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Chapter 20 Resource Guide

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Daily Objectives Reproducible Resources Multimedia Resources

Section 1Attitude FormationDescribe how our attitudes are theresult of conditioning, observa-tional learning, and cognitive evalu-ation. Explain how attitudes helpus define ourselves and our placein society, evaluate people andevents, and guide our behavior.

Section 2Attitude Change and PrejudiceExplore how attitudes are formedthrough compliance, identification,and internalization. Explore howattitudes may be changed as aresult of cognitive dissonance.

Section 3PersuasionExplain how persuasion is a directattempt to influence attitudes andhow we determine the credibility ofa message by evaluating when,where, and how a message is pre-sented, as well as the messageitself.

Guided Reading Activity 20–1Vocabulary Activity 20–1Section Quiz 20–1



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SECTION RESOURCES

Teaching strategies have been coded for varying learning styles and abilities.L1 BASIC activities for all studentsL2 AVERAGE activities for average to above-average

studentsL3 CHALLENGING activities for above-average students

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNER activitiesELL

Activities that are particularly suited for use withinthe block-scheduling framework are identified throughout thischapter by the following designation: BLOCK SCHEDULING

KEY TO ABILITY LEVELS

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ACTIVITY

Robert WindemuthChambersburg Area SeniorHigh SchoolChambersburg, PA

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From the Classroom of…

Attitude Formation

Time: 1 class period (45 minutes)

Materials Needed: A newspaper for each student; blanksheets of paper for each student; adhesive tape andscissors; and headlines the teacher has prepared inadvance to be used in debriefing

Tell students they are going to read through the newspa-per to form a general impression about whether, in theiropinion, the news is negative, positive, or neutral. Afterthey are finished, ask students to write a paragraphdescribing their position and how they arrived at it. Thenask them to cut out five headlines that support theposition they have taken and tape them to the paper onwhich they have written their paragraphs. Students canthen join small groups and compare their papers. After-ward, ask for volunteers who saw the news in differentways to share their opinions with the group. Debrief byshowing the headlines you had prepared in advance anddiscussing them.

A variation of this activity would be to pre-select a vari-ety of headlines and ask students to rate them as posi-tive, negative, or neutral and then discuss studentopinions.

PSYCHOLOGY

Use our Web site for additional resources. All essential contentis covered in the Student Edition.

You and your students can visit glencoe.com, the Web sitecompanion to Understanding Psychology. This innovativeintegration of electronic and print media offers your students a wealth of opportunities. The student text directs students to the Web site for the following options:

■ Chapter Overviews■ Student Web Activities■ Self-Check Quizzes

Answers are provided for you in the Web Activity Lesson Plan.Additional Web resources and Interactive Puzzles are also available.

• Interactive Teacher Edition Access your TeacherWraparound Edition and your classroom resources with a feweasy clicks.

• Interactive Lesson Planner Planning has never beeneasier! Organize your week, month, semester, or year with allthe lesson helps you need to make teaching creative, timely,and relevant.

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Timesaving Tools

Use Glencoe’sPresentationPlus! multimediateacher tool toeasily presentdynamic lessonsthat visually excite your students. UsingMicrosoft PowerPoint® you can customizethe presentations to create your ownpersonalized lessons.

http://glencoe.com

Psychology Projects 4-1 and 4-2

Graphic Organizer Activity 4

Chapter 4 Concept Transparencies

APPLICATION AND HANDS-ON

Graphic Organizer Activity 20

20 Graphic Organizer Activities

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Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Graphic OrganizerActivity 20 Attitudes and

Social Influence

Directions: Psychologists have identified three main elements that make up an attitude. They have alsoidentified three functions that attitudes serve and three ways that attitudes are formed. Complete thegraphic organizer by listing the three elements of an attitude in the first column, the three functions ofattitudes in the second column, and the three ways attitudes are formed in the third column.

Main Elements Function Formation

ATTITUDE

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Reteaching Activity 20

40 Reteaching Activities

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Connecting Information and Ideas

Directions: For each situation below, indicate whether there is cognitive consistency or cognitive disso-nance. When there is cognitive dissonance, explain a way to bring about cognitive consistency. Writeyour answers in the space provided.

12. Tracy likes Brian. Brian likes to play basketball every afternoon after school. Tracy hates basketball.

13. Greg and Joe have been best friends since childhood. They both enjoy outdoor photography andtake long hikes together to find new wildlife to catch on film.

14. Elizabeth and Steve have been elected as student government president and vice president. Theyused to date, but they have not spoken to each other since they broke up.

15. Kayla and Jakob are neighbors but they do not get along. Jakob has two large dogs that he loves.Kayla hates dogs.

Visualizing Information

Directions: Fill in each block to explain where attitudes come from.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Source of Attitudes

Other Sources16. 17.

18. 19. 20.

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Reteaching Activities 39

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Reteaching Activity 20 Attitudes and

Social InfluenceTerms and Concepts

Directions: Use the words from the word list to complete the following sentences.

1. When an attitude becomes an integral part of the person, has occurred.

2. The is the delayed impact on attitude change as a resultof persuasive communication.

3. Our is the way that we see and describe ourselves.

4. A direct attempt to influence attitudes is known as .

5. A(n) is a predisposition to respond in particular ways toward specific things.

6. To reduce dissonance, a person uses to rationalize his or her attitude andbehavior.

7. A change in behavior to avoid discomfort or rejection is called .

8. An uncomfortable feeling, known as , arises when a person experiences contradictory or conflicting thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings.

9. Deciding what a person will be like based on a group to which that person belongs without even

getting to know the person is .

10. The motivates people to defend their beliefs strongly bygiving them practice in defending those beliefs.

Working with Psychology

11. Directions: Find an advertisement in a newspaper or magazine of a product that you like and wouldrecommend to others. Assume that the audience for your advertisement will be other teens. Create anew advertisement for the product selecting a message and a communication channel. Before creat-ing the ad, write in the space below an explanation of whether you will use a central or peripheralroute for persuasion, what communication channel will appeal to your audience, and who or whatyou will use as the source for your ad.

attitude internalization self-justification

cognitive dissonance persuasion sleeper effect

compliance prejudice

inoculation effect self-concept


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Application Activity 20

40 Application Activities

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Directions: Cut out two ads from magazines or newspapers and attach them to this sheet or a separatesheet of paper. One ad should use the central route as the primary means to deliver the message. Theother should use the peripheral route. Beneath the ads, write a brief analysis of how the ad delivers itsmessage. Does it use only one route to deliver the message or is there an element of the other routepresent?

1. Analysis of the central route:

2. Analysis of peripheral:

Drawing Conclusions

On a separate sheet of paper, write answers to the following questions.3. What types of products are best advertised using the central route to deliver the message?4. What types of products are best advertised using the peripheral route to deliver the message?

STUDENT WORKSHEET

What’s the Message?Application

Activity 20

Central Route Peripheral Route

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Application Activities 39

Objective

To enable students to explore how persuasive messages are delivered.

Overview

Students identify advertisements that use the central route and the peripheral route for persuasion.

Introducing the Activity

Point out that the communication process involves four parts: the source, the message, the channelthrough which the message is delivered, and the audience who receives it. Explain that all parts of theprocess must work together for effective communication. Tell students that they will focus on the mes-sage part of communication for this activity. Explain that there are two ways to deliver the message:(1) central route and (2) peripheral route. The central route is a direct presentation of the facts, whilethe peripheral route makes an emotional appeal.

Instructions for Students

Students complete the activity by locating two print advertisements for different products. One adshould primarily use the central route for delivering the message. The other should primarily use theperipheral route for delivering the message.

Answer Key

1.–2. Student answers will vary. The analysis of the central route should point to the direct factualinformation provided by the ad. The analysis of the peripheral route should explain the emo-tional content of the message or the way the ad attempts to create positive feelings.

3. Answers will vary. Products that meet basic needs often provide a more central route to deliverthe message. Students will likely find, however, that there is an element of the peripheral routein most advertisements. Advertisers of basic products like tires and toilet paper often includeperipheral route delivery to help with brand identification.

4. Answers will vary. Advertisements for products such as perfume, cosmetics, high-end clothing,soft drinks, and so on often use the peripheral route as the main approach to delivering themessage.

Discussion Questions

1. Why would advertisers use the peripheral route to deliver an advertisement for deodorant?(Answers may vary. The primary reason for the peripheral delivery is to create brand awareness.)

2. What can happen if the message overemphasizes the emotional appeal? (The advertisement canboomerang causing people to reject the message and product.)

3. What emotions would an advertiser of smoke detectors want to arouse? (Advertisers of smokedetectors would seek to arouse anxiousness or fear.)

Extension

Have a class discussion about popular television advertisements. Have students identify the source andthe delivery route for the message.

TEACHER NOTES

20ApplicationActivity What’s the Message?

Note: The following materials may be used when teaching Chapter 20. Section level supportmaterials are shown at point of use in the margins of the Teacher Wraparound Edition.

MULTIMEDIATEACHING TRANSPARENCIES

REVIEW AND REINFORCEMENT

Psychology Project 20

68 Psychology Projects and Lab Activities

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Things to Observe

Directions: Below or on a separate sheet of paper, answer the following questions.

■ For Scenario one, how many of the participants were able to correctly explain how thefriend was able to figure out the child’s name?

■ For Scenario two, how many of the participants were able to correctly explain how thefriend was able to figure out the child’s name?

Analyzing the Results

Directions: Below or on a separate sheet of paper, answer the following questions.

1. What stereotypes might have influenced the participants’ responses?

2. What ideas about roles might have influenced the participants’ responses?

Scenario One

One day I ran into a nurse whom I had not seen or talked to for several years. I had heardthat the nurse was married, but I knew nothing about the spouse. The nurse was holdingthe hand of a little boy. I asked the little boy, “What’s your name?” The boy smiled andsaid, “Same as my dad.” In response, I said, “Nice to meet you, Jack.” How did I know thechild’s name?

Scenario Two

One day I ran into an air force pilot whom I had not seen or talked to for several years. I had heard that the pilot was married, but I knew nothing about the spouse. The pilotwas holding the hand of a little girl. I asked the little girl, “What’s your name?” The girlsmiled and said, “Same as my mom.” In response, I said, “Nice to meet you, Jill.” How didI know the child’s name?

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

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Psychology Projects and Lab Activities 67

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Concept

A stereotype is an oversimplified, hard-to-change way of seeing people who belong tosome group or category. A role is an oversimplified, hard-to-change way of acting.Stereotypes and roles can act together in ways that make them difficult to break down.

Materials Needed

■ one copy of Scenario one■ one copy of Scenario two

Assembly

1. Copy Scenario one, which appears on the next page, on a separate sheet of paper.2. Copy Scenario two, which appears on the next page, on a separate sheet of paper.

Procedure

1. Invite a participant to read Scenario one and answer the question.2. Record any answer the participant provides on the data sheet.3. If the participant has no response after at least one minute of consideration, provide

the following information: “The nurse is a man.” Ask the participant to answer thequestion.

4. Record any answer the participant provides, noting that the response came after youhad given him or her additional information. If the additional information does nothelp, provide the participant with the correct answer and explain the significance ofthe nurse being male.

5. Repeat Steps 1 through 4 with four additional participants.6. Invite someone who has NOT read Scenario one to read Scenario two and answer the

question.7. Record any answer the participant provides on the data sheet.8. If the participant has no response after at least one minute of consideration, provide

the following information: “The pilot is a woman.” Ask the participant to answer thequestion.

9. Record any answer the participant provides, noting that the response came after youhad given him or her additional information. If the additional information does nothelp, provide the participant with the correct answer and explain the significance ofthe pilot being female.

10. Repeat Steps 6 through 9 with four additional participants.

Stereotypes and Roles

Project 20


Authentic Assessment Activity 20

Background

Attitudes are a central element in much of our social behavior. Whether good (such as belief in the valueof education) or bad (such as a prejudice), attitudes constantly influence our daily behavior. Attitudesare difficult to change. When they are detrimental to the welfare of the individual, however, an effortmust be made to make the necessary changes.

Task

You volunteer at a workshop for adults who are physically challenged. The workshop contracts with localbusinesses to make a variety of goods sold by the businesses. One of the social workers expressed herfrustration at a recent staff meeting. She explained that many of their clients had excellent mental com-petencies that were not being used to their full potential. The staff decided to use available grant moneyto influence the attitudes of the community about the abilities of the physically challenged. You havebeen asked to prepare a storyboard for a public service announcement aimed at changing the attitudethat those who are physically challenged are also mentally challenged.

Target Audience

The audience for the public service announcement is your community, particularly the businesscommunity.

Objectives

The purpose of the storyboard for the public service announcement is to influence the community’sattitudes toward those who are physically challenged.

Procedure

1. Consult the Assessment Lists for a storyboard.2. Create a slogan to be used for the public service announcement.3. Make a list of statements about the physically challenged that shows people’s prejudices.4. State your goals for the public service announcement in terms of the attitudes that you would like to

change.5. Create a storyboard for a public service announcement that challenges the prejudices you identified

in step 3. Consider ways to visually demonstrate the fallacy of the prejudices.6. Present your storyboard to two classmates for their reaction. Ask them to critique the concepts that

you have used. Ask them if they think the announcement would result in a positive change in atti-tude toward the physically challenged.

7. Make revisions to your storyboard based on the input from your classmates.

Assessment

1. Use the classroom Assessment Lists to evaluate your storyboard.2. Discuss what you might do differently for a similar project in the future.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

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Performance Assessment Activity 20 Changing Attitudes

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EXTENSION AND ENRICHMENT

Critical Thinking Skills Activity 20

20 Critical Thinking Skills Activities

Name ______________________________Date Class _____________

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C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N GS K I L L S A C T I V I T Y 20 Interpreting

Statistics

Directions: Follow the steps below to study the relationship between people’s expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies.

1. People’s expectations can become a self-fulfilling prophecy when the results are what people pre-dicted. For example, when students take part-time jobs, do they expect their grade point average toincrease or decrease? Is there a correlation between expectations and results? Select a way to meas-ure the correlation between a person’s expectations and the outcomes they obtain.

2. Select a population from which to gather information about the self-fulfilling prophecy. If the popu-lation is large, select a sample that is representative of the entire population.

3. Gather the data for the sample. Depending upon the type of data you need to gather, you may needto develop a questionnaire or survey. For example, to determine changes in grade point averageresulting from having a part-time job, you could design a questionnaire that asks for the followinginformation:

• gender• whether participant has a part-time job• number of hours worked each week• whether participant expects grade point average to be higher or lower as a result of working

part-time• grade point average before taking the job• grade point average after taking the job

4. Identify the independent and dependent variables.

5. Identify at least two ways to interpret the data. For example, you could analyze the entire sampleand then analyze the sample by gender.

6. Graph the results placing the dependent variable on the x-axis and independent variable on they-axis.

7. Identify the following measures of central tendency for the independent variable: mean, median,and mode.

8. Using the statistics, answer the following questions.A. Is there a correlation between people’s expectations and the results? If so, describe the correlation.

B. What do the measures of central tendency tell you about the independent variable?

C. Do your results indicate a cause-and-effect relationship between the dependent and independ-ent variables? Why or why not?

Enrichment Activity 20

40 Enrichment Activities

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Notice that John, Robert and Mary are no longer in the top 10. Why do these shifts in name populari-ty occur? According to some researchers, there is a popularity cycle for names. As a name becomes pop-ular, it also becomes overexposed. This overexposure leads parents away from the names and they falldown on the popularity list.

Significance of the Name

Why do parents take such care in naming their children? Your name can influence your self image.Research shows that if you like your name, your self image is higher than if you do not. Your name mayinfluence the way others interact with you. Research suggests that uncommon names tend to createpoor first impressions.

Psychologists have found that unusual first names may lead some individuals to have low opinions ofthemselves and to perform at low levels. The high rate of inclusion of unusual first names in “Who’s Who”listings, however, suggests that individuals who overcome the negative first impressions created by theirfirst names actually achieve more than persons given popular names. (Simons, Irwin, & Drinnin, 1987)

Source: Simons, J.A., Irwin, D.B., & Drinnin, B.A. (1987). Psychology: The Search for Understanding. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 444–5.

Questions

Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Using the class list from one of your classes or a list of people from a large group to which youbelong, complete the following tables.

2. Create a chart showing in the distribution of common first names for males and females from your list.3. Why do you think that uncommon names tend to create a poor first impression?

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Last Names Suggesting the Last Names Suggesting the Last Names that are Spelled Family’s Cultural Occupation or Trade of the Differently but Pronounced

Background Founder of the Family the Same

First Names that are on the1997 list of Most Popular Names

(indicate the number of times each appears) First Names that are Unusual

Male Female Male Female

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Enrichment Activities 39

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Have you heard of Adolf Hitler? His father’s name was Schickelgruber. Can you imagine thousands ofNazis shouting, “Heil Schickelgruber?” Another revolutionary leader selected a name that demonstratedthe terrible firmness of his character. Ioseb Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili became Stalin, the Russianequivalent of “man of steel.”

Movie stars’ names are sometimes quite different from their given names. Would John Wayne havebeen as famous if he had used his real name, Marion Michael Morrison?

Names make lasting impressions. They are one of the first things you learn about a person. In fact,one’s name may be the first impression that a person makes. When teachers receive their class rosters atthe beginning of the year, your name may be the first thing they learn about you.

Last Names First

Does your last name indicate your family background? Bajenski is Polish. McAndrews is Scottish.Kim is Korean.

Perhaps your name at one time indicated a particular culture, but has been “Americanized.” Onebranch of the Hlebiczki family changed their name to Lee. The Mahurins came to America fromScotland in the 1700’s, but now many of them are called “Huron,” and those who do not know the familyhistory connect the name to the Indian tribe or the great lake. The members of this family who changedthe name had never seen the lake, nor were they members of the Huron tribe. They just thought the newname sounded better.

When some families came to America, they translated their names into English. For example, theword schwartz means black in German. Some Germans who came to America changed their name fromSchwartz to Black.

Meier, Myers, Meyers, Meiers, Mire, Myer, and Myres probably came from the same CentralEuropean family centuries ago, but through the years have become separate surnames.

Names may also denote the kind of work done by members of the family. Smith originated as thename of the person in the village who shod the horses and worked with metals. Miller goes back to theperson in the community who ran the mill where the farmers’ grain was processed. Tanner, Barber,Goldsmith, and Baker are other examples of names associated with their trade.

Given Names

The name John was the number one choice of parents in the United States who were naming theirboy babies in 1920. That year, the number one name for a girl was Mary. Five years later Robert hadeased John into second place on the male side, while Mary reigned as the number one name for babygirls for 26 more years.

In 1997, the most popular first names for males and females were:

What’s in a Name?

E N R I C H M E N TA C T I V I T Y 20

Directions: After reading the material, answer the questions that follow on a separate sheet of paper.

(continued)

Males Females

1. Michael 6. Austin 1. Emily 6. Samantha

2. Jacob 7. Joshua 2. Sarah 7. Madison

3. Matthew 8. Andrew 3. Taylor 8. Hannah

4. Christopher 9. Joseph 4. Jessica 9. Kayla

5. Nicholas 10. Brandon 5. Ashley 10. Alexis

ASSESSMENT

EXTENSION AND ENRICHMENT

Chapter 20 Test, Form A

Completion: Choose an item from the list below that best completes each sentence. Write the letter ofthat item in the blank to the left of the sentence. (4 points each)

A. cult F. compliance B. roles G. prejudice C. attitudes H. discrimination D. central route I. cognitive consistency E. operant conditioning J. cognitive dissonance

13. When members of certain groups are treated unequally ________________ occurs.

14. We acquire attitudes through ________________ when we receive praise, approval, or acceptance for expressing certain attitudes.

15. People tend to subscribe to newspapers that uphold their own political attitudes out of a needfor ________________.

16. The three main elements that make up ________________ are beliefs or opinions about something, feelings about that thing, and tendencies to act toward that thing in certain ways.

17. Stereotypes and ________________ typically act together to strengthen and maintain prejudice.

18. A(n) ________________ is a group of people organized around a strong authority figure.

19. When we give in to the wishes of others to avoid discomfort, we act in ________________.

20. The ________________ for persuasion focuses on logic.

Essay: Answer the questions below on a separate sheet of paper. (10 points)

21. Using an example, explain how a self-fulfilling prophecy works.

22. Why might a person experience cognitive dissonance about a purchase he or she just made? Howcan this person overcome the dissonance?

102 Chapter and Unit Tests

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Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Chapter TestForm A 20 Attitudes and

Social Influences

Multiple Choice: Choose the item that best completes each statement or answers each question. Writethe letter of that item in the blank to the left of the sentence. (4 points each)

1. A pacifist who has been drafted is against killing yet believes in obeying the law. He or she isprobably experiencingA. sleeper effect. C. cognitive dissonance.B. boomerang effect. D. social cognition.

2. When people dislike the individual or group delivering the message and they respond bytaking the opposite viewpoint, they demonstrate theA. sleeper effect. C. inoculation effect.B. boomerang effect. D. none of the above

3. Which of the following statements about attitudes is NOT true?A. They are always based on personal knowledge.B. They may be determined by our culture.C. We acquire many of our basic attitudes from our parents.D. We tend to adopt the likes and dislikes of groups whose approval and acceptance we seek.

4. The fact that some people are persuaded by a message only after some time has passed iscalled theA. inoculation effect. C. boomerang effect.B. sleeper effect. D. brainwashing effect.

5. Attitudes most resistant to change are those that areA. formed through generalization. C. formed through brainwashing.B. formed as a result of compliance. D. internalized.

6. The most effective approach to getting a message to an audience isA. television. C. personal contact.B. newspapers. D. billboards.

Matching: Match each item in Column A with the items in Column B. Write the correct letters in theblanks. Not all items in Column B are used. (4 points each)

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Chapter and Unit Tests 101

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SCOREChapter TestForm A 20 Attitudes and

Social Influence

(continued)

Column A

_____ 7. accepting the attitudes of another person or group asone’s own

_____ 8. developing resistance to persuasion through practicein defending one’s beliefs

_____ 9. need to rationalize one’s attitude and behavior

_____10. direct attempt to influence attitudes

_____11. process of taking a public position that contradictsone’s private attitude

_____12. means of changing attitudes involving psychologicalgames and physical torture

Column B

A. persuasion

B. counterattitudinal behavior

C. internalization

D. identification

E. brainwashing

F. self-justification

G. inoculation effect

Chapter 20 Test, Form B

Completion: Choose an item from the list below that best completes each sentence. Write the letter ofthat item in the blank to the left of the sentence. (4 points each)

A. identification phenomenon F. Thomas PettigrewB. internalization G. externalizationC. self-image H. behaviorD. Theodore Newcomb I. persuasivenessE. Patricia Devine J. inoculation

13. One of the best measures of attitude is ________________.

14. Psychologist ________________ suggests that the ability to inhibit negative attitudes separatesprejudiced from nonprejudiced people.

15. The ________________ of a message depends both on its content and on the way in which it iscomposed and organized.

16. The main processes involved in forming or changing attitudes are compliance, identification,and ________________.

17. The studies of ________________ suggest that people tend to adopt the likes and dislikes of groups whose approval and acceptance they seek.

18. Internalization is most likely to occur when an attitude supports the individual’s ________________.

19. The ________________ effect motivates people to defend their beliefs more strongly and thus learn to resist persuasion.

20. The ________________ explains the frequent use of professional athletes in advertisements.

Essay: Answer the questions below on a separate sheet of paper. (10 points)

21. Based on your reading about persuasion, discuss the best way to get an idea across.

22. Explain what attitudes are, how they are formed, and how they are changed.

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Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Chapter TestForm B 20 Attitudes and

Social Influence

Multiple Choice: Choose the item that best completes each statement or answers each question. Writethe letter of that item in the blank to the left of the sentence. (4 points each)

1. Strategies such as the “foot-in-the-door” technique are aimed at influencing theA. source. C. message.B. channel. D. audience.

2. Which of the following is NOT a way attitudes are formed?A. conditioning C. observational learningB. self-justification D. cognitive evaluation

3. Incorporating attitudes into a person’s belief system is calledA. stereotyping. C. internalization.B. discrimination. D. prejudice.

4. The object of brainwashing is toA. create a new person with C. inflict pain and suffering.

different attitudes.B. change attitudes only. D. convert political prisoners.

5. When a person holds conflicting attitudes, social psychologists theorize that the person willseekA. internalization. C. compliance.B. cognitive dissonance. D. cognitive consistency.

6. You believe all conservative people to be cold and aloof. When you meet a conservative youkeep your distance, then the person seems to act cold toward you. This is an example ofA. self-justification. C. boomerang effect.B. self-fulfilling prophecy. D. inoculation effect.

Matching: Match each item in Column A with the items in Column B. Write the correct letters in theblanks. Not all items in Column B are used. (4 points each)

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Chapter and Unit Tests 103

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SCOREChapter TestForm B 20 Attitudes and

Social Influence

(continued)

Column A

_____ 7. deciding what someone will be like before you actuallymeet them

_____ 8. experience of conflicting thoughts, attitudes, beliefs, orfeelings

_____ 9. shortcut that may lead to a solution

_____10. delayed impact on attitude change of a persuasivecommunication

_____11. how we see or describe ourselves

_____12. attitude or behavior change opposite of the one thepersuader desires

Column B

A. inoculation effect

B. boomerang effect

C. sleeper effect

D. self-concept

E. heuristic

F. prejudice

G. cognitive dissonance

H. cognitive consistency

ASSESSMENT

Psychology Reading 20

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Readings and Case Studies 97

2. How were urban legends spread before the Internet?

3. Give an example of a business that may have been harmed from a myth that was spread via theInternet.

4. Why do folklorists say these rumors multiply?

5. What is a “diving rumor”?

Thinking Critically

Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided.

6. How can you avoid being fooled by an urban myth?

7. How would you feel if you were the victim of untrue rumors spreading on the Internet? What wouldyou do to address the falsehood?

8. How do these urban myths strengthen your existing attitudes?

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

96 Readings and Case Studies

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lating for years via e-mail and electronic bulletinboards. Enough people believe them to make theserumors multiply with a few taps on a keyboard and aclick of a mouse.

Folklorists who study such trends say theserumors proliferate because they tap into deep societalfears. “They touch on our ambivalence about thethings we worry about, the things that concern us,”Turner said. Rumors about the spread of the AIDS virusand tall tales about stolen kidneys, for instance, reflectcommon anxieties about infectious disease as well asa general concern about the health care system. Andrumors about government conspiracies, such as theone about the Voter Rights Act, reveal an overall soci-etal distrust of “official” information.

At the same time, these stories can stroke egos;people who pass them on to friends and colleaguesoften feel as if they are doing a good deed. “It feeds aperson’s sense of self-importance,” said BarbaraMikkelson, . . .”They think, `If I can warn you about thisbig scary thing that is happening in our world, for thatmoment, I will feel like I’m in the spotlight a little bit.’

“And you also have access to a wider audience,”she said. “Before if you got a great story, you’d make aphotocopy and stick it up on the bulletin board by theelevator. Now all you have to do is hit the alt-forwardkey and send it out.” The ease of transmission makes itnearly impossible to kill an Internet rumor, no matterhow outrageous, defamatory, or potentially damaging.The Hilfiger rumor, for one, exploded on the Internet in1996, and it’s still going strong. According to the story,long proven false, the designer went on the Oprahshow and said that he didn’t want African-Americansor Asians to wear his pricy signature clothing. BothHilfiger and representatives from the Oprah showissued statements denying the rumor—Hilfiger hasnever even appeared on the show—but the tale sim-mers down for a while and then reemerges apace.

That kind of story is what experts call a “divingrumor,” a tale that is repeatedly debunked but refuses

to die. “It’s like one of those carnival games, whereyou have a mallet and you have to hit whatever comesup,” said Gary Alan Fine, a sociology professor atNorthwestern University and author of ManufacturingTales. “It comes up. It is batted down. Then a fewweeks later, it comes up again in another place.”

A textbook example of a diving rumor emergedlate last year. According to the original tale, SteveBurns, host of the Nickelodeon children’s show “Blue’sClues,” had died in a car crash. The rumor fizzled, buta few weeks ago, it reemerged—with dramatic embel-lishment. The new version claims that the cable net-work is covering up Burns’s death by using a look-alikein the show, a tale similar to the “Paul is dead” storiesthat circulated about Paul McCartney in the ‘60s and‘70s. But this particular story didn’t just affect matureadults: It spread among young children, who wereunderstandably distraught. “Some people might thinkthis is a joke, but it isn’t funny for these children,” saidAngela Santomero, the show’s co-creator and co-executive producer. “They regard Steve as a greatcamp counselor, and that’s why they’re so upset.”Daniel Anderson, a psychology professor at theUniversity of Massachusetts at Amherst and a “Blue’sClues” consultant, said the rumors were likely startedby cynical adults who are put off by the show’s inno-cence. “There is a resentment of the characters thathave special places in the hearts of children,” he said.“But these kinds of rumors can be extremely destruc-tive and are certainly upsetting to young children.”. . .

For all of its chaotic freedom, the Internet has adark side: Every day is April Fools’ Day in cyberspace.Pernicious rumors are difficult to squelch and evenharder to trace. “It’s hard to find the precise momentwhen an urban legend comes into being,” saidMikkelson. “It’s like trying to find out where a riverstarts.”

Source: Hartigan, P. (1999, April 9). Unfounded rumors can proveindestructible in cyberspace. Boston Globe, p. A1.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

(continued)

Understanding the Reading


1. What happened when a phony Web site announced a mythical corporate takeover?

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Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

A phony Web site touting a mythical corporatetakeover sent stock prices soaring—and then plum-meting—on Wall Street Wednesday [April 7, 1999]. Ithammered home an important lesson that is often lostin the hype about the Internet: You can’t believe every-thing you read on line—even when it’s relayed by well-meaning colleagues and friends. Rumors and hoaxesproliferate in cyberspace, and perfectly reasonablepeople are prone to believe them and pass them on.

“We trust technology more than the government,”said Patricia Turner, a professor of African-Americanstudies at the University of California at Davis andauthor of “I Heard It Through the Grapevine.” “TheInternet seems to be a sophisticated purveyor of infor-mation, so we think, `If it comes through expensivehardware, it must be so.’”

The bogus Web site, which looked like a page ofBloomberg News and “reported” the sale of anAmerican technology company called PairgainTechnologies Inc., was obviously the work of a sophis-ticated snake-in-the-grass. And the fraud worked:Some investors were left sheepishly counting theirlosses, while some day traders, who use the Internetto capitalize on instant changes in stock prices,undoubtedly cleared a tidy profit.

Government regulators were searching for thesource of the story yesterday, and Lycos Inc., whichoperates the service where the phony Web pageappeared, said it would cooperate.

Hackers and hoaxers who alter pages or postphony sites are as old as the medium itself; just this

week, a prankster set up a satiric page designed toconvince browsers it was the official Senate campaignsite for Mayor Rudolph Giuliani of New York. And cybercelebrity Matt Drudge routinely spreads rumors on hiswidely read Web site. But the spread of misinformationon line isn’t always malicious, although it is almostalways infectious. As more and more people are rely-ing on the Internet for information and communication,the old-fashioned urban legend—once passed fromneighbor to neighbor by word of mouth—has prolifer-ated in cyberspace. Tall tales of horror and doom, ofcorruption and gloom, breed rapidly in cyberspace,spreading as fast as a cold virus in a room full of tod-dlers.

Some of these rumors are harmless, like the wide-ly circulated tale about the upscale department storethat charged $250 for a cookie recipe. Others areannoying, like the chain e-mail promising good luck orquick cash. But still others have the potential to harmbusinesses or to inspire genuine fear.

A few examples: Have you heard the one aboutdesigner Tommy Hilfiger making racist statements onthe Oprah Winfrey show? Have you been warnedabout asbestos in tampons or air freshener that killspets? Have you been cautioned about kidnappers inmall parking lots or gang members lurking on highwaysor needles infected with the AIDS virus that show up inmovie theaters and coin-return slots? Have you beenalerted that the Voter Rights Act is set to expire in2007, disenfranchising African-Americans? None ofthese stories is true. But all of them have been circu-

R E A D I N G 20 Folklore, Gossip, and the Internet

Directions: Read the following selection, then answer the questions that follow.

(continued)

Do you remember the old game of telephone? Youwould pass a secret message from person to person and seehow garbled the original message became by the end of theline. Gossip is as old as human history. Today, however, elec-tronic communication can spread gossip around the globealmost instantaneously. Once gossip or myth has begun tocirculate on the Web, it is proving difficult to stop.

Psychology Case Study 20

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defense attorney did deny the allegations in thecolumn. The defense attorney called the mediacoverage of the case “completely libelous” andsaid, “The coverage of this case serves as anotherfine example of how the media manipulatesinformation to sell papers, and knowinglyignores facts which would point toward a defen-dant’s innocence.” The attorney suggested thatthe district attorney’s office may have plantedinformation in the media “in order to sway pub-lic opinion.”

Results

The principal hypotheses were that exposingparticipants to pretrial publicity would increasethe likelihood that they would think the defen-dant was guilty, but that making participantssuspicious about the pretrial publicity wouldreduce this effort.

In the “no publicity” control group, a minori-ty of the jurors offered a guilty verdict. Of thepretrial publicity group, more than three-quar-ters voted guilty, indicating that negative pretrialpublicity tended to bias the participants againstthe defendant. Participants in the suspiciongroup, however, were no more likely to convictthan were jurors in the control group.

Conclusions

The study shows that pretrial publicityagainst the defendant can influence a jurytoward conviction; but that creating suspicionregarding the motives behind the source(s) ofsuch publicity can offset the negative effects.

Source: Fein, S., & McCloskey, A.L. (1997). Can the jury disregardthat information? The use of suspicion to reduce the prejudicialeffects of pretrial publicity and inadmissible testimony. Personality& Social Psychology Bulletin, 23 (11), 1215–26.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Understanding the Case Study


1. What were the hypotheses of this case study?

2. What kind of “evidence” did the researchers prepare to serve as pretrial publicity?

3. How did the column, “In My Opinion,” create the attitude in the reader that the defendant wasguilty or not guilty?

4. Were the jurors to deliberate together and decide as a group, or were their decisions to be madeindividually? Why?

5. How did the results vary among the control, pretrial publicity, and suspicion groups?

Thinking Critically

Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.

6. In a case where there has been considerable pretrial publicity, why would a judge instruct a jury tomake all judgments “from evidence received in the trial and not from any other source”?

7. How can pretrial publicity prejudice people who serve on juries? How can this prejudice belessened?

98 Readings and Case Studies

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

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Hypothesis

When a judge tells a jury to disregard certaininformation, can the jury forget what they haveread or heard? How can the opposing attorneyminimize the effects of such information? Thehypothesis of this case study assumes that anattorney can reduce the effects of pretrial public-ity or inadmissable evidence by creating the sus-picion that this information was presented withulterior motives.

Method

To test the hypothesis, an experiment wasconducted in which participants became mockjurors in a murder trial. Researchers prepared atrial transcript, created what looked like copiesof newspaper articles, and a set of instructionsto the jurors. These were standard judicialinstructions directing jurors to not be influencedby prejudice or passion, and to make all judg-ments “from evidence received in the trial andnot from any other source.”

Participants were asked to imagine that theywere jurors in an actual trial. Each was to readthe material provided and make a decision con-cerning innocence or guilt in the case. Therewould be no jury deliberation. Responses fromeach “juror” would be anonymous.

All participants read the same 22-page tran-script of the trial, State of New York v. CharlesWilson. The defendant, Charles Wilson, wasaccused of killing his estranged wife and a maleneighbor. The transcript consisted of the judge’sopening instructions to the jury, the openingand closing statements of the prosecution andthe defense, and the testimony of six witnesses.

The prosecution argued that Wilson believedhis wife was having an affair, hired a privateinvestigator to prove this, and killed his wife andthe neighbor when he discovered them togetherin her home. Wilson had moved out of theirhome two weeks before the murder. The knife

used to kill the victims had Wilson’s fingerprintson it, and a witness testified that he had seen thedefendant in front of his wife’s home on thenight of the killings.

The defense argued that the evidenceagainst Wilson was circumstantial; that Wilson’sfingerprints were on the knife because it was hisown hunting knife, which was among the manypersonal items he had left in the house when hemoved out; and that the testimony of the eyewit-ness was unreliable and not relevant to the mur-ders themselves.

Participants were randomly assigned to oneof three groups: the control group, the pretrialpublicity group, and the suspicion group. Thecontrol group read only the transcript of thetrial. Their judgment then was solely based onthe facts presented in the case.

Before being given the transcript, partici-pants in the pretrial publicity group were givencopies of newspaper-style articles. Onedescribed the crime, the accusations against thedefendant, and that he had been arraigned. Asecond article reported that Wilson had a historyof beating his wife, and reported that “sources”said Wilson’s fingerprints had been found on themurder weapon and that witnesses had placedhim at the scene of the crime. Also included wasa column called “In My Opinion,” complete witha photograph of the “columnist.” This column,written in an emotional and hostile way, report-ed that Wilson was an alcoholic, prone to vio-lence when drinking, and quoted unnamedsources saying Wilson was jealous of his wife.The column contained other bits of negativeinformation about Wilson and called strongly forhis conviction.

Participants in the suspicion group were alsogiven the packet of newspaper articles and thecolumn, plus one additional item: a brief newsarticle that called into question the motives ofthe media covering the case. At no point was thecolumnist mentioned specifically, although the

C A S E S T U D Y 20 “The Jury WillDisregard That!”

Directions: Read the following case study, then answer the questions that follow.

(continued)

576

Chapter Overview Visit the Understanding PsychologyWeb site at glencoe.com and click on Chapter 20—Chapter Overviewsto preview the chapter.

PSYCHOLOGY

576

Psychology JournalWrite a definition of prejudice

in your journal, and list fourexamples of prejudiced thinking. ■

IntroductionIntroduction20C H A P T E R

Psychology professors Anthony Greenwald and Mahzarin Banaji have developedimplicit association tests that can be taken online. The tests allow a person to test his or herown level of age, race, and gender prejudice. To date, the tests indicate that between 90 and 95percent of participants have shown some form of unconscious prejudice. If possible, have stu-dents visit implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/ and take one or more of the tests. If it is not possiblefor students to visit the site, conduct a brief test of ageism in class by showing students picturesof young and old faces and having students list adjectives to describe the faces. Explore as aclass how some of these adjectives could be considered prejudiced.

TWO-MINUTE LESSON LAUNCHER

PSYCHOLOGY

Visit glencoe.com for a ChapterOverview for Chapter 20—Attitudes and Social Influence.

Psychology JournalEncourage students to con-

sider the ramifications of prejudicedthinking. ■

This journal activity provides thebasis for the Psychology Journalactivity exercise in the ChapterAssessment.

For a preview ofChapter 20 content,see MindJogger

Checkpoint on Presentation Plus!

http://glencoe.com

http://glencoe.com

http://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/

577

What do you accept as fact? What do you call products of fan-tasy? Your attitudes can lead you to believe that something isfact when it is really imaginary or that something is not real

when it really is fact. An attitude is a predisposition to respond in par-ticular ways toward specific things. It has three main elements: (1) a beliefor opinion about something, (2) feelings about that thing, and (3) a ten-dency to act toward that thing in certain ways. For example, what is yourattitude toward the senators from your state? Do you believe they aredoing a good job? Do you feel you trust or distrust them? Would you actto vote for them?

Attitude Formation

attitude: predisposition toact, think, and feel in particularways toward a class of people,objects, or an idea

■ Main IdeaOur attitudes are the result of condition-ing, observational learning, and cogni-tive evaluation. Our attitudes help usdefine ourselves and our place in soci-ety, evaluate people and events, andguide our behavior.

■ Vocabulary• attitude• self-concept

■ Objectives• Trace the origin of attitudes.• Describe the functions of attitudes.

Reader’s Guide

An Attitude of DisbeliefOn July 20, 1969, Astronaut Neil

Armstrong emerged from a space capsulesome 250,000 miles from Earth and, whilemillions of television viewers watched,became the first man to set foot upon themoon. Since that time other astronautshave experienced that same monumentalunique experience in space, yet there arein existence today numerous relativelyintelligent, otherwise normal humans whoinsist it never happened—that the masseshave been completely deluded by someweird government hoax—a conspiracy ofmonumental proportions! There is even awell-publicized organization in Englandnamed “The Flat Earth Society,” whichseriously challenges with interesting logicall such claims of space travel and evi-dence that the earth is round.

—from Story of Attitudes and Emotions byEdgar Cayce, 1972

Chapter 20 / Attitudes and Social Influence 577

Exploring Psychology

Reproducible Masters• Guided Reading Activity 20–1• Vocabulary Activity 20–1• Section Quiz 20–1

Transparencies• Daily Focus Transparency 20–1

SECTION RESOURCESMultimedia



CHAPTER 20Section 1, pages 577–581CHAPTER 20

Section 1, pages 577–581

1 FOCUSSection Objectives1. Trace the origin of attitudes.2. Describe the functions of attitudes.

Use the Reader’s Guide to introduceconcepts and vocabulary.

■ Exploring PsychologyAsk students to read the ExploringPsychology feature. Then ask: Whatwould cause someone to act con-trary to logic?

■ Vocabulary PrecheckHave students write a definition ofeach term. Then have them read theGlossary definitions of the terms.Ask them to revise their definitionsas needed.

Reader’s Guide

Project Daily Focus Trans-parency 20–1 and havestudents answer the questions.

Available as blacklinemaster

Daily Focus Transparency 20–1

B E L L R I N G E RMotivational Activity

2 TEACHL1 Analyzing ViewpointsRead aloud the following statements,and ask students to write downwhether they agree or disagree witheach one.1. Rap music should be censored for

use of profanity and violence.2. Employers should have the right to

test employees at random for druguse.

3. Parents should have the right toapprove all their children’s deci-sions until children reach age 18.

4. The federal government shouldhave the right to ban violent televi-sion programs from prime-time television.

Tell students that their responses toeach of these statements involved anattitude or belief. Ask: On which,if any, of these issues might you and your parents disagree? Why?

578

WHERE ATTITUDES COME FROM We have very definite beliefs, feelings, and responses to things about

which we have no firsthand knowledge. Where do these attitudes comefrom? Attitudes are formed through conditioning, observational learning,and cognitive evaluation.

ConditioningClassical conditioning (discussed in Chapter 9) can help you learn

attitudes in different situations (see Figure 20.1). When a new stimulus(the conditioned stimulus) is paired with a stimulus that already causesa certain reaction (the unconditioned stimulus), the new stimulus beginsto cause a reaction similar to the one caused by the original stimulus.For instance, scientist Ivan Pavlov’s dog had a positive innate responseto meat (he liked to eat it). When Pavlov paired the meat with the ring-ing of the tuning fork, the dog formed a positive conditioned responseto the sound of the tuning fork. So when Pavlov’s dog heard the soundof the tuning fork, he wagged his tail and salivated. We also acquire atti-tudes through operant conditioning; we receive praise, approval, oracceptance for expressing certain attitudes or we may be punished forexpressing other attitudes.

Cognitive Evaluation Sometimes we develop attitudes toward something without stopping

to think about it. For example, if our friend feels strongly about politicsand uses many statistics or big words when speaking about a specificpolitical issue, we may agree with her simply because she sounds like sheknows what she is talking about. If we do this, we have used a heuristic, amental shortcut, to form an attitude.

However, we may sit down and systematically think about an issuethat affects us directly. For example, if your friend speaks strongly aboutState College and its credentials, you may not simply accept her

578 Chapter 20 / Attitudes and Social Influence

Attitude Formation Through Classical ConditioningSuppose you meet Jane. Jane seems to enjoy making commentsthat embarrass you. After a few encounters with Jane, even thesound of her voice upsets you. So you learn to avoid her. Whatfactors were paired to produce your avoidance response?

Figure 20.1

AFTER CONDITIONING:

CS CR� (Jane) (Avoidance)

BEFORE CONDITIONING:

Neutral stimulus (Jane) No response

BEFORE CONDITIONING:

US UR(Remarks that (Avoidance)embarrass you)

DURING CONDITIONING:

UR�(Avoidance)

CS�(Jane)�

+�US�

(Remarks)

CHAPTER 20Section 1, pages 577–581CHAPTER 20Section 1, pages 577–581

Figure 20.1Visual Instruction Have students usethe diagram to work through otherexamples of attitudes formed throughclassical conditioning.

Caption Answer Jane and embarrass-ing remarks

Creating a Chart Organize students into small groups. Write the following categories onthe board: politics, education, clothing styles, dating choices, and personal values. Ask thegroups to develop a chart that lists the following influencers: parents, other respected adults,peers, the media, and society. For each category, the groups should use a 10-point scale torate each influencing factor, with 1 representing no influence and 10 as having great influence.Discuss the similarities and differences among the charts prepared by each group.

BLOCK SCHEDULING

COOPERATIVE LEARNING ACTIVITY

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Directions: Outlining Locate the heading in your textbook. Then use the information under the headingto help you write each answer.

I. Attitude Formation

A. Introduction

1. What influence can attitudes have on beliefs?____________________________________________

2. What are three main elements of an attitude? ____________________________________________

B. Where Attitudes Come From

1. How does conditioning help form attitudes?_____________________________________________

Guided ReadingActivity 20-1 Attitude Formation

For use with textbook pages 577–581

Guided Reading Activity 20–1

579

argument. You may list and evaluate the pros andcons of State College versus State University whenyou are selecting the college to attend. This matter isimportant, and you do not want to rely on shortcuts.

Other SourcesYour attitudes are also shaped by other forces.

You may develop your attitudes by watching and imi-tating others—through observational learning. Theseforces are at work when you interact with others. Forexample, you may adopt your parents’ political viewsor dress very much like your friends do. The culturein which you grew up, the people who raised you, and those with whomyou associate all shape your attitudes. You also learn many of your atti-tudes through direct experience. For instance, once you drive the newBMW, you may develop a favorable attitude toward it.

Culture Culture influences everything from our taste in food to our atti-tudes toward human relationships and our political opinions. For exam-ple, most (if not all) Americans would consider eating grubs, curdled milkspiced with cattle blood, or monkey meat disgusting. Yet in some parts ofthe world these are considered delicacies.

The list of culturally derived attitudes is endless. Indeed, it isonly by traveling and reading about other ways of life that we discover how many of the things we take for granted are attitudes,not facts.

Parents There is abundant evidence that all of us acquire manybasic attitudes from our parents (see Figure 20.2). How else wouldyou account for the finding that a high percentage of elementaryschoolchildren favor the same political party as their parents? Asadults, more than two-thirds of all voters continue to favor thepolitical party their parents supported. Parental influence wanes aschildren get older, of course.

Peers It is not surprising that parental influence declines as chil-dren get older and are exposed to many other sources of influence.In a now classic study, Theodore Newcomb (1943) questioned andrequestioned students at Bennington College in Vermont abouttheir political attitudes over a period of four years. Most of theyoung women came from wealthy, staunchly conservative families.In contrast, most Bennington faculty members were outspoken lib-erals. Newcomb found that many of the students adopted the lib-eral point of view of the faculty. In 1936, 54 percent of the juniorsand seniors supported Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Dealover the conservative Republican candidate Alf Landon. Newcombcontacted the participants of his study 25 years after they had graduated and found that most had maintained the attitudes


?Did You Know?Did You Know?The Exposure Effect One determinant ofattitudes is the mere exposure effect—themore frequently people encounter an objector idea, the more favorably they evaluate it.You may have experienced this by listeningto a song over and over again and growingto like that song. Candidates for politicaloffice use this effect by constantly advertis-ing during political campaigns.

Children are skilled at detect-ing their parents’ attitudes.Often children learn to reactin the same way as their parents to various events orthings. How do we developattitudes through observa-tional learning?

Learning AttitudesFigure20.2



Psychology JournalAsk students to write about an

experience they have had whenthey have encountered the influ-ence of another culture. ■

Readings and CaseStudies in PsychologyHave students read the Chapter 20Case Study selection in Readings andCase Studies in Psychology andanswer the questions that follow thecase study.

Learning Style: Logical/Mathematical Ask students to obtain a copy of the Consti-tutional Bill of Rights. Have them select 2 of the 10 amendments and create two posters thatshow either in words or in pictures the values, ideals, and beliefs explicitly stated or implied bythe amendments. Display the posters around the classroom. Discuss how the Bill of Rights hasinfluenced the attitudes of the American people. L2

Refer to Inclusion for the High School Social Studies Classroom Strategies and Activities in the TCR for strategies for students with different learning styles.

MEETING SPECIAL NEEDS

Figure 20.2Caption Answer We adopt attitudesby watching and imitating others, likeparents and friends.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

VocabularyActivity 20-1 Attitude Formation

Directions: Fill in each blank below with the word or words that best fit the sentence.

A(n) 1 is a predisposition to respond in particular ways toward specific

things. It has three main elements: a(n) 2 about something,

3 about that thing, and a(n) 4 toward that thing

in certain ways.

Attitudes are formed through 5 , 6 learning, and

7 . Attitudes are also shaped by the 8 in which we

are raised, our 9 , through whom we acquire our basic attitudes, and our

10 groups.

Vocabulary Activity 20–1

580

self-concept: how we see or describe ourselves; our total perception of ourselves

they had acquired in college. One reason was thatthey had chosen friends, spouses, and careers thatsupported liberal values (Newcomb et al., 1967).People tend to adopt the likes and dislikes ofgroups whose approval and acceptance they seek.

FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES Why do we have attitudes? How do they

help us in everyday functions and interactionswith others? Attitudes reflect our beliefs and val-ues as we define ourselves, interpret the objectsand events we encounter, and determine howwe may act in given situations.

Attitudes as a Self-Defining MechanismAsk a friend to describe herself. How does

she do it? Along with a physical description, shemay include her attitudes, or values, about cer-tain things. For example, she may claim that shelikes helping others, tries to be a good student, oris a strong supporter of equal rights. These atti-

tudes help her define who she is. They refer towhat she considers right or wrong and establish her

goals. These attitudes make up her self-concept. Ourself-concept refers to how we see or describe our-

selves. If you have a positive self-concept, you will tendto act and feel optimistically and constructively; whereas

if you have a negative self-concept, you will tend to act andfeel pessimistically or self-destructively.Social groups as well as individuals hold attitudes. People liv-

ing in the same conditions and who frequently communicate withone another have attitudes in common because they are exposed to thesame information and may have formed as a group partly because oftheir similar attitudes.

Attitudes as Cognitive Guidelines and Guides to Action Our attitudes serve as guidelines for interpreting and categorizing

people, objects, and events. Attitudes also guide us to behave in certainways (see Figure 20.3). In effect, attitudes guide us toward or away fromparticular people, objects, and events. For instance, we may link negativefeelings with walking in unlit and dirty alleyways or we may link positivefeelings with friendly and happy people. These attitudes tell us to avoidthe former and approach the latter.

Sometimes, though, our attitudes are not consistent with our behav-iors. For example, although we may disagree with littering, we may throwa candy wrapper on the ground. Your behavior may reflect your attitudes


How similar are your views toyour parentsÕ views? Studies have shown that parents are animportant source of many of our basic atti-tudes and beliefs. What is the degree of simi-larity between your parents’ views and yourviews on selected issues?

Procedure1. Generate a list of 10 statements about

social issues, such as political affiliation,nuclear energy, mandatory retirement,equal pay, and paternity leave.

2. Develop a questionnaire based on theseissues in which a person can respond by agreeing or disagreeing with the statements. Use a five-point scale rangingfrom 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly dis-agree) to rate your opinions.

3. Complete the questionnaire and ask your parents to do the same.

Analysis1. Analyze your parents’ responses. On what

issues did you agree and disagree?

2. Why do you think your parents have been influential in shaping some of your attitudes and not others?

See the SkillsHandbook, page 622,

for an explanation of de-signing an experiment.


Purpose Students will explore thesimilarities between their views andtheir parents’ views.

Process Skills Making comparisons,analyzing information

Teaching Strategies■ Tell students that they must com-

plete the questionnaire beforeadministering it to their parents.

■ Encourage students to word thequestions so that their viewpointsare not obvious.

Analysis1. Answers will vary. Ask students if

they were surprised by any of theresults.

2. Answers will vary. Ask students ifthey think their attitudes willchange over time. Ask them if theybelieve their parents’ attitudeshave changed over time.

3 ASSESSAssign Section 1 Assessment ashomework or as an in-class activity.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

SCORESectionQuiz 20-1 Attitude

Formation

Column A

1. results from watching and imitating others

2. systematically thinking about an issue

3. how we see or describe ourselves

4. predisposition to act, think, and feel in particular waystoward people, objects, or ideas

5. mental shortcut

Column B

A. self-concept

B. heuristic

C. attitude

D. observational learning

E. cognitive evaluation

Matching

Match each item in Column A with the items in Column B. Write the correct letters in the blanks.(10 points each)

Multiple Choice

Section Quiz 20–1

ReteachWrite the following words on theboard: conditioning, observationallearning, cognitive evaluation, culture,parents, and peers. Have studentsdiscuss attitudes that originate fromthese sources.

Classifying Information Direct students to write down four of their strongest beliefs.Next to each item, have them list some of the ways this belief influences their behavior. Forexample, after Bennington students adopted liberalism, how did this belief influence their votingpatterns? Based on this exercise, ask students to write a one-page essay evaluating the validityof the following text statement: “Our attitudes serve as guidelines for interpreting and categoriz-ing other people, objects, and events. Attitudes also guide us to behave in certain ways.” L2

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

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more strongly, though, depending on why you have formed a certain atti-tude. Many psychologists argue that the attitudes that most strongly pre-dict behavior are those that are acquired through direct experience. Forexample, if you do not eat meat because in the past you have become sickafter eating it, the smell and sight of meat may automatically remind youof being sick. In this case, you are unlikely to eat meat. If you disagree witheating meat because of strictly moral reasons, however, you may not automatically remember your attitude when you smell and see meat. So, attitudes do play a role in determining behavior, but this role varies in different circumstances.


Reading CheckHow do our attitudes

help us organize our reality?

A Theory of Planned BehaviorPsychologists have proposed a theory that three factors determine aperson’s behavior. The strength or weakness of each of these threefactors explains why certain people behave differently despite sharedattitudes (Ajzen, 1991; Sheppard, Hartwick, & Warshaw, 1988). Whatfactors other than attitude determine a person’s behavior?

Figure 20.3

My attitude toward behaviorExample A: I want to be a doctor.Example B: I want to become a vegetarian. Intended�

BehaviorExample A: Become a doctor.Example B: Become a vegetarian.

Actual�BehaviorExample A: Goes to medical school.Example B: Continues to eat meat.

My belief about what others who are important�would think about the behaviorExample A: My friends and parents will support me.Example B: My friends will think that it is unusual not toeat meat.

My perceived ability or inability to carry out the behaviorExample A: I don’t know if I can make it through medical school.Example B: I don’t think that I can give up hamburgers.

1. Review the Vocabulary What are thethree elements of an attitude?

2. Visualize the Main Idea Using a dia-gram similar to the one below, list anddescribe the functions of attitudes.

3. Recall Information How do familyand peers affect our attitudes?

4. Think Critically How can attitudeshelp keep us out of dangerous situations?

Assessment

Functions of Attitudes

5. Application Activity Investigate how advertis-ers use classical conditioning to influence our atti-tudes. Bring an example of such an advertisementto class and, in a brief report, analyze the adver-tiser’s technique.



Figure 20.3Caption Answer beliefs, others’beliefs, and perceived ability or inability to carry out the behavior

Reading Check AnswerAttitudes help us interpret

and categorize people, objects,and events.

EnrichAsk students to draw a circle on asheet of paper and label it “Self.”Around the circle have students writeall the positive words they can thinkof to describe themselves. Tell themto read that list three or four timesduring the day. Tomorrow, have stu-dents share the effects these descrip-tions had on their attitudes and moodthe previous day.

4 CLOSEHave pairs of students role-playtypical behaviors of teens in school.Ask the class to identify the underly-ing attitude of each character.

1. The three elements of an attitude are (1) belief or opin-ion, (2) feelings, and (3) a tendency to act in certainways.

2. Attitudes help us (1) evaluate our own beliefs and val-ues to define ourselves, (2) interpret the objects andevents we encounter, and (3) determine how to act ingiven situations.

3. Student answers will vary. People tend to adopt the atti-tudes of those groups whose approval they seek.

4. Attitudes guide us toward or away from certain situa-tions. For example, we develop negative attitudestoward dangerous situations and so avoid those situa-tions. Students may use specific examples to maketheir points.

5. Have students present their examples in class and seeif the class agrees with each student’s analysis of theadvertiser’s technique.

S E C T I O N 1 Assessment Answers

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Did you figure out the answer to the thought problem above? Yousee, the author knew the name of the little girl because the testpilot was a woman—the little girl’s mother. Thus the mother and

daughter share the same first name. You may have had trouble comingup with the answer because you assumed that the test pilot was male.Also, we usually do not expect women to name their daughters afterthemselves. If you had trouble with this thought problem, you were thevictim of cognitive consistency—that is, you tried to fit this new situationinto your existing assumptions. You made a prejudgment about the situ-ation that prevented you from considering all the possibilities.

ATTITUDE CHANGE Having suggested where attitudes come from, we can now look at how

they develop. The three main processes involved in forming or changingattitudes are compliance, identification, and internalization (Kelman, 1961).

Attitude Change and Prejudice

■ Main IdeaAttitudes are formed through compli-ance, identification, and internalization.Attitudes may be changed as a result ofcognitive dissonance.

■ Vocabulary• compliance• identification• internalization• cognitive dissonance• counterattitudinal behavior• self-justification• self-fulfilling prophecy• prejudice• discrimination

■ Objectives• Cite the sources of attitude change.• Describe prejudice and its relationship

to stereotypes and roles.

Reader’s GuideExploring Psychology

Can You Figure It Out?I met my friend the test pilot, who

had just completed an around-the-worldflight by balloon. With the pilot was a lit-tle girl of about two.

“What’s her name?” I asked my friend,whom I hadn’t seen in five years and whohad married in that time.

“Same as her mother,” the pilot replied.“Hello, Susan,” I said to the little girl.How did I know her name if I never

saw the wedding announcement?

—from “Steve’s Primer of PracticalPersuasion and Influence” [Web site], 1996



1 FOCUSSection Objectives1. Cite the sources of attitude

change.2. Describe prejudice and its relation-

ship to stereotypes and roles.


■ Exploring PsychologyAsk students to read the ExploringPsychology feature and then discuss:How can assumptions lead toprejudice?

■ Vocabulary PrecheckHave students create a crosswordpuzzle using the definitions of theterms for the clues. Ask pairs of stu-dents to trade and complete eachother’s puzzles.

Use the Vocabulary PuzzleMakerCD-ROM to create crossword andword search puzzles.

Reader’s Guide

Project Daily FocusTransparency 20–2 andhave students answerthe questions.

Also available as blackline master.






Vocabulary PuzzleMaker CD-ROM



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If you praise a certain film director because everyone else does, you arecomplying. If you find yourself agreeing with everything a friend you par-ticularly admire says about the director, you are identifying with yourfriend’s attitudes. If you genuinely like the director’s work and, regardlessof what other people think, consider it brilliant, you are expressing aninternalized attitude.

ComplianceOne of the best measures of attitude is behavior. If a man settles back

into his chair after dinner, launches into a discussion of his support of thewomen’s rights movement, then shouts to his wife—who is in the kitchenwashing the dishes—to bring more coffee, you probably would not believewhat he had been saying. His actions speak louder than his words. Yet thesame man might hire women for jobs he has always considered “men’swork” because the law requires him to do so. He also might finally accepthis wife’s going to work because he knows that she, their children, andmany of their friends would consider him old-fashioned if he did not.People often adapt their actions to the wishes of others to avoid discom-fort or rejection and to gain support. This is called compliance. Undersuch circumstances, social pressure often results in only temporary com-pliance, and attitudes do not really change. Later in this chapter, how-ever, we shall see that compliance can sometimes affect one’s beliefs.

IdentificationOne way in which attitudes may be formed or changed is through the

process of identification. Suppose you have a favorite uncle who iseverything you hope to be. He is a successful musician, has many famousfriends, and seems to know a great deal about everything. In many waysyou identify with him and copy his behavior. One night, during an intense conversation, your uncle asks you why you do not vote.At first, you feel defensive and argumentative. You contend that it doesnot matter, that your vote would not make a difference. As you listen toyour uncle, however, you find yourself starting to agree with him. If a per-son as knowledgeable and respectable as your uncle believes it is impor-tant to vote, then perhaps you should, too. Later you find yourself eagerto take part in the political process. You have adopted a new attitudebecause of your identification with your uncle.

Identification occurs when a person wants to define himself or herselfin terms of a person or group and therefore adopts the person’s or group’sattitudes and ways of behaving. Identification is different from compliancebecause the individual actually believes the newly adopted views. Yetbecause these attitudes are based on emotional attachment to another per-son or group rather than the person’s own assessment of the issues, theyare fragile. If the person’s attachment to that person or group fades, theattitudes may also weaken.

Previously, you read that adolescents move away from peer groupsand toward independence as they grow older. If this is true, do attitudesstabilize with age? Two psychologists (Krosnick & Alwin, 1989) studied

compliance: a change ormaintenance of behavior toavoid discomfort or rejectionand to gain approval


identification: seeing one-self as similar to another personor group and accepting the atti-tudes of another person orgroup as one’s own

2 TEACHL1 Debating an Issue Requestvolunteers to cite examples of legalcompliance. (The text mentions aman who hires a woman for “men’swork” because the law requires it.Another example might be obeying a30-mile-per-hour speed limit on a lit-tle-traveled road rather than risking aticket.) List these items on the board.Then explore the difference betweencompliance and identification. Basedon this discussion, have studentsresolve the following conflict throughdebate: Resolved—Behavior at schoolis determined more by identificationthan by compliance. BLOCKSCHEDULING



Psychology JournalHave students write a para-

graph describing their feelingswhen their behavior was predicatedon compliance. ■

Relocation Handout Organize students into groups of four. Tell students to imagine thatthey are cross-cultural trainers hired by a major United States multinational corporation. Their jobis to relocate American employees to one of the following countries: Japan, India, Kenya, Egypt,China, Turkey, or Colombia. Have each group choose a country and research culturally derivedattitudes of which the relocated employees must be made aware. Groups should present theirfindings in the form of a relocation handout. At least one part of the handout should list “Dos”and “Don’ts.” (For example: “Do not wear your shoes in a traditional Turkish household.”) Com-pile the handouts from the various groups into a booklet and distribute them to the class.


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cognitive dissonance: theuncomfortable feeling when aperson experiences contradic-tory or conflicting thoughts,attitudes, beliefs, or feelings

internalization: incorporat-ing the values, ideas, and stan-dards of others as a part ofoneself

the political and social attitudes of groups of people of various ages overan extended period. Those in the 18 to 25 age group were the most likely to change their attitudes; those age 34 and older held attitudes thatwere essentially stable. As self-critiquing and self-analysis decline throughlate adolescence and into adulthood, attitudes become more stable.

InternalizationThe wholehearted acceptance of an attitude is internalization. The

attitude becomes an integral part of the person. Internalization is mostlikely to occur when an attitude is consistent with a person’s basic beliefsand values and supports his or her self-image. The person adopts a newattitude because he or she believes it is right to do so, not because he orshe wants to be like someone else.

Internalization is the most lasting of the three sources of attitude for-mation or change. Your internalized attitudes will be more resistant topressure from other people because your reasons for holding these viewshave nothing to do with other people. They are based on your own eval-uation of the merits of the issue. A Bennington student put it this way: “Ibecame liberal at first because of its prestige value; I remain so becausethe problems around which my liberalism centers are important. What Iwant now is to be effective in solving problems” (Newcomb, 1943).

As this example suggests, compliance or identification may lead to theinternalization of an attitude. Often the three overlap. You may support apolitical candidate in part because you know your friends will approve, inpart because someone you admire speaks highly of the candidate, and inpart because you believe his or her ideals are consistent with your own.

COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY Many social psychologists have theorized that people’s attitudes change

because they are always trying to get things to fit together logically insidetheir heads. This is called cognitive consistency (see Figure 20.4). Holding twoopposing attitudes can create great conflict in an individual, throwing himor her off balance. A doctor who smokes and a parent who is uncomfort-able with children have one thing in common: they are in conflict.

According to Leon Festinger (1957), people in such situations experi-ence cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is the uncomfortablefeeling that arises when a person’s behavior conflicts with thoughts, beliefs,attitudes, feelings, or behaviors. To reduce dissonance, it is necessary tochange either the behavior or the conflicting attitudes.

People reduce dissonance in several ways. First, some people just denythe dissonance. They pretend it did not happen. When faced with infor-mation on the health hazards of smoking, a smoker simply treats the infor-mation as nonsense or propaganda by antismoking groups. Some peopleattempt to evade dissonance by avoiding situations or exposure to infor-mation that would create conflict. For example, they may make a point ofsubscribing to newspapers and magazines that uphold their political


Reading CheckWhich attitudes are the

most stable and long-lasting—those formed by compliance,identification, or internalization?


Reading Check AnswerAttitudes formed by internaliza-

tion are the most stable and long-lasting.

Politics and Cognitive DissonanceIn the presidential campaign of2000, Republican candidate JohnMcCain of Arizona presented aconsistent message about theneed for campaign finance reform.He, and others, specifically wantedto eliminate or severely restrict theamounts of money that come fromspecial-interest groups. The mes-sage created cognitive dissonancewith many voters because his cam-paign continued to accept fundsfrom special-interest groups. Vot-ers felt that his message did notmatch his actions. Ask: Does cog-nitive dissonance cause people tobe apathetic about politics?Explain. What other examples ofcognitive dissonance in politicscan you cite?

@Looking the Issues

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Guided ReadingActivity 20-2 Attitude Change and

Prejudice

Directions: Filling in the Blanks Use your textbook to fill in the blanks using the words in the box.

Attitude Change

Everyone likes a certain soccer team and you go along rather than be different, thus showing

1 . During their off season the team makes appearances to benefit a local

homeless shelter. You’ve never been to that shelter, but since your team supports them, you volunteer to

put posters in nearby stores to promote a fundraiser the team has scheduled. Your 2

with the team’s goals has moved you beyond mere compliance. Visiting the shelter, you decide to help

serve food one Saturday each month. Your changed attitudes demonstrate that you have


cognitive dissonance discriminating prejudice

compliance identification stereotype

counterattitudinal behavior internalized


Learning Style: Intrapersonal Provide students with the following excerpt from a profileon social psychologist Thomas Pettigrew: Pettigrew was influenced early in life by his Scottish-born grandmother. . . . When young Tom returned from a school trip to Richmond’s St. JohnChurch and exuberantly recounted how Patrick Henry had uttered his immortal line, “Give meliberty or give me death!” his grandmother admonished him . . . “Ah yes, ‘tis a fine story, lad. . . .Did they happen to mention that he owned 22 slaves?”. . . The question . . . [stayed with Petti-grew] into adulthood. Ask students to prepare an essay describing someone who has stronglyinfluenced their attitudes or beliefs. L2 BLOCK SCHEDULING


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attitudes, of surroundingthemselves with peoplewho share the same ideas,and of attending only thosespeeches and lectures thatsupport their views. It is notsurprising that such peopleget quite upset when a pieceof conflicting informationfinally does get through.Some people change theirattitude and/or reevaluatethe event. Because the newinformation they receiveddoes not agree with theirold attitude, they revisetheir attitude. The smokermight consider the researchon the dangers of smokingand make an attempt to quitsmoking. The process ofdissonance reduction doesnot always take place con-sciously, but it is a frequentand powerful occurrence.

ATTITUDES AND ACTIONSSocial psychologists have discovered several interesting relationships

between attitudes and actions. Obviously, your attitudes affect youractions: if you like Fords, you will buy a Ford. Some of the other rela-tionships are not so obvious.

Doing Is Believing It turns out, for example, that if you like Fords but buy a Chevrolet

for some reason (perhaps you can get a better deal on a Chevy), you willend up liking Fords less. In other words, actions affect attitudes.

In many instances, if you act and speak as though you have certainbeliefs and feelings, you may begin to really feel and believe this way. Thisphenomenon is called counterattitudinal behavior, and it is a methodof reducing cognitive dissonance. For example, people accused of a crimehave confessed to crimes they did not commit. They confessed to relievethe pressure; but having said that they did the deed, they begin to believethat they really are guilty.

One explanation for this phenomenon comes from the theory of cog-nitive dissonance. If a person acts one way but thinks another, he or shewill experience dissonance. To reduce the dissonance, the person will


Balance Theory

According to Fritz Heider’s Balance Theory—another means of ana-lyzing cognitions related to attitudes—people are inclined to achieveconsistency in their attitudes by balancing their beliefs and feelingsabout an object, person, or event against their attitudes about otherpeople. When someone we care about strongly disagrees with us, anuncomfortable state of imbalance occurs. What do you think we dowhen we become involved in a state of imbalance?

Figure 20.4

Imbalanced

R

+ +

–L X

Rick

Latisha Soccer

LovesLikes

Dislikes

Balanced

R

– +

–L X

Rick

Latisha Soccer

LovesDislikes

Dislikes

counterattitudinal behav-ior: the process of taking apublic position that contradictsone’s private attitude



Figure 20.4Visual Instruction Ask each studentto draw upon a personal experienceto create an imbalanced situation.Then ask each student to draw thebalanced situation showing how theissue was resolved. Ask for volun-teers to share their situations. Setthe ground rules that participation isoptional and that the examplesshould not reveal information that istoo private or might hurt someoneelse’s feelings.

Caption Answer We change one orboth of the conflicting attitudes toachieve balance.

Tell students to think of a timewhen they went to a great deal ofeffort to accomplish a goal. Forexample, they may have spentextra hours studying in order toraise their grades, or they mayhave worked for years to buy a car.Have students list their goals andthe efforts necessary to achievethem. Ask: Was the goal worththe effort? Did you use self-justifi-cation to explain your actions?Did you exaggerate any of yourefforts?

Making Generalizations Ask students to collect advertisements that use children to sellproducts. Tell them to study the way in which the child actors depict the role(s) of children. Havestudents consider how these advertisements use stereotypes in their depiction of children. Usethe following questions to conduct a discussion that distinguishes how advertisements usestereotypes to convey positive and negative characteristics. Ask: What kind of clothes do thechildren wear? In what situations do the children appear? What attitudes or behaviors do theads assign to children? How might these ads affect the way children see themselves? L2


To make sure that studentsunderstand cognitive dissonance,ask them to think of examplesfrom their own lives.

586

have to change either the behavior or the attitude. Asimilar explanation is that people have a need for self-justification—a need to justify their behavior.

In an experiment that demonstrated these princi-ples, participants were paid either $1 or $20 (roughly$5 and $100 in today’s currency) to tell another personthat a boring experiment in which they both had toparticipate was really a lot of fun. Afterward, the ex-perimenters asked the participants how they felt aboutthe experiment. They found that the participants whohad been paid $20 to lie about the experiment contin-ued to believe that it had been boring. Those who hadbeen paid $1, however, came to believe that the exper-iment had actually been fairly enjoyable. These peoplehad less reason to tell the lie, so they experienced moredissonance when they did so. To justify their lie, theyhad to believe that they had actually enjoyed the exper-iment (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959).

The phenomenon of self-justification has seriousimplications. For example, how would you justify toyourself that you had intentionally injured anotherhuman being? In another psychological experiment,participants were led to believe that they had injuredor hurt other participants in some way (Glass, 1964).The aggressors were then asked how they felt aboutthe victims they had just harmed. It was found thatthe aggressors had convinced themselves that theydid not like the victims of their cruelty. In otherwords, the aggressors talked themselves into believingthat their defenseless victims had deserved their

injury. The aggressors also considered their victims to be less attractiveafter the experiment than before—their self-justification for hurtinganother person was something like “Oh, well, this person doesn’tamount to much, anyway.”

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Another relationship between attitudes and actions is rather subtle but

extremely widespread. It is possible, it seems, for a person to act in such away as to make his or her beliefs come true. This phenomenon is called aself-fulfilling prophecy. Self-fulfilling prophecies can influence all kindsof human activity. Suppose you believe that people are basically friendlyand generous. Whenever you approach other people, you are friendly andopen. Because of your smile and positive attitude toward yourself and theworld, people like you. Thus your belief that people are friendly producesyour friendly behavior, which in turn causes people to respond favorablytoward you. Suppose you turn this example around. Imagine that youbelieve people are selfish and cold. Because of your negative attitude, youtend to avert your eyes from other people, to act gloomy, and to appear


The Just-World BiasWhen watching some movies, we

expect the evil character to get punished.Sometimes we may even hear ourselvessaying, “He’ll get what he deserves.”Psychologists label this tendency the just-world bias (Lerner, 1980). We need tobelieve that life is fair, that the world isorderly, and that we have control over ourenvironment, because to think otherwisewould cause too much cognitive disso-nance. For instance, if we believe life isunfair, then no matter what we do, some-thing terrible could happen to us. Thatthought is an extremely uncomfortablenotion. The just-world hypothesis, then,motivates us to work hard and be good toensure our survival and well-being. How-ever, the just-world hypothesis may causeus to develop prejudice against those whosuffer misfortunes or mistreatment.

To maintain our belief that life is fair, wereason that those who are worse off thanwe are somehow deserve their lot. Weblame the victim. For example, we may say that the woman who was robbed lastnight should not have been walking alone at night.

self-justification: the needto rationalize one’s attitude andbehavior

self-fulfilling prophecy: abelief, prediction, or expecta-tion that operates to bringabout its own fulfillment


Identifying Stereotypes Organize students into small groups and havethem create a list of commonly held stereotypes about age and gender. From the list, have thegroups create a short questionnaire that asks people the degree to which they agree or disagreewith the statements. The rating scale should have five choices ranging from Completely Agree toCompletely Disagree. Caution students not to use the word stereotype in describing the activityto the participants. Have each group find 25 people of various ages to complete the question-naire. The groups should chart their results and present their findings to the class. As a class,brainstorm ideas for reducing stereotyping. L2 BLOCK SCHEDULING

PSYCHOLOGY LAB EXPERIMENT

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

VocabularyActivity 20-2 Attitude Change

and Prejudice

Directions: Circle the letter of the response that best fits the description.

1. Attitudes may be formed through a process of in which we adopt the attitudesof someone or some group that we admire or seek to be like.A. compliance C. identificationB. internalization D. self-justification

2. An uncomfortable feeling experienced when our actions do not match our attitudes, beliefs,or feeling is known as A. compliance. C. self-justification.B. cognitive dissonance. D. counterattitudinal behavior.

3. The need to rationalize our attitudes and behaviors is calledA. compliance. C. self-justification.B. cognitive dissonance. D. counterattitudinal behavior.

4. Unequal treatment of individuals on the basis of their race, ethnic origin, age, gender, or othercharacteristic is calledA. discrimination. C. compliance.B. prejudice. D. internalization.

5. A(n) is a belief, prediction, or expectation that operates to bring about its


First Impressions and Self-Fulfill-ing Prophecies In a recent study,researchers found that peopletend to form first impressionsbased on the stranger’s most dis-tinctive trait. If that trait is associ-ated with positive characteristics,the person views the stranger posi-tively. If the trait is associated withnegative characteristics, thestranger is viewed negatively. Oncethe positive or negative firstimpression is made, the studyshowed that it became a self-fulfill-ing prophecy when the two peopleinteracted. Source: Nelson, L.J., &Klutas, K. (2000). The distinctive-ness effect in social interaction:Creation of a self-fulfillingprophecy. Personality and SocialPsychology Bulletin, 26 (1):126–135.

PsychologyUpdate

Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wen-dell Holmes wrote the following in1901: “The mind of a bigot is likethe pupil of the eye, the more lightyou pour upon it the more it willcontract.”

587

rather unfriendly. People think your actions are strange, and consequently,they act coldly toward you. Your belief produced the behavior that madethe belief come true.

PREJUDICEPrejudice means, literally, prejudgment. Prejudice means deciding

beforehand what a person will be like instead of withholding judgment untilit can be based on his or her individual qualities or behavior. To hold astereotype about a group of people is not to be prejudiced unless the stereo-type is not revised in light of experience in interacting with people from thatgroup. Prejudice is not necessarily negative—men who are prejudicedagainst women are often equally prejudiced in favor of men, for example.

Stereotypes and Roles Prejudice is strengthened and maintained by inflexible stereotypes

and roles. A stereotype is a generalization about all members of a group.Racial groups, scientists, women, and the rich, for example, often havebeen viewed and treated only as stereotypes rather than as individuals.A role is a response pattern structured by group membership.Stereotypes and roles can act together in a way that makes them diffi-cult to alter. For example, many whites once had a stereotype of minor-ity racial groups, believing them to be irresponsible, superstitious, orunintelligent. Whites who believed this expected members of the racialgroup to act out a role that was consistent with a stereotype. Membersof the targeted racial group were expected to be submissive, deferential,and respectful toward whites, who acted out the role of the superior,condescending parent. In the past, many people accepted these roles andlooked at themselves and each other according to these stereotypes. Inthe past several decades, however,many people have worked to step outof these roles and drop these stereo-types, and many have been successful.

Patricia Devine (1989) proposed amodel to explain the relationshipsbetween stereotypes and prejudice. Shetheorizes that if a specific stimulus isencountered, it automatically activatesyour stereotype mechanism. For exam-ple, if you see an old man or woman, itactivates your stereotype of old people.Devine suggests that what separatesprejudiced from nonprejudiced peopleis their ability to inhibit negative atti-tudes. If you can do so, your responsewill be nonprejudiced; if you cannotrestrain your negative beliefs, you willbehave in a prejudiced manner.


IllusoryCorrelation

An illusory correlation occurs when we see a relation-ship between variables that aren’t really related. PhilipZimbardo, recent president of the American PsychologicalAssociation, gives an excellent example of illusory correla-tion. Many years ago a failure in a mid-Atlantic power sta-tion caused a blackout to sweep the East Coast oneevening. A Little Leaguer in Boston was on his way homefrom a game, swinging his bat at everything as he walked.He swung at a lamppost, and just as his bat hit the post, thelights of all Boston blinked out before his disbelieving eyes.It was an illusory correlation.

prejudice: preconceived atti-tudes toward a person or groupthat have been formed withoutsufficient evidence and are noteasily changed



Use the following question todirect a class discussion after stu-dents have read the Psychologyand You feature.Ask: What might change an illu-sory correlation?


Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

SCORESectionQuiz 20-2 Attitude Change

and Prejudice

Column A

1. change of behavior to avoid discomfort or rejection and gainapproval

2. process of taking a public position that contradicts one’sprivate attitude

3. belief, prediction, or expectation that operates to bringabout its own fulfillment

4. incorporating the values, ideas, and standards of others as apart of oneself

5 need to rationalize one’s attitude and behavior

Column B

A. self-justification

B. internalization

C. self-fulfilling prophecy

D. compliance

E. counterattitudinalbehavior

Matching


Section Quiz 20–2

History Explain that during wars, each side generally views the other in stereotypical ways,leading to extreme prejudice. During World War II, the anger and fear generated by Pearl Harborfell heaviest upon Japanese Americans living in California and other parts of the western UnitedStates. Have students research the forced relocation of thousands of Japanese Americans tointernment camps. Advise them to include the 1988 Senate apology and tax-free payment of$20,000 to each of the 60,000 surviving Nisei (U.S. citizens born of Japanese parents) in theirresearch. (One highly readable source is Desert Exile by Yoshiko Uchida.) Ask students to pre-pare oral reports on the causes and effects of misdirected prejudice. L2

INTERDISCIPLINARY CONNECTIONS ACTIVITY

ReteachAsk students to explain how stereo-typing can lead to people assumingdominant and submissive roles inaccordance with the applied stereo-type. Ask students to describe howsuch situations arise in the work-place, school, and society in general.

588

Another psychologist, Thomas Pettigrew, suggests that in situationswhere a dominant group and a deferential group can be identified, mem-bers of each group may play roles that foster and maintain their respec-tive positions. A member of a dominating group, for example, will speakfirst, interrupt more often, and talk louder and longer. A member of thedeferential group will show courtesy and concern for the dominant mem-ber and do more listening and less interrupting.

Prejudice and Discrimination There are many possible causes for prejudice. Prejudice can be based on

social, economic, or physical factors. Psychologists have found that peoplemay be prejudiced against those less well-off than themselves—these peopleseem to justify being on top by assuming that anyone of lower status orincome must be inferior. People who have suffered economic setbacks alsotend to be prejudiced; they blame others for their misfortune. Prejudice alsoarises from “guilt by association.” People who dislike cities and urban living,for example, tend to distrust people associated with cities. Also, people maybe prejudiced in favor of those they see as similar to themselves and againstthose who seem different. Whatever the original cause, prejudice seems topersist. One reason is that children who grow up in an atmosphere of preju-dice conform to the prejudicial norm. That is, they are encouraged to con-form to the thoughts and practices of their parents and other teachers.

Prejudice, which is an attitude, should be distinguished from discrimination, the unequal treatment of members of certain groups. Itis possible for a prejudiced person not to discriminate. He or she may rec-ognize his or her prejudice and try not to act on it. Similarly, a personmay discriminate, not out of prejudice, but in compliance with social oreconomic pressures.


discrimination: the unequaltreatment of individuals on thebasis of their race, ethnicgroup, age, gender, or member-ship in another category ratherthan on the basis of individual characteristics

1. Review the Vocabulary Describe therelationship between attitudes andbehavior in counterattitudinal behavior,self-justification, and self-fulfillingprophecy.

2. Visualize the Main Idea Using a dia-gram similar to the one below, list anddescribe the three main processesinvolved in forming or changing attitudes.

3. Recall Information How do stereo-types and roles strengthen prejudice?

4. Think Critically How do theories ofcognitive dissonance explain why cer-tain people may be attracted to someinformation while they avoid otherinformation? Explain.

Assessment

5. Application Activity List 10 makes and mod-els of cars (such as Saturn Sky, Honda Civic) andask 15 people to choose from a wide range ofadjectives (such as serious, reliable, dishonest) thatbest describes someone who drives that type ofcar. Analyze the results of your survey to see ifpeople are stereotyped by the cars they drive.

1

2

3Processes of Forming/Changing

Attitudes


EnrichHave students list their attitudes oneach of the following topics: humanrights, animal rights, the environment,politics, and religion. Then have stu-dents identify how they formed theirattitudes. Ask: What conclusionscan you draw about the way inwhich you form important attitudes?

4 CLOSEWrite on the board a list of 10 differ-ent professions or jobs, such as con-struction worker, teacher, andhairdresser. Have students brainstormstereotypes associated with each ofthese jobs. Ask: Does every stereo-type hold a grain of truth? Why orwhy not?

1. Counterattitudinal behavior—public behavior contradictsprivate attitudes; self-justification—to reduce disso-nance, either behavior or attitudes must be justified;self-fulfilling prophecy—person behaves in such a wayas to make the attitude true

2. Answers should describe compliance, identification, andinternalization.

3. Stereotypes are oversimplified and difficult-to-changebeliefs. Roles are oversimplified and difficult-to-change

ways of acting. They work together to create prejudiceand interact in such a way that makes the cycle hard tobreak.

4. Answers will vary but should explain how people areattracted to information that reinforces their opinionsand they ignore information that runs counter to theirideals (all to avoid cognitive dissonance).

5. Recommend that students survey people in various agegroups and compare the results.


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one of the 251 establishments they visitedrefused service to his friends.

Given the climate of prejudice against people from Asia, LaPiere was curious about thisobservation. He decided to investigate the issueby sending questionnaires to the establishmentsthat the Chinese couple had visited. The ques-tionnaires simply asked if that establishmentwould provide services to a Chinese husbandand wife. He received 128 completed question-naires, or 51 percent of the total mailed.

Results: Only one ofthe 128 respondingbusinesses said that itwould serve a Chinesecouple. The vast majori-ty (90 percent) said thatthey would not servethe couple. Yet duringthe trip, only one estab-lishment actually deniedLaPiere’s companionsservice. Thus, the atti-tudes reported by the

business owners (symbolic behavior) did notseem to match their actual behaviors.

Even though mailing questionnaires is notan ideal way to measure the relationshipbetween symbolic and actual behavior, thisstudy suggested that the attitudes people reportdo not necessarily predict behavior. Conversely,people’s behavior may reflect attitudes that aredifferent than what they report. Later studiesconfirmed and refined this general conclusion.The relationship between attitudes and behaviorhas proven to be a rich topic of study for socialpsychologists.

FeelingsVS. Actions

Period of Study: 1934

Introduction: In the early days of psycholo-gy, researchers assumed that people’s behaviorcould be predicted by measuring their attitudesand opinions. In 1934, researcher RichardLaPiere conducted astudy designed to evalu-ate a person’s attitudesand actions with situa-tions regarding race. Hestudied the social atti-tudes of individuals andexamined the connec-tion between an individ-ual’s real behavior andan individual’s symbolicbehavior. Symbolicbehavior refers to a person’s statements regarding his or her actions in ahypothetical situation. With this idea in mind, LaPiereset out to test individuals’ symbolic racial responsescompared with their actual racial responses.

Hypothesis: LaPiere came up with the ideaof studying racial behavior when he traveledacross the United States with a young Chinesecouple to conduct research on a different topic.During the 1930s, much racial prejudice target-ed Asian Americans. LaPiere wondered if hiscompanions would encounter racism in the formof compromised or denied service.

Method: LaPiere and the couple visited various restaurants, attempted to check in to hotels, and frequented otherpublic service businesses. LaPiererecorded significant data, such as how thecouple was treated, if they were served, ifthey were asked to leave, and otherimportant information. He noted that only

Analyzing the Case Study 1. What is the difference between symbolic behavior andactual behavior? Explain.

2. What was LaPiere’s hypothesis?

3. Critical Thinking If LaPiere performed this experimenttoday, do you think that his results would be the same?Why or why not?

Going FurtherSexual Harassment

Sexual harassment in the work-place is a violation of the Civil RightsAct of 1964. Today most large busi-nesses and many small businesseshave written official sexual harass-ment policies. However, having a writ-ten policy about harassment andhaving an aggressive program to pre-vent sexual harassment are two differ-ent things. One represents thecompany’s symbolic behavior towardsexual harassment. The other demon-strates the company’s real commit-ment to preventing harassment in theworkplace.

Supreme Court decisions supportthe idea that a company must domore than include a written policyabout harassment in employee hand-books. Companies that are seriousabout preventing harassment in theworkplace should provide training toemployees and supervisors, shoulddiscuss sexual harassment policieswith all new employees, and shouldhave sound procedures in place toresolve reported cases of sexualharassment.

Discussing the Case StudyAsk: Why is LaPiere’s study stillincluded in textbooks? What factorsmay have affected the actual behav-ior of the business owners, causingit to contradict their symbolic behav-ior? In general, why are attitudes notnecessarily a predictor of actualbehavior?

CHAPTER 9Section 1, pages 269–XXXCHAPTER 9Section 1, pages 269–XXX

Case StudiesCase Studies

Answers for Analyzing the Case Study1. Symbolic behavior refers to how people say they will

behave as opposed to the way they actually behave inthe same situation.

2. LaPiere wondered whether his Asian friends would bedenied service due to racism. LaPiere was curious tosee if people’s symbolic behavior would match theiractual behavior.

3. Answers will vary. Students should support their positionwith clear reasoning about the attitudes they thinkwould be common today. Ask students to consider cur-rent racial attitudes and how they might affect theresults of an experiment like LaPiere’s.

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Advertisers use persuasion to encourage consumers to buy theirproducts. McDonald’s uses at least one method of persuasion—familiarity. Most American kids know what McDonald’s is; most

American kids have seen a McDonald’s commercial or advertisement.What methods of persuasion lure you?

PERSUASIONPersuasion is a direct attempt to influence attitudes. At one time or

another everyone engages in persuasion. When a smiling student who isworking her way through college by selling magazine subscriptions comesto the door, she attempts to persuade you that reading TIME magazine orSports Illustrated will make you better informed and give you lots to talkabout at parties. Parents often attempt to persuade a son or daughter toconform to their values about life. Similarly, some young people try to per-suade their parents that all their friends’ parents are buying them iPods. Ineach case, the persuader’s main hope is that by changing the other per-son’s attitudes, he or she can change that person’s behavior as well.

Persuasion

■ Main IdeaPersuasion is a direct attempt to influ-ence attitudes. We evaluate when, where,and how a message is presented, as wellas the message itself, when determiningthe credibility of the message.

■ Vocabulary• persuasion• boomerang effect• sleeper effect• inoculation effect• brainwashing

■ Objectives• Describe the factors involved in the

communication process.• Explain the different types of persua-

sion processes.

Reader’s GuideExploring Psychology

Why Do Kids Love McDonald’s?By switching the channel on a

Saturday morning, a child can watch“Ronald McDonald” in up to a dozen, col-orful, fast-paced commercials each hour;perhaps this is one reason why the chainsells so many billions of hamburgers.

—from The Social Animal by Elliot Aronson,2006


persuasion: the directattempt to influence attitudes


1 FOCUSSection Objectives1. Describe the factors involved in

the communication process.2. Explain the different types of per-

suasion processes.


■ Exploring PsychologyAsk students to read the ExploringPsychology feature and then discuss:How does the frequency of advertise-ments influence behavior, especiallyin children?

■ Vocabulary PrecheckHave students create a set of flashcards with the terms on one side andthe definitions on the other. Encour-age students to use the flash cardsas a study tool.

Use the Vocabulary PuzzleMakerCD-ROM to create crossword andword search puzzles.

Reader’s Guide

Project Daily FocusTransparency 20–3 andhave students answerthe questions.

Also available as blacklinemaster






Vocabulary PuzzleMaker CD-ROM



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The Communication Process Enormous amounts of time, money, and effort go into campaigns to

persuade people to change their attitudes and behavior. Some succeed ona grand scale, while others seem to have no effect. Discovering the ele-ments of an effective persuasive communication is one of the most diffi-cult problems confronted by social psychologists.

The communication process can be broken down into four parts. Themessage itself is only one part. It is also important to consider the source ofthe message, the channel through which it is delivered, and the audiencethat receives it.

The Source How a person sees the source of a message may be a criti-cal factor in his or her acceptance of it. The person receiving the messageasks himself or herself three basic questions: Is the person giving the mes-sage trustworthy and sincere? Does he or she know anything about thesubject? Is he or she likable (Pratkanis & Aronson, 2001)? If the answersare yes, the message is more likely to be accepted (see Figure 20.5).

Suppose, for example, that you wrote a paper criticizing a short storyfor your English class. A friend who reads the paper tells you about anarticle that praises the story and asks you to reconsider your view. Thearticle was written by Agnes Stearn, a college stu-dent. You might change your opinion, or youmight not. Suppose your friend tells you the samecritique was written by Stephen King. Chances arethat you would begin to doubt your own judg-ment. Three psychologists tried this experiment.Not surprisingly, many more students changedtheir minds about a piece of writing when theythought the criticism was written by a famouswriter (Aronson, Turner, & Carlsmith, 1963).

A person receiving the message also asks, “DoI like the source?” If the communicator is respectedand admired, people will tend to go along with themessage, either because they believe in his or herjudgment or because they want to be like him orher. This identification phenomenon explains thefrequent use of athletes in advertisements. Footballplayers and Olympic champions are not (in mostcases) experts on deodorants, electric razors, ormilk. Indeed, when an athlete endorses a particularbrand of deodorant on television, we all know he orshe is doing it for the money. Nevertheless, theprocess of identification makes these sales pitcheshighly effective (Wu & Shaffer, 1987).

However, attempts to be friendly and personalcan backfire. When people dislike the individual orgroup delivering a message, they are likely torespond by taking the opposite point of view. This


The Source

National newscasters, such as Katie Couric,appear attractive, honest, and credible. We arelikely to believe sources that seem trustworthyand are attractive. What is the identificationphenomenon?

Figure 20.5

2 TEACHL1 Persuasion at Work Writethe following list of products on theboard: soft drinks, cars, shampoo,soap, blue jeans, and cereal. Ask students for brand name examples.List as many brand names below theproduct as possible.

Call on volunteers to explain whythey chose those specific brands.Explore how students learn aboutand/or choose a brand. Ask: Whichof the following most influences youto buy a product for the first time:advertising appeal, the opinions offriends, product quality, or someother reason? ELL



Figure 20.5Caption Answer If the communicator,or source of the message, is likedand admired, people tend to acceptthe message because they believein the communicator’s judgment orbecause they want to be like him orher.

Flowcharts As a class, brainstorm some of the features of an effective message (clarity, per-tinence to the subject, appropriate language, and so on). Then explore factors that ensure deliv-ery, or communication, of the message. Based on this discussion, assign small groups to designillustrated flowcharts showing the four main parts in the communication process. Direct studentsto create descriptive captions to explain the flow of information. Encourage groups to share theirfinished flowcharts with the class. BLOCK SCHEDULING


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boomerang effect: achange in attitude or behavioropposite of the one desired bythe persuader

is known as the boomerang effect. For example, the sales of a product may go down after the well-known spokesperson for the product is arrested for breaking the law, or the well-intentioned com-ments of a politician may offend certain groups and, thereby, damage hispopular appeal.

The Message Suppose two people with opposing viewpoints are try-ing to persuade you to agree with them. Suppose further that you likeand trust both of them. In this situation, the message becomes moreimportant than the source. The persuasiveness of a message depends on the way in which it is composed and organized as well as on theactual content.

There are two ways to deliver a message. The central route for persua-sion focuses on presenting information consisting of strong arguments andfacts—it is a focus on logic. The peripheral route for persuasion relies onemotional appeals, emphasizing personal traits or positive feelings.

Should the message arouse emotion? Are people more likely to changetheir attitudes if they are afraid or angry or pleased? The answer is yes, butthe most effective messages combine emotional appeal with factual infor-mation and argument. A moderately arousing message typically causes thelargest shift of opinion. Similarly, a message that deviates moderately fromthe attitudes of the target audience will tend to move that audience furthest.A communication that overemphasizes the emotional side of an issue mayboomerang. The peripheral route sometimes arouses fear (see Figure 20.6).If the message is too upsetting, people may reject it. For example, showingpictures of accident victims to people who have been arrested for drunkendriving may convince them not to drive when they have been drinking. Yetif the film is so bloody that people are frightened or disgusted, they may

also stop listening to the message. On the otherhand, a communication that includes only logic andinformation may miss its mark because the audiencedoes not relate the facts to their personal lives.

In addition to considering the route of theappeal, communicators must also decide whether ornot to present both sides of an issue. For the mostpart, a two-sided communication is more effectivebecause the audience tends to believe that thespeaker is objective and fair-minded. A slight hazardof presenting opposing arguments is that they mightundercut the message or suggest that the wholeissue is too controversial to warrant a decision.

People usually respond positively to a messagethat is structured and delivered in a dynamic way. Acommunication that is forceful to the point of beingpushy, however, may produce negative results.People generally resent being pressured. If listenersinfer from a message that they are being left with nochoice but to agree with the speaker’s viewpoint,they may reject an opinion for this reason alone.


Appealing to Your Fears

Advertisements, such as this, are effectiveonly if you believe the danger is real and ifyou believe that you can do something toreduce the danger. Is this an example of acentral or peripheral route for persuasion?

Figure 20.6


Figure 20.6Caption Answer This is an example ofa peripheral route for persuasionbecause it appeals to the emotions.

Psychology JournalHave students find an exam-

ple of an advertisement in a maga-zine or other print source that theythink is effective. Tell them toattach the sample to their journaland describe what makes theadvertisement effective. ■

Learning Style: Visual/Spatial Ask students to select a product marketed for teens.Then ask them to create two advertisements for the product. Tell them that one should appeal tothe central route for persuasion and the other should appeal to the peripheral route for persua-sion. The students may create either an advertisement for a print medium or a storyboard for atelevision advertisement. Encourage students to share their advertisements with the class. L2

BLOCK SCHEDULING

Refer to Inclusion for the High School Social Studies Classroom Strategies and Activities in the TCR for strategies for students with different learning styles.


Doubling the size of an advertise-ment does not necessarily doublethe readership. A color advertise-ment also will not automaticallyguarantee readers. A black-and-white ad surrounded by color adsmay get more notice. Researchindicates that the most effectiveplace to run a magazine advertise-ment is on the inside covers.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Directions: Recalling the Facts Use the information in your textbook to answer the questions.

1. What are some common ways people engage in persuasion?____________________________________

2. Name the four parts of the communication process. ___________________________________________

3. How critical is the source, or originator, of the message in the acceptance or rejection of it? ________

4. What is the boomerang effect?_______________________________________________________________

5. In delivering a message, what is the difference between the central route for persuasion and the

peripheral route?___________________________________________________________________________

Guided ReadingActivity 20-3 Persuasion



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The Channel Where, when, and how a message is presented also influ-ences the audience’s response. In general, personal contact is the mosteffective approach to an audience. For example, in one study in AnnArbor, Michigan, 75 percent of voters who had been contacted person-ally voted in favor of a change in the city charter. Only 45 percent ofthose who had received the message in the mail and 19 percent of thosewho had seen only ads in the media voted for the change (Eldersveld &Dodge, 1954).

As we saw earlier, however, personal contact may boomerang: peo-ple may dislike the communicator or feel that they are being pressured.Besides, you can reach a great many more people through mailings andradio and television broadcasts than you can in person.

There is some evidence that television and films are more effectivemedia of persuasion than printed matter. People tend to believe whatthey see and hear with their own senses (even if they know the informa-tion has been edited before it is broadcast). In one experiment, 51 percentof people who had watched a film could answer factual questions aboutthe issue in question—compared to 29 percent of those who had seenonly printed material. In addition, more of the people who had viewedthe film altered their viewpoints than did people who had read about theissue (Hovland, Lumsdaine, & Sheffield, 1949).

The Audience Finally, the most effective channel also depends in part onthe audience. The audience includes all those people whose attitudes thecommunicator is trying to change. Persuading people to alter their viewsdepends on knowing who the audience is and why they hold the atti-tudes they do. Despite the power of persuasion, most people accept infor-mation about things they find interesting, and they avoid information thatdoes not support their beliefs (Pratkanis & Aronson, 2001). Suppose, forexample, you are involved in a program to reduce the birthrate in a heavily populated area. The first step would be to inform people of vari-ous methods of birth control as well as how and where to obtain them—but will they do so? To persuade them to use available contraceptives, youneed to know why they value large families. In some areas of the world,people have as many children as they can because they do not expectmost to survive. In this case, you might want to tie the family-planningcampaign to programs of infant care. In some areas, children work to bringin needed income. In this case, you might want to promote an incentivesystem for families who limit themselves to two or three children.

If the people are not taking advantage of available means of birth con-trol, you will want to know who is resisting. Perhaps men believe father-ing a child is a sign of virility. Perhaps women consider motherhood anessential element of femininity. Perhaps both sexes see parenthood as asymbol of maturity and adulthood (Coale, 1973). Knowing who youraudience is and what motivates its members are crucial.

Several strategies effectively involve the audience. One strategy that hasbeen studied extensively is the foot-in-the-door technique, which involves firstmaking a very small request that someone is almost sure to agree to andthen making a much more demanding request (Dillard, 1991). In one




Readings and CaseStudies in PsychologyHave students read the Chapter 20Reading selection in Readings andCase Studies in Psychology andanswer the questions that follow thereading.

History When Franklin D. Roosevelt became president inMarch 1933, the nation wastrapped in a deep economicdepression. His InauguralAddress provided a clear mes-sage of courage and hope as hespoke the following words: This ispreeminently the time to speakthe truth, the whole truth, franklyand boldly. Nor need we shrinkfrom honestly facing conditions inour country today. This greatNation will endure as it hasendured, will revive and will pros-per. So, first of all, let me assertmy firm belief that the only thingwe have to fear is fear itself—nameless, unreasoning, unjusti-fied terror which paralyzesneeded efforts to convert retreatinto advance. In every dark hourof our national life a leadership offrankness and vigor has met withthat understanding and supportof the people themselves whichis essential to victory. I am con-vinced that you will again givethat support to leadership inthese critical days.

Classifying Information Assign students to take notes on commercial advertisementsshown during prime-time television. Suggest that they organize data collection by setting up achart with the following heads: Product Being Sold, Visual Messages, Auditory Messages,Persuasion Techniques, and Appeal to Prejudices. Have students report their findings to theclass. Ask: How does knowledge of the advertising process help you better resist persuasiontechniques? L2


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experiment, two researchers (Freedman & Fraser, 1966) asked residents ofPalo Alto, California, for permission to place a small sign reading “Be a SafeDriver” in a window of their homes. Two weeks later, another person askedresidents for permission to stake a large “Drive Carefully” sign in the frontyard. Nearly 56 percent of those who had agreed to the first request alsoagreed to the second request. However, only 17 percent of the residentswho heard only the second request but not the first agreed to put the signin their yard.

Another strategy is sometimes called the door-in-the-face technique. Itworks like this: To encourage people to agree to a moderate request thatmight otherwise be rejected, you make a major request—likely to berejected. When it is, you follow up immediately with a more minorrequest. For example, you might ask a friend, “I’m helping my parentsmove this weekend. Would you come over and help us Saturday andSunday until we’re done?” “No? Well, then, could you come over Saturdaymorning and just help me move our grand piano?” You have a muchhigher likelihood of success on the second request following the first thanif you had made only the second request.

Models of Persuasion As discussed earlier, a message leads to thinking, but how much and at

what depth are determined both by the message and the needs of the per-son receiving it. Two different levels of activity are possible—central routeprocessing (when the recipient thoughtfully considers the issues and argu-ments) and peripheral route processing (characterized by considering othercues rather than the message itself ). Another model of persuasion is theheuristic model (Chaiken, 1987). A heuristic is a rule of thumb or a shortcutthat may lead to but does not guarantee a solution (see Figure 20.7).

The heuristic model proposes two ways in which attitudes may bechanged. If an individual is not interested in an issue under discussion, heor she is likely to rely on heuristic processing, a very casual, low-attentionform of analyzing evidence. In this kind of processing, the recipient tunesin to the peripheral aspects of the message—the likability of the source,the number of arguments, and the tone of voice.

On the other hand, if the recipient is deeply interested or curious aboutthe topic of a message, the likely result is sometimes called systematic pro-cessing, or central route processing. Advertisers use heuristics to get you tobuy their products. For instance, they may sprinkle their ads with numbersand nice-sounding words such as integrity, employ celebrities to endorsetheir products, or state that their product is the most popular one.

The Sleeper Effect Changes in attitudes are not always permanent. In fact,efforts at persuasion usually have their greatest impact immediately andthen fade away. However, sometimes people seem to reach different con-clusions about a message after a period of time has elapsed. This curioussleeper effect has been explained in several ways.

One explanation of the delayed-action impact depends on the ten-dency to retain the message but forget the source. As time goes by, a pos-itive source no longer holds power to persuade nor does a negative


Reading CheckHow does the foot-in-

the-door technique differ fromthe door-in-the-face technique?

PSYCHOLOGY

Student Web Activity Visit the UnderstandingPsychology Web site at glencoe.com and click onChapter 20—Student WebActivities for an activity onattitudes and influence.

sleeper effect: the delayedimpact on attitude change of apersuasive communication


PSYCHOLOGY

Links and instructional guidelinescan be found in the Web ActivityLesson Plan at glencoe.com.

Reading Check AnswerThe foot-in-the-door technique

involves making a small request andthen making a more demandingrequest. The door-in-the-face tech-nique involves making a very largerequest and then following it with amore reasonable request.

To illustrate people’s uncon-scious awareness of the sleepereffect, point out the use of suchexpressions as “Let me thinkabout it” or “Let me sleep on it.”Ask: What other similar phrasescan you suggest? Do you feelmost people need time for themessage to sink in? Why or whynot?

Paraguay has an authoritarian govern-ment, which means that the govern-ment controls all media channels andeffectively censors all dissentingviews. As a result, dissenters havefound it difficult to express their oppo-sition. The leading opposition groupsin Paraguay have found graffiti themost effective means available tothem to express their dissent. Politi-cal graffiti messages have become aninexpensive and accessible channelthat reaches a wide audience.

Discovering How We Respond to Messages Invite a guest speakerto participate in an experiment with the class. If possible, contact a person who is knowledge-able in advertising or marketing. Arrange for students to come to class in two shifts. For the firstshift, ask the speaker to deliver a warm, friendly, and/or humorous message on the art of adver-tising. For the second shift, have the speaker deliver the same message in a cold, matter-of-factmanner. In the next class session, have students write a review of the talk, including the mainimpact points. After comparing results, discuss the importance of the source in audience accept-ance of a message. L2 BLOCK SCHEDULING

PSYCHOLOGY LAB EXPERIMENT

http://glencoe.com

http://glencoe.com

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source undercut the message. When the memory of thesource fades, the message then stands on its own merit,and more people may accept it (Kelman & Hovland,1953).

The problem is that this requires forgetting onething and retaining another, with no obvious reasonwhy that should occur. Researchers (Pratkanis et al.,1988) conducted experiments to verify their differentialdecay hypothesis. They argued that if the message isheard first, followed by a discounting cue (such as alow-credibility source), the two balance each otherout—no effect is observed. Over time, however, thenegative aspects of the cue dissipate more rapidly thanthe impact of the highly elaborated message. It is easi-er to remember your own position than the details ofan argument. If the cue decays rapidly and the argu-ment more slowly, what remains is the effect on an atti-tude. It may also be that it simply takes time for peopleto change their minds. As the message sinks in, atti-tudes change more.

The Inoculation Effect What can you do to resist persuasion? Research

has shown that people can be educated to resist atti-tude change. This technique can be compared to aninoculation (McGuire, 1970). Inoculation against per-suasion works in much the same way as inoculationagainst certain diseases. When a person is vaccinated,he is given a weakened or dead form of the disease-causing agent, which stimulates his body to manufac-ture defenses. If an inoculated person is attacked by amore potent form of the agent, he is immune to infec-tion. Similarly, a person who has resisted a mild attackon his beliefs is ready to defend them against anonslaught that might otherwise have been over-whelming.

The inoculation effect can be explained in twoways: it motivates individuals to defend their beliefsmore strongly, and it gives them some practice indefending those beliefs. The most vulnerable attitudes you have, there-fore, are the ones that you have never had to defend. For example, youmight find yourself hard put to defend your faith in democracy or in thehealthfulness of vegetables if you have never had these beliefs questioned.

BrainwashingThe most extreme means of changing attitudes involves a combination

of psychological gamesmanship and physical torture, called brainwashing.The most extensive studies of brainwashing have been done on Westerners


Using HeuristicsWe use heuristics, or shortcuts, to eval-uate many messages. This saves ustime and energy. Which heuristic isthis advertiser using?

Figure 20.7

1. If the message contains many numbers andlarge words, it must be based on facts.

2. If the message focuses on values I have, itis probably right.

3. Famous or successful people conveying themessage are probably right.

4. If most people support this product orbelieve this, it is probably true.

inoculation effect: develop-ing resistance to persuasion byexposing a person to argu-ments that challenge his or herbeliefs so that he or she canpractice defending them

brainwashing: extreme formof attitude change; uses peerpressure, physical suffering,threats, rewards, guilt, and inten-sive indoctrination



Figure 20.7Caption Answer This advertiser isusing numbers with the thought thatpeople will believe the ad if it con-tains statistics. A second heuristic atwork here is the belief that if mostpeople support the product, the ad isprobably true. (Pampers are a well-known and established product.)

1. UNERSAPSOI

2. AOGOMERNB FTEFEC

3. EPSELER TEFCEF

4. SWAGINARHINB

5. CNOONULIATI CEFTEF

Name ___________________________________ Date ______________ Class ________________

VocabularyActivity 20-3 Persuasion

Directions: Unscramble the following vocabulary terms and enter the terms on the lines provided. Thenmatch each numbered term to the correct lettered definition by placing the number of the term on theline to the right of the definitions.

A. developing resistance topersuasion by exposing aperson to arguments thatchallenge his or herbeliefs

B. the delayed impact onattitude change of a per-suasive communication

C. a direct attempt to influ-ence attitudes

D. a change in attitude orbehavior opposite theone the persuader desires



The Media Introduce the nonprofit groups Population Communications International (PCI) andthe Population Council. These groups are using psychology to change attitudes about family sizein countries like Mexico, India, and Kenya. The cultures of all three countries value large families.Tell students that researchers have found that the most effective method of changing attitudesabout family size has been the use of soap opera-type programs, such as Kenya’s Tushuriane(“Let’s Talk About It”). Assign students to work in groups to write a script for a soap operaepisode that one of these organizations might run in an attempt to change attitudes on familysize in Mexico, India, or Kenya. Remind students that the most effective episodes will take intoaccount cultural factors that shape attitudes. L2

INTERDISCIPLINARY CONNECTIONS ACTIVITY

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

SCORESectionQuiz 20-3 Persuasion

Column A

1. extreme means of attitude change involving psychologicalgamesmanship and physical torture

2. direct attempt to influence attitudes

3. delayed impact on attitude change of a persuasivecommunication

4. helps develop resistance to persuasion

5. change in attitude or behavior opposite of the one desiredby the persuader

Column B

A. boomerang effect

B. inoculation effect

C. persuasion

D. brainwashing

E. sleeper effect

Matching


Section Quiz 20–3

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who had been captured by the Chinese during the Korean War and sub-jected to “thought reform.” Psychiatrist Robert Jay Lifton (1963) interviewedseveral dozen prisoners released by the Chinese, and from their accounts, heoutlined the methods used to break down people’s convictions and intro-duce new patterns of belief, feeling, and behavior.

The aim in brainwashing is as much to create a new person as tochange attitudes. So the first step is to strip away all identity and thensubject the person to intense social pressure and physical stress. Prisonis a perfect setting for this process. The person is isolated from socialsupport, is a number not a name, is clothed like everyone else, and canbe surrounded by people who have had their thoughts “reformed” andare contemptuous of “reactionaries.” So long as the prisoner holds out,he is treated with contempt or exhorted to confess by his fellow pris-oners. He is interrogated past the point of exhaustion and is humiliatedand discomfited by being bound at all times, even during meals or elim-ination. The prisoner is rewarded for cooperating. Cooperation involvesconfessing to crimes against the people in his former way of life. Withevery act of compliance, prison life is made a little more pleasant.Finally, by a combination of threat, peer pressure, systematic rewards,and other psychological means, the prisoner comes to believe his con-fession.

It is difficult to say where persuasion ends and brainwashing begins.Some researchers believe that brainwashing is just a very intense form ofpersuasion. Drawing this line has become particularly important to thecourts—especially in cases such as lawsuits regarding the deprogrammingof members of religious cults. A cult is a group of people who organizearound a strong authority figure. Cults use influence techniques anddeception to attain psychological control over members and new recruits.


1. Review the Vocabulary Explain howthe boomerang, sleeper, and inoculationeffects influence your attitudes.

2. Visualize the Main Idea Use a diagramsimilar to the one below to outline theparts of the communication process.

3. Recall Information How does brain-washing work? Why is it used?

4. Think Critically When evaluating amessage that is very important to you,do you rely on systematic processing orheuristics? Explain.

Assessment

5. Application Activity Pretend that you are acar dealer and you are persuading a young coupleto purchase an automobile from your dealership.Write a brief script between the dealer and thecouple that incorporates aspects of persuasiontechniques both might use.

The Communication Process Involves:


ReteachOrganize the class into small groups.Give each group a common house-hold product like laundry detergent,pet food, and so on. Ask each groupto create an advertising campaignaround the product. Students willdevelop slogans and methods of per-suasion, identify the likely audience,and determine the channels (when,where, and how the message is pre-sented). Have the groups use thisinformation to prepare a storyboardshowing how they would advertisethe product.

EnrichHave groups of students imagine thatthey are psychologists interested indeprogramming former cult members.Challenge them to devise the mosteffective strategies for helping theindividuals readjust. As they are plan-ning their strategies, they may want toexplore the methods used by psychol-ogists such as Margaret ThalerSinger.

4 CLOSEBring to class a variety of advertise-ments for everyday products. Includeadvertisements for competing brands.As a class, discuss the possibleheuristics that the advertisers wereusing.

1. Boomerang—effect on attitude that is opposite of theone intended; sleeper—delayed change in attitude;inoculation—resistance to changing attitudes thatresults from having to defend one’s beliefs

2. Diagrams should include the following: the source, themessage, the channel, and the audience.

3. Brainwashing is an extreme form of attitude changethat involves a combination of psychological games-manship (such as peer pressure, threats, rewards, and

guilt), and physical torture. It is used to break downpeople’s convictions and introduce new beliefs, behav-iors, and feelings.

4. You rely on systematic processing. Because you areinterested in the topic, you want logical arguments tosupport your position.

5. Answers will vary but should include knowledge of thefour components of the communication process:source, message, channel, and audience.


597

Summary and Vocabulary

Chapter Vocabularyattitude (p. 577)self-concept (p. 580)compliance (p. 583)identification (p. 583)internalization (p. 584)cognitive dissonance (p. 584)counterattitudinal behavior (p. 585)self-justification (p. 586)self-fulfilling prophecy (p. 586)prejudice (p. 587)discrimination (p. 588)persuasion (p. 590)boomerang effect (p. 592)sleeper effect (p. 594)inoculation effect (p. 595)brainwashing (p. 595)

Attitude Formation■ Attitudes may be formed through classical

conditioning.■ The culture in which you grew up, the people

who raised you, and those with whom you associ-ate all shape your attitudes.

■ People living in the same conditions and who fre-quently communicate with one another tend tohave attitudes in common because they areexposed to the same information.

■ Our attitudes serve as guidelines for interpretingand categorizing people, objects, and events.

Everyone has a variety of opinions, attitudes, and beliefs.Psychologists study where they come from and how they change.

Main Idea: Our atti-tudes are the result ofconditioning, observa-tional learning, and cog-nitive evaluation. Ourattitudes help us defineourselves and our placein society, evaluate peo-ple and events, andguide our behavior.

Attitude Change and Prejudice■ People often adapt their actions to the wishes of

others to avoid discomfort or rejection and to gain support.

■ Identification occurs when a person wants todefine himself or herself in terms of a person orgroup and therefore adopts the person’s orgroup’s attitudes and ways of behaving.

■ Internalization is the most lasting of the threesources of attitude formation or change.

■ People’s attitudes change because they are alwaystrying to get things to fit together logically.

■ A person’s actions can affect his or her attitudes.■ Prejudice means deciding beforehand what a per-

son will be like instead of withholding judgmentuntil it can be based on a person’s individual qualities.

Main Idea: Attitudesare formed throughcompliance, identifica-tion, and internalization.Attitudes may bechanged as a result ofcognitive dissonance.

Persuasion■ The process of communication involves four

elements: the message itself, the source of themessage, the channel through which it is deliv-ered, and the audience that receives it.

■ The audience may process a message by systemat-ically thinking about it or by using heuristics.

■ The most effective messages combine moderateemotional appeal with factual information andargument.

Main Idea: Persuasionis a direct attempt toinfluence attitudes. Weevaluate when, where,and how a message ispresented, as well asthe message itself, whendetermining the credibil-ity of the message.


Using the Chapter 20 Summary and VocabularyUse the Chapter 20 Summary andVocabulary to preview, review, con-dense, or reteach the chapter.

Preview/ReviewUse the Chapter Vocabulary list tohelp students review and study.

Activity Ask students to create aword search using examples or defini-tions as the clues for the terms. Havepairs of students trade and completeword search puzzles.

Vocabulary PuzzleMaker CD-ROMreinforces the vocabulary terms usedin Chapter 20.

CondenseHave students read the Chapter 20Summary.

Chapter 20 Guided ReadingActivities

ReteachReteaching Activity 20

Summary andVocabulary

Summary andVocabulary 20

Analyzing Letters to the Editor Letters to the Editor are direct attempts by the writer tosway the reader to the writer’s point of view. Assign students to collect three Letters to the Editorfrom newspapers. Ask students to identify the issues presented, the writers’ attitudes, and deter-mine whether the writers used the central route or the peripheral route for persuasion. Ask: How per-suasive was each of the letters? Did the letters present one side of an issue or did they present atwo-sided argument? Of the two methods, which was more effective? BLOCK SCHEDULING

Refer to the Authentic Assessment booklet for additional activities and information aboutevaluating student performance.

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

598

Assessment

Reviewing VocabularyChoose the letter of the correct term or conceptbelow to complete the sentence.

1. A(n) __________ is a predisposition to respondin particular ways toward specific things.

2. A(n) __________ occurs when people seem toreach different conclusions about a message aftera period of time has elapsed.

3. Trying to explain one’s behavior to reduce cogni-tive dissonance is called __________.

4. __________ occurs when a person wants todefine himself or herself in terms of a person orgroup and therefore adopts the person’s orgroup’s attitudes.

5. Your __________ is how you see or describeyourself.

6. The most extreme means of changing attitudes iscalled __________.

7. __________ occurs when a person yields to thedesires or demands of others to avoid discomfortor to gain approval.

8. A(n) __________ occurs when people dislike theindividual delivering a message and respond bytaking the opposite point of view.

9. The unequal treatment of members of certaingroups is called __________.

10. __________ occurs when a person wholeheart-edly accepts an attitude, and the attitudebecomes an integral part of the person.

Self-Check QuizVisit the Understanding Psychology Web site at glencoe.com and click on Chapter 20—Self-CheckQuizzes to prepare for the Chapter Test.

a. attitudeb. compliancec. identificationd. internalizatione. self-justification

f. discriminationg. self-concepth. boomerang effecti. sleeper effectj. brainwashing

Recalling Facts1. In what three ways are attitudes formed?2. Using a diagram similar to the one below, iden-

tify and describe two methods of delivering apersuasive message.

3. Which cognitive act are people engaging inwhen they convince themselves that they didnot like the victim of their aggressive act?

4. What will be the effect on listeners if you use avery emotional appeal or if you pressure them toadopt your point of view?

5. What is the goal of brainwashing? How doesbrainwashing work?

Critical Thinking1. Evaluating Information Attitudes come from a

variety of sources. Using the information in thechapter, what source do you think was mostinfluential in establishing your attitudes? Why doyou think so?

2. Analyzing Information There are three process-es involved in changing attitudes. Provide exam-ples of an attitude being changed in each of thethree ways. Explain which process is the mostlasting process for changing attitudes and why.

3. Applying Concepts What are two ways thatyou can help reduce prejudice in your school orcommunity?

4. Making Inferences One of the primary objec-tives of advertising is to get the viewers or listen-ers to remember the product. To what extent doyou think familiarity with brand names influ-ences your choices in the market?

5. Synthesizing Information Think of a recentlocal or national political campaign. Focus onthe kinds of persuasion techniques used by thecandidates. How did they use central route pro-cessing? Peripheral route processing?

PSYCHOLOGY


Methods of Message Delivery

Reviewing Vocabulary1. a 6. j2. i 7. b3. e 8. h4. c 9. f 5. g 10. d

Recalling Facts1. Attitudes are formed by compliance, identifi-

cation, and internalization. Complianceoccurs when people adapt to the wishes ofothers to avoid rejection and gain support.Identification occurs when a person wants todefine himself or herself in terms of a per-son or group and, therefore, adopts the per-son’s or group’s attitudes and behavior.Internalization is the incorporation of values,ideas, and standards of others as part ofoneself.

2. Diagrams should include the following—central processing route and peripheral pro-cessing route. The central route focuses onpresenting information consisting of strongfacts and arguments. The peripheral routefocuses on emotional appeals, emphasizingpersonal traits or positive feelings.

3. self-justification; They are rationalizing theirattitudes and behavior.

4. Some listeners may take the opposite pointof view (boomerang effect) or stop listeningcompletely.

5. The purpose is to break down people’sconvictions and introduce new beliefs andbehaviors. Methods include the following:subject person to intense personal pressureand stress; inflict punishment for unre-formed behavior; give rewards for coopera-tion and inoculation of new attitudes.

Critical Thinking1. Answers will vary. Encourage students to

consider when these attitudes were formedand who or what was the primary influence.

2. Answers should include examples of compliance, identifi-cation, and internalization. Internalization is the mostlasting process because a person’s reasons for holdingcertain views have nothing to do with other people. Theyare based on that person’s own evaluation of the issue.

3. Answers will vary but might mention avoiding prejudge-ment and treating people as individuals, not members of a group.

4. In assessing the effect of advertising on purchasing deci-sions, students should use specific examples and men-tion components of the communication process.

5. Encourage students to bring to class print advertise-ments demonstrating each processing route. If students

are aware of any video or audio advertisements, encour-age them to record the advertisements and share themwith the class.

Psychology Projects1. Projects should include visuals that represent the culture

being explored.2. Display the cartoons around the class and give students

time to review one another’s work. Then review as a classthe suggestions for eliminating stereotypes.

3. Challenge students to create storyboards showing howthey would get the message across.

4. If no campaigns are ongoing, suggest that students

PSYCHOLOGY

Have students visit the Web site atglencoe.com to review Chapter20 and take the Self-Check Quiz.

AssessmentAssessment20

For a review ofChapter 20 content,see MindJogger

Checkpoint on Presentation Plus!

http://glencoe.com

http://glencoe.com

599

Psychology Projects1. Attitude Formation Use a variety of sources to

find examples of the ways in which culture influ-ences attitudes. Find out about attitudes in otherplaces of the world and compare those attitudesto ones in this country. Present your findings inan illustrated, captioned poster.

2. Prejudice Use magazine and newspaper arti-cles to find out about common stereotypestoward groups such as teenagers and the elderly.Create a cartoon illustrating these stereotypesand provide suggestions for eliminating them.

3. Persuasion Choose some issue on which youhave a strong opinion. If you were given an unlimited budget, how would you go aboutpersuading people to agree with you? In a written report, describe the sources you wouldemploy, the channels you would use, the con-tent of your message, and the audience youwould try to reach.

4. Attitude Change Study a recent or ongoingpolitical campaign. What attitudinal change andpersuasive strategies are being used? Collectexamples of the strategies and report your find-ings in a brief presentation.

Technology ActivityLocate examples of persuasion tech-niques used by advertisers on the

Internet. Print out pages of the advertisements andexplain the techniques used to influence consumers.How effective do you think these advertisements arein changing people’s attitudes?

Psychology Journal After reading the chapter and class discus-sions, would you revise the definition of

prejudice that you wrote at the beginning of thischapter’s study? In your journal, write a one-pagepaper explaining whether or not prejudice isunavoidable.

Assessment


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Practice and assess key social studiesskills with Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook CD-ROM, Level 2.

Building SkillsIdentifying Cause-and-Effect Relationships Reviewthe advertisement below, then answer the questionsthat follow.

1. Which function of attitudes does this advertise-ment illustrate?

2. Do you think this advertisement is an effectivepersuasive communication tool? Explain youranswer.

See the Skills Handbook, page 624, for anexplanation of identifying cause-and-effect

relationships.

Building Skills1. The advertisement was created to alter the

reader’s attitude and act as a guideline toaction.

2. Answers will vary, but might include refer-ences to models of persuasion or elementsof the communication process.

AssessmentAssessment

explore a local or national issue and identify the persua-sive strategies being employed by each side of the issue.

Technology ActivityAs a class, discuss whether Internet advertising should be reg-ulated. If so, describe the regulations and who should do theregulating. If not, discuss the potential impact of violent or sex-ually explicit advertising on children.

Psychology JournalEncourage students to consider how prejudice is harmful andhelpful. Students’ revised definitions should reflect insightsobtained after reading the chapter.

This question may be used for extracredit on the Chapter Assessment.Answer the following question:When people’s attitudes andbehavior match, they haveachieved what?Answer: cognitive consistency

Chapter BonusTest Question

CD-ROMGlencoe Skillbuilder Inter-active Workbook, Level 2

This interactive CD-ROM isdesigned to reinforce student mastery of essential social studiesskills.

600

ou might think that the president of a major universitywould show some contrition afterbeing slapped down by a panel

of federal judges. But when an appealscourt ruled last month that the University of Georgia had discriminatedagainst white applicants in favor ofblacks—and had systematically violatedthe 14th Amendment—UGA presidentMichael Adams calmly turned the other cheek. “Sometimes,” he said, “youare defined by the battles in which you engage rather than by those you win.”

“Our policy is fully constitutional,”echoed Lee Bollinger, president of theUniversity of Michigan, whose lawschool is fighting a similar lawsuit charg-ing it with discriminating against whites.“This is not the moment to back away.”

In other words, buzz off. That’s right: courts and universities

are at each other’s throats, and onceagain the issue is race. If you are oldenough to remember black-and-whiteTV, you saw the footage the last go-round: federal judges ordering all-white universities in the South toopen their doors to blacks. But in thenew millennium, the sides have flipped.Now the schools are the ones trying tousher in minority students with broad affirmative-action policies. And thecourts—and, in California, voters andthe regents—have been striking downthose policies.

Each side in this legal tug-of-war isfighting for a deeply held principle.Backers of the recent rulings say thecourts are ushering in a laudable “post-affirmative action” era—when peoplewill be judged as individuals, not asmembers of groups. But opponents argue—as did many reparations advocates at the recently concludedU.N. racism conference in South Africa—that the slave trade’s effects have not yetbeen erased, and it is far too soon to dismantle programs designed to increaseminorities’ access to higher education.

What has academic administratorsaround the country so worried is thatthey know rulings like the UGA decision could dramatically change theracial makeup of their campuses. TheBerkeley campus of the University ofCalifornia saw this firsthand when itwas forced by California’s Proposition209 to switch to race-blind admissions.Underrepresented minorities in the student body dropped sharply, from 25%to 11%. At the University of Texas Schoolof Law, the number of black first-yearsfell to just four the year after the schoolwas ordered to adopt race-blind admissions—from 38 the year before.

Universities are not openly defyingthe courts. In states where they havebeen ordered—as UGA was—to stop using formulas that give extra pointsto minority applicants, they have complied. But what they can do—andhave done—is fight back with a range ofnew programs and policies designed to

maintain minority enrollment whilewalking the new legal lines set by thecourts. No school has worked harder todo this than U.T.’s law school, which in1996 was hit by a suit, Hopwood v. Texas;the ruling in that case removed race as aconsideration in admissions.

The law school has since enlistedhigh-profile alumni such as Dallas mayor Ron Kirk and Texas secretary ofstate Henry Cuellar to write to minorityapplicants to encourage them to come. ATexas state senator talked airlines intodonating tickets so out-of-state blackscan visit the campus. And although theschool itself is prohibited from offeringrace-based scholarships, U.T. alumnihave stepped in to help. Last year U.T.’salumni association, the Texas Exes, gavenearly $400,000 in aid to 31 Hispanics,

600 TIME, September 17, 2001

Y

Coloring the CampusIt’s like the 1960s in reverse: the schools are trying to integrate, and the courts won’t let them

By ADAM COHEN

This activity works well for a block-scheduling framework.

Reader’s Dictionary

Review the following terms withstudents to help them read andunderstand the article.

contrition: remorse for one’sactions; penitenceaffirmative-action policies:regulations designed to provideequal opportunities to groupsharmed by discriminationregents: members of the boardof governors of an institutionlaudable: praiseworthyreparations: money or otheraction to compensate for pastdamagesproxies: alternates empoweredto act in the place of anotherPSY: 14A

C L I C K H E R E

Visit www.time.com/teach for the complete text of this article,as well as related articles on thesubject.

REPORTS

Surveying Attitudes Toward Affirmative Action Organize students into groups offour. Ask each group to prepare and conduct a survey to investigate attitudes toward affirmativeaction. For example, the surveys might ask if a respondent thinks affirmative-action policiesshould be expanded, kept at the same level, or reduced. Have each group collect 25 responsesfrom teens and 25 responses from adults. Be sure the surveys are totally anonymous; age (teenor adult) should be the only biographical information on the questionnaires. Each group shouldgraph and present its data to the class. BLOCK SCHEDULING


601

28 blacks and one Native American. Thepayoff: black enrollment is up—to 16this fall from the low of four the yearafter Hopwood.

The state of Texas responded toHopwood with the now-famous “top10%” law that guarantees a place in thestate university system to any studentwho graduates in the top 10% of his orher class. Because many Texas highschools are not well integrated, the top10% in some schools is almost all minorities. U.T. officials have boostedthe program by offering scholarshipsto top percenters at 70 high schools in Dallas, Houston, San Antonio and other underrepresented—and heavilyblack and Latino—areas. Minority enrollment in the U.T. undergraduateprogram is actually higher today than

before Hopwood rewrote the rules. These programs and policies are

generating a new debate. To supportersof affirmative action, they work to keephigher education inclusive while stayingwithin the letter of the law. But opponents of affirmative action are crying foul. Ward Connerly, the regentwho wrote California’s Proposition 209,argues that many of the ideas being proposed in California, like reducingthe academic track, are “designed to

be proxies for points”—ways of tippingthe scales without engaging in the kindof blatant favoritism struck down inGeorgia.

Both sides of this debate claim to beworking for diversity. The Georgia appeals court said UGA’s inflexible formula, which assigned extra points toblacks, made the mistake of assumingthat groups, rather than individuals, adddiversity to a campus. “A white applicantfrom a disadvantaged rural area in Appalachia may well have more to offera Georgia public university such asUGA—from the standpoint of diversity—than a nonwhite applicant from an affluent family and a suburban Atlantahigh school,” the court wrote.

But supporters of more traditionalapproaches to affirmative action say raceremains key. “You can be diverse andnot have affirmative action,” says RichardBlack, U.C. Berkeley’s associate vicechancellor for admissions and enroll-ment. “But the kind of diversity that youget from bringing oboe players andstamp collectors together is different.”

The Georgia, Michigan and Texassuits all focused on admissions formulasand the extra points given to minorityapplicants. But if those decisions holdup, expect to see affirmative-action critics turn their attention to the newer,subtler affirmative-action policies. Thesame week the court issued the UGAruling, the University of Florida announced, in response to an Office ofCivil Rights directive, that it was changing its scholarship criteria to reduce the role of race. The move wasa reminder that in the ongoing assaulton affirmative action, these secondaryforms of assistance—including outreach programs, new admissions criteria and targeted scholarships—may be the nextbattleground. π

—For the complete text of this article and related

articles from TIME, please visit www.time.com/teach

TIME, September 17, 2001 601

A n a l y z i n g t h e A r t i c l e

1. Describe the two sides of today’s affirmative-action debate.2. CRITICAL THINKING Do you think U.S. society is ready to

move into a “post-affirmative action” era? Why or why not?

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Questions for DiscussionUse the following questions for aclass discussion after students haveread the article.1. How might the phenomenon of

self-fulfilling prophecy affectattempts to integrate society?(People who hold negative stereo-types of other groups will beinclined to treat individuals fromthat group in a cold, unfriendlyfashion. This sort of treatment willlikely get a negative response,which a prejudiced person theninterprets as evidence the preju-dice is justified.)

2. What motives or factors mightaffect an individual’s attitudetoward affirmative-action policies?(Encourage students to discussboth social justice and any hiddenmotives that might exist. For exam-ple, a person in a privileged posi-tion may be afraid of losing power,money, or prestige if affirmative-action policies are instituted.)

3. Do you think schools will be ableto recruit minority students if thecourts continue to strike downaffirmative-action policies?(Answers will vary. Encouragestudents to discuss alternativemeasures being taken in stateswhere affirmative-action policiesare no longer in place.)

A n s w e r s t o A n a l y z i n g t h e A r t i c l e

1. One side feels that affirmative action is no longer nec-essary. This side maintains we are ready to treat individ-uals strictly on merit. The other side feels affirmativeaction is still needed. In this view, the harsh effects ofracism and discrimination are still felt; therefore, societyneeds affirmative-action policies to create equal oppor-tunities for all people.

2. Answers will vary. Some students may suggest thatmuch progress has been made and that affirmativeaction is no longer necessary. Others may believe thatsociety does not yet offer people of different racesequal opportunities.

Explain to students that connectingmeans relating what they alreadyknow about a subject to what theyare now reading about the subject.

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