CHAPTER 4 ETHNOBOTANY 4.1 Introduction

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CHAPTER 4

ETHNOBOTANY

4.1 Introduction

Ethnobotany is the study of how and for what reasons people use plants. Usage usually relates to

people’s conceptualization of the importance of plants, medicinally and otherwise, and their

experience of plants occurring in their local environment. The use of plants for medicinal

purposes originated from the beginning of civilization, as evidenced by the earliest recorded uses

found in Babylon (1770 BC) and in ancient Egypt (1550 BC). Ancient Egyptians believed that

medicinal plants were even effective in the afterlife of their Pharoahs, as indicated by the plants

recovered from the Giza pyramids (Veilleux & King 1996).

If one considers the questions how and why people are using plants, the ethnobotanist

approaches this problem by gathering data from living people. In this manner, an understanding

is created not only of the present uses of plants, but also of the importance of plants for food,

medicine, construction, etc. in their past existence. It also gives an indication of people’s

traditional ecological knowledge specifically related to plants and the influence of this

knowledge on the research and methods used in ethnobotany. The concept of ethnobotany started

to develop in 1895 after a lecture in Philadelphia by Dr John Harshberger, where he used the

term “ethno-botany” to describe his field of study, namely: “the study of plants used by primitive

and aboriginal people” (Robbins et al. 1916).

The meaning of the term “ethnobotany” changed from the “study of native uses of plants” to a

more scientific approach (Robbins et al. 1916), investigating the following questions:

• What are primitive ideas and conceptions of plant life?

• What are the effects of a given plant environment on the lives, customs, religion, thoughts

and everyday practical affairs of the people studied?

• What use do they make of the plants around them for food, medicine, material culture, and

ceremonial purposes?

• What is the extent of their knowledge of the parts, functions and activities of plants?

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• Into which categories are plant names and words that deal with plants grouped in the

language of the people studied and what can be learned concerning the working of the folk-

mind by the study of these names.

These questions are still very relevant for present-day ethnobotanical research.

Jones (1941) laid the groundwork for the future evolution of ethnobotany in pointing out that

ethnobotany is exclusively concerned with the interrelations of primitive man and plants.

Castetter (1944) further defined ethnobiology and set some guidelines for researchers. These

guidelines include: plant identification, relative abundance and availability of the plants,

vernacular names for the plant, purposes of use, season of collection, whether or not the plant is

native to the area, the economic value, species not used in the region and importance of the plant

in the economy of the culture.

Ford (1978) modified Jones’s definition to accommodate the evolution of the field and he

concluded “Ethnobotany is the study of the direct interrelations between humans and plants”.

The addition of the term “direct” acknowledged those who were in continual contact with plants,

permitting them to classify them in their way and to generate cultural rules for manipulating the

plants and their local environments. The deletion of the word "primitive" allowed expansion of

the field of study. Ethnobotany at this point was concerned with the folk knowledge of primarily

non-Western people.

Ethnobotany maintains a multidisciplinary character: botanically, plants and plant uses are the

focus, although ecological patterns, plant dispersals, resources utilization and horticultural and

agricultural patterns have become popular avenues of study among ethnobotanists (Veilleux &

King 1996).

Anthropologically, ethnobotanists concentrated on discovering human interactions with plants

through indigenous symbols, epistemology, folklore, ceremonies (Opler 1938) and plant

classifications among non-Western peoples (Posey 1984; Atran 1985).

Archaeologically, ethnobotanists concentrated on agricultural origins and prehistoric plant use

and relied on plant and coprolite remains, fossilized pollen and ancient food caches to determine

prehistoric plant use and relationships (Kaplan 1963). Recently, ethnobotanists developed a

holistic approach (Ford 1978), often relying on several theories in order to conduct their

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research, including data from botany, anthropology, linguistics, pharmacology, musicology,

architecture, conservation biology and many others, depending on the questions being asked in

the study (Jones 1941; Ford 1978; Turner & Davis 1993).

Ethnobotanists, through close contact with plants of a region are able to relate local and

specialized plant taxonomies and to study all the physical properties of the plants. They pay

attention to culturally related mental and symbolic properties of the plants in a region. Ecological

relationships within the plant community are central to these studies as well as the larger plant -

human relationship in terms of community economics. Here, anthropological economic theory

plays an important role in that it helps the Ethnobotanist assess and quantify human requirements

and their impact on a local environment (Ford 1978).

4.1.1 Traditional Medicines in the World

The Traditional Medicine Programme of the WHO (Rukangira 2001) defines traditional

medicine as: "the sum total of all the knowledge and practices, whether explicable or not, used in

diagnosis, prevention and elimination of physical, mental or social imbalance and relying

exclusively on practical experience and observation handed down from generation to generation,

whether verbally or in writing."

Traditional medicine or, more appropriately, traditional systems of health care, have undergone a

major revival in the last twenty years. Every region historically had a form of traditional

medicine or a traditional system of health care. Chinese, Arabic, African and other traditional

medicines are traditional because they are deeply rooted in a specific social-cultural context,

which varies between communities. This variation between communities gives traditional

medicine its diverse and pluralist nature. The attention currently given by governments to

widespread health-care application has given a new momentum to research, investment and

design of programmes in this field in several developing countries in Africa and elsewhere

(Rukangira 2001).

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4.1.2 Traditional Medicine in Africa

In Africa, traditional healers and remedies made from plants play an important role in the health

of millions of people. The relative ratio of approximately 1:100 of university trained doctors to

traditional practitioners in African countries like Ghana (Kwahu district), Swaziland and

Tanzania (Rukangira 2001), indicates the importance of traditional medicine in developing

countries.

Together with the increase in Africa's population and the higher demand for traditional

medicines, the depletion of natural resources due to the loss of habitat becomes eminent. This

may result in many of the medicinal plants and other genetic materials becoming extinct before

they are even documented (Rukangira 2001). Medicinal plants and the drugs derived from them

are undoubtedly of economic and strategic value for the African continent.

In 1996, The Trade Records and Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce (TRAFFIC),

initiated an 18 month review of wildlife medicinal resources trade in eastern and southern Africa

and Madagascar. The aim of the review was to identify species most in need of conservation,

management and/or research. This review also entailed collecting information in 17 countries

about trade patterns, markets, source areas and impacts of harvest (Marshall 1998). This study

revealed that the use of wildlife medicinal resources in eastern and southern Africa is largely for

local traditional medicine which is the most widely used and accepted medical system in these

regions, but also the only system available in many areas. Western medicine is costly and often

inaccessible. The vast majority of plants and animals used in traditional medicine, as well as

those exported from the region, are collected from the wild. Some plant species are also

cultivated on farms, for example as hedgerows, but this supply is still insufficient to meet

growing demand. There are reports of increasing scarcity for many of the medicinal wildlife

species, raising concern not only from a conservation point of view, but also from the negative

effect on the health status of many people living in eastern and southern Africa.

Sporadic academic research in the chemistry and bioactive components of medicinal plants of

Africa has been ongoing for quite some time, but a systematic and collaborative approach is

needed with sufficient sophisticated equipment and laboratory infrastructure. Applied research

and the industrial use of plants need to expand to the propagation of medicinal plants,

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appropriate processing technologies to improve quality and yield, new formulations to create

new products and the marketing of finished products (Rukangira 2001).

4.1.3 Traditional Medicine in South Africa

Indigenous healing and its practice

The coming of Christian missionaries to South Africa several centuries ago marked the

beginning of the era of competition between the western medicine and traditional healing

systems (LeClerc-Madlala 2002). In 1986, traditional healers formed a National Council

consisting of 150 smaller associations. Since then, there have been numerous attempts to form

more inclusive umbrella-type bodies of healers and these bodies have experienced mixed

successes in terms of representativeness and sustainability over time. Currently there are a large

number of organizations that regulate and register traditional healers in South Africa.

The current government has shown through co-operation, collaboration and incorporation the

intention of building bridges between the modern and traditional medical systems. President

Mbeki's vision of an African Renaissance has been a vision of African people taking pride in

their cultural beliefs and practices and being free to practise them. This includes traditional

healing. The clear message from the government is that the country's 350 000 healers must

encourage greater cohesion amongst themselves before further discussions on their roles in

health delivery in the new South Africa and their becoming part of a pluralistic healthcare

delivery system (LeClerc-Madlala 2002).

Understanding indigenous healing systems

African indigenous healers regard the human organism as a whole, as influenced by the

environment, the interrelated spiritual, magical and mystical forces that surrounds it (Cheetham

& Griffiths 1982; Edwards 1986). Practices of the Zulu and Ndebele izangoma (diviners) of

southern Africa offer a similar model of social analysis. These practices are based on the concept

that good health involves the person within the total universe and that disease represents a

disturbance of this balance. The task of the healer lies in restoring balance, disturbed by a variety

of causes which fall into two distinct categories of illness: natural causes or those related to the

community's cosmology (sorcery, ancestral interventions, pollution and possession) (Urbash

2002).

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Some aspects of traditional healing practice clearly contrast with the more widely acceptable

medical practice. Although it appears that rationality and rules do not play a role in African

indigenous healing, the opposite is actually true but is not easily observable from a western

viewpoint. Many studies have shown very clearly that rationality does play an important part in

decision making and treatment in African indigenous healing (Urbash 2002).

Traditional healers and the fight against HIV/AIDS in South Africa

Traditional healers are well known in South African communities where they work for their

expertise in treating many sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS (LeClerc-Madlala

2002). This role of traditional healers is increasingly being acknowledged and they are being

sought after by their western scientifically trained counterparts to assist in a combined effort to

manage the ever-growing HIV/AIDS pandemic. Consequently, since the early 1990s, the World

Health Organization (WHO) has advocated the inclusion of traditional healers in national

reproductive health and AIDS programs (UNAIDS 2000).

Many people living with HIV/AIDS approach traditional healers not only for physical

treatments, but also for spiritual and emotional healing. The healers have influence and the

potential to change their client's behaviour. Most often, traditional healers see their patients

together with other family members. As a result, they play an important role in family counseling

and reducing the stigma as well as discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS. Family

counseling has the added advantage of strengthening family ties, a variable that has been linked

in its inverse negative relationship with "risky" behaviour such as promiscuity (LeClerc-Madlala

2002).

One traditional medicine known locally as unwele (Sutherlandia frutescens), has shown promise

in treating a variety of AIDS-related conditions including strengthening of the immune system

(LeClerc-Madlala 2002). In 2002 the South African Medical Research Council announced that a

pilot clinical trial of S. frutescens on HIV patients will be conducted in the Hlabisa area in

KwaZulu-Natal (WHO press release 2002). However this project never started because of

objections from the Medical Control Council of South Africa. The product is presently sold in

retail trade in South Africa, United Kingdom, Italy, Romania and neighbouring countries of

South Africa. There is an urgent need for more clinical research into traditional medicines in

order to develop guidelines in preparation, use and side-effects of particular medicines. The

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medical system in South Africa has become more inclusive and South Africans need to develop a

greater understanding of and appreciation for their own traditional healing system.

The commercial market for medicinal plants in South Africa

The harvesting of medicinal plants was formerly the domain of trained traditional medical

practitioners, renowned for their skills as herbalists and diviners (Cunningham 1991). Strict

customary conservation practices were respected, which regulated plant collection times and

quantities. The trend towards increased commercialization of medicinal plants in South Africa

has resulted in increasing demand, over-harvesting and in some cases, near extinction of some

valued indigenous plant species. Several factors have stimulated the rise in demand, including a

rapidly growing and urbanizing population; the affordability, accessibility and acceptability of

traditional medicine over western medicine and a high rate of unemployment and low level of

formal education, especially in rural areas. Together, these factors have resulted in the

commercial exploitation of economically valuable plants by commercial gatherers to obtain an

income. Harvesting and the provision of medicinal plants to meet the urban demand has thus

become an environmentally destructive activity (Cunningham 1988).

Indigenous medicinal plants in KwaZulu-Natal

A case study in KwaZulu-Natal by Mander (1999) revealed interesting statistics. There are an

estimated 6 million indigenous medicine consumers in KwaZulu-Natal and 27 million in South

Africa. Households are spending between 4% and 6% of their annual incomes on indigenous

medicine and services. In KwaZulu-Natal, more than 4 500 tonnes of plant material are traded

annually at a value of R62 million (a third of the value of the annual maize harvest for the

province). Nationally, 20 000 tonnes may be traded annually, valued at R300 million.

In KwaZulu-Natal, between 20 000 and 30 000 people (mostly black rural women) derive an

income from trading in indigenous plants in some form and in the Durban Metropolitan area

alone some 14 000 jobs are created as a result of indigenous medicine trade. It is estimated that 1

500 tonnes of material are traded per year in Durban, with a value of R21 million. In addition, it

is estimated that 4 million products are prescribed by indigenous healers, adding R152 million to

the trade value. This creates a serious threat to the biodiversity and to specific plant species, for

example wild ginger [Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweif.) BL Burt.] and the pepper-bark tree

[Warburgia salutaris (Bertol. f.) Chiov.], which have become extinct outside protected areas in

KwaZulu-Natal.

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Destructive harvesting techniques enhances unsustainable use, with the size of the products

decreasing, distances to stocks increasing, supply becoming increasingly irregular, and/or some

plants becoming unavailable in certain markets. Processing and development of products in

traditional medical practice is extremely limited, with little adding of value to products, little

standardization of product quality and little recycling of waste. Little cultivation of indigenous

medicinal plants is carried out due to a lack of knowledge regarding indigenous plant production

and the economics of associated markets.

Surveys of popular medicinal plants that are sold on “muti” markets (Cunningham 1988; Mander

1998) generally do not include species of the Menispermaceae. The ethnobotanical field survey

work done for this thesis has revealed numerous traditional uses for these species, as detailed in

the next section. It therefore has to be concluded that the Menispermaceae are of local

importance in KwaZulu-Natal and that their use is restricted to rural areas where the plants grow

in abundance.

4.2 Medicinal uses in southern Africa

Southern Africa in the context of this chapter encompasses the following countries: South

Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. In the following

text an astrix (*) indicates that the information was obtained from a secondary source of which

the original was not available to the researcher.

Indigenous names for the South African species were obtained from the following authors: Smith

(1966); Hutchings et al. (1996); Pooley (1998) and Von Koenen (2002). In this regard see also

chapter 2 (§ 2.2.1) for the names of the interviewees.

Albertisia delagoensis

Albertisia : (isia = connection, with Prince Albert of Belgium)

delagoensis : (from Delagoa Bay, Mozambique)

Thonga : cudodo, cumbato

Zulu : ihubeshana, mlomo mnandi, umgandanganda, umqhumane,

ungandingandi

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Root extract is drunk for:

• Worms, also for baby with worms (Buthelezi 2003, pers. comm.; Mbonambi 2003, pers.

comm.; Nsele 2003, pers. comm.; Zikhali 2003, pers. comm.)

• Menstrual pain (Zikhali 2003, pers. comm.)

• Better sexual performance in men (Buthelezi 2003, pers. comm.; Makhanya 2003, pers.

comm.; Mthembu 2003, pers. comm.)

• Chest problems (Mbonambi 2003, pers. comm.)

• Body pain, as when suffering from influenza (Mthembu 2003, pers. comm.)

• Burn root: put ash on sores (Mthembu 2003, pers. comm.)

• Back pain (Mthembu 2003, pers. comm.)

• To clean stomach of baby: boil root and leaves (Mthembu 2003, pers. comm.; Tembe 2003,

pers. comm.)

• Pregnant women drink root to clean stomach, so that the unborn child will stay healthy

(Tembe 2003, pers. comm.)

• To stop diarrhoea and vomiting (Tembe 2003, pers. comm.)

• Stomach problems, not eating well (Tembe 2003, pers. comm.)

• Fever (Jansen & Mendes 1983).

Antizoma angustifolia

Afrikaans : maag-bitter-wortel, maagwortel

Damara/Nama : orab

Root tea is drunk for:

• Blood purification for boils (Rood 1994)

• Emetic and purgative action (Rood 1994)

• Kidney stones (Rood 1994)

• Bladder problems (Rood 1994)

• Stomach pain (Von Koenen 2001)

• Burning pain in stomach (Hedberg & Stugård 1989)

• Dysentery (Rood 1994)

• Diarrhoea (Von Koenen 2001)

• Blood in stool (Von Koenen 2001)

• Gastrointestinal problems (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

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• General pain (Von Koenen 2001)

• Coughs (Von Koenen 2001)

• Colic (Hedberg & Stugård 1989)

• Gall-bladder problems (Hedberg & Stugård 1989)

• Liver complaints indicated by lack of appetite (Hedberg & Stugård 1989)

• Easy delivery: expectant women are encouraged to take the decoction from their fourth

month of pregnancy. This causes the fetus to stay mobile for an easy delivery (Von Koenen

2001).

Leaves and root are chewed or drunk as a tea for:

• Digestive problems and general malaise (Von Koenen 2001).

Antizoma miersiana

Afrikaans : Bloubos

Boiled root is drunk for stomach ulcers (Archer 1994).

Cissampelos capensis

Afrikaans : dawidjies (wortel), fynklimop

Damara/Nama : ≠ gans ≠ gani, gans/ni

For the colonist the difference between dawidjies (wortel) (Menispermaceae) and dawidjiewortel

(Cucurbitaceae) was very distinct, but later on the difference in the names grew faint and

nowadays both names are used in both families (Smith 1966).

Root extract or decoction is drunk for:

• Gravel and glandular swelling (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Gall stones (Rood 1994)

• A weak brandy tincture for dysentery (Smith 1895)

• Mucous membrane infection (Rood 1994)

• Menstrual problems (Von Koenen 2001)

• Prevention of miscarriage (Von Koenen 2001)

• Difficult labour (Von Koenen 2001)

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• Expeling the placenta (Von Koenen 2001)

• Appetite stimulant (Von Koenen 2001)

• Blood purification (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Rood 1994; Van Wyk & Gericke 2000;

Oormeyer 2001, pers. comm.; Williams 2002, pers. comm.)

• Antisyphilitic use (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Cholera (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Colic (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Salmons 2001, pers. comm.)

• Erypsipelas internally and externally: mixed with Pentzia incana (Thunb.) Kuntze and

Pentzia globosa Less (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).

• Bladder problems (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Rood 1994)

• Snakebite (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Stomach pain (Cupido 2001, pers. comm.; Steenkamp 2001, pers. comm.)

• Stomach problems: mixed with bird-lime (Salmons 2001, pers. comm.)

• Influenza: mixed root with "Boegoe" (Steenkamp 2001, pers. comm.)

• Toothache: chew root (Cupido 2001, pers. comm.)

• A sedative effect by chewing the rhizome (Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• For treating pain, using infusions (Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Bilious complaints (Oormeyer 2001, pers. comm.)

• Measles: mix root with half a teaspoon Epsom Salt (Theo 2001, pers. comm.)

• Fever: mixed root with “grandpa powder”, vinegar and sugar (Cupido 2001, pers. comm.)

• Headache: smoke inhaled through nostrils to treat headache (Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Diabetes (Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Tuberculosis (Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Stomach and skin cancers (Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Purgative (Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Good-luck charm: root is carried around (Von Koenen 2001).

Leaves are used for:

• Ulcers and syphilis sores: paste is used (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Rood 1994)

• Snakebite wound: paste is used (Smith 1895).

Caution is advised with regard to dosage, as the leaves are said to be poisonous (Watt & Breyer-

Brandwijk 1962).

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Cissampelos hirta

Zulu : khalimelo, indlebelenkawu, intandela, umanyokane, unukani

Root extract is drunk for:

• Stomach problems of baby (Mthembu 2003, pers. comm.; Nsele 2003, pers. comm.; Zondo

2003, pers. comm.)

• Stomach pain (Makhanya 2003, pers. comm.; Tembe 2003, pers. comm.; Zikhali 2003, pers.

comm.)

• Lower stomach pain: mixed with root of African potato (Motha 2003, pers. comm.)

• Draining the “green stuff” from newborn baby’s stomach (Buthelezi 2003, pers. comm.;

Tembe 2003, pers. comm.)

• Stopping a baby vomiting (Nsele 2003, pers. comm.; Tembe 2003, pers. comm.)

• For back pain: mix root with other plants (Manzini 2003, pers. comm.).

Leaves:

• Mixed leaves (+ leaves of C. mucronata) with water, put drops in nose, for “craziness”

(Tembe 2003, pers. comm.)

• Ringworm on skin: use the sap of leaves (Mthiyane 2003, pers. comm.)

• Itching skin on private parts: use leaves (with bulb of African potato and leaves of

Umvuthuza), boil and drink as a tea (Mthiyane 2003, pers. comm.).

Cissampelos mucronata

Afrikaans : dawidjie(s) (wortel)

English : ivy vine

Zulu : umbombo, vuka kwabafileyo

Root decoction is drunk for:

• Fever (Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Headache (Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Backache (Gelfand et al. 1985; Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Head, neck and muscle pain (Giess & Snyman 1986)

• Digestive problems, as a purgative (Von Koenen 2001)

• Prevention of abortion (Gelfand et al. 1985; Mavi 1994)

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• Stimulating uterus contractions: extract taken postnatal (Giess & Snyman 1986; Von Koenen

2001)

• Keeping a baby healthy: pregnant women drink root extract (Mthembu 2003, pers. comm.)

• Menorrhagia, oedema, throat problems, uterus pain, depressed fontanelle and ascites

(Gelfand et al. 1985)

• Dysmenorrhagia: root powder is eaten in porridge (Gelfand et al. 1985; Mavi 1994; Van

Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Infertility (Gelfand et al. 1985; Mavi 1994; Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Sexual stimulation (Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Stomach problems (Shabalala 2003, pers. comm.)

• Cleaning the stomach (Mthembu 2003, pers. comm.)

• Diarrhoea (Giess & Snyman 1986; Von Koenen 2001)

• Bilharzia (Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Schistosomiasis (Gelfand et al. 1985; Sparg et al. 2000)

• Uterine pain (Van Wyk & Gericke 2000)

• Wounds: powder of dried root is sprinkled on wounds (Von Koenen 2001)

• Coughs (Von Koenen 2001)

• A general feeling of unwellness (Von Koenen 2001)

• Snakebite (Giess & Snyman 1986).

Leaves:

• Sore eyes: leaf infusion is dropped into sore eyes (Gelfand et al. 1985).

Cissampelos torulosa

Afrikaans : dawidjie(s) (wortel)

English : kidney-leaf

Zulu : dlula bahlezi, iphakama, mabuyisa, phambalabangoma, ukhalimele-

omkhulu, umthombho, uphindamshaye

Tsonga-Shangaan : khadi


• Syphilis (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Smith 1966)

• Kidney pain: mixed with leaves of an unknown plant (Motha 2003, pers. comm.)

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• Toothache: root is chewed (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Hutchings et al. 1996).

Leaf decoction is drunk for:

• Hallucinations (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Hallucinations: leaf decoction administered as an enema to treat hallucinations (Van Wyk &

Gericke 2000)

• Vomiting blood (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Stopping vomiting (Tembe 2003, pers. comm.)

• Scrofula: as an enema (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Bryant 1966)

• Stomach problems, especially if one does not eat, such as with AIDS patients (Tembe 2003,

pers. comm.)

• Itching skin on private parts: boil with bulb of African potato and leaves of Umvuthuza

(Mthiyane 2003, pers. comm.)

• Skin pain: put leaves in hot water, wash skin with water (Zikhali 2003, pers. comm.).

Leaf paste uses:

• Dressing for scrofula (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Bryant 1966)

• Syphilitic sores, used by Xhosa (Smith 1895; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

Stem:

• Sharp pain in the side: boiled stem is drunk (Mbonambi 2003, pers. comm.).

Plant:

• Whole plant is used for ritual purification by the Vhavenda (Mabogo 1990)

• The plant is taken by pregnant women to make labour easier (Hutchings et al. 1996)

Cocculus hirsutus

English : monkey rope

Tsonga : risotse

• Stems are used to make conical baskets (xirundzu) (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962;

Liengme 1981)

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• Berries are used for dying basket material and are eaten by Shangaans [herbarium specimen,

Gerstner 5451 (PRE)].

No medicinal uses were recorded.

Stephania abyssinica

Zulu : umbombo, umthambana, umthombo


• Boils (+ Momordica foetida Schumach.) by Zulus (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• A charm to find lost articles or discover secrets (Pooley 1998)

• A magic medicine as used by the southern Sotho to prevent a person being struck by

lightning which has been sent by an enemy (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).

Tiliacora funifera

Afrikaans : stamvrug-klimop

English : stem-fruit climber

Zulu : phunyuka bemphethe, umaguquka, umndiza

Root:

• To make women more fertile, mix root with other plant parts (unknown) and drink

(Mbonambi 2003, pers. comm.).

Leaves:

• For face problems, boil leaves, use blanket to cover head and bowl and steam the face

(Tembe 2003, pers. comm.; Zikhali 2003, pers. comm.).

Tinospora caffra

Afrikaans : oranje-druiweranker

English : orange grape creeper

Zulu : imfinyezi, intindili, isidumuke

Plant:

• Used as a fish poison (Pooley 1998)

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Leaves:

• Body pain: inhale steam of boiling leaves (Zondo 2003, pers. comm.)

• Sleeping problems: mix leaves with unknown leaves and sprinkle water in room (Tembe

2003, pers. comm.).

Tinospora fragosa

Afrikaans : Moses-se-staf, wonderstok, wonderplant

English : Moses’ staff, marvel creeper, wonder plant

Herero/Himba : erara

Kwanyama : eposa, omaposa, omaphsha (saddle's stirrup)

Lydenburg area : penyaleng

Plant:

• Anthrax: plant is given as fodder to healthy cattle (Rodin 1985)

• Anthrax sores: infusion of twigs and leaves is applied (Rodin 1985)

• Cough: twigs are chewed and sap swallowed (Neuwinger 2000)

• Sore throat: twigs are chewed and sap swallowed (Neuwinger 2000)

• Rheumatism and other bodily pains: stems and leaves used as a Turkish or mustard bath

(herbarium specimen, Barnard 58, PRE)

• Plants are grown in kraals for good luck and to keep snakes away (Rodin 1985).

Tinospora tenera

Zulu : umdlandlatho

Leaf extract is drunk for:

• Pain in joints (Tembe 2003, pers. comm.)

• Better sexual performance in men (Tembe 2003, pers. comm.)

• Influenza: mix roots with leaves and inhale steam (Zondo 2003, pers. comm.)

• Kidney stones: mix root with leaves, drink or use as an enema (Zondo 2003, pers. comm.)

• Sores on private parts: boil leaves and use water to wash (Shabalala 2003, pers. comm.)

• Skin problems: boil leaves and steam face (Zikhali 2003, pers. comm.).

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4.3 Medicinal uses in Africa (excluding southern Africa)

Albertisia cordifolia (Mangenot & Miège) Forman

Plant:

• Sedative (Oliver-Bever 1983)

• Curare-like action (Oliver-Bever 1983)

• Decongestant (Oliver-Bever 1983).

Root:

• Anaemia (Debray 1966*; Debray et al. 1966*; Oliver-Bever 1983)

• Oedema of legs (Debray 1966*; Debray et al. 1966*; Oliver-Bever 1983)

• Enema (Oliver-Bever 1983)

• Stimulant and an aphrodisiac, used as an enema (Bouquet & Debray 1974*; Oliver-Bever

1983; Noumi et al. 1998)

• Toxic to sheep (Oliver-Bever 1983).

Albertisia mangenotii (Guill. & Debr.) Forman

Plant:

Toothache (Bouquet & Debray 1974*).

Albertisia scandens (Mangenot & Miège) Forman

Plant:

• Used on certain unspecified skin affections (Bouquet & Debray 1974*).

Albertisia undulata (Hiern) Forman

Leaves:

• Wounds and whitlow, mixed with palm oil (Troupin 1951*)

• Abortifacient (Troupin 1951*).

Albertisia villosa (Exell) Forman

Plant:

• Malaria (Lohomo-Ekomba et al. 2004).

127

Burasaia australis Scott-Elliot

Root bark decoction:

• Malaria (Rasoanaivo et al. 1992).

Burasaia congesta Decne.



Burasaia gracilis Decne.



Burasaia madagascariensis DC.


• Malaria (Boiteau 1974*; Rasoanaivo et al. 1992; Novy 1997)

• Fatigue (Novy 1997)

• Cholagogue (Boiteau 1974*; Rasoanaivo et al. 1992)

• Nausea and retching (Boiteau 1974*; Rasoanaivo et al. 1992).

Burasaia nigrescens Capuron


• Malaria (Rasoanaivo et al. 1992)

• Cholagogue (Boiteau 1974*)

• Fever (Boiteau 1974*).

Chasmanthera dependens Hochst.

Whole plant:

• Fracture (Gbile et al. 1988*; Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Topically on sprained joints and bruises (Iwu et al. 1999*)

• Venereal diseases (Iwu et al. 1999*)

• General tonic for physical and nervous debilities (Iwu et al. 1999*)

• Convulsions and dizziness, rubbed head with roasted leafy twigs mixed with black soap

(Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

128

• Sexual asthenia (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Abdominal pain (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*).

Root:

• Antiprotozoal (Das Gupta & Dikshit 1929*; Chopra et al. 1932*; Mitscher et al. 1972)

• Gonorrhoea: mixed with tea leaves and drunk (Samuelsson et al. 1992; Adjanohoun et al.

1993*)

• Fractures: applied as a paste [+ two fruits of Xylopia aethiopica A. Rich.] (Adjanohoun et al.

1993*)

• Retained placenta (Tabuti et al. 2003).

Bark:

• Venereal diseases (Dalziel 1937; Abbiw 1990)

• Tonic for physical and nervous disability (Dalziel 1937)

• Inflammatory diseases (Dalziel 1937)

• Exhausting diseases (Dalziel 1937).

Stem bark:

• Sexual weakness: eaten daily (Noumi et al. 1998).

Leaves and juice:

• Dressing for fractures, sprains and bruises (Dalziel 1937; Irvine 1961*; Abbiw 1990)

• Burns (Abbiw 1990)

• Mixed with shea butter as an embrocation for pain, sprains, stiffness of limbs, etc. (Dalziel

1937; Irvine 1961*)

• Venereal diseases (Dalziel 1937).

Chasanthera strigosa Welw. ex Hiern

Root:

• Increase intoxication in palm wine (Walker 1953*).

129

Chasanthera uviformis Baill.

Stem bark:


Chasmanthera welwitschii Troupin

Roots:

• Ordeal-poison, judgement resting on constipation or diarrhoea, innocent or guilty

respectively (Walker & Sillans 1961*).

Bark:

• Venereal disease: bark preparations used as an enema (Abbiw 1990)

• Bodily and nervous exhaustion: bark preparations taken (Burkill 1997).

Leaves:

• Burns (Abbiw 1990)

• Dislocations, fractures (Abbiw 1990)

• Pain, stiffness of limbs: leaf sap with shea butter rubbed in (Burkill 1997)

• Fishing poison: mixed with leaves of Tephrosia vogelii Hook. f. (Walker & Sillans 1961*)

• Furuncle, abscess: applied as a wet dressing (Bouquet 1969).

Cissampelos macrosepala Diels

Leaves:

• Abdominal pain: cold leaf tea is drunk (Tereshima et al. 1991*).

Cissampelos madagascariensis Diels

Root decoction:


Cissampelos mucronata A. Rich. (partly C. pareira L.)

Whole liane:

• Diuretic (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*; Burkill 1997)

• A macerate for blennorrhagia (Burkill 1997)

• Emmenagogue (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*; Kerharo & Adam 1962*)

130

• Regulate menstruation: fresh aerial parts ground, sap discarded and solid residue eaten with

hot corn gruel (Elujoba 1995)

• Facilitate childbirth (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*)

• Abortifacient: strong doses are drunk (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*)

• Syphilis: used externally (Amico 1977)

• Side pain: ash of leaves, twigs and root bark eaten (Baerts & Lehmann 1989*)

• Leukorrhea: sap of whole plant (+ Heliotropium indicum L.) is drunk (Adjanohoun et al.

1989*)

• Calm nerves: decoction of stem bark and leaves is drunk (Nwosu 1999).

Root:

• Abdominal pains (Dalziel 1937; Kokwaro 1976; Gelfand et al. 1985; Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Stomach pain (Kerharo & Adams 1964*)

• Stomach problems (Morris 1996*)

• Swollen stomach (Gelfand et al. 1985)

• Badly swollen belly of a child (Kokwaro 1976)

• Gastro-intestinal upset due to bewitchment (Gelfand et al. 1985)

• Digestive problems: as a purgative (Amico 1977)

• Diarrhoea (Gelfand et al. 1985; Adjanohoun et al. 1993*; Chhabra et al. 1990; Tabuti et al.

2003)

• Dysentery and diarrhea: add maize flour or native chalk or other medicine to root sap

(Dalziel 1937)

• Gout (Tadesse & Demissew 1992)

• Fever (Neuwinger 1994, 2000; Tshibangu et al. 2002)

• Schistosomiasis (Ainslie 1937*; Kerharo & Adam 1974*; Morris 1996*)

• Tapeworm, intestinal parasites (+ Abrus precatorius L.) (Baerts & Lehmann 1989*)

• Vermifuge (Haerdi 1964*; Morris 1996*)

• Anthelmintic (Oliver 1969*; Audu 1995*)

• Bilharzia (Gelfand et al. 1985)

• Malaria (Gessler et al. 1995; Tshibangu et al. 2002)

• Gonorrhoea [+ roots of Waltheria indica L., whole plant of Leptadenia hastata (Pers.)

Decne.] (Kerharo & Adams 1964*)

• Syphilis (Neuwinger 1994, 2000; Morris 1996*)

131

• Venereal diseases, syphilis (Gelfand et al. 1985; Tadesse & Demissew 1992; Tshibangu et

al. 2002)

• Against leprosy and syphilis (Ainslie 1937*; Troupin 1951*)

• As a diuretic in gonorrhoea and cystitis treatments (Ainslie 1937*)

• Applied externally to cuts, ulcers and stings (Ainslie 1937*)

• Duiretic, retention of urine and kidney problems: decoction of roots and leaves is drunk

(Kerharo & Adam 1974*)

• Diuretic (Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Antipyretic (Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Backache (Gelfand et al. 1985)

• Urine retention (Ainslie 1937*)

• Kidney pains (Ainslie 1937*)

• Dysmenorrhoea and as sedative (Oliver 1969*; Audu 1995*)

• Dysmenorrhoea (Gelfand et al. 1985; Mavi 1994)

• Relieve menorrhagia (Dalziel 1937; Gelfand et al. 1985)

• Emmenagogue (Oliver-Bever 1986)

• To prevent or to arrest uterine haemorrhage (Dalziel 1937)

• Painful uterus (Gelfand et al. 1985)

• Used during pregnancy (IMP Forestry Inst. 1936; Brenan & Greenway 1949)

• Dilated veins around the umbilicus (Gelfand et al. 1985)

• Retching, hernia, nausea, abortification (Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Abortifacient (Oliver-Bever 1986)

• To prevent abortion (Dalziel 1937; Ainslie 1937*; Oliver 1969*; Amico 1977; Gelfand et al.

1985; Mavi 1994)

• Infertility (Gelfand et al. 1985; Mavi 1994)

• Secret remedy of women to retain conjugal affection (Dalziel 1937)

• Colic in children (Kerharo & Adams 1964*; Adjanohoun et al. 1993*)

• Newborns with swollen scrotum and children with distended stomachs (Kokwaro 1976)

• Depressed fontanelle (Gelfand et al. 1985)

• Coughs (Adjanohoun et al. 1986*)

• Spasmodic and whooping cough (Burkill 1997)

• Sore throat (Gelfand et al. 1985)

• Catarrh (+ roots of Waltheria indica L. and Leptadenia hastate Decne.) (Burkill 1997)

132

• Conjunctivitis (Tshibangu et al. 2002)

• Toothache (Morris 1996*)

• Earache, sap dripped into ear (Haerdi 1964*)

• Oedema, swelling of body (Gelfand et al. 1985)

• Insanity (+ root bark of Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel.) (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Bitter for griping conditions (Dalziel 1937)

• Remove spells (Tabuti et al. 2003)

• Snakebite: ash rubbed into scarifications around snakebite (Neuwinger 1994, 2000; Morris

1996*)

• Snakebite: swallowed sap of chewed root (Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Antidotes to snake-venom (Abbiw 1990)

• Snakebite: applied externally (Ainslie 1937*; Haerdi 1964*; Kokwaro 1976; Tshibangu et al.

2002)

• Antidotes to scorpion-sting: applied externally (Ainslie 1937*; Abbiw 1990; Hutt &

Houghton 1998)

• Arrow poison: part of composition (Dalziel 1937; Neuwinger 1994, 2000).

Leaves:

• Emetic: vapor inhaled (Baerts & Lehmann 1989*)

• Syphilitic sores: paste applied (Neuwinger 1994, 2000)

• Wounds and ulcers (Neuwinger 1994, 2000)

• Abscesses, mixed with vaseline and Chamaesyce hirta (L.) Millsp. (Adjanohoun et al.

1993*)

• Abscesses (Ainslie 1937*)

• Sores and ulcers: covered (Ampofo 1983*; Oliver-Bever 1983)

• Syphilitic sores: leaf paste applied (Ainslie 1937*)

• Guineaworm sores (Dalziel 1937; Burkill 1997)

• Shows anti-ulcer activity (Akah & Nwafor 1999)

• Stomatitis: use pulped leaves with clay (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*)

• Headache: pulp rubbed onto forehead (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*; Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Migraine: sap dripped into eyes (Neuwinger 1994, 2000)

• Conjunctivitis: pulp of fresh leaves applied to eyes (LeGrand & Wondergem 1985*)

• Sore eyes (Gelfand et al. 1985)

133

• Body swellings: sap mixed with charcoal powder rubbed into body swellings (Chhabra et al.

1990; Neuwinger 1994, 2000)

• Light purgative (Oliver 1958; Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Diarrhoea (Adjanohoun et al. 1986*; Chhabra et al. 1990; Neuwinger 1994, 2000; Morris

1996*)

• Dysentery (Chhabra et al. 1990; Morris 1996*)

• Induce menstruation (Kerharo & Adam 1962*)

• Prevent miscarriage or abortion (Abbiw 1990)

• Relieve pregnancy pains (Burkill 1997)

• Female sterility (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Hepatitis (Rwangabo 1993*)

• Poultice for leg-injuries (Burkill 1997)

• Various swellings: leaf-poultice applied externally (Burkill 1997)

• Abdominal pain (Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Fever (Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Coughs (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Colds (Neuwinger 1994, 2000)

• Mental disorders (Adjanohoun et al. 1993*)

• Mixed with pounded bark of Vernonia amygdalina Delile roots, for cows to facilitate

expulsion of placenta (Kokwaro 1976).

A decoction of leafy twigs is drunk for:

• Induction and regulation of menstruation (Kerharo & Adam 1962*)

• Metrorrhagia (+ kaolin) (Adjanohound et al. 1989*)

• Female emmenagogue (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*)

• Female diuretic (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*)

• Coughing fits, whooping cough, irregular periods and to calm the nerves (Kerharo & Adam

1974*)

• Gonorrhoea (Neuwinger 1994, 2000)

• Leafy twigs are also warmed and applied to oedema, wound cicatrization and as an antiseptic

(Kerharo & Adam 1974*).

134

Fruits are eaten for:

• Dysentery, diarrhoea (Neuwinger 1994, 2000).

Fresh juice is drunk for:

• Dysentery and diarrhoea (Amico 1977).

Cissampelos owariensis P. Beauv. ex DC.

Plant extract:

• Hunting poison (Neuwinger 1994)

• Female disorders (Neuwinger 1994)

• Painful menstruation (Walker 1953*; Bouquet 1969)

• Metrorrhagia (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Prevent abortion (Gbile et al. 1990*; Adjanohoun et al. 1991*)

• Overcome sterility (Adjanohoun et al. 1991*)

• Venereal illness (Staner & Boutique 1937; Walker & Sillans 1961*)

• Gonorrhoea (Staner & Boutique 1937; Neuwinger 1994)

• Internal parasites (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Enteritis (Adjanohoun et al. 1984*)

• Cholera (Walker 1953*; Adjanohoun et al. 1984*; Maas 1991)

• Diarrhoea (Walker 1953*; Adjanohoun et al. 1984*; Maas 1991)

• Dysentery (Walker 1953*; Adjanohoun et al. 1984*; Maas 1991)

• Dysentery and diarrhea: fresh plant sap is drunk (Dalziel 1937; Neuwinger 1994)

• Amnesia (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Psychological problems, madness, neurasthenia (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Gall (Bouquet 1969; Wome 1985*)

• Wound healing agent, antiseptic, disinfectant (Staner & Boutique 1937; Wome 1985*)

• Wounds: twig decoction (+ leaves of Hymenocardia acida Tul.) used as a wash and root

powder is applied (Bouquet 1969).

Root:

• Insanity (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Haemorrhoids (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Abortifacient (Oliver 1958)

135

• Female sterility (+ decoction of roots with stem bark of Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.)

(Bouquet & Debray 1974*; Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Chewed with nuts of Cyperus esculentus L. to be aphrodisiac (Burkill 1997)

• Prevent miscarriage (Dalziel 1937; Oliver-Bever 1986; Neuwinger 1994)

• Emmenagogue (Oliver 1958; Abbiw 1990)

• Too-heavy menstruation (Bouquet & Debray 1974*; Dalziel 1937; Neuwinger 1994)

• Prevent or arrest uterine haemorrhage (Dalziel 1937)

• Diuretic and anti-pyretic (Oliver 1958; Oliver-Bever 1986; Neuwinger 1994)

• Ankylostomiasis (Hook-worms) (Haerdi 1964*)

• Application to cuts (Burkill 1997)

• Scorpion sting (Abbiw 1990; Burkill 1997)

• Snakebite antidote: root scrapings are eaten and rubbed into scarifications around the bite

(Haerdi 1964*; Burkill 1997)

• Anti-spasmodic for griping conditions of stomach and intestines (Bouquet & Debray 1974*;

Dalziel 1937)

• Painful abdominal conditions (Dalziel 1937)

• Ingredient for arrow poison (Dalziel 1937)

• Depression (Nwosu 1999)

• Fever (Neuwinger 1994).

Leaves:

• Metrorrhagia (+ grated kaolin and leaves of Boerhavia diffusa L.) (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Promote menstrual flow (Walker 1953*)

• Irregular or painful menstruation (Bouquet 1969; Neuwinger 1994; Burkill 1997)

• As an aid to fetal growth (Burkill 1997)

• Prevent miscarriage or abortion (Abbiw 1990)

• Diarrhoea (Walker 1953; Maas 1991; Burkill 1997)

• Dysentery (Maas 1991)

• Cholera (Maas 1991)

• Light purge (Oliver-Bever 1986)

• In some form of preparation to abscesses, scabies and sores (Bouquet & Debray 1974*; Watt

& Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Oliver-Bever 1983; Burkill 1997)

• Wounds (Walker 1953*)

136

• Externally for guinea-worm: mixed with bicarbonate (Dalziel 1937; Burkill 1997)

• Severe migraine: sap instilled into nose, eye or ear (Bouquet 1969; Wome 1985*)

• Depression (Nwosu 1999).

Aerial parts:

• Diarrhoea (+ Sabicea venosa Benth. + Heteranthera callaefolia Rchb. ex Kunth)

(Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Vomiting (+ Sabicea venosa + Heteranthera callaefolia) (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Memory disturbances and weakness or loss of memory (+ Sabicea venosa + Heteranthera

callaefolia) (Adjanohoun et al. 1989*)

• Blennorrhagia (gonorrhea) (Wome 1985*).

Fruits:

• Aphrodisiac, in both sexes (Burkill 1997).

Cissampelos pareira L.

Plant decoction:

• Syphilis: high dosage is dangerous (Boiteau 1979*).

Root:

• Pregnancy pains, root and leaves chewed (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Sexual stimulant (Bally 1937*, 1938*; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Emmenagogue (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Relief of abdominal pains (Bally 1937*, 1938*; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Rheumatic pains (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Headache (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Snake-bite: infusion is drunk (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Kokwaro 1976)

• Decoction of root as a wash for child with pimples on its body (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk

1962)

• Blennorrhagia (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Haematuria (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Colic (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Diuretic (Githens 1949; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

137

• Solvent of urinary calculi (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Bitter tonic (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Purgative and antiperiodic in dyspepsia and diarrhoea (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Cough (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Kokwaro 1976)

• Sore throats (Kokwaro 1976)

• Colds (Kokwaro 1976)

• Febrifuge (Githens 1949; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Fever (Tanner 1953)

• Externally used for scabies, abscesses and sores (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Diarrhoea (Tanner 1953)

• Malaria (Boiteau 1974*)

• Emetic (Kokwaro 1976).

Carbonized root:

• Rubbed into scarifications for the relief of neuralgia (Bally 1937*, 1938*; Watt & Breyer-

Brandwijk 1962)

• Wounds: root and leaves for curing wounds (Kokwaro 1976).

Leaves:

• Externally used for scabies, abscesses and sores (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Diuretic (Githens 1949)

• Febrifuge (Githens 1949)

• Navel pain in children: leaves are steeped and liquid is drunk (Tanner 1956)

• Stomach pain: sap is drunk (Tanner 1956).

Twig bark:

• Diuretic (Boiteau 1974*)

• Diaphoretic (Boiteau 1974*).

Cissampelos pareira L. var. orbiculata Miq.

Root:

• Ankylostomiasis (Haerdi 1964*)

138

• Snakebite antidote, root scrapings are eaten and rubbed into scarifications around the bite

(Haerdi 1964*; Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Abdominal pain (Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Hernia (Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Abortifacient (Chhabra et al. 1990)

Leaves:

• Diarrhoea in young children (Hedberg et al. 1983)

• Diarrhoea: sap is drunk (Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Frequent miscarriage (+ roots of Sida rhombifolia L.) (Hedberg et al. 1983)

• Headache: sap is drunk (Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Abdominal pain: sap is drunk (Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Menorrhagia: sap is drunk (Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Fever (Chhabra et al. 1990).

Root and leaf:

• Stomach pains (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Cough (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Snakebite (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Pregnancy (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Bloody diarrhea: mixed with charcoal, filtrate is drunk (Chhabra et al. 1990).

Cissampelos truncatus Engl.

Roots:

• Snakebite or any poisoning: chewed as an antidote (Kokwaro 1976)

• Emetic (Kokwaro 1976)

Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels

Leaves:

• Female sterility (Chhabra et al. 1990)

• Nervous illnesses (Haerdi 1964*)

139

Cocculus indicus Pharm. ex Wehmer

Aerial parts:

• Antivirus (Newcastle disease virus) (Bhakuni et al. 1969*).

Cocculus pendulus Diels

Plant:

• A bitter tonic and an emetic (Kerharo 1967*)

• Infusion assists in removing thorns from feet (Dalziel 1937).

Aerial parts:

• Antivirus (Newcastle disease virus) (Bhakuni et al. 1969*).

Stems:

• Intermittent fever (Oliver-Bever 1986).

Leaves:

• Biliousness (Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Febrifuge (Ainslie 1937*)

• Vermifuge (Kerharo & Adam 1974*; Burkill 1997).

Root:

• Antipyretic (Dalziel 1937; Kerharo & Adam 1974*)

• Diuretic (Dalziel 1937; Burkill 1997)

• Diuretic (+ roots of Tinospora bakis Miers or leaves of Combretum glutinosum Perr. ex DC.

or C. micranthum G. Don) (Kerharo & Adam 1974*)

• Cholagogue (Dalziel 1937; Burkill 1997)

• Cholagogue (+ roots of Tinospora bakis or leaves of Combretum glutinosum or

C. micranthum) (Kerharo & Adam 1974*)

• Febrifuge (Abbiw 1990; Burkill 1997)

• Fever (Ainslie 1937*; Dalziel 1937; Oliver 1958; Burkill 1997)

• Fever (+ roots of Tinospora bakis or leaves of Combretum glutinosum or C. micranthum)


• Yellow fever (+ roots of Tinospora bakis or leaves of Combretum glutinosum or

C. micranthum) (Kerharo & Adam 1974*)

140

• Menstrual troubles (Burkill 1997)

• Good health and a long life (+ Tinospora bakis): drunk every morning (Kerharo & Adam

1974*)

• Jaundice (+ roots of Tinospora bakis or leaves of Combretum glutinosum or C. micranthum)


• Hepatitis (+ roots of Tinospora bakis or leaves of Combretum glutinosum or C. micranthum)


• Syphilis (+ roots of Tinospora bakis or leaves of Combretum glutinosum or C. micranthum)

(Kerharo & Adam 1974*).

Stem and Root bark:

• Internal parasites (Kerharo & Adam 1964*)

• Febrifuge (Kerharo & Adam 1964*)

• Anti-blennorrhagic (Kerharo & Adam 1964*).

Fruit:

• Intoxicating drink (Dalziel 1937; Oliver-Bever 1983, 1986).

Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii (Stapf) Diels

Plant:

• Passed over fire and applied to swollen limbs (Burkill 1997)

• Venereal diseases: sap used as an enema (Burkill 1997).

Stem-bark:

• Maturate abscesses: sap applied as poultices (Walker 1953; Walker & Sillans 1961*)

• Ease extraction of bullets and thorns (Walker 1953; Walker & Sillans 1961*).

Root:

• Sexual stimulant (Walker 1953*; Walker & Sillans 1961*)

• Wounds: scrapings applied (Walker 1953*; Walker & Sillans 1961*)

• Venereal disease: bark decoction is used as a wash (Walker 1953*).

141

Dioscoreophyllum volkensii Engl.

Root decoction or leaf sap:

• Anti-spastic, convulsions (Haerdi 1964*).

Epinetrum villosum (Excell) Troupin

Plant:

Abortive activity (Troupin 1951*).

Root:

• Diarrhoea and dysentery: taken orally (Otshudi et al. 2000).

Leaves:

• Wound dressing (Otshudi et al. 2000).

Jatrorhiza macrantha (Hook. f.) Exell & Mendonça

Stem:

Ulcers: stem hairs used (Burkill 1997).

Leaves:

• Headache: sap dropped into nose, ear or eye (Bouquet 1969)

Bark:

• Snakebite [+ Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth.], applied (Burkill 1997)

Jateorhiza palmata Miers

Root:

• Dysentery remedy (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Diarrhoea remedy (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• For anorexia and debility (Felter 1922)

• Tonic (Felter 1922; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Eaten as an antidote for snakebite (Haerdi 1964*)

• Vermifuge (Haerdi 1964*)

• Scrapings applied to scarification on hard abscesses to maturate them (Haerdi 1964*)

142

• Strong stomach medicine (Kokwaro 1976)

• Used for hernia and rupture (Kokwaro 1976).

Kolobopetalum auriculatum Engl. (syn. K. veilchianum Diels)

Root:

• Sleeplessness (Dalziel 1937)

• Analgesic effects (Oliver-Bever 1986).

Limaciopsis loangensis Engl.

Root:

• Convulsions in children (Adjanohoun 1988*)

• Blennorrhagia (gonorrhea), with a little salt (Sillans 1951*).

Leaves:

• Stomach pain: twig or leaf is drunk (Bouquet 1969).

Penianthus longifolius Miers

Root:

• Powerful aphrodisiac (Vergiat 1970*)

• To seduce a woman: root added to her food (Bouquet 1969)

• Sexual weakness: pulverized root is taken with a ripe banana in palm oil or food (Noumi et

al. 1998)

• Attract fish into fish traps (Vergiat 1970*)

• Anthelmintic (Waker 1953*; Walker & Sillans 1961*)

• Colic: extract of root is drunk with sugar cane juice (Hulstaert 1966*)

• Strong emetic: extract of root is drunk with sugar cane juice (Hulstaert 1966*)

• Mature abscesses: root scraping mixed with water are applied as an ointment (Hulstaert

1966*)

• Wound infection: moistened root is applied (Sillans 1951*)

• Purulent ear troubles: root sap inserted into ear (Sillans 1951*).

Bark:

• Sores: powdered bark used (Bouquet 1969)

143

• As a dressing on wounds (Bouquiet 1969)

• Whitlow: root bark ground in water and liquid dropped on whitlow (Motte 1978*)

• Otitis and deafness: sap instilled into ear (Bouquet 1969)

• Arrow-poison ingredient for hunting monkeys (Sandberg 1965*; Vergiat 1970*; Neuwinger

1994, 2000)

• Aphrodisiac: chewed with some seeds of Aframomum melegueta K. Schum. (Bouquet 1969;

Adjanohoun 1988*)

• Sand fleas: root bark ground with palm oil and applied to the feet as an ointment (Motte

1978*).

Leaves:

• Hernia: leaves eaten (Bouquet 1969)

• Wounds: pulp applied (Troupin 1951*; Bouquet 1969)

• Otitis: pounded leaves inserted into the ears (Bouquet 1969).

Penianthus patulinervis Hutchinson & J.M. Dalziel

Root:

• Aphrodisiac: stem chewed (Dalziel 1937)

• Coughs cured (Dalziel 1937).

Penianthus zenkeri (Engl.) Diels

Plant:

• Aphrodisiac (Dalziel 1937; Irvine 1961*; Bouguet & Debray 1974*).

Stem:

• Local infections (Burkill 1997)

• Coughs (Irvine 1961*; Burkill 1997)

• Dental care: stem chewed (Burkill 1997).

Root:

Venereal diseases (Burkill 1997)

Dental care: stem is chewed (Burkill 1997).

144

Bark:

• Boils, abscesses and eruptions: used as dressing (Abbiw 1990)

• Aphrodisiac: decoction of bark or root is drunk (Burkill 1997)

• Aphrodisiac: root bark decoction used as an enema (Bouquet & Debray 1974*; Burkill

1997).

Leaves:

• Whitlow: used as dressing (Bouquet & Debray 1974*).

Rhigiocarya racemifera Miers [syn. R. nervosa (Miers) A. Chev.]

Plant:

• Anti-neuralgic action (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*; Bouquet & Debray 1974*)

• Headache: plant sap is dropped into the eyes (Bouquet 1969; Kerharo 1974*; Bouquet &

Debray 1974*)

• Haemostatic: pulp used as a dressing (Bouquet 1969; Kerharo 1974*; Bouquet & Debray

1974*)

• Wounds: pulp used as a dressing (Bouquet 1969; Kerharo 1974*; Bouquet & Debray 1974*).

Stem:

• Snake repellent: stem pulp mixed with white clay and water is rubbed on the body (Burkill

1997).

Root:

• Sleeplessness (Dalziel 1937)

• Analgesic effects (Oliver-Bever 1986).

Leaves:

• Headache: leaf sap used in nasal instillation or as eye-drops (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*;

Bouquet & Debray 1974*).

• Topical application as a haemostatic on sores (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*; Bouquet &

Debray 1974*)

• Mild stomach ache (Dalziel 1937; Burkill 1997)

• Dizziness: vapours of leaf decoction are inhaled (Bognon 1988*).

145

Leafy twigs and seed:

• Aphrodisiac (Bouquet 1969; Kerharo 1974*; Bouquet & Debray 1974*; Oliver-Bever 1983,

1986)

• Low sperm count: twigs are chewed with fresh pimento and palm wine is drunk (Bognon

1988*).

Fruit:

• Used as bird-lime (Burkill 1997).

Sphenocentrum jollyanum Pierre

Plant:

• Tonic (Iwu 1984*)

• Aphrodisiac (Iwu 1984*)

• Purgative and emetic if poisoning is suspected (Bouquet & Debray 1974*)

• Breast tumours (Hartwell 1971*).

Root:

• Purgative: root chewed (Ainslie 1937* Dalziel 1937; Irvine 1930*; Abbiw 1990; Burkhill

1997)

• Increase appetite (Ainslie 1937*; Dalziel 1937; Irvine 1930*; Burkill 1997)

• Aphrodisiac (Adjanohoun & Aké Assi 1972*; Burkill 1997)

• Stomach ache, pains, disorders and indigestion (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*; Abbiw 1990)

• Dress tropical ulcers (Burkill 1997)

• Enemas (Bouquet & Debray 1974*)

• Epileptic fits (Bouquet & Debray 1974*).

Leafy twigs

• Wounds, sores and cuts: washed with a decoction and covered with powdered bark (Kerharo

& Bouquet 1950*; Abbiw 1990; Burkill 1997).

Leaves:

• Ingestion curbs spitting of blood (Bouquet & Debray 1974*).

146

Fruit:

• Stewed with lime to cure coughs (Ainslie 1937*).

Spirospermum penduliflorum DC.

Root decoction:

• Cholagogue (liver complaints) (Boiteau 1974*)

• Malaria, quinine and chloroquine adjuvant (Rasoanaivo 1992).

Stephania abyssinica (Dill. & A. Rich.) Walp.

Whole plant:

• Stomach disorder (Tadesse & Demissew 1992)

• Syphilis (Tadesse & Demissew 1992)

• Dysentery and diarrhea: sap is drunk (Dalziel 1937)

• Mastitis in cattle (Bally 1937*, 1938*; Getahun 1975*; Kokwaro 1976)

• Body pain: powder of whole plant is rubbed into local scarifications (Kokwaro 1976).

Root:

• Roundworms (Githens 1949; Abbiw 1990)

• Anthelmintic for threadworm with root of Riocreuxia profusa N.E. Br. (Haerdi 1974*)

• Vermifuge (Dalziel 1937)

• Anthelmintic, roundworms (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Enterobiasis (+ Riocreuxia profusa) (Haerdi 1964*)

• Diabetes (+ Catharanthus roseus G. Don, Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A. Rich) (Baerts &

Lehman 1989*)

• As tonic for pregnant women (Baerts & Lehmann 1989*)

• Aphrodisiac (Kokwaro 1976)

• Menorrhagia (Githens 1949; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Sap as snakebite antidote (Haerdi 1964*).

Stems:

• Chest pain: sap with milk as an emetic (Bally 1937*, 1938*; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk

1962)

• Dysentery: sap is drunk (Bally 1937*, 1938*).

147

Leaves:

• Cathartic (Githens 1949)

• Sap used in eyes for an undefined disease (Haerdi 1964*)

• A mild purgative to children (Bally 1937*; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Roundworms (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Menorrhagia (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Infertile women (Dalziel 1937)

• Pregnant women, delicate children: leaf decoction is used as a wash (Baerts & Lehmann

1989*)

• Snakebite antidote (Haerdi 1964*)

• Tortoise bite: crushed and applied to wound (Kokwaro 1976)

• Fractures, dislocation: pulp is used (Baerts & Lehmann 1989*).

Stephania dinklagei (Engl.) Diels (syn. Cissampelos dinklagei Engl.)

Plant extract:

• Fish poison (Burkhill1997; Camacho et al. 2003)

• Dysentery and diarrhoea (Cooper & Record 1931*; Burkill 1997)

• Emmenagogue (Burkill 1997).

Root:

• Anthelmintic (Dalziel 1937; Oliver 1958; Abbiw 1990)

• Sedative (Dalziel 1937; Burkill 1997)

• Treatment of infertility (Tackie et al. 1974)

• Menorrhagia (Dalziel 1937; Abbiw 1990)

• Hypermenorrhea (Oliver 1958; Burkill 1997)

• Antimenorrhagic (Dalziel 1937)

• Side pain: applied as a hot application (Vergait 1970*).

Stem:

• Menorrhagia (Dalziel 1937; Abbiw 1990)

• Hypermenorrhea (Burkill 1997)

• Sedative (Dalziel 1937; Burkill 1997).

148

Leaves:

• Eaten by barren woman who wish to become pregnant (Dalziel 1937; Cooper & Record

1931*; Burkill 1997)

• Induce menstruation (Cooper & Record 1931*)

• Stomach ache of children (Burkill 1997).

Stephania hernandifolia Walp.

Plant extracts:

• Malaria (Camacho et al. 2003)

• Fever (Camacho et al. 2003).

Stephania laetificata (Miers) Benth.

Leaves:

• Severe migraine: sap applied to the forehead (Bouquet 1969)

• Snakebite: leaf maceration is drunk (Bouquet 1969).

Synclisia scabrida Miers

Plant extract:

• Anti-ulcer (Hutchinson & Dalziel 1963*)

• Female lower abdominal pains (Scheinmann et al. 1980)

• Listlessness (Scheinmann et al. 1980)

• Mental strain (Scheinmann et al. 1980)

• Magical properties (Bouquet 1969).

Root:

• Treat malaria (Lowe 1987*; Burkill 1997)

• Gynaecological obstetrical troubles (Wambebe et al. 1982*)

• Threatened abortion (Wambebe et al. 1982*)

• Mental disorders (Wambebe et al. 1982*).

Leaf extract:

• Alcoholic decoction for various gastrointestinal complaints (Ohiri et al. 1983)

• Female abdominal pains (Ohiri et al. 1983)

149

• Listlessness (Ohiri et al. 1983)

• Mental strain (Ohiri et al. 1983).

Syrrheonema fasciculatum Miers

Leaves:

• Ophthalmia: sap is used (Bouquet 1969).

Tiliacora dielsiana Hutchinson & Dalziel

Root:

• Put in palm-wine as a substitute for Rhigiocarya (Dalziel 1937).

Tiliacora dinklagei Engl. [syn. Glossopholis dinklagei (Engl.) Stapf.]

Plant extract:

• Dysentery: alone or [+ Mallotus oppositifolius Müll. Arg.] (Bouquet & Debray 1974*)

• Aphrodisiac mixed with Paullinia pinnata L. (Bouquet & Debray 1974*)

• Tachycardia (Bouquet & Debray 1974*)

• Cough (Bouquet & Debray 1974*)

• Amenorrhoea (Bouquet & Debray 1974*).

Roots:

• Anaemia (Oliver-Bever 1986

• Oedema of legs (Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Gastric fevers (Tackie & Thomas 1968)

• Menstrual irregularities (Tackie & Thomas 1968).

Leaves:

• Checks bleeding (Githens 1949)

• As a paste in enemas to women desiring to have a baby heavy at birth (Adjanohoun & Akè

Assi 1972*)

• Treating gastric fevers (Oliver-Bever 1983)

• Menstrual irregularities (Oliver-Bever 1983).

150

Tiliacora funifera (Miers) Oliver

Plant:

• Gastric fevers (Tackie & Thomas 1968; Burkill 1997)

• Menstrual irregularities (Tackie & Thomas 1968; Burkill 1997)

• Strangulated hernia (Tackie et al. 1973; Burkill 1997).

Leaves:

• Antibacterial (Sethi et al. 1974*; Merck’s Index 1976*; Ikram & Inamul-Haq 1980)

• Sap: relieve insanity (+ Manniophyton fulvum Mull. Arg. and sugar cane) (Bouquet 1969).

Tiliacora gilletii De Wild.

Leaves:

• Malaria (Githens 1949).

Tinospora bakis Miers

Root:

• Jaundice (N’Diaye 1962*; Kerharo & Adam 1964*, 1974*; Pousset 1989*)

• Fever (Githens 1994; Burkill 1997)

• Yellow fever (N’diaye 1962*; Kerharo & Adam 1974*)

• Remittant and bilious fevers (Dalziel 1937; Irvine 1961*, Kerharo 1967; Oliver-Bever 1986;

Burkill 1997)

• Fever like in malaria and schistosomiasis (Kerharo & Adams 1964*; Burkill 1997)

• Rheumatic pains (Dalziel 1937; Irvine 1961*)

• Liver and gall bladder complaints (Irvine 1961*; Kerharo & Adam 1974*)

• Cholagogue (Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Emmenagogue (Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Stemming the discharge of blennorrhoea (Kerharo 1967)

• Depress central nervous system (Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Antipyretic (Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Diuretic (Irvine 1961*; Burkill 1997)

• Hypotensive activity (Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Gonorrhoea (Dalziel 1937; Irvine 1961*; Githens 1949)

151

• Mental illness, (+ Ekebergia senegalensis Fuss., Capparis tomentosa Lam.) (Kerharo &

Adam 1974*)

• Externally on skin troubles (Kerharo & Adam 1964*).

Leaf:

• Tonic (Githens 1949)

• Diuretic (Githens 1949)

• Cholagogue (Githens 1949).

Tinospora caffra (Miers) Troupin

Leaves:

• Prevention of witchcraft (Hedberg & Stugård 1989)

• Wounds: sap used as an antiseptic (Kokwaro 1976).

Tinospora oblongifolia (Engl.) Troupin

Roots:

• Purgative (Kokwaro 1976).

Triclisia dictyophylla (Engl.) Troupin [syn. Triclisia gilletii (De Wild.) Staner]

Root:

• Rheumatism: bark used (Burkill 1997)

• Stomach pain in women (Bouquet 1969)

• Dysentery (Bouquet 1969; Adjanohoun. 1988*)

• Convulsive coughing (Bouquet 1969)

• Fever aches and pains: either as a tisane or eaten as a powder, in vapour baths or by nasal

instillation of the sap (Bouquet 1969)

• Venereal diseases: raw roots are eaten (Neuwinger 1994, 2000)

• Arrow poison ingredient (Neuwinger 1994, 2000)

• To increase intoxication: bark is added to alcoholic drinks (Burkill 1997)

• Snakebite (Haerdi 1964*)

• Ascariasis (Haerdi 1964*)

• Anthelmintic (Neuwinger 1994, 2000).

152

Twigs:

• Fever: twig bark decoction is drunk (Hulstaert 1966*)

• Purulent catarrh: twig bark decoction is drunk (Hulstaert 1966*)

• Diarrhoea: twig bark decoction is drunk (Hulstaert 1966*)

• Stomach complaints: twig bark decoction is drunk (Hulstaert 1966*)

• Purgative: twig decoction is used as an enema (Hulstaert 1966*).

Leaves:

• Anaemia (Oliver 1958*; Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Oedema of legs (Oliver 1958*; Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Diarrhoea (Troupin 1951*; Oliver 1958*; Burkill 1977)

• Joint pains (Oliver 1958*)

• Sedative during insanity: sap used (Bouquet 1969)

• Superstitious use (Sandberg 1980)

• Chest pain in children: leaves are hung up and vapours help child to breathe (Disengomoka

& Delaveau 1983).

Unspecified parts:

• Diarrhoea and dysentery (Abbiw 1990)

• Arrow and spear poison (Troupin 1951*; Abbiw 1990; Burkill 1997)

• Boils (Burkill 1997)

• Febrifuge (Walker & Sillans 1961*).

Fruit:

• Intoxicating principle in drinks (Burkill 1997).

Triclisia macrocarpa Diels

Stem and root bark decoction:


Triclisia macrophylla Oliver

Root decoction:

• Hernia (Haxaire 1979*).

153

Triclisia patens Oliver

Plant extract:

• Malaria (Oliver 1958*; Camacho et al. 2003)

• Fever (Camacho et al. 2003)

• Oedema of legs (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*; Oliver 1958*; Bouquet & Debray 1974*)

• Anaemia (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*; Oliver 1958*; Bouquet & Debray 1974*)

• Diarrhoea (Neuwinger 2000)

• Joint pains (Oliver 1958*)

• Fits of epilepsy (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*; Oliver 1958*; Bouquet & Debray 1974*)

• Syphilitic sores (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*; Bouquet & Debray 1974*)

• Leprosy (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*; Bouquet & Debray 1974*)

• Soothes cough (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*; Bouquet & Debray 1974*)

• Sedative properties on the heart (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*; Bouquet & Debray 1974*).

Root:

• Rheumatic pain: pulp is rubbed in (Bouquet 1969)

• Fever (Burkill 1997)

• Local oedema: pulp is rubbed in (Bouquet 1969)

• Added to palm-wine to increase its potency (Burkill 1997)

• Localised oedema (Bouquet 1969)

• Emmenagogue (Sandberg 1965*)

• Dysmenorrhoea (Sandberg 1965*)

• Abortifacient (Sandberg 1965*)

• Cardiac sedative: used as a wash (Bouquet & Debray 1974*; Neuwinger 1994, 2000).

Bark extract:

• Syphilitic wounds: used as a wash (Bouquet & Debray 1974*; Neuwinger 1994, 2000)

• Oedema: used as a wash (Bouquet & Debray 1974*; Neuwinger 1994, 2000)

• Leprosy: used as a wash (Bouquet & Debray 1974*; Neuwinger 1994, 2000).

Stem:

• Sap use in palm-wine to render it more intoxicating (Dalziel 1937; Burkill 1997)

• Stomach pain (Burkill 1997).

154

Leaves:

• Anaemia (Abbiw 1990)

• Oedema of the legs: pulp is rubbed on and twig decoction is drunk (Kerharo & Bouquet

1950*; Kerharo 1974*)

• Painful joints: pulp is rubbed on and twig decoction is drunk (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950*;

Kerharo 1974*)

• Cardiac sedative: used as a wash (Bouquet & Debray 1974*; Neuwinger 1994, 2000)

• Cough: leaf sap is drunk (Bouquet & Debray 1974*; Neuwinger 1994, 2000).

Triclisia saeleuxii Diels

Root:

• Worms (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Schistosomiasis: root decoction is drunk with (Steganotenia araliacea Hochst., Carvalhoa

macrophylla K. Schum, Euphorbia tirucalli L., Mucuna poggei Taubert) (Haerdi 1964*)

• Ascariasis: root scrapings are eaten (Haerdi 1964*)

• Gonorrhoea: root decoction is drunk with (Steganotenia araliacea Hochst, Carvalhoa

macrophylla K. Schum, Euphorbia tirucalli L., Mucuna poggei Taubert) (Haerdi 1964*)

• Venereal diseases (Bally 1937*; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Snakebite antidote: root scrapings are eaten and rubbed into scarifications on the bite (Haerdi

1964*)

• Sore throat (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962)

• Juice swallowed to treat kidney diseases (Kokwaro 1976).

Triclisia subcordata Oliver

Plant extract:

• Malaria (Camacho et al. 2003)

• Fever (Camacho et al. 2003)

• Oedema of the legs: leaf pulp is rubbed on (Oliver 1958*; Oliver-Bever 1983; Burkill 1997)

• Anaemia (Oliver 1958*; Oliver-Bever 1983; Burkill 1997)

• Diarrhoea (Oliver 1958*; Oliver-Bever 1983)

• Joint pains (Oliver 1958*; Oliver-Bever 1983; Burkill 1997).

155

Aerial parts:

• Abscesses: decoction of aerial parts and black native soap is used as wash and a dressing of

leaf pulp of Premna quadrifolia Schum & Thonn. and black soap is applied (Baerts &

Lehmann 1989*).

Root:

• Palpitation: root powder [+ fruit of Aframomum melegueta K. Schum.] and 1 pinch of

pulverized granite is licked (Baerts & Lehmann 1989*)

• Abdominal pain: sap of fresh roots (+ 1 fruit of Garcinia kola Heckel) is drunk (Baerts &

Lehmann 1989*).

4.4 Medicinal uses of Menispermaceae in the rest of the World

Abuta barbata Miers

Plant:

• Poison (Fanshawe 1949*).

Abuta bullata Moldenke

Plant:


Abuta candollei Triana & Planch.

Plant:


Abuta grandifolia (Mart.) Sandwith

Plant:

• Poison (Fanshawe 1949*)

• Fever (Steele 2000*)

• Analgesic (Schultes & Raffauf 1990)

• Colic in nervous children (Schultes & Raffauf 1990)

• Hemorrhage during labor (Schultes & Raffauf 1990; Duke & Váquez 1994*)

• To recover strength after giving birth (Lescure et al. 1987)

156

• Dysmenorrhoea (Taylor 2000)

• Amenorrhoea (Taylor 2000)

• Treat sterile women (Duke & Váquez 1994*)

• Rheumatism (Duke & Váquez 1994*)

• Snakebite (Schultes & Raffauff 1990).

Stem:

• Tuberculosis: infusion taken orally (Desmarchelier et al. 1996).

Roots:

• Nervous children drink it as a tea (Plotkin 1993)

• Stop excessive bleeding during childbirth (Plotkin 1993).

Bark:

• Dart poison and curare (Schultes & Raffauf 1990*).

Leaf decoction

• Headache remedy (Desmarchelier et al. 1996).

Abuta klugii Moldenke ex. Macbride

Plant:


Abuta macrocarpa Moldenke

Plant:


Abuta obovata Diels

Plant:

• Poison (Fanshawe 1949*; Schultes & Raffauf 1990*).

Abuta rufescens Aubl.

Plant:

• Poison (Fanshawe 1949*; Schultes & Raffauf 1990*)

157

• Sclerosis (liver) (Hartwell 1971)

• Fever (Steele 2000).

Abuta selloana Eichl.

Plant:

• Polyp (bladder) (Hartwell 1971).

Abuta wilson-brownei R.S. Cowan

Plant:


Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. (syn. Anamirta paniculata Coleb.)

Fruit:

• Stupefy fish, fish poison (Piffard 1881; Wealth of India 1948*; Drury 1973*)

• Poison crows (Wealth of India 1948*; Drury 1973* )

• Poison cattle (Hooper & Field 1937*)

• Poison (Woi 1948-1976*; Steinmetz 1957*; Uphof 1968*)

• Parasitic skin diseases (Felter 1922)

• Parasiticide (Steinmetz 1957*; Uphof 1968*)

• Ringworms (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Tincture for meralgia or sea sickness (Felter 1922)

• Obesity (Hirschhorn 1983)

• Purgative (Hirschhorn 1983)

• Relieving nerve disorders (Steinmetz 1957*)

• Stimulant (Steinmetz 1957*).

Chondrodendron platiphyllum (A. St.-Hil.) Miers

Plant:

• Dyspepsia (Uphof 1968*)

• Uterine-Colic (Uphof 1968*).

158

Chondodendron tomentosum Ruiz & Pav.

Plant:

• Muscle relaxant, curare (Dutcher 1946; Bisset 1992)

• Arrow poison (Uphof 1968*)

• Tetanus (Bisset 1992)

• Tonic, diuretic (Felter 1922; Steinmetz 1957*; Uphof 1968*)

• Chronic inflammation of the bladder (Felter 1922)

• Kidneys with excretion of pus (Felter 1922)

• Antiseptic (Steinmetz 1957*)

• Laxative (Steinmetz 1957*)

• Fever (Steinmetz 1957*).

Chondrodendron sp.

Plant:

• Muscle-relaxant, curare (Bisset 1992).

Chondrodendron toxicoferum (Wedd.) Kurkoff & Moldenke

Plant:

• Arrow poison (Altschul 1973*).

Cissampelos glaberrima A. St.-Hil.

Root:

• Asthma (Pio-Corrêa 1984*)

• Urinary infections (Pio-Corrêa 1984*).

Cissampelos grandifolia Triana & Planch.

Plant:

• Snakebite (Standley & Steyermark 1952*).

Cissampelos ovalifolia DC.

Plant:

• Major component in curare (Krukoff & Smith 1939*).

159

Cissampelos pareira L.

Plant:

• Temporary birth control (+ Piper nigrum L. + root of Mimosa pudica L. + Hibiscus rosa-

sinensis L.) (Tiwari et al. 1982)

• Aphrodisiac (Basu 1970; Schwontkowski 1994)

• Prevent threatened abortion (Kupchan et al. 1965*; Grieve 1971; Lewis & Elvin-Lewis 1977;

Marini-Bettolo 1981; Bernardes 1984; Schultes & Raffauf 1990)

• Emmenogogue (Standley 1920-1926*; Kupchan et al. 1965*, Uphof 1968*; Duke 1972*)

• Relieve menorrhagia (Kupchan et al. 1965*; Uphof 1968*; Duke 1972*)

• Menstrual cramps (Lewis & Elvin-Lewis 1977; Schultes & Raffauf 1990*; Schwontkowski

1994)

• Menstruation problems (Grieve 1971; Marini-Bettolo 1981; Bernardes 1984)

• Arrest uterine hemorrhages (Grieve 1971; Lewis & Elvin-Lewis 1977; Marini-Bettolo 1981;

Bernardes 1984; Schultes & Raffauf 1990)

• Colds (Jain & Tarafder 1970*; Ayensu 1981)

• Cough (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Asthma (Duke 1972*)

• Bronchitis (Jain & Tarafder 1970*)

• Expectorant (Standley 1920-1926*; Kupchan et al. 1965*; Uphof 1968*; Duke 1972*)

• Colic (Jain & Tarafder 1970*)

• Bitter tonic (Martinez 1969*; Liogier 1974*; Ayensu 1981; Schwontkowski 1993)

• Calculus (Pittier 1926*)

• Diuretic (Pittier 1926*; Woi 1948-1976*; Kupchan et al. 1965*; Uphof 1968*; Martinez

1969*; Duke 1972*; Ayensu 1981; Marini-Bettolo 1981; Schultes & Raffauf 1990;

Schwontkowski 1993)

• Bladder problems (Standley 1920-1926*; Pittier 1926*; Martinez 1969*)

• Antiseptic to the bladder (Schwontkowski 1993)

• Relieve chronic inflamation of urinary passages (Schwontkowski 1993)

• Kidney problems (Pittier 1926*)

• Skin diseases (Ayensu 1981)

• Itch (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Erysipelas (Standley & Steyermark 1952*)

• Cholera (Duke 1970*)

160

• Gonorrhoea (Ayensu 1981; Schwontkowski 1993)

• Leucorrhoea (Martinez 1969*; Schwontkowski 1993)

• Venereal diseases (Standley 1920-1926*)

• Malaria (Woi 1948-1976*; Shinwari & Khan 2000)

• Febrifuge (Standley 1920-1926*; Standley & Styermark 1952*; Kupchan et al. 1965*;

Uphof 1968*; Duke 1972*)

• Analgesic (Schwontkowski 1994)

• Pre- and postnatal pain (Lewis & Elvin-Lewis 1977; Schultes & Raffauf 1990;

Schwontkowski 1994)

• Stomach pain (Jain & Tarafder 1970*)

• Purgative (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Used for inflammation of the testicles (Marini-Bettolo 1981; Schultes & Raffauf 1990*)

• Rheumatism (Martinez 1969*; Schwontkowski 1993)

• Jaundice (Martinez 1969*; Schwontkowski 1993)

• Dropsy (Woi 1948-1976; Martinez 1969*; Schwontkowski 1993)

• Snakebite (Standley 1920-1926*; Pittier 1926*; Standley & Steyermark 1952*; Uphof

1968*; Martinez 1969*; Duke 1970*, 1972*; Lipp 1971*)

• Burns (Shah & Joshi 1971*)

• Boils (Shah & Joshi 1971*; Wong 1976*)

• Wounds (Standley 1920-1926*; Shah & Joshi 1971*; Bedi 1978*)

• Plaster for sores (Woi 1948-1976*; Ayensu 1981)

• Convulsions (Jain & Tarafder 1970*)

• Rabies (Jain & Tarafder 1970*)

• Eye problems (Shah & Joshi 1971*)

• Hypertension (Wong 1976*)

• Madness (Jain & Tarafder 1979*).

Root:

• Diabetes (Wong 1976*; Ayensu 1981)

• Malaria (Boiteau 1976*)

• Diarrhoea (Woi 1948-1976*; Jain & Tarafder 1970*; Neuwinger 1994; Shinwari & Khan

2000)

• Dysentery (Neuwinger 1994)

161

• Indigestion (Woi 1948-1976*; Lewis & Elvin-Lewis 1977; World Preservation Society 1993;

Manandhar 1998)

• Antiseptic for animal wounds (Manandhar 1998)

• Analgesic (Bernardes 1984)

• Menstrual cramps (Schwontkowski 1993; World Preservation Society 1993)

• Pre- and postnatal pain (Schwontkowski 1993; World Preservation Society 1993)

• Women's ailments (Bernardes 1984)

• Prevent threaten miscarriage (Lewis & Elvin-Lewis 1977)

• Stop uterine hemorrhages (Rutter 1990)

• Hemorrhage (Uphof 1968*).

Leaves:

• As a tea for palpitiaton (Ayensu 1981)

• In poultice on boils (Ayensu 1981)

• Applied to abscesses (Shinwari & Khan 2000)

• Wounds, including Snakebites (Schultes & Raffauf 1990*; Shinwari & Khan 2000)

• Leaf poultice as a analgesic (Basu 1970; Guinaudeau et al. 1975; Kametani et al. 1976)

• Fever (Duke & Vasquez 1994*)

• Conjunctivitis (Schultes & Raffauf 1990*).

Seeds:

• Snakebite (Guinaudeau et al. 1975; Kametani et al. 1976; Grenand et al. 1987)

• Diuretic (Guinaudeau et al. 1975; Kametani et al. 1976; Grenand et al. 1987)

• Expectorant (Guinaudeau et al. 1975; Kametani et al. 1976; Grenand et al. 1987)

• Fevers (Guinaudeau et al. 1975; Kametani et al. 1976; Grenand et al. 1987)

• Venereal diseases (Guinaudeau et al. 1975; Kametani et al. 1976; Grenand et al. 1987)

• Pesticide (Guinaudeau et al. 1975; Kametani et al. 1976).

Cissampelos sympodialis Eichl.

Roots:

• Asthma (Correa 1929*; Barbosa-Filho et al. 1997*)

• Bronchitis (Correa 1929*; Barbosa-Filho et al. 1997*)

• Cold (Barbosa-Filho et al. 1997*)

162

• Influenza (Correa 1929*)

• Urinary problems (Correa 1929*)

• Arthritis (Barbosa-Filho et al. 1997*)

• Rheumatism (Correa 1929*; Barbosa-Filho et al. 1997*).

Cissampelos tropaeolifolia DC.

Plant:

• Snakebite (Standley & Steyermark 1952*)

• Cold (Standley & Steyermark 1952*)

• Erysipelas, local inflamation cause by Streptococcus (Standley & Steyermark 1952*)

• Fever (Standley & Steyermark 1952*).

Cocculus filipendula Mart.

Plant:

• Snakebite (Uphof 1968*)

• Emmenagogue (Uphof 1968*)

• Poison (Uphof 1968*).

Cocculus glaucus DC.

Plant:

• Sclerosis (spleen) (Hartwell 1971).

Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels

Plant:

• Constipation (Naik 1956; Kirtikar & Basu 1987*; Caius 1986*; Usher 1984*)

• Dyspepsia (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Kidney problems (Kirtikar & Basu 1987*; Caius 1986*; Usher 1984*)

• Diuretic (Kirtikar & Basu 1933; El-Shabrawy et al. 1984; Girach et al. 1994)

• Rheumatism (Woi 1948-1976*; Naik 1956; El-Shabrawy et al. 1984; Girach et al. 1994)

• Fever (Woi 1948-1976*’ Naik 1956; El-Shabrawy et al. 1984; Girach et al. 1994)

• Laxative (Woi 1948-1976*; El-Shabrawy et al. 1984; Girach et al. 1994)

• Tonic (Kirtikar & Basu 1933)

• Alterative (alters bodily processes) (Woi 1948-1976*)

163

• Demulcent (soothing medicine) (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Biliousness (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Ophthalmia (Bedi 1978*)

Roots:

• Chronic rheumatism (Kirtikar & Basu 1933; Chopra et al. 1958*; Nadkarni 1976)

• Substitute for sarsaparilla, as antiperiodic, in fevers (Kirtikar & Basu 1933; Nadkarni 1976;

Pendse & Dutta 1932*)

• Syphilitic cachexia (Kirtikar & Basu 1933; Chopra et al. 1958*; Nadkarni 1976).

Leaves:

• Acute gonorrhoea (Kirtikar & Basu 1933; Woi 1948-1976*; Chopra et al. 1958*; Nadkarni

1976).

Fruit:

• Jaundice (Samvatsar & Diwanji 2000).

Cocculus japonicus DC.

Plant:

• Cholera (Bliss 1973*)

• Diuretic (Bliss 1973*)

• Dropsy (Bliss 1973*)

• Fever (Bliss 1973*)

• Hemorrhage (Bliss 1973*)

• Lung (Bliss 1973*)

• Prolapse of womb or rectum (Bliss 1973*)

• Rheumatism (Bliss 1973*).

Cocculus laurifolius DC.

Plant:

• Diuretic (Takeda 1978*)

• Arrow poison (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Vermifuge (Takeda 1978*).

164

Cocculus pendulus Diels

Roots:

• Treat intermittent fevers (Uphof 1968*; Hussain et al. 1984)

• Malaria (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Tonic (Hussain et al. 1984)

• Intoxicant (Woi 1948-1976*).

Cocculus sarmentosus Diels

Plant:

• Poison (Uphof 1968*).

Cocculus thunbergii DC.

Plant:

• Cholera (Bliss 1973*)

• Diuretic (Bliss 1973*)

• Dropsy (Bliss 1973*)

• Fever (Bliss 1973*)

• Hemorrhage (Bliss 1973*)

• Lungs (Bliss 1973*)

• Proloapse of rectum (Bliss 1973*)

• Rheumatism (Bliss 1973*).

Cocculus trilobus DC.

Plant:

• Anodyne (sooth pain) (Takeda 1978*)

• Arthritis, rheumatism and inflammation (Hunan 1974*)

• Snakebite (Hunan 1974*)

• Boils and sores (Hunan 1974*)

• Diuretic (Hunan 1974*; Takeda 1978*)

• Urogenital (Hunan 1974*)

• Nephritis, inflammation of the kidneys (Hunan 1974*)

• Oedema (Hunan 1974*)

• Refrigerant, allays fever (Hunan 1974*)

165

• Carminative, curing flatulence (Hunan 1974*).

Cocculus villosus DC.

Leaves:

• Form jelly: taken orally to develop sterility in man (Jain et al. 2004)

• Tumor (Hartwell 1971).

Coscinium blumeanum Miers

Plant:

• Sores and wounds (Burkill 1966*)

• Prickly-heat, inflammation of skin near sweat glands with eruption of vesicles (Burkill

1966*).

Coscinuim fenestratum Colebr. (syn. C. usitatum Pierre)

Plant:

• Antiseptic (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Sores and wounds (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Candida (Ray & Majumdar 1976*)

• Fungicide (Ray & Majumdar 1976*)

• Debility (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Tonic (Uphof 1968*)

• Stomachic, promoting digestion (Uphof 1968*)

• Dyspepsia (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Fever (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Arrow poison (Woi 1948-1976*).

Stem:

• Malaria (Le Tran et al. 2003)

• As a bitter (The British Pharmaccutical Codex 1911; Vorreiter 1948)

• Dye (Vorreiter 1948).

166

Coscinium wallichianum Miers

Plant:

• Arrow poison (Burkill 1966*).

Curarea tecunarum Barneby & Krukoff

Plant:

• Contraceptive (Prance 1972*; Schultes & Raffauf 1990*)

• Arrow poison (Prance 1972*; Schultes & Raffauf 1990*)

• Fungal and skin infections (Schultes & Raffauf 1990*).

Curarea toxicofera (Wedd.) Barneby & Krukoff

Plant:

• Arrow poison (Prance 1972*).

Curarea sp.

Plant:

• Muscle-relaxant poison curare (Bisset 1992).

Cyclea arnottii Miers

Plant:

• Fever (Woi 1948-1976*).

Cyclea barbata Miers

Plant:

• Enterosis (Burkill 1966*)

• Fever (Burkill 1966*).

Cyclea hypoglauca Diels

Plant:

• Toothache (Hunan 1974*)

• Anodyne (sooth pain) (Hunan 1974*)

• Sore throat (Hunan 1974*)

• Fever (Hunan 1974*)

167

• Rheumatism (Hunan 1974*)

• Carminative, curing flatulence (Hunan 1974*)


• Urogenital (Hunan 1974*).

Cyclea peltata Hook. f. & Thomson

Plant:

• Fever (Uphof 1968*)


• Tonic (Uphof 1968*).

Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii Diels

Plant:

• Diabetes (Holloway 1977*).

Diploclisia glaucescens Diels

Leaves:

• Venereal diseases (Chopra et al. 1956a*; Woi 1948-1976*)

• Biliousness (Chopra et al. 1956a*; Woi 1948-1976*).

Disciphania calocarpa Standl.

Plant:

• Depurative (Standley & Steyermark 1952*)

• Kidney problems (Standley & Steyermark 1952*).

Fibraurea chloroleuca Miers

Plant:

• Headache (Burkill 1966*)

• Diabetes (Burkill 1966*)

• Dysentery (Burkill 1966*)

• Intestinal tonic (Takeda 1978*)

• Stomachic, promoting digestion (Takeda 1978*)

• Sores (Burkill 1966*)

168

• Ophthalmia (Burkill 1966*)

• Parturition, bringing forth early childbirth (Burkill 1966*).

Fibraurea recisa Pierre

Plant:


Fibraurea tinctoria Lour.

Vine:

• Eyes (Forman 1986)

• Constipation (Uphof 1968*)


• Fever (Uphoff 1968*).

Hypserpa monilifera Diels

Plant:

• Headache (Altschull 1973*).

Jateorhiza columba Miers

Plant:


Jateorhiza miersii Oliver

Plant:

• Colic (Uphof 1968*)

• Diarrhoea and dysentery (Uphof 1968*)

• Digestion (Uphof 1968*).

Jateorhiza palmata Miers

Plant:

• Digestive disturbances (Steinmetz 1957*; Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Dyspeptic complains (Woi 1948-1976*; Oliver-Bever 1986)

• Tonic (Steinmetz 1957*)

169

• Diarrhoea (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Dysentery (Steinmetz 1957*; Woi 1948-1976*)

• Chronic diarrhoea with lung diseases (Oliver-Bever 1968*)

• Sores (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Antiseptic (Steinmetz 1957*)

• Vermifuge (Steinmetz 1957*).

Jatrorhiza macrantha (Hook. f.) Exell & Mendonça

Plant:

• Dysentery (Oliver-Bever 1986).

Limacia oblonga Miers

Root:

• Sore eyes: boiled root taken orally (Burkill 1966*; Forman 1988)

• Snakebite (Burkill 1966*).

Limacia scandens Lour.

Stem:

• Depressive disorders: boiled and drunk (Burkill 1966*; Hwi & Lay 1998)

Menispermum canadense L.

Plant:

• Alterative, alters bodily processes (Steinmetz 1957*; Uphof 1968*)

• Tonic (Standley & Steyermark 1952*; Uphof 1968*; Krochmal 1973*)

• Diuretic (Steinmetz 1957*; Uphof 1968*; Krochmal 1973*)

• Laxative (Steinmetz 1957*; Krochmal 1973*)

• Stomachic, promoting digestion (Steinmetz 1957*)

• Relieving nerve disorders (Steinmetz 1957*)

• Poison (Lewis & Elvin-Lewis 1977)

• Scrofula (Core 1967*)

• Syphilis (Krochmal 1973*)

• Venereal diseases (Standley 1920-1926*)

• Sudorific, causing sweating (Steinmetz 1957*).

170

Root:

• Skin diseases (Wren 1968; Krochmal 1973*).

Menispermum dauricum DC.

Root:

• Analgesic (Yu et al. 2002)

• Antipyretic (Yu et al. 2002)

• Treating sore throats (Anon 1977*)

• Colitis (Anon 1977*)

• Dysentery (Anon 1977*)

• Rheumatic arthralgia (Anon 1977*)

• Cancer of the cervix (Yeh 1973*).

Pachygone ovata Miers ex Hook. f. & Thomson

Fruits:

• Vermifuge (Woi 1948-1976*; Kirtikar & Basu 1975)

• Stupefying fish (Kirtikar & Basu 1975).

Pericampylus glaucus Merr.

Plant:

• Alopecia, baldness (Woi 1948-1976*; Burkill 1966*)

• Asthma (Woi 1948-1976*; Burkill 1966*)

• Fever (Woi 1948-1976*; Burkill 1966*)

• Headache (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Swelling (Burkill 1966*)

• Narcotic (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Splenomegaly (Burkill 1966*).

Pycnarrhena manillensis S. Vidal

Plant:

• Snakebite (Uphof 1968*)


• Wounds (Uphof 1968*).

171

• Stomach problems (Altschul 1973*).

Sciadotenia toxifera Krukoff & A.C. Sm.

Plant:

• Curare activity (Menachery 1996*)

• Treatment of sterility (Krukoff & Moldenke 1938*; Galeffi et al. 1978*)

• Malaria (Krukoff & Moldenke 1938*; Galeffi et al. 1978*).

Sinomenium acutum Rehder & E.H. Wilson

Plant:

• Anti-rheumatic (Hunan 1974*; Chang & But 1987*)

• Arthritis (Hunan 1974*)

• Channel-deobstruent (Chang & But 1987*)

• Anti-allergic (Chang & But 1987*)

• Analgesic (Hunan 1974*; Chang & But 1987*)

• Numbness in limbs (Chang & But 1987*)

• Diuretic (Takeda 1978*)

• Beri-Beri (Hunan 1974*)

• Carminative, curing flatulence (Hunan 1974*).

Stem:

• Fever: decoction used (Chang & But 1987*)

• Oedema (Hunan 1974*; Chang & But 1987*).

Sphenocentrum jollyanum Pierre

Plant:

• Laxative (Uphof 1968*)


• Chewstick (Uphof 1968*)

• Tumor (breast) (Hartwell 1971).

172

Stephania brancroftii Bailey

Rhizome:

• Wounds, poultice applied (Halfpap 1991*)

• Anti-inflammatory: poultice applied (Halfpap 1991*).

Leaves:

• Fish poison (Halfpap 1991*; Kunitomo et al. 1982*).

Stephania cephalantha Hayata

Plant:

• Stomachic, promoting digestion (Takeda 1978*)

• Coughs (Takeda 1978*).

Stephania erecta Craib

Rhizome:

• Muscle relaxant (Pongboonrod 1979*)

• Analgesic (Pongboonrod 1979*).

Stephania forsteri (DC.) A. Gray

Plant:

• Boils (Uhe 1974*).

Stephania glabra (Roxb.) Miers

Plant:

• Aches, body and head (Shah & Joshi 1971*)

• Antibiotic (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Convulsions (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Eye problems (Shah & Joshi 1971*)

• Hyperglycemia (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Inflammation (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Intestine problems (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Sedative (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Tuberculosis (Duke 1994).

173

Rhizome:

• Antidysenteric (Kirtikar & Basu 1933; Chopra et al. 1958*)

• Antipyretic (Kirtikar & Basu 1933; Chopra et al. 1958*)

• Antiasthmatic (Kirtikar & Basu 1933; Woi 1948-1976*; Chopra et al. 1958*).

Stephania hernandifolia Walp.

Plant:

• Contraceptive (Bhattachrya 1982*)

• Abdominal problems (Burkill 1966*; Hunan 1974*)

• Toothache (Hunan 1974*)

• Anodyne (sooth pain) (Burkill 1966*)

• Arthritis and rheumatism (Hunan 1974*)

• Carminative, curing flatulence (Hunan 1974*)

• Laryngitis (Hunan 1974*)

• Refrigerant, allays fever (Hunan 1974*)

• Fever (Burkill 1966*)

• Mastitis (Burkill 1966*)

• Gingivitis, problems with gums (Hunan 1974*)

• Poison (Hunan 1974*)

• Tumour (abdomen) (Hartwell 1971*)

• Enterosis (Burkill 1966*).

Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers

Plant:

• Fever (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Cancer (Woi 1948-1976*; Hartwell 1971)

• Itch (Uphof 1968*)

• Urogenital (Woi 1948-1976*).

Stephania pierrei Diels

Rhizome:

• Aphrodisiac (Pongboonrod 1979*).

174

Stephania rotunda Lour.

Plant:

• Headache (Burkill 1966*)

• Asthma (Uphof 1968*)

• Dysentery (Uphof 1968*)

• Fever (Uphof 1968*)


• Poison (Uphof 1968*)

• Tuberculosis (Uphof 1968*).

Stephania sinica Diels

Plant:

• Analgesic (Nas 1989*)

• Inflammation (Nas 1989*)

• Sedative (Nas 1989*)

• Tranquilizer (Nas 1989*).

Stephania suberosa Forman

Rhizome:

• Rejuvenating and neurotonic remedies (Ingkaninan et al. 2003).

Stephania tetrandra S. Moore

Plant:

• Anti-rheumatic (Li et al. 1981*; Fang & Jiang 1986*; Seow et al. 1988*; Banks et al. 1993;

Hu 1994)

• Anti-inflammatory (Choi et al. 2000)

• Anti-hypertensive (Juangsu College of New Medicine 1975; Li et al. 1981*; Fang & Jiang

1986*; Seow et al. 1988; Banks et al. 1993; Hu 1994)

• Apoplexy (Juangsu College of New Medicine 1975)

• Analgesic (Nas 1989*; Hu 1994)

• Anti-pyretic (Hu 1994)

• Silicosis (Li et al. 1981*; Liu et al. 1983*; Fang & Jiang 1986*; Seow et al. 1988*; Banks et

al. 1993; Zeng et al. 1995; Tsai et al. 1995*)

175

• Asthma (Li et al. 1981*; Liu et al. 1983*; Tsai et al. 1995*)

• Treatment of inflammatory diseases (Huang 1993)

• Beri-Beri (Nas 1989*)

• Oedema (Nas 1989*)

• Hypertension (Nas 1989*)

• Numbness (Nas 1989*).

Telitoxicum minutiflorum (Diels) Moldenke

Plant:

• Arrow poison (Uphof 1968*).

Tiliacora triandra Diels

Root:

• Rejuvenating and neurotonic remedies (Ingkaninan et al. 2003).

Tinomiscium petiolare Miers

Plant:

• Rheumatism (Burkill 1966*).

Tinospora baenzigeri Forman

Stem:

• Anti-pyretic (Maurya et al. 1994*; Tuntiwachwuttikula et al. 1999)

• Anti-malarial (Maurya et al. 1994*; Tuntiwachwuttikula et al. 1999).

Tinospora bakis Miers

Plant:

• Bitter tonic (Dalziel 1937).

Root:

• Antidysenteric (Dalziel 1937).

176

Tinospora capillipes Gagnep.

Plant:

• Abscesses and boils (Hunan 1974*)


• Dysentery (Hunan 1974*)

• Inflammation (Hunan 1974*)

• Laryngitis (Hunan 1974*)

• Fever (Hunan 1974*)

• Anodyne, sooth pain (Hunan 1974*).

Tinospora cordifolia Miers

Plant:

• Tonic and vitalizer and immuno-stimulant (Pendse & Dutta 1932*; Nadkarni 1954*; Chopra

et al. 1956b*; Steinmetz 1957*. Chopra et al. 1958*; Chopra et al. 1969*; Nadkarni &

Nadkarni 1976*; Bedi 1978*; Kirtikar & Basu 1987*; Sainis et al. 1997*)

• General weakness (Kirtikar & Basu 1980)

• Diabetes mellitus (Nadkarni 1954*; Chopra 1958*; Chaldha 1976; Wadood 1992*; Mathew

& Kuttan 1997*)

• Anti-allergic (Chopra et al. 1956b*; Chopra 1958*; Nadkarni & Nadkarni 1976*;

Nayampalli 1986*; Kirtikar & Basu 1987*; Mathew & Kuttan 1997*)

• Asthma (Shah & Joshi 1971*)

• Anti-hepatotoxic (Bhupindu 1981*; Mathew & Kuttan 1997*)

• Liver problems (Steinmetz 1957*)

• Anti-inflammatory properties (Woi 1948-1976*; Chopra et al. 1956b*; Chopra et al. 1969*;

Nadkarni & Nadkarni 1976*; Kirtikar & Basu 1987*; Janeway 1996*; Mathew & Kuttan

1997*)

• Gout, anti-arthritic (Woi 1948-1976*; Chopra et al. 1956b*; Chopra et al. 1969*; Nadkarni

& Nadkarni 1976*; Kirtikar & Basu 1980; Kirtikar & Basu 1987*)

• Rheumatism (Woi 1948-1976*; Kirtikar & Basu 1980)

• Anti-oxidant (Goel & Premkumar 2002)

• Jaundice (Woi 1948-1976*; Chaldha 1976)

• Improved survival in surgical jaundice (Bapat et al. 1990*)

177

• Skin diseases (Woi 1948-1976*; Chopra et al. 1956b*; Chopra et al. 1969*; Nadkarni &

Nadkarni 1976*; Chaldha 1976; Kirtikar & Basu 1987*)

• Leprosy (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Viral hepatitis (Kirtikar & Basu 1980)

• Gonorrhoea (Kirtikar & Basu 1980)

• Secondary syphilis (Kirtikar & Basu 1980)

• Tuberculosis (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Throat cancer (Chauhan 1995)

• Tumour (abdomen) (Hartwell 1971)

• Intestinal disorders (anti-amoebic) (Sohni 1995)

• Metabolic disorders (Nadkarni 1954*; Chopra et al. 1958*)

• Diuretic property (Pendse & Dutta 1932*; Steinmetz 1957*)

• Anemia (Chopra et al. 1956b*; Chopra et al. 1969*; Chaldha 1976; Nadkarni & Nadkarni

1976*; Kirtikar & Basu 1987*)

• Piles (Chopra et al. 1956*; Chopra et al. 1969*; Nadkarni & Nadkarni 1976*; Kirtikar &

Basu 1987*)

• Chronic fever (Woi 1948-1976*; Chopra et al. 1956b*; Steinmetz 1957; Chopra et al. 1969*;

Nadkarni & Nadkarni 1976*; Kirtikar & Basu 1987*)

• Anti-pyretic (Rege 1984*; Mathew & Kuttan, 1997)

• Antimalarial (Nadkarni 1954*; Steinmetz 1957*)

• Emetic (Woi 1948-1976*; Chopra et al. 1956b*; Steinmetz 1957*; Chopra et al. 1969*;

Nadkarni & Nadkarni 1976*; Kirtikar & Basu 1987*)

• Chronic diarrhoea and dysentery (Nadkarni 1954*)

• Aphrodisiac (Steinmetz 1957*)

• Sores (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Sedative (Steinmetz 1957*).

Roots:

• Anti-ulcer (Sarma et al. 1995)

• Anti-stress (Sarma et al. 1996).

Stem:

• Malaria (Le Tran et al. 2003)

178

• Rheumatism (Agharkar 1953a*; Agharkar 1953b*)

• Immuno-stimulating activity (Mathew & Kuttan 1999)

• Use as a bitter (The British Pharmaceutical Codex 1911)

• Anti-diabetic (Gupta et al. 1967).

Leaves:

• Effective against leucorrhoea (Jain et al. 2004).

Tinospora crispa Miers

Plant:

• Diabetes (Burkill 1966*; Perry 1980*; Noor et al. 1989; Noor & Ashcroft 1989; Kalsom et

al. 1999*)

• Syphilis (Uphof 1968*; Hirschhorn 1983)

• Antipyretic (Kongsaktrakoon et al. 1994*)

• Anti-inflammatory (antirheumatic) (Woi 1948-1976*; Uphof 1969*; Lian 1975*)

• Gout (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Skin complaints (Burkill 1935*; Woi 1948-1971*; Heyne 1950*; Hirschhorn 1983)

• Tropical ulcers (Cantoria 1976*; Philippine National Formulary 1978*)

• Leprosy (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Sores (Woi 1948-1976*; Uphof 1968*)

• Scabies (Cantoria 1976*; Philippine National Formulary 1978*; Hirschhorn 1983)

• Cholera (Burkill 1966*; Perry 1980*; Kalsom et al. 1999*)

• Diarrhoea (Hirschhorn 1983)

• Liver problems (Hirschhorn 1983)

• Digestive problems (Uphof 1968*)

• Emetic (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Tuberculosis (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Arrow poison (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Tetanus (Uphof 1968*).

Stem:

• Malaria (Woi 1948-1976*; Lian 1975*; Kalsom et al. 1999*; Le Tran et al. 2003)

179

• Fever (Woi 1948-1976*; Perry 1980*; Hirschhorn 1983; Muhammad & Mustafa 1994*;

Kalsom et al. 19999*)

• As a vermifuge (Burkill 1935*; Heyne 1950*; Burkill 1966*; Perry 1980*; Kalsom et al.

1999*)

• Cholera (Burkill 1935*; Heyne 1950*; Kalsom et al. 1999*)

• Jaundice (Woi 1948-1976*; Hirschhorn 1983; Kalsom et al. 1999*)

• Tooth and stomach aches (Perry 1980*; Muhammad & Mustafa 1994*)

• Coughs (Perry 1980*; Muhammad & Mustafa 1994*)

• Asthma (Perry 1980*; Muhammad & Mustafa 1994*)

• Pleurisy (Perry 1980*; Muhammad & Mustafa 1994*)

• Viral and bacterial infections (Lian 1975*; Perry 1980*; Muhammad & Mustafa 1994*)

• Reduce high blood pressure (Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources of Brunei

Darussalam 1992*)

• Diabetes (Burkill 1935*; Heyne 1950*; Hirschhorn 1983; Ministry of Industry and Primary

Resources of Brunei Darussalam 1992*)

• Abdominal pains (Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources of Brunei Darussalam 1992*)

• Rejuvenating and neurotonic remedies (Ingkaninan et al. 2003)


Leaves:

• Wounds: poultice applied (Burkill 1966; Uphof 1968*; Cantoria 1976*; Philippine National

Formulary 1978*; Quisumbing 1978*; Hirschhorn 1983)

• Poultice for itches (Burkill 1966*; Uphof 1968*; Quisumbing 1978*).

Tinospora malabarica (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thomson

Plant:

• Rheumatism (Uphof 1968*)

• Anti-inflammatory (antirheumatic) (Lian 1975* )

• Treatment of intermittent fever (Siddiqui 1974*; Perry 1980*)

• Anti-malarial (Lian 1975*)

• Liver ailments (Siddiqui 1974*; Perry 1980*)

• Eye ailments (Siddiqui 1974*; Perry 1980*)

• Antibacterial (Lian 1975*).

180

Tinospora rumphii Boerl.

Plant:

• Cancer (Harwell 1971)

• Diarrhoea (Uphof 1968*)

• Cordial: stimulates the heart (Uphof 1968*)

• Stomach problems (Uphof 1968*)


• Sores (Uphof 1968*).

Tinospora sagittata Gagnep.

Root:

• Rheumatic arthritis (Xu et al. 1996*)

• Inflammatory conditions, such as laryngitis (Lian & Feng 1982*; Zhao et al. 1991; Xu et al.

1996*)

• Swelling and pain of throat (Lain & Feng 1982*; Zhao et al. 1991; Xu et al. 1996*)

• Diarrhoea (Xu et al. 1996*)

• Dysentery (Xu et al. 1996*)

• Cough (Lian & Feng 1982*; Xu et al. 1996*)

• Skin and breast inflammations (Xu et al. 1996*)

• Snakebite (Zhao et al. 1991)

• Gastric ulcer (Zhao et al. 1991)

• Tumour (Zhao et al. 1991)

• Skin infections (Zhao et al. 1991).

Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr.

Plant:

• Convalescents (Nadkarni 1954*)

• Skin conditions (Woi 1948-1976*; Nadkarni 1954*)

• Rheumatic conditions (Woi 1948-1976*; Nadkarni 1954*; Uphof 1968*)

• Urinary disorders (Nadkarni 1954*)

• Chronic diarrhoea and dysentery (Nadkarni 1954*)

• Fever (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Hepatitis (Woi 1948-1976*)

181

• Jaundice (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Leprosy (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Piles (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Sores and wounds (Woi 1948-1976*)

• Syphilis (Woi 1948-1976*).

Root:

• Rheumatic arthritis (Zhao et al. 1991; Xu et al. 1996*)

• Inflammatory conditions, such as laryngitis, skin and breast infections (Xu et al. 1996*).

Stem:

• Rheumatism (Nadkarni 1954*; Lian 1975*; Zhao et al. 1991; Xu et al. 1996*)

• Back pain (Xu et al. 1996*)

• Muscular spasm (Xu et al. 1996*)

• Trauma (Xu et al. 1996*)

• Anti-malarial (Woi 1948-1976*; Nadkarni 1954*; Lian 1975* )

• Antibacterial (Lian 1975*).

Tinospora smilacina Benth.

Stem:

• Pain (Reid & Betts 1977*)

• Wounds (Reid & Betts 1977*)

• Swellings (Reid & Betts 1977*; Li et al. 2003)

• Rheumatism (Reid & Betts 1977*)

• Severe cold (Reid & Betts 1977*; Li et al. 2003)

• Infections (Reid & Betts 1977*)

• Snakebite (Reid & Betts 1977*)

• Coughs (Li et al. 2003)

• Diarrhoea (Li et al. 2003)

• Catarrh (Li et al. 2003)

• Trachoma (Li et al. 2003)

• Ophthalmia (Li et al. 2003).

182

Tinospora tuberculata Beumee ex Heyne

Plant:

• Snakebite (Burkill 1966*)

• Malaria fever (Burkill 1966*)

• Cholera (Burkill 1966*)

• Syphilis (Burkill 1966*)

• Sores and wounds (Burkill 1966*)

• Smallpox (Burkill 1966*)

• Vermifuge (Burkill 1966*)

• Ophthalmia (Burkill 1966*)

• Emetic (Burkill 1966*)

• Diabetes (Burkill 1966*)

• Dyspepsia (Burkill 1966*).

Triclisia gilletti (De Wild.) Staner

Plant:

• Boils (Uphof 1968*)

• Diarrhoea (Uphof 1968*)

• Malaria (Uphof 1968*)

• Arrow poison (Uphof 1968*).

4.5 Classification of the different medicinal uses of Menispermaceae

The following classification system was devised to summarise the wide diversity of medicinal

uses of the Menispermaceae. These divisions were used to compare the importance of different

genera and species as judged by the frequency with which they are cited in the literature.

Summaries of the different medicinal uses and their importance according to the number of

citings for a specific use appear in Tables 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 for the genera and for the species

in Table 4.4.

• Abdominal pain

• Aphrodisiac (impotence, infertility)

• Abortifacient

183

• Analgesic (toothache, earache etc.)

• Anthelmintic/Parasites (guinea worm sores, ringworm, skin diseases, itch, scabies,

schistosomiasis, trypanosomiasis, cholera, leprosy)

• Arthritis/Rheumatism (gout, joint pains, inflammation)

• Biliousness (dizziness, giddiness)

• Blood purifying

• Eye diseases (sore eyes, conjunctivitis, ophtalmia, cataract, trachoma, iritis)

• Cancer

• Cholagogue (liver problems, hepatitis, gall)

• Colic (griping)

• Cough (whooping cough, expectorant, bronchitis, asthma, silicosis)

• Consumption (tuberculosis)

• Curare (muscle relaxation, rabies, convulsions, tetanus, poisons, sedatives)

• Diabetes

• Diuretic (promoting urination, bladder and kidney trouble, backache)

• Emetic (inducing vomiting)

• Febrifuge (fever remedy, colds)

• Fractures/Dislocation

• Haemorrhage

• Headache (migraine)

• Hypertension (high blood pressure)

• Jaundice

• Malaria

• Mental troubles (depression, nervous illness)

• Menstrual troubles (dysmenorrhoea, amenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, emmenagogue)

• Oedemas (exessive accumulation of fluid in tissues)

• Pregnancy related problems (prevent miscarriage)

• Purgative (laxative)

• Sedative (convulsions)

• Snakebite and scorpion sting

• Sore throat

• Sprains, burns and bruises

• Stomach ache, pains, disorders; indigestion; diarrhoea and dysentery

184

• Tonic/Bitters

• Wounds/Ulcers (abscesses, syphilitic sores, guineworm sores, whitlow, antiseptic)

• Venereal diseases (gonorrhoeae, syphilis etc.)

4.6 Discussion

4.6.1 Medicinal uses of the different genera of Menispermaceae

The literature survey revealed that twenty-one genera of the family Menispermaceae are used for

medicinal purposes in Africa and twenty-nine genera in the rest of the world. The following nine

genera are being used both in Africa and the rest of the world: Cissampelos, Cocculus,

Dioscoreophyllum, Jateorhiza, Sphenocentrum, Stephania, Tiliacora, Tinospora and Triclisia.

Figures 4.1(a) and (b) compare the medicinal uses of Menispermaceae genera in southern Africa.

According to these graphs, only four genera (Albertisia, Antizoma, Cissampelos and Tinospora)

have more than two citations for a specific medicinal use. Cissampelos is by far the most

frequently used medicinal plant in this region. It is most important for stomach problems and as

an anthelmintic and parasite killer. Albertisia and Antizoma are also used for various stomach

problems, but to a lesser extent than Cissampelos. The other medicinal uses for Albertisa are as

an aphrodisiac, anthelmintic and parasite killer and as febrifuge medicine. Antizoma is also used

as a diuretic and cholagogue medicine, besides its most important use to treat stomach problems.

The treatment for nine other medicinal uses (with two and more citations) were recorded only in

Cissampelos, namely: as an analgesic, a blood purifier, for colic, headache, pregnancy related

problems, menstrual problems, as a purgative, for venereal diseases and as a tonic. In the genus

Tinospora, only two medicinal uses, namely: for arthritis/rheumatism and as an antiseptic on

wounds, were recorded in more than two citations. No medicinal uses for the genus Cocculus

were found in southern Africa and only one reference was found for the use of Stephania as a

blood purifier and a fever remedy (Table 4.1)

185

Table 4.1. Medicinal uses of the Menispermaceae genera in South Africa (for classification of uses see section 4.5). The number of medicinal records (from literature and own studies) are indicated in the table.

Genera

Ab

ort

ific

acie

nt

Ap

hro

dis

iac

etc

.

An

alg

esic

An

thel

min

tic/

Par

asit

es

Art

hri

tis/

Rh

eum

atis

m

Bil

iou

snes

s

Blo

od p

uri

fyin

g

Can

cer

Ch

ola

go

gu

e

Co

lic

Co

ugh

s

Co

nsu

mp

tio

n

Cu

rare

etc

.

Dia

bet

es

Diu

reti

c

Ey

e d

isea

ses

Em

etic

Feb

rifu

ge

Hea

dac

he

Men

tal

Men

stru

al p

rob

lem

s

Pre

gn

ancy

rel

ated

pro

ble

ms

Pu

rgat

ive

Sn

akeb

ite

So

re t

hro

at

Sto

mac

h p

rob

lem

s

Ven

erea

l d

isea

ses

Wo

un

ds/

Ulc

ers

To

nic

/Bit

ters

Albertisia 3 4 2 1 5 1

Antizoma 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 7 1

Cissampelos 2 4 3 9 1 5 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 3 2 3 5 6 2 1 17 5 5 2

Cocculus

Stephania 1 1

Tiliacora 1

Tinospora 1 2 1 1 1 1 2

186

Figure 4.1 (a). Comparison of the medicinal uses of Menispermaceae genera in southern Africa.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Albertisia (1) Antizoma (2) Cissampelos (4) Tinospora (3)

Genera of the Menispermaceae (number of species in brackets)

Num

ber

of

cita

tions

Abortifacient

Aphrodisiac(impotence, infertility)

Analgesic

Anthelmintic/Parasites

Arthritis/Rheumatism

Blood purifying

Cancer

Cholagogue

Colic

Diuretic

187

Figure 4.1 (b) . Comparison of the medicinal uses of Menispermaceae genera in southern Africa.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Albertisia (1) Antizoma (2) Cissampelos (4) Tinospora (3)


Num

ber

of

citations

Febrifuge

Headache

Pregnancy relateproblems

Menstrualproblems

Purgative

Stomach problems

Wounds/Ulcers

Venereal diseases

Tonic/Bitters

188

Figures 4.2 (a), (b), (c) and Table 4.2 are comparisons of the medicinal uses of

Menispermaceae in Africa (excluding southern Africa). Cissampelos is yet again the most

used medicinal plant, followed by Stephania, Tinospora and Triclisia.

Figures 4.3 (a), (b) and Table 4.3 compare the medicinal uses of Menispermaceae in the

rest of the world (excluding Africa). A literature survey indicated that the family

Menispermaceae is used to the same extent as in Africa. Tinospora was the most cited

genus, followed by Cissampelos. Comparing Figures 4.1 to 4.2 for medicinal uses, two

genera with two and more citations (Albertisia and Cissampelos) are used as an

aphrodisiac to overcome impotence and infertility in southern Africa whilst seven genera

(Albertisia, Cissampelos, Dioscoreophyllum, Penianthus, Rhigiocarya, Sphenocentrum

and Stephania) are used in Africa and two genera (Cissampelos and Sciadotenia) in the

rest of the world. In southern Africa the genus Cissampelos is used to stimulate the

contraction of the uterus (abortifacient) and in Africa the genera Cissampelos and

Triclisa. No citations for a similar use could be found in the rest of the world for the

Menispermaceae. Albertisia and Cissampelos species are popular plants in southern

Africa to treat pain (analgesic), similar to Cissampelos and Triclisia in Africa. In the

world five genera are used as an analgesic medicine, namely: Cissampelos, Cyclea,

Sinomenium, Stephania and Tinospora. A large number of Menispermaceae genera is

used worldwide to kill parasites and as an anthelmintic medicine. In southern Africa and

Africa the genera Albertisia and Cissampelos are used, with six more genera in Africa

and in the world.

Cissampelos is the only genus that is used for blood purification in southern Africa, with

no records for this use in the rest of Africa or the world. Arthritis and rheumatism are

treated with the genus Tinospora in southern Africa, as well as Africa and the world.

Chasmanthera and Cissampelos are also used in Africa with five more genera in the

world [Figure 4.3 (a)]. Two citations for the use as cholagogue have been recorded for

the genus Antizoma, which is endemic to southern Africa. In Africa this use is also

recorded for the genera Burasaia, Cissampelos, Cocculus and Tinospora. In the world

only the genus Tinospora is used as chalogogue.

189

In southern Africa colic is treated with the genus Cissampelos, with no citations in Africa

and the world. Antizoma and Cissampelos are used as a diuretic medicine in southern

Africa, with Cissampelos and Tinospora used in Africa. Six genera, namely:

Chondodentron, Cissampelos, Cocculus, Menispermum, Stephania and Tinospora are all

used to treat kidney and bladder problems in the world. In southern Africa, fever is

treated with the genera Albertisia and Cissampelos and in Africa with the genera

Cissampelos, Cocculus, Tiliacora, Tinospora and Triclisia. In the world fever is treated

with the genera Abuta, Cyclea, Stephania and the three genera, Cissampelos, Cocculus

and Tinospora, which are also used in Africa. Women-related ailments are treated only

with the genus Cissampelos in southern Africa whereas it is treated with Cissampelos and

five other genera in Africa [Figures 4.2 (a), (b), (c)]. Citations of only two genera

(Cissampelos and Abuta) could be found for the treatment of these women problems in

the world.

The genus Cissampelos is the only genus cited for the treatment of headaches in both

southern Africa and Africa, with no citations of more than one in the world. Cissampelos

is the only genus in southern Africa that is used as a purgative medicine, as well as in

Africa together with the genera Sphenocentrum, Stephania and Tinospora. In the world

the three genera Cocculus, Menispermum and Tinospora are used as a purgative.

190

Table 4.2. Medicinal uses of Menispermaceae genera in Africa, excluding southern Africa (for classification of uses see section 4.5). The number of medicinal records (from literature) is indicated in the table.

Genera

Ap

hro

dis

iac

etc.

Ab

ort

ifac

ien

t

An

alg

esic

An

thel

min

tic/

Par

asit

es

Art

hri

tis/

Rh

eum

atis

m

Ab

do

min

al p

ain

Bil

iou

snes

s

Ch

ola

go

gu

e

Co

ugh

t et

c.

Cu

rare

etc

.

Dia

bet

es

Diu

reti

c et

c.

Ey

e d

isea

ses

Em

etic

Feb

rifu

ge

etc.

Fra

ctu

res/

Dis

loca

tio

ns

Hae

mo

rrh

oid

s

Hea

dac

he

Jau

nd

ice

Mal

aria

Men

tal

tro

ub

les

Men

stru

al p

rob

lem

s

Oed

emas

Pre

gn

ancy

rel

ated

pro

ble

ms

Albertisia 3 1 1 2 1 1 3

Burasaia 3 1 7

Chasmanthera 2 1 1 2 7 1

Cissampelos 12 5 4 17 2 10 3 7 4 13 4 4 9 2 10 3 4 23 4 23

Cocculus 1 3 1 4 3 9 1 1 1

Dioscoreophyllum 2 1 1

Epinetrum 1

Jateorhiza 1 1

Kolobopetalum 1

Limaciopsis

Peniauthus 10 1 2 3 3 1

Rhigiocarya 6 1 4 1

Sphenocentrum 3 1 1

Spirospermum 1 1

Stephania 6 8 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 8

Synelisia 2 3 2 2

Syrrheonema 1

Tiliacora 1 1 1 1 6 8 1 1 1 1 1 2

Tinospora 2 3 4 5 2 1 9 3 2 2 1

Triclisia 2 3 8 1 3 1 3 4 3 6

191

Table 4.2. (Continued)

Genera

Pu

rgat

ive

Sn

akeb

ite

So

re t

hro

at

Sp

rain

s/B

ruis

es/B

urn

s

Sto

mac

h p

rob

lem

s

To

nic

/Bit

ters

Ven

erea

l d

isea

ses

Wo

un

ds

/ulc

ers

etc.

Albertisia 1

Burasaia

Chasmanthera 5 3 5 1

Cissampelos 5 18 2 22 5 13 24

Cocculus 2 2

Dioscoreophyllum 2 4

Epinetrum 1 1

Jateorhiza 2 3 2 2

Kolobopetalum

Limaciopsis 1 1

Peniauthus 9

Rhigiocarya 2 5

Sphenocentrum 6 2 5 4

Spirospermum

Stephania 3 2 1 6 1 1 1

Synelisia 2

Syrrheonema

Tiliacora 1 1

Tinospora 2 9 1 4 3

Triclisia 1 1 4 3 4

192

Figure 4.2 (a). Comparison of the medicinal uses of Menispermaceae genera in Africa (excluding southern Africa).

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Alb

erti

sia

(5

)

Bu

rasa

ia (

4)

Ch

asm

an

thera

(4

)

Cis

sam

pel

os

(7)

Co

ccu

lus

(3)

Dio

sco

reo

ph

yllu

m (

2)

Pen

iau

thu

s (3

)

Rh

igio

cary

a (

1)

Sp

hen

ocen

tru

m (

1)

Ste

ph

an

ia (

4)

Tin

osp

ora

(3

)

Tri

cli

sia

(7

)Genera of the Menispermaceae (number of species in brackets)

Nu

mb

er

of

cita

tio

ns

Aphrodisiac(impotence, infertility)

Abortifacient

Analgesic



Abdominal pain

Eye diseases

Cholagogue

Colds

Coughs

193

Figure 4.2 (b). Comparison of the medicinal uses of Menispermaceae genera in Africa (excluding southern

Africa).

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

Bura

saia

(4)

Chasm

anth

era

(4)

Cis

sam

pelo

s (

7)

Cocculu

s (

3)

Jate

orh

iza (

2)

Ste

phania

(4)

Synclis

ia (

1)

Tili

acora

(4)

Tin

ospora

(3)

Triclis

ai (7

)

Penia

uth

us (

3)


Num

ber

of citation

s

Curare etc.

Diuretic

Emetic

Febrifuge

Sedative

Haemorrhoids

Headache

Jaundice

Pregnancy relatedproblemsMalaria

Fractures/Dislocation

194

Figure 4.2 (c). Comparison of the medicinal uses of Menispermaceae genera in Africa

(excluding southern Africa).

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

Alb

ert

isia

(5

)

Chasm

anth

era

(4

)

Cis

sa

mpe

los (

7)

Cocculu

s (

3)

Dio

sco

reoph

yllu

m (

2)

Jate

orh

iza (

2)

Pen

iauth

us (

3)

Rhig

ioca

rya (

1)

Sphe

nocen

trum

Ste

phan

ia (

4)

Synclis

ia (

1)

Tin

ospora

(3)

Triclis

ia (

7)


Num

ber

of

citations

Mental troubles

Menstrual problems

Oedemas

Poisoning (generaland arrow)Purgative

Snakebite

Sore throat

Sprains, burns

Stomach problems

Wounds/Ulcers

Venereal diseases

Tonic/Bitters

196

Table 4.3. Medicinal uses of Menispermaceae genera in the rest of the World. (for classification of uses see section 4.5). The number of medicinal records (from literature) is indicated in the table.

Genera

Ap

hro

dis

iac

etc.

An

alg

esic

An

thel

min

tic/

Par

asit

es

Art

hri

tis/

Rh

eum

atis

m

Can

cer/

Tu

mo

rs

Ch

ola

go

gu

e

Co

ug

hs

etc.

Co

nsu

mp

tio

n

Cu

rare

/Po

iso

ns

Dia

bet

es

Diu

reti

c et

c.

Feb

rifu

ge

etc.

Hae

mo

rrh

age

Abuta 1 1 1 1 1 12 2 3

Anamirta 4 10

Chondodendron 6 5 1

Cissampelos 2 10 8 9 1 17 3 2 24 14 10

Cocculus 2 3 11 1 1 2 3 12 12 2

Coscinium 2 2 1

Curarea 1 4

Cyclea 2 1 1 4

Dioscoreophyl

lum

1

Diploclisia 1 1

Disciphania

Fibraurea 1 1

Hypserpa

Jateorhiza 1

Limacia

Menispermum 1 2 2 1 1 3

Pachygone 2 1

Pericampylus 2 1 2

Pycnarrhena

Sciadotenia 2 1

Sphenocentrum 1

Sinomenium 2 3 1 1

Stephania 1 7 2 11 3 15 2 4 3 9

Telitoxicum

Tiliacora

Tinomiscium 1

Tinospora 1 4 36 42 4 6 12 2 5 16 5 23 5

Triclisia

197

Table 4.3. (Continued)

Genera H

ead

ach

e

Hy

per

ten

sio

n

Jau

nd

ice

Mal

aria

Men

tal

tro

ub

les

Men

stru

al p

rob

lem

s

Oed

ema

Pre

gn

ancy

pro

ble

ms

Pu

rgat

ive

Sn

akeb

ite

So

re t

hro

at

Sto

mac

h p

rob

lem

s

Wo

un

ds/

Ulc

ers

etc.

To

nic

/Bit

ters

Ven

erea

l d

isea

ses

Abuta 1 2 1

Anamirta 1 1

Chondodendron 2 1

Cissampelos 1 2 3 1 16 7 1 17 11 14 1 8

Cocculus 1 1 1 3 3 2 6 1 4 7

Coscinium 1 2 4 4

Curarea 1

Cyclea 1 2 1

Dioscoreophyl

lum

Diploclisia 1

Disciphania

Fibraurea 1 1 3 1 3

Hypserpa 1

Jateorhiza 10 2 2

Limacia 2 1

Menispermum 2 1 3 3 3

Pachygone 1

Pericampylus 1 1

Pycnarrhena 1 1 1

Sciadotenia 2

Sphenocentrum 1 1

Sinomenium 2 1

Stephania 1 7 1 8 2 2

Telitoxicum

Tiliacora 1

Tinomiscium

Tinospora 1 7 14 1 4 14 16 18 14

Triclisia 1 1 1

198

Figure 4.3 (a). Comparison of the medicinal uses of Menispermaceae genera in the World (excluding

Africa)

0

4

8

12

16

20

24

28

32

36

40

44

Ab

uta

(1

0)

An

am

irta

(1

)

Ch

on

do

de

nd

ron

(3

)

Cis

sa

mp

elo

s (

8)

Co

ccu

lus (

9)

Co

scin

ium

(3

)

Cu

rare

a (

2)

Cycle

a (

4)

Me

nis

pe

rmu

m (

2)

Pe

rica

mp

ylu

s (

1)

Scia

do

ten

ia (

1)

Sin

om

en

ium

(1

)

Ste

ph

an

ia (

12

)

Tin

osp

ora

(1

1)


Nu

mb

er

of

cita

tio

ns

Aphrodisiac etc.

Analgesic



Cancer/Tumours

Cholagogue

Consumption

Coughs etc.

Curare/Poisons

199

Figure 4.3 (b). Comparison of the medicinal uses of Menispermaceae genera in the World (excluding

Africa).

0

4

8

12

16

20

24

Ab

uta

(10)

Chon

dode

ndro

n (

3)

Cis

sam

pelo

s (

8)

Coccu

lus (

9)

Cycle

a (

4)

Men

isperm

um

(2)

Scia

dote

nia

(1)

Sin

om

eniu

m (

1)

Ste

phan

ia (

12)

Tin

ospora

(11)


Nu

mb

er

of

cita

tio

ns

Diabetes

Diuretic etc.

Febrifuge

Haemorrhage

Hypertention

Jaundice

Malaria

Menstrualproblems

Oedema

200

Figure 4.3 (c). Comparison of the medicinal uses of Menispermaceae genera in the World (excluding

Africa).

0

4

8

12

16

Ch

on

do

de

nd

ron

(3)

Cis

sa

mp

elo

s (

8)

Co

ccu

lus (

9)

Co

scin

ium

(3

)

Cycle

a (

4)

Fib

rau

rea

(3

)

Ja

teo

rhiz

a (

4)

Me

nis

pe

rmu

m (

2)

Ste

ph

an

ia (

12

)

Tin

osp

ora

(1

1)


Num

ber

of citation

s

Pregnancyproblems

Purgative

Snakebite

Stomachproblems

Wounds/Ulcersetc.

Tonic/Bitters

Venerealdiseases

201

Stomach problems that include a wide variety of ailments (§ 4.5) is the most frequently

treated disease with Menispermaceae all over the world. In southern Africa the genera

Albertisia, Antizoma and Cissampelos is used, with six genera in Africa [Figure 4.2 (c)]

and ten genera in the world [Figure 4.3 (c)]. Menispermaceae plants must have antiseptic

properties as could be observed from the many uses (citations) to treat wounds, ulcers,

abscesses, etc. (§ 4.5). In southern Africa, Cissampelos and Tinospora are used to treat

wounds etc., whereas eight genera are used in Africa [Figure 4.2 (c)] and five genera in

the world [Figure 4.3 (c)]. Venereal diseases are also well treated with many of the

Menispermaceae genera. The genus Cissampelos is used in southern Africa, with the

following six genera in Africa, namely: Chasmanthera, Cissampelos, Cocculus,

Dioscoreophyllum, Tinospora and Triclisia. In the world venereal diseases are treated

with the genera Cissampelos, Cocculus, Menispermum and Tinospora.

Tonic plants maintain, and can assist in restoring physical and mental health. Many of the

Menispermaceae genera are used for such purposes, like the genus Cissampelos in

southern Africa. In Africa the genera Cissampelos, Chasmanthera, Cocculus, Jateorhiza,

Sphenocentrum and Synclisia are used as tonics. From the 29 medicinally used

Menispermaceae genera in the world, seven are used as tonics, namely: Cocculus,

Coscinium, Fibraurea, Jateorhiza, Menispermum, Stephania and Tinospora.

The following medicinal uses (two and more citations) are all treated with various genera

of the Menispermaceae in Africa and the world, namely: coughs, malaria, jaundice,

oedema, snakebite and curare [Figures 4.2 (a), (b), (c), and 4.3 (a), (b), (c)]. In Africa the

following ailments (two and more citations) are exclusively treated in Africa with various

Menispermaceae genera, namely: eye diseases, colds, emetic, sedative, hemorrhoids,

fractures, mental troubles and burns [Figure 4.2 (a), (b), (c)]. In the rest of the word the

following uses (two and more citations) are treated with different Menispermaceae

genera, namely: cancer and tumours, diabetes, haemorrhages and hypertension [Figure

4.3 (a), (b), (c)]. Cancer has a high occurrence in Africa. Nevertheless, only one citation

could be found for the treatment of cancer in southern Africa with the genus Cissampelos

and none in the rest of Africa.

202

A comparison of the medicinal uses for Cissampelos in southern Africa, Africa and the

rest of the world [Figures 4.4 (a) and (b)], shows that this genus has a very wide variety

of medicinal uses. There are large similarities between the types of ailments treated with

this genus in southern Africa, Africa and the rest of the World. According to Figures 4.4

(a) and (b), Cissampelos is mainly used for the treatment of the following fourteen

diseases (more than nine citations): as an aphrodisiac; for arthritis/rheumatism; as an

anthelmentic and parasite killer; to treat abdominal pain; use as a diuretic; reducing

fevers and soothing pain; help with pregnancy related and menstrual problems; to treat

respiratory problems; use for snakebite; as an antiseptic for wounds, ulcers, etc.; curing

venereal diseases and helping with various stomach problems. Of these, the most

important or most frequently cited ailments (more than 22 citations) are diuretic,

pregnancy related problems, menstrual problems, stomach problems, wounds and ulcers.

Biliousness and blood purification are treated with Cissampelos only in southern Africa.

Abdominal pain, oedema and sore throat are only treated with this genus in the rest of

Africa.

Figure 4.5 compares the medicinal uses of Cocculus in Africa with the rest of the world.

Overall, Cocculus is mostly used to reduce fever and to treat kidney related problems. In

the rest of the world Cocculus is a very popular anti-arthritis medicine and helps with

various stomach problems. In southern Africa Cocculus have no recorded medicinal uses.

Figure 4.6 show very few similarities between the medicinal uses for Stephania in Africa

and the rest of the world. As previously mentioned, only two uses were recorded in

southern Africa, namely the use as a blood purifier and to reduce fever. In the rest of

Africa the four most frequently treated diseases (more than five citations) with Stephania

were impotence and infertility (Aphrodisiac); worms and parasites and menstrual

problems. The most common ailments treated with Stephania in the world were

arthritis/rheumatism, respiratory problems, fevers, hypertension, stomach problems and

pain.

203

Figure 4.4 (a). Comparison of the medicinal uses of the genus Cissampelos in southern Africa, Africa and

the rest of the World.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

Aphro

dis

iac

Ab

ort

ifac

ien

t

Anal

ges

ic

Anth

elm

inti

c/P

aras

ites

Art

hri

tis/

Rheu

mat

ism

Cura

re e

tc.

Bil

iousn

ess

Abdo

min

al p

ain

Eye

dis

ease

s

Can

cer

Chola

go

gue

Cold

s

Cou

ghs

Dia

bet

es

Diu

reti

c

Em

etic

Feb

rifu

ge

Medicinal uses

Nu

mb

er

of

cita

tio

ns

Cissampelos(southernAfrica)

Cissampelos(Africa)

Cissampelos(World)

204

Figure 4.4 (b). Comparison of the medicinal uses of the genus Cissampelos in southern Africa, Africa and

the rest of the World.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

He

ad

ach

es

Pre

gna

ncy

rela

ted

pro

ble

ms

Ma

lari

a

Me

nta

l tr

ou

ble

s

Me

nstr

ual

pro

ble

ms

Oe

de

mas

Pu

rga

tive

Sna

ke

bite

So

re t

hro

at

Wo

un

ds/U

lce

rs

Ve

ne

real

dis

ea

ses

To

nic

/Bitte

rs

Blo

od p

uri

fier

Sto

ma

ch

pro

ble

ms

Medicinal uses

Nu

mb

er

of

cita

tio

ns

Cissampelos(southern Africa)

Cissampelos(Africa)

Cissampelos(World)

205

A comparison of the medicinal uses of Tinospora in southern Africa, Africa and the rest

of the world (Figure 4.7) indicates use for a wide range of diseases, similar to

Cissampelos and Stephania. The diseases treated with Tinospora are fairly similar in

Africa and the world, except that there were no references for treating of the following

diseases in Africa, namely: analgesic (four citations), malaria (fourteen citations) and

diabetes (sixteen citations). Tinospora is an important remedy in treating fever and

stomach problems in both regions. The figures show another five important medicinal

uses for Tinospora, where the majority of references favors the world. It is used as an

anthelmintic; for arthritis and rheumatism; to treat wounds and ulcers; venereal diseases

and as a tonic. Tinospora is thus a very important medicinal plant in the world but

seemingly less so in Africa.

206

Fig

ure

4.5

. Co

mpa

riso

n o

f the

me

dic

ina

l use

s o

f the

ge

nu

s C

occu

lus in

Afric

a a

nd

the

Wo

rld.

0 2 4 6 8

10

12

Aphrodisiac



Biliousness

Cholagogue

Diuretic

Febrifuge

Jaundice

Malaria

Mental troubles

Menstrual problems

Stomach problems

Venereal diseases

Tonic/Bitters

Me

dic

ina

l use

s

Number of citations

Co

ccu

lus

(Afric

a)

Co

ccu

lus

(Wo

rld)

207

Fig

ure

4.6

. Co

mp

aris

on

of th

e m

edic

ina

l use

s o

f the

ge

nu

s S

tep

ha

nia

in s

ou

the

rn A

frica

, Afric

a a

nd

the

World

.

0 2 4 6 8

10

12

Aphrodisiac

Analgesic


Diuretic

Emetic

Febrifuge

Menstrual problems

Curare/Poisons

Purgutive

Snakebite

Stomach problems

Wounds/Ulcers

Tonic/Bitters

Blood purifier


Hypertention

Me

dic

ina

l use

s

Number of citations

Ste

ph

an

ia(s

ou

thern

Afric

a)

Ste

ph

an

ia (A

frica

)

Ste

ph

an

ia (W

orld

)

208

Figure 4.7. Comparison of the medicinal uses of the genus Tinospora in southern Africa, Africa and the

World.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

An

alg

esic

An

the

lmin

tic/P

ara

sites

Art

hri

tis/R

he

um

atism

Cura

re e

tc.

Ch

ola

go

gu

e

Co

ugh

s

Dia

be

tes

Diu

retic

Fe

bri

fug

e

Ja

un

dic

e

Ma

lari

a

Sto

ma

ch

pro

ble

ms

Wo

un

ds/U

lcers

Ve

ne

rea

l d

ise

ases

To

nic

/Bitte

rs

Medicinal uses

Nu

mb

er

of

cita

tio

ns

Tinospora(southern Africa)

Tinospora(Africa)

Tinospora(World)

209

4.6.2 Medicinal uses of the South African Menispermaceae species

Rural women in South Africa rely very much on the environment around them to survive,

especially in the remote areas that were visited. Most of these women (who are usually

elderly), know something about the uses of the plants in their vicinity or know somebody

who is knowledgeable about them. The lack of knowledge on the use of plants in the

St. Lucia area was quite noticeable in comparison to the more remote areas of Kosi Bay

and Mabibi. In the latter two places only older people were found (grandmothers and

grandfathers) with very young grandchildren living in their huts, in contrast to the

St. Lucia area where mostly very young women were at home with the children and the

elder people working in the nearby towns. It is quite clear that the closer people stay to a

town, the more they tend to rely on either western medication or the knowledge of the

nyangas/healers, who are operating in the towns. In the remote areas, the knowledge of

how to use plants is still the only way to treat many ailments, mostly because the

traditional ways are still intact and perhaps because there is a lack of money to go to town

for treatment. The interviews showed that there is a definite paucity of knowledge when

it comes to young people. A need exists to document indigenous knowledge on

traditional plant uses before it becomes lost to the future generations. Also, the lack of

literature on some of the South African Menispermaceae genera and species shows that

there is still scope for field work to record traditional uses in South Africa.

No medicinal uses for southern Africa were found in the literature for Cissampelos hirta

and Tinospora tenera and only one reference was found for Albertisia delagoensis. In

South Africa Cocculus hirsutus is only used for making baskets. Ethnobotanical research

in the north-eastern parts of KwaZulu-Natal and the eastern parts of the Karoo recorded a

few new uses and confirmed some uses already documented. This indicates that there is

still a lot of unrecorded knowledge on the medicinal uses of certain plants.

Figures 4.8 (a) and (b) and Table 4.4 compare the medicinal uses of the thirteen South

African species recorded in southern Africa. Cissampelos capensis is medicinally by far

the most used species in this region, followed by C. mucronata. Stomach problems are

the most recorded ailments treated with Albertisia delagoensis, both Antizoma species

and all four Cissamplelos species, with the most citations for C. hirta. Further important

210

medicinal uses (3 and more citations) for these species are: for blood purification,

anthelmintic and parasite medicine, as aphrodisiac, for pain, women’s ailments, venereal

diseases and as antiseptic on wounds, etc. The most cited medicinal use for C. capensis is

its blood purifying properties and it is also the only Menispermaceae species in southern

Africa which is used for this purpose. Albertisia delagoensis and C. mucronata are

mostly used to treat worms and parasites and are also important aphrodisiac medicines.

Three of the four Cissampelos species (except for C. mucronata) are used as an analgesic

medicine, with C. mucronata the only species to be used as an abortifacient medicine.

Fever is mostly treated with C. capensis, with two citations for A. delagoensis and one

citation for Tinospora tenera. Women’s ailments (menstrual and pregnancy problems)

are mostly treated with the Cissampelos species (except for C. hirta), with one citation

for A. delagoensis. The family Mensipermaceae is well known for its curare properties,

but in southern Africa C. capensis and Tinospora caffra are the only species recorded for

this use (one citation each). Venereal diseases are treated mostly with C. torulosa and to a

lesser extent with C. capensis, C. hirta and T. fragosa. Five of the thirteen species are

used as an antiseptic medicine, namely: A. delagoensis, C. capensis, C. mucronata,

C. torulosa and T. tenera, with C. torulosa the most important species. Only one citation

could be found for the treatment of cancer with C. capensis. Although some of the

thirteen Menispermaceae species are used in the rest of Africa and the world for

treatment against malaria, no records were found for use of any of the species in South

Africa. Albertisia delagoensis is used in South Africa to treat fever, which could be one

of the malaria symptoms and this might be an indication that this species is in effect used

against malaria. Results obtained during this research (Chapter 7) indicated that

extractions from this species tested positive against malaria.

Of the thirteen South African species, C. mucronata is mostly used in Africa (Table 4.3).

However, only a few of its uses were recorded in South Africa, despite its widespread

occurrence. Only one use was recorded in KwaZulu-Natal, but most of the people

interviewed knew that it is related to C. hirta, the species that they preferred to use as a

medicine. According to literature and field studies, the three Tinospora species are not

very important medicinal plants in South Africa. Tinospora fragosa and T. tenera use for

treatment of arthritis and rheumatism (literature reference and newly recorded data),

corresponds well with the most important medicinal use of this genus in the world.

211

Table 4.4. Medicinal uses of the 13 Menispermaceae species in South Africa, recorded in southern Africa (for classification of uses see section 4.5). The number of medicinal records (from literature and own studies) are indicated in the table.

Genera

Ab

ort

ifac

ien

t

Ap

hro

dis

iac

etc.

An

alg

esic

An

thel

min

tic/

Par

asit

es

Art

hri

tis/

Rh

eum

atis

m

An

ti-e

met

ic

Bil

iou

snes

s

Blo

od

pu

rify

ing

Can

cer

Ch

ola

go

gu

e

Co

lic

Co

ug

hs

Co

nsu

mp

tio

n

Dia

bet

es

Diu

reti

c

Ey

e d

isea

ses

Feb

rifu

ge

Hea

dac

he

Men

tal

pro

ble

ms

Men

stru

al p

rob

lem

s

Po

iso

nin

g ,

cura

re e

tc.

Pre

gn

ancy

Sn

akeb

ite

So

re t

hro

at

Sto

mac

h p

rob

lem

s

To

nic

/Bit

ters

Ven

erea

l d

isea

ses

Wo

un

ds/

Ulc

ers

etc.

Mag

ical

pro

per

ties

A. delagoensis 3 4 2 1 5 1

A. angustifolia 2 1 1 1 5 1

A. miersiana 1

C. capensis 2 1 5 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 3 2 4 1 2 2 1

C. hirta 1 1 2 1 9 1

C. murconata 2 3 5 1 1 4 2 1 1 4 1 1

C. torulosa 2 1 1 2 1 1 5 4 1

C. hirsutus 2

S. abyssinica 1 1

T. funifera 1

T. caffra 1

T. fragosa 1 1 1 1 1

T. tenera 1 1 1 1 1 1

212

Figure 4.8 (a). Medicinal uses of the 13 South African species, recorded in southern Africa.

0

1

2

3

4

5

A.

de

lag

oe

nsis

A. a

ng

ustifo

lia

C.

ca

pe

nsis

C.

hirta

C.

mu

cro

na

ta

C.

toru

losa

S.

ab

yssin

ica

T.

fun

ife

ra

T.

fra

go

sa

T.

ten

era

Menispermaceae species

Nu

mb

er

of

cita

tio

ns

Abortifacient

Analgesic


Aphrodisiac


Anti-emetic

Biliousness

Blood purifier

Cancer

Cholague

Colic

Coughs

Consumption

Diabetes

Diuretic

213

Figure 4.8 (a). Medicinal uses of the 13 South African species, recorded in southern Africa.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

A.

de

lag

oe

nsis

A.

mie

rsia

na

A.

an

gustifo

lia

C.

ca

pe

nsis

C.

hir

ta

C.

mu

cro

na

ta

C.

toru

losa

S.

ab

yssin

ica

T.

ca

ffra

T.

fra

go

sa

T.

ten

era

Menispermaceae species

Nu

mb

er

of

cita

tio

ns

Eye diseases

Febrifuge

Headache

Mental problems

Menstrual problems

Pregnancy relatedproblemsCurare etc.

Snakebite

Sore throat

Stomach problems

Tonic

Venereal diseases

Wounds etc.

Magical properties

214

Table 4.5. Medicinal uses of the genus Cissampelos in the KwaZulu-Natal and the western region of South Africa.

The genus Cissampelos is medicinally used in the KwaZulu-Natal region mostly by Zulu

speaking people and in the western region of South Africa mostly by the Khoisan people.

The first six medicinal uses in Table 4.5 are similar for both regions. The difference

between the medicinal uses of the Cissampelos species in the two regions is due to the

difference in distribution. The top Khoisan Cissampelos species is C. capensis which

grows only in the winter rainfall region (western region) of South Africa (Figure 3.10)

and is adapted to xerophitic conditions. Blood purification is the most important

medicinal use of C. capensis for the Khoisan people. The Zulus can use any one of C.

hirta, C. mucronata or C. torulosa for their medicinal needs, but C. mucronata, which

grows in the subtropical climate of KwaZulu-Natal (Figure 3.14), is preferred. Here, C.

mucronata is used mostly as an anthelmintic and parasite medicine.

Ciccampelos

KwaZulu-Natal Western region

(North West Province, Eastern Cape

Province and Western Cape Province)

Analgesic

Antiseptic

Diuretic

Stomach problems

Tonic

Febrifuge

Aphrodisiac

Anti-emetic

Anthelmintic/parasites

Mental problems

Pregnancy related problems

Analgesic

Antiseptic

Diuretic

Stomach problems

Tonic

Febrifuge

Blood purifier

Cancer

Consumption

Diabetes

Purgative

Snakebite

215

The striking similarity between the uses of Cissampelos species (and especially the six

uses listed in Table 4.5) indicates that these plants share chemically or bioactively similar

compounds, an aspect which is explored in the next chapter.

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CHAPTER 4 ETHNOBOTANY 4.1 Introduction

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Transcript of CHAPTER 4 ETHNOBOTANY 4.1 Introduction