Celestial Navigation in the USA, Fiji, and Tunisia (2015)

SEAC 2011 Stars and Stones: Voyages in Archaeoastronomy

and Cultural Astronomy Proceedings of the SEAC 2011 Conference

Edited by

F. PimentaN. Ribeiro

F. SilvaN. CampionA. JoaquinitoL. Tirapicos

BAR International Series 27202015

Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium

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ArchaeopressPublishers of British Archaeological ReportsGordon House276 Banbury RoadOxford OX2 [email protected]

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SEAC 2011 Stars and Stones: Voyages in Archaeoastronomy and Cultural Astronomy Proceedings of the SEAC 2011 Conference

© Archaeopress and the individual authors 2015

ISBN 978 1 4073 1373 3

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Hadrian Books Ltd122 Banbury RoadOxfordOX2 7BPEngland

F. PIMENTA, N. RIBEIRO, F. SILVA, N. CAMPION, A. JOAQUINITO, L. TIRAPICOS (EDS.)

STARS AND STONESCopyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium

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//table of contents//acknowledgements 11

//proceedings 15

01. OPENING AND PUBLIC LECTURE 17 VOYAGES GUIDED BY THE SKIES: ANCIENT CONCEPTS OF EXPLORING AND DOMESTICATING TIME AND SPACE ACROSS CULTURESMichael A. Rappenglück 18

VOYAGES OF THE ZODIAC, AN IMPENITENT TRAVELLER ACROSS LANDS AND AGESJuan Antonio Belmonte 28

02. ASTRONOMICAL NAVIGATION. AN ENCOUNTER OF WORLDS 37 THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NAUTICAL ASTROLABE: NEWS FROM A SHIPWRECK IN NAMIBIAJosé Manuel Malhão Pereira 38

Recumbent arrangement. Photograph by courtesy of Liz Henty.


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F. PIMENTA, N. RIBEIRO, F. SILVA, N. CAMPION, A. JOAQUINITO, L. TIRAPICOS (EDS.): STARS AND STONES

CELESTIAL NAVIGATION IN THE USA, FIJI, AND TUNISIA Jarita C. Holbrook 48

THE PROBLEM OF LONGITUDE IN THE 18TH CENTURY: JORGE JUAN, ANTONIO DE ULLOA AND THE EXPEDITION OF THE PARIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TO THE KINGDOM OF PERUManuel Pérez Gutiérrez 52

STAR-PATHS, STONES AND HORIZON ASTRONOMY Bernadette Brady 58

PROTOHISTORIC AND HISTORICAL ATLANTIC NAVIGATION: ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FROM THE AZORESRibeiro, Nuno; Joaquinito, Anabela; Pimenta, Fernando; Sauren, Herbert; Rodrigues, António Félix; Costa, Antonieta; Pereira, António Sérgio; Juliano, Maria de Fraga; Fernandes, Joaquim; Freitas, Ricardo; Ventura, Ricardo; and Tirapicos, Luís 64

03. ARCHAEOASTRONOMICAL VOYAGES IN ANTIQUITY, EGYPT, MIDDLE EAST AND MEDITERRANEAN 71 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SACRED LANDSCAPE OF SAQQARA IN THE OLD KINGDOMGiulio Magli 72

ORIENTATIONS OF THE VILLAS AT TYLISSOS ON CRETE AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS TO THE MINOAN CALENDARGöran Henriksson, Mary Blomberg 80

DEFINING ASTROLOGY IN ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL HISTORYNicholas Campion 84

ORION IN HOMER: IS IT A TERRESTRIAL, AN ASTRAL OR AN ASTRONOMICAL MYTH?Manuela Revello 90

HIMERA AND PYRGI: THE DIAGONALS AND THE ALIGNMENTS OF THE TEMPLESMarcello Ranieri 94

PLATO’S COSMIC THEOLOGY: A RATIONALE FOR A POLYTHEISTIC ASTROLOGY?André Henriques 100

ANCIENT TOPOMETRY, THE TRACING OF TOWNS IN THE ROMAN EPOCH: ULPIA TRAIANA DACICA SARMIZEGETUSA – ROMANIA. SECOND PARTFlorin Stanescu 106

04. ETHNOASTRONOMICAL VOYAGES IN AFRICA, ASIA, EUROPE AND OCEANIA 111 READING ALIEN LANDSCAPES: THICK VERSUS THIN DESCRIPTIONS IN ARCHAEOASTRONOMYJ. McKim Malville 112

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF TEMPLE ORIENTATION IN ANCIENT INDIAAlba Aller, Juan Antonio Belmonte 120

THE COSMOS IN PORTUGUESE POPULAR TRADITION: A BIBLIOGRAPHIC AND FIELDWORK APPROACHCatarina Oliveira 124

ON THE INTERCOURSE BETWEEN INDIAN AND THE ARABIC/PERSIAN ASTROLOGIESAudrius Beinorius 130


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05. ETHNOASTRONOMICAL VOYAGES IN NORTH AMERICA, MESOAMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA 139 SHAKING EDEN: VOYAGES, BODIES AND CHANGE IN THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF SOUTH AMERICAN SKIESAlejandro Martín López 140

SKY TRAVELERS: COSMOLOGICAL EXPERIENCES AMONG EVANGELICAL INDIANS FROM THE ARGENTINIAN CHACOAgustina Altman 148

06. ARCHAEOASTRONOMICAL VOYAGES IN PALEOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC CULTURES 155 NOTES ON ARCHAEOASTRONOMY IN PORTUGAL: FROM FIRST LIGHT TO DARK MOONCândido Marciano da Silva 156

A VOYAGE AROUND THE RECUMBENT STONE CIRCLES OF NORTH-EAST SCOTLANDLiz Henty 164

DANISH PASSAGE GRAVES, ‘SPRING/SUMMER/FALL FULL MOONS’ AND LUNAR STANDSTILLSClaus Jørgen Clausen 170

DITCHED ENCLOSURES IN SOUTHERN PORTUGAL: AN ARCHAEOASTRONOMICAL VIEWJ. Mejuto, A. Carlos Valera, J. Gómez Castaño, G. Rodríguez-Caderot, Helmut Becker 176

POSSIBLE ASTRONOMICAL INTENTIONALITY IN THE NEOLITHIC MNAJDRA SOUTH TEMPLE IN MALTATore Lomsdalen 182

ASTRONOMICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL ORIENTATION OF KREIS GRABEN ANLAGEN IN LOWER AUSTRIAGeorg Zotti, Wolfgang Neubauer 188

OUT OF AFRICA: THE SOLARIZATION OF THE MOONLionel Sims 200

A POSSIBLE ASTRONOMICALLY ALIGNED: MONOLITH AT GARDOM’S EDGEDaniel Brown, Andy Alder, Elizabeth Bemand 208

07. ARCHAEOASTRONOMICAL VOYAGES IN CHALCOLITHIC, BRONZE AND IRON AGES 215 A PLACE ALONG THE WAY: CONTEXTUALISING FINDINGS FROM THE IRON AGE POST ENCLOSURE AT LISMULLIN, CO. MEATH, IRELANDFrank Prendergast 216

OPEN AIR ROCK ART BETWEEN ALVA AND CEIRA RIVERS: A VOYAGE THROUGH MINING, TRADING, TRANSHUMANCE ROUTES AND THE ORIENTATION IN THE LANDSCAPEF. Pimenta, N. Ribeiro, A.Smith, A. Joaquinito, S. Pereira and L. Tirapicos 224

ASTRONOMICAL ORIENTATIONS IN SANCTUARIES OF DAUNIAE. Antonello, V.F. Polcaro, A.M. Tunzi Sisto, M. Lo Zupone 236

FROM HILLFORTS TO SAINTS: SUN TROPOI AND PATTERNS OF CHRISTIANIZATION IN NW SPAINMarco V. García Quintela, A. César González García, Yolanda Seoane Veiga 240

ASTRONOMICAL ASPECTS OF KRAKOW’S MONUMENTAL MOUNDS Joanna Kozakiewicz 246


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A MYTH IN CELTIBERIAN ASTRONOMYM.ª Pilar Burillo-Cuadrado 252

THE ASTRONOMICAL SANCTUARY OF THE CELTIBERIAN TOWN OF SEGEDA (MARA, ZARAGOZA, SPAIN) Francisco Burillo-Mozota, Manuel Pérez-Gutiérrez 256

MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF THE GOBUSTAN: SUNDIAL OBSERVATORYAbasali Rustamov, Gunay Rustamova 260

08. ARCHAEOASTRONOMICAL VOYAGES IN MEDIEVAL TIME IN ORIENT AND OCCIDENT 267 A VOYAGE OF CHRISTIAN MEDIEVAL ASTRONOMY: SYMBOLIC, RITUAL AND POLITICAL ORIENTATION OF CHURCHESA. César González-García 268

TRANSIENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS AS INSPIRATION SOURCES OF MEDIEVAL ART. III: THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES, AND THE CASE OF THE FRENCH “ORDRE DE L’ÉTOILE”F. Bònoli, M. Incerti, V.F. Polcaro 276

ENGLISH MEDIEVAL CHURCHES, ‘FESTIVAL ORIENTATION’ AND WILLIAM WORDSWORTHPeter G. Hoare, Hans Ketel 286

09. HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY: AN ENCOUNTER OF CULTURES 295 GODS, DEMONS AND DECEIVERS: JESUITS FACING CHACO SKIESAlejandro Martín López 296

BOSCOVICH, THE BRERA OBSERVATORY AND THE ENLIGHTENMENTElio Antonello 302

ARCHAEOLOGY AND ASTRONOMY. A 300-YEAR VOYAGEJody Morellato 306

ASTRONOMY AND “AZULEJO” PANELS IN PORTUGUESE JESUIT COLLEGESRosário Salema de Carvalho, Samuel Gessner, Luís Tirapicos 314

THE ROLE OF CULTURAL ASTRONOMY IN BRIDGING THE SNOW’S “TWO CULTURES”: SOME ITALIAN EXPERIENCESV. F. Polcaro 318

EVANGELISTA TORRICELLI AND ASTRONOMYRosa María Herrera 322

10. ROUND TABLE: TO WHERE IS ARCHAEOASTRONOMY VOYAGING? ARCHAEOASTRONOMY, CULTURAL ASTRONOMY AND EDUCATION 327 NAVIGATING BETWEEN THE SCYLLA OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM AND CHARYBDIS OF LOGICAL EMPIRICISM: THE CONSTRUCTION OF FACTS IN ARCHAEOASTRONOMYStanisław Iwaniszewski 328

WHERE IS CULTURAL ASTRONOMY GOING?Lionel Sims 336


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Introduction

Why do people continue to use the stars for navigation at night? This is the central question of a five-year ethnoastronomy project to study the people who use the stars for navigation at night and why they are not using the many electronic navigational aids that are available. I began the project by searching for people who use the stars for navigation at night. Most anthropological research into navigation using the stars has taken place in the Pacific (Goodenough 1953; Gladwin 1970; Lewis 1972; Lewis 1978; Finney 1994; Ammarell 1995; Ammarell 1999). In contrast, the rest of the world is underrepresented. However, through academic and personal networks I discovered that most coastal communities have people who navigate by the stars. The issue quickly switched from finding communities to limiting the project to three sites. I used several criteria to narrow the sites down to Moce Island in Fiji, the Kerkennah Islands in Tunisia, and the United States Naval Academy. The three sites may not have obvious connections especially given that they are in three regions of the world, one group is Muslim, and one is in an institutional setting. However, I chose the three sites because of four factors: 1. The people there use the stars for navigating at night. 2. They navigate on the ocean. 3. Their navigational practices are changing. 4. They were politically stable and safe places for women to do research alone. Another factor that became important later when I took my children to my field sites was that none of these sites have malaria. Moreover, although the navigational practices of some Fijians have been recorded (Thompson 1940; Neyret 1950; Hocart 1929), there was no information about the navigational practices of the people of Moce Island until my study. An extensive ethnography of the Kerkennah Islanders was published in the 1960s

(Louis 1961) that includes some navigation information; my findings add information about how their navigational techniques have changed since then. The inclusion of the Naval Academy brings attention to the fact that the U.S. Military continues to use celestial navigation, and it brings a United States field site into ethnoastronomy research, which traditionally has not focused on populations in first world countries outside of Native American communities. Employing anthropological data collection methods including snowball sampling, formal and informal interviews, participant observation, audio and videotaping, and using my background in physics and astronomy along with qualitative analysis methods, I was able to answer the driving question of this project. In the following, I focus on the navigational techniques and the sky knowledge of the navigators, and consider the role of new navigational technologies in the framework of the meeting of two worlds.

Figure 1. Kerkennah Fisherman with Live Fish Trap.

The navigators were male, ranging in age from 23 to over 100 years old. The oldest navigators were found on

CELESTIAL NAVIGATION IN THE USA, FIJI, AND TUNISIA

Jarita C. Holbrook1

[email protected] - Women and Gender Studies, University of California, Los Angeles

Abstract: Today there are many coastal communities that are home to navigators who use stars for position finding at night; I was, however, unaware of this fact when I began researching celestial navigation practices in 1997. My project focused on three communities: the Moce Islanders of Fiji, the Kerkennah Islanders in Tunisia, and the U.S. Navy officers and students at the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland. My goal was to answer the question of why people continue to navigate by the stars, but also to understand the role of technology in their navigation practices. Using anthropology techniques of ethnography including participant observation, formal and informal interviews, audio and videotaping, I gathered data over five years at the three communities. I began by learning the details of how they use the stars for navigation. Next, I learned about who did the navigation and where they learned to navigate. I gathered opinions on various navigation aids and instruments, and opinions about the future of using the stars for navigation. I listened to the stories that they told about navigating. In the United States I worked in English, in Fiji, in Fijian and English, and in Tunisia, French and English. For the formal interviews I worked with translators. The navigators use stars for navigating today but the future of their techniques is not certain. Though practiced today, these celestial navigation traditions have undergone and continue to undergo changes. New navigational technologies are part of the stimulation for change, thus ‘a meeting of different worlds’ is symbolized by peoples encounters with these technologies. Keywords: Ethnoastronomy, Celestial Navigation, North Africa, Pacific, United States, Military, Tunisia, Fiji, United States Naval Academy.

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the Kerkennah Islands. Their education included some secondary school for all of the navigators; while the middle aged and younger navigators had all graduated from secondary school, some had college and professional degrees. At the Naval Academy everyone had a university degree and the students, of course, were working towards theirs. I spoke with two women navigators on the Kerkennah Islands, and with one woman who knew how to navigate on Moce Island.

Navigational Techniques

At all three sites, the navigators use many different methods for navigating during the day and at night. They travel on the ocean for different reasons: On Moce Island, they travel by boat for fishing and for transportation. The Kerkennah navigators go out on the ocean for fishing. The United States Navy travels on the ocean for military purposes.

Table 1. Navigational Methods

The navigational methods for the most part are coupled to the local marine environment at each site. The shallow waters allow the Kerkennah Islanders to use bathymetric navigation using a long pole for finding position. With the long pole, they can determine if the bottom is sandy, rocky, or covered in sea grasses as well as measuring the depth of the water. They know where these features are as they travel through the surrounding waters. The Moce Islanders are rarely out of sight of a reef or an island; they know the shape of the profile of each island from all directions of approach. Thus, primarily they use visual markers for finding position during the day.

The United States Naval Academy is located on Chesapeake Bay, but their location is irrelevant because they are trained to navigate in all marine environments. The US Navy uses a combination of visual markers, Global Positioning System, and sun sights via celestial navigation (see next section) to check their position, but keeps track of position by noting the direction of travel and speed of the ship, and current speeds and directions that would affect the ship (aka dead reckoning). They estimate their position several minutes in the future using these values and physics equations and then check their position using the above-mentioned navigation aids. SONAR and RADAR are used close to shore more often than in the

open ocean.

Figure 2. Moce Men preparing to go fishing at night.

The big question is why all the navigators are not using GPS. It is available at each site and the price for a unit is not prohibitive. The answer lies in the use of nautical charts: the longitude and latitude provided by GPS is not useful without a chart. The Kerkennah and Moce navigators do not use charts, thus they do not use GPS.

Navigation by the Stars

The Kerkennah Islanders look to the north to find Ursa Major, then use the pointing stars to find Polaris. Once they find Polaris, they know which direction to travel at night relative to their starting position and the star. The Moce Islanders have two celestial navigation methods: the old method uses the Sun, Moon, and Venus as rough markers for east and west as they are rising and setting. The new method uses stars that are in the sky in the direction of travel. It is a method of convenience in that the stars used are not known and do not have any special significance: they are just in the right direction. Likewise, bright and dim stars are used. As the stars move during the night other stars are chosen in the right direction to maintain their course of travel. The U.S. Navy is limited to using celestial navigation three times a day: at dawn twilight, at dusk twilight, and at local apparent noon. At noon, they use the position of the sun (sun sights), and during twilights they use familiar bright stars. Unlike the Kerkennah and Moce Islanders, they need tools to do celestial navigation correctly: paper, pencil, sextant, a watch, and either sight reduction tables or a calculator. The equations for converting the altitude of a celestial body above the horizon into a latitude are found in figure 3 and the equations for longitude are:

Equation 1: Greenwich Hour Angle Equation: GHA = GHA + SHA.Using the calculated value of the meridian angle, “t”, see Figure 3:

Equation 2: Longitude Equations:t = LHA = GHA - West Longitude of the Observer/Ship


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ort = LHA = GHA + East Longitude of the Observer/Ship

Changes in Navigation

The Kerkennah Islanders are not teaching their children how to navigate using Polaris. They are only teaching them a few methods that they use just to get to their fish farms and return. They want their children to get an education, go on to college, and become professionals. They do not want them to become fishermen. They have limited their children’s fishing activities to morning and evening when they are not in school. The children do homework and sleep at night rather than go fishing. The Moce Islanders have changed their celestial method of navigation because of a change in boating technology. They used to be sailors dependent upon the wind. Now they use outboard motors that allow them to travel in straight lines rather than tacking. Thus, now they use the stars as beacons. At the U.S. Naval Academy in 1998 committees assessing the curriculum suggested that celestial navigation be removed (Curriculum 21 Committee of the United States Naval Academy May 1998; Pasachoff 1998; Garigliano 1998; New York Times May 21, 1998; New York Times May 22, 1998; Barron May 23, 1998; Maloney May 23, 1998; Chen May 29, 1998).

Figure 3. Calculation of Latitude from Altitude

The Naval Academy decided to continue to teach celestial navigation against these suggestions, but now they teach only celestial navigation theory. The issue is time; with so many new electronic navigation aids used by the Navy, the Naval Academy students need to have a working knowledge of all of these. So, time is taken away from celestial navigation to accommodate these. Further, GPS works on the same principles as celestial navigation; thus

the theory is critical to understanding how and why GPS works.

What is the future of navigation by the stars at these sites? The Kerkennah Islands has already experienced a decrease in the number of young people who know how to navigate by Polaris; however, families who daily and seasonally fish in different places do teach this method to their sons. The Moce Islanders have recently adopted navigation by the stars and will probably continue to use the stars. The United States Naval Academy will continue to debate about whether to keep celestial navigation in the curriculum, but until the GPS is legal to use on its own, they are required by law to have a check of all instruments that is independent of electricity: celestial navigation.

Astronomy & Cosmology

The navigators in these three communities have a functional relationship with the sky and celestial bodies. Celestial bodies are there to aid them in navigation. In general, the navigators did not know very much about individual stars, legends, or myths about the stars. They tended to know the same number of things about the sky that everyone else in their community did; they did not know more. On Moce, misperceptions about Venus included that it was two objects, and that these two objects rose and set every day. Probably, they were referring generally to planets not to Venus in particular. Among the officers teaching navigation at the Naval Academy, most did not know details of constellations and particular star names other than the circumpolar Cassiopeia and Ursa Major, which both can be used to find Polaris. Stars used for celestial navigation were found using star charts rather than from memory. Additionally, the navigators’ sky knowledge does not appear to be entwined with their religion or any cosmological concepts.

Conclusions

The following methods are used by navigators at all three field sites: visual markers, wind, depth, and celestial bodies. The U.S. Navy uses navigational aids such as laser, gyro and marine compasses and electromagnetic wave equipment such as Loran-C, Radio Beacons, and GPS. All of these are available on the commercial ships in Fiji and Tunisia but not among the local navigators. In order to be used by the local navigators they would need to have nautical charts and a steady supply of batteries. Even though many of the new technologies – the electronic navigational aids – were developed by the U.S. Navy, there was a lag time before they were adopted into the USNA curriculum. Studying the curriculum records, the greatest lag time identified was ten years, which was for the Gyrocompass. Thus, if the encounter with new technologies symbolizes the interaction with new worlds, the navigators in this study did not and do not automatically adopt or embrace these new worlds.

This project brings to ethnoastronomy a new site in

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North Africa which has traditionally been the focus of only archaeoastronomy research (Belmonte et al. 1998; Belmonte et al. 2002; Belmonte et al. 2003), a U.S. Military site; it is a multi-site comparison unlike any other ethnoastronomy research project. More details about this project can be found in the forthcoming book titled ‘Following the Stars: The Use of Celestial Bodies in Modern Navigation.’ (Holbrook Forthcoming USP Press).

Acknowledgments

This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 98006529, No. 0003234, and No. 0233967. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

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Celestial Navigation in the USA, Fiji, and Tunisia (2015)

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