) found that students learnedequally well with instruction which was based on prerequi!Atoprinciples or conceptualizations. in contrast, Clark (197.1)

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rirr-4

iprpsente orthographic' pr6jeFtion to sixth grade students bytwo meth ds: (1) prerequisite information and p'rinciplesand (2) Visualisaqion. The group receiving prerequisiteprinciples aohieved sighificantly,hkgber cognI.,tive testscores and required fewer units of instrustidi te attainthe criterion leVel of performance. Specific recommendationsfor the orginization of instruction can hardly be made onthe bails of thi contradictory findings of research in ,this

04area. .

zabcik (196'9) Apilized Criterion programming to teach a ,

coilege-level 4ourse in industrial waterials and mAnufacturingpropesses. Instructors and students found the criterionprogramming procedures efficient in terms of the timerequired for learning; however, students reported thattheir ireterest declined when the entire course was organizedto.attain criterion plirformance levels. Conventional lecture-demmstration laboratory instruction and criterion programmingwere foundtto.be equally effedtive teaching procedures.

0

Actiye participation in laboratory instruction is a traditionalarea of emphasis in industrial arts education. Asper (1969)

67found that.increasing the percentage of overt (as compared to'covertractivity increased praxiological lcarning. Herecommended that overt activity stiou18--exceed 60 percentof instructional tiMe; diiinished effectiveness of idded4

overt activity occurred when it exceeded 80 percent ofinstrUPtional time. Th, im?ortance of cohcentrated practicealso was,inote4giby Crystal (1972), who found that massecfpractice was Aperior to distril:.sted practice in thedevelopment of manipulative 'skiss. However, this differencewas not significant at.the 'retention level. EvidencerevieWed4here seems to support the conventional practiceof emphasizing laboratory activity and practice in industrialarts education. 0 1

A frequently overlooked organizational variable is the level. of gontrol,m'aintained by the teacher in the classroom and

laboratory setting. . svendsen (1970).. studied student control. practices.epployed by successful industrial arts teachers andconcluded that.additional emphasis should be given to teacher-student relationships within the preservice and inserviceteacher education prograMs. Considering the importance ofclassroom control, it is surprising that only one study w3..sidentified for review in this area.

Oakley reviewed research on compressed speech, describedtechniques for speech compression, and recommended thatcompressed speech be substituted Ccr recorded speech in mostmediated instructional presentations. The reviewers have

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,

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46'

been uable to locate late'r exaiiples Of the use 14 compressedspeec14las a presentation technicfue in industrial:artseducation, despite Oakley's promising finding and the

. , research in other areas uaing compresied spe.ech XAIAA, 1971-1973g).

INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIAP

Teacher'recruitment has been a major problem in industrialarts education for some time. It was the subject-Of amethodological investigation by Young (1969) , who comparedthe effectiveness at printed brochures,and slide-tipesequences fo.r presenting career information. Both methods

. were successful in increasihg,knowLedge of indus,trial artsteaching and ir improving atiitudea toward the profession;they were especially effective for the higher ability levielstudents. The methods did not demonstrate differentialeffJctiveness. Morris (1971) developed guidelines farorganizing pictorially programmed instructional booklets by

. administering a '12-sort instrument to eighth grael students.Actual student opinidns on content, mechanical organization,and utilization of the booklets provided the .basis for therecommendattions of this unique study.

:;lides and other Media

Photographic slides have.become common means of instructingin i.ndustrial arts education. Research in th,eir,effectivenesshas occupied a number of individuals. Representative samplesqf their work are reviewed below.

aLlt

:lenkdn4, (1969) compared slide-tape presentations withteacher-presented demonstrations in t'eaching junior high schoolgraphic arts (..:lasses. Performance on procedure tests was(:qual for groups treated by the two met.hods; the teacher-pro:intod demonstration r6su1ted :n higher levels of learningof torMinology and procedures and in Superior performance intiraphic'arts (Nperati.ons. Amelon (1969) reported mixedresults i n a comparison of slide-tape instruction with groupdemonstration-; requiring more instructional time.

Photoorathic slide:; and tAlree-dimensional models are fro.luently14:,y,1 in combinaticm, or they may appear to be interchan:re.0Jloin s()me .instructional si tuations. Mz.:LCage (1)70) usolphotogiaphic :I.iLl(!s supplemented by realisti.camodels intoachiaq do!:,crittivc geometry at the college lovol. ;:tudonts

prf.ft2rred tho experimental method over conventional instruction,increased their ability to visualize using that method and

4t,

o!.

attaine4 higher ,wee-kly quiz scores using the experimentalmethod. The eXperimental method tOok addft45ha1 time fo:presentation; howevex, thiky1 oonsidered worthwhile-sliceincre4sed'learninA and motivation'werejpresent pr'erexpe-rimental conaitions. Crbwaer (1968) develoI sWesanU ashembly Adels asan altecnative"to raditi.J. al 4eneralshop instyuction. Initial leiirning and retenti,on werehigher when the experimental materials were used with publicschool students.

. Films

A wide variety of film..-Lormats ig .now avAidablein industrialarts education; several of these have been the subject ofresearch. Filmed presentations were found to be equaliy °

effective as live presentations for teaching machine oiperationsin terms orachievement, retention/ and the need forinstructor assistance (Cushing, 1971). Instructdr7madefilms required less.supplemental instrUction than wasneeded when commercial films were used. Kruppa.(1968)ipund instructional films generally effective in teachingintroductory woodworking, though,occasional.differencesamong.subgroups attapined signrfican-ce when overview-film,demonst ations were compared, with.traditional teacherdemoAstr tions.

SuPplementng conventional instruction in' electronics witheight-millimeter, single-concept fi1ms improved ir4tial'learning and retention (Dennison, 1910). Hess (19697*compared lecture-demonstration.methods with single conceptfilms' in instruction in leoodworking Safety. When the overallsafety unit was c.onsiderfd, the treatments'yere equallyc

rA

..effective in teirms of inftial learning, retention, and thedevelopmentof desirable safety attitudes. Mhen the.results-were analyzed by individual machines, only one differencewas detected: the film-lecture, method led to higherlevels of learni.ng and.retention of band iaw safety theory.Morrirl (1970) found initial learning 4nd retention ofinstruction in' aj.ithoTraphy unit equally effective whenconventional instruction 4nd filmstrips were compared.

Overhead Projector TransParencies

Perhaps +-he most basic educational technolcigy device in usetoday is:uhe ovei.head proje.ctor- ReLatively little researchhas been done on the values overhead projecftors have in theindustri41 arts setting, The use of transparent:ifs foroverhead projection as a supplement to o.ral instructiN

74 -

CO

. (1'

yielded.higher achievement test scores than those attained

by verbal instruction-alone (Fleming, 1969). Muns.(1969)

compamd overhead projectuals and.a transparent projection

box as media-for teaching orthographic projection in his

study using college students. Conventional instruction- 14e.

wds uied with one group; the convehtional in'structionewas

supiaemented with overhpad projectuals and the t'ransparentprojection box with the other group. The methods were found

to be equally effective in teaching orthographic projection.

le view of the contradictory tindings, it appe'ars that

adiitional research should be done concerning the e4-feetiveness

of the overhead projector. In addition, researCh based

guidelines.-for application in industrial arti,s are needed.

. -

-

1.'

Programmed elnstruction,, . ..

One may q4estion the inclusion of programmed instruction .1

undeTithe category of instructional medial .sinCe it implies. .,

, a carefully.sequenced series ofinformation and experiencisf.',

designed to lewd the individual through the learning experience

in the most efficient manner. Since a number of experiments

compared programmed instruction with mediated instructio,the decision has been made to include it here, e

4

sinceiL.s appearance on the education-al scene, programmed

instruction has stimulated researchers to a Variety of studies

concerning its applicability in industrial arts education..

Pryor (1974) compared programmed instruction and conventional

teacher instruction in,teaching safety to secondary school

students. In.terms of initial learnih.g., the two methods

were equally effective. Howeven, students who used the

prog ammed matri'als demontrated significantly higher 4

retention of the safety .information. aBOckman (l97T) found

programmed instruction and lecture-discussion methods to be

equally effective in terms of retention of metallUtgical

concepts among students in a college level course, Xespite

some significant differences in initial learning attributable

to the choice of method. Programmed instruction was considered

to have substantial advantages in teaching groups composed

of individuals with widely varying abilities. smith (1970)

compared programmed instruction (with and without supervision)

w4.th lecture-demonstration instruction in technical drawing.

The three m2thods were equally (ffictiv(i in term:4 of initial

learning and retention.

Programmed instruc:tion-also has been applied in otner ctfritta!itt:.

For ex,ample, Seal.(196) 1 cOmpared programmed instruction

keyed to single-r:oncept films with traditional lcctvre-

demonstration p:oeedur.,.s in teaching beq.inning weldlnq to

57

.V

0 ,. V*4* ,

*.

IY 9-.b,

0

,t

college stlidents. While both methods were effective inAttainiog course objectives; the modified prograMmedinstiuction method yielded higher.levels bf weldimg. 4

performance. Warner (1960) reported thal programmedinstruction could be.used.effectively in3teaching metalworkinginformation units to jUnior high school students. Both',

stuaents and teachers demonstrated positive attitudes towardthe machine-presehted lessons. Lundy. (1968) found linearprogrammed booklets more' effective than sound filmstripsin terms-iif initial learning in college freshman autoiOtiveelectri4ty, The two.methods were equally effective'in

s terms of retention andwhen the results were analyze'a by asubtest. -

'r (;

. Multimedia

In many instances, researchers have attempted to evaluatethe effectiveress of teaching strategies utilizing morethan one.medium. Some of these have kleen quite well'integratect; others are agg-regatese of varloug maplods.True multimedia research is still in its infadcy inindustrial arts, but a numh#r of.worthwh.ile studiesare reviewed-'in this seci.01. Henak and Wright (AIAA,1971-1973g) describ:ed a'system for utilizing,teacher-preparedmultimedia materials in a manufectUring cou.rse, .

system provided for the use of a wide variety, ofit media tdintegrate concepts'-thidughout the .cold.l.ege level course. .

Rudisill reported tne development and utilitatiom of audio-tutorial inst'ructional systems for an energyisystems course.A team of 30 undergraduate students was found ta bedcapableof producing effectiire inspructional Packages,when.theyreceived appxopriate guidance from practicimg°- pjrofeesionals.Field testing with junior high cachool"studdntr,vaii'datedthe audio-tutorial system (AIAA,.1971 N913g),

NudiO-tutorial instruction, utilizing slides, tapes, andintegrAted sets of laboratory experiences,, has fourid itswidest.applIcation in electronics: Brown (1971)-foundaudio-tutoriai ind-conventional, lecture-laboratory techniquesequally effective 'ill termd of studint achievement in College-level electronic's. However, the audio-tutorial techniqueresulted in a,saving of instruc,ti.onal time. Reteria-GarridO(1974) compared the effectivene"gs of programmed Lnstructianand audiovisual tutorial initruction for teaching.tlectronics''technology. Both instructional methods were equallyeffectiye when achievement was the critorion. The effectof the two teaching mettlods was not differentiated acrosseility levels.

- "71. -

qn a related study,: Kickefski (1975) found the audio-tutcltial system to be an effective method to (teach descriptivegeometry concepts and principles. Students performed equallywell when.taught by the audio-tutorial system or by thetraditilonal lecture-demonstration Method; however, studentspreferred to learn by the audio-tutorial system.

Self-instruction"I

. A Velf-instructional system for teaching orthographic projectionreduced the amount of time required for the subject to be

conducted in the visual classroom approach. The achievemento f the two groups was not significantly different' (Preschet,'1969). Hird (1977), using college-level graphic communicationsstudents as subjects, compared traditional lecture-demonstratitmmeehods with an individualized system of presentation fora series ol 25 units of instructkon. The two.methods didnot differ signifi,cantly in terMs'orlearnin,5, time required,or the'quality and accuracy of.projects completed by thestudents. Hird recommended that the study We replicatedusing a larger, more diversified sample, with, provisiontor studying the effects o'f instructional constraints uponoverall 'achievement.

Self-paced instruction was more effedtive than the traditionalmethod in teaching4woodworking safety and reducing theinstructor's 'time devoted to safety instruction. However,the two methods were equally effective in terms of thesafety of the aCtual pvactices employed in the labotatory(Beckman, 1969). self-instruction via programmed units and

°lecture-demonstration gene'rally were found to be equallye ffective in increasing the ability to visualize spatialrelations (campbell, 1969). Hoch (1960) compared scheduledand nonscheduled administrations of a'O'rogrammed text in

.teaching fifth grade.students. The two methods were equallye ffective in terms of initial learning and retention. Whenthe res'ults were.analyzed in mo.re detAil, no differencesattributable to mehods of instruction were identified

1bwtween boys and or among either low or high ability

level groups.

Videotape Recordings and Televidion

A live clerssroom demonstrat.on was found to be.more effectilethan videotave presentations in a college ceramics ,:oursewhen initial If!arning was the criterion; this difference wasnot silnifioant when two-week'retention was the criterion(Stafford, 1975). When the-effectiveness of videotaped,

- 77

closed circuit 'television demonstrations was compared withthe conventional preseitations in 'teaching basic metalcasting, Orr (1970) found the videotaped technique to beeffective in reducing the number of casting attempts requiredto comglete acceptab,le projects.- IA addition, the videotapeddemonstration resUlted in a savings 'of time. These findingsare similar to thoseof' Baron (1968) who found videotaperecording to be, ad effective as conventional instructionin teaching a psychomotor task. The two were equallyeffectiv'e in communicating cognitive information to studentsof high ability. The videotaped presentation was less effectivefor lower ability students when the criterion was retentionof cognitive information.

nelevant videotape recordingi may be used to improve the ,

effectiveness of substitute teachers-who do not have subjectmatter expertise ,(Thatcher,. 1970). In addition to effectiveteaching-learning performances, which frequently do notexist under substitute teaching situations, it was notedthat disciplipe problems were substantially diminishedwhen videotape recordings were available and used in themechanibal drawing classes.

Reinhart (1974).compared the effectiveness +of slow scantelevision with conventional television as media for presentingprinciples of electromics. .The.s19w scan.television meathodyielded significantly higher post-test scores than conventionaltelevision. It was concluded that slaw scah teleVisioncould provide an effective and low cost method of teachingelectronic fundamentals.

Simulation

Numerical control is an.area where simulation appears to beespecially prothising., Umstatid (1970) found that a simulatorcould be used to provide effective learning conditions forcollege students in numerical point-to-point programming.He suggested that the simulator could he used for initiallearning4 practice, and in situations which did not includeactual numerically contrblled machine tools. Oiling (1974)compared the effectiveness of.computer verificatio,n,and

. instructor verifiCation of numerical,controlled programsaeveloped'by stuOents in mechanical technology. Performanceon an achievement test and programming performance werecriteria in the study. Since 'both groups performed.equallywell, it was concluded that a computer is not essential inteaching programming principles. Pine (1973) found simulationand nonsimulation equally effective ih teaching numerical

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90

control concepts to high school students. Achievement,piovram writing ability, and attitudes were not affectedby the methods tested; howeirer, teachers exerted differentialeffects on all three outcome.measures. .

In a study.with high school students, Smith (1974) sought todetermine if computer simulation games were effective infacilitating learning and if elements of the cognitivestyle of the learner could be identified is related tosuccess in learning from games. Those whose individualityscores were high,learned especially well through simulationgames; all groups learned significantly-through the games.

Laboratory Methods

A comparison of the traditional individual p oject method ofteaching industrial arts and the enterprise method of groupactivity found achievement when the enterprise method wasused (Gebhart, 1971). Retention-,tas not significantlyaffected by the choice of ini.truciTonal method. Brown (1977)compared the individual project approach with the exercise/experiment approach in secondary woodworking. The twomethods of instruction did, not yield differences ininformational achievement, retention ocif information, orattitudes held toward woodworking. The .p'roject methodresulted in a higher degree of student enthusiasm than wasdisplayed in groups receiving the exercise/experiment treatment.:Achievement, retention, And at:titude towaid the subjectdid not differ significantly alross two treatments (projectand exercise/experiment) used in a college-level woodtechnology course (Landers, 1972).

,

Lecture-demonstration techhiques with separate laboratorywork were ihore effective than either the laboratory ormodified laboratory method- when teaching college freshmanengineering graphics students (Holt, 1970). Finch (1969)

compared the effectiveness of equipment-oriented, textbook-oriented, and programmed self-instrution methods for teaching-automotive troubleshooting. Knowledge and attitudemeasurements detected no significant differences amongthe methods. However, the method utilizing equipmentrequired less time and yielded a higher level of troubleshootingperformances than the other two methods.

In a study using freshman industrial arts majors in alesign class, Kaumeheiwa (1)69) fotind that the use of the

concrete object anci the,us of an abstraction(vi!ri:al stimulus) were equally effective in producingfluency and flexibility of ideation.

t

- 7' )

6

The direct discovery approach was found to be more effec-tivethan direct detail in developing problem-solvingcompetencies in basic electricity (Brenner, 1968). Trainingin listening was fgund to be effective in improvingachievement and retention in college-level technical drawing-(Broadhurst, 1969).

4644

Competencr-based instruction increased cognitive learningin ceramics in a comparison with traditional instructionat the university level. Products produced by the students '

receiving thA two techniques did not differ significantly;students responded positively to the competency-basedapproach (Burnett, 1974).. Schmidt (1974) found thatbehaviorally stated learning objectives in a collegewelding course led to significantly higher levels ofknowledge. However, the performance test did not indicatea difference at...ributable to tha behavioral statement ofobjectives.

When compared to traditional elementary education approaches,construction activities increased achievement'scores ofscience students in fifth grade (Downs, 1968). Logan (1973)found that constructiontactivity in a third grade scienceunit on simple machines increased acHievement as measuredby test scores.

Groves (1970).found that commercial background music tendedto créate an improved learning environment in college-levelengineering graphics classes.

Instruction in the metric system may proceed by using themetric system exclusively or by relating it to the conventionalsystem of measurement! Both methods.are'effective in termsof immediate learning; the exclusively metric method ledto higher retention for students of high mental ability (Brooks,1974).

Teaching Strategies

McLaren (1974) cpmpared different teaching strategies, %usingselected industrial arts activities, upon the skillawareness of fourth grade students. Achievement and retentionscores were influenced as much by a.student's mentalability as by the teaching methods; no difference inaccomplishment could be attributed to the choice ofteaching techniquL. Lolla (1973) did not find different

.effects of methods of teaching tactua.1-visual-perceptionto ninth grade students. In fact, the students with highvisual imagery experienced a decrement in performance as a

'

result of the instruction. Criteria in this study weretests of mechanical reasoning and space relations. Written.

comments from the teacher to the student, whether positive

or negative, did not change stUdent attitudes of self-expectation in a study by Smart 11974).

,

S'gnificant interactions were found between two personalityariables (general activitrand friendliness), and instructional

method (programmed or instructor-led) in terms of cognitive

'learning (Haskell, 1969). Restraint, emotional stability,and masculinity measures were related to performance on theachievement test. The two methods of instruction (programmed

and lecture-discussion) were equally effective.

Jasnosz (1969) found visual communications to be a moreeffedvs.o.method of teaching design to industrial artistudents'than the traditional graphic arts.approach.

MATERIALS

Written instructional materiq.s were found to be more,effective than lecture-discussion or laboratory activitiesin concerit learning (Caley, 1969) . Mastery of concepts

from wrdtten materials reduced or eliminated the need

for additional instruction through lecture-discussion orlaboratory activities. Pufahl (1969) compared the relativeeffectiveness of three types of printed instructional material:text, text with achromatic visuals, and text with chromatic

. visuals. Students who studied text only materials spentthe shortest period of time with them but scored loweron an achievement test. Students with the chromatic visuals

scored highest but spent the greatest amount of timewith their material. An interaction effect was detected:

stUdents with higher mental ability did better with black

and white visuals; students with low mental ability didbetter with chromatic illustrations.

Developmental activities directed at the preparation ofinstructional resources approach were emphasized at times. For

example, Allen and Hinrichs (1975) prepared-a manual.toassist the classroom teacher, in organf.zing research andexperimentation activitieT in-industrial arts activities.A student workbook it included, as well as laboratoryactivitiei and content outlines for ihstruction. Baron ot al.

(1974) developed an 11-unit teachking guide for massproduction activities i industrial arts classes. rreitz

(1972) presented an integrated view of the role ofinstruct*.a.pAAmethodologies in the implementation of curriculum innovation.Mediated presentations and learning packages are an integral

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9-3

4

part of.the industrial arts teacher education program atthe Unive'rbity of Alberta, both as techniques for impartingknowledge and as methodologies to be,mastered as professionalcompetencies.

The value'of illustrations in instruction sheets was'substantiated by Herr (1970) who used the sheets to supplement

.closed circuit television presentations in college-levelgraphic arts.

SUMMARY

Research in instructional media, methods, and materialsin industrial arts education is almost impossible tosummarize. We have attempted to provide relevant samplesof fhe kinds of work whi01 have bees completed du.ringthe period under review. It has not been possible todraw substantial generalizations from the body of research.

The reviewers are led to comment that the design ofresearch dealing with instructional media', methods, andmaterials needs to be strengthened if generalizations

%

are to be attained in the future. Controls need o beapplied with greater rigor, instructional treatme ts needto be developed with greater attention to theoret9.cl concerns,and the conduct of experiments needs to reflect contemporaryeducational practice where this is possible. It 0.somay be that this is an area where iesearch needs io expandbeyond the traditional dissertation involvement.

The selection of appropriate methodologie for specificpurposes is a matter of interest to every educator. Maleyhas.been'a leader in designing industrial arts instructionalpatterns which apply a variety of organizatiodal methods totheir best advantage. His choices of methodologies are,based upon a careful analysis of the content and purposesof industrial arts (Maley, 1973) . The example providedto the profession by Maley is one which others could dowell to imitate. Concerted long range efforts sdch asMaley's are needed to develop a coherent body of knowledgeon the application of instructional media, methods, and\materials in industrial arts education.

STUDENT PERSONNEL AND GUIDANCE

Considering the extent of the career education movementthat emerged during, this period, it is surprising that

a greater number of studies investigating the guidancecharacteristics of industrial arts were not found. The

studiee that were identified. related to,occupationalchoice and student characteristics. Several dealt withguidance related effects,of ,indastrial arts, including

career maturity, drop7out rates, and vocational performance.

OCOUPATIONAL CHOICE

Meehan (1974) investIgated preadolescent prebUrsors to

occupational choice in order to determine'the effects of

twenty selected personal and environmental factors on

student selection.of eighth grade career explokation

courses. He reported that such course selection wasexplainable,, but only to a limited extent,,by 'the effect

of the selected factors. Furthermore, neither the target

occupation's salary nor achievemenot on discipline subtests

proved to be of significant use in predicting course

selection. Crump's (1968) study of Arkan§as' industrial

arts program al0 was not particularly useful in explaining

student decisidhs.to enroll in industrial arts. He oundthe primary fgctor in such decisions to be.student choice

which operated independently of codnselor and iridustrial

arts teacher influence.

Using an.indepth analysis of a smaller sample (n=181), West

(1969) sought -0 determine the effects of ap eighth grade

INCP bourse on students' occupational choice and interest

work areas related to that choice. Traditional classes

well as students withsno industrial arts exposureved as comparison groups. Ohio Vocational Interesti.

urvey (OVIS) instruments provided data that, when

adjusted for differences in ability and achievem,mt,

suggested that indugtrial arts did not have a significant

influence on how clearly the students understood their

interest in occupational wol-k areas.

8 3 -

95

STUDENT CHARACTERIiTICS

Comprehensive high school stgdente enrolled in pOwer-.

automotive Courses were surVeyed by Pendleton (1971)to determine their general characteristics. Major findingsincluded the identification of primarily aohite.malestudent group with a below C grade point average.Fapily heads wer-e mostly blue collar workers. Of relevangeto 'guidance was the fact that student educational expectationswere found to be related to ihe educational and work levelof the family head. Salim's 4(1970) analysis of whystudents choo se. or avoid,'industrial arts also provide&useful irisights into the characteristics of the studentbody served. He Tou6d that aptitudes, vocational interests,and the formal education of the father each_served to

.

'distimguish between enrollees anel.those not choosingindustrial arts.

II

At the post high school level, Chen (1977) conducted alongitudinal study that docuMented the characteristicsof 172 university industrial arts graduates. The researchindicated that4ransfex students' overall perforMance was,significantly beeter for their last thrge semesters_than was their entry performance. Qther significantrelationships were found between the graduates' final GPAand student teaching grades and alsowith their service.

. ratio (years of service divided by years since graduatioh).The latter characteristic did not vary signifLcantly bysource of student entry, transfer from within, transferfrom outside, or freshman entry. Zarlier, Jones (1972)reported on a deacriptive study 'of the characteristics'of teachers-in-training at Iowa' State University. Mostaignificant was his finding that (based on the use of theMinnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory, the Otis Quick ScoringMental ability .test, and several other measures) industrial

.education is not a "dumping ground."

EFFFCTS.DF INDUSTRIAL ARTS'

Artic,ulation between proci7ram element& frequently is spokenof in terms of being a desi.rable goal rather than ademonstrable fkffect. In a study that partially addnessedthe identification of such effects, Peterson (1973) compare..1the perceptions held.by principals, counselors, and apprenticesof various influences on individuals.. While the resultssupported critics who claim that educators have inacouri4teperceptions of students preparing for vocational area:3,they also included a positive element, that educators andapprentices agrced on one factor: they perceived industrial

- 84 -

1

arts and business educatión as being the most valuablepractical hi#11 school area to apprentices%

stock (1974) Nelso Sought to°document some of the effects+of industrial a.rts on post high school vocational educationperformance. However, his data did not support theprofession's contention that industrial arts has a significadteffect on subsequent vocational performance. 14ith

reference to vocaional performance, he reported that r

indust.rial arts experienCe., in general, did as mUch for thegkoup that took industrial aris.as the academic program .diZ for the Tr-oup which took.it. The significance ofsuch a finding needs to be interpreted in the li.,ght ofthe difficulty of diitinguishing between some statedimplications pf industrial arts and vocational educationat the high school level. For example, in the'study by1?endleton. (1973), the opinion that industrial arts andvocational education courses seemed more ...similar thandifferent was expressed as an out-ome of the observationthet.high school industrial arts instruction tended to besomewhat vocational in nature.

The literature reviewed did not seem to codtradict theposition that, in addition to an overstatement of the

."effect potential" of industrial arts on subsequent vocationaleducation performahoe,,the case for industrial artscomtributing to the occupational information and workattitudes of its student's also has been oversated.Certainly West's (1969) comparison of industet-fal arts,!ACP, and nonindustrial arts groups did not conclusivelycontradiot'sur:h a position.. Nor did Norton's ,(1974) studyprovide useful information to the advocates .of industrialarts. Hi's investigation of the,effects of industrialarts on stUdent attitude towards work resulted in thefinding that industrial arts did little tc. affect studentattitudes towards work. In fact, a sixth :.irade non-industrial arts group indicated a more favorable scorethan'the traditional p.rogram. Two variat.L.ons of thetypical approach, the World of Work and a unified artsprogram, did not yield different results either. Suchresults can, of Course., be attributedeto weaknesses inmethodology or instrumentation. However, one of Norton'sfindings suggested ishe presence of another confoundinginfluence, namely, one of maturity and, indirectly, theout-of-school unintended learnipg that occurs. This,maybe inferred from reports that ttitude towards work(if!clined as grade level increased..

The importancct-of out-of-sehool influences was supported by

Hacbaugh's (1)74) study comparing the career maturity

4341.41"i

14 1 ti i4 4 .Le

410

.. .g

el 0 Qt% ,

'i; 99' % 9

,

4.. attainment was ai4nificantly 'related Lp carematuri_ attitude in a positiVe way.

,

Using disadvanta46d.stu4ents % , °i .

experienciWg two° diffórent trciatment medes tilre-Nooational . .. .4

0 0

N'xploration vcrous vocational trainrng), a parallel study'. .

,..,. .

. by Cicchetti (1974) esosbtiallty suppoyied Harbaug4ni,

.,

.4 a '4.

ErndingS. iiiain, the hypothesised effect of ,s0tematie 114

" .. 0 .

, atreatment an career maturityils measuTed by the CMI-'

.,,__

. t

A a ,,,' 1 ..failed to be od,oupperi by.the data% .However,..411a4dition:w101"'

.

insight emerged in'thap., regardless'of tr6atappt oTwoontr,p1;' '. t,, I 44.%

; . a significant linear rblationship between the CMI prollest0 .

1,...,, 4... *

and reading achievement Scores was identifibd. While 4or

er:'s. I.% . . ,

1 (1.978) study vab similar to Harbau6's and Cicdhettil;ls,"A .

hia analyses fo'und small treatment attributable to'varee. a.,, , 0.

4

matuiity.gains. However', the percentages of Oar ance , . '

Ptaccoupted ,for do n'ot provid any sigIli,fipanb.-ma ort'ior'

our professAon's claims. dagood's 41970) inixestii4ation

1 9

%ttitudes of InP,,ponventional, :ahd now-ioduetridl'hrterikt.udente. Oing Critot' Career 'Maturityl'nveintory htfitude.

,

'00 I

D117.:'

,:i*611- _

i!

* Schle.(at), narbaugp indicated'that, as ciutrasted io'the,,I; .0

type of industrial arts course 'work, 'parents''odeaUval

' documended assignificant relationship bet'weeki iOdustrial , ...,

arts experience and career' Thaturity.but..not 6etWod'n..,

.

,inddistrAil arts program istfluencechoice. These four..studles constituted.a valuablttbeginningfor understanding the influences of, iOdustrial aplits-e,

. .

-

A detailedvretrospective ahalysis combined with ang,Aiyiontatióntowards experiments woul,d serve.oUr-profession well. .

. 4.

.t ' . I

I

II_ V. .

The effecof.4ndustrial arts co4ared to 'avademlo and. /

Vocational turriculum on the probability of dropping ,xluct 1..

.

was i6Vestigikted by Gaclbo4 1(1968). After matehing.,,,twenty-..1:.4

four students according 'to an overall dropoilt poteotiar. ,,peofile, students were followed through gradUati4.Gadbois concluded that vocational and industriakarts

1

,

cUrricula had greater.holding power."than the academic .

tract. NoWever,,noteistinction,was possible between

.industrial arts and Nocational AUcatipn.

t 4 4 .. .

.. The 'aisessment of KentuckyYs ',practical arts program was conducted.by Adams (1977) who measured teacher, student,counselor,and principal attitudesitoward the practical arts program andstudent career development. She found that students with .

'As% pra.ctical arts experience scored higher dh the assessment. of the cal.eer develepment iistrument than did +-hose who .

were not in the program. doodness (1978) also revortedthat industrial arts contributed to the caq4er awareneas of

.4. third grade stAidents.

- 86,-

Os

44.

A

,e-o-a.-4rr.re,neCV:41,44411kr Aritelere,1111grprligVc.-,

. *. W.,.44

fit;

.77

.

4.

. :

\, . o\.-'SUIMARY ?, .

On0 of tWe more comprehensive' cdmpilations ettf the tnduetrial arts

1 xeltationship to quidanc0 and counseling is Antainlod lnethe

AdIAS (1971) botklet, Guidance in induatvial Arto.Rditcattok .

firttheA?Oe. It dittlines guidance functions, 09461

programs, teacher roles, materials belection, occimational

orientation, d instruction in a terse, effective manner.' :

../ndustrial arts teachliors also will p6reciate 0e4list 1

of risource agenpies classified by subject area relevance.

° . 4 4 ';':-,4 ° 15...

44 t

'4, s

For the most part,alowev.probarsonn4l and'quidance related

studies are.surprisingly scare*T. There have been rolativ4y.

Lew studies,involving vtcational'choice und.industrial arts.

'Por fieldfthat has claimed to proOide sigpificant jo

exploratkon and aieareness level activitips in career.1 edugation (at least in four of the USOE clusters),

'industrial 'arts has not eyidenced any aignifigant degree.

of interest in terms ofeits impact oh occupational qhoice

ef students who have .experienced it. Neither of the two.'

possible dAections for'sucK rbsearch h4ve been axpIored

to any significant extent. Both the 'contributions of

industrial arts to occupational choice ahd the Wect oE. A

occOAtional choice on inauserial aris degerve 'greater i

attention.

.student chasiactiristics have been the fecuiti4f a number

of studies. Noweviir, we are left with.an uncleaZ profile

of industrial arts enrollees. Are they likeeho norm of

studlants in general or do they represent.an identifiable,

subset? Their.age, sex, and performance attributes are

not easily discernable. In teims ofi,th'e studies on the.

effect of industrial fmts, particulcaly with respect to..

counseling and guidAnce, it seems appropriate to day that

, our profession, in fact, may have overstated its case. '

Many of the benefits attributed-to induAtrial arts are

not well documented, particnlarly as ehey relate to attitude

and achievement claims. Perhaps this is true for other

disciplines as. well. Even if it were, what consolation

would that be to our speCific profession?

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'FACILITY AiD RELATID. STUDIES.,

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Due to the central focUs of applied learning in industrialarts, the faciAities become an impbrtant part of the,Aelivery syflteill. The atudies.reviewed investigatedfacil,ity-progrom inteTactidn in terms of three majorcategoriesi facilities, equipment, and safety. Moststudies were in the facilities category and dealt wit.planning, noise, and tribile approach.

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FACaITIESa

Planning'

One'comprehensive treatment of this issue was compiled bi

' Moon (1975), editor of the ACIATE's 24th Yearbook, A Guideto the Planning of Induetria; Arte Facilitiee. Beeidesk .

reinforcing the importance of the planning process, Moonand his contributors described the implications of newprograms on facilities and cacility evaluation procedures.R.eco gnition of the link between environment and educationail

4fleactivity'prompted Engelke (1973) tp adrive generaltIndustrial

r'arts facility speaskications from an examination of"'thephysical, p'pychological, and educational need.s of bothstuaentsrand teachers. In using 4.ata from industry,an earlier project by Moom (1968) addressed the samelinkage.' Van Dyke (1970) also pursued a related topic.While Moon surveyed manufacturing.concerns, Engelk6 developeda;list of educational, psychological, architectural jurors.Both.studies evolved, lists useful.for education planners.The aspects of Engelke's two highest ratsp fac.torsi pertaired

to the desirability of.provid4ng a variety of space and adesign that encouraged in.teraetion9 between subjects. Moon'sfindings, in contrast, were reported as generalizationsof contemporary manufacturing practice. Perhaps the mostsignificant was the verification of a process classificationusing the categories of foiming, casting/molding/shaptilq,cutting, joining, and auxiliary. Moon's and Engelke's lists ofdesirable facility characteristics were augmentedby Van Dykes' call for provision of screens, carrels,television cal5les, and adjacent ropms for related:instruction,demonstrations, and individualized learning.

A

'The planning process itself was nvestkgated by smith, (1969) who

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ttomptdd to determine 'the roli'of indUat'riat eixtrkteacheri CV

.Inewfacility planning as perceivkid by tea4ahet4, sueerintender46.[-.

teathex educatore4 andercAitectS. Not unexpectedly, the e14u- )!

i

,tors aa a group *greed to a greater extent than the architects,

I whot reported, limited A;ndustrial arts teachtr.involvement in .

?thocpant and p:Onted cut thoirlinddequate preparation .

..°.

in planning for innovation.S. The,architecto& howeyer',

fort thaLiindustrialsaits° teachers ehould review andp veivate the,4rchitecs' plans, butatfthe.prdlimina.ry g

-

stagd. In eentrast, the edmeators4indpated'that, it would

be essential for 1,nd'ustrial arts t.eachdro to,be invSlved in, .0.

.

doteriining the educationta objectivgs of the industrial, ,

arts departmenWthe,cdurees offeredl,the course ativitfes;;

the apprimate square feetneeded in'each.instructibnal' N,

k areat theonumber, location, and type of e16ctrfca1,outlets,

and the types of shops to bf p140ed (general, gomprehensillo, ,

or,unit).q, Also treatAng the planning process, RebhorM (1173)-

outlined a very systematic yet humanistic approach. , Thy :. \a ,

.six-step sequence

entailed,thedevelppmemt of an educationa'l

overview, the identification cif activity.spacesr evoAetion

of sPacial relatiops diagrams, building design, equiipment

g, layout, and detailed specification of equipment, milteriale,

and'suppIies.. Stallsmith (1973) also.address9d desige '

0

/ solutions,. to the imperatives of cUrricula flexibiliiy:and'

ft Anderson.(1973),summarized middle schdol laboratory eiltaign

trends. In introducing the American Ceafici4 'of Industria4:s.;.

.

'Arts Supervisor's.'new Guide,to Preparin educati.oiaell ,

), Specifications for'Secondctrif Industrial Arts FacOities,

. SVeeb (1976) effectively ummarized the. concept de suall '

specifications as the first'phfoe in facility plAnning.. t

*Wiggins' (1978) study was the mbst comprehensive surviy .

eit' .

of teacher education physical facilities., .-Using a standard'-e f

evaluative gu

.

gstionnaire, he collected data from twenty-six.....

industrial arts teactie edudators in Arkansas, Missouri, i;

4

Kansas, and Oklahoma. He found that considerable renovatipn

was necessaxy and that the facilitie, were mot pres4ly

meetinglA

student needs. The data also indicated a dirsi.ty

broad enough to preclude regional yorrelation with ,

or the establishment of a, standard facility kor. .this.

.area. Recommendations included effort toward constructing'

a.new facility evajuation instrument and the establishment

of acrvisory councils.4 .

In terms .of usability, the reports by Wenig (1969) and the

Upiversity of North Dakota (1978) .represented very valuable

urces,for the Aractitioner. The former presented a

b ief.overview of key facility.)planning guidelines. 'The

.unfversity presented detailed specifications for planning t.

facilities and equipment additions: Bro's (1979) zeport

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'alpo Contained a slieoinat Sutlino of 00sontiar faeilities. information.

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Noise '1

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The phendinenon of'noiee aria ito effects received considerablescrutin'y by induotrial arts rosearcher's. 'Bailey (1974), Hicks6974), Monfette'(2974), and RoA (1974) all investigatedtteis topic. Perepectives,rang0 'from comp;iance with

.

Occupational Safety and Health Aót regulations (Monfette) tothe .effects o'f hearingprotectoio on teacher studentinteraction (Rost) . The formerlitudy, concentrdtinelarge/y on vocational facilities, demonstrated that ambientsolind levels.hindered normal speechscommunication in nearlyall facilities. Two typ6s'f ptpgrams, welding/duttingand aircraft maintenance wer 'in violation ef OSHA.provieions..

NI, caripertry, auto bo4y, and die el mechanics programs.had

.."lelikals near the limit. ',Hicks,. *(1974) inVestigation of.Utall'a indwatrial education taboratories confirmed the

.. ,existehce.of a potentialSsafety and health hazard by. ,findOg that,4 wtile most laborafortos were in compliance,

m4nt exceediad the ma*imum allowable limits, ruithermoki,the finding .of a disparity between teAcher opinion and .

1

actualimeasured noise levels was highlighted. Somewhatcontradictory, Bailey's.investigatien of secondary woodworkinglaboratorie pinpointed the surfacer', cutoff.saw, and

f table saw as'being in excess of 90 decibels. .bewever,based upon Ole'.assumption of a oiie=hour plati length,Bafley concluded that the elsposure rveilred by either°studentsor'instructors (w4h five classes pertday) would. be'considered safe. znterestingly, since:some'of .the studies.identified noise variability as a factor of machine

.

condition, one is t&mpted to wonder about the generalizabilityof the results or if machine vakiance (error) or brand'variance exceeded systeiatic vairiance. Despite suchunanswereq 'questions, Jacobsoeand Shadowens' (1977)rather definiti:ve noise amc.y.iis concluded with.the viewthat there is an immediate-'ne!ed to institute hearing.safety measures. They wrdtek, "Industrlal arts teachers and

A edudational adihnisteators'%,,pould begin to ieach hearingsafety...and it shduld be Tequireent that all personnelwear appropriate safety dev ces"' (p..24).

0

Rost's (1974) study of the efffects of hearing protectors oniteacher-student interacqon is valuable because it.addressed the criticisms ofiSome traditionalists thatnewly imposed safety regulations interfere with theinstructional process. Using Loepps' (1970) industri'alarts Interaction Analysis Sy em, Rost establi.shed chat

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the *lee of hearing protectovs did not significantly,Alter the amount,of teacher-student communication. Cliffe

(1978:'Provided useful information as to how to chern

.ccan actually implement hearing safety. The Aesiribility

of sue* action was docu4entod by %%moll and Wooten's,(978) report on the effects of noise on Dreading compeehension .

and task csippletion time. While we'may be extendingourselvev by including thiN vocational laboratory studya°because the nature of noise'emanating from vocational

or artscklaboratories is likely to be.similar,

the st dy was included. The findings were that as noise

Antensitl: increased, reading comprehensibn decreased.,and

the Lim4i. required to complete the assigned taskk increased./'

t,)

MahlAel Facilitiescr

K.

Seciusp.of the expenpe of .equippin4technologicallyappropria,te facilities,,scme atteneton halo been paid'to

the dse.of transportable faFiliti6S In this.way, schools /-

could avo4.4°dUplicat4Rn and, at the same tiWe, could .

4

t

offer a Wider vakiet4 of. learning' experiencese Schwalm's.(1960)'evaivatkon represented ari early assessment, of the

ieffectiveneas of such an ppproach. n terms of student

aad teacher performance, the laborat ies were an plqualifiedsUccess, iccoroding to the researcher. It.shoufd be noted

that t.his prej?ct repreeinted one of he few industrial,arts effortk,supported LI? the Elemeritary SecondaryEdtication Geor§e (1973),then compr,ehensively descxibed

:a system of rotAtional te'am teaching using mobile facilities. -

taboratory desitrY,-Dersonnel needs, instructional methods,

and content considerationsre all,outlined in thishighly 'speculative 'article.

severAl insightful, and some contradictory, findings wvereported by Damon,(1974) as aresult: of eVal,uating the/efl'ectfven4ss ok mobile fluid power leiboratories in minaeeota r 4

and Wisconsin. .Most impor'tantly, the data demonstrated

that signifixant learning took pface and that the'm bile ,

program was more effective tail those with lim.itedinstLtutional b,ases. With respect teo. the financialt aspects,however, .it was reported that the mobi'le program rpresented

, no significant financial advantage over other delivery :

systems, when compared on a sixteten schodi basis..G Despite

this aggregate finding, .the mobile apprOach represented asignificant'advantage to any given school. Given the.rapid

obsolescence of fixed facilities, Damon speculated that themobile approach could prove to be thT most reasonable over

a period of time. I

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Equipment.

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Three studies addreesOd the iflatio 0 squiptAng industrlel ,

atts faci_ities. Tuttre (1974) analysed digital'1ogic training. .. syst9ms, ook. (1977) evaluated laboratory electronic .

systems kind Hoty. (1975riaursui4 thR feasibility of. fabricating sem conductor mievice6.. The fornitr pointed \

.,

out that digital logiC training systeme are one of the .

'most valuable vehicles in teaching .digital logic ar4uitry.He delielope'd a list of criteria to be used in the pelection .1%1

cf such ayatems. Rather than dealing with extant haidwar,Homoly developed'a unique 'approach to semicondutars by .\

piloting methodSt-of'fabricating these in existingindustrial. arts'laboratories. Included-with hi's dissertatien.

. is a Mbnograph detailing the proceduree he developedwhich were reported feasible in terms of time an& cost

. demands. A quasi-experimental comgarison Dorcommeicial

.,,,.. and teachee-developed 'electronic instructionalosystems Wu@conducted by Brook (1977).. With criterion obje.ctives .`

pertainingto integrated circuit concepts, the datawarrahted a conclusion that both siiteme,were efTeg.i4e.

A fourth equipment'study involved a comprehen6leve installation'

of 11 total laboratory package of thirty-eight mediatedself-contained modules. While using. Many traditionalsmaller tools And machihis, these modulbe representeckadrastic changetin the nature of tIle laboratory. Additionally,

th ir cdrriculum was significantlY tqrgeted toward.caeeereducatfon's exploratory objectives. .ervig's (1978)evaluation ofthe rystem which wao installe4 in.eight

junior high sciloold indicated that it functioned well,students participated positively, and a single teachercould manage the facility. -Some need' for revision wap

4noted, as was thfi need for comprehensive preparing Qfstudents and insy.rucors.

,

With the nationAl .impetus towards metrdfication, Lindbeck

(1976) outlined the cosTsc of drafting, wood and metalworking, and graPhic arts meIrification. Developed as

part of the National Center on Metrificati.on's programthese aids supplemented the center's Curriculum units.

al

..SafetY

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Charlesworth (1968) presented a constructive approac.h to

accident prevention in a dissertation safety manual. He

fimphasized methods of dealing with human factors, idehtifiod'as the cause of most'accidents, and suggested that obsevantinstructors can correctNunsafe afits before injuries occur.

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Ho itleo.advocated safety education pregrame that teach. atudente to "foresee and forestall" (Linger. To encourage

sucla approachea, he recommended that the usual negativerepatting of safety statisticsbe refocueed io stroke ti;e

po-sitivo side of enumer'ating accidento prevented andprotection received.

A programf-similar to th.at recommended by Charlesworie.Aes prgpared by the California State D paitment of Education

'1(1978). The document was designed to ixble administratorsand teachers to develop a safety educa'ion program thatconformed to state requirements. The Ode providedinformation at to the applicable laws and regulations,'facilktly and equipment requirements, and teacher liability,.Additapitelly, it supplied a faci;ity safety inspection listand an outline of an industriil education safety instructionprogram.. Similar informatio'n was compiled in Bro's (1979)haldbook on orgar4z5tion and administration of industrialartt.

In recognition of the industrial arts teacher's increasingvulnerabilitr to legal action, Kigin (1973) investigated thesources of, and remedies for;'teacher liability and a.summary of related state regulations and court cases,.While these are now dated, they represented a significant

.point of eparturebthat should be updated continuously. Of

approximatelit the same vintage as Kigin is-St. John's (1971)

review of the states of legal requirements for eyeproteceiron in each state of the union. Related preventativeconcerns, but in this case referr.ing to particulatecontamination, were embodied in Worthington's (1971)article.. While exhaust equipment was found to reduceain contamination, considerAble differences in machineeffectiveness were noted, were the efft.cti of other

factors than ventilation.

SUMMARY

The relatively sma'll number of studies included in thisarea is surpriesing, considering the facility and equipmentintensive aspects of industrial,arts. The planning processwasAamong the better documented areas, for surely thesize of investment represented by an industrial artsfacility demands careful planning. Evaluative proceduresand checksheets also were in evidence. However, in theabAence of any documentary research reports, we are left.tospeculate as. to the supportability of these checksheets.How are such lists validated? The relatively small numbersof Atatus studies that actually described the condition

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'and,extent of 1(1112 indestiial arts facilities also is

surprising. in addktion, standardised lists of equipment

were notsfound. in gen'eral use.1

lz terms of artticipatediresearch, we found more than the_expacted9attention .4voted.to the effecs of noise'.

.Conspicuously absent, hokiever, wore investigatkons of tke

effects of supply'anel budget quality; light,vcolor and.airquality; laboratory arrdngement; and the impact of equipment

ov learning.. Nor has the adentical element approach tolaboratory .equipmqlt been sublected to experimental

averification. / .

Safety, as might pe_expected,.receiVed some attention 'bu't

less than we Kou,,ld consider appropriate. Fire and

.

carcinogeniC hazard.status studies Vere two untouchedareas. Actual safety statistics and. incidents of decidents..also were found to be absent in the literature. The

reviewer4' personal knowl4ge of a new system currentlybeing implemented in New 'Jersey wil/ allow educators tobe alerted to Buell descriptions in the future.- However, withmillions of youngseers participating in industrial- arts,.

nationwide, the absence of noriative data seems professionally

irresponsible1

it wouid not be fair to end this auAmary on such a negative,

point. A most positive resource to'the field must bementioned. The NAITTE's Accident Prevention Manuals editedby strong (1975), represented a, significant cOntribution'to.,the safety. in our profession. The contributing Author'streatment of safet design, accident preven'tion, light,

-tu arrangement, equipm X, guarding; and other related matterscompel Our attention ,ee book should'Qbe mandatory,readingfor, ill.

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, EVALUATION

, The studies on evaluatiow were divided 'into.major categories;the.develoiment of tests/instruments, interaction analysis,

program evaluation .tedhniques, and thS effects'pf evaluations.Only studies with a major rather thaw incidental emphatison evaluation we're included.

TEST DEVELOPMENT .

Researchers reported efforts to develop tAsts and evaluativeinstruments in the.arpas of basic psychomotor skills,power/automotive mechanics, drafting, and construction

tichnolosiy. Additionally, the most.difficult tisk ofinstrumenting the concept of'technological literacy was:begun by Shepherd (1978). A thoughtful exposition'ofcriterion - referenced4measuremelit, its development uses

and potential abuses was compiled by' Day (1975).

Anderson (1970) sought to valid4te a battery,of powerperformance tests to predict the job performance of blindstudents; essentially it was a test of their basic manlpulativeabilities. The results validatel the use of the battery

as a success Predictor for shelqtered workshop twsks,

however, the four tests did not,differ from exlsting fipeed

tests.

.various approaches to power/auto mechanics were tried byCooksey (1973) and Williams*(1974). Cooksey valedated

a cognitive chievement test for students preparing forindustrial axts teaching. rWilliams pursued the linkbetween cognitive testing and jab performance by developing

a paper' and pencil automotive mechanics achievementtest that would substitute for performance testing. Theresvlts.Andicatea that on-the-job success.tcould not bepredicfed, regardless of paper and pencil test s4ocess.

The general area of drafting served as the frallework forresearch by Biewal4 (1969) and Krantz (1970). Both sought'

to demonstrate techniques that would predict the abilityof students to solve visualization problems. Biewald,who developed a test of five basic ideas of orthographicprojections, reported results from a national sample .

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that were highly faliorabl in terms of reliability (.93*),validitr, suit.ability, and equivalence. Less-concl,uSivefindings were reported in Rradtz's attem#t to dev'elbp

a design iest io evaluatestuAent'ability to solveproblems visually, intellectually, and Manipuati;tilY,using geometric forms. 'While Ile found that the test' was able

to predict college student performance, the test contained a.

an inconsistency with respect tcythe perfe'rmante of uppe'r

ability students.

As part of the J.arge scale IACP effort, Young .(l968) -

developed a construction <ihduatry interhst inVemtory. The

revised instrument' was felt to be Ocuse to counselors and

job placement advisops. Young pointed out 'the feasibility e

of developing an interest*inventory thatv,dealt with industrialtechnology through the'incorporation of a.manufacturing.scale.

Recognition of the evoluti n Of industrial arts;,into.a .

more broae.ly based techno* iy is dealt with.in Shepheid's,

(1978) investigation of tle's Experiential Inventory.Sheph'erd's work establi -1 an important,,corniistone in,

.the effort to measure a technoloOcal %literacy. However,

he pointed out that considerably more deyelopmental effortswere necessary.

The potential value of a standirdited industrial artsexamination was not lost on.the;Educattidnal'Testing SericevIn the late 1960s, ETS developea a set. of.examixiationslabeled the Cooperative Industrial Arts Teats. [Note: A

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specimen set is included in the ERIC system, 1969.1 These.. 41

examinations provided for an,individual.test for the subjectareas of woods, metals, electricity/eleetronics, and.drawing, as well as one general indusirial arts test.. While

some norms have been reported, the standardization and

validation of these tests have not been their strength.. ,

A more successful ETS'effort is reported byjWasdyke inthe AIAA's (1971-1973) pamphlet, Podus on UndergraduateTeacher Education. Dealing with the industrial artsportion of the National Teacher's Examination,.Wasdykebriefly chronicled its development: In a companionarticle, Dyrenfurth (AIAA, 1971,-.4s973) explored thepossible impacts of this examina.tion. Six years later,

' these ailthors deliberated the rationale and the profssionalcontrol vdchanism required for aestandardized national'industrial arts examination (Dyrenfurth, 1979).

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At. 'INTERACTION ANALYSIS.

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Both Loopy (1970) and Fahrlender (4972), developed inttiraCabn9

..;analybis instrumento'that allowedAystemec.o'recoding. **.

. and analysis of.teaoher behavior in techni08,1 faeilitiOs., 4

LeeppsOckqfically designed his instruskent for iridulAxial a

arts situationsI,Fahrlandtor used the 14rgek'seop, Of,

.vocatiOnal education amd prac_tical arta progiams: The

formea validity,and oiefulhess ware 'established in the

original study as well is by Kruget (1971):' Both Fahrlandar'S.

.

and Loopp's ,techniqtes demonstrated potentihi for analysing..

teacher behavior, ideqiifying its causese ancycharacterising

'the .quality of obsetved interaCtions. Ln the light of

the need to.establish the pkafession's benchmarks,. Krugerks. . .

study presen64 a particularky useful description of what, /

. actually transpired betwoenvteqchers and students in

4ndustiial arts settings.*. ,

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PROGRAM EVALUATION.

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Program evaluiation represented a completely differentapplication of evaluation methodology than tbvse repotted

'in the preceding sectiOns. 40f thia studies assigned-to

o this' category, three (Stangl, 1968; Burroughs, 19701

-Warrick, -1956) idehtified evaluative criteria for secondary;

school industrial arts programs. Borum (1969) documented.

the comprehenaive evaluation of A single pretechnolegy '

program. 'In addition to these developmental efforts,*

the Arizona* State Department of-Vocational Edueation(1969)

provided.an.evaluation checklist for, intermSd4ate level

industrial arts. Dyrenfurth (1970)t,attemptedla crCtical

evaluation of the University of Alberta's Ind strial ArtSA. .

Researoh Program.. The first-mentionsd study is not' ,arthy

becausie its checklist embodied the evaluative areas af ,

curriculuiv.Arganization, instructiOn4'student evaluationr

equipment, mater.g.als, teacher qualification, and facility'.

Dyrenfulrths on the. other hand, attempted a multipronged

appreach'that combined interview, documentary, observation', '

and analSitical techniques to a departmental.research program.

Each of, the...criteria development studies used essentially

a similar methodology.of abstracting recommendations for

the literature a.ntf revising and validating the tentative

criteria,by means of a jury. In contrast to the perspectives

of Burroughs and Btangl, warrick used a jury representative

of the national .perape6tive. Both Borum and Stangl grouped

their criteria into the areas of curriculum, physical

facilities, and teacher preparation. As a result of both

developmental procedures and trial appliVations, each

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,N1440P1141., Aeto***cittetitNe: In*tii4men.** 14044663,.. in the4ev eval0uati4n of secandar/ ichool induatiiat P404ramd.

.

Additionally,.gbe.tria .apoicatioawiou,d seep to provtde4 iv .evitluatiye desariptionpofethe etatue.of ihAustrial arts

r in SouthiDakota.(BurrpughB) andICOlotpdo, (Stang1).. A .

lOr' 4 distinatly?differenti,nonnormAtive apprpaah.v4s mploph0hi Borumls st4dy of the evaluatron!.,of a si

D preteahnolog faurriautaime. ,Employing,a iide iang ofdata inpaits, e presented an ihdepth dpcudientat op of theprugrdm usrng an organixationaX;frameworkjor thevahalysisof innovations 'that -he attributed to., Miles. 'The-study &

subseguent4y yas designed in terms 6f a'formitt that would.be Useful to guide the school tihaipals4 deiisiohs andac ions.

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.A different set og evaliTative appreirches-i's iliesented by 0- Lcivelerse. (1972) and brtkE critiques' ofaindultrial arts'' 'high schoof progragte contitoid in Lockette441973) AC1ATEYoarbook. -LovelesA,.for dxample, identified 'studentinterest,,economic feasib41ity,tand'couise nat.dre ad the

$- kby criteria lor prpgram evaluation.. Haynie (1978)

supported 'other efftirts'in,program evaluation in his'AIAAprbeentation% 'In doing so, he analxged ieVera; prominent

. existing models before.ariivini at his view ok thisprocess. SPecificallr, he pointed out the importance ofAdentifying exactly what needs to be militated, being codt-effective4 and developihg mechtinisms that Will encourage

$. the use of evaXuation data for-program improvement. Nowhereis attention directed so much on'tfiese and reletediissues

* as in.the accreditatidn'process% Impended'as fdtmativei evaluation, this nattanwide effort'exists' at publit and

private schools and postsecondary institutions. In spiteof impressions that all versions of accreditition.are

/ Owing carefuyTtbrutiny, little'or.noxesearch involving- th.dustrial arts and accreditation came to dur attention.The most significant document was the det of standardsand guidelines for.undeigraquateieathei educatioh programsoriginally develpped by the AC/ATVs Accreditation Committee.(1.973). Important becausi they repieseRt sAandards forqualitylundergradufte programs; the areas in which guidelines -

were developed are'as folloxis: curriculum goals, specfaltycontent, general studies, teaching and lesrning studies,practicum, resoueces and facilitied, orgSnizationo faculty,student services, eva2uation, and. planning.

0

- Innovative programs also have generated ev luation studies.Methodologically, somk,oflthese were suspey due tO thetpherent tendeRcy of'filnoyators to focus on evelopment andimplementation rathezt.t ,hfia careful evaluati;/e research. Thereader should not'e*that,the.aforementioned P was a

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.notablo exceji)tion. Additionally, the American Industry SyStem , (,

also documentedpareful evaluation. procedures (NeIson, 1949) ".

that deserve thd-scrutiny .of serious curriculum researchers. . .

We would note that it seems not entirely coincidental that ,

these,two projects invdlved the greateet,critical masirof. A

support among innovative programs.

EiFECTS OF EVALUATION

OC the seven studies in this category, five w'ere variationsmeta-evtluation,,that 1:s, the assessment of evaluation .

itself. Each of the five used a comparative approach in,whichrtwo techniques (dichotomdus endEtof an evalaatikve'methodology) were investigated ai to their differentialeffects. All but one (Landecker, 1969) dealt with dollegelevel students and only one, Campbell .(1976), providell a

synthesis of grading practice research.

Test difficulty was investigated in a power mechanics 'courite

by Daines (1968), Gains associited with low difficultytesting were sighifIcantly higher. This approach alsowas demonstrated to be effective in'terms of high ability

students. Low ability_hroups did not record significantdifferences attributable to test difficulty. 'Lyons' (1969)study of .the effect 'of conceptual emphasis indicated thatthis variable did npt sigraficantly.,m-anifest itself on

posttest achievement in electronics. A study of similar

nonequivalent control group design by DeLaura (.1974)

explored the achievement and attitudinal'esffects of criterion-referenced, as compared to norm-referenced, measurement% The

study concluded that criterion-referenced measuremernttechniques were superior in terms of student achievement of

objectival. Beyond the iiMilarities of A versus B

comparison methodology, the studied by Daines", Lyons, ,

and DeLaur# all investigated student attitude towards the .

evaluative variable. Despite the variability of the ,

effects of,the thdependent variables, it must be noted Natnone of the studies reported a student attitudinal variatibnattributable to test differences.

Holland's (1973) 'comparison of 'the effect of the insertion of' 's

evaluative items into instructional audiovisual prpgrams,however, resulted attitudinal differences in favor of'

tivir incorporation. while pbrformance also-was significantlyhigher (4;7 percent) for groups taught with such items'included, retention was not systematically affected. A

study to investigate the effects of delayed-response learningguides,..as contrasted to immediate-response teaching tests,

'was conducted by Landecker (1960). 'Both 4xperimental methods

.;4g.

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resulted in significant'achieVement gains over a contr4method of conventional instruction. Attituded ieported14 the students, however,*generally favored the lea'rning*

guidei.. 1

,

CompeteAcy-based teacher eduCatiesn wai the focus in.Branch's(1974) comparison of stUdent-managed and faculty-managed

. s

/ assessment. Specificallye phe sought to Assess Site validity'

.

of each technique as applieto mcroteachinq perfdrmances.'while some conflicting resu s surfaced; the !researchertentatively accepted the hypothesis that°studlant-Oiler, ,

panels can assess micrqteaching competencies as'validly as.

. ) vfaculty. .

4$ ""'.1 P

In a study that approached the tesi characteristic-:eifect,linkage'from a unique perspective, Lawson (1973) investigated ,

the test preference of undeilgraduate industrial Arts Majorie. .

He sought to determine whether there wet; a relationshipA"' between the emphasis.of teacher educe,tion p*Orams

(traditional versus contemiiorary) and a graduate's preferepdefor standardized achieveient items.of equivalent emphasis. .

Couperatilie Industrial Arts Tests and the /ACPAchievement Tests served as'sour.ces for both setgra of items, .

While some mixed results.were reported, the researcherreported Ole dxistence of a di'rect relationship between

.....program emphasia and que.stion prefereece. rn,general,

lb

however, respondenta who indicated career goals at thejuilior high school lever rated the contemporary contenthigher.

SUMMARY

Cbnsiderafble strengt viiis evidenced in the field's attenliont6,pruram evaluation. Considering.the evolutionary stage

',., we are41;in, this cepresente& a commendable characteristic.Another relative strength was the developnien1t of suitoble

intefaction analysis systems. Together the e areas*prepretented both macro sled micro-focused a. ention toguality that is vitally necpssafy to effeCtsive solution.Unfortunately, however, despite collections., such As the.AIAA's

special` issie of Man/Society/Technology (1974), there isnot ytt a critical mass'of elYa.luation research. The lackof standardized tests:to meastve achievementof any ofindusprial artt' key,oh:jectives is notiCeaid..- Ser'example,.where are the tests to substantiate induStri 1 ar'ts'. -%

contribution to avocational'eciucation,' career educati5Dn,technological literacy, consumer education, indgtsttial

understhnding, and basic skills? Rave procedures for such'affectiVe and attitudinal characterkstics as teacher4 -

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commitment bden diveloped? Desptte the,i0istence af many %

vbry ihtexestin4 studies* we have observ0 a i,ather frageepted.

anradhoc apProach to evaluation.

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TEACHER EDUCATION rv

CV

Depending on one's Viewpoiht, the .number of reported '

research studies, on teacher education May be. intarprdtedwith varyinTdegrees of desirabilityt ,Oni,one hand, it isacharacteridtic of a true profession to ptriv9( 'improvepractibe through R and D. However, co,ntrasting eles

e'xist. Perhaps these views are best'stated by these questions:Wy i.ts there a predominance of corlege;level studies? whyare there not more studies of piactice at the'R to 12

y levels? Such considerations seem worthy of the attentionthose.wha ihitiate,..guide, and donduct research in this

Area. 1

The.large number of.studies in thisrsection nece.ssitatedthe use of a systematic structure ih order(to 'deal withtheir. commonalities. 'One,such.system is presented in Rayand Streichler'.s (1971k ACIATE Yearbook. 4However, insteadof their goal, conteht,-land method approach, the ieviewerschose to upe a somewhat arbitrary organization corresponding.*to the chronological sequence,of pro4ress through teachereducation. This is outlined below:

Recrpitment

Organization an& Administiation

undergraduate Programs

Student Teiching

Graduate ,Programsi

Program,Evalua.

ons

FirSt Year Teachers

Inservice Education

kEC.' RUITMENT.

§

4U4ntil receint1y, the profession has nOt shown great conc.ernregatding numbers

IPof students reparing to enter it. Perhaps

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e4 itL 70is waa dum to a favprable supply, and demand katfo or .°

."Eecaus0 iis attehtion was, in fact, concentrated'on matters

of quality. With6the 0.sing number sf states reyorting

teacher shortages and the increasingbompetition for students,

recruitment is receiving greatir attfAtion. Laison (1919)

s&licited,the.opinionsof%teacher,educatgirs to determine

the variables that.hAve the gieatest influence O'n recruiting4 prospectivo industrial arts teachers 1.4 electronics. The

only significant predictocwas found to be the overall

number of industrial arts Mat:vs in teacher .education..Therefore, in order to increase the number of pz.sospectiv,e

electronics teachers industrial arts departments were,advised

to increase their bverall enrollmAt. In addressing'the°within depArtmeht" attractiveness of electronics, Larsonpointed to the desirability of projdcts ind an accompanyingemphasis on current technology as a prime motivational area.

Jen kins ,(1975) studied^t he role ok induStrial arts teachers

in the re'ofuitment of ilrospective teachers. The study also

provided current information describing the general influences

On student enrollment,as industrialoarte: majors. In order

of,-decreasing influence,I.,people of importance to tndustrialeducation\enrollees were paeents or relatives, student peers,

.teachers, industrial reprehontatAAes, and counselors. .For

those who 14d industrial.arts in Agh.school, the industrial

arts iiAtruCtor was 1.ie most'influential person.

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Chen's (.19/7) study of-university graduates revealed'an'alternate siet of infltte'ves that differ.entiated between

type o'f enTollee. For those who transferred from within

the Universiikyy, qounseling center' input and interviews with

industiial arts faculty and friends were the most important

'influences. For those.who transferred from other institutions,

the last two of t'he prAceding items were most important. For

freslimian entry 'students, high school industrial arts teachersand.o.durses.were the prime influences.

r.

Since LarSon earlier noted that approximately half of the

- industrial education majors entered college in a curriculumothei than industrial arts and one quarter mäde the decision

to pursue-friaustriat arts at the end of their freshman year,

chen's insight4i are particularly valuable. Larson summarized

the most effective recruitment practices as follows: the

encouragemetnt of hobbies related to industrial education;

and participation in industrial arts fairs and contests.Despit,Lareon's findings, it seemed obvious that at some

time other techniques wi41 have) be employed. The use.of

..slide-tapes 'fo,r recruitirig tias researchld by Eversoll (1971).

His programs presented occupational_ information relevant to

a career in teaching industiial arts. The data indicated

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,

.( . ' 14"v.. .4.4tliti:k.siptide-tapes. clot be used to'alteroAttitudes and transmit

knowledge of induoAriel,arts teaching tO students. Italso indicate& tilitt the technique.was mord,effective without

,

. sdistractom built into the prograp. In another media study,Weir (l87161.evaluated ttie recruit,ing effectiveness of twii

4 alternative forms of printed devices. While the measuredeffect, as !dell as the between-treatment differences in

.effect, Vtere sMall,.Weir.recomiended a neweletter recruitmentformat. In contrast to Weir's,delimited study, Foley's

/ (1967) national Lurvey asked 444 college students anddnpartment Chairmen to identift tact most effective recruitingpractices, including .contracts with'industrial arts teachers,high sohool Visits,by fackil y, career days, projectcontests,, and contacts witbjcounselors. Foley's handbookalso listed some of the rea ons for choosing an industrial arts

.' major, e.g., personal enjoyment of such ac%ivities,satisfaction from teaching, contribution to students,enjoyment of youth, fringe benefits, and.employment conditions.Since twelve s lyear have eapsed since this study, a. \

,

I.

replication,would be useful..

The study of.the relationships between various characteristicsand ultimate success in industrial edutation is, orcourse,relatedto recruitment. Inves4gations by Mcwethy (1973),Kilbourne (1971) , Griffin. (1970), and Wargo (1968) pursuedthis topic. The former determined the effects of highschool size and course program on college success. Whileresults did noesupport high school size as ICslgnificantfaCtor related to successwthe number of high school semestersof industrial.education difilonstrated the 'expected positive 1relationship., McWethy a.Ifto identified the frequency of,'student major change as being negatively related to overall

. success but of little relivtionship to ihdustrial educationGPA. *.Kilbournel,study of. high-risk students, .as identified .by admissions perinnel, conoauded that most will becomerelatively successful and that they typically reportedsatisfaction with the value of their college expfrience.

Griffin's examination of the relationships between highschool courses and achievement in irOusial arts teacheteducation su'rfaced some unexpected corrflations, forexample, an inverse link between thd ndinber of higt schoolindustriel arts courses taken and ceacher education GPAs.A positive relationship also was identified betweenmathematiO4 ard industrial arts grades for high and mediumability.students and a nsegative one for low,ability students.

..

Employing an analytical orientation more than a recruitmentone, Wargo studied the.re.lationships between undergraduateattitudes and their aahitvement orieiitation. He found that

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ilidustrial arts siudeilts with one .or 'more ye rs ok work

experience were significantly more oriented towards luck,,

.

control, and effort than acceptance and ability. Studellts

6 with higher GPAs wqre more oriented towar'd effort than luck.10

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.

Sex equity concerms also contr,ibutea ejo the.increasirkg °

attentic- on recruitment. aaron (1974), Aagaard6.(1915), and

Kane et al. (1976) each discussed female recruitient. These .

studies have been described in the secti.oepA human resources.

Population demographics and their.effects on adustrialarts wexe explored in the.Mississippi Valley Conference's1978. meeting. Stephens (.19.78) summarized some ratherstartling and far-ranging statisqcs; Conloy 11978) outlinedteacher education faculty implYvAions 'and the findingsof a related'survey; and Goetz /197,8) presented recommendationsfor the retention of industrialzarts preservicv teachers.

Certification is a ma3or professional concern related to.

re'cru,itment. McClean and Nagel,addressed it in their 197,3

Missibsippi Vally Conference Assignments. The former outlineddiffe ences in certification between industrial arts and

vocati 44-industrial teAchers; the latter broached ihe

issue o 'state.verau.9 nat'ional certifi ion standards. With

'industrial,arts' increasing th state vocationAledUcatio.n.departmentsand th the -increasingly evident

industrial artt teacher s these topips are urgentr.ofessional concerns, if.we ate te..maintain quality and

3dentity..

duality also was, the concern, of Feirer and Lindbeck (1971)

in their de,scriptiOn of partnership possibil ties between

two- and for-year institutions in the pre,ration ofindustrial educat4.,,on teachers. Two tarticulation schemes,

the partnership and the pyr#mid models were advanced. The

former involNied joirit advadeed plannin .of insitutionalcontributions to an overall program. e pyramid progrim,

in contrast, simply capped a two-year tdphnical associate

degree with an additional two-years of professional andacademic,t6drses as necestiary. Dean and Lathrop (1971)

also prbx;ide4 a perspective, based largely onthe Californi' xperLencë, on the preceding topic ofarticulation. In faCt, they extended the discussion toinvoLve guidelines fox an overall state system Of articUlatio.Eddy (1971), Littrell (1971), and Atteberry (1971) sharedfurther points on these issues.

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ORGANI4ATION & ADMINISTRATION

More than any'other document, the National Status Study ofIndustrial Arts Teacher Education (Chaplin/ACXATE/NAITTE 19/72

and 1974) provided an.analytical overview of the profession'sre.j.uvenation vehicle. In order to do thiit extremelycompfehehsive 4ocument justice and 1.e provide the bestpicture of our profession's teacher education component,the reader is encouraged to consult the original report,available from AIAA, NAITTE, or ERIC.

Despite the fact that :eadership of teacher education typicallyis,,considered a hallmark of success in the higher educationcareer ladder, few'studies dealt with 'this topic. These, N

ranged froi studies of artic.u4tion among programs (pirklA,1969) to those dealing with.!personnel (Brenckle, 1968; *

Ward, 1974) . In order to develop'guidelines to assist,transfer stu ents, Dirksen analy;ed linkageS between twoyear and feou year colleges. He determined that-two yearN%collegep limiraindustrial arts programs and that 'broth

two and four year.colleges would be more effectiVe if they, were to engage in joint planning, coUnSeling, area school

linkages, and exchange visits. Two year college,offeringsof four six;-hour industrial arts area blocks of study wererecommended, as was the publishin 'is s%of coursesacceptable .toward transfer into four year in ustrial arts

major programs. ,

Personnel concerns served.as the focus of bo Brenckle4s andWard's.studies. The former surveyed state directors in.orderto identify standar.ds used"Tn the Aelection ofr. industrialeducation instructors for-the junior college. He found thatvocational certification standards as well as the baSiccore of terminolo4y varied greatry among states; the lattervaried particularly among state departments, jpnior colleges,and four year teacher training institutions. Thisfeivariabilitycertainly must make the task of providing and placingjunior college instructors an urgent 'need identified byBrenckle, more difficult. An additional relevant findingwas that industrial arts teacher preparation was a'n acceptablequalification for junior college instructional positions,providing such candidates had the job experience requiredfor state vocational education certification.. A differentapproach was employed by Ward (1974) in his efforts atdeveloping a profile of the characteristics of industrialteacher education personnel employed by traglitionallyblack institutions. well documented in terins of descriptivestatisti.cs, the faculty was described as 98 percent malewith low mobility outside of the *tiuthe'rn geographic region;

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If

dectorates were held by 19 perceni, master's by 72 percent,.biehelor's'degrees by 6 percent and 3 pereent.wereiwithout

degrees...

Russell's 1978 Mississippi Valley Conference presentaXion

fo)cused on personnel aspecXs of.teacher education. .Hiapresentationprovided a thoughtful review of the litexature's

recommenSations forloworkshops and seminars, mini-sabbaticals,

.retreats,media centers, peer-evaluation, student evaluatipn,

task reassignment, conference attendance, andiwork experience.

The impetus for individual professional development eflort

often is thought to restat, apftropriately, from'a vaeiety

of faculty evaluation techniques. SwansTY & Sisson (1971)

described an appraisal system.that not only integrates

student, faculty, and chairman ratings into an effectiire

whole but that subsequently documented an open and viable

method 6i using the resUlts to guide salary, picimotion,

and retention decisions. Of course, this provocatEvesystem, as with all other forms of evaluation_x does evoke

.seme crucial issuds (e.g., Fentress & SwansonX 175)ewhich while they may temporarily ba resolveat given

institution -- are still a long waP from universal accitance.

UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMS

Descriptions

The AIAA (1971-1971 b, i) published twobooklets, Focus on

Change in Teacher Education and Focus cl4 Undergraduate

Teacher Education that c'ontained individual treatments of

a crossection of topics related to industrial arts t.eacher

education. Program strengths and weaknesses, internships,

the National Teachers' Examination, implementation ofchange, and departmental profiles were treated by the variout

authors. However, despite these complilations, descriptive,

approaches characterized the bulk of the studies thatpertained to undergraduate prograbs. Most kepresemtedsingle investigations .of a topic 41th only "open education"

pursued by more than one 'researcher.(

Betts (1975) determined the extent and method of implementation

of selected innovative industrial arts programs. His

"respondents indicated that the IACP was the most widelyimplemented (55 percent) and the American Industry Projectfollowed with 14 percent. He also indicated that contemporary

teacher education programs centered on materials and processes,

graphic communication, an4 power and energy. Due to his

finding that innovative programs were used primarily for

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eexosure purposes, and,then onily for-relatively smallmounts of time, he concluded that there has not beenextensive utir$ration of such programs in undergraduateteacher implesiiintation.

,V1

The results of a.major team effort, headed by'Rudisill(1974), toWard assembling an innovative industrial artsteacher education propram were contained in AwAVA presentation..Of special rAerest isIthe creative synthesis of essentialfaCility, curricula, and methodological innovations ina manner that mdtually reinforced each. It'seems clearthat at least this one institution (Uhiversity of NorthernIowa) achieved the'implementation that Betts identifiedas .

, A unique fellowship program at'West Virginia Universityresulted in developing a program that its proponents claimed

.should be the target of our nation's premier institu'tio.ms.In Industrial Arts Teacher 'Education Fellowship Program inOle Technologies: 1969-1970, the felaow proposed not onlya rationale and strUcture of a model program for the education.of teacher-scholars in technplogy, but'they elso peesenteda model of technology as a base,for indlistrial arts teachereducation. The model's varlous.components included thegeneral culturatz:core, technology core, professionalpreparation, multidisciplinary ..thtuets, and learningcenter efforts. More visionary than most, the model presentedby Devore and his colleague served the professiori byilluminating one of our alternative futures. Readers areadvised to regard it in this light rather than a blueprintfor implementation.

Trott (1978) conducted a unique nationwide invedtigation ofindustrial arts teacher edubation. His respondents, AIAA.Teacher of the Year award-recipients, were asked to identify.common teacher education patterns, comment on the adequacy of,preparation,%rate the fmportance of teacher educaXion'Components, and comment on stUdent teacher preparatcon.Trott also noted what should be a highly challengingfinding to our profession, namely, that there were severalareas_ of und.ergraduate teacher education that were

.inconsistent with the deiands of employment. Despite this,most components were rated as very important. The dataalso indicated that student teacher performance was somewhatmarginal.

Open education was first explored by Zurbuch (1973) 'inhis study of the acceptance it received by industrial artsteacher educators. Subsequently, Rumble (1975) developed ateacher education guide that had applicability to industrial

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arts. The historical and documentary approach by Zuzbuchwas particularly ineresting in that; contrary to therelatively recent emergence of the.cencept, industrial artsteaaher educators were folfnd to have held such views for

some time. Zurbuch concluded.that industrial arAtis best'when cohten is drawn from technology arld its-methodology fromopen education. This view seemed to be aocepted by Rdmble,as,attested by the development of a coursq designed to aidthe implementation of open edUcation concepts by.industrialarts teachers. This course, developed out of a systematic

literature reviewan0 bi interviews and.surveys,.incorpOrated'the essential findings of his developmental efforts. As

such, it was based'on incorporating 4ndustr.ial.arts ibtothe elementary school. open education classrooms4 andi,their

use of the widest wariety of materiala and ac.tivity.Emphasis, however, was placed on the technologies concernedwith manufacturing and a thematic approeph was recommended.

A comprehensive. synthesils of the open access curriculumas well as many of the points raised by Zurbuch and Rumblealso was presented in.Anderson's (1978) AC1ATE YeAFbook.

A nationwide survey of .industrial arts teacher educationprogram use of microteaching was conduCted by Cattle (1974).

The returns indicated that only 56 percent utilized thetechnique", that the Wajority using it were in methods courses,.

and that respo'ndents indicated microteachfnq was an importantphase of preparatory programs. Typical microteaching episodesinvolved the presentation of a live or videotaped model (moetoften 'a demonstration), a recording of a student-deliveredmicrolesson with 12 peers, and subsequent critiques by

the student teacers, college supervisors, and H,pupil" .

peers: In some cases, students actually followea throughon such critiqbes. A related, 'but more brdidly designed,study was conducted by Frye (1971) . He surkreyed teAchereducation to identify the use of innovative instrui.tional

methods. His data characterized the profession as ratherconservative with only the "innovations" of yidelotave

usagek microteaching, early field experience, and interactionanalysis showing substantial use. He justifiably recommended .

that more emphasis should be 'placed on these and otherinnovations.

Also using a nationwide sample of industrial\arts teachereducators, Beed (1970) established guidelines for industry-teacher education internships. These guidelines s.ubsequentlywere rated by a sample of industry. Recommemdations forsuch gdidelines included evaluation based on a combinationof letter grades and narrative statements by both'schoolcoo/dinators and industrial supervisors, regular seminarsconaucted by coordinators and supervisors,'regular reports by

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4iUterns to bgth-parties, and.iegular visits of interns by the

- *school cOordi.nator,.

Other forms of indstry education coolperation were- described

by Parks 0969).0

rom responses. to a nationwide surVey

of collegb industrial education department dhai'rpiirsone,

twelve methods were .ielectedlor indepth analysid:. Interms of,recency and depth, the gap, between knweileAge and

skill taughtiby teacher'education depa;tments'and ell'oie,. .

possessed bylindustrial workeA6.was nbte'd. 'FpettinatelY,

he also disoerned a cooperatkve'a4itude .on the part Of'

industry as%well as student belief that such effort .

(particularly the associated mitten work) waSruseful.Administrators pointed out*the'difficulties of staffing ',

and the'nemessary released time s their major problem with

'the approach.

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Stitl another link between industry an& higher, education' is

rOtresented by the,implementation of industrial technology

-.:i.pio4raMs by-many existing industrial educationtarts,departments.

40

taRobinson (1913) documented the rfse of such programs and,'

'Additionally, sought to clarify thetconcept (3findustrialtechnology. The Atter phase was 4uided by a riine-

member panel of experts,and'resulAed in positing whatRobinson termed a mature model industrial technology program

without specialization. ,

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Competenciee ...b. : \

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Competencies and éompetency-baied instruction were addiessed :..

by many researchers in what amounted to a significant

proportion of the profession's response to the imperitives '

of accountability. 'Popovich (1973Y, Ashcom (1974), and .

Siped (1975) developed and validated var4ous'1istd of 4

competencies and Corwell (1975) developeaNmaterials totranslate an introductory teache'r education -course into

a competency-ipased mode. Of these studies,'Ashcom's .

represented 4n exhaustive,chronicling and documentation of

a large scale project n P'ennsylvania to produce an inventory.4 of generic entry level teacher competencies. *Although.

not directly relited ,to industrial arts the focus on -generic /

. competetcies argued for its inclusion in this review.." .

Reader *. witA a direct intei.est are advised to. seei Koble's (1977)

report on the extensigA of he study to industrlal arts.' .

PopoviCh',s validatioA of*vocational and applied arts teachercompetenci4s, or Sipe's identification.of cbmpetencies 4

needed by vocational educators who teach, tIle handiaapped._%

;

he reports by S. Brooks (1974) , the Industrial. Teacher

ducation Competency Study Commiittee at the University 6f

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Wisconsin-Stout, .Bentien,, et al., (lv'74)., and the New York.:

State Induptrial.Arts Trial Certi:ication PrOect (2.974,, a and..

b) provided additio140..reneurces. A compilation of these and

other related effertr.were presented in'the ACIATE yearbook n

4P 0

on competencya-based industrial arta teacher educ'atio'n 6

,

(Brueckman and BroOks, 1977t:. . : .. ,

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Koble's listing of spec,!.fic industrial arts teacher

compet'encies in each of the four ,cluster ertas of ihdustrial. .,

miterials, power technology, visual coiminications,.andt professidnal concerni deserveA'careful attenticin. . Miller's

.(1971). United States.and carmal..an surieS, of fOctioilal .

..

ompetehcies; Maley's (1978) inventory of appropriate

I dustrialarts teacher fiehavior and/or'skills, and..the ..

p nnsylvaniaproject together constituted a sub'stanVial. .

TIbasis' for consensus on what.teacher education ptograms v

. o4ht to bi strring fors .M:iller found close. agreement..

butwoen educatOrband supervisors on the importance of

, functional coMpetencies. Of these, personal qualities and -!

behavioral oharacteristics were rated of pr.mary importance,

competencies peV%air4g to:.teachin% methdds* were'ranked over

course content iild'iiiformation. Maley's reporlisted. ,

.the capabiliaei-essential to teaching illdu'strial arts ,

but did not attempt to prioritize them. Instead he suggested

use of the inventory for planning industrial arts teacher%

inservicest self-eiraluationv and teacher 'education program

, and course restructuring efforts. Allihq theSe lines,..:

Miller's recommendatiOns dhould be mos carefully noted, namely, ...,

., that teacher 'edecatqrs develop valtd entry techniquesI.

related'to ?;ecessari outcome cqmpetenci,es.,

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, .:4 4

Professional aspects of the industrial arts teacher's' .

arsenal of competenc.les.%tere catalned in detail by the

committee at the Univerdity of wisdonsin-stout. Brooks

(1974),, in his ovrview of the New York State Industrial .

Arts, firial Certification rrroject, identified'the overall

instructio.nal competencies required oi.teaChers, ab rated

by 1524 industrial arts teachers. The.tep four overalk

competencies were: to stimulate and maintain student

,intereAt, to perform: basic manipulative skills, to provide , ...

activities which anew students to develop ncreative abilities,

and to develop and use'a irariety of instruetional materials.

In related works, the project released detailed lista of

technical competencies tor the jeniok highAcheol level,. including forest produete, ceramics, graphic arts, electricity,

manufacturing, Wawing, and -- for the senior high'school

. level -- plastics, technical droving, forest products,

. power technology, metals technology, and_eleetronics.

.4-

4

a

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fito

,

.k..,1:f A

idle1 t .

t I

Z

crir "r

I -., cr

..

Attention also should be given to POpovich's reeults (103) AI. *.-.4

- which kepqrteel.no 4ifferestiation between dompetencies:v

1

4v..

tequi4ed Ety.itidustiial education teachers of vocational0ourscis'as'oohtrasted to 'those whose programs were explcratory .,

,, in nature; ..This fiAdin4 would tend to.support the evolutionof compriahensiimilpalr.servicearea, programs of vodational

i, teacher educay.con that include ihdustrial arts. Another.'significant kipd'ing was that the identif4ed Competencies .'

.were used to, similar degrees by teachers of.var ing years. f.,. .

,

oaf experience. Somewhetjpa;allel to these fiat ngs, with 4,,

resRect to the,similar.natUre of vocational and e lftaiori : / . 4

4tc.mche,t'comp:etencieSI-was Sipes'.conclusion 'theft vocattonal and

*.t.

, spemial-educators,xanked model teaCher°comOotencies in- a. '

. similar fashion. 'Overall, hoyever, despite this congruence,Sipes (1975) concludedthat vocational eaucaors were found

:A. . . to' tend i5wavd.subject orientations as contrasted to the

1 student orientation of dpecial education teachers: .

;

.., Aft efiective summary of the efforts-toWard competenCy-base'd. 4,

'teacher e4cation4s.piovided by Brueckthan and 141poks' (1.977'). c

overview in the ACIATt Yearbpokl. Competenoy,-based'InduitriaZ..; Arts Taacher Education.. The sections.on the foundations of

1.

? 4CBTE, affective aspects, measuring competencies, preservi,ceand inserviceimplementations, and the imperatives generatedby CBTE'address the major iossues 'of this new thrust.' . .

...v

.. 1

,.,, . .

We .cannetc however, totally disregard the impression thatcompetency Identification processes invariablylose thevital aspects that make gbod ieachers a synergi.stic productof th'efir individual cOmpetencies, as,contrasted to anarithmetic sum oi Otese same, competencies. 1Stadt and Kenneke(1970) in an APIATE Monograph, Teacher Competencies for theCRbernated. Age, seemed to embody this concern in their work..tontrary to the imPlications of its title, the monographcontained no catalog of de1ineatpd competencies. Instead,competencies were. addressed ln terms of appropriate responsesto.techno1ogica1 impacts on man and society and by presenting'some desirable characteristici of a teacher education program.

STULIEh TEACHING

Surprisingly, only two dissertations dieectly treatingstudent teaching surfaced. Thby were ioleszak's (1964)compfiriscin of the expected and actual outcomes of studentteaching arid MCCrystal's*(1973) siudy of the role ofcooperating teachers. The former st,udy verified thecooperaiing teachers' pilKtal role throughout the experience,a role that was analyzeeturther by McCrystil. The latterstudy developed a matrix descriptive of cooperating teacher .

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et

74-P.

.

'

ioles as v4ewed by college supervisois, student teachers,/ . . .

i

Acandsk-the cooperating teachers themeelves. A detailed

a 'apalysis coirf specific student teacher events, activities,. and decisions was presented according, to a normativerleviant

classification scheite. .

4.

.Y

Concerned with.identifying necessary student teacher,dompetencieseltopeland and Bame.(1919) also.conducted A

na*ional Delphi study to this'end. Th9 detailed list itf

competimcies that.resulted.piomises to.be of great useanelf/alu4ting stadent teachers.° Miller's (1968) report on

student teacher supervision via video tape also providedanother unique 4416a, namely that of interaction analysis of

tOe taied_segment. Becadse of the techniques' objectivity',*N. it was Opqndithat atudent teathers tended to accept

- constructitre criticism more readilY..

. ..

ip.

GRADUATE. PROGRAMS, t

4

et.vitt*N1°.968). surveyed industrial arts departmsnt chalrpexsons

deans, scitobl,supervisors of industrial arts, and industrial,

arts teach4rs in order td ascertain the desirable

charatteristAcs of master'Is degree programs. Thel major

finding was thet such programs should emphasize Vile development

of teaching proficfencir'in industrial arts and it should 6

includeipoth technical and professional colirses. The courses

shoUld comprise at least orie-half of the'master's program.

More recently, a carefully conducted needs Assessment approach

to thq revision of a master's degree prograp was documented

sby Baker and Mayer .(1978). Their f4ndings supported Gavin's,

with the addltior of a perceived need.in the career,education-related aspects of industrial arts. .

Wright (1973 b) presented an introductionIto a seriei of

studies designed to lead go a revamped Odubtrial education

master's degree program ai.the Universie of Wisconsin-

Stott... The result was a generalizable model for theprofession,1 aspects of master's degree programs.. qn contrast,

prella (1975; 1976) employed follow-up methodology to

evaluate graduate opinion of an assistantship-mastersi

degree combined program. The iespo-ndents indicated general

satisfaction.with theiretuperience, although they noted the

lack.of provision for planned teaching experience. Considered

of mast benefit to career development wa# the opportunity

for profes'sional association with the tabultlt. Responddnts also %

emphasize& the desirability of a writted mission statememt

specifying the functions and objectives of the mast k's

(

a010

(

11

41, 1.9.

. 40

Aegree program..... .

.1.- . , 0 ..- - . .,

In'voived at masterrs'and doctoral levels, graduate assispants

Ei

14Z

'played a significaht'role, particularly iwiefahing. The, et

.

:characteristics of such efforts ware reported-by Gurbacll and . .

.

.

Harris (1971). While investigatirki the problems associatea-A

. with graduate assistants., the study also presented apositiye pidture of how the requirements and cdllegial #

acceptance contributed to anticiPaied careett of the 4p.

assistants. To increase the accessibility of such graduateassistantships, the New Jersey Industrial Arts Coliege, w ,.

Student Association.(1979) sufveye4 and publisled the. , .

,

location, requirements, and characteristics of assistantships, .*.f . '',

available'in the nation..

...,..

. " .

At the doctoral level, Nielsen (1969) prepared a.comparative\'analysil of industrial'education programs including.industrialarts, trade and industrial,'and eddcation..He reporttd that.the differences th t existed in the scope ofindustrial education at ithe doctoral level were not.,0 .

prdnounciiebetween indus'trial arts, trade and industrial,and'induatrial-technical educatton as they'were withim:areas.

0 lie reported a simi;arity of currionlum patterns', as weli,aq freeaom to build programs on thi basis Of indAyidual.neect... The traditional dillerelce between 911.D,'El4 Ed.D.programs, the language requfrement, was repowted eb 1:19modified. by.a substitution of other profidiencies. Almost '

all.admiseion processes involved standardkped teststh6wever, responses indicated that the use of test scoresvaried midely. Jaiu (1975) aldo researehed doctoral

. programs with the intent of establishing a list-of professionalsat thai level. He surveyed undergraduate, graduate, andadminidtrative faculty. Extensive agreement on the list'was established; a central core of the'thirteen most highly-'

,and consistently rited competendies was developed.

In summary, therreader should become familiar with twok,comprehensive treatments.of graduate educatiotr: AIAA s(1971-1973 h) Focus on Teacher Education Graduate Programs .

and ACIATE's (1974) monograph, Graduate Programs in IndustrialEducation. These documents contained treatments of graduate

..uprogram -objectives, specific reviews of program characteristics,and the like. The ACIATE's monographialso included a review

sof research on graduate education, a tatus report,ofgraduate programs, and Poor's insightful approach tohumanizing graduate schools. That concept was implicit inWright's (1976) item on improving graduate education andDirInfurth and Miller's (1979) presentation of puttingpurpose into' nonclasa experiences of graduate students. Theydocumented the profession's views that graduate education

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4

involves more than the mere tiinsmission 01 skills ance'

knowledge. Role models, aspirations, and .interpersona.l,

influences are,crucial ooncemitafits in the pFocess.'

PROGRAM. EVALUATIOiA

..; .

The profession's commendable self-scrutiny is seen in'a

I .5

t

number of evaluative studiei.. Kost dealt with undergraduate

programs and 4 smaller'number with graduateprograms.' 1

110

.

Underg5aduate StUdies

Follow-Up; sur*eys of baccaiaureatesstudents was t he.cent'ial

focus of Studies. by Lindell (19.68), Winters (1970), idwards

". (1971), Ross and Steward '(i977)., Weiner (1971), Hein fl969).

Innis (1971), Lackins(1977), and Giffoie.(1970). Conventional,

questionnaire methodology was used primarily, although,Gieford

took.the further step of5 seeking administrator input on a

systematic basis. Typically, the stuges tUrireyed all .

baccalaureate or in some cases, postbaCcalaureate 04duates. .

of various institutions. Ten yeais was thy span las% frequently

ueed, aithogh GIfford surveyed fourteen yOfirs of graduate,s.,.

The findin04 generally dealt with couiSe evaluations, petolient A

of'graduates in teaching and/or.industry, departmental needs,

additional, eaucstion, salaries, and problems ekperiences. Some

of the major findingd were es follows:%.1,

.

.While dollar advantage nearly always favoredthe nonteacher,9 when computed on a monthly basis,

the difference was not very large (Innis, 1970):.;.

A need wad.seen to revise professional indus.trial

. arts courses (Gifford, 1970; Lindau, 1968; Weiner,

1971)..

.

, ..

. Recommendations were made that departments imPlement

lew or "develop existing technical°areas (Gifford. '

1970; Lindau, 1968; Winters, 1970; Edwards, 1971).

The greatest proportion of\graduates gave an .

above average rating to incrustrial arts programobjectives, gdals, Mad courses (Weiner, 1971).

The i'dentifIdation by graduates of an anti,. ipaed

future need for general eductation, speech, tathematics,

health, and composition courses (Weiner, 19 1)-,

I

1 9 .

I

a

4.)

. 4 4.

t:

Asseslment of.the pibgram as deficient in terms.

of facility, equipment.and course offeringsN4

i(Edwards,'411'. v ,

. .. ' ,

,Two othet studio-a (Zoppetti,).97p; Gheen, 1970) pursuedanalyti.c approaches to assessing program impadt. The former

,.,..detrained freshman anil senior &tudent growt3h in understlandingof' melkicah industry at fivelcoopArating institutions. Such

.. .. growth was fqund to vaky signifidantly along insititutiOns. senior13 at doctoral grfntielg institutions scored higherthan:J.-those at onesiobfferingexclusively bachelor's and master's i

..'" degrees'. Gheen investigated .the equally difficult effectof teacher trainitg pkograms and sought to determine the

.extent to which college.ifidustrial education programs were .

.

prepaiing teachers to develop the creitivetalents. Uding1 a Creative Expression Scale, he foundNithat ciSlative stimulation

was statistically substandard and that greate'i-Oreativitywas encoiraged in nonlaboratori, claises compared tolaboratory-based exper.iences. .He concluded that industrial.

,arts teachers were not being adequately 'trained to develop

. i . students' creative abilities and, therefore, suggested thatsiOilart inadequacies generally akisted ihroughout'theptofeasi,on.'

6

Larjcin (1917). approached follow-uP evaluation'in i slightlydifferent maaqer. He attempted to determine diffeFencesin evaluatiorig between am indtitutiom's graduates and its S

faculty. THe findings indicated agreement on the ach4evementofkobjectives pertaining tO t.he relationship between people,society, and industxy;.the influence of industryv theopportunity'to pursue interesbs Iknd develop'technical skillftdevelopoan appreciation fok cr'afiSmanship, and provideoccupationalSand avocational informatipn. 'The twb groupsdiffered,dignificantly on their assessments oUthe objectivesof demonstrating problem-solving skills, sAfe work habits,dnd effective work.practices.x

Gradudte'Studie,s.

Graduaite prOgrams provided the focus for stUdies by Riddle(1.373),Da1e (1975), Bettis (1971), Sakiey.(1973)., Devlin(1971), and More1an (1970). Thd former's was a follow-upof all graduates at,East Texas State University since 1955;Bottis, Dpvlin, and Moreland surveyed only the doctoralgraduates of The Ohio State University, Texas A & ,M University.and Colorado State College, respectively. University ofWisconsin-Stout master's dergree and specialist gradua,teswere the focus% of, Bale's study. All' reported generally

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6

.%1

e

*

falkrable"responses and overall gradaaate 2,40sfaction with ./

thpir prOgrams. Moreland and Devlir concluded that .

reppondentS valued the opportunity for interaction adongtheOselves and with faculty as the highest levet experienco.WhAle both reported program Teputation as belag .crucial

to respondent enrollment dicisions, Delilin and Bettis °.

indicated that the'amoUnt oI financial. assistance also,

played a role J.,11 such deciivions. Riddle reporteethe needfor a greater emphasis on.public ralattoso and vommunicationwith graduatesv the desirability of facility: equA.Pmeni',

and instruCtional media improvement; and an increased'.

tailoririg of courses towards greater utiiitleto those'graduateteSeeking industrial career**

. .

4

I

Also useful for analytical'purposes wete the descriptivedata in many of these studies, e.g., Bettis' unexpecte4determination.that graduate teaching experience (before

or during their doctoral studiei) consisted off 8.8 percent c

elementary school, 75 percent secondary school, and 7.3percent corlege teaching. Additional valuable in.sight .

was that graduates rated course work as contributing most to

their Professional development;'they perceived researchrassociateships as effecting this characteristic more than

teaching assistantships.

Sakie's (1973) study represented a different approach inthat, contrasted to the comprehensive evaluations, heassessed the effectiveness of a single component,.the f

doctoral internship. Another difference was his methodology

of seeking evaluative responses from supervisors ratherthan from students themseives. The 68 respondents suppliedinput that ailowed Aim to conclude that the progiam wasmeetIng its stated objective's.

Methodologically, both the graduate and undergraduate.-ei:raluations were more alike than not. No major differenceiemerged:/ Perhaps the techniqUe of surveying emplolmrsrepresented the most uaique characteristic. We are forced

to wo,-ier whether more .effective and/or powerful iechniques

act 7;ly.exist.

FIRST YEAR TEACHAS'.

In recognition of the inadequacies of a closed systeM model

of a four year teacher education program, problems of,first'year teachers are being investigated. Typically, the objective

is some combination of mo:difying the training program .orinstituting some form of transitional program in order to

make entry more effective. The studies of Starr (1974),

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3

,

:

le

Alexander4(1974)1Ind Shackelford,(n.d.) were ge#red to,

such oblectives.'

Starr idimtified eginning teacher competencies in termqof khowledge, ok 1, and behavior. However, 'these Werest4ted ss.geneka Limed competency statementsi ,as such ,they

4re Rerhabs bettak suited as criteria for-program self-'valuation. Alexan er's (19,4) study, on the other hand, listed

t1,e te most critióa and ten lea.st °critical lirst year,teiche problems which surfaced from a national survey.Coopers ive effort:among teapher educators, schoolidmidistrators and school boards, and teachets.are.requiredto addredigthe,followihg problem areas: insufficient moneyforimaterials and machines, insufficient storage and wqrking,spaca, lack of contact with board members, inadequateedtfanceand increment salary, Inftiating and operatingindustrial arts clubs, lack of library materials andreferencesr assignment-of ,icappropriate (special education)students; lick of time for.mEbintenance, and,working withinthe limited-budget.

I.

*INSERVICE EDUCATION

Two categorips of inservice researbh were identi4ied. The

°first represented developmental. projectston 'the design ofmodels and the identi4cation of needs4.e.g..j,.0'Tuel (1969).Cu1bertson(1975), McEntlye and Hukilll.s (1977), Siieno

'et al. (1976),,and Ely (r973),.and to some extent,'Teig.(1975). On the other hand, Harder (1970), pates.(1969)) Crouch(1969), .Hyder (1971), Rubin (1972), and gletn 41915) were'evalUationstof theieffecte 6f inservice efforts.

Culbertson prosented the most comprehensivter model which, whileaimed at cogibunity college occupa.tional'instructors, .contained many elements for the inservice education ofindustrial arts teachers: Culbertson's conclusions were thatinservice roles were not,distinct but rather overlapping.'The roles of teachers and ilmservice leaders were similar endyet, sinc, co .nntional teacher education prograMs did notfocus on ,

Aucation, they mere not compleiely,appropriatemodels for th inservice training of commvnity college andtechnical institute instruC.,tors. An interesting aplyoach

- would involve the applicatiOn of Culbertson's model.to theneeas of occupational teachers identified by Ely (1973). Ofrelevance to industrial rts was the latter's finding that therewas substantial overlap in the identified'needs of teachersin the service areas survieyed.. Ely reported considerabledifferences between teachers and supervisos al.@ thatrespondents presented classroom management,.planning, and

A

a

professiional development as the iost urgentoneeds.

With Culbertson's mo4e1 ind Ely's key.ileede, O'Tuel's (1969)

earlier study is of increasing value. iHe recommended several

..aesirable characteristics.of the insei4ice procsess,

that instructors perceive it as part ot their basic needs,

that it utilize group dynamics, that it result in integration

of departmentat aCtivities, that teachers be involved in the

4planning, that it incorporate realistic inoovations, that

participants understand what resources are available, and that

it incorporate problem-solving activities.

The studies of Sireno and McEntire et al...provided descriptive

informatioR of selected practice'in Mistouri and Arkansas,rfippectivety. .The former described methodology, practicumactivities and participant pretest and posttest data which

was useful in that it documented a procedure designed.to enable

industrial arts teachers in integrating occupationally griented

activities into their existing progra$4, thus qualifying them

for vocational funding. In contrast, McEntire's program

was worth noting mainly because of its'methodology rather than

content. It, described an education-industry exchange program

providing nonvocational 'industrial arts teachers with sIill

training to enable them to teach trade and industrial subjects:

Although two models were developed, little success was reported.

'The researchers noted that this watedlie to the expense and

length .of such a program and the lack of desire of-industrial

4;rts teachers to retrain. Fortunately, the iesearchers'

attempt to convert craftspeNons and skilled workers into

teachers me't with more success.

Perhaps the moit systematic inservice effort, and certainly

the largest, was the 1INCP's workshops. Hyder (1971) evaluated

the 1970 series of nin7p summer workshops. His 154 respondents

provided findings that demonsttated a significant increase .

in teacher knowledge of IACP content and process', an expected

finding when one recognized the "something versus nothing"

nature of.such methodology. More interesting was his findinq

that there was no significant difference in job satiqftiction

between participan.ts who subcequently elected to Leach the IACP,

program and those who did not.

Of the studies investigating tne effects of inservice

education, two pertained t5 NDEA institutes and three to

individual institutign effOrts. In the first category,

Bates (1969) dealt with tNe institute on creativity. While

he suggested that' considerable effects rcsulted from the

program, they were difficult to define. In contrast, Crouch

(1968) ascertained the impact-of ail 1967 NDEA institutes.

The findings'and excellent response rate (mo)7.e than 90 percent),

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pr..*

.

4

eniabled him to conclude that the Institutes affected bothinitructionil progeam and the extent of participatant 4

involvement in extra-instructional professional gctivities.

Glenn's (1975) investigation of *the effects of.ari inservice°program to encourage the Utilization of democratic classroomprocedures was not as positiVe. °These indicated no changein verbal interactlon patterns. However, experimentallytreated teachers did improve Iheir scores on the Teaching i

Situation ReactIon Test. Harder (10,0) compared the .1

effectiveness of two inservice approaches: indkvidualized .

and institute programs. Whileirgenerally the findings,supportedthe institute approach,.addittonal factors were important;for example, subjects from larger communities scbred higherthan all others. Perhaps the most unusual methodology, thatis for industrial arts, was employed by Rubin (1972)' in her.study of an institute to assist teachers in Working withculturally deprived youth. Sge concluded with the optimisticworking hypothesis that the imstitute constituted a beginningstep and the ralevant skills can bA developed.

SUMMARY

Both strengths and weakne:sees characterized th% researchreviewed in this sections This uneven picture is the resultof some good eff rts; e.g., the investigation of the factorsaffecting enrol ent, and some weak areas; d.g., the attemptto identify Eac rs in pred4cting postenrollment success.Despite the f t that we seem to have some opinion-basedknowledge of key recruitment factors, empirical verificationappears lacking. Additionally, the quest to identify factors'contributing to imdustrial arts ,success were hampered by theerror effect of maturation. The end result is that not eyenprevious industrial arts eloferience was foind to contributeto subsequent fkuccess. This,"of course, challenges thenotion of preretjuisite coursewOrk that is supported by thetraditionalists.

Other gaps in the literature focused on student teaching,certification, atticulation, and methodolo§y. ,These.topicsa eared to be underrepresented in'terms of research. Fewstudies, for example., addressed.certification issues, 'a

critical concern far teacher education particularly when oneviews the current struggle over the control of the profession.Furthermore, one of the studies that focused on such questionsseems to have considerable potential for wreaking havoc alongthe industrial arts-vocational education front: Actualperformance requirements for these two; frequently dichotomized,

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et.

tt'040.

0

Service areai were found to be quite similar. Articulation,particulaFly Iiiitween industrial arts and vocational education.

° also was one of th, identified research' gaps,. A furtherweakness was the very gonservative nature of th'e approach

to methodology.' In Orma of teacher education being an\effective example of what is known of meihodology, we apparently

.could 'be indicted for gross negligence. These weaknesses,hoWever, should be,construed as providing consikerableopportunity ,for carefully targetNted research. Furthermore,

because this areas clearly interface with vocational education,

they qualify/for vocational Research Coordinating Unit (RCU)

support.

Despie these somewhat critical observations, we also noted

0 some significant strengths. Specifically, Chapim's documentation.of the status:?of the teacher education professipn provided a -

very descriptive benchmark. Other healthy signs inckuded the-vital tteatments of topics by the members of.the MississippiValley Conference. While, unfortunately, the tradition of

this group pyecluded widespread dissemination, their effottsrepresented a significant contribution: Similar strengths,

more often in a ,teaditional rather than.innorative vein,

were found in the numerous follow-up stulies.

Even more significant is the t4emendous amount of e ort'

devoted to 'competency-based instruction. The carefu y

developed lidts of competencies and their accompanying .

specificatio &provided a clear picture o± the goal teachereducation pr grams we.are addressing7 Gradaate ,programs

received sig ificant atteRtion, a' h'ave the prdblems.of first

year teachers. Our knowledge of fiFectivik.inservice education,

methodology has been greatly advancbd by siiich systematic

'.efforts as the IACP.

Overall, teacher education reseanch r4relented sPme strange

contrasts. However, a considerable number pf building blocks

exist. Effective research can be built upon such a foundation.While we are a long way from gl:ound zero, we are cclknfronted

by how much we still do not know..0

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1;a,

#

ADMINISTRATIONgAND SUPERVISION

Administrative research relfvant to industrial arts educationfocused on attitude6-and role studies, administration pxoceduiesand preparation.. While numerdus dissertations were reviewed, -

the most cogent overview of admiwtstration and supervisionwas provided by4he AIAN's (1974) booklet, RecommendedQualifications, Duties, and_Reep'drisibilities for State andLocal Supervisors of Industrial Arts. It includedrecommendations for'practice in the areas of qualifications,administrative responsibilities (executive, personnel, budget),supervisory responsibilities (program, support), and publtc,relations (school-lcOmmunity,relationships and communicatIon). 4.

4!

ATTITUDE STUDIES

Six dOctoral studied formed the largest portion of thisresearch. They were in the areas of career education,vocational educktion, and industrial arts education."Principals were the most frequently surveyed group. Otheradminibtrator/supervisors, school. board members, counselors,teachers, and legislators. wexe surveyed in some studies.

.

Career education was the focus of the attitude detenininatioinstudies of.Phillips (1975) and Jones (1974) . Of relevance;t6 industrial arts was Phillips' findings that' the legislators,school board presidentsc,princip,als, and teachers indicatedthat the world of work was not sufficiently present in existinghigh school courses (69 percent) and that career educationshould be taught.in existing 6-ourses (73 percent). Both Jonesand Phillips reported overall positive attieudes on the partof each responding group. While Phillips identified asignificant relationship 'between the respondents' level ofeducation and their attitudes, Jones discerned relationshipsbetween length of service and such attitudes.

k,c,

Companion studies by Milam (1968) and McNeil (1968) askedprincilpals to identify their perceptions of vocationaleducation. Both stuclies involved stchools in ihe Auburn Universities.

PProjedt in Secondary Education. Th0 result. s of both surveysof firincipa1sj.n six different fitates.vevealed their opinionthat the 4str:,ctional staff was the strongest program item and

facilitiet the weakeot.

122 -

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VIP

Attitude toward.induStrial, arts.was the prime concern OfMason (1970) and Brandstott (1975). The former'surveyedprincipals and counselors; the 1 tter, school board members.

#oth studies reported an 4overall avorable attitude toward

industrial arts. Brandstatt ident fied the sex of respoilding

:board members as influencing exPressed attitudes (females

were,most positive). Mason found a positive relationshipbetween such attitudes and the size of the respondent's school

enrollment, their undergraduate major, the exteni of supervision

of industrial atts in their school., and their exposure to an

experienae.with rhduqxJ.al arts. Brandstatt did notsubstantiate the commonly thought of pipi.tive effect of

previous exposure to industrial arts in.terms of the .

responding board member's high school courses.

In the elementary grades, the principals and teachers surveyed

by Tuckey (1978i revealed a positive attitude-toward'industrial

. arts activities. The subjects, compared to some of the

preceding reports indicated a significant understanding ofelementary school industrial arts, its potential,'characteristics, and'contributions to ckreer education.

ROLE PERcEPTIONS

The role.perceptions of both industrial arts supervisors.anddepartment chairpersoas were investigated by Hall (1974) and

Hayden (1973), respectively. Both stuties involved principals

and teachers; however, Hall included i pervisors, whereas,

Hayden added department chairpersons. Hayden's major

findings were that, despite their agreement'revarding theideal role of industrial att6 chairpersons, ptere wasdisagreement between teachers and principals regardin4 the

actual role of the chairpersons. This dissonance is heightened

by the opinion of the chairperson in that 'they agreed with both

teacher and° principal groups. Hence, much conflict potential

existed ?iin light of the diaagreement*of teachers, chairpersons,

ahd principals regarding their perceptions of the actual and

ideal roles for such. persons.

Hall's similar study of the role expectations for industrfal arts

supervisors yielded results more consistently in agreement

across the surveyed groups. While a large degree oZ responsevariation existed, Hall concluded that there were no syst:ematic

differences, attributable to respondent categories. While not

directly concerned with ind4strial arts, Magisos' (1968) analysis

of the factors associated with state vocational education

supprvisori' role perceptions was reviewed, due to its significance

as a benchmark for comparirg the perceptions of industrial arts

supervisors. The two populations may, in fact, overlap in 1i4ht

of the increasing likelihood that industrial arts supervisors

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were tpurid to be houeed in state'voâational departmen,ta. Magtipareported that'state supervisors were found iolAralue dynamicbehavior, (as COntrasted to tractive onoth, ? acale aeveaoped.byRice). He also.repor.ted that incumbeRts at higher job levels.

, were found to be.more dynamic. In conibarison to tractivesupdrvisors., the more dynamic ones were reported to hav'sbignikicantly more formal education, college degreesp'return's tocollege (after entering the profession), And a higher perceptionof their' salaries. Mlorb 'dynamic sui)ervisers'Aiere found to befemiles, to have lilYed.in smaller dommupities, dUr4ng theirschooling,, and to VorX id state vocation'al diliksi.ons- without

Wpe;sonnel selection policies.

. .

DMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES,

4earer (1973)4investigated the influences,and.forces alfectingindustiiai arts.supervision over the past fifteen years. Hirreview and jury proCess identified ten validated forces whichwere then'rated by.fifV-two state superyisors.of industrialarts; Responses indidated that 74 percent of the supervisorshad no mandated obligations to provige special supervisoryservices for indusitrial arts but were providing it.underregulations for general education. Additionally, the ratingsrevealed positIve effecti at.tributable to eight of the tenforces with no influenc.e assigned the remaining two.

\ Fruits (1975)-and Riottel (1974) both dealt with localadministrative practices relevant to induserial arts. Whereas.ttie latter did so in terms of legal-fifiCad bases.,,the lormerpursued the relationship of personal and situational variablesrelated to supervisory roles of industiial arts departmentchairpersons. A survey of a 'random sample of 77 Indianaindustrial arts chairpersons yielded'results that demonstratedsignificant relationships between both personal and situationalvariable's'and rjnistrative responsibility. However,situational va iabiles appeared to have more influence thanpersonal factor ; in fact, accumulated credit hours-inadministration/s ervision were ;Jot so. related. Fruits.reported 'that industrial arts department chairpersonsttended toassume more responsibility for planning, communicatihg, andorganizing duties than for'supervising, coordinating, orevaluating duties. Kinzey and Fruifs (1977) subsequentlypublished a detailed list_of industrial arts department'chairperson (school level) duties as ranked by.surveYeechairpersons. Price (1977) augmented this with a descriptionof /anticipated change in the roles of such chairpersons.Kinzy (1976) also provided a useful summary of researchpertaining to industrial arts department heads.

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Hiring practices weie the focus oi Van Metrels (1974) study. .

r He Avestigated the feasibil4ty of studenfi teaehing Video ''s

tepee as an aid,infthe dtkecking of beginning teachere byscilool admin.istratets. He concluded that sUch tapes were

feasible and that administrators were ihterested'in their ubo.

Directly related to the inflow 'ef new professionalS is !the,-

means of employing them. Börnabei (1913) illustrated the'more,

progressive approaches to Aifferentiated staffing and its

'effects on educator roles.

In contrast to the public school focu.s of Vie preceding .

studies, dullickson's (1974) researgh pertained to accounting

and budgeting procedure.at the.college-leval. He established

a.set of direct iiregram coste app14cible to.large scale .

(4,185 FTE) programs. He calculated fixed costs per course to

be $125.27; $675 was the mean'slipply cost,of teChnical.courses per.student. Gullickson altermined the total averagecost'per tecHnical activity laboratory stUdent to be0$132.102..

Interested readers will want to note, his use of total

expenditures, variable supply costs, t:Otail enrolltnent,

.eemester enrollment, percentage of enrpllment-in.technical°,activity)course offerings, total course okterin.gd, average '

technical course.enrollment, fixed costs (3nstruCtional,°administl:ative, and' support staff,salwry, student wages,

authorized travel, fiXed supplies, miintenance per department

student), and laboratory fees. Gullickeon's purpose'wVs to generale

a cOmprehensive overview of.i.he financial aspects of a lar"ge

university industrial arts and tedhnelogy department.

Ste'eb (19761 reported the results of a survey designed to

determine the status 'of industrial arts in vocational educatilon

state plans. Since such inclusion opens the wayi tor industrial

arts funding wittederal vocational education .money, it

served as a0useful indicator of -11e'd4gree of success the

profession has abhiemed in convincing vocational educatorsthat industrial Arts can contribute to their programs. S.teeb °

noted' that thirty:-eight states included industrial arts in

their plane, 'but not all allocated federal dollars to it.*

Some, in fact., merely mentioned inokustrial arts without showing

any a1locati6n..of.federal or state dollars: While.this maybetokenisi,°to be sure, at. least it.is a Start. 'It is'a start

that provides hope for, beleaguered industrial arts teachers'

and administrator% who daily face the economic crunchdescribea by' Campbell (1976). However,.the fact that the

. 51 response or cOping options which Campbell presented include

inany undesirable ones lemands that industrial arts teachers

increase their advocacy xoles as well as thei'r efficiency.

Readers interested in program °funding will wish to review the

special issue of Man/Society/Technology (4IAA., March 1976)

and its treatment of federal, state and local.funding levels.

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/1_y01341 tcof:tihe,nature ol the legistitiv& process, sone'of,the

°in,formitiOn maynowbe supercedidi tLevertheless, the oontentsprovide an eflective fotindation for understanding this issue. )

../.Ahothet.important perspective onindustrial tate teacheredsoation.depaitment$4,as intrbduced-by Deane et al. (1974) .in

their symposi0 that .eXamined ihe role of departinent environment..:Essentially, the impact -of sia4 was revieWed, as well'dsthoie lege tangible influences that sire may engender.

'Warner'10.11978) .Miseissippi Valley Cobference presentation onhow the..role*of. college and university industrial educationdOartment Chairpersons has changed Aue to'negotiated contradts_also was a valuable -contr4ution.. His paper-included treatments'of the extent df collective bargaining, factors prompting such '

contracts, and the factors affecting the chairperion'stTole.4

ADMINISTRATOR PREPARATION .4

.Administrativé internships, their.. status, .designi.and objectiveswere investigated by Krug. (1974). His particillar reference was .

to those available as part of industriak or(vocationa1.;'education dobtoral programs. The disparate finding that, .

while 62.percent or programs offered internshipopportunitvies,only 29 percent of the enrolled students actually participatedwas explained by a lack of acceptability of Suchexperiencesto Ektuddnts and educators. Stich unacceptaitility was inferred ,.dt;spite reports of,iii wide variety of credit hour an:d length

'of time options, as well as faculty.endorsement pf the approach,.

particularly when it .resulted in the opportunity for inqreased.. contact with field agencies. Also reported was.,the finding, that the internship focused upon school-community relationsand curriculum development; as such, it met the)needs ofinterns. b

04.

A diflairent aspect of administrator preparation, proposaldesign, .was studied by Friedman (3.972).. His.dissertationinvolved the di'velopment of-a handbook and multimedia materialsdesigned to train .pe-r4-6-7-nnel i he preparation and submission

.

of proposals under the Vocation l Education Act.. Whilenot spec,ifically including indus riakarts, since this actdoes enable support of industrial arts,,the techniques outlinedwere adaptable to industrial arts spe alists. Because ofthe relatively recent emergencevof this funding Vehicle,the profession's advocates are advisec to assimiLate the manual'sskills into their arsenal.

r SUMMARYs

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Sevsqa,1 conclusions emerged from these studieS. Prom our

perspective, it 4emed gp-i-te% clear that the administrative )

role perceptitn studies in industriOil 'arts yenerated results/

essentially similir tç those in other educational araas.Differences in role prceptiona did exist by organizationallevel; the interacti n of personal and situational variables

probably precluded m amingful generalizat ons'.- It also seems

that, as in other edsiCational areas2 oohs derable attention

*seeds to be focused oe the,development of public understanding

A of what this prófesPion'represents. the current TV'campaign

to raise public senaitivity to their EQ (economic gdotient) is .

ail example of *what is needed in industrial arts. Additions.

yisibility through the 'AIAA, an NEA iffiliate, also is like y

.to be valuable. . r

. . .

Administrative topidkthat signlfy usefyl research possibilities

include status studies of industrial iris dollar allocations, .

1KLsupervisory acti ty, and the-effecti.of adminIstrative

streis. A usetul example ot the fotmer would kee the development

of,normative inddstrial arts cost data forethe.various .

educational levels. A si.milar etatus itudy of the extent .

td which industrial:arts supervisor duties and responsibilities

are consistent with the AIAA's recommendations also would

be'desirable. Finally, with the g-Orent high levels ofadministrative stress, a study is .14,ede4.to sysfbmaticallyexplgre the effects of stress in tews4

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of adminiatrator,facultyl'and student impacts. .

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PhOFESSIONAL CONCERNS°

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As a function oCour.profession's gradually increasiWg v%

. maturity, there have been a slowly increasing number of. . .

invesutigations inte a..tth dynamics and characteristics of thefield. The job satisfact studies. of Kenneke (1968),Anderson (1969), /mphong (1 74), and Talbot (1974) represented

4 an intrbspective lookoat professi9nal roles. In addition,Messerschmidt and Biernhardt (1972) described the development

....

- and results ot an initial job satisfaction scale for industrialarts teachers. The Kenneke, Imphong, and Talbot studies .

look at the causes and correlates of industrial arts/industrial education teacher job satisfaction. Kenneke'sand Talbot's studies identifiedqa positive relationship

.

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. 'between satisfaction and pupil Itchievement. Additionally,Kennéke identified working conditions, teacher-student

.

relationships, and faculty interaction as sources of reward. :

0 sp.

.0 .Talbot, however, seeMed to relegate the importance'of working.

. conditions artd, physical plaht concerns as secondary to 'pupil /.

lohievement... After.allowing for the variabilities of /.

tnterpretation, it seemed that bothsstudies identified factors/ .

directly related to the teaChing-learning environment asbeing the chief source% of dissatisfaction (e.g.., economicconsiderations, working conditions, and school administration).Kenneke's study also is of value.in that he describes the

differential satisfaction/dissatisfaction characteristics of

typical categories of teachers.,.

it,. .

Anderson's research is a variation on Kenneke's theme in thate compares the attitudes of those leaving the profession tothose who remained. As anticipated, his work disclosed

..significantly different.attitudps on the part of both groups,as well as the proportion that lters represent. Anderson'ssample (in Michigan) indicated tha -leavers represented 15.5percent of the.tdtal industrial education professions of these,5 percenS reported they would leave education and.10.5percent reported they would remain but not teacil industrialeducation. Invariably, the coMparison between reasons forleaving, as identified by this study, must be compared to thepreviouily discussed soUrces,of satisfaction/dissatisfaction.thlortunately this comparison didoot yield clear results,since Anderson's identification of poor salary, lack ofprofessional commitment, the falseness of the school s.ituation,and the inadequacyof being employed for only ten months

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, Iwere eot directly comparable to the sOurces of dissatisfactionin Talbot's and Kenneke's work. However, it mey-be-that,

the leavers' construct of thliteachinglenvironment (the/chipf source of dissatisfaction) wilts subsusied by what /

they term "lack of commitment" ahd "falseness of the chool./,.. ,

situation." The sourcekof dissatisfaction were co gruent to .

the extent that thisoverlap existed. lli, more recept report., (Kaufman & Buffpr, 1978) reviewed.industrial arts teacheiN

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Oucators' s,atisfiers and theirlcounterparti. ,Aynational -,

.

random sample of over 200 indicdted that academic fteedom,children%s educational henefits, national supeivision, and

A considerate colleague& all rated as very impoitant Work_ characteristics. Another perspective into the psyche of N

those practicing the industrial arts.profesalon was provided .

by Herbert's (1978) overviewvof the'personality characterestics

of industrial arts teachers.. His study.provided uselul.

. comparative data for two groups: a randomly selected set ,

,

of industrial arts instructors and a Bet of'national teacher ---.....

of'the-year awardees. In general, the award recipice'nts were

more industrious and precise, while --at the same time--

less aggressive and autonomope. since many Xonfouhdingvariables impinge& on the results, and since the specificmeth9dology will be of interest, readers are en ouraged.,to.consult the original source as well as a Subseq eWt.erticle,

by Dugger and Herbert (1978). which dealt with eacher

personality research: .

AssOCIATIONS

Several studies focused on the profession's qspociations.

Krause (1970) ChronIcled the.kistory of the Michigan Industrial

Eduoation.Society. Kinzey (1973) documented ketsevents in

the emergence of the American Council of Indpstrial Arts

Teacher Education. Interviews, a review of khe archives of

ACIATE and other organizations, and reviewl of eaily iecordswere used to track the developm.ant of ACIATEN from its formation

in 1950 through 1973. The work of the organization in promoting

publications of interest to the profession was examined in.

detail. Additionally, the awards program of the organization

was reviewed and its role assessed. GilOnnon (4975) attemptea

to determine the perceptions of American Vocational Asiprciation

members regarding the association's function. Function was

rated in terms of opinions...on cRllective bargaih,ing, state

and national legisLation, commffication with members\(intram

ddisciplinary affiliat4ion, accreditation; and ckr.tification.Also related to the AVA's effectiveness, Garrison (1977)

studied factors tliat influenced membership in the states.

,He concluded that differences in services may explain varying

membership coriditions. The differences were catagorized by

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i,.. costrbene4t,.

association structure, and profess nal.activities.Ve'rification that such services are the sustain& g force . ._,14-,1

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_ of state associations was'observed i'n Ten Years of Serviceto Induetrial Arts Eduoation in New Yozik St44-(NYSIA, 1973).

- ,me

. The review docilMented thecrItical inpidentsAnd ictions '

rr of.a vital associtqp. Wlitti (1968) investigated state *

level industrial flirts assabiations with the objectivit ofdeveloping.% description-of their size, dues, Officers,

1 committees,,publications, and cOnventions.. pecause.tbe . .

study was conducted so many yea..rs.ago, a replication is,in order.Also 'concerned with state associations;, but in terms oftheir Leadership, Dyrenfurth et al..(197.8) summarized4necessarystate association leaderdhip activIties. This AIAA presentation

,. coMbined'case study end investigative.approachde.in the.

.

development- of4 set of :recommendatio'ns regarding the survivalof-ibdustrial arts, the needed leadership activitiep, the&evelopment Of an industrial arts adv"ocacy, and the carefulAqUeneirtg of preservice professionAl development. Student ,

'. lissochLtions represent a different form of prqfessionalorgAnizetion; Dennis (1?-78) outlined the implications ofUSOE recognition of theLAIASA and the,opportunities this N.

,

afford:iv:for the enhanefitent of industrial arts. . A .0-0 6

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Another comprehensive study of.prolessionla ass\ocietions was, contained in the ACIATE's 7wenty-eight1 Vearbobk (Oa4in,

1979). The authors descr14ed the roles and a piratiO)is

V oil:the AIAA, its cduncils and affiliates, as Alt as thei Mississippi,Valley Conference., Ih Addressing another facet

of the professionalism, the yearbook,contaihed.a.section onthe coneributions o°.prcyfessional Journals in ihduitrialarts. Because 'journals And effective communications are thehallmarks of viable' pr6fessions, 4ivers (P970) evaluated a

* .

prototype industrial-technical periodical for use.byindustrial alertly; teaOlers. 114s nationwide survey of American,

Council of Induzetritel Arts Tdaeher Educators members andgeneral inditst ial)arts teacheri and qudents (ninth grade).producRd posit4ive results. All tiacille'rs and two-thirds of . .

the students i dicated a desire tfp usi .pablicatiom simila .s

tio the prototype,. Of particilart kote Sw4s the endorsement ofthe concept of condensing articles other publications.

, ..

Similarly, O'Neill (1971) sawl value in college faculty havin* .

access to usable materitals. Ite attempted to deVelop a systtem'that would enable facuLty to exchange informAilion abputlocally prodUced instructional materials. Responses to hissurvey suggested that the administrators of'induStrial artsteacher education programs felt that such an informationsystem was feasible. Reinsgn's (1973) Mississippi Valley

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Conference Afesentation providedsucv6y pasuitS on. dopartmentil

\-. newslettexs and also focused lairay on'''faculty communApations.,

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Improved communications, albeit commutticati'dp wi,th thOseXoutside th Iliofe lssiont, aeo WaS.,Callekforlay.SUchareki(1975), He ointed eqt an.9rgentsl'need kori-kpeOtimnsOf a ,

clearly defined working image of industrfal arts An'recommendedthat this be a iesponsibiliti of%prOfesftional organi,zations.Subsequently Lovedahl (1977) Wrsued the vehicle ofefilm as

.a communication technique desrgned to enhance pubIic,knowledge

of and attitudes 'towards industrial arts. He evaluated the°

... effectiveness of a film developed for this purpose.kommissionedfrom the Ohio Industrial Arts Association. Responses from

305 subjects verified that attitudes and knowledge wore both

favorably affected by viewiftgs:it. While socioeconomic factorshad no signilicant influeneegon the way attitudes were altered,

sex, experience, and Parental statti's had an influence,

particularly in the cognitivp dimension.

A different vehiCle was pursued by Hall (1970). By reviewing

newapaper coverage 'and by,surveying 272 industrial arts teac,hers,

college faculty" and college and secondary school students;he explored the effects of the Central Kentucky .StudemtCraftsman's Fair on industrial art's. He reported that all

e students earning more than one ribbon reported taking two

or 'more credit's in industrial arts. While students receivedextra help during classes, contrary to popular belief', little

help was received after the regular school day. Respondents

also felt that the ihdustrial arts program improved as aresult of this activity. Hall 971) also reported on theeffects of industr arts conte ts on publicity. He found

that in areas whe * c tests were held, not Only did industrial

arts receive more exposure, but-the exposure was gteater after

the fair was inaugurated than in the previous deqade...--

1

'LEADERSHIP .

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The.development of a contin4onsly expanding.and increasinglyvitkikleadership cadre 'is mitndatory in 'a healthy profession.Rosseiv41978).provided a particularly t'elling analysis of

researctiqnto professionaaism. Records of State levelactivities designed to encourage leaaership were compiled

by Dyrenfurth and Bender (1974),Dyrenfurth (1978) , and

Walencik (1979). Each of these leadership development projects

attempted to bring established and eTerging p.Irsaionalstogether in an atmosphere that was bdth\reinf cing and

challenging. The importiant prerii,se,was 'b.ringing together the

state's leadership cadre with the nation'Soutstandingauthorities on issues Crucial to the adfancemeAt'of industrial '

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.art's. Every means possible was emplOked to.Vet.the participantsto believe that,-,their efforts could, indeedeeffest change:.

t

MohariT in the'\ACIASE-Li-48th earkeook-(Mairtin, 1979) tlsodealt with the topic of leadership.in ehdustrial &its, but from;a generic perspettive. TdI tenets he pFesented were fundamental .

td all suchi effortm on a national, state,. and local level. Mphan's.(1976) disiertation also" provided insights ihto the leadership .

'of the profession and wa,s a useful-review o'E this topic.

.-

Related tt aeadership development eflorta designed to enhanceindividual self-image and Oppensity to initiate action hasbeen the effori at studyin4 the guture. The AC1ATE devotedits 25th Yearbook, FutuIN Alternativeq for Induatria1 'Arta(Smalley, 1976) to this Objective. The yearbook has made amajor.contribution.toWard helping the profession's leadership-acquire this vital set,of insights onsIthe implications of thefuture.

4

Research Activity .*

Establishment o f?a systematic.research effort has been a , .

,significant thallemge to the profession. 4,Thi.le individual needsare relatively easily established, it is condiderably-moredifficult to prioritize them, particularly on a national leyel.Householder (1969) Buffer and Campliell (1976) , Ne/son'et(1977) , and Finch et al. (1978) have sought to make.grains inthis direction. The background for thdite studieS was estdblishedduring the early 1960s. One'context evolved largely froi the

. American Educational Researck:Association's Review of EducatipnalResearch (1962, Volume 32, No,.4). This document synthesized themajor research findings since 1956 in vocational, tethnical andpractical arts education. ACIATE auspices helped bring two,

%

additional yearbooks to fruition. Porter edited the 1964 issue,Classroom Research zn Indus.trial Arts; Rowlett edited the,1966issue, Status of Research in Industrial Arts. As their titles ,

imply, the former provided teachexs with a guide to conductsaction research; the latter synthesized industrial artsresearch. Fortunately, the classroom research thrpstistill is

1 being encouraged, as may be sedn tn Lolla's (1978) treatment ofthe problems and possibilities of such activity. The Fall,1968 issue of the WournaZ. of industri-al Teacher Education alsO 4

evidenced the overall concern for research. It was preciselythis research-valuing era that began its decline in the skepticismof the late 1960s and early 1970s. Such decline notwithstanding,the momentum developed was sufficient to lead to a NationalConference on Research in Industrial Arts. This conferencewas described by Suess (.1969 b) . The presentations by Suess(1969 a) and Householder (1969) were related documents. Other

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citations demonstrating outgrowths of the'rssearch vaibing

era include,Hanson's (1968) treatment of research metheildolOgiee,

Tuckm.ao's (1908) description og reseUrch and thea,role.of.the.researcher, Tomlinson's (1968) and Ianni & McNeill'"s (1968)

debate on the.research role Of USOE, the AVA research committee's

(1968) position on research, and.Howe's (1968).prescriptionfor the important dissemination functions of researcheri.

While it 4s-our interpretation that the overall value placed

on rirsearch has diminished significantly, perhaps 1.1t, is a

signof the professiori's inoreasing maturity that.the"acceptance on faith" stage of the.importance of researchis now past. Buffer'And Campbell.(1976), ,Nelson et al. (1977), .

and Finch et al..(4978), in tact, may evidenpe the Piofession'snew commitment to the advantages.of rigor, system, and critiical

analY,sis. The eleMents of the proposed system of Nelson et al.

(1977) to structure industrial arts research on a nationalbasig are directed to such pbjectives, as is Wheeler's(1973) guide to the types and evaluation of researCh inindustrial arts. Miller"s (1973) article on the related,

curri.culum cllevelonent implications of researth in career

r. education also evidenced similar intents.

Identification was'the chief mission, of the-1976 NAITTEe s

kesearch Committee's agenda. Finch et al. (1978) reportedthe reaults'of a study designed to identify.and categorizeresearch needs of NAITT:k members. Subsequently, the committee

sought to discover relationships between identified needs

and key demographic variables. The sample (400) yielded areturn of 280 members, with the largest Próportion inindustrial arts (38.6 percent), follOwed by trade andisdustrial (21.8 percent), teehnicial education (6.8 percent)i

.4 and various combinations (3f.2,percent)e A relativeSy lowtotal of respondent time Oas reported allocated to.research(20 Rercent) and to helping students do research (10.2 percent).

or G'

Establishment of criteria and careful.analysis.did not yield neecis

identified as very important, although the relationships'between teacher 'and student performance and.between teacher-education and teacher patitormance were ideotified as thehighest ranking, important research needs. *

43

J'actor analysiS resulted in the surfacing of the followingthree clusters that described research needs: concern forevaluation (procees and criteria), desire fOr researchdocumentation of competency-based educatiqn, and desire forgu4nce on h'ow to conduct research, write prop9Als, Indadm'Intster the projegts. The researchere concluded that the

population's research needs were homogeneous, regardless ofdepartment size or geographic regions.

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.Research needs, of course, imply that researchers are able to*address them.l. Wright (1977) sought. to provide some descriptivec'statistics of the deptoral degrees awarded over a ten-yearw period. S9me 651 degrees were awaided by 52 institutions.WroUreds, for'opt,iism for an increased research capability onthe part' df our rofession may be-justified on the basis ofWrighte finding that industrial education doctoral productionhas exceededothe growth rate of other educational fields.

$ 10 L64, ...

:Insights iitO the factors thst contributed to the initiation' of resear fiffort. were identified by Ponder (1979) and Jelden

'. (1976). 1eldehprovided the would-be.researcher witlh a

valuable civervl.ew of data,storage and retrieval systems.In doing so, he-eased considerably the neophyte's task illobtaining theefective rese ch. Ponder, on the other hand, attempted to

. .rerequisite information necessary to begin

identify conaitibnp that encouraged research' efforts. Usingcarefal analytical protedkires, he concluded that a researcher'sprimary.employment rpsponsibilities and the employing .

institution's publication requirements were significant.influences in producing research, at least as manifested bypublications in refereedtand Hnonrefereed Journals. Pondervmoted a pasetive cerielation between refereed publicaiions andfavorable attitude toward riasearch, an attitude not evidentwith non-refereed pub.licftions. Oi course, attitude and,incentive, es treated by Ponder, are only part of the research4nitiation'ahd dissemination effort. .The knOwledge of themeans by which.the latter can be accomplished also is necessary.To this.end, Bradley's (1978) article is particularly useful.

SUMMARY

The professionaleconcerns in this section were classified byfour topics: job satisfaction, associations, leadership, andresearch. Many of the topics in the previous sections alsorelated to these concerns of teachers, supervisors, andadministrators.

t..A.

After a Alurry of interest froM 1968 to 1974, joA satisfactionstudieslhave been dormant recently. In view of the currentattentipn being focused on teacher stress and burnout,

. replication of these studies seems appropriate. Such studieswill likely document crucial insights that might be used tonegotiate for improved industrial arts teacher workingconditions. The very real industrial arts teacher shortagepeOaps can be combatted in this way.

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Professional assodiation affairs have not been well docUmented..Perhaps we have been too self-conscious in addressing mattersthat appear somewhat selfish. Clearly, however, the means.by which the profession serves its members by enhancimg theicapability to serve thoir clients is a'legitimate reseatchgoal. Additionally, studies of profess onal communication

- mechanisms also are in order, as are sys ematic analyaea ofthe impacts of the newly emerging AmericaI Industrial ArtsStudent Association activities.

Because of the complexity of what we could d pict as an"alphabet soup" of acronyms and a tangle of a filiationnetworks, it is safe to characterize the typic 1 practitioner's .

kno ledge of the profession's associations as i complete, at best.these reasons alone,, the studies cited in t 'section

will serve an important function. Additionally, a veryimportant contribution to this goal is available n the form

of the ACIATE's 1979 Yearbook. The editor is to b commendedfor this most significant contribution. It is our espOnsibility

now to insure that the book receives appropriate exi!msure. One

way to achieve this would be to use it in the increasing number

of state leadership efforts. This relatively new thrustis producing desirable impact in.curriculum, access tovocational funds, public recognition of industrial arts, andso on. Most importantly, however, such leadership activities'build professional cohesiveness. They also encouragepractitioners to'develop an increased sense of control overtheir professional destinies. This is the halltark of a

true profession.

This brief summary dlso must call attention to a trueprofessior's concern for system and order. The dissillusionmentfollowing the mid-1960s' perhapd unreasonable expectations ofresearch has led to a new emphasis on rigor. Recognition ofthe cbmplicate'ld, "one-piece at a time" pattern of knowledgedevelopment4s exemplified by the calls for an overridingstructure. It is hoped that this review and synthesis will

'be of assistancs in this regard.

- 135 -

1 .4 t"

lgt

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

OVERVIEW

a

I.

Summarizing this review.is a challenging, and inherentlydangerous, task. Second-order summaries are'typipallyfraught with r:ver-generalizatioii. Ityaddition, because ofthe reviewers' reliance o abstracts and summaries, the .

reader.should consider th following com,Oents as 'tentative.Another reasbn for cautio is due to the inevitable errorsof selection, While ever attempt was.made.to systematicallytap key resoufces, invari bly some studies mafphave beenoverlooked. To the exten that these could alter the findings,an allowance will need to be made in interpreting theconclusions.

To begin, however, Wis necessary to reemphasize thatresearch is conducted to provide information and insightsto increase the profession's effectiveness. As such, researchis inherently useful -- or it has tha't potential, 'provided tt

ls used. Thi's caueat seems to be neglected occasionally.Consider, for.example, Householder and Suess's (1969)reference to the AVA's Research Committee's 1968 s'tatementrecognizing "the responsibility of the professional associationto.stimulate and facilitate.research and research relatedactivities... (and) that the attainment of that objectivewould require a continuous tlow of information betweenresearchers and practitioner# and substantial long term.financial support" (p. 44).

Despite recogdition of the need for a tworfday exchange ofinformation, the amou.nt of application or use made of.research

is suspect. For example, the National Academy of Science

(NAS, 1976) report on vocational education research pointedout that even with 250 million dol1ar4 spent, widespreadimpact has not been documenied. RUpert Evans, in chairing theAcademy's pa.nel, indicated that the panelists were disappointedin their findings, particularly since they obviously believedthat vocational educationIU and D is beneficial. The panelists,however, were required to reachthis unpopular conclusion,since they found few pbjective impact studies. Since it is

likely that .the same characteristic is shared by othereducational R and D arenas, industrial artsgresearch probably

- 136 -

deserves the Same criticibm. It may be'that Eva4 and hiscolleagues identified the cause for °such critticism in that

they aklowed that federal R And D funding priorities have keen

mord politically than rationally determisned--in the professionalr

sense. ,

NeVertheless, positive aspects also deserve mentioning. Clear.ly,

there have been an increasing number of research efforts.

Furthermore, it is our impression that besides an increase in

the total number of individually conducted studies, the, amount

of research each individual conduc,ts also has increased.

Consider that Householder and Suess (1969) complimented the

profession with the following observatlon:

Industrial arts appears to have come of ageacademically and intellectually. The profession

has matured to the point where it is willing toundergo a careful self-appraisal of its basic

beliefs, fundamental practices, and educationalprocedures (p. 44). -

Also, by reviewing the NAS rep t one can identify excellent

research summaries of vocationa education R and D in'major

priority areas such as career de elopment and guidance,

.students with special needs, stu ent characterietics, teacher

education, instructional techni es, curriculum development,

labor market supply and demand, and administration and

evaluation of vocational education. While the former made no

specific mention of industrial arts, such studies Provide

essential information for the practice of industrial arts,

as well as other practical arts fields. Furthermore, industrial

arts research is in a position where both macrOresearch and

micreresearch can make useful contributions. Macroresearch,

of course, refers to broadly conceived efforts which, despite

some specific lack of control, yield a large sdale perspective.

This perspective may subsequently be used to identify hypotheses

for testing by means of tightly controlled conditio,,s.

AN ANALYSIS

some descr4iptivP statistics are appropriate. The totals on the

various analyses do :lot equal one another because these statistics

were compiled at different times, due to the stringent

publication schedule. This reflects the on-going growth of the

review and synthesis and should not be interpreied as inaccuracy

on the part of the compilers. Because table I was compiled

last it represents the most csmprehensive Btage of development.

1. .

,.

. , At this Pcant, the_reviemers.a1so_must....acknowied4a4hapahle "--t>,auSistance of William Dunlap, Paul Noble Young, and Howard M.Ponder. The iiist two are'doctoral Students in the University v .

of Missodri-columbia's I.ndustrial Educution Progrgm; the latteris 4 recent 4raduate of the game. In addition, Patricia Love1,-Ann.Klopp, and Gordon Thomas contributed extensively to thi-scompilation.

ou.

This review compiled approximately 870.studies, reports, andarticles. "Table 1 illustrates the relatiye propOrtion of

3

effort that the prefession invested into each major topicover the.period studied. The- emphases, in descending order,

°were: curriculum, teachex education, educational programs(stus studies), and history and philosophy. The deemphaa'ison evaluation, facility, guidance and'ceunseling, and humanresources research also is apparent'. Two additional caveat4.are.important: (1) the research emphases refltct--to's0Medegree--an interaction with the orhanizational icheme chosenby the reviewers and (2) the selection process variablesundogbtedly injectedasome error va*iance into the analysis..

. -

Despite these cautions, the statistics provide an insightinto theicharacter of the profession's efforts over the

'past twelve years. By observin4 the annual oyerall totals in.

table 1, it Fs reasonable tooconclude that research require'ssomething on the order of five to six years to enter themainstream oe professional as reness. Howayer, a rivalnypothesis also exists, namely,'that 1973/1974 represtnte'dthe major watershed between research-valuing and rela ivelynonvaluing eras.

Table 2 illustrates the,nature of the research canductea:table 3 shows he extent\of agency inyoivement. Industrialarts research, in terms of the bibliographid evidence available

-still seems to be heavny dominated by doctor'al dkssertations.Other types of research have only recently begun to approachdelgree-related research. This is a healthy trend 4or theprofession.

Another sign that augurs well is the widening of.the researchbase, i.e., who does it. Table 3, on which the foregoing isbased, may at first glance seem misleading because of whatappears to be.the dominance of major uniVersities (doctoral-granting ones)4 However, it is our impression that if sucha table were compiled for each of the earlier reviews andsyntheses, net only would a much smaller and less diverseinvolvement among fagency types be evident but also the"within type" ran'ge would be cc(nsiderably smaller.

- 138

0

4

t4

'd

Table-. Review:and Synthesis of RegearCh in industrial Arts: 1968-1979

Introduction. . . . .

Selection Strategies.Commentaiy te

Total

History, Philoaophy ObjectivesHistory of Industrial ArtsHistory of.TechnologyHistorical Studies in Retrospect.Philosophical FoundationsEmerging FrontePhilosophy in RetrospectFound. Indus. Arts: Our ObjectivesSuMmaryTotal

'Humari Resources Related Studies

EquityRecruitmentManpower and Industry NeedsSummaryTotal

Education ProgramsSpecial NeedsStatus Studies: GeneralStatus Studies: State Specific .

Foreign ProgramsSummaryTotal

151

4

pre 68 68r 69 70 71 71 73 74 75 16 77 78 79 Total

Citationk,by Topic and Year

5.

1

1

1 2

3

3

2 1

1

2

7

1.1

1

I4

3

3

8

6

18

7

3

13

1

144111411,=4114,---

2

15'

17

2 18

2

5 1 22

4 4 1 4 31,

1 1 2 6

5 2 19

2

17 10 6 10 101

19

2.

1 / . 1

1

2 23*

3 1 8

8 7 78

1 2 1 1,6

1 10

0

12 11 10 112

If 15'2

11

" - 3.

Table . - Continued

Citations by Topic and Year

Curriculum'Comprehensive.EffortsCurricukdm Proceis 4.

Industry-Education AnalysisInstructional UnitsThe IACPEial. of Curr. Impl: EffectivenessSummary.Total

,Learning Process Variables,Problem Solving

o Orgaitizational Patterns

1 Special Neede/AspectsDomains of Performance

Sensory-motor tw.

sCreativityRel. Amongt)Learning Proc. Var.

Transfer.

'Lab. Achieveten.t LinksEffects of P actice

Effects of Industrial ArtsSummaryTotal

Instruc. Media, Methods, MaterialsInstruction Methdds'rnstructional Media .

Slides & other mediaFilmsOverheAd Proj, Transparencies

153

re-68 68

1

1

4

2

9

1

20

1

2

1

1

1

1

et/

1

1

69 70 71 72 73

1 9. 2 3

4 5 34 52. 2 1 24 6 9 2 3.2 3 3 2

1Ob.

3

10 24 20 10

1 2'

2 1 1 1 .2

, 4 2 2 5 1

2 1

1

1 2

1 1

1 1 1 1

12 6 '4 6 9V.

3 1. 1 2

1 1

2 1

1 2 12

P.

74 75 76 77 78 79 Total

,ALS,

2

130.

11

1

9

, 5

21

2

1

11

13

3

2

9

23

61

12

23

5

1

ii

3

3534135314sf0

7.

3

1 3

2 3 120

1 4 1 21 .1.

1

1 1 2 .1 ,9 .

1

2 1 7

2

1 1 1 7

0

5 , 5 5_ 1 ,66

1 1 9

2

45

2

151

.

Table 1. ,Continyed4.

Instrim. Media, Methods, etc. (e0,11Instructional Media (eoritrd0

Program:dad InstructionMultimediapelf-instructionVideo.Tape Rec. & TV .. . . .

SimulationLaboratory MethodsTeaching Strategies

t. Materials'SummaryTotal

1

§tudent Personnel and GuidanceOccupational ChoiceStudent CharaeteristicsEffects of Industrial ArtsSummaryTotal' 0

Facilities Related StudiesFacilitiesNoiseMobile FacilitiesEquipment,Safttty

SummaryTotal .

155k

IS

. 14, V

Citations Topic 'and. Year .

pre-68 68 69 '70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 Ita1

1

1

1

1

26

645

, 5

4

14 i"56

3 .

5

11

1393.47

1

4.

8

.e/

156

416 .

Table 1. - Continued

Evaluation '

Test avelopmentIhteraction AnalysesProgram EvaluationEffects of EvaluationSummaryTotal

Teacher EducationRecruitmentOrg. and AdministrationUndergraduate Programs

DesciiPtionsCompetencies

Student TeachingGraduate ProgramsProgram Evaluations/Analyses. e. . .

x)re-68

0

1

Undergraduate Studies. . ./ . .

Graduate StudiesFirst Year TeachersIn-service Education

SummaryTotal 1

Administration and Supervision. . .

Attitude StudiesRole Perceptions 1

Administrative PraáticesAdministrator Preparation o '

SummaryTotal 1

41.

r

al/4=m

Citations by Topic and Year

4

68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 Total

1 2 2 2 2 3 1 1 2 2 18

1 1 1 3

1 2 2 2 2 1 10

1 3 2 2 1. 9

0

3 7 3 7 3 1 1 0 2 40

s

1 . 1

1 2 2 4 3 1 1 1 3 23

1 1

.3

6 2 1 2 1 14

0

1 2 2 1 3 2 2 2 15

1 1 2 i 5 3 3 1 16

...,1 1 1 41

1 1 1 .3 1 2 2 2 2 164 ° 0

1 1 4 3 4 13

1 1 3 1 6

2 2

1 2 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 14

, 0

4 7 12 20 10 16 13 12 '6 11 9 3 124T /

1 1

2 1 1 2 1 7

1 1 1 4

2 4 1 4 1 ' 12

1 1 24 0

3 0 1 0 0 3 8 3 3 0 26

Table 1. - Continued

.

Professionalitoncerns .

AssociationsLeadership

aResearchSuiwryTotar

(.4

Simmary and RecommendationsTotal

Overall Total

1 5 )

Citations by Topic and Year

pre-68. 68 69, 70 71,72 73 74 ,75_,,76 79 'Dotal,

1 1 2 2

.77 _78-

4 10

1 3 2. 2 . 14

1 2 2 2. 2 9

3 14 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 28

D.3, 16 ._ 2 3 3 2 53 43 4 10 3 61

4 1 3. P 5 2 15

4-,, -4

1 3 0 0 04*

0*-

0 0 5 d 2 0 7.54. *.- ** r

23 87 93 97 7-76 52 98 187 56 54 _56 67 24 871

1 6 n

ft

s,

Table Citations by Year and TYpe*

6

Disserations.

Funded Other Total

Pre-68 4, 3J

:

16 23

1968 47 2 23 72

1969

1970

59 .

47

5 ,

4

22

30

86

81Aes.)

1

1971 33 3 25 '4wo 181d

1972 12 6 17 35

*

1973 ( 42 3 #33 78

1974 57 4 21 82

1975 26 4 18 48

1976 1 9 31 4,1

077 14 4 32 50

1978 ise 5 43 60

i .

1979(partialyear tally)

1 4 14,

19

Totals

,

.355 56 325 736

*Note: Citations were classified into types by bibliog.raphicevidence, i.e., mention of funding source, dissertations,

and thP like. Because it is recognized Ahat this

method imposes some limitations, the leader is urgedto consider the data as tentative.

.

Table 3. Avency Involvement

Number of Number

Type of Agency Cited Studies of.Agencies

Mail)r Universities*..,- 563 68

)

Universities and Colleges* 66 25

Associations 71 6

...

State Educational Agencies 23 --

Local Educational Agencies 15 --

0-Research Organizations 6 2

Misc. and Undetermined Type 31 31

775

\

*Note: Distinctions were made on the basis of AAUP categoriesas used in the annual survey .of institutional salary

levels in the Chroniole of Nigher Education.

.1-qP(Vdw

0 6;

The broadening research constituency nett withstandifig,considerable evidence exists to suggest the Ongoing vitality

of several key institutions. In.the researchatted, sixinstit'utions emerged as leaders: The. Univereity of Northern

Colorado (58 citations, 7.5% of this review's total), The ,

. University og Missouri-Ccqumbia (55, 7.1%), The Ohio 'State

University (42, 5.4%), Texas A & M Uhiversity,(40, 5t2%);

.and The Universetyof Maryland (24, 3.1%). The fore4oing,

of coursellrefers only to quantative, not qualitative,

measures. The statists also refer only to institutionalactivity directly related to industrial arts. It is likely

that t!he order would change were vocational educationresearch included.i

WEAKNESSES

Generalit:es.

The original charge carried wIth it the obligation to identify

weaknesses as well as strengtEe. With the most sincereintent, then, the following impressions were felt to constitutethe relative weaknesses over the past twelve Years.

While the° quantfty, of items precluded detai1e0 analysis ofexperimeAtal rigor, the revie.wers were sufficiently alert

to the eiistance of this problem. This seems to be apersistent problem, for Householder and Suess (1969 also

mentioned it. Specifically, it appears that the selection°

and use of appropriate research design remains difficult ,

fo'r industrial arts researchers. Today, 'as before, thesampling techniques incorporated in some research greatlyrestrict the generalizability of the findings. ,An erroneous

tendency to consider comparison groups the equivalent 'ofuntreated control groups represents another general weakness,particularly in studies focusing on instructional methodologies.

Focusing now on a finding that parallels the National Academyof Scfence's'panel, the impact of industrial arts on learningprocess variables is not well documented. In the light ofvocational education's increasing embrace of certain generaleducation thrusts, this lack Of documented impact isparticularly disquieting. Furthermore, the rcord ofperformance that does exist in industrial arts is a rather

i:nsula one, one that evide t.nces little communicaion between

the realms of "academic" and vocational research (Petty, 1V78).

- 14f) -

.445

t

,o,t-.l;----,----a,a.9-----s-*'-'.A.--,v--Qh.,abaaaa-'''`'''*'vac-,a...-sft.4,-a.,. --=.,-4.6.-.4.6-4-..-F..zili ''.-.!:'....-°'`" ""-:"'"-c."' ''''''''''' --: .-. : . . ..

- -

.

Oa

9 i '... '0 % sr

t.

9 a 1

As identifieein a number of the,section summaries, the

absence of an overall framework to guide developmental

efforts is'clearly an,important weakness. While the National

Academy of Science panel's observations Dn 1976 clearly * . .

evideaced agreement with theireyiewere position, unfortumitely

they found themselves unable io design an overall.federal -

coordination mechanism for vocational,education R and D.

Another direttly related problemincludes the piactice of

emphasizing a prioriity area for a shott period of time and,

then, shifting emphasis. .This practice, when combined with

difficulty in communication between researchers and'Washington

administrators, leads.to "wheel spinning" iit our profession.

As might'be correctly inferred from.the'preceding, there is

another area of weakneeses in Industrial arts resevch. °For

example, Streichler's (1966) observation that industrial arta

research exhibited a great variability in quality still

,appears to be accurate. His cautIon to guard against lowering ,

of research standards deserves careful attention.

Another cause lor concern is the lack of professibnal identity.

In both the National Academy of Science (1976) and Petty

(1978) reports, considerable Aiscussion of.vocational education.

IV and D is presented. Industrial arts, howexer, is neglected.

No mentiop is made og this tie14, despite the facts,it.

representsa legitimate service arWa, involves an estimated

60,000 teachers and benefits approximately 6 million students.

More importantly-, industrial arts' contribution to technologically

related education programs, particularly those before significant

occupatIonal selection has begun,. has been almodtAgnored

by vocational education R and D. N.:3r. apparently have

industrial arts researchers actively participated in' the

vocational research forums at least to the extent that

their efforts would evidence some significant visibility,

in vocational education res.earch reports.

The Gap

The most serious weakness is the lack of treatment of-the

leaderhip-praetitioner gap. Clearly, the acceptance of new

industrial arts objectives is as suspect now as it was when

Streiehler (1966) first commented on it. It is difficult

to draW support for such newer objectives as technological

literacy from the research litero.ture'. Furthermore, the

leadership development engaged in by graduate programs has,

1.)y and large, skirted,this gap. Despite exhortations to the

;:ontrary, the profession seems to have trained relatively

few thrusts on the challenge issued by Schmitt and Pelley (1966),

- 147 -

I '

el ,

nsmel/, that "the clirrent industrial's arts cu4ariculum does noteven measure up to the program'recommended by the professionten to twenty years ago" (p. 30).

Curriculum- 0a

cr.

Foremost.among the weaknesses identified in curri-culum studiespre thoie pertaining to the lack oWoordination in developmentefforts and the,subsequent dissemifialion of their products.Caupled with a rather obvious professional parochialisM, thesedeficiencies result in freouent duplications of effort kndequally freqUent gaps in curriculum coverage. F-urthercompounding these problems is the fact that the philosophicalassumptions. underlyinr: the derivation, of industrial artscohtent from industrial sources remains unexamined.

Methodologically, both fie Vi4esting and learaing processresearph'tequire some atteht on. Both often employ a "somethingversus.nothing" design that seeks to determine whether treatedgroups are*enhanced in some treatment-related characteristiccompared to those that have not been so treated. One.is

...,..forced to wondET, what such "researchers" expect. Additionally,beyond the desfgn difficulties already elabOrated upon, aninstrumentation problem also exists. Despite the fact thatvalidity and relial;ility frequently were address'ed, sensitivity.was not. Hence, the rel4ewers often were left with theImpression that research was being conducted with "wpoden,,yerdsticks in the quest ior thousandths of an inch."IN

Another surprising weakness was that the curriculum supportingaspects.of-equipment research remained almost a void.Similarly, safety statistics, fire prevention, and carcinogenicconcerns were conspicuously absent.

Evaluation

Fragmented development best represents the reviewers'interpretation of the work in industrial arts evaluationresearch. There were very few overall cluster-based evaluativeinstruments. NatiOnal testing and/or.program evaluat1,1 alsowas lacking. What is needed is a critical mass of evaluationresearch. Specifically, the absence of any'systematicailyvalidated and longitudinally verified instruments keyed to.ourprofession's principal goals seems inexcusable.

nr:',' 7 ''".1*-7,---r-v

4

Administration .

The limited numbers of administratiownoriented studies servedas an initial clue to the weaknesses in ehis ar.ena. Relativelyfew investigatlons into the effect of varying organizálilonalpatterns was evident. While researth iaenttfied conflAtingrole expectations,.little effort apparently was invested'incorrecting distorted perceptions., Another weakness existsin the lack of normative studies regarding actual administratime,practice. Without such information, administtators can onlyresort to personal; preference and sublective phclination.

4-1

J.

Impact, . (

% .

Without fear of overstatement, the lack of any critical miss ofstudies that deal with industrial arts' impact gn occupationalchoice andother prevocational. contrtbftions fs tragic. Theabsence of a detailed composite description of4stcdents also a

As serious. In the faceof these deficiencAes.,, Up.can.dfily %conclude that industrial aits consistently fists' overstated ie.case, particularly with,regard to iis impact on studentA.

.

..

STRENGTHS a

Because of their direct involv ent and 'personal identificationwith industrial arts research, the revieweirs Were pleased tonote that tile review process,also surfded some obvious'strengths. Since these sharply contrast with the:previoussection's caialog of weaknesses, the reader is encourfted tonbte the "jigsawing".effect qf interlacing stren ths andweaknesses.

Generalities

The reviewers are pleased to comment favorably on ihe overallincrease in the presence of industrial-irts researc6. Theyalso concur with'Streichler's (1.96() commendation, of the

JournaZ of Industrial Aeacher EAcation as a'significantmechanism to encoUrage-research. The reviewp/rs also find,that the gradually increasing proportion that nondegree .related research represents of all industriAl arts researchIs encouraging, as is the .trend to act14n research. In theseways the revieige.'s replicated Househblder and Suess's (1969)conclusions. Furthermore, two Additional conditions existwhich justify optimism. The first speaks to*the potentialreseare+ quality our field is now capable of in terms of

increasing ability to control experimental Qonditions

149

irc)

wpm:N*7r ri. . s ^ ,r.s.r7111-1-;.:;t ?-^ 7 4:7;

. I.

Itta% Qt.

:t

,4 (Householder and Suess, 11369). The second. is based on the

rather obvious diversification of the types of people whoactually engage in research effort (National Academy of gcienee,

197.6).

History, Powidations, Philosophy

In balance, this area of research should be classified as a-strength. .Leng range overyiews of key milestones in theevolution of industrial aris'have been provided. As a result,

the profeision has an "apPropriate sense et its roots. In

contrast .to' thii ppropective is the relative weakness ine:locumentation of interitediate history, that is, the chronology7Nof lesser events, and -- more iiporiantly -- of the dynamics,of'the evolutionary processes that lead the profession fromone major mileitone to the ne?ct..

It. ,

Another area in which the profession 4an take great pride is theorigoing discussion of the technological.thri'st in schools

ah71 society. The program proposals, curricula, an4 situationalanalyses'have been unparalleled. Unfortunately a serious lack

of implementation remains a.cause for concern. Nevertheless,the necessary prerequisi'te steps havo been taken. Within. our

profession's technological area of strength, one othersmal.,01 thrust remains to be addeessed eystematically, namelytechnology education legislation or'legislation that subsumesa major role for industrial arts as It couN become. .Thefoundations have been'established. What is needed is atargette4 effort to generate the visibility, excitement, andrationale ,that ultimately will yield a technology educationbild or a special title withih an omnibus law.atP

..II

'Career ducation has served as &useful catalystifor considerablevasearc .in industrial arts. Most commendible was'its tendencyto draw 9,4ucators across discipline areas. urthermore, ittypicak(y previded a framework tct, guide many program decisionsrpgarding the actual implementation oUindastrial arts in a

number of 5,chools. In this way, career education) enjoyed the

hallmark of a well-articulated philosclphy in% thag it served.

tp guide decision-making,..

1

Curriculum1

Zhree strengths emerged from curriculum related resgarch. Tefirst was the,development and documentatlon of multdfacetedarray of processes and techniques. N ldarge variet.y of such

approaches have been described which provide professionals with

- 15o -

4.

:WA,;RAFtc.,:f0F411,71:c413. 17-1?!-.171r.,9:11W.4,tiffk"Thi4utf.'57#frt.; ,.

e

Useful to ls. 'Among these contributions are.the systAilm-

based and competency-based approaches. o

The deveLOpment of.instructional packages, units, and systems,irepresents a second area of atrength.. The acknowlpdged leader

here has been the InOustrial Arts Curriculum Project (IACP). Both'

in its systemitic incorporation of desirable developmentpractice and in Isubsesuent follow-up apd evaluatiOn, those.associated with this project have establisiled a'stan-dard for

all 6 aim toward. Another hallmark of the IACP is'its

success in converting ideals to practice. The reviewers'impressions that more .students have experienced IACP, exposure

than anytother innovative curricula supports the previous

observa0.ons

ihe profession's'increasing number of state-w.ide teac,her

team effarts at' generating guidep.nes is a third area,ofstrength. 'Recognizing, as the IACP has, that implementationis one of the significant criteria thatican be applied to

a curriculum, these,efforts are ,based oethe premift thatteachers need to be involved in the curriculum developmentproe;ess from the beginning. Independent development followedby a "sales" approach was found not to work.. Researchers

alto art, disg.overing that team efforts'have many spin-offbenefiti that greatly strengthen the professional presence in

a ste.te- 7-° S.Beyond the strengthi described above, the reviewers alsoidentifiied)'a ,umber of strengths that tend to beisingular im

.

nature. Arnoxg these was the finding that industrial artsserved useful purposes for a variety of,epecial needs students.Such populatijis were capable of benefiting from industrialarts.° Conversely, industrial arts has the capability ofdelivering Liseful services.

In the psychomotor domain, considerable research effoxts have

addressedvspecifio microportions of this area of pe.:formancewhich is so'.fundamental to industrial arts. Fortunately,

the Arolugtionary stage 'has been reached wherein professionals

are testing the' existing taxonomy as a whole and are, in fact,

.positing slternatYve

Facility planriing, process-related studies have been conducted,the d4gree that they constitute another area of strength.

Related to this is the NAUTE compilation regarding safetyrepommendafkovir and practices.

o

.1

- :

.11

UEEDS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

One of the pressing needs faced by thd profession is a way to°identify slid 'access t,he restarch being conducted. .The specificsultisming of RCU directors regarding'ihdustrial arts related.prOY4Vismould aeem to be an initial step. Both the'AIAA and

9 the AVA-IAD research .c6mmittees.c6uld address this task.-

A more consistent federal R and Miteffort is also needed,particularly in t'erms 'of the accessibility of funds toindustrial arts.. It Almost goes.without saying that theamount of federal research dollars needs to be increased.Because of the previously+ mentioned insularity of industrialarts and vocational education research, there also seemsto be legitimate grounds for recommending more interdisciplinaryefforts. Behavioral, social, and educational researc.hers'wou1.4 guard against.the professional egocentrism that issomaiimes apparent.

In teris of the,overall,:..research effort, we believe that thequest.foi g domprehnsive system to guide industrial artsresearchAs appropriate. ,af industrial arts research is to .outgrow iirs.,relatirely fragmented nature, an Overview needsto be est'ablished eo guide further research. Combined withthis,is the pressing need for replication.,and validation ofsome of the cornerstones of present practice. The developmentof specificreviews and-syntheseA of individual areas withindustrial.atits will be necess4ry in order to accomplish suchverification. For example, each section.of this.revipw mightserve to initiatea definitive treatment of thattsubject'.

Status Studies

While this review has attes,ted to he strengths of existi7ngstatus studies, it also needs't& repeat the dhallenge forlongitudinal ones. Furthermore, comprehensive nationwidestatistics are lacking. Only.recently is there any groundsfor optimism in this area (bugger et al. 1979). Rhisis a reference to the USOE-funded project to deve op a (lets-

based set of national standards.for industrial ar Becauseof its centrality to the profession, this project deservesour attention..

Analysis of the existing status studies indicated a seriousneed for a systematic synthesis of their findings alone. Suchintegration would yield'a valuable picture of the actualpractice of the profession. nne outgrowth of such a p:ojectwould undoubtedly be a titr.ive to eliminate the present gap

-

eNT-.."1,77.-- r-

0

in our knowledge of eiisting and/or exemplary rural and urban

Tractibes. Anothsr urgently, needed status study is an analyticaldescription'of,indusirial arts c'ertification requi;ements. ,

Impact Studies

Perhaps the most important of all areas of needed effort isin impact research. Without J)etter documentation of our effects,

, the practice of industrial arts --(!is we know it -- will

ibnellitably disappear. Indeed, it iriy even be that impactresearch is necessary to allow the opportunixty for industrialarts to become what it can be. The profession must be able todemonstrate its contributions to the bountry's bank ofhuman resource capital. It must be able to.answer questionsregarding its effects on the eventual employment of its

students. As with vocational education, industrial arts needs

to be able to cite evidence relating to its economic Impact,its effect on school to work transitions, its power inretaining potential dropouts, and its cost effectivenesstOf course, it must be able to document its contributions toeach of its traditional goals in a like manner. ,s

Professional ttudies

A variety of needs have surfaced in this area. The mostobvious is the need for the profession to make itselfunderstood,...particulaKly with respect to its aims and procedures.

Industry, administrators, students, parents,i and the public

all require an accurate percep,tion if .our profession is to

be effective.

various means of fostering state associalon leaders'hipactivities need to be evolved and iitore ef ort needs to be

atidressed to the other facets of association work. Increasing

the quality of communication between member and association is

one such imperative.0

Professional concerns regardihg the job satisfaction and job

con.ditions associatpd with industrial arts teaching alsoneep.research attention. These findihgs need to be tncorporated

intk contractual and policy, guidelines that affelct the practice

of industrial arts in a positive.manner.

Individual Needst.

Because, unfortunately, the i'dea that teachers tend to teach

as they woreitaught has som truth, the conservative nature ofindustrial arts teach6'r education methodology is somewhat

Pc.'

. .., \c,,rcp- $ .disquieting. Research is needed oll the ways faculty can beencoucaged to- adopt a greater variety ofItqaching strategies.

There also is a naiad lor more-effective evaluation of inserviceeducation. Parhaps then Some of the post hoe aspects of s4ch"kilvaluationsAvill be mitigated. Aasessments of thtelcause ok,'and corrections'for, the incorrect understandings of industrialarts by various respopsible administrators also is important.Methodologies with increased precision and sensitivity willneed to be employed to provide answers, as contrasted tothe tendency to show a typical "vaftting" of everything.

Intermediate historiaAll documentation has beem mentione'd.'Such efforts seem to Offer particular promise at the localand subregional level. Another.logical study would entaila synthesis of industrial arta R and D detailing its capabilitieswith special nevds learners.

In summery, the.reviewers have beerCfavorably impreSsed by ihe,body,of research reported during the period under consideration.''The magnitude of the reviewing task has necessitated compromiseain selection strategies, thoroughness in examination.,anddetail in reviews. The breadth of the task has seriouslyrestricted the ability of the reviewers to symthesizegeneralizations in many areas. It isto be hoped thatresearchtirs in industrial arts.education will continue toimprove the quality of theiriwork. It is imperative'tWatmore detailed.reviews be conducted with increased ftequentcy.

A

Il

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Oott

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. and Millek,'P. W. ','The Effects of Selected /fidustrial Arts Activities

on Educable Mentally Retarded Students' Achieveient and Retention of Metric

Linear Concepis." Journal of Industriat.Teacher Educatiom 15 (Spring, 1978):

7-16. (EJ 184 473)

* \)lunch, E. et al. Metals, industrial Arts Performance Objectives, Junior High

School. Jacksonville, Florida:. Duval County School Board, -972a.

. Woods, -Industrial Arts Perfo ce Objectibes, Junior High chr,,o1.

'JAksonville, Florida: Duval County School Board, 1972b.

Burnett, F. M. The Effectiveness ofa Competeney-Based Instructional Method

for College Ceramids',ip Comparison with a Tividitional. Instructional Method.

Ed. D. dissertation, Lawrence: University of Kansas, 1974.

Burns, W. B. Tha PrioAttainment as PerceivD. dissertiation, Hatt

ty of Induatrial Arts Objectives and Their Degree of

d by Selected School Personnel in Agssiss0.i. Edo

esburg: University'of southern Mississippi, 1975.

uryoughs, M. G. The Development of Criteria for Industrtal Arts- in Public

43f?ortzdary Schools and its Applicti3n to South Dakota Schools. Ed. D.

,dissertation, Greeley: University of Northern Colorado, 1970. (ED 039 361)

iZyle, A. D. Ai.1 t150147.,1ition2 t Analys 1.L :.1ode I to De term f.ne Me tri_,. 14:,..zsurerrntrompt c.s f()I' Pro- $ d in-So rtyl. Edu cat 1:-.)n rzs At'p t t

qraphi! Arto inAvt*. Ph. D., dissertation, East Lansing: Michigan State

University, 1975.

Bzowski, E. D. A):ATA if2pc iN,f71:?e..i

.6)1.11 :4,1icnt _,;'Manua; AP:.a. Ph. D. dissertation, College -Park:

University of Maryland, 1969.

(:.114, P.., C.

ino!Columbus: The

.11, I 4. r Lf "1 .4. . f :;) 1

if,;.,201, ,1 ;1 WI8i I. ,-t: :11! . Ph. U. issert.-it ion,

Ohio state Uni,fersity, 1969.

o

,j'

.1

At4*. I

Calhoun, D. K. A Validation of College IndUstrial Arts.Woodworking Course

Content. .Ed. D. dissertation, Tempe: Arizona State University, 19173. .*

California State Colleges. Industrial' Artetrnduetrial Technolon. Los Angeles:

Division of Academic Pl./ming, 1970. (ED 045 801)

California State Department of Education. Industrial Education Safety Guide."

Sacramento, 1978- (ED 159 398)

Callahan, J. T. A Curriculum Nide for Power Techndlogy, Grades 9-12. Master's ,

thesis, Platteville: University of Wisconsin, 1978. (ED 160 765)*

Campbell, C. P. "Coping with the Economic CrunCh." Man/SoCiety/Technelogy.361 (November, 1976) i _57-59.

. "Reporting Student Achievement." Man/Society/Techrplogy. 35

(April, 1476): 217-218,

Campbell, G. Progrann :1earning Mechanical Drawing: An Experimeht toDeterriline the Effect ..,,r Presentieg. Programmed Units ol Selected iflements ofOrthographic Projection on. the Ability of Pupils to Visualize Spatial .

Relations. Ph. D. dissertation, Washington Square: New York, University, 1969.A

caron, M. A. Teacher,Professionalism and Organizatienat Style: Their Effeat .

9n the Adoption of. the Industrial Arts curriculum Project Materials in atuniorah School [n4ustpia1 Arts 'Programs in Ohio. Ph. D. dissertation, Columbus:'

The Ohio state University, 1975.

Carrel, J. J. "Reaction, the First." J(.:urnal of induatrial Al.to Educ,a!lon.

(September/October, 1969) : 18.

)7-

_I. . "Cluster Curnicula in Industrial Teacher Education: dilire They Really

Clusters? ,Which OnWAre Being.Usedand,How Have They Been Determined?"

.:,r7z(zI %r in.:o!pli. -:;:z-411-v Yi,4,,P.1o.t. 15*.(Winter, 19'78) : 35-41.

(EJ 178 895) , I

.

Carter, P. 3. .1)!......}w4:0:1.:;z.:!--1): At t Dijurtp?...7! Aro o n

p. ' .** *),! / P": / 11)) ZAP: :7'1' 1) in LC Ar!

Ed. D. dissertation, (;reeley: Uniyersity of Northern Colorado, 1970.

.:1.) 043 745)

cattLe, D. E.EU. D. dissertat)on, oklanoma State

Unive,:sity, 1974.

catiLey, M. J. . ; ." V: : Z .

: .' ., " ; Z : :0.

P d. D. dis.AN?rtation, ,;rocif.y: rnivon:Ity

Noz-thorn c.,)!oracif), (EP 458)

j I.: -

1S,rj

7.

6

414

11

Center fdr Vocational and Technical Education. Industrial Arta Education.0 Instructional Mhterials. Col ust The Ohio State University, 070.

Chang, T. F. induStria Technical Educqtion Teacher Preparation. and Economic

Growth in Taiwan: A Case Stu*. Ph; D. dissertation, State College: The

Pennsylvania State University, 1074,.

Chaplin, J. W."A Ntional Status Study of Industrial Arts Teacher Education.-

Washington, D. C.: American Industrial Arts Association, 1972. (ED 069 886)

. .A National SAatue Stuck of induitrial Arts Teacher Education, Task

' Force Repolopz14. Colqmbia, Missouri.: National Association of Industrial

and Technical Teacher Educators, i974. .

Charitesworth, K. B. Safety Pragrams for Industrial Art's Education the State .

ofVVew Jersey. Ed. D dissertation, New York: Columbia University,c, 1,968. .

-

Chastain, G. K. Effects of Visual and Verbal Presentations Upon the Performance

ofa'PsychomOtor Task. Ph. D. diSsertation, Columbia: University of .

* Missouri, 1972..

1 (,

Chawhan, A. U. Effect of Two Learning Treatments on Cognitive Achievc;Tent

1.).1. Basic Electronics by Stucients Varying in Problem-Solving Abflity. Ed. D.

dissertation, Columbiail. 9niversity of.Missouri, 1973.

Chen, J. 'A ;ongitudinal Study ofCarolina* State Univertity. Ed.

State University, 1977.

the Industrial Arts Graduates of North,D. dissertation, Raleigh: North Carolina,

Chinese Ministry of Education. Report on Tnitial Evaluati.on of Industi,ifi

Apts Edacation and Yocatr:onal Guidance Pmject.. Taipei, Taiwan: Department

of Secondary Educhtion, 1969. (ED 054 390) '

, , -

f .

Chorost, S. B. 1721000:z.1 tho Deeijn,zted 41;.0:.14:)714

hom b1 ',"hpou:ih !,ho m r Awaruno so Pro imr r. Brooklyn: New York City

Boitrd of Wucation', 1976. (ED 142 630)

6

Cicchetti,* E. A. .te, ..)1' z V.) Kiz4y.zt,i.,1)1

1,o!v! 'lfl 2 :hZ. ,r ThthYth. q). dissertation, New Brunswick:. Rutgers - The State University

of New JerSey, 1974.

D. L. "Learning concepts in Indwoirtar36 (May/Jdne, 1%477): 245-247.

'1.ark, F. E. .z" .! e . Ph.

11 !-nwl4ation, Columbia: University of Missouri, 19.11. (1-1 ) Os; 1-1,';

°Clay, K. R. A Study of the Natum of Crwative Behavior in Industrial Arts

and the Indicated Encourdgement of This Type of Behavior by- Michigan Industrial

Arts Teachers. id. D. dissertation, East Lansing: Michigan State University,

1965.

Cliffe, R. "Imprementing Hearing Safety." Journal of,Industrial Teacher

Education: 15 (Spring, 1978): 69-74.0 (EJ 184 479)

An Istvestigation of the, fielationship Between Studen Succe a in High

School' Woodworking arid Scores Attavthe Diffarential Aptitu Test.

Rd. D. dissertation, Greeley: University of'Nqrthern Colorado, 1918.

Cobbins, S., Jr. Industrial Education fc'n? Black Americans in Mississippi --

186,2-1965. Ed. D. dissertation, Mississippi State: Mississippi State

University, 1975.

Cochran, L. H. A.Comparison ofSelected Contemporary InAstrial Education

.Programs. Ed. D. dissertation, Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University,

1968.

0. Innovative Programs in Industrial Education. Bloomington, Illinois:

McKnight Publishing Co., 1970.f.

Colemah, j: M. The Current Status and Possible Trends in Teaching Industrial

Arts Wood information at Teacher EdUcation Institutions. Ed. D. dissertation,

Greelel: Northern Colorado University, 1971. (ED 055 195)

' 0Collin's, C. J. ,StuaLi QJ Ndustrial Arts Education in Public Se(londary Schools

the .A44.thern Appalachian Region. SUmmary Report. Morgantown:* West

Virginia University, 1968.

Colorado Stte Uni.N.rersity. A Study to Investigate and CiLzrij the Role of

industrial Arts in Cl.oracio and Its interface with Vocational Edu,..:zti-Jn:

s if,Tsrt: Volume i, Narrative Report. Ft. Collins, 1976. (ED 126.290)

Conley, F. How Can ;:lith or Adjust to Pudgot anl ;7t-aff Yuf.0 tN

,n1;tetri,tl Tffacher Mucaation:' If We Use This as a W.ly to

i. ',1217 ,The Aoti- td of industrial Arts, What are the Alz80.0.eiv.,.1;:'

'Presentation at Mississippi Valley Confvence, St. Louis, 1978.

cooksey, R. C. ;it .A4.1vi)rmcnt of a Mocr Mechani.-ss 4t inzte r:t!

Irt. !ci. Ph. D. dissertation, College Park: tniversit

of Maryland,

c:Iih.eland, L. L

.1471.

. and Ham, E. A. "A National Study Using the Delphi

Technique to Ideut ify Tc.?.4.i .her rompetencics for 1:valuating Industrial ArtH °:Itudetnt. '',,.ichors." j .?: z' :' ./s: cw! r:* z. .. -/ /;.. )3 ."-. _. i. ;* ....;. 16 (Spring,1.$)7'3) : i 4'i.

Vne. I

Corwell, N. V. A Preliminary Investigation of PBTE and CMI with Implicationsfor Restructuring an Introductory Course in Industrial Technology TeacherEducat.ion. Ph. D. dissertation, Columbus: The Ohio State University, 1975.

Cremer, K. D. A Comparison ofbehavioral Objectives Written With and Withoutthe Use of "Behavioral Objective Manning Guides." Ed. D. dissertation, Logan:

Utah State University, 1970.

Crouch, J. P. An Appraisal of.the 1967 NDEA Institutes for Advanced Study inindustrial Arts (old Their impact Upon Professional Activities of Participants

4.nd Dlwistors. Ed. D. dissertation, Columbia: University of Missouri, 1968.

(RD 0.2S 621)

Crowder, G. A. Vua/ Slides and Assembly Mbdels Compared with Conventional:.Pt/p iv in !!aching Industrial Arts. Ed. D. disseartation, College Station:

Texas A 6, M University, 1968.

Crump, D. L. An Ewaluatl.on of the Industrial Arts DepartmLent of the Secondhry

Lv' Arkansas. Ed. D. dissertation, Fayetteville:

UniVersity of Arkansas, 1968.

Crystal, D. G. AeTarfs,2 of* TA) Pract e Methods of n?aohing hkinirulative Skills

-- .'tith'n'o. Ed. D. dissertation, Logan: Utah State University,

1975.

Culbertson, W. A .-,n,.,Tty4.1! 1444.1 fir In-;.;orvic.o Education for Community

\ ft. 41): t.14 '.)( t iona7. In(itrueyfors Wh..) Have Not.

\ b.!;* iiI P,Iucation Profwams. Ed. D. dissertation,

Greensbpro: University of North Carolina, 1975.

Cunico, G. E. ..':;!** te z h( Y:41 up.. f IndustEd..D. dist;ortation, Logan: Utah State University, 1974.

Cu:thing, N. N. .4, P El , PP00..!.z!f V.-reuo

: z nr. Ed. D. dissertation,

Tompe: Art.tr,na -.-1tatt! Univrsity, 1971. (ED 051 402)

, ..1. - . ), ; 11;; , 1:

ft ! I( Z. ;4 1.0 . d. D.t wn, (A.1 ambia: Univerl;ity of Missouri , 1968.

1.1T

4

4 : : ). * : Z.

1- ." -" . . ?1

momoni t Univr.rsity of out., 75.

PtAmbrosi-, .14 p ;/?. I.h. 1 .%%111;11)111::: Tho it. i y, I 4,1.

. I .

.

1 C.

; !

z

Davis, E. M. Industrial Arta for Mentally l'etarded Students in the Junior -

and Senior High School of Missouri. Ed. D. dissertation, Greeley:

,University of Northern Colorado, 1971.

Day, G. F. "Criterion Referenced Measurement." Mhn/Society/Technology. 35

(Decembei, 1975)1 84-86.

Dean, C. T. and Lathrop, I. T. "A State System for Higher Education in the

Preparation of Industrial Arts Teachers." Journal of Industrial Teacher

Education. 8 (Summer, 1971): 19-23.

Deane, T. C. and Ilauer, N. A., eds. Industrial Technology Education. Washington*,

D. C.: ACIATE/AIAA, 1969.

Deane, A. et al. Excellence and the Department Environment -- Preparing

Industrial Arts Teachers. Presentation at the American Industrial Arts

Association' s Annual Conference , Seattle Washington , 1974.

DeLaura, J. A. A Comparison of the Effects of Criterion-AeferencedMeasurement

liersue Norm-Referenced Measurement in General Metals Classes at the University

ofNe.:;rthern Colorado. Ed. D. dissertation, Greeley: university of Northern

Colorado, 1974.

Dellinger,D R. N., Jr. A Surve if of Industrial Arts i,n Pennsylvania. Harrisburg:

Pennsylvania State Department of Education, Bureau of, Curriculum Services,

1974. (ED 105 139).

.

,Dennis, E. A. Intilw rt. licaohc Educs.atz. on 1-1? r1,t.ory . Cedar Falls: University

of Northern Iowa; ACIATE/NAITTE, annually.'0

Dennis, W. A. "The Ameridan Industrial Arts Student Association." :4:$1/5-,ty/

:'thn.).?)17j5. 38 (December, 1978) 12-14.

Dennison, B. 'fitt ,t10,-..?zeos E?"ght Ih i 1 ime Is? r i'ca h in:Pun,inl,z. Ed. D. dissertation, College Station: Texas A & M

Univesity, 1970.

Devlin, L. G. 11?: A.1!,;;3?',1 Vi. Yo.zivati!..m

'."..v.zo A k l!vers-!*. Ed. D. dissertation,

Colleco Station: Texas A & m Univerity, 1971.

DeVore, P. W. "Discipline Sthicture and Processes: A Research Design for the

Identification of Content and Method." -f iNjw!.7,12!7 (Winter, 1970).: 21-31. (EJ 018 021)

dad :-;miLh, W., ed!;.

WoAt Viyqinia nnivorsity, 1970,

.04'

"Preparing Peoplo for the Wottd of Work."

.. (March/April, L')70):

Mortiant own :

on, z

f4f

. Structure and Content Foundations for Curriculum Development.Washington, b. C.: AIAA, 1968.

. "Toward Unity and Diversity in Industrial Arts'Teacher Education."

Journal. ofInduatrial Teacher Education. 5 (Summer, 1968): 13-26.

Dirksen, D. A. An Analysis of the Articulation Procedures Aelated to theTransfer of the Two-Year CoZlege Students to Four-Year Colliege Programs of(Industrial Arts in the State of Kansas. Ed. D. dissertation, Logan:

Utah State University, 1969.

Dirkson, R. E. Relevant Learnings for the Induatrial Manufacturing Operative.Ph. D. disiertation, Columbus: The Ohio State University, 1969.

Donald, J. J. Industrial Arts in thethe Rationale of Open Education andOswego, New York: State University

Open Education Setting: An Analusis ofits Implications for Industrial Arts.College, 1974. (ED 110 600)

Doty, C. R. The Effect.of Practice and Prior Knowledge of Education41Objectives on Performance. Ph. D. dissertation, Columbus: The Ohio'State

University', 1968.

Downs, W. A. The Effect of Constructional Activities Upon Aohievomont In thoAreas ofScience and Mathematics at the Fifth Crade Lowl. Ed. D. dissertation,

Columbia: University of Missouri, 1968.

Drennan, J. D. The Effect of Industrial Education on Educable Mental ii;.tarLei'.;

Entering the Labor Form. Ed. D. dissertation, College Station: Texas A & M

University, 1970.

Drummond, P. J. and Vitro, F. T. The Effects of 17ele-...to,1

:!trategies on Learning Efficiency in Vocational Technic:4ZPro4rams: Final Report: Phase Orono: University of Maine, Col)ege ofEducation. 1975. (ED 117 307)

. :d?amlby RosearA ..zn.-1 Principles. as Appliod f.) C!aoor

:.zet :. Orono: University of Maine, College of Education, 1974. (D 114 4r.)4)

Dugger, W. E., Jr. A ::onvariaon (),;*

PtS .:tudenta With TrOti:,nai' In Izw! AP: 'Yf !/*H .%

Ph. D. dissertation, Colutbus,: ThepOhio State University, 1970. (ED 045 8411

. "Participation of Special Needs in Industria1 Arts."36 (March, 1977) : 185-187.

and Buffer,..J. J. "A Comparison of Cognitivo Achif!vement Pcutormanct'Industrial,Arts Curriculum Project Students, ConvPntionally Taught Ingu-ftriat

Arts Students, and Non-Industrial Art:; Studcnt." :* :;

i:cz!( 10 (Fall, 1.972) : 38-47.

-

-;

and Herbert, G. R. "Personality and the Teacher." Max/ Socie ty/Teehno logy .37 (February, 1978) : 24°27.

et al. "Standards for Industrial Arta Education Programs Project."

Man/Society/Technology. 38 (May/June, 1979): 12-:16.

.Dukes, W. E. Effects of Isolated Pictorial Stimuli Upon cognitive Achievementof Technical Information. Ph. D. dissectation, West Lafayette, Indiana:

Purdue University, 1974.

Dunn, 24. E. Petrographic and Cry tallographic Investigation of the Relationisetween Internal Structure (.4nd Bulk Properties of Pired Clay Obcts..4pplication to the Teaching of Tndustrial Arts. Ph. D. dissertation, Washington

Square : New York University, 1977.

Duval County School Board. Graphit? Comno1ications, Industrial .Arts FCrforman.vObectives, Junior High ,c;chool. Jacksonville, Florida: Duval County ScIlool

Board, 1973. (ED 139 972)

Dyer, C. V. .4 Study to Det,rmine Curriculum Con ttin pica qz.

.!7econdary Schools Tabago. Ed. D. dissertation, Tel pe:

Arizona State University, 1974.

Dyrenfurth, M. ,. A inuwn o :)bject, toes : Thq Way Nowfrw t.ion. Presentation at the AIM Annual Conference, DesIowa, 1976.

. An Evalf(.1.-:11c Aspects0j* vt

Plk);p4m. Master's thesis, Edmonton: University of

Dopartment of Industrial and Vocational Education, 1970.-

.n.L'4i!.'1)::ZIAP!

Alberta,

. ;/)1.i.: A P: 0 f.n iU!!' Yju, A. I z : !

Prsentation at the AVA's Annual Conference, Dallaci,

Tt!xas, 1978.

. .*; ' r'.. i! 1 41. Y".; z

Presentation to the ACIATE at the ATAA Annual Confoiencf!, New .4-leans,kfmistana, 1977.

. . ' i.n. i z i, ... ..:. . ; . . ',. ....izw r: zf ..',>,.;!: :. ;;° ,... z . . f :.' '. :',!',". z ''.._. .

Prysentation at the AIAA'::. AUatual Conference, ;.:an Antfnli:), Tox,c;, P -,").

. . I

4 T rOn tikm !if 'w " 1)Fm1rtmf,nt ct ;-'tiitcat t , Di v1..-; (in of Ir.,"i .iii; t. 1'3

.tot Btldt r, . ::

! .11 ona 1 P.ju, .a! 1.) 14,Ne,p.

ftA *,)

. et al. gtate Assobiation Leadership. Present'ation at' the %IAA's

Annual Conference, At1ant4 Georgia , 1978.

and Miller, P. M. Putting Purpose into the Non-Class Experliences of

Our Graduate 3tudents. Presentation at the AIAA's Annual. Conference,.San

Antonio, Texas, 1979.

Q Eddy, M. "Moving Ahead in Technology Teacher Preparation.". Journal ofIndustrial Teacher Educ..ation. 8 (Summer, 1971) : 24-29.

Edmison, G. A. A Compariccn of Industrial Arts in the State of WashIngion;4;;;e:.2.kad ./;!...vmuns. Ed. D. dissesrtation, Tempe: Arizona

State University, 1973. (ED 085,474)

Educational Testing Service. Coopf-:!IcititV industrial Arts Tests Spe:-!inien Set.

Princeton, New Jersey, 1969.

Edwards, 12. D. t.17 heduetrial Arts Teacher Education' Program

qraduatoo. Ed. D. dissertation', Columbia:

University of t.ifuouri, 1971. t.,(ED 05 173)

. /1.2.0c to. 417:1;'. at o .a:' zion. Presentation- at theMississippi Valloy Industrial Education Conferen(:u , SL. Louis, Missouri,1174.

Eqq0 , J. R. i:04! iv.z I f on 1YY1 d industrial-

. ',Ia.! z. Ed. D. dissertatio.r;; Conege Station:Toxas A M University, 1970.

Eqqloston , J . "The Transformation of Industrial A: s EAucation in Britain.". . 35 (February, 1976) : 1 ')2-154.

t'Iy, R. 11. z). ;*. .7.N. . 41". Z ph. D. disso rtat ,

t : Corn' a 1 L !!ni vet sity, 1ct

1...11(palk,z . z , i z.;. iI. I. 11:;ca rt dt iOn #

i',11. th ill 11 -1 t*()1 111.1 ycI's It y, 1?)';

!:tI v t -).: , 11. :1

,. a. 1.z!... .* ;: .... 1....1.. .

:,...:,,j: I .:., :II, p. .!it 1.,a1. Tf x .t. : A -.. NS !'n i vo ra: I t. y ,

: I: , . p. .

1 :. , . . . ,

I .:: I ' .t* 1. I a :." : !Z..; .: 1 >1 I IP' ti: I

1 1 A:11 1 A

I

.i , I. ill ;II. 4.. -s

Ushelby, D. Bibliography'of Tndustrtal Arts Education Documents Ai Listed

in Abstracts of'instructional Materials in Vocational and Technical Education

(AIM) Pall, 196'7 to Fall, l969. Grand Forks, North Dakota: Vocational

Education Researcil Information Center, 1920. (ED 047 088)

. -

Everson, R. I. The Efyect of Occupational Infbrmation Upon Secondary School

Youth with Varying 'Interests Regarding a Teaching Career in the Field of

Industrial Arts. Ph. D. dissertation, Columbia: University of Missouri,

1971. (ED 054 369)

Fahrlander, D. D. The Role of the Teacher in the Vocational Education and

Practical Arts Labyratories. Ed. D. dissertation, Logan: Utah State

University, 1972.

Falls, J. E. A Comparison of Tntroductorv Industrial Arta with Metal and Wood

Manufacturing Industries. Ed. D. dissertation, College Station: Texas A &

M University,-4948.

Faztini, A Comparative Study to Determine the Efficacy of Two Industrial

Arts PrcSiTram Approaches Upon Pupils' Attitudes Toward Manufacturing Industry. \

Ph. D. dissertation, Columbus: The Ohio State University, 1970. (ED 045 823)

Feirer, J. L. Wtrication of Teohnical Career Education, Final Report. Volume /I.

Kalamazoo: Western Michigan University, Center for Metric Education, 1976.

(ED 134 830)

. Conot:raion in Vottational Education. Final Report. Volume 1-7j .1)0 VO 14Ws . Kalamazoo: Western Michigan University, Center for Metric

Nducation, 1976. (ED 134 839)

. P-1,2,1! !.0/ zlicer Education. Final Report. Volume II.

.Kalamazoo: We§t3rn Michigan University, Center for Metric Education,

1976. (ED 13.( 831)

and Lindbeck, J. R. "Partners in Industrial-Technical Teacher Education:_The cooperative RDius of the Community-Junior Colleges and the Senior

Institutions." ,..P40?:1 Iniuoti.i.al NdLwan. 8 (Sumner, 1971):

6-10.

Fentress, J. H. and Swansor, R. A. "The Effect of instructor Influential

Tactics nn Evaluation by University Students." !ourn..0 )!' 1,-zduotrfai

Z4!. P 13 (Fall, 1975): 5-16.

c. R..., ..... I " 11. ,

11. : '. ;1. i4.! In. '04 Pp.

Ed. U. dissortation, University Park: The

Ptmusyivania :;tato Oniversity, 1969.

"ki.scat4.h 1t..0(.1t; of NAITTE Members."

. ( February, I '378) :

1 :

,

Fleming, B. E. Nnrichment of the Induatrial.Arts Cui+iculum Through the Use

of'Diaaci-Type Transparencies for Overhead,Projection: 'Ed. D. dissertation,

Washington Square: New York University, 1969.

Foley,-D. J., Jr. Handbook on RecruitM4nt of Potential Industrial Arts

Teachers. New York: New York University New York Department of Vocational

Education, 1967. (ED 030 727)

Forkner, N. R. Industrial Arts Design, A Measure Of a Cr;iterion of Design

Versus Content of Instruction in Secondary Schools ofColorado. Ed. D.

dissertation, Greeley: Colorado State College, 1968.

Francis, C. E. The Relationship of Laboratory Performance Ratings, Informational

Achievement and Pencil-Paper Performance Test Scores in College-Level Electricity.

Ed. D. dissertation, Columbia: University of Missouri, 1973. (ED 079 131)°

Freschet, F. The Development and Testing of an Instructional System for Teaching

Orthographic Projection. Ed. D. dimrtation, Rullman: Washington State0

University, 1969.

Friedman, H. J. Vocational Education Act Proposal Design: A Handbook and

Supportive MuZti Media Materials. Ed. D. dissertation, Washington Squar( :

New York University, 1978.

Fruits, D. G. 214.Relationship ofCertain Personal aqd SituationalFactors to .

the Administrative and Supervisory.Duttes Performed by Indiana.Indusfrl'alArts Department Chairmen. Ed. D. dissettation, Bloomington: Indiana

University, 1975.

Frye, B. J. An Analysis of Teacher Educati.fn Tnnovations with Proomiqiieuij!:r Their jltilization in I-he Propssional Prrraration of ProspPotive Industrizl

Arts Teachers. Ph. D. dissertation, Columbus: The Ohio State University,

1971. (ED 053 335)

Gadbois , R. L. A :7tu1ig or tilt: ;1;,,/....zt- ibiliiinf/ roiic p 01 At'r

t. In:at A rt.. s , t.1.2.) Cur?.1,..241 ;1h .4A()( )1 *P1.111 .:(3 Z, ; ..'ortr.,zp,-.i ll'iz111;1 12.-. Ma:rn :7! . , 7 >§;;

:)?1, . Ed. D. dissert at ion , Greeley : (%)loradoState College , 1968.

.Gal lington , R. , od. tiP! .74 z.',1 "!*: i `it. Wash ingt c.):1 , :

ACIATTE/AI , 1970.

Gar eison . :.;E;7 : ;1(' P .1.!,

; .. .1'4.! *. p012 !mon ; i .7. 4, . M, *.qi , p.g

Bloomington Indiana Universi ty, 1977.

, . , r . '1: :

." -t 1:1?4.' . *!'

Z ; ; d. D. dissertat ion , Columbi a: i vs y atM i ssour i , .47

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, 1

Gavin, G. "Masters Programs for Teacher Educators.7 Journal oflndustrial

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Glogovsky, j. A -e:con Ara!,0

l'n'il40t* %I/tit ;n AP(0

Ed. D. dissertation, GreeLey: Upiversity of Northern Colorado, 1970.

(ED 041 116)

1 7 -

1 09

0.

oS.

;Cie

400t,i3 /f rie simad bittlenalago Tatfitrial Arte torwhem s&tnein tho,es)

t

Teov4Rna ProPoNon,,Mhat Can tho TWaohoi41-NdWation hiogram.DO: .Prawntationa014*A.upippi VaI1py Cotifproncof St. LOuibt Miueouci, 1976.

o Cs1

1)411g1ury, P. @teal. Akaricgn Ttalatrio0. Poilibtlmanq4 001eopitIOC Foluva ij''.7AcknonvAlles ida: DUval 0ounty Betio& Boarl, 1B7Sa.l. mar39:416)

.. ,

. . American Industri4s. ,P rformanov 00jepeii/00 VatimP IL sJacksOnvillp,..- horidas Duval County School Board, 1995b. 40 139

American Industries. Junior 1-40 Pre-Vocatto4a14.ftwer; ahd %t

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Goodness, Liv.R. Influence of.Industrial Arts on Career AwareOss ab.the Third47rade Legol.: Ed. D. dissertation, eolumbia:, UqiyeTsitytof Missouri, 1977:

t

.. 4 ..

1) .

. "Research ApplicatOn: Inflpence of Industrial Arts om.CaraerAw eness at the'Third Grdde'level." Man/SocietylTechnoiogy. 417 (May/June,

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Gore, D. K. and Sqhwaller, A. E. "Ptag t, Leaning and Industrta1'.4ts."Man/gociely/TcohnoZpgy. (September/October, 1977): 244,26.

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Graham; G. S. A-Tabtk Anatysio 9f the Basic &tat Casting Processes: An :

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Gbilickson4 N. h. Dimot Frog MODO at ChltfornfdStege thimpoitg-Frogno, i& Iniplta3tiono PA4Wpartmentai /Woo Aing Budgeting4n-Dwietrial Rdwaion Depalitmohto. Ed. D. dissertation, Oroeleys Ulliversity

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t3

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Gurbach, T. W. and Harris, R. c. Graeitate Teadhing AsstAanto '1st gd4otrial:

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itIasley, Ny ."A Tecluioloqical Explcratorittm, K-6." Presentation it theannual conference, Cinuinqati, Ohio, 1975.

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e

. .:'A

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. Hess, H. L. .A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Two Inetructional Proce4res'for .Developing Safety Attitudes in Beginemg Machine Woodworking:. Ed. D.dissertation, Cpllege Stafon: Texas A & M University, 1969.

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o0

Hilton, R. C. Industriell Arts CurriculuM,Implications from Student Evaluationofindustrial Arts Experiences. Ed. D. dissertation, Greeley: Universityof Northern Colorado, 1970: (ED 040 287)

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6

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pPip'!"77177-r"4"77744.lirt.r177 5.1'.1.0Ttrxrp-a rern,79- .

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.; k, ,..!0. -4- 4_,-.

Ho1iaM, 3.0.. Jr. An RkOarimentaZ St4 to DApiketnas th&E1Tatt6aneov of "'-":":.'

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D1

. ...;-'0P4101111

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. .

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9

Holt; JI 1k A Comp&risOn Axes Typos of Ccivirse prganimation foTrDvineevin,g;

Graphics Intitruction. Ed. D. dissertaiion, Colle4e St4ion: 'Texas A &

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Homoly, C. E. ,The Feasibility of Semiconductor Device Fabrication in tO°industrial Arta Laboratory. Ed. D. dissertation, Greiiley: °Univirsity,of

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'Householder, D. L. "industri.al Arts: The Perennial Bridesmaid." ,jourPlal

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<en

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. IndustriaZ Artsand Itlethod l96-4968.Boston, Massachusetts,

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04

. Review and Evaluati,on of Curriculum Borvelopment in Industriat Arts

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Howe, T. G. "The Role of the Research in Dissemination." Journal of indl.Wrial'

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Hudson,.D. W. The Eftect ofContiguity on Inftrmational 4chievPnent and

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PhiZosophy, Objectivei; Media,annual VOcAtional,Conveaiorf,

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Hurley,'C. E. "The Effects of Feedback on Psychomotor PerforMance of,Fourth

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(ED 051 424)

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.

0.

4,1

4'4

t ,

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Iagini, .. P. A. and MeNeirl , B. - "Aripthor *View' on the 11., S .0. E. 4 S Rale. " Journalof Industrial Teacher Education. 6 (Pall, 1968) s Q47-51. .

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Imphong, RI ti. An Investigation 3f th'e Factors that Affect JOb Satisfaction andDiesatiofactt6n of:Beginning and Exiierienced IndustX41 Arts Teachere in the '

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. Ingram., M. D. Resource Research .in Integnated Circuits with Emphasis on.Curr.culum Development for'''Induatrial Arts: Ed. D. dissertation, College

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Innis, R.W, A Follow-Up Survey.13owlirtg Green State University,Area in Indisstrial gducation..GtRen State Univer4ty, 1971.

Iowa Delpartment of PubliC Instruction. \The Iowa Guide On, Curricu.lwr) Ykrprovement, in ,I1c248trial Arts, K-12. 'Des Moines Iowa, .1975.

iIrvine, F. B. A Study of Creative Thinking Ability

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cf Pereonf Ow Have Graduated Frkom TheBowling Green, Ohio, with..a Major Study

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and Its Relationship toand VOcational AptitudeEd. D. dissertation,

Isenn, V. H. Ilesign:. Curriculum Analysis 7or Industrial Arts Woodwnrking. .

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Israel, E. N. InWu'ctional Guidellines foro4eliching Technial Concepts.Presentation at the Annual Conference Atlantic City, New Jersey, 1971.

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Jageman, L. w. The Value of rndustrial Arts for the Educable MentallY .;8etarded.Ed. D. dissertation, Greeley: University of Northern Coloradp, 1968.

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Jas*osz, T. A.. A Coinparison of Studen(:; Achievement in- Visual Communicationqhd n the Traditional Graphic Art's 4pproach. Ed. D. dissertation, Tempe:.phrizona4State University, 190.

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:!L1af, f :tudlos .?"z Industri1z1 Arts, Traik, and Industrial, ivy/7't ohnioz1 Dissertation Abstractr. Greeley: University ofNorthern Colorado, annu ly.

. "Summaries of Studies in Indus ial Arts, Trade and Industrial, andEducation." ,ft311;: !n::14:frl..z! Edu,..zn. 11 (Fall, 1973):

92-95.

sac.

-fr

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e8 V

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Jenkins, J. D. An Experiment to Detemine the Mectiveness of.Slides mid..Audio Tapes for Presenting Manimaative pemonstrations in Graphic Arta.

d E. D. dissertati,on, College Station: Texas-A & M Univarsity,,-1969.: (ED.

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. Jenkins, R. The. AVe of the Industrial Arts Teacher; as a. 40oruiting Agent Pr *.Induetria4 Edvpation in the'LState of Louisihna. Ed. D. dissertation,.

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Jonnings, , G. L. The Rolat,of Industrial Arts in the Achievement of SelectedObjective ,pf Economic Efficiency as Perceived by Michigan Induatrtal Arts

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Jensen R.

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Characteristide ofPublicHandicapped Students. Ed.

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High School Concurrent Wojk-EducationD. disgertation, Urban41 University

Jewell, L.6..R. and Weston,'C. R. Wects o4N *se on'Reading Camp*,heftelionand Task aoripletion Time - Finel Report. ACtSlumbia: University of Missouri, k

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9

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.1Johnson, D. L. ;State Handbooks for Induptrial Arta: A Comparison of Conient 4

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: 7;,

Johneton, is. L. 41.te RelatIonahlp of Occupational Experience, ProfessionalPOeparation, andr7eachingtE;perience to Student Aphievement in IndustrialEaucation Programsb, ,Ed. 0,.- dissertation, Greeley: University of.Northern

. .

COlorado, 19'74. ,'G' °..

.

k:

. °

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Jones, C. W.'? "4 Look at the InduserialEducation Student Body at Iowa State6niversity," Journal ofIndustricel Teacher Education. 9 .(Spring, 1972):

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Jones,%0. E: A 6tudy 'of Attitudes%Toward Carver Educdtion of Achniniserative 'r.Supervisory Per:g.c)nneZ in the. Stabe of Alar7iland. td. D. disseNxation,Washington, D. C.: George Washington,University, 1974.

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Joyner, 3. E. AnIndustrial ArtsMissouri, 1973.

Experimental .Comparisorr of No Approaches to TeachingDenign. Ed. D. dissertatdOn, Columbia: University of(ED 076 764)

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'Kagy, F. D. Work Yaluos and Did:atrial Wu:cation. Presentation at Misaissippi

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'Kale, C. 0. Microwave Electronics:. A Curkculum Study. Ed. D. dii;sertation.,

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of

.Kaplan, W. A. A Sourcebook SO Teaching A High School'Course in Mhterials °

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Kaspdizyk, S. F. Technology: A Theoretical Baae for Industrial Art 'Education.

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,*Kaufman, A. H. and Buffer, J. J. ."An Assessment of Job Satisfaction in Industrial

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Kaumeheiwa, A. 1. The,Effects of Inclusive and Exc rive Uae oftbncrete andAbstract Stimili Upon Ideational Fluency and Flexibility Exhibited by FreshmisnIndustrial Arts Mhjors. Ph. D. diSiOitation, University Park: The

r Pennsylvania Stae University, 1969. .a

Kenneke, L. J. Mhjor Factoretwand Specific Aspects Affecting the Job Satisfactionsgold Dissatisfactions of Oregon Industrial Education Teachers. Ed: D.

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#

, %ichefski, J. A., The Development and Testing of an Audio-Tutorial Techniquefor Descriptive Geometry in the Secondary School. Ed. D. disseration,Tempe: Arizona State University, 1975.

Xigin, D. J. Teacher Liability in School-Shop Accidents. Ann Arbor, Michigan:Prakken Publications, Inc., 1973.

Wbourne, . G. The ReLaeive Success of High-Risk Students Enrolled in thei)egree Programs bf Beraa College. Ed: D. dissertation, Columbia: Universityof Missouri, 1971.

Kinzy, ID: W. The Americ9n Counail on IndustriAl Arts Teacher Education: Tts

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s- zPossrArr.rossiorgrolossonrssy-7.-14 .7ressr-rotro,:vot.orssiort "To-sr,""rsossirylo-rnM_ ..1.1.1.7/POTNrrIzrYfets"s.,P

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lWhat Research Says Abovt the Industrial Arts Department Head."

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and Fruits,'D. G. "The Industrial Arts Department phairpersons Today."

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Koble, R. L.'"Poundations of Industrial Arts Educat d.", Journaloof

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Ponsylvania-Competency-Based Teaaher Edu aUon, C6mpetenoieep

Indubtri rts Education. Harrisburg: ,Pennsylvania State 'Department of

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Koonce, T. R. State hiepared IndustrialfArts Resource Material: Their Status,

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. Kranzberg, M. "Technology--Implications gor Industrial Acts." Mtn/Society/. ,.

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Krug, J. V. StatUs0 Desiena and Perceived Objectives ofAdministrative Internships

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tversities,Throughout the United States, Wl42. Ed. D. disserlation,

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Kruger, J. M. Interaction Patterns of Industrial Arts Teachers in Laboratoroi

4-6 Type Situations at the Junior High School Level. Ed. D.,dissertation, .

Greeley: University of Northern Colorado, 1971. (ED 049 379) . 0

Kruppa, J. R. A Comparison of Three Teaching Techniques Using Instructional

Films in Selected Units'in :ndustrial Arta. Ed. d. dissertation, University

1011fk: The Pennsylvania State Uhiversity, 1968.

Kuwik, P.AD. A Quasi-Experimental. Study of TWo Selected Unite of the

Industrial Arta Curriculum Project Materials to Determine the Wasurable

AdditiVe Erncts of a Unit.on Design in Manufacturing Technology Upon a

Similar Unit on Design in Construction Technology. Ph. D. dissertation,

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ILandecker, L. The Effect of Agyed-Response Learning Guides and Zmmediate-

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Washington Seplare: New York Universi4, 1969.

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