Ce document est le fruit d'un long travail approuvé par le jury de

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École Doctorale Stanislas

Les contours de l´ intervention en ergonomie prospective: Analyse comparative de l´ ergonomie prospective et du design stratégique dans 12 études de cas

A framework for prospective ergonomics: Comparative studies of strategic design and prospective ergonomics based on 12 cases Thèse de l’Université de Lorraine Soutenue par André LIEM en vue de l’obtention du Doctorat en Ergonomie Sous la direction d’Éric Brangier, Professeur des Universités Laboratoire PErSEUs (Psychologie Ergonomique et Sociale pour l'Expérience Utilisateurs) Jury : Pr. Dr. AOUSSAT Améziane, ENSAM-Paris, rapporteur. Pr. Dr. BANNON Liam, University of Limerick, examinateur. Pr. Dr. BRANGIER, Eric, Université de Lorraine, directeur. Pr. Dr. DINET, Jérôme, Université de Lorraine, examinateur. Pr. Dr. ROBERT Jean-Marc, École Polytechnique de Montréal, rapporteur.

Année 2015

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For Emily and Hans

In Memory of My Grandmother:

Anna Oei Gwat-‐Nio

1916 – 2014

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Acknowledgements This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree philosphiae doctor (PhD) at the University of Lorraine. The author declares that this thesis and the work presented in it are his own and have been generated by him as the result of original research before and while in candidature for the degree of Philosphiae Doctor at the University of Lorraine. The thesis contains no material that was previously submitted for a degree at this University or any other institution. The actual research has been carried out at the University of Lorraine, Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Department of Product Design (IPD), National University of Singapore (NUS), Department of Architecture, and Loughborough University of Technology (LUT), Department of Human Sciences. Having a background in Industrial Design Engineering, I also completed my M.Sc. thesis within the ergonomic design discipline, where I designed a new type of rucksack based upon research on load carrying, packing and unpacking. In my academic career, I have been exposed to different modes of design thinking and reasoning, which formed my worldview about business making, strategic design and “designing”. Transitioning back and forth from positivist to constructivist modes of designing and design thinking, I became gradually interested in the link between Prospective Ergonomics and Strategic Design. During this project, I noticed that my views on strategic and industrial design have changed. I have become more appreciative of constructive ways of working, accepting that objects, experiences and events may be developed more in an emergent rather than a planned way. Inevitably, this way of working also made me more aware that aiming for pluralistic goals in design and business management are more realistic to meet the expectations of stakeholders in today´s and future complex societies. First and foremost, I would also like to thank my supervisor Professor Dr. Eric Brangier for his valuable guidance, encouragement and support throughout the project. Without his guidance, criticism and willingness to act as a sparring partner for ideas, this project would never have been realised. Besides that, I would like to show my appreciation to my colleagues at the Norwegian University of Science & Technology, Department of Product Design and University of Lorraine, User Experience LAB (PErSEUs) for providing me with a supportive research environment. In terms of resources, I am indebted to NTNU, Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology for financing the final stages of my project and to allow me to consolidate my life-long research into a coherent “Thesis”. On a final note, I am very grateful of my family and friends, who have believed in me during this time, even when I have not been sure of myself. Above all, I would like to thank my wife Caroline for her personal support and great patience at all times. My parents have given me their unequivocal support throughout, as always, for which my mere expression of thanks likewise does not suffice.

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Résumé court Cette thèse milite en faveur d'une approche prospective en ergonomie et questionne les domaines du design stratégique (DS) en essayant de les mettre en perspective. Les différences, similarités et relations entre le DS et l'ergonomie prospective (EP) sont examinés en utilisant différentes théories et des cadres conceptuels du design, de l'ergonomie, du management stratégique et de la gestion de l'innovation. L'EP s'est développée à partir de l'ergonomie corrective et préventive en cherchant à voir « plus en avant dans le temps » et en mettant l'accent sur le contexte, l'expérience utilisateur et les processus centrés humain dans l'anticipation de futurs besoins et la construction de futurs systèmes, produits et services. Sur le plan applicatif, l'EP sensibilise les acteurs aux faits que l'anticipation des besoins des utilisateurs et l'invention de nouveaux produits et services sont essentiels à la survie des organisations et au développement de leurs écosystèmes d'affaires. Considérant la complexité des relations entre les éléments en développement – qu'il s'agisse des humains, des technologies et des contextes -, l'EP soutient les activités d'innovation centrées sur l'humain. Dans ce cadre, elle cherche, au moins en partie, à rendre possibles les développements futurs de produits et services, en prescrivant et utilisant des méthodes et des démarches centrées sur la construction du futur. Cette thèse sur travaux débute par un cadre théorique qui met en relation de l'EP et le DS à travers différents prismes d'analyse: des théories de gestion, des modèles d'innovation, des stratégies de raisonnement en design, des démarches et interventions en ergonomie. La partie théorique cherche donc à proposer un cadre de comparaison des différentes formes d'intervention en ergonomie et à l'appliquer à 12 cas. De plus, ce cadre de comparaison cherche à définir les modes de raisonnement en œuvre en conception (normatif, par résolution de problème, herméneutique, réflexif, participatif, social) car ils contribuent à la compréhension des pratiques et à la création de valeur. Puis viennent les questions de recherche qui visent à positionner l'EP par apport aux sciences du design d'une part, et, à en préciser les contours par rapport aux autres formes d'interventions ergonomiques, d'autre part. Les résultats portent sur une analyse comparée de 12 cas d'intervention en ergonomie corrective, préventive et prospective dans les domaines du transport, de la vie quotidienne, de l'enseignement, des systèmes d'aménagement intérieur, d'élevage des poissons, et plus globalement de projets d'innovation. Les résultats indiquent que l'innovation fondée sur l'EP cherche à mettre l'accent sur un équilibre entre, à la fois, la recherche de la rentabilité et du profit, la réalisation du bien-être social et humain, ainsi que la satisfaction des intérêts personnels et collectifs. Les résultats montrent également que l'ergonomie prospective amène les entreprises à plus se connecter aux stratégies « push-pull » que ne le fait l'ergonomie corrective ou préventive. Enfin, les résultats tendent à souligner que les approches normative et positiviste devraient être complétées par des plus constructivistes, créatives et réflexives, qui prennent en considération les perspectives de création de valeur proposées par l'EP. La discussion de ces résultats amène également à préciser les contours de l'EP et à suggérer des démarches pour en améliorer les effets et bénéfices pour l'humain et la société. Finalement des perspectives de recherche futures sont présentées autour des procédés, démarches, méthodes et modes de raisonnement pour le développement de l'EP dans les projets qui concerneraient (1) l´esthétique et le design d'expérience, (2) le design des

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transports (3) la culture, l'acculturation & le design interactif (4) La conception des services, (5) La conception inclusive et (6) La santé & design du bien-être

Mots clés : Ergonomie Prospective, Design Stratégique, Stratégies génériques, La création de valeur

Abstract in English This dissertation argues for a prospective turn in ergonomics to challenge the established fields of strategic design and management. Differences, similarities and relationships between strategic design and prospective ergonomics are being reviewed using existing theories and frameworks from design, ergonomics, strategic and innovation management. Prospective ergonomics (PE) has developed from corrective and preventive ergonomics to be more “forward looking in time” by emphasising on context, user-experience and human-centeredness. In terms of practice, PE creates awareness among actors that the anticipation of user needs and imagination of radically new products and services are essential for the survival of organisations, their business eco-systems, and formation of societal contexts. The latter encourages PE to adopt stances and reinvent social contexts, which have been impacted by technological advancement and disruptive innovation. Considering the complex constellation of collaborators and context embeddedness in specific design and development projects, PE interventions particularly support innovation activities, which capitalise on deliberate processes by making use of prescriptive methods and tools as well as by aiming for pluralistic results. In first instance, this doctoral thesis presents several theoretical frameworks to discern the relationship between PE and SD, built upon existing business management and innovation theories. To complement the theoretical part, 12 cases have been organised and analysed in greater depth according to 4 main dimensions of analysis. These dimensions were: (1) orientation, (2) type of design reasoning models they were subjected to, (3) their significance for practice, and finally (4) their value contribution to society and stakeholders. Furthermore, cross comparisons were made based upon these dimensions of analysis and reference to how these cases were positioned according to a generic strategy framework. From an educational perspective, results have implicated how design knowledge and skills should be transferred to students. Namely, a hermeneutic, reflective and participatory mode of designing, supported by a constructivist worldview requires a mentorship and scholarship approach in research-, or practice-based learning. In the discussion and conclusion sections, outcomes from individual cases as well as their cross-comparisons have been reflected upon the theoretical frameworks in answering five research questions. These outcomes have indicated that innovating through PE approach is about finding the right balance between on one hand meeting primary objectives, such as profit maximisation or solving the design problem, and on the other hand achieving social and human well-being, personal interest and ambitions, family relations, etc. Moreover, intervention of PE within a classical strategy perspective requires organizations to couple push-pull market strategies while considering the interest of different stakeholders throughout all stages of the development process. This means that prescriptive approaches, methods and tools in

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the positivist mode should be complemented with constructive modes of reasoning and designing as well as reflective methods and tools, while taking into consideration all levels and perspectives of value creation. In future research the following areas will be explored (a) Processes, Methods & Tools, (b) Perspectives & Mindsets and (c) Challenges pertaining typical focal areas within the context of PE. Identified focal areas are (1) Aesthetics and experience design, (2) Transportation Design, (3) Culture, Acculturation & Interaction Design (4) Service Design, (5) Inclusive design and (6) Healthcare & Welfare Design.

Keywords: Prospective Ergonomics, Strategic Design, Generic Strategies, Value Creation

Résumé long Au cours des 25 dernières années, l'ergonomie n'a pas été pleinement acceptée par les gestionnaires d'entreprise. Selon l'Administrative Science Quarterly, trop peu d’ergonomes travaillent dans des entreprises à des postes de gouvernance, si bien qu’ils contrôlent peu les budgets et gèrent rarement les personnes (Perrow, 1983). Souvent, eux-mêmes se considèrent comme des protecteurs des travailleurs plutôt que créateurs de produits, de systèmes et de services. Malgré cela, l’importance de l’ergonomie s’est accrue et même étendue dans les domaines de la santé, de la sécurité au travail et des législations associées. En parallèle et en complément des préoccupations de santé et de sécurité pour les consommateurs et les travailleurs, l'ergonomie est devenue aussi une discipline utile et intéressante pour soutenir les stratégies d'affaires des entreprises et pour développer leur compétitivité. Dans cette perspective, un type relativement nouveau d'ergonomie « l'ergonomie prospective » (EP) a été introduite pour renforcer les pratiques stratégiques des interventions menées sur l’anticipation des besoins et l’invention de futurs produits, systèmes et services. Dans notre nouvelle économie, les sociétés se reconstruisent elles-mêmes de manière fulgurante et engendrent des transitions tant accélérées qu’inattendues (Krippendorf, 2006). L’attention portée sur le management stratégique et la conception conduit alors au développement de nouveaux moyens et concepts pour générer de nouvelles connaissances relatives à de nouvelles communautés en devenir (Hatchuel, Starkey, Tempest & Le Masson, 2010). La construction de visions du futur devient alors essentielle pour produire de nouveaux systèmes. Robert & Brangier (2009) et Brangier & Robert (2014) ont proposé d’explorer les possibilités pour l’ergonomie de s’engager sur la voie de l’exploration de telles visions, à travers la notion d’EP. Ils ont abordé et mis en évidence les différences et les similitudes entre l'ergonomie corrective, préventive et prospective, ainsi qu’élargi le sens de l'ergonomie de conception à l'ergonomie «prospective». En mettant l'accent sur l'aspect « prospectif », de nouvelles dimensions deviennent utiles à l’intervention ergonomique, comme les facteurs démographiques, sociaux, culturels, politiques, économiques, scientifiques, technologiques, et environnementaux, ce qui agrandit considérablement l’horizon de l’ergonomie. Dans cette perspective, pour anticiper à la fois les besoins des utilisateurs, la création d'expériences utilisateurs positives et le développement de nouveaux produits et

Introduction

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services, il convient de disposer d’une vision large et dynamique et donc de déterminer comment l’EP pourrait influencer le management stratégique des entreprises, notamment à travers quatre caractéristiques (Brangier & Robert, 2012):

• La centration sur l’humain comme vecteur de définition des caractéristiques des technologies futures;

• La capacité à investiguer des activités d’utilisateurs qui n’existent pas encore, grâce à l'étude des usages en contexte tout en essayant de comprendre les besoins humains, les motivations, les attentes, les expériences et les activités en devenir;

• L’ambition d'imaginer l'avenir en s’appuyant sur les différentes méthodes de prévision quantitatives (dont des méthodes prospectives) et qualitatives (dont des méthodes créatives),

• La volonté de favoriser la créativité, qui est souvent à l'origine de l'innovation. De ce point de vue, l’EP pourrait se rapprocher, se lier, voire s’apparenter, au design stratégique (DS) compris comme l’application de principes de conception orientés sur le futur pour accroitre la capacité d’innovation et la qualité des compétences dans les organisations. Cela revient à concevoir des solutions techniques innovantes en étudiant leurs relations systémiques avec les autres éléments de l’organisation. Ces solutions sont également à situer dans un contexte managérial mouvant. En effet, le rôle stratégique du management a évolué de manière à la fois plus intégrante et ouverte, ce qui amène une reconfiguration des compétences, des aptitudes et des ressources internes et externes des organisations, pour s’adapter à un environnement dynamique, changeant et parfois même perturbé (Hatchuel et al., 2010). Rapidement énoncée, l'émergence de l’EP se situe dans un cadre plus général où d’autres disciplines évoluent également, comme le design et le management, qui prennent le qualificatif de « stratégique » et revendiquent également l’idée de promouvoir une approche centrée sur le futur, pour créer de la valeur, qu’elle soit relative à la technologie, aux hommes ou aux organisations. Ainsi, les processus, les méthodes et les attitudes envers la conception et l'innovation sont revisitées pour atteindre de nouveaux résultats et satisfaire de nouveaux buts. Globalement, l'objectif de cette thèse est de discuter la relation entre l’EP et le DS à l’aune du management stratégique. Aussi, les relations entre le management stratégique, le DS et l'EP seront-elles étudiées à partir d’une confrontation de théories et modèles en gestion, en design et en ergonomie. Cela conduit à la formulation des questions de recherche suivantes:

• Quelles sont les similitudes et les différences entre l’EP et le DS, l’ergonomie préventive et le design industriel et l’ergonomie corrective et la conception détaillée?

• Les diverses perspectives de stratégies d’affaires permettent-elles de trouver un équilibre entre la performance et le bien-être, conforme à l’esprit de l’EP? Et si oui, comment cet équilibre se produit?

• Un système d’appréhension du futur fondé à la fois sur une stratégie d’affaires centrée utilisateur et un design orienté contexte, représente-t-il, se superpose-t-il ou englobe-t-il le champ de l’EP?

Objectif de Recherche et Problème Posé

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• Dans quelles mesures et avec quelles limites, les approches, méthodes et outils prescriptifs sont-ils applicables à la résolution de problèmes de DS et d’EP ?

• Quels sont les stratégies, processus, méthodes et outils d’éducation et de formation, qui pourraient être envisagés pour résoudre les problèmes d’EP et de DS ?

Ces questions, qui portent sur des relations et des articulations interdisciplinaires, sont étudiées à partir de 12 cas d’intervention, certaines anciennes et d’autres très récentes, dont une grande partie a été publié sous la forme d’articles, de chapitres et d’actes de congrès (les publications sont en annexes). Cette recherche s’appuie initialement sur le modèle théorique proposé par Whittington (2001), qui fait office de cadre de référence pour catégoriser les différents raisonnements de design, stratégies, processus, méthodes et modèles relatifs à l’innovation. Notre cadre théorique vise à élaborer des variables utiles à la comparaison de différentes situations d’intervention. Il s’agit de chercher des contrastes entre les variables qualitatives afin de pouvoir différencier au mieux celles qui relèvent de l’EP et du DS. Pour ce faire, l’orientation théorique a permis de dégager trois niveaux de dimensions :

• Le premier niveau fait la distinction entre les dimensions Rationalisme-Historique et Empirisme-Idéalisme. Elles prennent place dans un contexte lié à différentes avancées technologiques (technology-push) et à des approches où le marché est vu comme un moteur (market-pull). Ces dimensions seront liées avec les dimensions stratégiques d’émergence et de maximisation du profit.

• Le deuxième niveau suggère la connectivité entre des stratégies génériques en management (classique, évolutionnaire, processuelle, systémique), des visions du monde (positiviste, constructiviste, pragmatique et quérulent (« advocacy »)) et les modèles de raisonnement en design (résolution de problème, herméneutique, participatif, social, réflexif, normatif). Ces relations qualifient des relations entre le management stratégique et le design stratégique, qui seraient fondées sur un arrière-plan commun issu de certaines visions du monde.

• Dans le troisième niveau, les différentes interventions et spécialisations ergonomiques ont été positionnées selon les modèles de gestion stratégique, d'innovation et de design.

Le but de ces catégorisations est de contextualiser l’EP au sein de différentes perspectives d’appréhension du futur, qui relèvent de disciplines partenaires de l’EP. Il s’agit également de produire un cadre pour voir si des alignements pourraient être observés entre l’EP et le DS; ces alignements étant de comprendre comme des chevauchements, des similarités, des proximités entre des données ou variables. Plus largement, les modèles de management, d’innovation et de design qui ont été analysés et soumis aux interventions ergonomiques sont inspirés par les notions de :

• Poussé par la technologie (technology push) - Tiré par le marché (market pull); • Visions du monde et modes de raisonnement de conception; • Stratégies d'affaires génériques; • Système de produits et services; • Co-création et la conception centrée sur l'humain;

Théories, Cadres de Travail et Organisation de la Recherche

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• L´innovation menée par le design. Après avoir présenté et discuté nos cadres et modèles théoriques, des dimensions pour comparer l'EP avec la DS seront proposées. Elles sont à appréhender en relation avec leurs racines et filiations respectives à savoir l'ergonomie classique (correction et prévention) et le management stratégique. Nous proposons ainsi quatre dimensions pour comparer l’EP et le management stratégique (voir le tableau 2, pages 58 - 59). Ces dimensions sont brièvement définies ci-dessous et sont débattues dans la section des résultats (étude des cas) et de la discussion.

• « Orientation » c'est-à-dire le positionnement du cas d’intervention, la vision du monde auquel il se réfère et sa relation avec la stratégie pour le futur. L’orientation exprime les critères qui soulignent la cardinalité du cas : comment se positionne-t-il ?

• « Méthode » concerne la manière dont le problème et le contexte sont abordés. Elle concerne les processus mobilisés pour faire aboutir l’intervention.

• « Pratique » vise à expliciter le cadre des activités des personnes et parties prenantes impliquées dans les processus de conception et de développement des affaires respectives.

• « Valeur » correspond à la perception de création de valeur qui peut être associée à une innovation. Même si la valeur d'un produit ou d'un service est difficilement mesurable scientifiquement, nous chercherons à apprécier la valeur selon des critères de bénéfice à court terme ou de profitabilité à long terme, par exemple. En accord avec Den Ouden (2011), ces valeurs peuvent être psychologiques, financières, sociales, écologiques et sont perçues comme les potentialités pour créer de nouvelles possibilités et expériences d’usage (Chesbrough & Rosenbloom, 2002). Le design de produit ou de service ne doit pas seulement résider dans le produit acheté, dans la marque choisie ou dans l'objet possédé, mais aussi dans l'expérience d'interagir avec lui (Holbrook, 1999).

Ces premières conclusions issues de la littérature permettent de décrire les différences et les similitudes entre EP et le DS (voir le tableau 2, page 58 - 59). En bref, l’élaboration de ce cadre de référence était nécessaire pour bénéficier ensuite d’un modèle permettant l'analyse empirique des différents cas d’intervention. Les cas présentés dans cette thèse ont été sélectionnés à partir de nos recherches anciennes et d’un travail sur des projets récents. Pour mettre ces cas en perspective et discuter des relations entre EP et DS, une méthode d'étude de cas rétrospective a été adoptée conjointement avec une approche analytique (Pettigrew, 1988) qui impose de recadrer les contextes, de coder et de trier les données pour que les comparaisons soient utiles et pertinentes. Cette approche permet à chaque cas d’être présenté individuellement, selon une grille de lecture commune à tous les cas, puis de faire émerger des traits spécifiques pour ensuite tenter de généraliser un modèle ou une interprétation (analyse transversale de cas). Dans cette thèse, une analyse spécifique à chaque cas a donc été menée avec l’appui d’une réflexion critique sur les dimensions mentionnées précédemment, qui ont été déduites des cadres et des concepts théoriques. L'analyse transversale a été réalisée sur la base d'un processus en deux étapes. La première étape s’est effectuée sur des cas à l’intérieur de leur cadre respectif de présentation et d’analyse, alors que la seconde étape a cherché à interpréter les

Méthode

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proximités et divergences entre les cas, en mettant en place différents clusters relationnels. Ainsi, en recherchant des comparaisons intra/inter-cas, les similitudes et les différences subtiles entre les cas sont mises en évidence. La juxtaposition des cas apparemment similaires visait à trouver des différences et des similitudes afin de briser les cadres simplistes et de développer la compréhension fine de l’apport de l'EP. La comparaison croisée des cas impliquait un classement des cas dans les catégories suivantes :

• Cas où les processus de conception sont à la fois planifiés et délibérés c’est-à-dire soumis à un examen critique qui implique les acteurs ; où la maximisation du profit est explicite ; où les modes de raisonnements sont surtout centrés sur la résolution de problèmes.

• Cas où les processus de conception sont émergents, où la maximisation du profit est claire et les modes de raisonnement centrés sur la résolution de problèmes.

• Cas où les processus sont délibérés et les résultats multiples. Dans cette approche systémique, la stratégie est en relation avec des règles locales produites par le contexte organisationnel (Whittington, 2001).

• Aucun cas n'a été classé dans le quadrant des processus émergents et des résultats multiples.

Après la présentation des 12 cas, l’analyse a porté sur différentes comparaisons que nous résumons comme suit.

Comparaison des cas avec processus de délibération et résultats ciblés (4 cas)

Dans 3 cas sur 4, une vision positiviste a été adoptée, en raison de l'utilisation de méthodes et de processus normatifs et structurés pour résoudre les problèmes de stratégie ou de conception. Dans ces cas, l’intervention ergonomique était essentiellement préventive et corrective parce que les contextes des projets étaient prédéterminés. Par exemple, dans le projet d'embarquement et de débarquement des abribus pour Singapour, des idées s’inscrivant dans la détermination des lignes directrices pour les installations universellement accessibles ont été élaborées dans le cadre des observations, des entrevues et des analyses en situation réelle. Dans un autre cas, intitulé « planification de produit et de positionnement », une intervention d’EP a été adoptée. Elle a souligné l'importance des méthodes et des outils prescriptifs. Des méthodes et des outils spécifiques ont été utilisés pour déterminer le contenu innovant des projets d'éducation et des projets domestiques, à partir d'une approche de « ce qu'il faut concevoir » ou de « comment concevoir ». Par exemple, les cartes de positionnement Ansoff's PMT-matrice et Cagan et Vogel's ont été appliquées pour classer et encadrer les objectifs des différents projets collaboratifs (Ansoff, 1968); Cagan & Vogel, 2002). De plus, des méthodes de conception participative ont été introduites pour découvrir les besoins futurs dissimulés et anticipés.

Quelques Résultats

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A partir d'une approche de conception centrée sur l'humain de nombreux processus collectifs et méthodes ont été introduits pour gérer la complexité à impliquer les différentes parties prenantes dans les projets de design stratégique. Par exemple, dans la conception d'un service d’enregistrement au centre ville (downtown check-in facilities), l'application de modèles humains numériques, qui simulent les relations spatiales entre des humains virtuels, s’est montré efficace pour faciliter l’idéation, l'activité de conception et la communication avec un réseau plus large de parties prenantes, tout en améliorant l’écosystème de l’entreprise.

Comparaison des cas avec processus émergents et résultats ciblés (2 cas)

Deux cas s’inscrivent dans une perspective évolutionniste. Ils sont caractérisés l’un par un produit physique et l’autre par une sorte d’offre de produit-service. Leur conception repose d’abord sur des processus émergents, soigneusement planifiés. Ici, l'utilisation de méthodes structurées a été absente dans les démarches engagées. C’est au contraire, une herméneutique et un raisonnement plutôt autoréflexif qui ont pris place dans les activités de conception et de développement. Un tel raisonnement auto-réflectif, qui caractérise une approche évolutionniste de la conception, s’illustre bien dans le projet USB. D’autres types de raisonnement de design ont été illustrés par le projet FRC, où la force de police de Singapour a opté pour un design intérieur de voiture adaptatif plutôt qu’intégratif. Dans ce cas, une approche centrée sur l'utilisateur a été adoptée afin de déterminer l'efficacité au travail, car l’accent était surtout mis sur la façon dont le concepteur pourrait réduire les coûts et obtenir la mise en œuvre du design désiré. Dans ce projet pour la police, il a fallu développer une approche constructiviste pour pouvoir concevoir l’intérieur d’une voiture d’intervention rapide. En raison des contraintes très contextuelles, que sont les intérieurs prédéterminés de Mitsubishi et Volvo, le prototypage, l'esquisse, les essais et la session d’ajustement ont été les principales activités, ce qui induisait un processus de conception réflexif.

Comparaison des cas avec processus de délibération et résultats multiples (6 cas)

Dans les six derniers cas, la réalisation du profit ou la réduction des coûts ne sont pas les seuls objectifs. La création d'expérience utilisateur et le développement de réseaux à large participation des parties prenantes sont tout aussi importants, sinon plus. Cela signifie que ces projets qui sont situés dans des contextes spécifiques réclament être étendus, planifiés et structurés, et bénéficier de méthodes pour déterminer leurs résultats. Par exemple, dans le projet de sac à dos, nous avons utilisé des méthodes de recherche et de conception structurées pour développer systématiquement des moyens optimaux d'emballage, compte tenu de l'expérience de différents types de voyageurs, ainsi que des contextes dont ils sont l’objet. De même, dans les projets «Classroom Systems » et « Interior Concept for Small Space Living », un processus de conception systématique basé sur une étude

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contextuelle a été appliqué où l’herméneutique et les modes de pratique réflexive complètent une approche de résolution de problème. Ainsi, la conception du système est très influencée par la façon dont le concepteur interprète et traduit un contexte spécifique dans un système global d'éléments en interaction. Cela tend à montrer, dans ces cas, que si le projet de conception est très influencé par les avis et opinions de son designer, les résultats seront cependant atteints par des modes de raisonnement et de conception de type herméneutiques ou réflexifs. Dans le cas de la ferme d’élevage de poissons, la participation et la co-création se sont produites grâce à la compréhension et la contextualisation de la génération d’idées. Avec une vision prospective, un partenaire (fournisseur de services d'information et de communication pour le marché de la pisciculture off-shore) a recherché des opportunités d'affaires intéressantes, encourageant les intervenants à être participatifs et créatifs dans le développement de nouveaux produits, systèmes et services. Des exercices de co-création ont conduit à des suggestions pour permettre la détection des maladies des poissons et leur prévention pour les pisciculteurs et par les vétérinaires dans le but de limiter les dommages, ainsi que les pertes financières. D'autres cas soutiennent l’idée d’une intervention en EP et DS. Il s’agit (1) du développement de designs liés à la culture, et (2) du CAD (design assisté par ordinateur). Dans le projet du design culturel: « Culture Driven Design Concepts », la méthode constructiviste proposée s’est appuyée sur l'évaluation des tendances dans des situations sociales, technologiques, économiques, environnementales et politiques entre nations aux différences culturelles marquées. Dans le projet « CAD an Idea and Concept Generation Tool », le débat était de savoir comment équilibrer le développement des compétences pratiques et des aptitudes mentales chez des étudiants en design. À la fin du projet, il était clair que les étudiants en design habitués aux études étaient capables d'envisager les besoins futurs ainsi que de maîtriser efficacement des systèmes de CAD dans une courte période de temps. Plus encore, ils étaient en mesure de pratiquer le « design thinking», de manier des modes de raisonnements herméneutiques et constructivistes, de générer des idées, ainsi que de proposer des modes flexibles de résolution de problème. Les résultats, basés sur 12 études de cas, soulignent que même si le développement de produits et de services innovants est un objectif commun au DS et à l’EP, l'innovation avec le DS vise davantage la profitabilité, alors que dans l’EP, on recherche un équilibre entre performance et productivité d'une part et bien-être humain d’autre part. Par rapport au DS, où l'innovation radicale ou incrémentale est principalement tirée par l'intention du concepteur avec une implication plus ou moins passive des utilisateurs et des autres parties prenantes, l'EP se concentre sur l'anticipation des besoins futurs afin de répondre avec des solutions de conception créatives, floues et inachevées mais prenant en considération les contraintes systémiques (humaines et sociales). D’une manière synthétique, cette thèse met en avant cinq idées:

Discussion et Perspectives Générales

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1. Il existe des relations fortes entre l’EP et le DS que l’on peut décrire selon différents angles de vue:

a. Les deux domaines ont des racines communes qui se situent dans le management stratégique et le management de l’innovation.

b. L’EP et le DS soutiennent une démarche délibérative de « doing things », où la planification est un facteur important d’aboutissement des résultats qui prennent des colorations plutôt spécifiques ou plurielles.

c. L’implémentation de l’EP et du DS est pertinente pour manager les phases initiales et donner des orientations stratégiques aux projets.

2. Les pratiques d’intervention en EP ont des spécificités. Dans tous les cas d’étude relevant de l’EP nous avons pu observer que :

a. L’EP promeut une démarche orientée système qui ne repose pas seulement sur une définition du futur des produits et services mais surtout sur une redéfinition des usages et expériences utilisateurs en cherchant à leur donner de nouvelles caractéristiques humaines, technologiques et contextuelles. Une perspective centrée humain est alors nécessaire car l’humain n’est pas seulement un aspect du système mais il façonne aussi le système dans lequel il décide de vivre.

b. L’EP soutient une approche systémique appliquée à la stratégie, en renforçant l'importance des besoins humains, capacités et limites dans les décisions organisationnelles puis dans la production d'innovations.

c. Comme les résultats des interventions ont souvent des retombées multiples, allant au-delà du design d’un simple produit par exemple, l'intervention en EP suppose la collaboration entre les parties prenantes à travers des réseaux émergents qui devraient viser à développer l’intelligence collective.

d. L’EP complète les dimensions positivistes du DS en ajoutant des modes de raisonnement de nature herméneutique, réflexive et participative qui sont souvent absents ou minorés dans les pratiques correctives ou préventives.

e. Les caractéristiques globalement post-positivistes du design s’enrichissent grâce à l’EP de visions élargies des situations. L’EP agrandit l’espace des possibles du DS en même temps qu’elle tend à prendre des positions sur les futurs possibles en y intégrant la prospective.

f. Au-delà des pratiques ergonomiques conventionnelles (tâche, activité, normes, charge….) qui donnent du sens aux interventions, l’EP cherche à créer de la valeur en développant des pratiques de réseaux d’où émergent des connaissances et des idées. Cette potentielle création de valeur provient aussi d’analyses menées à des niveaux individuels, organisationnels, sociétaux et d’études, souvent empiriques, de l’écosystème d’affaires.

3. Par conséquent l’EP propose une vision enrichie de l’intervention ergonomique qui souligne que :

a. Les nouvelles technologies contribuent de plus en plus au développement d’expériences intangibles. Ces expériences tendent à faire fusionner la conception de produit et la conception du service, et inversement. Pour développer ces expériences innovantes, le

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design devrait engager une transition du design d’objet vers le design d’expérience.

b. Cette vision enrichie est à confronter et à rapprocher de la pensée de différents auteurs.

i. En accord avec Zink (2013) l'ergonomie a été en prise avec des questions économiques, sociales et environnementales, mais jamais de manière concomitante et synchrone.

ii. Plusieurs auteurs affirment qu'une « bonne » structure organisationnelle est une condition préalable pour l'ergonomie des systèmes et pour une mise en œuvre efficace des facteurs humains (Grote, 2013), (So & Lam, 2014), cela semble renforcer l’importance du management stratégique dans le développement de l’EP.

iii. De la même manière, Norros (2014) plaide pour une approche systémique en matière d'ergonomie, ainsi que pour la nécessité de comprendre les usages de la technologie pour promouvoir la créativité et l'apprentissage organisationnel.

iv. Du point de vue Interaction Humain-Machine (IHM), Bannon (2011) affirme que l'ergonomie ne doit pas seulement se limiter à la compatibilité « humain-technologie », mais doit plus considérer les éléments indirects qui façonnent la vie quotidienne, comme les objectifs et les activités, les valeurs et les cultures ainsi que les outils et les environnements.

v. Sous la direction de Jan Dul, (Dul et al., 2012) l’Association Internationale d’Ergonomie a suggéré une évolution de la profession des ergonomes en appliquant les principes théoriques, les données et méthodes pour concevoir et optimiser à la fois le bien-être humain et la performance globale des systèmes.

vi. De même, Robert & Brangier (2009) stipulent que l’EP se centre sur le développement de futurs produits et services en anticipant les besoins de l'utilisateur. Mais en poussant plus loin, l’approche suggérée est d’abord positiviste, dans le sens où elle considère que c’est l'analyse et la connaissance des faits vérifiés qui peuvent expliquer les phénomènes futurs. La plausibilité est fournie exclusivement par des représentations prospectives, par des scénarios futurs, ou encore par les expériences simulées. D’une certaine manière l’EP rejette la construction approximative issue d’interactions multiples qui ne serait pas initiées stratégiquement ou processuellement. Ainsi, les méthodes mises en avant sont plutôt positivistes (personas, scénarios, dessins, projection) et/ou constructivistes (staffs, focus groups, dialogues…) et/ou créatives (remue-méninges, atelier de rencontres improbables..). Par conséquent, l’approche de l’EP est aussi pragmatique dans le sens où elle vise à nécessairement et forcément construire des représentations des futurs. Cette nécessité correspond à la fois à une prescription de moyens méthodologiques mis en œuvre et à un devoir de résultats à présenter pour éclairer le futur.

vii. Nelson, Buisine, & Aoussat (2012) ont proposé d'aligner le processus de développement de produits avec différentes

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interventions ergonomiques. Développée à partir de la construction de scénarios spéculatifs, l'EP est comparé avec les premières étapes de l'innovation, où les propositions de produits et de services futurs sont recherchées.

viii. Enfin, avec Norman (2010) qui appelle la communauté des chercheurs et intervenants en « Intégration des Systèmes » à se mobiliser pour devenir des concepteurs proactifs plutôt que de rester des pompiers au secours de situations en crise. : « it’s time to change ! ».

4. Même si ces intérêts pour le futur sont anciens en ergonomie (Bartlett, 1962), les demandes sociales et les enjeux économiques actuels imposent une évolution des pratiques professionnelles. Les différentes études de cas mettent en avant certaines nouvelles pratiques – et leur pertinence et efficacité - pour les intervenants en l’EP, notamment:

a. La prise en compte des facteurs sociaux, politiques et environnementaux lorsque l’on développe des systèmes techniques et des aspects et contenus prospectifs de ces facteurs.

b. L’utilisation de la créativité, comme méthode d’idéation et de stimulation d’idées inattendues et originales, pour innover.

c. La compréhension des types de management de projet, des formes de raisonnements en design, des visions du monde afin de décider du mode d’organisation qui convient le mieux au développement du projet.

d. Le renforcement des collaborations entre designers et ergonomes pour mettre l’emphase sur les innovations radicales (appelées parfois disruptions), surtout si ces dernières concernent la conception d’expériences intangibles mêlant produit et service.

e. L’intérêt pour l’utilisation de nouvelles formes de supports d’intervention (comme des films vidéo, des sketches, des démonstrateurs… souvent issus du design) qui, lorsqu’ils sont motivants et pertinents, jouent des rôles de facilitateurs dans la construction de représentations partagées et d’initiateurs de nouvelles idées.

f. Sur le plan éducatif, l’EP pourrait être enseignée dans le cadre du « design thinking » car ils se réfèrent, l’un et l’autre, à une approche cognitive des activités d’innovation et de conception. Plus spécifiquement, l'intervention en EP contribue à étoffer l’assise des processus en œuvre dans l’idéation et la création, processus qui concernent à la fois des visions du monde, des stratégies, des modes de raisonnement en conception, et des méthodes. C’est sans doute là un nouvel enjeu pour des pédagogies innovantes.

5. Enfin, si les études et recherches menées en ergonomie prospective sont encore rares (4 cas sur 12 dans nos interventions), elles semblent se développer selon un périmètre que nous avons cherché à relever:

a. La décision stratégique en amont des projets; b. L’appréhension des retombées multiples d’un projet; c. La caractérisation des systèmes futurs possibles par une approche

positivo-pragmatique appuyée par des méthodes positivistes, créatives et constructives;

d. L’innovation orientée par des processus humains et sociaux.

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e. La relation avec l’ergonomie de conception, l’EP se situant en amont.

Dans le processus d'anticipation des besoins utilisateurs et d'imagination de produits et services inédits destinés à répondre à ces besoins, l'EP développe une sorte d’approche positiviste et pragmatique appuyée par une ouverture méthodologique pour « visionner les produits, services et systèmes en avance temporelle », quitte à réaliser plusieurs versions de scénarios d’usages et scripts d’utilisateurs futurs. Dans ce mode de traitement des informations, l'accent est délibérément mis sur le contexte futur, l'expérience utilisateur et toutes les démarches centrées humains, tout en cherchant l’équilibre entre d’une part la maximisation du profit et d’autre part le succès social et le bien-être, les intérêts personnels et collectifs. Mes prochaines recherches viseront à développer le domaine de l'EP en juxtaposant (1) Méthodes et outils, (2) Perspectives et attitudes à l’égard de l’innovation ainsi que (3) les Contextes dans six domaines thématiques, qui sont pertinents pour l'économie norvégienne et mondiale:

• Santé et design du bien-être; • Design Inclusif; • Design de service; • Le Design Esthétique et d’Expérience; • Interaction Design dans le contexte de la culture et de l'acculturation; • Les Transports.

Conclusion et Recherches Futures

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Table of content

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. 3 Résumé court .......................................................................................................................... 4 Abstract in English ................................................................................................................. 5 Résumé long ........................................................................................................................... 6 Comparaison des cas avec processus de délibération et résultats ciblés (4 cas) ................ 10 Comparaison des cas avec processus émergents et résultats ciblés (2 cas) ....................... 11 Comparaison des cas avec processus de délibération et résultats multiples (6 cas) .......... 11 Table of content ................................................................................................................... 17 Glossary ............................................................................................................................... 20

0. PREFACE ....................................................................................................................................................... 22

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 24 1.1 HISTORY AND DEFINITION OF ERGONOMICS ......................................................................... 26 1.2 CLASSIFICATION AND POSITIONING OF ERGONOMICS ........................................................... 28

1.2.1 Ergonomics classified according to domain ............................................................ 29 1.2.2 Ergonomics classified according to intervention ..................................................... 29 1.2.3 Ergonomics classified according to focus ................................................................ 31 1.2.4 Ergonomics classified according to specialisation .................................................. 32

1.3 A SYSTEMS APPROACH IN ERGONOMICS ............................................................................... 32 1.4 DESIGN DRIVEN VERSUS A HUMAN-CENTERED APPROACH ................................................... 33 1.5 FOCUS ON PERFORMANCE AND WELL-BEING ........................................................................ 34 1.6. HISTORY AND DEFINITION OF STRATEGY .............................................................................. 35 1.7. MAIN IDEA, APPROACH AND STRUCTURE OF DISSERTATION ................................................. 37

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS .......................................................................................................................... 40 2.1 TECHNOLOGY PUSH VERSUS MARKET PULL .......................................................................... 41 2.2 PHILOSOPHICAL WORLDVIEWS ............................................................................................. 44 2.3 FOUR PERSPECTIVES ON STRATEGY ...................................................................................... 46 2.4 ALIGNING GENERIC STRATEGIES WITH INNOVATION APPROACHES THROUGH WORLDVIEW

PERSPECTIVES ....................................................................................................................... 47 2.4.1 A technology driven innovation approach based on a generic classical strategy ... 48 2.4.2 A design driven innovation approach based on a generic systemic strategy ........... 49 2.4.3 A user driven innovation approach based on a generic processual strategy ........... 49 2.4.4 A market driven innovation approach based on a generic evolutionary strategy ... 50

2.5 TOWARDS INTEGRATED THINKING IN PROSPECTIVE ERGONOMICS; RELATING C-K DESIGN

THEORY, GENERIC STRATEGIES AND DESIGN REASONING MODELS ....................................... 51 2.5.1 C-K design theory ..................................................................................................... 51 2.5.2 Six models of design reasoning ................................................................................ 52

2.6 A PRODUCT SERVICE SYSTEMS (PSS) PERSPECTIVE .............................................................. 54 2.6.1 Impact of global economic changes on work systems .............................................. 56 2.6.2 Human factors and cultural diversity ....................................................................... 56 2.6.3 Demographic change ................................................................................................ 57

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2.6.4 Influence of information and communication technology (ICT) in shaping future living ......................................................................................................................... 57

2.6.5 The need for innovation to enhance competitiveness ............................................... 58 2.6.6 Sustainability and corporate social responsibility (CSR) ........................................ 58

2.7 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROSPECTIVE ERGONOMICS AND CONSTRUCTIVE ERGONOMICS

REFERENCED TO STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT ......................................................................... 59 2.8 A REFLECTIVE UNDERSTANDING OF PROSPECTIVE ERGONOMICS BASED UPON DIFFERENT

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS ................................................................................................ 62 2.8.1 Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within push-

pull innovation initiatives ......................................................................................... 63 2.8.2 Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within Four

strategy perspectives ................................................................................................ 64 2.8.3 Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within

Ansoff´s product-market matrix ................................................................................ 65 2.8.4 Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within the

value creation product positioning map ................................................................... 66 2.8.5 Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within design

driven innovation ...................................................................................................... 66 2.8.6 Ergonomic interventions contextualised within a co-creation framework for design

research and practice ............................................................................................... 68

3.0 RESEARCH ORGANISATION ............................................................................................................................. 70 3.1 WHAT IS CASE STUDY RESEARCH AND HOW CAN IT BE APPLIED IN THIS DISSERTATION? ..... 71 3.2 DESCRIPTION AND INTERPRETATION OF DIMENSIONS OF ANALYSIS ..................................... 73 3.3 PREPARING CASES AND SUMMARISING TERMINOLOGIES; WORLDVIEWS, MODES OF DESIGN

REASONING, GENERIC STRATEGIES AND INTERVENTIONS. .................................................... 74

4.0 ANALYSIS OF 12 DESIGN CASE STUDIES .......................................................................................................... 76 4.1 ANALYSIS OF CASES WITHIN CORRECTIVE ERGONOMIC INTERVENTION ............................. 77

4.1.1 USB memory stick for customer recruitment ............................................................ 77 4.1.2 Anthropometric considerations for embarkation and disembarkation at bus shelters ............................................................................................................... 78 4.1.3 Digital human models in work system design and simulation ................................. 80

4.2 ANALYSIS OF CASES WITHIN PREVENTIVE ERGONOMIC INTERVENTION .............................. 81 4.2.1 Mail production: The Norwegian Postal Service (NPS) .......................................... 82 4.2.2 Classroom system for elementary school students ................................................... 84 4.2.3 Interior concepts for small-space living ................................................................... 85 4.2.4 Interior customisation of Singapore fast-response police car ................................. 87 4.2.5 Rucksack bag design to facilitate optimum loading ................................................. 90

4.3 ANALYSIS OF CASES WITHIN PROSPECTIVE ERGONOMIC INTERVENTION ............................. 91 4.3.1 Product planning versus product positioning .......................................................... 91 4.3.2 Monitoring fish health project .................................................................................. 93 4.3.3 Development of culture-driven design concepts ....................................................... 95 4.3.4 CAD as an idea and concept generation tool in the early design stages ................. 96

5.0 CROSS-COMPARISON OF CASES ..................................................................................................................... 99 5.1 CROSS-COMPARISON OF CASES WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF DELIBERATE / PLANNED PROCESSES

AND TARGETED OUTCOMES PROFIT MAXIMISATION /PROBLEM SOLVING ............................ 100

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5.2 CROSS-COMPARISON OF CASES WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF EMERGENT PROCESSES AND

TARGETED OUTCOMES; PROFIT MAXIMISATION /PROBLEM SOLVING .................................. 102 5.3 CROSS-COMPARISON OF CASES WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF DELIBERATE PROCESSES AND

PLURALISTIC OUTCOMES ..................................................................................................... 104 5.4 COMPARISON OF CASE CLUSTERS ACROSS THE FOUR QUADRANTS ..................................... 106 5.5 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF CASES ACCORDING TO INTERVENTION, WORLDVIEWS, MODELS

OF DESIGN REASONING AND GENERIC STRATEGIES ............................................................. 108

6 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................................. 112 6.1 ORIENTATION ..................................................................................................................... 113 6.2 PROCESSES AND METHODS ................................................................................................. 113 6.3 PRACTICES .......................................................................................................................... 114 6.4 VALUE CREATION ............................................................................................................... 114 6.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGN EDUCATION ............................................................................ 115

6.5.1 A prospective ergonomic intervention on mass-education, rationalisation and Industrial design education .................................................................................... 116

6.5.2 A prospective ergonomic view on how to link research and education ................. 117 6.5.3 Globalisation of higher education .......................................................................... 118 6.5.4 Increased collaboration with industry and commercialisation of research ........... 118 6.5.5 The need for industrial design education and research to adapt to future

developments in higher education .......................................................................... 119 6.6 GENERAL PERSPECTIVES ON PROSPECTIVE ERGONOMICS AND STRATEGIC DESIGN ............ 120 6.7 AUTHOR´S PERSPECTIVES ON PROSPECTIVE ERGONOMICS AND STRATEGIC DESIGN ........... 123

7 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ........................................................................... 125 7.1 REFLECTIONS ON THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS .................................................................... 126 7.2 FUTURE RESEARCH ............................................................................................................ 128

7.2.1 Healthcare and welfare design ............................................................................... 129 7.2.2 Inclusive design ...................................................................................................... 130 7.2.3 Service design ......................................................................................................... 130 7.2.4 Interaction design within the context of culture, acculturation and globalisation 131 7.2.5 Aesthetics and experience design ........................................................................... 132 7.2.6 Transportation design ............................................................................................ 133 7.2.7 Summary of future research directions, relevant for prospective ergonomics ...... 134

REFERENCES: .............................................................................................................................. 136 TABLE DES FIGURES .................................................................................................................... 150 TABLE DES TABLEAUX ................................................................................................................ 151 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................ 152

APPENDIX A : Articles supporting the theoretical part ................................................... 152 APPENDIX B : Articles supporting the case study part .................................................... 152

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Glossary In this glossary, a terminology will be provided to increase the readability of this thesis. Terms, which are specific, but are on the peripheries of ergonomics, will be listed and briefly described in alphabetical order.

Advocacy - An activity by an individual or group, aiming to influence decisions within political, economic, and social systems and institutions

Classical - Original, how it first emerged, planned

Constructivism - Reflecting on personal experiences and by emergently relating new to existing knowledge

Constructivist Realism - Outlook, which merges positivist and constructivist approaches in social sciences

Creative Concept - Main creative idea, which is realisable

Evolutionary - Gradually developing phenomenon, influenced by the surroundings or external forces

Generic Strategies - Basic approaches to strategic planning to be adopted by any firm in any market or industry to improve competitive advantage

Hermeneutics - A process of interpretation, which leads to the design of a product or service (In the context of this dissertation)

Model of Design Reasoning - A way of classifying how designers think about their processes and methods in creating a design outcome

Participatory Design - Approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders

Persuasive Concept - A design concept, which influences a person's beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations or behaviors.

Positivism - Generation of knowledge, which only come from objective and positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific methods

Post-positivism - A criticism on positivism, which rejects the notion of total objectivity and recognisies the possible effects of biases.

Pragmatism - A reasonable and logical way of doing things or of thinking about problems that is based on dealing with specific situations instead of on ideas and theories

Problem Solving - Process of systematically working through details of a problem to reach a specific outcome.

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Processual - Designing and innovating based on cause and effect relationships without embarking on a structured process of doing things. The concept of “learning” and the acceptance of inefficiencies are part of it.

Reflective Practice - A constructivist way of doing things, where the actor is in constinuous conversation with the “object” in context

Re-constructionist / Social Constructionist View (in a design context) - A design approach, where the market is “not a given”, but have to be created

System - Combination of things or parts forming a complex or unitary whole

Systematic - Way of doing things in a structured or planned manner

Systemic – Being part or being introduced in an existing system, which is determined by culture, local needs and bounded by rationality

Strict Design Process - Structured design process, which adopts a posistivistic mode in the creation of products and services, having its roots from engineering design

Value Creation - Way of determing value based on economical, psychological, sociological or ecological factors for the user, organisation, groups of collaborating organisations or society.

Vertical Studio - Collaborative studio, where senior and junior designers /students with different experiences and skills collaborate based on a master-apprenticeship concept to solve design projects in s systematic manner.

Worldview - Mental model of reality or a comprehensive framework of beliefs, ideas and attitudes about the world, ourselves and life

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0. PREFACE

My motivation to write a dissertation on strategic design and prospective ergonomics has been driven by more than 20 years of experiences as an educator, researcher and design practitioner. As exemplified in Whittington´s perspectives of strategy1, I have been convinced during these years, that the main objectives in business and design, is not only profit maximization and sales. Different stakeholders have diverse ambitions and interests and designers are creating new roles for themselves in response to new industrial and societal challenges. The current attention on designing experiences whether tangible or intangible has placed a significant emphasis on human-centred and design driven approaches, methods and tools. In this dissertation, I am interested to find out what these new roles are, besides translating and communicating the economic value of a business idea to consumers (Prahalad & Sawhney, 2010). As user needs become increasingly complex, I am stressing the importance of strategic management for prospective ergonomics and strategic design. Forces of globalization, the proliferations of multi-cultural societies and emphasis on user experiences, have changed the ergonomic, business and design landscape. The concept of “User experience”, with respect to products and services, whether in terms of purely use, ownership or a combination of it, has become a topic of debate among designers, ergonomists, user interaction experts, business management and social science authorities. The significant growth of new technologies has revolutionised the way firms use these technologies both internally and externally to improve operations, increase efficiencies and provide functional benefits for customers. For example, in the service industry, providers and retailers are using a wide range of self-service technologies (SSTs), including the Internet, to allow customers to produce and consume services electronically without direct contact from firm employees (Meuter, Ostrom, Roundtree & Bitner 2000). At present and in the future these new technologies will continue to challenge the different stakeholders, who are engaged in “innovation”; a process of transforming an idea or invention into a good or service that creates value for customers (www.businessdictionary.com). However, when adopting a more sustainable and altruistic perspective towards innovation, the discrepancy between technology driven positivism and the desired role of technology in society, can be seen as one of the largest paradoxes of our time.

1 Whittington´s generic strategy framework is an important element in my thesis. In conjunction with the evaluation of selected worldviews and models of design reasoning, it provides foundation for discussing different ergonomic and design interventions. Furthermore, the axial dimensions of Whittington´s framework, which are ”Process (deliberate versus emergent)” and ”Outcome (Plural versus specific)”, also form the basis for positioning the selected worldviews as well as modes of design reasoning.

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In this dissertation, I am attempting to create a structured and connected overview between generic strategies (Whittington, 2001), worldviews, and modes of design reasoning, to better manage this paradox under the overarching context of PE. Within the realm of used “processes” and targeted “outcomes”, I am convinced that there are strong similarities between generic strategies and modes of design reasoning, which may justify a typical ergonomic or design intervention. For example, a classical approach in strategizing resembles a problem solving approach in designing. Both activities are based upon deliberate processes and outcomes are in terms of management “profit maximisation” whereas in design it is about “solving a design problem”. Furthermore similarities between design and strategic management / innovation are noticeable in the transient application of methods and tools. For example, visual tools, which are pre-dominantly assistive in projecting an imaginary vision of the future can be applied in both fields. In other words, the convergence of strategizing perspectives and modes of design reasoning, complemented by their methods and tools brings us to the core of “prospective ergonomics”, which is characterised by its anticipative and imaginary nature (Robert & Brangier, 2009). In this work, I am arguing that within the field of sustainable product-service innovation, business and design strategies are to be more pluralistic and contextual embedded in nature, whether deliberate or emergent. These strategies then also need to facilitate the participation of a broad network of stakeholders. To further elaborate, providing an organization with an understanding of the situated context and dynamic interaction among stakeholders is more important than helping it to positivistically aim for precise, logic, rational and powerful innovations and designs. This can be established by creating awareness among researchers, ergonomists and designers that constructivist, reflective, and hermeneutic methods and practices are taking more centre stage in PE. The need for more prominent constructive approaches has been instigated by a change of outlook from different actors in business settings to be more pluralistic oriented, as well as emerging trends and developments in the areas of sustainable product and service design, welfare technologies, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), etc. With my technical educational background in Industrial Design Engineering (TU Delft), and my current employment at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Product Design, I am predominantly approaching and writing this dissertation from a positivistic and structured perspective. However, having frequent interactions with other non-engineering institutions in design teaching and research has guided me to adopt a broader perspective towards designing and design processes, acknowledging and promoting reflective, hermeneutic and participative modes of thinking through a constructivist worldview.

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1. INTRODUCTION « Advanced technologies, with which humans interact today, constitute complex systems that

require a high level of integration from both the design and management perspectives.» Karwowski 2012, p.24.

« The world will face major ecological and social problems in the 21st century. To solve these

problems requires changing human behaviour.» Moray, 1995, p. 1691.

« The reason why ergonomics must shift its focus is because future workplaces will depend

on the flexibility of the workforce to handle unforeseen situations.» Bannon et al., 2015, p.2.

Chapter Abstract: In this chapter a historical introduction as well as an overview of the present and prospective

developments of ergonomics will be given. The aim is to provide an outline for approaching theory building within prospective ergonomics aligned with ancillary fields of strategic design, innovation, systems and Industrial Design. To contextualise the work, a range of design approaches, such as systems design, design driven, human / user-centered design, will be discussed with respect to different ergonomic perspectives to extend the quest for economic performance to be more than solely profit oriented. Adopting an industrial and strategic design viewpoint, this chapter sets the tone for developing the construct of prospection and prospective ergonomic, by arguing that this new field of ergonomics is driven by a focus on well-being, by being future oriented and design driven, and by the fact that product-service innovation, performance and profit should be sought after within systematically embedded contexts. From this perspective of prospection the study of preventive and corrective human machine issues in certain contextual settings, is being brought closer to the fields of design and strategic management. Consequences are that with the proliferation of services, human - product interactions and sustainable design, where innovation is usually a concern of many stakeholders, the field of preventive ergonomics is extended to prospective ergonomics and design to strategic design. To conclude this introductory chapter as well as initiate the formation and application of theoretical frameworks, it has been brought forward that pluralism towards the creation of new products and services is a typical trait of prospective ergonomics and strategic design which can enhance a company´s competitive advantage. In the past 25 years, ergonomics did not gain much acceptance by business managers. According to Perrow (1983), the problem of ergonomics is that too few ergonomists work in companies; that they have no control over budgets and people; and that they are seen solely as protectors of workers, rather than creators of products, systems and services. Presently, the value of ergonomics extends beyond occupational health and safety and related legislation. While maintaining health and safety of consumers and workers, ergonomics has become more valuable in

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supporting company's business strategies to stay competitive. This has led to the acceptance of the following broader definition of ergonomics:

• Ergonomics (or human factors) is a scientific discipline, which aims to develop an understanding about the interaction between humans and other system elements. Furthermore, the profession applies theory, principles, data and design methods to optimize human well-being and overall system performance (IEA Council, 2000)

• Compared to Jastrzebowski´s definition, the field of ergonomics has become more proactive with respect to problem solving, design, functional usability and the planning of innovative products and services, (Robert & Brangier 2009). Given this emphasis on ergonomics, the link between business strategies and ergonomics is being established through their common interest in creating and designing improved or new products. Companies are increasingly aware that innovation is essential for maintaining a competitive advantage. As all innovations start with a creative idea (Amabile, Conti, Coon, Lazenby & Herron, 1996), which is both novel and suited to the context of the task (Bonnardel, 2009), it has been acknowledged that end-users of products and services can be important resources for product design and innovation (Kristensson, Magnusson & Matthing, 2002), (Von Hippel, 1986). Within the traditions of preventive ergonomics, user involvement is considered as essential for the development of user-friendly product and services, and the participatory design methods and tools that have been developed could be useful for linking ergonomics with product and service innovation.

In this dissertation, I am promoting a “prospective turn” to ergonomics as an important feature in strategy formulation and innovation. This means that attention to prospective ergonomics and strategic design can be an important element of how a company realizes its competitive advantage. Figure 1 depicts how the interaction between product and service design, business strategies and preventive ergonomics as an emergent field of ergonomics, namely prospective ergonomics (PE), could be envisioned. Consequently, PE redefines the ergonomic profession to be more design and business oriented. However, with its original focus on human well-being and anticipation of hidden future needs, the business orientation of PE is pluralistic rather than being purely driven by performance and profit maximization. In practice, this means that the ergonomist must consider the dynamic context of the firm and understand the different strategic objectives of stakeholders (Dul & Neumann, 2009).

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Figure 1: Interaction among product and service design, business strategies and preventive ergonomics towards prospective ergonomics The remaining part of this chapter will provide a historical overview of ergonomics and strategic management, as well as a classification of different types of ergonomics. Furthermore, an overall structure of this thesis will be outlined, comprising of theoretical frameworks used, selected cases, and reflections of these cases on the theoretical frameworks. Moreover, this chapter will also highlight how the theories and cases are traced back to their respective sources.

1.1 HISTORY AND DEFINITION OF ERGONOMICS Ergonomics is the scientific discipline investigating the interaction between humans and artefacts and design of systems where people participate. It applies systematic methods and knowledge about people to evaluate and approve the interaction between individuals, technology and organization at work and during leisure. The purpose of design activities is to match systems, jobs, products and environments to the physical and mental abilities and limitations of people (Helander, 1997). The aim is to create a working environment (that to the largest extent possible) contributes to achieving healthy, effective and safe operations." The study of Ergonomics (Gr. ergon + nomos) was originally defined and proposed by the Polish scientist B. W. Jastrzebowski in 1857, as a scientific discipline with a very broad scope and a comprehensive range of interests and applications, encompassing each human activity, including labor, entertainment, reasoning, and dedication (Karwowski, (2005). A historical overview of ergonomics will be presented in the textbox below to make certain events explicit, where business strategies, the design of products and services, and different ergonomic interventions connect. The historical timeline indicates that ergonomics has engaged in systemic way of srategising as early as in the beginning of the 20th century ergonomics. Nowadays ergonomics in industry has the dual purpose of promoting both productivity and “well-being” during and related to working conditions. The continuous search for an optimized balance between productivity and favourable working conditions has given rise to a relatively new type of ergonomics, which is “Prospective Ergonomics”.

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TEXTBOX: A Historical Overview of Ergonomics

In the 18th century, Ramazinni published “The diseases of workers”, where he documented the connection between occupational hazards and different types of work performed. For example, he described how repetitive hand motions, constrained body posture, and excessive mental stress caused cumulative trauma disorders.

At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, LaMettrie published a controversial piece of work: L´homme Machine–1748, where he outlined that differences in machine and human capabilities are sensitive, and that one can learn much about human behaviour by considering how machines operate. For example, the comparison of robots and humans has facilitated our understanding of how industrial tasks should be designed to fit humans better (Helander, 1995). According to Rosenbrock (1983), the concept of human-centred design was introduced as early as the industrial revolution through tools, such as spinning machines (spinning mule) used to spin cotton and other fibres. The aim was to allocate interesting task to the human operator, but let the machine handle repetitive ones.

The emphasis in ergonomics at the beginning of the 20th century was largely attributed to Frederick Taylor´s “scientific study of work”. However, his name and work negative connotations and strong reactions from labour unions and workers welfare organisations. In the period round 1900, Taylor examined and scrutinised in what is called the 'Taylor system’, how activities were carried out, what movements people made and how much time it took them using time and motion studies. Next, he determined how productivity can be optimised by executing all operations as effectively as possible as in the minimum amount of time, which resulted in rushed systems, assembly line production etc.

In the same tradition Frank and Lillian Gilbreth developed time and motion studies to divide ordinary jobs into several small micro-elements, called “therbligs” (Konz, 1992). These objections against Taylorism have resulted in much research to select, classify and train human operators from a well-being rather than productivity perspective. Rejecting the element of exploitation, the current focus is on ergonomics design of environments and artefacts, which means “fitting the task to the person", not "fitting the person to the task”.

Ergonomics emerged as a scientific discipline in the 1940s because of the growing realisation that most people were not capable to understand and use the equipment to its full potential and exploits its benefits, if technical equipment become increasingly complex. Focusing on the well-being of workers and manufacturing productivity, the field started to engage in industrial applications in the 1950´s and has used information and concepts from work physiology, biomechanics and anthropometry for designing workstations and processes.

As the discipline evolved, variations in terminology emerged in different countries. In the United States, the term human factors took on the same meaning as ergonomics in the UK and continental Europe. Although both terms have been and remain synonymous to professionals, popular usage has somehow nuanced the meaning of the terms. Human factors study the cognitive areas of the discipline (perception, memory, etc.), whereas ergonomics specifically deals with physical aspects, such as workplace layout, light, heat, noise, etc. This is exemplified by how the terms human factors engineering, human factors and engineering psychology has proliferated the United States military sector after WWII, where high demands were placed on the physical and cognitive demands of the human operator. Many military design problems were encountered in the use of sophisticated war equipment, such as airplanes, radar and sonar stations, and tanks. For example, during the WWII, with the increasing number of pilots and technological complexity of airplanes, it was discovered that cockpits were not adequate an logically organised and designed, causing fatal accidents to happen.

In Europe, technological achievements of World War II and post WWII were quickly transferred to civilian applications, including the design of consumer products such as cars and computers. Here similar problems of disharmony between people and equipment were encountered. This resulted in poor user performance and an increased risk of human error. Particularly in Germany, The Netherlands and across Scandinavia the foundation for ergonomics was developed out of medical and functional anatomy studies, whilst in Eastern Europe growth was largely from the industrial engineering profession (Singleton, 1994).

Thereafter, the Ergonomics Research Society (ERS), which was founded in 1949 from a theoretical and research perspective, has evolved to represent the current discipline, both in the United Kingdom and internationally. In 1977, the ERS was renamed to become the Ergonomics Society (ES), because of an increased focus on the professional practice and application of ergonomics. The ES became the first professionally registered body and Charity in the field of ergonomics. It also gained the status of a Company limited by guarantee in 1985.

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1.2 CLASSIFICATION AND POSITIONING OF

ERGONOMICS Over the past 50 years, ergonomics has evolved as a unique and independent discipline that focuses on the nature of human–artefact interactions, and made connections with engineering, design, technology, and management from a science perspective. Within a systemic human artefact relationship, a variety of natural and artificial products, processes, and living environments are emphasised (Karwowski, 2005). The analysis of poor performance, human errors and accidents due to difficulties faced by the human operator when interacting with objects in specific context, provided a growing body of evidence to facilitate the understanding of man-machine systems (now human-machine systems) and interactions. This stimulated research by the ergonomic academic and military community led to further investigations of the interactions between people, equipment and their environments. Accordingly, this has resulted in a substantial body of documented knowledge, methodologies and skills for analysing and designing interactive systems between humans and their environment (Dul et al., 2012). When defining ergonomics from a practice perspective, ergonomic practitioners continue to improve tasks, jobs, products, technologies, processes, organisations, environments and systems to make them compatible with the needs, abilities and limitations of people through planning, design, implementation, evaluation, and redesign (IEA, 2000). Contemporary ergonomics shows rapidly expanding application areas, continuing improvements in research methodologies, and increased contributions to fundamental knowledge as well as important applications fulfilling the needs of the society at large and its environment. The environment is usually complex and consists of the physical environment (“things”), the organisational environment (how activities are organised and controlled), and the social environment (other people, culture) (Moray, 2000; Wilson, 2000; Carayon, 2006). Fundamental characteristics of contemporary ergonomics are: that it takes a systems approach, that it is design driven and that it focuses on two related outcomes: performance and well-being. Building upon the concept of contemporary ergonomics, a relatively new type of ergonomics, which is “Prospective Ergonomics (PE)” will be introduced with respect to other areas of ergonomics. In first instance, a structural and systematic depiction of different classifications of ergonomics is shown in table 1, based upon domain, intervention, focus and specialisation. Thereafter, figure 2 will show the positioning of PE as well as its connectivity with strategic and industrial design, and with respect to the other ergonomic interventions.

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Domain Product Ergonomics Industrial Ergonomics

Intervention Corrective Ergonomics

Design Ergonomics

Prospective Ergonomics

Focus Micro-ergonomics

Meso-ergonomics

Macro-ergonomics

Specialisation Physical Ergonomics

Cognitive Ergonomics

Organisational Ergonomics

Table 1: Classification of ergonomics according to domain, intervention, focus and specialisation

1.2.1 Ergonomics classified according to domain Broadly speaking, the domain of ergonomics can be distinguished in “Product” and “Industrial”. Product ergonomics is a subset of ergonomics, which addresses people´s interaction with products, systems and processes. The emphasis within product ergonomics is to ensure that designs complement the strengths and abilities of people to minimize the effects of their limitations. As a result of this, it becomes necessary to understand variabilities represented in the populations, with respect to age, size, strength, cognitive ability, prior experience, cultural expectations and goals. Researchers and practitioners study how people on a daily basis interact with products, processes and environments to make them safer, more comfortable, easier to use and more efficient. They apply relevant research on biomechanical, physiological and cognitive aspects and juxtapose them with knowledge and understanding of the users and their experiences (Human Factors and Ergonomics, website accessed 2014). Industrial ergonomics analyse information about people, job tasks, equipment, and workplace design to assist employers to generate a safe and productive environment for their employees. They emphasizes the adaptation of job tasks to human ability within work settings such as those found in manufacturing, engineering, and construction. On a more formal note, research encompasses how ergonomics influences or is influenced by job design, health and safety management, training, automation and process optimization, etc. (Luskin & Albert, 2014).

1.2.2 Ergonomics classified according to intervention With respect to intervention, corrective, preventive and PE are topics, which will be discussed in this paragraph. De Montmollin (1967) has categorized ergonomics into corrective ergonomics and preventive / design ergonomics. The former is about correcting existing artefacts, and the latter deals with systems that do not exist yet in reality. According to Laurig (1986), “corrective ergonomics” is associated with traditional ergonomics and is described as developing “corrections through scientific studies”. In this context, “developing corrections” refers to situations where the

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ergonomist or designer makes user functional improvements to existing products, systems or processes in a reactive manner; in other words “redesigning” Furthermore, Robert and Brangier (2009) have mapped out the differences and similarities among corrective, preventive / design and prospective ergonomics. Comparisons across the three subsets of interventions, which are interesting to be aligned to a similar comparison within design and strategic design later on, are:

• Nature of work and intervention with respect to temporality and expected outcomes

• Main focus and starting point for human factors activities • Implications for research and data collection

Nelson, Buisine and Aoussat (2012) proposed to align the product development process with different ergonomic interventions, as shown in figure 2. Developed around speculative scenario building, PE is strongly compared with framing “use” based on a given design brief. From this prospective ergonomic perspective, scenarios are intended to assist decision-making at three main stages in the design process (Rosson & Carroll, 2002): (a) the analysis of problem situations in the start of the process, (b) the generation of design solutions at various levels of complexity, and (c) the evaluation of these design decisions according to UCD criteria. In this context, it can be argued that the purpose of scenarios in the early stages of design is not only to provide an accurate vision of future user activity, but also to crystallize designers’ current knowledge and assumptions about future activity. Thus, from this point of view, scenarios of future use in PE are not just a material for analysis, but also a product of creative design (Nelson, Buisine, Aoussat & Gazo, 2014). However, there is ample potential to implement PE thinking much earlier in the design process. For instance, from a strategic design perspective, PE can be introduced in the Fuzzy-Front-End of Innovation to intervene in product planning and goal finding activities, where future product and / or service proposals are sought after.

Figure 2: Alignment of the product development process with different ergonomic interventions (Adopted from Nelson, 2012, p. 9)

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1.2.3 Ergonomics classified according to focus In terms of “focus”, ergonomics can be classified into micro-, meso-, and macro-ergonomics. Macro-ergonomics can be perceived as a top down approach to study socio-technical developments respective to the design and application of an overall work system involving human- job, human-machine, and human-software interfaces (Hendrick, 1986), (Hendrick & Kleiner, 2001). Dray (1985) defines macro-ergonomics as a three-generation paradigm: 1) user-machine interface; 2) group-technology interface and 3) organization-technology interface. This top down approach implies a transient relationship between macro and micro ergonomics. The first two paradigms are mainly aligned with Micro-ergonomics whereas “organisation-technology interface” is typically a phenomenon to be addressed by macro-ergonomics. Hereby, the concept of human-centeredness is being emphasised, as the worker’s professional and psychosocial characteristics are being considered in the design of a work system. Subsequently, the work system design is being realised through the ergonomic design of specific jobs and related hardware and software interfaces (Robertson 2001). Integral to this human-centred design process is the humanized task approach in allocating functions and tasks to collaborative design of technical and personnel subsystems. At an organisation-technology interface level, participatory ergonomics is a primary methodology of macro-ergonomics involving employees at all organizational levels in the design process (Imada, Noro & Nagamachi, 1986) Effective macro-ergonomic design drives a number of aspects of the micro-ergonomic design of the work system and makes sure that system components are properly aligned and compatible with the work system’s overall structure. This sociotechnical approach enables that technical and personnel subsystems are jointly optimised from top to bottom throughout the organization as well as harmonized with the work system’s elements and external environments (Hendrick, 1991). When overarching systems, sub-systems and system elements are properly aligned and coordinated, it may lead to increased productivity, better quality, and improved employee safety, well-being and health, such as psychosocial comfort, motivation, and perceived quality of work life (Robertson 2001). With respect to complex human-machine systems as well as socio-technical system concepts, Emery and Trist (1960) perceive organizations as open systems, engaged in transforming inputs into desired outputs, and whose permeable boundaries are exposed to the environments in which they exist and upon which they are dependent for their survival. This management perspective towards different orientations of innovation, use of methods, practices and value creation forms the context for strategic design and prospective ergonomic thinking, involving various communities and stakeholders. In other words, the issue of permeability, which concerns unrestricted transfer of knowledge and practices across different levels of value creation provides interesting avenues for the development of reasoning approaches, processes, methods and tools, which can be applied in PE and strategic design.

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1.2.4 Ergonomics classified according to specialisation Traditionally, specialization within ergonomics can be classified according to physical, cognitive, and organizational ergonomics. Physical ergonomics is primarily concerned with the human anatomy, studying anthropometric, physiological, and biomechanical characteristics related to physical activities (Chaffin and Anderson, 1993; Pheasant, 1986; Kroemer, Kroemer & Kroemer-Elbert, 1994; Karwowski and Marras, 1999; NRC, 2001). In cognitive ergonomics, mental processes such as perception, memory, information processing, reasoning, and motoric response are a focal point of study, because they are instrumental in determining interactions between humans and ancillary system elements (Vicente, 1999; Hollnagel, 2003; Diaper & Stanton, 2004). Organizational ergonomics, which is similar to macro-ergonomics, deals with how organizational structures, policies, and processes can be optimised within the context of sociotechnical systems (Reason, 1999; Holman, Wall, Clegg, Sparrow & Howard, 2003; Nemeth, 2004). The optimisation of human well-being, and overall systems performance, includes the following topics: communication, crew resource management, design of working times, teamwork, participatory work design, community ergonomics, computer-supported cooperative work, new work paradigms, virtual organizations, telework, and quality management (Karwowski, 1998). To conclude this chapter, the various ways, one is able to classify human factors, show that the field has advanced significantly. According to Norman (2010) “The field of Human Factors and its many descendants -- Cognitive Engineering, Human-Computer Interaction, Cognitive Ergonomics, Human-Systems Integration, ... -- has made numerous, wonderful advances in the many decades since the enterprise began”. However the discipline still serves many to rescue rather than to create. “It is time for a change”

1.3 A SYSTEMS APPROACH IN ERGONOMICS According to Merriam Webster, a system is an integrated compilation of interacting and interdependent components (accessed 07.10.2015). Within the context of ergonomics, adopting a systems and design driven approach in the development of products and services establishes a broader understanding of how a strategic prospective ergonomic approach contributes to performance, well-being and stakeholder involvement (Dul et al. 2012). Ergonomics focuses on the design of these systems consisting of humans and their environment (Helander, 1997; Schlick, 2009). The system comprises of the human-made elements, for example (work)places, tools, products, technical processes, services, softwares, built environments, tasks, organisations, etc. as well as other humans (Wilson, 2000). An ergonomic system approach addresses issues on various levels; micro-, meso-, and macro. A micro ergonomic systems approach level is concerned with how humans use tools or perform single tasks, whereas at a meso-

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level, humans are considered a part of technical processes or organisations. At a macro level humans are perceived as an element in networks of organisations, regions, countries, or the world (Rasmussen, 2000; Dul et al., 2012). This inter-disciplinary systems approach, which has its roots in engineering, is becoming even more important, when ergonomic expertise is redirected to discover prospective hidden needs of various user populations and stakeholders. Furthermore, as positivistic inclined systems engineers advocate the application of technical design specifications as the true basis for the product design, ergonomist´s expertise complements such systems approaches from a human centered perspective to directly impact the work of the design and development team as well as the final design of the product. To be more specific, impact can happen from a hardware ergonomic perspective, software ergonomic perspective, environmental ergonomic perspective, and macro ergonomic perspective (Samaras & Horst, 2005). This implies that when engineers, designers and ergonomists define problems and formulate solutions within the broader context of the human in prospective context, system boundaries need to be clearly defined, and be more focussed on people specific aspects (e.g. only physical), specific aspects of the environment (e.g. only workplace), or a specific level (e.g. micro).

1.4 DESIGN DRIVEN VERSUS A HUMAN-CENTERED APPROACH In the design process, micro, meso, and macro level ergonomics should be understood from a human component perspective, covering individual, collective and social aspects. Given these foci, ergonomic specialists and interpreters (Verganti, 2008), are expected to become more actively involved in creation processes, particularly with respect to the design of Product Service Systems (PSS). Furthermore, actors, who will be part of the system being designed, are often brought into the development process as participants (Noro & Imada 1991). All stakeholders´ insights and competencies regarding methods for designing and assessing technical and organisational environments, analysing and acting on situations, methods for organising and managing participatory approaches, are invaluable for continuously improving Product Service Systems (Woods & Dekker 2000). With respect to PE, designers, ergonomist and participative users should adopt an integrative role in collective design decision-making with other contributors and stakeholders of design (Rasmussen, 2000), based on their knowledge, activities, needs and skills. Furthermore, in the process of analysing, contextualising and managing design problems, PE has the legitimacy to stimulate and moderate design processes by, for instance, translating engineering terminology or concepts to end-user terminologies and vice versa.

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1.5 FOCUS ON PERFORMANCE AND WELL-BEING Three related system outcomes can be achieved by fitting the environment to the human: well-being (e.g. health and safety, pleasure, learning, personal satisfaction and development), performance (e.g. productivity, efficiency, effectiveness, quality, innovativeness, flexibility, (systems), and safety (security, reliability, sustainability. Especially within the context of PE and strategic design, it is a challenge for ergonomists to balance plural outcomes, such as well-being, exposure to learning, and profit maximisation. In other words, ergonomists need to manage practical implications and ethical trade-offs within systems (Wilson, Ryan, Schock, Ferreira, Smith & Pitsopoulos, 2009), considering short-, and long term interdependency between performance and well-being. This interdependency between performance and well-being is an issue, which has to be aligned2 with strategic business principles. Once aligned and understood, looking at prospection can advance a proactive design approach within ergonomics. In other words, the expansion from traditional to contemporary ergonomics has promoted the concept of “prospection” and introduced a new framework for structuring ergonomic activities around corrective, preventive (design) and prospective ergonomics (Brangier & Robert, 2010; Robert & Brangier, 2012). The latter looks forward in time defining human needs and activities to create human-centred artefacts that besides its usefulness provide positive user experiences. Figure 3 shows the various dimensions determining PE, which extends beyond well-being, productivity and a systems approach. It stresses on the importance of being future oriented, pluralistic and emphasizes that innovative design solutions are systemically embedded in context.

Figure 3: Dimensions in white apply to general ergonomics. Dimensions highlighted in grey specifically apply to PE. All facets of ergonomics carry elements of prospection. The concept of prospection also brings ergonomics, which mainly engages in addressing preventive and corrective human machine issues in certain contextual settings, closer to the field of 2 The concept of ”Aligning” is comparative and based on contemporary perspectives and theoretical frameworks rather than tracing back historical events.

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design. Furthermore with the proliferation of service, interaction and sustainable design, where innovation is usually a concern of many stakeholders, the field of ergonomics is extended to PE and design to strategic design. As shown in figure 3, “Design driven”, “Human Centered”, “Creativity-oriented”, “Future-oriented” and “Speculative” are typical dimensions, which have been adopted from design.

1.6. HISTORY AND DEFINITION OF STRATEGY Complementary to §1.1, the purpose of this section is to provide a historical strategy perspective on Ergonomics, because certain events in the development of business strategies have a human impact, which to some extent challenges the traditional view on strategy. For example, stakeholder involvement, value chains, resource base view (RBV) (Barney, 1991), dynamic capabilities (Teece, Pisano & Shuen, 1997), etc. have impacted the definition of strategy to be more comprehensive and context driven. According to Nag, Hambrick & Chen (2007), strategic management deals with how major intended and emergent initiatives match the internal organisation of companies and use of resources to enhance their performance. Moreover, developments in strategic management, where firms focus on pluralistic objectives, combined with a user-experience centered view on consumerism, gave rise to the design and development of intangible-dominant commodities, such as services. Successively, service innovation (Miles, 1993), service design, product service system development, etc., re-emphasised the importance of a systemic approach in strategizing, where deliberate planning resulted in innovation activities, centered around the user. This user-, or human-centered innovation approach shares the same perspectives with PE and is characterized by a focus on well-being, an orientation towards the future and business-making, and a need of being contextually embedded.

TEXTBOX: A Historical Overview of Strategy Strategy as a measure to control market forces and shape competitive environments started as early as the second half of the nineteenth century. However, the field of strategic management has advanced substantially in the past 40 years (Edward, Bowman & Thomas, 2010). This advancement has been advocated by top executives of multi-divisional formed corporations first articulated the need for a formal approach to corporate strategy. Sloan (1963) devised a strategy that was explicitly based on the perceived strengths and weaknesses of its competitor, Ford. In the 1930s, Chester Barnard a top executive with AT&T, encouraged managers to think strategically by specifically considering “strategic factors”, which depend on “personal or organizational” action. Strategic thinking and decision making was finally challenged and tested in World War II to allocate scarce resources across the entire economy to facilitate innovation in management science. This implies that through rational and deliberate planning, initiating and carrying through changes in an economic environment, a company could exert some positive control over market forces (Drucker, 1954). This attitude towards rational planning and strategizing is a typical phenomenon, which is associated with Taylorism and opposed by ergonomists. In the late 1950´s, Andrews (1971) elaborated on this thinking by arguing that "every business organization, every sub-unit of organization, and even every individual needs to clearly define their purposes or goals which keeps them moving in a deliberately chosen direction and prevents them drifting in undesired directions. By the 1960s, discussions on business policy making focused on matching a company's "strengths" and "weaknesses" with the "opportunities" and "threats" (or risks) it faced in the marketplace. This framework, which is referred to by the acronym SWOT, was a major step forward in explicitly propelling competitive thinking towards strategic (Andrews, 1971)

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This attitude of organizations which emphasize growth and diversification, and are overly "willing to gamble" its distinctive competence in pursuit of opportunity was heavily criticized by Levitt (1960). His opinion was that organizations were too much focused on delivering a product, presumably capitalising on its distinctive competence, instead of consciously serving the customer. In other words, the reason for a company to fail is based on the inadequacy of the product to adapt to the constantly changing consumer patterns, as well as developing marketing and product developments practices in complementary industries”(Levitt, 1960). However, according to Ansoff (1968) a company should first ask whether a new product had a "common thread" with its existing products, instead of taking unnecessary risks by investing in new products that might not meet the firm's distinctive competence. Ansoff defined the common thread as a firm's "mission" or its commitment to exploit an existing need in the market as a whole and noted that sometimes the customer is wrongly identified as the main thread of a firm's business. Therefore, to maintain its strategic focus, companies need to categorize and structure their innovation intents before determining what the main thread in its business/corporate strategy is. This can be achieved by translating the result of a SWOT analysis into a series of concrete questions to be answered in the development of strategies (Porter, 1985). The 1960s and early 1970s witnessed the emergence of several strategy consulting practices. Particularly, the Boston Consulting Group (BCG), founded in 1963, was influential in applying quantitative research to solve business problems and enhance corporate strategy. According to BCG's founder, Bruce Henderson (1984), a consultant's job was to discover "meaningful quantitative relationships" between a company and its chosen markets, which means that "good strategic action" depends primarily on logic, not on experience derived from intuition. His argument was that intuition and traditional patterns of behaviour, which have been successful in the past, were too much relied upon in most firms´ strategising activities. Moreover, in growth industries acting within dynamic environments, significant accelerating changes produces a business world where there is no place for traditional managerial habits, which renders organizations to be increasingly inadequate (Henderson, 1979). Roughly at the same time as the BCG, several other consulting firms developed their own matrices for Strategic Business Unit and portfolio analysis at roughly the same time as BCG. For instance when GE asked McKinsey & Company to examine its corporate structure, it was discovered that the two hundred profit centers and one hundred and forty-five departments were arranged around ten groups and that the boundaries for these units had been defined according to theories of financial control, which the McKinsey consultants judged to be inadequate. They argued that the firm should adopt a more future-oriented approach by organising itself more along strategic lines, where strategic Business Units are to be more concerned with external conditions rather than internal controls through the measurement of past financial performance. This is supported by Abernathy and Wayne´s (1974) views that using analytical techniques to intensively pursue a cost-minimization strategy reduces an organization´s ability to make innovative changes and to respond to innovations introduced by competitors. Later on, Hayes and Abernathy (1980) argued that "new principles of management, despite their sophistication and widespread usefulness, encourage (1) objective analysis rather than developing insights that comes from 'hands on experience' and (2) long-term development of technological competitiveness rather than short-term cost reduction. Given this context, portfolio analysis is being criticised as a financial risk management tool that holds managers back from investing in new opportunities that require a long-term commitment of resources. A clear case, which illustrates the above situation, is Henry Ford´s obsession with lowering costs, which made him vulnerable to Alfred Sloan's strategy of product innovation in the automotive industry. In 1985, Porter (1985) suggested to analyse cost and differentiation using a "value chain," template, because it dissects a firm´s strategising activities in order to understand the behavior of costs and the existing and potential sources of differentiation (Ghemawat, 2002). He emphasized the importance of regrouping functions into discrete activities that support the production, marketing, delivery, and development of products, because competitive advantage cannot be achieved by looking at a firm as a whole. Each of these discrete activities can contribute to a firm's relative cost position and create a basis for differentiation by emphasising on their relationships, and how these activities connect to the value chain. In other words, competitive advantage is created from the many interactions and dealings firm performs within its business eco-system. Differentiation as well as collaboration with stakeholders can contribute to a firm's relative cost position and create a basis for differentiation.

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In the late 1980´s and early 1990´s authorities in the field of strategic management started to confront the issues of “dynamism” when it concerns creating and sustaining competitive advantage. According to Stalk (1988), strategy can never be constant. For organizations to be leading edge, it is and always will be a moving target, where fast response and increasing variety should be aimed for. Organizations without these ambitions are maily competing on price. In the same period, the Resource-Based View (RBV), an old idea of looking at existing resources of an organization has been revisited. Defined by Wernerfelt (1984) it is a traditional concept of strategy, which emphasises the availability of resources (strengths and weaknesses) within a firm, whereas most of our formal economic tools operate on the product market side. In support of the RBV, other resource-based theorists seek to distinguish their perspective on sustained superior performance and product market positioning from that of Industrial Organization economics by underlining the innate inimitability of scarce, valuable resources for a variety of reasons: the ability to acquire a particular resource may be dependent on unique, historical circumstances that competitors cannot recreate; the link between the resources possessed by a firm and its sustained competitive advantage may be causally ambiguous or poorly understood; or the resource responsible for the advantage may be socially complex and therefore "beyond the ability of firms to systematically manage and influence" (e.g., corporate culture) (Barney, 1991). On a critical note, resource-based theorists have therefore perceived firms as stuck with a few key resources, which they must deploy across product markets in ways that maximize total profits rather than profits in individual markets. This means that instead of focusing on products, organizations should nurture underlying core competencies and resources in a way to unbound innovation and in the long run spawn unanticipated new products (Prahalad & Hamel, 1990)." In the 1990s, a number of strategy scholars extended the resource-based view by explaining how firm-specific dynamic capabilities perform activities better and be redeployed over long periods of time. The dynamic-capabilities view of the firm differs from the RBV because capabilities are to be developed and nurtured rather than be taken as granted, which has been pioneered and described more extensively by Teece at al. (1997): “Dynamic capabilities and strategic management”. In summary, the transition from the 20th to 21st century can be characterized by firms sustainable, long-term profit making ambitions, supported by a dynamic and RBV view on how to allocate and grow internal resources as well as how to build and nurture external networks.

1.7. MAIN IDEA, APPROACH AND STRUCTURE OF

DISSERTATION The main idea of this dissertation is that strategic management perspectives on innovation as well as strategic design principles extend the field of PE. Pure positivism does not represent a PE approach in developing new products and services. Instead, a combination of positivist and constructivist worldviews, are fundamental for adopting PE in a systemic strategy context. Both systemic strategizing and PE acknowledge that innovating is a complex activity bounded by social, technological, economic, environment and political constraints, which may lead to plural outcomes. Reference to the main idea in this dissertation, the topics PE and strategic design have been revisited from an overarching strategic management perspective. To develop the theoretical foundation of this thesis, relationships among strategic management, strategic design and PE will be elaborated through selected business, design end ergonomic frameworks in chapter 2. The empirical section of the dissertation, which is reported in chapters 4 and 5, is case study driven, and supported by the appended articles (see appendices A and B). Figure 4 shows the

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alignments and differences between different levels of ergonomic and design interventions, positioned within the context of strategic management.

Figure 4: Alignments and differences between compatible macro-ergonomic and strategic management perspectives at different levels of comprehensiveness.

Selected articles have been incorporated in this dissertation as appendices to support the theoretical as well as the empirical (case study) parts: Journal Publications

• Liem, A. (2014). Toward Prospective Reasoning in Design: An Essay on relationships among Designer’s Reasoning, Business Strategies, and Innovation Le Travail Humain, Vol. 77, n°1/2014, 91-102.

• Liem, A., & Brangier, E., (2012). Innovation and design approaches within prospective ergonomics. Work. A journal of Prevention, Assesment and rehabilitation. Vol. 41. S. 5243-5250. ISSN: 1051-9815.

Journal Publications

• Liem, André; Sigurjonsson, Johannes (2014) Positioning Industrial Design Education within Higher Education: How to face increasingly challenging market forces? UNIPED (Tromsø). Vol 37. (2) s. 44-57. ISSN 1893-8981

• Liem, André; Sanders, E.B.N (2013) Human-Centred Design Workshops in Collaborative Strategic Design Projects; An Educational and Professional Comparison. Design and Technology Education: an International Journal Vol. 18, No.1 ISSN: 1360-1431 / 2040-8633

• Liem, André (2012). Teaching strategic and systems design to facilitate collaboration and learning. FORMakademisk; Volum 5 (1). S. 29-48. ISSN: 1890-9515

• Liem, André (2011) Using design education to survive in the corporate world of higher learning and research, Journal of Design Research Vol 9, No 2. ISSN: 01748-3050 (print), 1569-1551 (online)

Articles supporting the theoretical part

Articles supporting the case study part

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• Liem, André, (2011) An Ergonomic Case Study on the Interior Customisation of Fast Response Cars based on Vehicle Adaptation, International Journal of Vehicle Design, Vol. 55, Nos. 2/3/4 ISSN: 0143-3369 (print), 1741-5314 (online)

• Liem, André (2004); Development of Interior Concepts to Facilitate Small-Space Living in Singapore; Journal of Southeast Asian Architecture, Volume 7, 2004, ISSN 0218-9593 pages 47-57

Conference Publications:

• Liem, André (2012). Computer Aided Design as an Idea and Concept Generation Tool in the Early Stages of the Design Process. Proceedings of The Ninth Norddesign Conference, 2012. The Design Society. 2012. ISBN 978-87-91831-51-5. 9 pages

• Liem, André; Huang Yan (2004); Digital Human Models in Work System Design and Simulation. SAE 2004. In Proceedings of Digital Human Modelling for Design and Engineering Symposium, Oakland University, Rochester, USA (Cited in Body Space 3rd edition, ISBN: 978-0-415-28520-9)

• Liem, André; Yeo Kang Shua; Chai Jun Yea (2003) Anthropometric Considerations for Embarkation and Disembarkation at Bus Shelters. Proceedings of SEAMEC 2003, ed. Khalid, H.M., Lim, T.Y., and Lee, N.K. (2003): Kuching: UNIMAS. (SEAMEC 2003, 19-22 May 2003, UNIMAS, Kuching, Malaysia)

• Liem, André; Lind, Ane Linea; Gadaria, Dharmesh (2010) Towards a Culturally Driven Approach for the Development of Strategic Design Concepts. I: Proceedings of Norddesign 2010; International Conference on Methods and Tools for Product and Production Development, Gothenburg, Sweden. The Design Society 2010 ISBN 978-91-633-7063-2. p. 97-108

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2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

« Business models reflect management’s hypotheses about what customers want, how they want it, and how the enterprise can organize to best meet those needs, get paid for doing so,

and make a profit” » Teece, 2010 / Hienerth, Keinz & Lettl, 2010. p. 346.

« What is design? It's where you stand with a foot in two worlds - the world of technology and

the world of people and human purposes - and you try to bring the two together.» Kapor, A software Manifesto, 1990, p.62.

« Design principles are not just relevant to end products and services, but also directly

relevant to the development of more creative strategic management processes and innovative strategy options.»

Hatchuel, Starkey, Tempest & Le Masson. 2010, p.12

Chapter Abstract: In this chapter selected theoretical frameworks and methods from business strategising, innovation

and design will be discussed and aligned with different ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations. The alignment occurs in three stages. In the first stage, Rationalist-Historicist and Empirical-Idealistic dimensions, which are contextualised and positioned according to different technology-push and market-pull approaches, will be aligned with the generic strategy dimensions, deliberate – emergent and profit-maximisation – plural. The second stage suggests the connectivity among generic strategies, worldviews and models of design reasoning, positioned according to a framework of process and outcome. In the third stage, different ergonomic interventions and specialisations will be positioned according to strategic perspectives and other positioning maps. The objective of these alignments is to contextualise prospective ergonomics (PE) within a directed field of innovation and strategic design. As prospective ergonomics targets various aspects of “innovation”: aesthetic (hedonistic/emotional), user-functional, service, etc. different prescriptive positioning exercises are valuable for the anticipation and imagination of implicit needs and wants as well as to create prospective design solutions. Prioritising the well-being of people, important contextual determinants to be considered for promoting the innovation and creation aspects of prospective ergonomics are based on social, technological, economical, environmental, and political factors. If plural objectives are to be met through a systemic way of strategizing and designing, ergonomists, designers and business managers should adopt a comprehensive prospective ergonomic approach based upon the type of problem, context, company objectives, and stakeholder involvement.

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The purpose of discussing a selection of theoretical frameworks in this thesis is to anchor PE within the broader context of ergonomics and strategic management, as well as to explore synergies between this new field of ergonomics and strategic design. Figure 5 depicts how this chapter is structured and presented.

Figure 5: Selected theoretical frameworks and methods to conceptualise prospective ergonomics To form the foundation for this thesis, selected theoretical frameworks and methods from the fields of strategic management, product planning, strategic / system design and design reasoning feed into the main theme “prospective ergonomics” (PE). These frameworks, which will be elaborated more in the next sections and sub-sections of this chapter, are:

• Technology Push – Market Pull • Worldviews and Design Reasoning Modes • Generic Business Strategies • Product Service Systems (PSS) • Co-Creation and Human-centred Design • Design-driven Innovation

2.1 TECHNOLOGY PUSH VERSUS MARKET PULL As the global environment is becoming increasingly competitive and dynamic, organizations and businesses are continuously challenged to look for the most efficient ways to maximize their innovation and management efforts using new models, methods and paradigms, which efficiently serve existing and new markets with new and/or modified products as well as services (Christiansen, 2000). Damanpour (1991) has extended the definition of innovation beyond the creation and market introduction of new products or services, by claiming that it can also be a new technology or structure to improve production and administrative systems, or a new plan or program to facilitate collaboration among stakeholders. This implies that in the pursuit of radical innovation, global trends need to be taken into account in the

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planning of future products, services and contexts (Fingar, 2009). Hereby, innovation push and pull models are helpful to characterise drivers for innovation. Traditionally, push-innovation referred to knowledge- or technology-driven innovation. Although technology push has been considered as a first and important generation of innovation strategy (Roussel, Saad & Erickson, 1991), design-driven innovation, originating from an internal knowledge-building within companies and among stakeholders and interpreters, has recently been advocated as most relevant in discovering hidden needs (Verganti, 2008), (Rampino, 2011). Simplistically, managers of technological enterprises can be segmented in two camps: those who believe that markets direct their course of action and those who proclaim that their technology will develop a following (Sukhockev, 2011). Those who need to define a market beforehand are marketing managers while engineers and technologists adopt a more constructive approach. The range of recent innovations, such as polyester tires, ceramic engines, superconductivity, and personal computers challenge marketeers and engineers to adopt both a positivist as well as constructivist approach. Can a marketing manager make a list of all of the inventions, which he has never heard of? Similarly, can a technologist predict all applications (i.e. needs) for nylon or integrated circuits? Given this context, firms, both large and small, require both technology-push and market-pull approaches in order to be continuously innovative and profitable. A matrix, juxtaposing Rationalist-Historicist and Empirical-Idealistic dimensions, illustrates the different relationships of technology-push and market-pull approaches with respect to four different types of innovation: user-driven, market-driven, design-driven and technology driven3 (see figure 6). (Liem & Brangier, 2012)

Figure 6: Rationalist-historicist and empirical-idealistic dimensions contextualised and positioned according to different technology-push and market-pull approaches (Adopted from Mørk, 2011, p.214)

3 User-driven innovation means that a firm involves its users directly in the product creation process. Market-driven innovation is an innovation approach determined or responsive to market forces. Technology-driven innovation is an approach that pushes for development of new goods or services based on a firm's technical abilities instead of proven demand. Design-driven innovation is an approach on how to innovate new products and services, which give meaning.

Design-Driven

User-Driven

Market-Driven

Technology-Driven

Idealistic/ A priori

A posteriori/ Empirical

Rationalist/ General

Historicist/ Contextual

PULL

PUSH

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A historicist view on innovation shows a more constructivist conception of the process as a whole, characterised by an iterative cycle of concept development and testing of solutions. A rational view perceives knowledge to be independently applied of a specific setting, at least to a certain degree. An empirical / a posteriori perspective represents a “pull” approach, whether market or user driven. This means that “data” is a prerequisite for a firm to initiate innovation. Supporters of the idealistic / a priory perspective are convinced that radical innovation should come from either a technology or design “push” approach. They are sceptical that breakthrough innovations can be systematically and empirically analysed only through data. However, technological developments and market structures are influential in how the product, system or service is being divided into interconnecting entities. As an example, Ansoff’s perspective on innovation strategy can be seen as an essential tool for directing market and technological research (Ansoff, 1980), whereas Mintzberg’s strategy model suits a context-based user-or design-driven innovation process better (Mintzberg, 1987). Both perspectives are considered as equivalent to the push and pull models of innovation. The description is polarized in order to contrast the different models of innovation and to facilitate the positioning of different ergonomic interventions and specialisations. In user-centred innovation, product development activities start from a deep analysis of user needs, where researchers immerse themselves in fieldwork by observing customers and their environments to acquire an detailed understanding of customer’s lifestyles and cultures as a foundation for better discerning their needs and problems (Belliveau, Griffin & Somermeyer, 2004). Latest developments in innovation activities, involving users, have questioned the creative effectiveness of user-centred design methods from a participatory design and generative design research perspective, characterised by co-creation methods (Sanders & Stappers, 2008). Participatory Design (PD) is an approach to assess, design, and develop technological and organizational systems, whereby active involvement of potential or current end-users as well as other stakeholders, is encouraged in design and decision-making processes. Similar to Technology Driven innovation, Design-driven innovation has largely remained unexplored. Moreover, unlike user-centred processes, it is less based on using formal roles, processes and methods, such as ethnographic research. Design-driven innovation may be perceived as a manifestation of a reconstructionist (Mauborgne & Chan, 2005) or social-constructionist view of the market (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2000), where the market is not “given” a priori, but is the social construct of interactions between consumers and firms. Hereby, stakeholders need to understand the radically new language and message, to find new connections and meanings to their socio-cultural context, and to explore new symbolic values and patterns of interaction with the product, which are not only livable and sustainable, but also fun and culturally inspiring (Esslinger, 2011). In other words, socio-cultural regimes are profoundly solicited by radical innovations, similarly as fundamental changes in technological regimes are devised by radical technological innovations (Geels, 2004).

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2.2 PHILOSOPHICAL WORLDVIEWS Although philosophical worldviews remain most often largely hidden in the design world, they still influence the practice of design and need to be identified. As explained by Creswell (2009) and Lincoln and Guba (1985), a worldview can be defined as “a compilation of fundamental beliefs that guide action” and is similar to paradigms or epistemologies. The types of philosophical worldviews held by individual designers will often have great impact on their approaches to design theories and indirectly on the concrete methods and techniques they use. Four different worldviews are briefly presented in figure 7 (Liem, 2014), based on the work of Creswell (2009) on research design (and use of qualitative, quantitative or mixed research methods).

Figure 7: Overview of presented worldviews and design theories (Liem, 2014). It should be noted that the presented worldviews may take various forms and may use principles that are comparable and complementary from one another. They are not considered as rigid and separate but rather may overlap on each other to varying degrees. For the alignment of selected worldviews with ergonomic interventions, positivism and constructivism in their most literal form have been presented here as contradictive and irreconcilable, see figure 7 (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). However, one should note that according to “constructivist realism”, worlds are multi-layered with many levels of interacting structures on-going simultaneously (Cupchik, 2001). This is reinforced by the on-going trend towards reconciliation of positivism and constructivism, which can be achieved by eliminating the arbitrary boundaries and assumptions concerning truth and apprehension. For instance, post-positivism offers a vision that is more nuanced and better suited for study of design science; it recognizes that knowledge is conjectural and absolute truth can never be found when studying humans (Phillips & Burbules, 2000). Constructivism is affiliated to postmodernism, whereby truth is perceived to be grounded in everyday life and

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social relations, and knowledge is created from different sources and experiences. It is significantly different from post-positivism, because we are constrained by our own perception and as such cannot access reality and that what we consider to be reality is constructed. In other words the observer and the observed cannot be separated; reality is co-constructed by individuals in a social context, where beliefs change over time. (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Although pragmatism makes use of elements from both post-positivism and constructivism, it remains a worldview on its own and is not committed to one system of philosophy and reality (Creswell, 2009). Great emphasis is placed on focusing on a problem and the use of pluralistic approaches to derive knowledge about the problem. As researchers have the freedom to choose methods, techniques and procedures for research, stands are not taken on the debate of reality as objective or subjective, but on how they meet best their needs and purpose (Creswell, 2009), (Rorty, 1990). Advocacy criticizes the fact that constructivism does not go far enough in advocating for marginalized people (Creswell, 2009). With respect to stakeholder involvement in a human-centred design context, individuals should be included in prospective ergonomic research and design in order not to be further marginalized or limited in self-determination and self-development. The relationship between the different worldviews and PE can be argued from a “human” interest perspective. Understanding present and designing future contexts with respect to well-being as well as economic sustainability are most likely to be facilitated by adopting a constructivist, advocacy and partly pragmatic worldview in addition to positivistic ways of “doing things”.

• The constructivist worldview contextualises the fact that human activities are unpredictable and subject to external influences; social, economic and political, as well as internal ambitions, which can sometimes be erratic, illogic, idealistic, etc. In line with PE and strategic design, designers seek to capture the complexity of views instead of narrowing them to a few categories of ideas. Hereby, subjective meanings are socially and historically influenced, and research focuses on the contexts and interactions among individuals, which is different from post-positivist research where interpretation of observations is influenced by the background of the researcher.

• The pragmatic worldview acknowledges that humans need systems and systematic planning, but since they do not have an infinitely knowledge framework, planning happens within predetermined contexts. These predetermined contexts are more supportive of a corrective or preventive way of solving ergonomic design problems, assuming that an ideology or proposition is true as long as it works satisfactorily.

• The advocacy worldview connects well with PE, as it lays the foundation for developing persuasive concepts and socially responsible solutions to promote future well-being for people.

To summarise this paragraph, the dual objective of PE, which is on one hand to promote well-being and on the other hand to facilitate innovation, requires designers and ergonomists to plan the development of products an services, while taking into consideration contextual constraints, possibilities and responsibilities. With respect

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to worldview adoption, these designers and ergonomists need to embrace all the four worldviews, because PE resides in systemic ways of strategizing (see §2.3), where processes are deliberate and targeted outcomes are plural. §2.3 maps out four generic strategies to provide a clearer picture why a systemic generic strategy is very much related to PE with respect to thought, process and ambition.

2.3 FOUR PERSPECTIVES ON STRATEGY The motivation behind a company’s vision and choice of strategy is usually encapsulated in various theories of action in order to achieve competitive advantage (Whittington, 2001). To provide decision makers with fundamentally different ways of thinking about strategy in a wide range of situations, four perspectives on strategy were created and mapped according to process and outcome (see figure 8). These perspectives, which are classical, evolutionary, processual, and systemic, have their roots from “Mintzberg´s 10 Schools of Thought about Strategy Formation” (Mintzberg & Waters, 1985). As a precursor to Whittington´s generic strategy perspectives, these schools were compared and positioned on a bipolar spectrum according to planned and emergent strategies (Mintzberg, 1989). When addressing the “outcomes” axis, the “plural” dimension should be interpreted from a more nuanced perspective, considering both the short and the long term, as well as diverse ambitions of internal and external stakeholders, in contrast to the focussed profit-maximising aims of the organisation leadership. The “processes” axis illustrates a spectrum between deliberate and emergent ways of planning.

Figure 8: Overview of generic strategy perspectives (Whittington, 2001). In the classical approach, profit-maximising is the highest goal of business and rational planning. This classical theory claims that if Returns-On-Investments (ROI) are not satisfactory in the long run, the deficiency of the business venture should be corrected, or abandoned (Sloan, 1963). Key features of the classical approach are the attachment to rational analysis, the separation between planning and execution, and the commitment to profit maximization (Ansoff, 1968; Sloan, 1963).

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Evolutionary approaches are characterised by an on-going struggle for survival through reactive decision-making. In the search of profit maximization, natural selection will determine who are the best performers and the ones that survive (Einhorn & Hogarth, 1981). In contrast to classical and evolutionary approaches, processual methods do not aim for profit-maximisation ambitions, but strive to work with what reality offers. Practically, this means that firms are not always united. Instead, individuals with different interests, acting in an environment of confusion and mess, determine the course of action. Through a process of internal bargaining within the organization, members set goals among themselves, which are acceptable to all. In a systemic approach, the organisation is not simply made up of individuals acting purely in economic transactions, but of individuals embedded in a network of densely interwoven social relations that may involve their family, state, professional and educational backgrounds, even their culture, religion, and ethnicity (Whittington, 2001).

2.4 ALIGNING GENERIC STRATEGIES WITH

INNOVATION APPROACHES THROUGH

WORLDVIEW PERSPECTIVES Using different worldview perspectives, alignments can be established between Whittington´s generic strategy perspectives and the Technology-Push / Market-Pull innovation approaches, as shown in figure 9. Although these alignments can be perceived to be rather simplistic, it explains the most dominant relationships between typical worldviews, strategy perspectives and innovation approaches. In each of the four sub-paragraphs the connection between (Technology-Push/Market-Pull) innovation approaches and generic strategy perspectives will be elaborated through a worldview transfer.

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Figure 9: Alignment of innovation approaches with generic strategies through a worldview perspective.

2.4.1 A technology driven innovation approach based on a generic classical strategy Besides sharing positivistic characteristics of “doing things in a top-down, structured and directive manner” between technology-driven marketing and classical strategy approaches, “Good business model” design and implementation, coupled with careful strategic analysis, are necessary for technological innovation to succeed commercially” (Teece, 2010, p.184). His statement implies that every new technology driven product development effort should be coupled with the development of a planned business strategy, which defines its ‘go to market’ and when and how to “capture optimal economic value strategies”. Based on a continuous spectrum, the following concrete examples show possible planned strategies, which a company can adopt:

• At one end of the scale, an integrated business model is being applied where an innovating firm takes responsibility for the entire value chain from A to Z including design, manufacturing, and distribution by grouping innovation and product design activities together.

• The other extreme case is the outsourced (pure licensing) business approach, which has been adopted by several companies.

• In between there are hybrid approaches involving a mixture of the two approaches (e.g. out- source manufacturing; provide company-owned sales and support). Hybrid approaches are the most common, but they also require strong selection and organisation skills on the part of management (Teece, 2007).

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2.4.2 A design driven innovation approach based on a generic systemic strategy In the broader context of creativity, design is the engine to manage complex human needs. Designers and their business partners have an unique obligation and opportunity to build an environment where actors: consumers, users and other stakeholders are members of a larger interdependent community, who are rooted deeply in densely interwoven social systems. Hereby, these actors should not be seen as decision-makers, who are simply detached calculative individuals, who are interacting in purely transactional in an economic sense (Granovetter, 1985). To be more specific, people´s economic behavior is embedded in a network of social relations, involving their families, state, their educational and professional backgrounds, religion and ethnicity (Sweberg, Himmelstrand & Brulin, 1987), Whittington, 1992). This systemic view on strategizing aligns well with the concept of “Design driven” innovation and “Technology-driven” innovation, which have earlier been explained in §2.1. Particularly in “Design-driven” innovation, deliberate attempts to create radical change through meaning making in the design of products and services have been promoted by Norman and Verganti (2014) through their framework on technology –push innovation, market-pull innovation, meaning-driven innovation and Technology Epiphanies. This framework will be elaborated upon in §2.8.5, upon contextualization with ergonomic domains, specializations and interventions.

The alignment between a design driven market approach and a systemic way of strategizing is commonly represented by its context dependency. People in organisations strategise and consumers make sense of a product or service according to their psychological profile, and of the cultural and social context in which they are immersed. Interpretations of meanings are constructed and re-constructed in an ongoing co-creation process through continuous interactions among firms, designers, users, and several stakeholders, both inside and outside a corporation (Brown & Duguid, 1991; Tsoukas, 1996). The innovation of meaning, therefore, could be linked to a social-constructionist (Burr, 2010; Landry, 1995), or even re-constructionist (Chan & Mauborgne, 2005) approach, where the interaction of objects and subjects mutually “shapes” or “constructs” representations of reality in a continuous process. The constructivist transfer, which is hermeneutic in nature, suggests that innovation is the act of envisioning new meanings. It is not simply about generating ideas and solutions, but about strategically creating a whole new vision. Hereby, the act of interpretation is based on a deliberate creation of new interpretations that do not exist yet by involving a broader range of interpreters and experts.

2.4.3 A user driven innovation approach based on a generic processual strategy The connectivity between a user / consumer driven perspective towards innovation and how this is being facilitated by a processual strategy is dependent on how organisations transform themselves to become more consumer-oriented. This

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transformation can take place when these organisations are willing to introduce novel tools, instruments and procedures to systematically and continuously integrate users into their core business processes. Enabling users to interact with each other in real time and reflectively exchange and discuss ideas, or to provide feedback and support is a vital prerequisite for fostering creativity during ideation processes (Hienert, Schaer, Schaible & Mayr 2011). The link with the processual characteristics of strategising is established by rejecting the existence of the rational man, as well as perfect functioning competitive markets (Cyert & March, 1963). Acknowledging the limits of human cognition, people within organisations and therefore organisations are rationally bounded. Similarly, users, who are involved in co-creating products, services and businesses, are unable to consider more than a handful factors at one time. Biased in their interpretation of data and limited in communicating all their needs, designers and ergonomists are inclined to adopt a reactive and reflective practice approach towards creativity and problem solving. To summarise this paragraph, doing things in an evolving manner centred on people is a typical trait of user-centric strategising when objectives are plural and stakeholders accept and work with the world as it is.

2.4.4 A market driven innovation approach based on a generic evolutionary strategy Supporters of the evolutionary perspective on strategising are less confident that top managers and decision makers are fully capable of planning and acting rationally. By adopting a post positivistic and pragmatic worldview, they believe that markets dictate how profit maximisation can be achieved. Using association with the “Natural law of the Jungle”, only the best performers will survive. Therefore, managers need not to be rational optimisers, because “evolution is nature´s cost benefit analysis”. However, this does not mean that companies need to take an ad-hoc approach towards innovation (Clausen, Pohjola, Sapprasert & Verspagen, 2011). They need to continuously connect with increasing complex consumer demands as well as exploit the technological capabilities they possess, or acquire new ones. The differences with the other innovation and generic strategy alignments, such as the “user driven – processual” alignment, are that in this market driven innovation approach consumer behaviours are essential, but the consumer / user him or herself is not expected to be involved in creativity or co-creation activities. In other words, the consumer is seen as a passive rather than an active participator. From the offering point of view and based on the (dynamic) capabilities of the companies, the evolutionary way of strategizing is to maximise profit by betting on different incremental innovation projects and initiatives, rather than carefully planning a single penetration strategy for achieving “radical” innovation. The reason why certain companies choose to strategise in an opportunistic manner is based on their belief that it is becoming more difficult to predict the future, because of globalisation trends, changing economic, social and political climates, and increasingly complex consumer demands. Furthermore, companies are being increasingly subjected to dynamic internal and context demands, which makes it extra challenging for decision makers to plan future products and services.

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2.5 TOWARDS INTEGRATED THINKING IN

PROSPECTIVE ERGONOMICS; RELATING C-K DESIGN THEORY, GENERIC STRATEGIES

AND DESIGN REASONING MODELS In this section, “C-K Design theory”, “Generic Strategies” and “Models of Design Reasoning” will be discussed within the context of management and design thinking to develop the argument that PE is founded upon “integrated thinking”. In developing this argument, it is necessary to juxtapose “C-K theory” with “Generic Strategies” on one hand and “C-K theory” with “Models of Design Reasoning” on the other hand. Juxtapositioning has led to the following:

• In concurrence with Hatchuel´s work, strategic management is challenged to become more pluralistic by aiming to be inclusive, human centred, and empathic in seeking co-created solutions to problems (Hatchuel et al. 2010, p.11). Hereby, design thinking around business making may facilitate pluralistic ambitions, as it builds on principles of integrative thinking.

• With respect to different modes of design reasoning and philosophical worldviews, abductive logic that lies between “the past-data-driven world of analytical thinking and the knowing-without-reasoning world of intuitive thinking forms the basis for "Integrated Thinking" (Martin, 2009, p.26).

• The meaning of “Integrated Thinking” for PE is that positivist and constructive worldviews, as well as problem solving / pragmatic versus reflective / hermeneutic ways of reasoning may alternate in the search of future innovative products and services. In other words, this dualistic way of reasoning based upon supposedly contradictive worldviews and immersed in a systemic generic strategy, bounded by rationality, describes the main characteristic of PE.

Referring to the qualities of C-K design theory with respect to the above three points, I believe it is most appropriate to elaborate on the C-K design theory (Hatchuel & Weil, 2003) to justify the interconnectivities among worldviews, generic strategies and models of “Design” reasoning (Lie, 2012).

2.5.1 C-K design theory Hatchuel & Weil (2003) introduced Concept-Knowledge theory (or C-K theory), which has gained significant academic and industrial interest over the past 10 years. The theory is based upon the understanding that concepts are generated from existing knowledge, as well as that knowledge is explored through concepts (Hatchuel et al. 2010). Recently, features of this theory have been recognized as being unique for describing creative reasoning and processes in engineering design, highlighting the fact that one of the most noticeable features of C–K theory is founded on the notion of a creative concept (Ullah, Rashid & Tamaki, 2012). Hereby, two discourses of strategy as design have been introduced (Hatchuel et al. 2010, p.12): “Strategy as Analysis and Implementation” and “Strategy as

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Innovation”. Similar work in field of architecture has been undertaken by Bamford (2002), where analysis/synthesis have been rejected in favour of conjecture/analysis. A key issues in C-K theory is how designers, managers and other stakeholders evaluate dependencies between what is yet-to-exist (a set of variants for a seed project with innovative elements) and what is known (and hence, what can be used as a resource for the design process). The claim of the theory is that this conceptual reasoning process is about defining essential characteristics of design, which is fundamentally different from processes prevalent in formal sciences (i.e. deductive or inductive processes) (Agogue & Kazakci, 2013). In other words, to offer a perspective where creative thinking and innovation are to be included within the core of design theory to provide a logical and precise definition of design (Hatchuel & Weil, 2003, p.1-2). More concretely, design can be perceived as a co-expansion activity from two spaces: spaces of concepts (C) and spaces of knowledge (K). The expansion is transitional and can be noted as C⇒K and K⇒C. Reference to the “Design Square”, knowledge can be expanded internally at a concept level through inclusion or partition as well as at a knowledge level through deduction and experimentation. Transformations from K⇒C, which are “disjunctions”, are typical characteristics of a positivistic problem solving process in design. Reversely, a transformation from C⇒K, which is a conjunction, can be perceived as a constructivist move towards the expansion of the knowledge space. At this point, it is too early to make clear connections and alignments between C-K theories and generic strategies. However, in terms of worldview positioning, the K⇒K and K⇒C transformations are typically positivistic and pragmatic movements, whereas C⇒C and C⇒K movements are driven by constructivism and advocacy. For example, the emergence of crazy ideas may have found their roots from spontaneous and ad-hoc inspirations or suppressed beliefs concerning social political, economical ethical, etc. issues. As anticipated in §2.5, the contribution of C-K theory to PE is relevant because it involves different worldviews and models of design reasoning. For example, K⇒C⇒K movements are driven by positivism and pragmatism followed by constructivism and advocacy.

2.5.2 Six models of design reasoning The adoption of Lie´s categorisation was based upon how the authors view the current discourse, which demarcates theoretical traditions with respect to models of design reasoning. Lie´s extensive literature review has led to a systematic framework (Lie, 2012, p.68) which illustrates the current dispute between positivistic / deliberate design approaches on one hand and the more plural, reflected and embedded design approaches on the other hand. The way Lie has managed to make the dispute explicit will be relevant for design practitioners and researchers to take stands in the “strategic” design of new products. The six models of design reasoning are “Problem Solving”, “Hermeneutic”, “Reflective Practice”, “Participatory”, “Social”, and “Normative”. In this section, models of design reasoning design and worldviews will be discussed and aligned with a generic strategy framework (Whittington, 2001). This framework

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shows existing relations and conjectures among these theories (see figure 10), which are necessary to justify the close relationship between design thinking and business strategizing. Furthermore, this integrated framework argues that service design and the design of Product Service Systems (PSS) are typical fields, which meet the characteristics of a pluralistic way of strategizing. Complementary to this pluralistic way of strategizing, human-centred management and design methods are being advocated to promote the design of product and services. Although processes and outcomes are different for strategizing and designing, the understanding of similarities among different generic strategies, worldviews and models of design reasoning will be invaluable for ergonomist, designers and business managers to create better products systems and services. This understanding will lead to an appreciation that strategic perspectives and design reasoning modes are somehow similar in nature in the exploration of innovation attitudes. Furthermore, this alignment will provide a better understanding on how to position ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations relative to strategic management, strategic design and industrial design theories. The following sections will elaborate more on these similarities.

Figure 10. Extension of generic strategies to models of design reasoning based upon philosophical worldviews (Liem, 2014, adapted from Whittington, 2001, figure 2.1, p.10) A positivist worldview underpins the classical strategy approach, where profit making is planned and commanded. This is in line with a focused and structured problem-solving approach, where a systematic design process (Roozenburg & Eekels, 1995) defines the solution space. The normative reasoning model is exemplified by how a strict and concrete program of requirements complements this

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problem-solving approach. Typically, PMT-matrices (Ansoff, 1968) and Style / Technology Maps (Cagan & Vogel, 2002) are examples of methods and tools, which support a planned and structured approach towards innovation and design. The evolutionary and processual strategic approaches are built upon a pragmatic worldview. Lacking a debate as to whether reality is objective or subjective, the emergent and in some cases opportunistic characteristics of these strategies determine how organizations behave to achieve their profit-making targets or goals. For instance, within corrective ergonomics, an evolutionary business strategy, complemented by a reflective way of designing, would suffice to incrementally improve ergonomic functionality of existing products. Similarly, there are design-reasoning attitudes, which can be aligned with these emergent approaches. The reflective practice addresses design issues from a constructivist, though pragmatic, perspective by engaging in conjectural conversations with the situation (Schön, 1995). The participatory element, where different stakeholders are actively or passively involved in the design process, bringing along their personal interests, is a real-life and pragmatic phenomenon, which aligns well with an emergent strategy driven by pluralistic objectives, but which may not always lead to profit-maximizing or optimal, economical design solutions. To address such a complex situation, which emphasizes well-being, PE may facilitate the discovery of hidden needs and anticipate future solutions. The systemic strategy is socially constructed and therefore the reality is co-constructed by different stakeholders and individuals in a social context (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Although processes are planned and deliberate, multiple objectives exist because of the complexity of multiple views, which are socially, historically, culturally, and contextually embedded in respective communities of practice. Considering a community of design practitioners, the use of selected methods and tools, combined with personal experience and subjectivity, occupies a central place in the design process, which is based on hermeneutic and social reasoning. From PE and strategic design perspectives, the designer attempts to anticipate human needs and activities so as to create new artifacts and services that will be useful and provide positive user experience (Robert & Brangier, 2009). Reiterating the importance of systemic embeddedness, contexts, values, and functions should be considered here as a key element in getting any collaborative process going, involving different stakeholders.

2.6 A PRODUCT SERVICE SYSTEMS (PSS)

PERSPECTIVE As technological products continue to converge and become increasingly more important in consumer’s daily lives, service expectations continue to rise. This trend instigated a shift from production to utilization, from product to process, and from

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transaction to relationship (Vargo & Lusch, 2008), demanding a Product Service Systems (PSS) thinking perspective towards ergonomics. Complementary to this PSS view on ergonomics, Dul et al. (2012) identified that the potential of human factors (HF) is underexploited, because stakeholders in design and management of organisations are mainly focussed on performance outcome. Even though there is some recognition among design and engineering practitioners and researchers about the potential benefits in applying HF in design, it is not sufficient (Bannon, 2002). The lack of HF being applied in design is also explained by Hollnagel & Woods (2005). Traditional ergonomics never questioned the validity of human-machine distinction, and therefore encountered problems in developing a systems view comprising of stakeholder interactions in context. As such, Norros (2014), perceived a pressing need for conceptual innovation. This means that within a systems frame of reference, HF is to be design-driven, as well as need to focus on two closely related outcomes: “performance” and “well-being” (Dul et al., 2012, p.1). In this context, the design of a system should be comprehended as a process of continuous redesign, where actors are involved in reconstructing and modifying the system in the course of their daily activities. Based upon resource-based view and dynamic capabilities theories (Teece et al, 1997), the basis of learning processes are derived from handling the many deviations from ‘the normal’ procedure assumed by the designers (Weick & Quinn, 1999). This implies that over time system actors inevitably also play the role of system re-designers. Based upon consumer-centric and plural intra-organizational perspectives (Michel, Brown, & Gallan, 2008), companies are challenged to conceptualize product service systems that are perceived valuable by all, extending the service-dominant logic to a larger, complex network of collaborating actors (Vargo & Lusch, 2008). With respect to the deliberate modes of business strategizing, trends influencing Product Service Systems (PSS) will be elaborated in this separate chapter to address the importance of a balanced approach in achieving performance and well-being within the context of strategic design and PE. The emergence of these trends can be attributed to the increasing complexities of technology and customer demands, driven by globalisation. A systems approach, which concerns all stages of planning, designing, implementation, evaluation, maintenance, redesigning (Japan Ergonomics Society, 2006), matches with Nelson et al. (2012) ergonomic intervention on the product development process (see figure 2). Centred on design, these stages are not necessarily sequential; they are recursive, interdependent, dynamic. Decisions at one stage may influence or be influenced by decisions at other stages. This means that systems change because of the fluidity of the human or the environmental part of the system or both. However, ergonomics has the potential to contribute to the design of future systems by contributing with fundamental characteristics through explicit design approaches, methods and tools as well as implicit modes of interactions in the search of innovative product and service design solutions in the fuzzy–front end stages of the design process.

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In order to plan an effective innovation strategy for the future, key global developments and trends, as well as their significance for ergonomics need to be identified through analyses and assessments resulting in recommendations and actions (Hendrick, 1991; Japan Ergonomics Society, 2006). Without being complete, important issues that impact ergonomics are “Global Change of Work Systems”, “Cultural Diversity”, “Aging”, “Information Communication & Technonology (ICT)”, “Enhanced competitiveness and the need for innovation” and “Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility”. These issues will be discussed in the upcoming sub-paragraphs with respect to PE and strategic design.

2.6.1 Impact of global economic changes on work systems Over the past decade, significant shifts in the types of work that occur in different regions of the world have been motivated by global changes in the economic landscape. These changes have taken place in both economically advanced nations, and economically developing nations. Historically, economically advanced nations have been mass-producing goods. However, due to global market forces and the intensification of supply chains, these nations increasingly outsourced manufacturing and service functions to economically developing countries over the past two decades (Dul et al., 2012). The emphasis in economically advanced nations has then shifted from a production to a service economy (including healthcare services), resulting in a greater focus on both the design of work systems for service production, as well as on the design of non-work systems such as services for customers and human-computer interactions (Drury 2008, Hedge & Spier 2008). At the same time, developing countries have enlarged their economic activities through low-cost manufacturing of goods, as well as simultaneously experiencing an increase in low wage service sector jobs (e.g. call centres, banking), (Caple, 2008) Furthermore, the continuing trend of mechanisation and automation of work systems, resulting in increased capabilities of technology not only impacts the manufacturing, but also service industry (Schlick, 2009). These phenomena changed attitudes and perceptions among stakeholders who are providing and receiving services whether or not complemented by products.

2.6.2 Human factors and cultural diversity In many economically developed and developing countries, the understanding of the human element requires knowledge of complex social and cultural environments. This can be attributed to global change, which proved to be instrumental in increasing interdependencies among economies, industries and companies worldwide. Consequently, production and distribution systems are internationally structured by implementing culturally diverse workforces, to facilitate that products and services are consumed by increasingly diverse groups of customers in markets around the world (Dul et al., 2012). As a result, (work) environments and product -consumer systems that were properly designed for one society may not be appropriate for other societies, because of different cultural backgrounds, different characteristics and aspirations.

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This trend of cultural diversity positions ergonomics within a systemic management strategy by contributing to cross-cultural design of production, distribution systems as well as products and services that fit the diversity of users and other stakeholders (Moray, 2000), (Japan Ergonomics Society, 2006). In cross-cultural design, it is generally agreed upon that people from different cultures have different capabilities and aspirations, which affect the design of product -service systems in which they take part.

2.6.3 Demographic change A demographic change is generally experienced in most developed parts of the world, brought about by a combination of longer life expectancy, declining fertility, and the progression through life of a large “baby boom” generation (Dul et al., 2012) In the USA and Europe the proportion of older people in the workforce is increasing more than in other continents, whereas in India, Asia and especially Southeast Asia, the retirement age of office and industrial workers has recently been raised. As a consequence, a large group of senior workers has become part of work and product/service environments that were initially designed and more suited for younger group of people. Implications are that work systems comprising of equipment, furniture, IT devices, services, etc. need to be re-evaluated and targeted to an older population and adapted to their characteristics, without stigmatizing them. Hereby, ergonomists need to take into account age-related changes in physical, cognitive, visual and other capabilities, and different aspirations (Japan Ergonomics Society, 2006). Prospectively, there is room for developing more versatile systems that are better matched to a wide range of groups. As such, a Universal Design approach does not only apply to people of different age groups, but also to people with disabilities (Buckle & Buckle, 2011).

2.6.4 Influence of information and communication technology (ICT) in shaping future living According to Karwowski (2006), several ICT-related challenges impact the manner in which work and activities of daily living are performed. For instance, rapid and continuous developments in computer science, telecommunication and media technology have increased and accelerated information transfer through new interactive activities such as social media and gaming. As a consequence, people's social and working lives have become more and more dependent on ICT and virtual networks. Complementary, product quality is valued beyond usability, by emphasising emotional design and pleasurable interactions. ICT developments have brought about many changes in work organisation and organisational design. For example in the manufacturing sector, increasingly, organizational networks and supply chains are relying on virtual arrangements to communicate and share information. Another example resides in the healthcare, where different healthcare organisations share information about patients.

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Within the context of ICT, Ergonomic specialists contribute to the design of virtual sociotechnical systems to allow diverse people who are geographically dispersed, They facilitate the use information and communication technologies among these people to perform their work remotely and share information across organisational boundaries (Woods & Dekker 2000) (Gibson & Gibbs 2006). However, one of the many challenges are how to design natural user interfaces and influence the design of virtual sociotechnical systems in human-computer interactions, which can enhance trust and collaboration when team members work remotely and communicate via technology (Patel, Pettitt & Wilson, 2012).

2.6.5 The need for innovation to enhance competitiveness Globalisation has forced companies to develop new business strategies and alliances to become more competitive. Additionally, it has also pressured companies to increase innovation and invention of new products and services, as well as new ways of producing these. To be successful in the market and to gain commercial advantage, these products and services must be of high quality and serve beyond technical functionality, for example by adding value in terms of positive emotional user experiences. Complementary, production processes need to be more efficient and flexible and must guarantee short product delivery times, often resulting in intensification of work. In the process of renewing business strategies and product/service innovation, ergonomics enhances and fosters employee creativity (Dul & Ceylan, 2011), (Dul & Neumann, 2009) as well as facilitates in developing new products and services with unique usability and experience qualities. Complementary, it can assist a company to innovate processes and operations by providing new efficient and effective ways of producing these products and services (Broberg, 1997; Bruder, 2000).

2.6.6 Sustainability and corporate social responsibility (CSR) Sustainability, which deals with the needs of the present without compromising those of future generations, not only emphasises the natural and physical resources (“planet”), but also the human and social resources (“people”), in combination with economic sustainability (‘profit') (Delios, 2010; Pfeffer, 2010). Rather than purely focusing on financial performance, it claims that companies act to fulfil a broader range of pluralistic objectives. For example, being corporately and socially responsible, companies take up the challenge to meet the minimum legal expectations regarding ‘planet' and ‘people'. A company's image with respect to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) may be damaged by poor or minimum health and safety standards, which would be a direct threat to continuity of the business. Given this challenge, ergonomics can support sustainability and CSR activities within organisations by adopting a forward-looking approach in developing programmes that combine the people and profit dimension through the optimisation of both performance and well-being (Pfeffer, 2010; Zink, 2005).

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In conclusion: the global developments, which have been discussed from §2.6.1 to §2.6.6, argue for the need of a new type of ergonomics, namely PE, which focuses on managing and solving complex societal issues. Besides being systems oriented, this type of ergonomics should also be forward looking in time, because these developments continue to have future implications. Moreover, by taking a proactive role in shaping future living and working environments, PE requires to take responsibility for cross-disciplinary work (Norros, 2014). For example, the intervention of PE in strategic design provides ample opportunities for collaborating with the design research as well as design community, which may lead to a richer collection of concepts for anticipating future living and working conditions.

2.7 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROSPECTIVE

ERGONOMICS AND CONSTRUCTIVE

ERGONOMICS REFERENCED TO STRATEGIC

MANAGEMENT When discussing PE from a broader management and ergonomic perspective, the concept of “development” or “construction” plays a central role in positioning this type of ergonomic intervention within the processual and systemic quadrants of whittington´s matrix (Whittington, 2001) as well as making the connection with Constructive Ergonomics (CE). According to Falzon (2015), constructive ergonomics aims to highlight the fact that individuals as well as collectives of operators develop by interacting with the world and by acting upon it. More specifically, similarities between the processual and systemic management approaches on one hand and constructive ergonomics on the other hand can be based upon the concept of “capabilities”. From a processual strategic management perspective, Mintzberg (1989) introduced “learning and configuration”, whereas Teece et al. (1997) explained how firm-specific dynamic capabilities are a useful competitive resource, but need to be built and redeployed over long periods of time. Whittington (2001), who advocates a systemic strategy perspective, claims that routines applied in local contexts underpin organizational strategy formation processes. The two strategic management perspectives are in line with the “constructive” view on ergonomics, where an optimal compromise between well-being and performance is aimed for (Falzon & Mas, 2007). Following this view, the concept of “enabling environment” has been suggested as a model to integrate various levels of ergonomic action (Falzon, 2005; Pavageau, Nascimento & Falzon, 2007), based upon the idea of “capabilities” (Sen, 2009). This enabling environment can be comprehended according to the following three perspectives: preventive, universal and developmental (Falzon, 2015). With respect to strategic management, the universal and developmental perspective aligns very well with processual and systemic strategies, where individuals in organisations have different interests, deficiencies and opportunities. This means that these individuals are not always united in pursuing economic transactions, but acting in a network of densely

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interwoven social relations, so that the organisations they work in are compelled to pursue more pluralistic outcomes (Whittington, 2001). Robert and Brangier (2009) have extended the meaning of “preventive” to “prospective”, emphasising the “forward-looking in time” aspect (as opposed to retrospection) through the “intelligence analysis” of individual, social, cultural, political, economic, scientific, technological, and environmental factors. Relative importance depends on each type of business, as well as of multiple data, experts’ opinions, and scenarios of the future (Godet & Roubelat, 1996), (Roubelat, 2006). However, when considering pluralistic managerial perspectives, PE can also be seen as an extension of constructive ergonomics, where design innovation attempts to emphasise and anticipate human needs and activities so as to create new artefacts that will be useful and provide positive user experience (Robert & Brangier, 2009). The four characteristics of PE are therefore (Brangier & Robert, 2012, 2014):

• Its user-centeredness, involving the collection of judgments from experts, through for example interviews and case studies, as well as from regular users or super users of artefacts: interview, field observation, automatic recording of actions, focus groups, questionnaire, surveys, usability tests, measures of user performance and satisfaction, claim and error analysis, etc.

• Its ability to investigate users’ activity through the usage of artefacts in context by aiming to understand (1) what humans are trying to accomplish, (2) what their goals, motivations and underlying needs are, (3) how much time they spend doing these activities, (4) what difficulties or problems they encounter when doing these activities, and (5) how much satisfaction or dissatisfaction they have.

• Its ambition to imagine the future by relying on different quantitative and qualitative foresight methods. For example, Gordon and Glenn (2004) classified foresight methods in eight categories according to the goal to be achieved: i) Collect judgement from experts, ii) Forecast time series and other quantitative measures, iii) Understand the linkages between events, trends and actions, iv) Determine a course of action in the presence of uncertainty, v) Portray alternative plausible futures; vi) Reach an understanding of whether the future is improving, vii) Track changes and assumptions, and viii) Determine the sustainability of a system, and ix) Study the patents in the areas of the innovative projects.

• Its position to foster creativity, which lies at the origin of innovation. Hereby, creativity can be defined as the individual or collective capacity to imagine new concepts, objects, products, processes, or solutions

To summarise the differences between PE and CE, one can say that PE carries elements of “creating the external world” in an anticipative mode. This means that PE supports the implementation of processes and methods to innovate new products and services centred around the human and human well-being. CE advocates a constructive and developmental view of ergonomics (Falzon, 2015). The focus is on creating an enabling environment, which takes interest in developing capabilities of people in organisations as well as prevent detrimental effects on individuals to preserve their future abilities for action (Falzon, 2015, p.x). When comparing management with ergonomics in general, it can be concluded that there is a strong resemblance between CE and the Teece´s theory on “Dynamic Capabilities”.

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However, the way PE distinguishes itself from Strategic Design on the “human element”, demonstrates that PE also shares a similar view that humans are bounded by rationality, to be considered in an innovation and design process. The observation that CE hoovers in the systemic and processual quadrants of Whittington´s matrix, whereas PE mainly thrives on a systemic strategy, shows that CE is a subset of PE. After having evaluated selected theoretical frameworks as outlined in this chapter, comparisons according to “Orientation”, “Methods and Techniques”, “Practices” and “Value Creation” were made between PE and strategic design involving their respective roots; classical ergonomics and strategic management (see table 2). These comparisons are necessary to validate the empirical analysis of cases. The main differences between PE and strategic design are:

• Strategic design focuses mainly on business goals in their quest for innovation, whereas PE considers other goals valued by people

• Strategic design emphasises a positivistic / prescriptive view towards planning, whereas PE is more inclined to accept constructive and participatory innovation and design methods.

Classical

Ergonomics (Corrective and Preventive)

Prospective Ergonomics

Strategic Design Strategic Management

Orientations Driven by external legislations and demands

Proactive Proactive Proactive

Focus on current state of affairs (incremental innov. & corr. erg.)

Focus on future products and services

Focus on future products and services

Focus on the future of the organisation

Focus on user and usability issues with respect to product-service system innovation

Product-Service-System Innovation determined by social, economic, political, environmental and technological factors

Product-Service-System Innovation determined by social, economic, political, environmental and technological factors

Focus on organisational innovation

Contribute to physical and cognitive human well-being

Contribute to business goals by people and for people.

Contribute to business goals

Contribute to business goals

Addresses an existing product or service,

Addresses a product or service, which does not exist yet

Applies to an existing and non-existing product or service

Applies to an existing and non-existing product or service

Table continues on next page

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Methods and Techniques

User-centred Human-centred (users, designers, suppliers, distributors etc.)

Innovation Centred, Designer-centred

Centred around management practices

Analytical Research Methods

Prescriptive, analytical, participative and reflective methods

Prescriptive, analytical, participative and reflective methods

Use of deliberate and emergent processes, methods and tools

Resource-based view

Resource-based view and dynamic capabilities approach

Systematic and prescriptive view towards product planning

Multiple schools of thought

Practices Considers mainly the user in innovation projects

Considers interest of all stakeholders in innovation projects

Considers mainly the interest of the organisation

Considers mainly the interest of the organisation.

Human activities are existing and observable

Human activities are prioritised and to be imagined

Human activities not always a priority

Human activities embedded in organisational aims

Value Creation

Long-term profitability

Long-term profitability

Long and short term profitability

Long and short term profitability

Cost reduction though corrective ergonomics

Pluralistic goals in systemic contexts

Profit maximisation through increased sales of innovative products and services

Profit maximisation through increased sales of innovative products / services, and cost reduction

Table 2: Comparison between prospective ergonomics and strategic design involving their respective roots; classical ergonomics and strategic management

2.8 A REFLECTIVE UNDERSTANDING OF

PROSPECTIVE ERGONOMICS BASED UPON

DIFFERENT THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS In this paragraph, mapping and discussing different ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations with theoretical frameworks, which were addressed earlier in this chapter, we will pursue a reflective understanding of PE. More specifically these domains, interventions and specialisations will be reviewed and juxtaposed with the following frameworks:

• Classification Framework for Push-Pull Innovation Perspectives • Strategy Perspectives; Process versus Outcome (Whittington, 2001) • Ansoff Product – Market Matrix (Ansoff, 1968) • Value Creation Product /Service Positioning Map (Cagan and Vogel, 2002)

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• Design Driven Innovation Framework; Meaning versus Technology (Norman and Verganti, 2012)

• Co-creation Framework for Design Research and Practice (Sanders, 2008)

2.8.1 Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within push-pull innovation initiatives

Figure 11. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within push-pull innovation initiatives As shown in figure 11, a fundamental theoretical framework, initiated by market “push – pull” activities, is being used to contextualise different ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations within strategic management and marketing. There are no differences concerning what type of marketing strategy influences typical ergonomic domains and specialisations. However, with respect to intervention, corrective ergonomic interventions apply to the market–driven quadrant, to facilitate redesign or incremental innovation. Preventive ergonomic intervention targets context-based innovation and is present in all quadrants. Prospective ergonomic intervention is predominantly present in the technology driven, design-driven and user driven quadrants, because it aims to solve hidden needs and create new markets, products and services, either deliberate or emergent.

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2.8.2 Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within Four strategy perspectives

Figure 12. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within four strategy perspectives Similarities and differences can be observed between generic management strategies and ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations. The axes, indicating process (deliberate – emergent) and outcome (performance – pluralistic), can also be extrapolated for positioning these ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations. With respect to Whittington´s generic strategy model, domains and specialisations cover a broad spectrum of strategies. However, when juxtapositing interventions with generic management strategies, the evolutionary and processual approaches limit the scope to corrective or preventive ergonomics, because of their reactive and conservative attitude towards innovation (see figure 12). For example, in a processual innovation approach stakeholders may forgo the most promising prospective design solutions, because they have not been tested. These stakeholders perceive innovation as a gradual en emergent process of doing things, aimed at plural outcomes. The classical and systemic strategies stimulate more nuanced approaches within PE. PE intervention within the classical quadrant may lead to radical innovation focussed upon profit maximisation, whereas long-term pluralistic goals are a focal point within a systemic quadrant.

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2.8.3 Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within Ansoff´s product-market matrix In particular, technology-based companies are most at ease when objectives and problems are clearly communicated among the project stakeholders through structured product planning and industrial design processes and tools. Ansoff´s Product-Market Matrix is an example of a typical prescriptive tool to position a company´s orientation towards product planning and goal finding. The strategic orientation as depicted in this matrix can also be aligned with ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations. In terms of market penetration, product extensions are minimal and most likely limited to aesthetic modifications (face-lifts). Concerning market development, corrective ergonomic measures to improve the hardware and software of products is being emphasised to match users physical and cognitive conditions. When developing new products for existing markets, a more generative approach is being pursued in the development as well as production management of products. Besides the physical and cognitive, an organisational orientation towards ergonomics is required. The greatest challenge for any company is to diversify, which means developing new products for new markets. In such an approach, the same ergonomic specialisations as in “Product Development” are being emphasised. However, a prospective ergonomic intervention requires designers to adopt a more creative and future-oriented approach towards product development.

Figure 13. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within Ansoff´s PMT-matrix

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2.8.4 Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within the value creation product positioning map As an alternative to Ansoff´s PMT-matrix, Cagan and Vogel´s Positioning Map aims to identify products of significant value, which integrate “Style”(=Ergonomics and Aesthetics) and “Technology”, so that the company can successfully differentiate itself from the competition. The use of this prescriptive method facilitates: (1) the identification of product opportunities, (2) the translation of consumer needs into actionable insights and defined attributes, (3) the integration of engineering, industrial design and marketing. Ergonomic specialisations are mainly physical and cognitive in the high “Style” quadrants, and are extended, to organisational where high “Technology” and “Style” meets. Ergonomic intervention is limited to corrective or preventive if a product is designed based on existing technology. However, with respect to value creation in the high “Style” and high “Technology” quadrant, a prospective ergonomic perspective facilitates the development of creative breakthrough ideas, which are initiated and emerging from daily activities, where people are operating in embedded contexts of culture, workplace, family, etc.

Figure 14. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within the value creation product positioning map (adapted from Cagan and Vogel, 2002)

2.8.5 Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within design driven innovation A design driven framework, where incremental and radical innovation are reflected against technology and meaning change, is shown in figure 15. More specifically, the framework connects the two dimensions of innovation (technology and meaning)

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with the drivers: technology, design, and users (the market). These two dimensions were used to define four types of innovations (Verganti, 2008): technology-push, meaning- driven, technology epiphanies, and market-pull.

Figure 15. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within design-driven Innovation 1. Technology-push innovation comes from radical changes in technology without

any change in the meaning of products. The invention of the digital camera (on top of the existing conventional ones) is an example. Technology Push innovation are definitely not derived from users´insights (Christensen, 2013; Dosi, 1982).

2. Meaning-driven innovation starts from the discernment of subtle and unspoken dynamics in socio-cultural contexts, resulting in radically new meanings and languages, which often imply a change in socio-cultural regimes. The invention of the mini-skirt in the 1960s is an example: not simply a different skirt, but a radically new symbol of women’s freedom that recognize a radical change in society. Moreover, the “Tupperware Party Direct Sale” concept instigated a cultural revolution in post-World War ll America. It was not just about selling plastic kitchen containers to store food, but rather a manifestation of radically feminised ways of women’s freedom. In both examples, no new technology was involved.

3. Enabled by the emergence of new technologies or the use of existing technologies in totally new contexts, "Technology Epiphanies" bring a radical change in meaning. The Wii video game console and the Swatch watch are examples of this type of innovation. The term “epiphany” is to be comprehended as “a meaning that exists at a superior level” and “vehicle that embraced the essential nature or meaning of something.” This superior application of a technology is often not visible at first, because it does not satisfy existing needs. It does not come from users. Rather, the dominant interpretation of what a product should be, is derived from a latent meaning that is revealed only when new and unsolicited products that people are not currently seeking are being designed (Verganti, 2011; Verganti & Öberg, 2013).

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4. Market-pull innovation that starts from an analysis of user needs and then develops products to satisfy them.

Although human behaviour may be influenced, technology push does not purposely introduce significant ergonomic interventions. In the example of the digital camera, users´ behaviour in taking pictures has changed significantly, but ease of use and ergonomic efficiency were initially not targeted. In “Market Pull Innovation”, corrective or preventive ergonomics influence the design of products and services, which have been driven by users´ needs. In Market-driven Innovation and Technology Epiphanies, a prospective ergonomic approach in the design of products and services may lead to the most innovative solutions. These innovative solutions may target the physical and cognitive design of the new product, its complementary service processes and scenarios, as well as the organisational and production set up to realise these new products.

2.8.6 Ergonomic interventions contextualised within a co-creation framework for design research and practice Within design practice, significant efforts have been concentrated on user-centered design methods to develop and analyse future scenarios (Veryzer & Borja de Mozota, 2005). At the same time, design researchers distinguish between traditional experimental methods and design-study methods (e.g., narrative accounts and interpretive frameworks), broadening the debate on positivist and “post positivist” science and advocating the need for a new epistemology that meets the needs of “human sciences” (Phillips & Burbules, 2000). According to figure 16, a strong inclination can be observed in the design and use of methods and tools, which promote the anticipation and creative development of prospective products and services with or without the participative involvement of different stakeholders. Hereby, the role of the designer can be twofold: facilitative, by being able to manage participatory design session, as well as visionary, by being able to imagine future products and services, and convince lead-users to accept them through a hermeneutic way of design reasoning (Liem, 2014, p.100). With respect to a critical and emotional design, an expert visionary mindset and design led approach may address ergonomic intervention of products at different levels: corrective, preventive and prospective. The level of intervention is dependent on the problem space and context. Moving to an Expert Mindset and Research-Led approach, user-centred design practices promote incremental innovation through corrective and preventive ergonomic interventions. The use of generative methods and tools, which facilitate a partially design and research led approach combined with participatory mindset, are most suitable for stimulating PE in the design of new products and services, where insights from a wider range of stakeholders are considered to be indispensable. In figure 16, PE thrives on certain combinations of mindsets and design approaches. These combinations are:

• On a hermeneutic note, where the designer is considered an expert, who has a vision of the future.

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• On a participatory note, where the designer is facilitator, who mobilises a broad range of stakeholders, to create the future and discover hidden needs

Figure 16. Ergonomic interventions contextualised within a co-creation framework of design research and practice (adapted from Sanders, 2008). In this chapter, ergonomic domains, specialisations and interventions have been contextualised against different strategy and innovation frameworks to position the field of PE. From a strategic management and design reasoning perspective, PE can be characterised as follows:

• PE targets various aspects of “innovation”: aesthetic (hedonistic/emotional), user-functional, service, etc. However, it complements the more “radical” views on innovation as depicted in figures 13, 14 and 15.

• Generic strategies are important to anticipate and imagine implicit needs and wants, as well as to create future solutions, which have not been identified yet.

• Based upon the type of problem, context, company objectives, and stakeholder expertise, ergonomists, designers and business managers should jointly decide what type of generic strategy, as well as design processes and methods to adopt. Additionally, social, technological, economical, environmental, and political factors are important contextual determinants, which should be included if plural objectives are to be met through a systemic way of strategizing and designing.

• From a design perspective, the use of human-centred approaches should be balanced as well as critically advanced by design-driven methods and tools. In this context, the input from experts outside the realm of direct users can lead to even more surprising and creative solutions.

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3.0 RESEARCH ORGANISATION

« A scientific discipline without a large number of thoroughly executed case studies is a discipline without systematic production of exemplars, and a discipline without exemplars is

an ineffective one. » Flyvbjerg, 2006, p.219.

« Case study is an in-depth exploration from multiple perspectives of the complexity and

uniqueness of a particular project, policy, institution, program or system in a “real life” context.»

Simons, 2009, p.21.

« The value of design research lies in its capacity to help draw concrete insights and conclusions from which to develop innovation roadmaps.»

Kyffin, newvaluenews, no 18, 2003, p.6.

Chapter Abstract: In this chapter, an argumentation has been made to use retrospective Case Study Research for

answering the research questions. Since this dissertation is an emergent piece of work, empirical data is being constructed from selected cases, which have been exemplified in the author´s past articles Moreover, it is more suitable to use the term Research Organisation rather than “Research Method” in characterising this chapter. A “Within-case analysis” is being proposed to critically reflect on the processes, methods, and results for each case according to the following dimensions: Orientation, Method, Practice and Value Creation. Hereby, ergonomic and design interventions, as well as units of analysis and dimensions were deduced from the theoretical framework and concepts. Following the within-case analysis, a cross-case analysis was used to compare cases within and across the quadrants. Using a cross-case comparison, subtle similarities and differences between cases were sought after.

The juxtaposition of similar cases may have dissected simplistic frames. Moreover, the search for similarities in seemingly different pairs may also lead to a more sophisticated understanding of prospective ergonomics (PE), where forced comparisons can bring new methods, products and services, which the investigator did not anticipate. The aim of this dissertation is to outline and frame the field of PE influenced by established ergonomic perspectives (Corrective / Preventive), strategic management, as well as strategic and industrial design concepts. This framing exercise, where relationships are drawn with knowledge fields in ergonomics, business management, innovation and design sciences to complement theory building in PE, may draw the attention of the ergonomic and design community on the need for new approaches, models, and methods to redefine the field of ergonomics to be more proactive and

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prospective. Furthermore, the dissertation also attempts to build upon different generic business strategies and design reasoning modes, which in turn function as a classification framework for positioning various business, ergonomic, and design methods and tools. The redefinition of innovation-driven PE from a strategic management, and different ergonomic and design interventions, have led to the following research questions:

• What are the similarities and differences in terms of attitudes and approaches between PE and Strategic Design, Preventive Ergonomics and Industrial Design, Corrective Ergonomics and Detail Design?

• From a pluralistic business strategy perspective, does the balancing of performance / productivity on one hand and well-being on the other hand, supports the spirit of PE?

• Does a systemic business strategy, supported by a structured user-centered and context driven design approach represents the field of PE in the development of innovative products, systems and services?

• To what extent are prescriptive approaches, methods and tools applicable for solving strategic design problems within the context of PE?

• What are the possible design education strategies, processes, methods and tools to be considered for PE and strategic design issues?

Since this dissertation is an emergent piece of work, which comprises a selection of articles, written throughout the author´s academic career of 20 years, it is more suitable to use the term Research Organisation rather than “Research Method” in characterising this chapter. Refering to “Chapter 1.3 –Structure of Dissertation” the empirical data are being constructed from selected cases, which are embedded in a selection of the author´s past articles. A two-stage classification process will be implemented. In the first stage cases will be categorised according to ergonomic and design interventions as shown in table 3. In the second stage the cases will be mapped according to generic strategies, worldviews and models of design reasoning to be analysed according to the following dimensions: “Orientation”, “Method”, “Practice” and “Value Creation”. The mapping will be shown in §5.4 as part of the case cluster comparison across the four quadrants.

3.1 WHAT IS CASE STUDY RESEARCH AND HOW

CAN IT BE APPLIED IN THIS DISSERTATION? Case study research is a strategy, which focuses on understanding the dynamics present within single settings. It can be used to accomplish various aims: to provide description (Kidder, 1982), test theory (Pinfield, 1986) or generate theory (Gersick, 1988; Harris & Sutton, 1986). Evidence from case studies, which may be qualitative, quantitative, or both, are typically derived from combining data collection methods such as archives, interviews, documented project work and observations (Yin, 1984). Because the aim of this dissertation is to relate selected theories from philosophy, minnovation management and design to create epistemologies on PE, selected cases have been chosen based on the concept of “appropriate population”, which means that a set of entities from which the research sample is drawn is defined by the population.

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Sampling of cases from the chosen population is a common practice when building theory from case studies and depends on theoretical sampling (i.e. cases are chosen for theoretical, not statistical reasons (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The cases may be selected to replicate previous cases or develop emergent theory, or they may be chosen to substantiate theoretical categories and provide examples of polar types (Eisenhardt, 1989). While the cases may be chosen randomly, in some cases it may be preferable to choose the cases selectively. According to Pettigrew (1988), given the limited number of cases, which can usually be studied in extending emergent theories, it makes sense to choose cases based upon extreme situations where diverse interests are "clearly observable." However, for this dissertation, the author adopts a broader view in selecting typical practice derived cases, which are relevant for building theory. Frequent iterations between data analysis and data collection is a striking feature of theory building through case studies research. For example, with respect to a grounded theory approach, Glaser and Strauss (1967) argue for joint collection, coding, and analysis of data, which not only gives the researcher an analytical head start, but, essentially allows researchers to take advantage of flexible data collection. Moreover, the freedom to make adjustments during the data collection process is a typical key feature of theory-building in case study research. Hereby, adjustments can be made through the addition of cases to probe particular themes or strengthen the argument of the author, whether for example to support or decline an emergent phenomenon. As the cases presented in this dissertation were selected from the author´s past and diverse research and project work, a retrospective case study method has been adopted in conjunction with a within-case analysis approach (Pettigrew, 1988) (Thomas, 2011). Within-case analysis typically involves writing-up each case in a detailed and descriptive manner to generate key insights (Gersick, 1988; Pettigrew, 1988). However, there is no standard format for analysis, because the volume of data is a compilation of the author´s past articles. The objective of adopting a within-case analysis for this dissertation is to become intimately familiar with each case as stand-alone entity. The benefits of using "Within-case analysis" are that unique patterns of each case are made to emerge before investigators generalize patterns across cases (Cross-case analysis). In this dissertation, a within-case analysis was conducted by critically reflecting on the processes, methods, and results for each case according to the following dimensions: Orientation, Method, Practice and Value Creation. Dimensions were deduced from theoretical frameworks and concepts, and can be seen as a customised format for analysing the cases. Following the within-case analysis, a cross-case analysis will be conducted based on a two-stage process. In the first stage, cases will be compared within their respective quadrants, whereas in the second stage case clusters are to be compared across quadrants of the generic strategy framework (Whittington, 2001). Using a within-case comparison, subtle similarities and differences between cases are sought after. The juxtaposition of seemingly similar cases by a researcher looking for differences can break simplistic frames (Eisenhardt, 1989, p.541). Equivalently, searching for similarity in a seemingly different pair also can lead to a

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more sophisticated understanding of PE. The result of making forced comparisons can lead to new categories and concepts, which the investigator was not able to foresee. Cross-case searching tactics may enhance the probability of capturing the novel findings, which may exist in the data as represented by the cases. The application of cross-case searching tactics seems to be effective in encouraging the investigator to go beyond initial impressions, especially by using structured and diverse lenses on the data. These tactics improve the likelihood of accurate and reliable theory. Furthermore, the central idea is that researchers constantly compare and conjecture between theory and data to sharpen the construct. In research, a construct is the abstract idea, underlying theme, hypothesis, research question or subject matter that one wishes to measure. Theory building is usually a two-part process involving (1) refining the definition of the construct and (2) building evidence which measures the construct in each case. This occurs through constant comparison between data and constructs so that accumulating evidence from diverse sources converges on a single, well- defined construct (Eisenhardt, 1989, p.541).

3.2 DESCRIPTION AND INTERPRETATION OF

DIMENSIONS OF ANALYSIS In the study of each individual case, “Orientation”, “Model of Design Reasoning”, “Practice” and Value Creation” will be used as the dimensions of analysis. “Orientation” can be defined as the positioning of the cases according to ergonomic and design intervention, worldview and relationship to the broader context of strategising. “Method” concerns the approach on how the concept is being addressed or realised. However, the objectives as put forward in some of the cases can also be a process or method in itself. The dimension practice frames the activities of the actors and stakeholders involved in the design and development processes of the respective cases. From a technology perspective, value creation can be seen as a motivator to create new possibilities and solutions as well as to make cost reductions on a solution to an existing problem (Chesbrough & Rosenbloom, 2002). Moreover, this fourth dimension, “Value” should not exclusively be appreciated from a monetary perspective, neither should it only reside in the product purchased, in the brand chosen, or the object possessed, but rather in the experience(s) of interacting with it ” (Holbrook, 1999, p. 8). As argued by Den Ouden, (2011) the value of a product or service is not a property that can be directly measured scientifically, like other properties such as weight or volume. It should be more a relational property only to exist in relation to a human. In this context, it is therefore more important to deeply understand the motivational values of the various stakeholders, especially for innovations that aim to change user behavior (Fogg, 2009). The value creation model as elaborated by den Ouden (2011) according to four levels of stakeholder involvement and four perspectives on value, is a suitable framework for analysing the contribution of each of the selected cases.

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3.3 PREPARING CASES AND SUMMARISING

TERMINOLOGIES; WORLDVIEWS, MODES OF

DESIGN REASONING, GENERIC STRATEGIES

AND INTERVENTIONS. In the final stages of chapter 5, all cases will be evaluated according to applied worldviews, design reasoning modes, and generic strategies, as well as cross-analysed based on different types of ergonomic and design interventions. In addition, each of the cases will specifically be analysed according to worldview and design reasoning mode. Finally, all the cases will be compared on how we intervene in them from a design and as well as from an ergonomic perspective. Before embarking on the different forms of case study analysis, which will be outlined in chapters 4 and 5, a summary of the different terms will be given below:

• Philosophical worldviews with respect to design research and designing can be interpreted as a way to scientifically explain the different mindsets, attitudes and perspectives in developing new products and services.

• Design reasoning modes are designers´ intellectual and practice oriented stands towards how the design of products and services should be executed.

• According to Whittington (2001), generic strategies describe the options, which are available for a company to pursue competitive advantage in the “real World”, either by aiming for profit maximising or plural outcomes. To achieve these outcomes, the company may use deliberate / structured processes or emergent ones.

• PE can be defined as the part of ergonomics that attempts to anticipate and create new and useful artifacts, based on human needs and activities, so as to provide positive user experience (Robert and Brangier, 2009). The anticipation of human needs and activities is derived from analysing numerous factors and data as well as scenario planning, done in prospection. This implies that individual, social, cultural, political, economic, scientific, technological and environmental factors should be considered when proposing future human-centred innovations. Its multi-disciplinarity justifies the use of a wide range of theories, models, methods and tools from the human and social sciences.

• Strategic design is a field of study and practice, where different actors are involved in planning and generating integrated systems of products, services and communications that are coherent with the medium-long term perspective of sustainable innovations, being, at the same time, economically feasible and socially applicable today (Manzini and Vezolli, 2003). Its intention is to develop ways to address these medium and long-term goals based on new forms of organizations, new systems of values, new stakeholder configurations and new market opportunities.

• In Conceptual or Industrial Design, both applied art and applied science is used, to improve aesthetic, ergonomic and technical functionality, and/or usability of a product. Furthermore, it may also be used to improve the product's marketability and even production. In this context, the role of an

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industrial designer is to solve problems, create and execute design solutions with respect to form, usability, physical ergonomics, marketing, brand development, and sales (Noblet, 1993)

• Preventive ergonomics is the science of fitting the task to the user to avoid a mismatch between the physical requirements of the activity and the physical capacity of the user. It encompasses the practice of designing equipment, tools and work tasks to conform to the capability of this user (Ergonomics and the Prevention of Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders. Department of Health, New Jersey, http://nj.gov/health/peosh/ergonomics.shtml. retrieved, 11.03.2014).

• Detail design is the phase where the design is refined by optimizing ergonomic, aesthetic, technological, marketing and environmental solutions, which were earlier proposed in the design conceptualisation stages of the process. In practice, plans, specifications and estimates are created for prospective manufacturing. The output of detailed design activities includes 2D and 3D models, prototypes, cost build up estimates, procurement plans etc. In this phase, a majority of the project expenses will be consumed.

• Corrective Ergonomics is reactive and deals with correcting existing artifacts through scientific studies (Montmollin, 1967), (Laurig, 1986)

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4.0 ANALYSIS OF 12 DESIGN CASE STUDIES

« Case analysis is one of the most general and applicable methods of analytical thinking, depending only on the division of a problem, decision or situation into a sufficient number of

separate cases.» Yin, 1984, p. 23.

« A detailed case study cannot provide reliable information about the broader class, but it may

be useful in the preliminary stages of an investigation since it provides hypotheses, which may be tested systematically with a larger number of cases.»

Abercrombie, Hill, & Turner, 1984, p. 34

« Looking at and through each case in a qualitative project is the basis” of analytic interpretations and generalizations .»

Sandelowski, 1996, p.525.

Chapter Abstract: A “Within Case Study” analysis has been performed in this chapter, where each case has been

reflected upon based on the following dimensions: Orientation, Method, Practice and Value Creation. A retrospective Case Study Research Method has been used for building a more succinct understanding of the differences and similarities between prospective ergonomics (PE) and strategic design, as well as their superior and subordinate levels of embodiments. The cases were grouped according to ergonomic intervention and structurally presented to facilitate cross-comparisons in chapter 5. In this chapter, selected cases are subjected to a frame of analysis, which comprises of “General Characteristics”, “Project Organisation” and “Dimensions of Analysis”. After the cases have been framed, they will be analysed according to the following dimensions: “Orientation”, “Method”, Practice” and “Value Creation”.

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4.1 ANALYSIS OF CASES WITHIN CORRECTIVE

ERGONOMIC INTERVENTION In this section the following cases will be discussed within the context of Corrective Ergonomic Intervention:

• USB- Memory stick for customer recruitment • Anthropometric Considerations for Embarkation and Disembarkation at Bus

Shelters • Digital Human Models in Work System Design and Simulation

4.1.1 USB memory stick for customer recruitment GENERAL

CHARACTERISTICS Aim / Context Lady´s card Credit Card Campaign for the

recruitment of female applicants Publication Results of the project has been extensively used for

teaching purposes

PROJECT ORGANISATION

Duration of Project

March 2002 – July 2002 (5 Months)

Actors / Stakeholders

United Overseas Bank of Singapore (UOB), Valen Technologies and their suppliers

DIMENSIONS OF ANALYSIS

Orie

ntat

ion

Positioning Domain Product / Service Specialisation Physical Intervention Corrective Erg. – Strategic Design

Worldview Constructivist / Pragmatic Generic Strategy

Evolutionary / Processual

Design Reasoning Model and Method

Reflective Practice

Practice Industrial design and design detailing Value Creation Build and enlargement of customer base

In this “Lady´s Card” credit card campaign, the United Overseas Bank of Singapore (UOB) commissioned the design and development of a USB memory stick to recruit female applicants. The manufacturing of the memory stick was realised by Valen Technologies, as they were able to purchase the electronics and mould the plastic parts at significantly affordable prices. This made it attractive for UOB to purchase large quantities to be distributed as an ancillary award for successful female credit card applicants. In terms of orientation, a constructive / pragmatic worldview has been adopted in the redesign of a low cost version of a USB memory stick. The redesign was reactive and initiated from the emerging opportunity to develop a device, which is affordable to be distributed as a gift. However, corrective interventions were aimed to facilitate strategic design motivations. In the designing process, a reflective approach was adopted in the conceptualisation of the USB stick. It was incidental that Valen Technologies was able to source the electronics at a relatively low cost from a Taiwanese supplier. (At that time, in 2003, the USB technology was expensive and newly patented, but as Taiwanese

Orientation

Process and Practice

USB

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manufacturers were not subjected to intellectual property rules and regulations, they were able to copy unrestrictedly). The oval shape of the electronics also suggested the presence of symmetry lines, which were used as a reference for developing symmetrical plastic parts, saving tooling costs. From a business and value creation perspective, this project can be characterised as processual. In the collaboration between Valen Technologies and UOB, direct sales and profit maximisation were not targeted with the USB-sticks. Instead, the business model was to use the USB stick as a means for enticing prospective female credit card customers. Moreover, the incidentally low manufacturing cost was also a characteristic of an emergent process.

Figure 17. Low cost USB memory stick for enticing prospective credit card customers

4.1.2 Anthropometric considerations for embarkation and disembarkation at bus shelters

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Aim / Context To improve the interface between bus shelter and bus for embarkation and disembarkation

Publication Liem, André; Hu Xia (2003) Anthropometric Considerations for Embarkation and Disembarkation at Bus Shelters. SEAMEC Conference, Conference Proceedings; Kuching, Malaysia (Appendix B-9)

ORGANISATION OF THE PROJECT

Duration of Project August 2001 – August 2003 Actors / Stakeholders

Land Transport Authority of Singapore (LTA) National University of Singapore, Department of Architecture (NUS-ARCH)


Orie

ntat

ion

Positioning Domain Product Specialisation Physical Intervention Corrective Erg. – Industrial Design

Worldview Positivistic Generic Strategy

Classical

Design Reasoning Models and Methods

Problem Solving, Research Methods: Interviews, Observations

Practice Anthropometric Research for Design Value Creation Development of design insights and guidelines

In Singapore, improvements on bus shelters are based on a checklist provided by the Land Transport Authority of Singapore (LTA), which was adapted from British Standards, disregarding the differences in anthropometric profiles of the population and local climate. The interface between bus shelter and bus: embarkation and

Value Creation

BUS SHELTER

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disembarkation, was an important issues to be dealt with, because of the high flux of users at bus shelters in Singapore. In the period of 2000 - 2004, the Land Transport Authority of Singapore (LTA) was in the process of replacing their bus shelters island wide. Hence, this anthropometric study is a project undertaken to investigate the ease of embarkation and disembarkation from bus to bus shelters and vice versa. Most often it was necessary to take account of the tallest persons to decide on legroom or shortest persons to make sure they can navigate gaps between road curb and bus platform safely and comfortably. In terms of orientation, the predefined and research-driven nature of this project demanded a positivistic worldview towards problem solving. A corrective ergonomic approach was pursued in this project as embarkation and disembarkation from bus to bus shelters were existing and common phenomena.

Figure 18. Covered video observation still capture with stick figure superimposed on user Since the purpose of this study was to investigate the proposition that anthropometric characteristics of Singaporeans affect the ease of embarkation and disembarkation from bus to bus shelters, methods such as observations and interviews were used to determine the ideal distance between road curb and bus platform. As research dominated the practice component in this project, recommendations to enhance the design of bus shelters were derived from overall static anthropometric data of the distances between curb to bus platform distances One hundred and twenty healthy subjects participated in anthropometric measurements. Results indicated that although embarkation showed a laterally inverted relationship with disembarkation, assumptions that body movement mechanics are the same for both embarkation and disembarkation should not be made. Derivation of the 'recommended' distances from

Orientation

Process and Method

Practices

!

!

!

!

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the static and sampling stick figure was accomplished by considering maxima, minima and general recommendations from literature. However, because of the complex interaction between the various dimensions made it very unlikely that the 'recommended' distances would prove to be entirely satisfactory in practice. From a value and stakeholder´s perspective, the outcome of the research contributes to architects´ and LTA´s insights in designing universally accessible workshops.

4.1.3 Digital human models in work system design and simulation


Aim / Context To improve design efficiency through the use of Digital Human Models in Work System Design and Simulation

Publication Liem, André; Huang Yan (2004); Digital Human Models in Work System Design and Simulation. SAE 2004. In Proceedings of Digital Human Modelling for Design and Engineering Symposium, Oakland University, Rochester, MI (Appendix B-8)


Duration of Project August 2001 – August 2003 Actors / Stakeholders

Mass Rapid Transport Authorities of Singapore (MRT- Singapore) National University of Singapore, Department of Architecture (NUS-ARCH)


Orie

ntat

ion

Positioning Domain Product Specialisation Cognitive Intervention Corrective Erg. – Industrial /

Detail Design Worldview Positivistic Generic Strategy Classical


Problem Solving

Practice Ergonomic Research and Design Value Creation Development of design insights and guidelines

Enhancement of the business eco-system This work presents the application of digital human models in the simulation of downtown baggage check-in system at City Hall Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) Station in Singapore. The challenge was to integrate the simulation of the personnel, technical, and environmental subsystems into one computer model, which allows researchers from different disciplines, to easily understand and discuss the system design. The application of digital human modeling also introduced another perspective to describe the body ellipse theory and queuing level-of-service standards. Body ellipse templates and queuing level-of-service standards were applied to locate and determine workspaces of the digital human models in the air passengers’ check-in queuing simulation. The locations of human models, instead of being manipulated by the hinge points on the bodies, were manipulated by virtual points such as the quadrant points of the ellipse outside the body. Their inter-personal space was therefore decided by the clearance between the quadrant points of the body ellipses. In parallel, a human model with the baggage/trolley can be considered as one

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integral block. They were positioned and managed by manipulating the endpoints on the boundary lines of the block.

Figure 19. The simulation of check-in queues at the Singapore MRT station The orientation of this project was based upon a positivist worldview, where classical and problem solving principles were adopted to correctively intervene in the ergonomic (re)design using work system simulations involving human models and objects. In terms of methods and tools, the use of CAD made it relatively convenient to manipulate the spatial relationships among the digital human models, the check-in facilities, and the workplace as well as the external environments. Considering Practice, researchers, designers and other stakeholders with different backgrounds collaborated in the design of a downtown check-in work system. Collaboration wise, the use of digital human models would be a suitable platform to design, assess and communicate the project. The CAD simulation, which integrated subjects, check-in facilities, and the MRT station workplace, created a valuable platform for decision makers and stakeholders with respect to understanding and communicating the flow and mechanisms of the work system.

4.2 ANALYSIS OF CASES WITHIN PREVENTIVE

ERGONOMIC INTERVENTION In this section the following cases will be discussed within the context of Corrective Ergonomic Intervention:

• Mail Production: The Norwegian Postal Service • Classroom system for elementary school pupils • Interior concepts for small space living • Interior Customisation of Singapore Fast-response Police car • Rucksack bag design to facilitate optimum loading

Orientation

Processes and methods

Practice

Value creation

610

700

200

700

460Depth of the body ellipse

Boundary between level-of-service B and C

Depth of a passenger with a bag Level-of-service D

with a bagDepth of a passenger

Check-in Counter Service Counter

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4.2.1 Mail production: The Norwegian Postal Service (NPS)


Aim / Context To improve mail production and delivery through systems design.

Publication Liem, André (2012). Teaching strategic and systems design to facilitate collaboration and learning. FORMakademisk; Volum 5 (1). S. 29-48. (Appendix B-3)


Duration of Project January 2005 – May 2005 (5 Months)


Norwegian Postal Service (NPS); Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU); Inventas AS


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Positioning Domain Industrial Ergonomics Specialisation Physical, Cognitive,

Organisational Intervention Preventive Erg.– Systems Design

Worldview Positivistic Generic Strategy Classical


Problem Solving, Structured designing processes

Practice Ergonomic Systems Design and Industrial Design Value Creation Cost savings and profit enhancement for Norwegian

Postal service Improved industrial ergonomic processes

In the Norwegian Postal Service (NPS) project, a systems approach was implemented in the design of a mail distribution service. In this project, the system is the collection of sub-systems and products, whereas the structure is the pre-determined and fundamental logistic framework on which this mail distribution system is based upon. The term structure is diachronous in nature, which means that the relationships are time and sequence dependent.

Figure 20. A systems approach in the development of mail production and distribution concept, considering market and technological developments

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The aim was to expose students to complex design thinking situations at an early stage of their education. In the first stage, several system alternatives were iteratively generated and evaluated through a series of scenario and task analyses, which were elaborated into a feasible and detailed system concept. In the second stage, students further developed sub-systems and products into two or three detailed design concepts. The selected design concept was then subjected to several rounds of refinement, user testing and materialisation.

Figures 21A, 21B & 21C. Analysis and concept development of a front-seat mail sorter The final stage was an extension of the studio, whereby selected designs were commissioned by NPS for further development and professional prototyping.

Figures 22A, 22B & 22C. Examples of user testing and detailing and prototype development In terms of orientation, this NPD project was managed using structured designing processes supported by a positivistic worldview. As the problem space has already been defined, ergonomic interventions were preventive in nature. The overall system addressed many organisational ergonomic issues through people to people and people to machine interactions, whereas subordinate-systems and products were either physically or cognitively rich in content. Building upon Savransky´s (2000) systems thinking approach, complex design projects, involving many elements and stakeholders can be structured and managed according to a hierarchical and systematic way of project organisation. Within the overarching NPS mail production system, such a systems thinking approach can be an effective generator for extending the creativity space leading to the creation of ancillary and complementary design projects as well as broadening the network of stakeholders. In terms of value creation, cost savings and profit enhancement for the Norwegian Postal service have been targeted.

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4.2.2 Classroom system for elementary school students


Aim / Context To design an elementary classroom system. Publication Liem, André (2012). Teaching strategic and

systems design to facilitate collaboration and learning. FORMakademisk; Volum 5 (1). S. 29-48. (Appendix B-3)


Duration of Project January 2010 – May 2010 (5 Months) Actors / Stakeholders

Moelven AS Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)


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Positioning Domain Product Ergonomics Specialisation Physical Intervention Preventive Erg. – Systems Design

Worldview Positivistic Generic Strategy

Systemic


Problem Solving, Hermeneutic, Reflective Practice

Practice Ergonomic Systems Design and Industrial Design Value Creation Enhancement of product portfolio and profit.

New insights in organising design studio teaching. This project shows the design of an interior classroom setup for elementary school pupils using a system design perspective. In the product conceptualisation and detailing stages, each group member took responsibility of a system element. In general, this group, comprising of 2nd and 3rd grade design students, was successful in determining the system as well as the shared boundaries among the elements. Strong leadership qualities among the 3rd grade members contributed to the clarity of design tasks. However, in the detailing and materialisation stage, more time and effort than expected was spent in fine-tuning and making sure that the elements interact in a coherent manner. This demonstrated the presence of an over-compassing iterative process between system and product/element design In terms of orientation, a strict design process supported by a problem solving and design reasoning attitude was essential to achieve the design objectives within a systemic strategic context (Simon, 1996), (Whittington, 2001). Also, a positivistic philosophical worldview was adopted in the planning and structuring of the vertical studio project to facilitate a methodology based upon a hierarchical mentorship-driven way of learning. Hereby, the interactions among group members, teachers, and collaborating companies, facilitated “reflective” (Schön, 1995) and “hermeneutic” (Bamford, 2002; Snodgrass & Coyne, 1992; Darke, 1979) thinking to complement a problem solving oriented way of designing. In terms of practice, Ergonomic systems design and industrial design contributed to the structured planning of vertical studio. Value is created through the enhancement of Moelven´s product portfolio and profit as well as new insights in organising design studio teaching.

Orientation

Value Creation

Practice

Process and method

Classr. Sys.

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Figure 23. An example of an interior classroom setup for elementary school pupils, designed from a systems and product perspective

4.2.3 Interior concepts for small-space living GENERAL

CHARACTERISTICS Aim / Context How to create an optimal balance between living

space, storage facilities and comfort through accessibility of items / equipment

Publication Liem, André (2004); Development of Interior Concepts to Facilitate Small-Space Living in Singapore; Journal of Southeast Asian Architecture, Volume 7, 2004, pages 47-57 (Appendix B-6)


Duration of Project January 1999 – December 1999 (12 Months) Actors / Stakeholders

Singapore Housing Development Board (HDB) National University of Singapore (NUS-ARCH)


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Specialisation Physical Intervention Preventive – Systems Design

Worldview Positivistic Generic Strategy Systemic


Problem Solving, Hermeneutic, Reflective Practice

Practice Ergonomic Systems Design and Industrial Design Value Creation Happiness / Eco-Footprint

Zooming into the construction of apartment housing in Singapore, more indented walls and higher ceilings are becoming increasingly common. These higher ceilings and indented walls created opportunities for new approaches in the development of interior concepts for small-space living and Do-It-Yourself (DIY) furniture concepts. Instead of removing non-supporting walls, which is a costly exercise, alternatives for space creation is to make full use of its intricate corners, indented spaces (figure 24) and if possible, internal height of its units. For example, reference to the 130 cm long IKEA Lack shelves, the buyer had to shorten the shelves (by sawing) to fit them into

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a 120-cm wide indentation. This was a tedious and time-consuming task, and the construction of the shelf itself was significantly weakened.

Figure 24. An example of indented walls in Singapore apartment housing A flexible shelf system (figure 25), which can be extended in length and depth, was proposed to optimise the space in-between indented walls. The design was based on a mechanism whereby standard parts slide among each other. This sliding mechanism, with the possibility of adding standard parts, allows the shelf to form any desired length-width ratio, meeting the need of exactly fitting the shelf into any width of indented wall. In this way, the sides of the indentation can also be capitalised into serving a supportive function, for example to keep books from falling sideways. Each shelf is supported by internal extendable metal bars, which can be adjusted according the desired depth (see illustration). In terms of orientation, a preventive ergonomic and systems design approach have been adopted in the design of this piece of furniture. As the physical context (interior environment) and presumed lifestyles have been determined, this project can be characterised as systemic. Structured problem solving processes and methods were used, complemented by hermeneutic and reflective dispositions in design reasoning, because of the project´s systemic nature. Complementary to its constructive and ergonomic focus in the project, the designer aimed to develop interior solutions which are aesthetically pleasing, affordable, high quality, space efficient and easy to be installed by the consumer (Do-It-Yourself (DIY) home solutions).

Figure 25. The “Flexible Shelf”, consist of standard components to be assembled to achieve any desired width-length ratio.

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In this interior design project, a systematic design process has been used, which is very much context-driven. The value in such a systemic project is two-fold. In terms of the design solution, it advocates collaboration between industrial designers, interior designers and architects. With respect to design thinking, this project contributed to student´s awareness and sensitivity towards appreciating certain cultural contexts.

4.2.4 Interior customisation of Singapore fast-response police car


Aim/ Context How to design customised solutions to facilitate an optimal user experience when operating on-board computer and handling other equipment

Publication Liem, André, (2011) An Ergonomic Case Study on the Interior Customisation of Fast Response Cars based on Vehicle Adaptation, International Journal of Vehicle Design, Vol. 55, Nos. 2/3/4 (Appendix B-5)


Duration of Project June 2002 – January 2003 (9 Months) Actors / Stakeholders

Singapore Police Force (SPF) National University of Singapore (NUS) Global Precision Engineering Pte.Ltd.


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Design Worldview Constructivist Generic Strategy

Systemic (in terms of design) Evolutionary (in terms of development of entire project)


Hermeneutic, Reflective Practice

Practice Ergonomic and Industrial Design Value Creation Cost Saving, User experience, Operations

Effectiveness In 2001, the Singapore Police Force (SPF) launched initiatives to improve and enhance the installation and use of equipment to optimise its fast response operations using police patrol vehicles with in-vehicle information and communication systems. Fast Response Cars (FRCs), such as ambulances, fire engines and police vehicles respond to emergency hotline (999 in Singapore) calls and all incidents reported by members of the public and Police Head Quarters. Mandatory elements include the positioning of an on-board computer terminal and keyboard, radio and data transfer communication equipment in the front area of the vehicle, as well as efficient storage of other equipment and tools required for Fast-Response Operations, such as bolt cutter, roadblock signs, riot shields etc. in the rear area of the vehicle. In the design and development of special vehicles, such as Police Cars, Fire Engines and Ambulances, two different approaches can be identified in the interior design and customization of these vehicles. The first is defined as Vehicle Integrative Customisation and the second, Vehicle Adaptive Customisation. Integrative

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customisation in Vehicle Design is the implementation of various equipment and devices without compromising on the existing features and space. It is only practically achievable when the design, fabrication and installation of the customized features have been completed in concurrence with the manufacturing of the vehicle itself. Adaptive customisation in Vehicle Design, on the other hand, can be implemented during or at any stage after the vehicle is manufactured and operational. However, to achieve effective and efficient ergonomic usage is a complex exercise. Mechanical possibilities and constraints, inherent in the vehicle, determine the customisation quality, resulting in adaptive design solution, which may vary from a crude add-on to a neatly hidden solution. In this preventive ergonomic design project, adaptative customisation has been chosen as an orientation to enhance the interaction among the electronic communication devices, co-passenger and driver (figure 26), as well as to facilitate the retrieval and storage of equipment and tools in the rear interior (figure 27). A constructivist worldview aligned with systemic ways of strategizing has been adopted in the design of the interior. Prior to the commencement of the project no structured design methodology was proposed. Instead, a reflective practice-oriented approach was adopted in the conceptualisation and detail design of the interior customisation. Foam and cardboard models (see Fig. 28) were used to obtain better knowledge on how the electronics, equipment and tools need to be arranged in a constrained space with respect to the user. This technique provides sufficient flexibility in the exploration of concepts and the performance of user trails (Stanton, 1998).

Figure 26. Interacting with electronic on-board communication equipment in the front interior of Mitsubishi The final outcome showed that both design solutions for the Volvo and Mitsubishi have complied well with the ergonomic and on-the-road driving requirements, set by the Singapore Police Force (SPF). However, the Mitsubishi performed better than the Volvo, as the spacious rear interior of the first provided a more ideal situation for retrieving and storing equipment. The workspace in the front of the vehicles, no significant differences have been observed in terms of interactions among driver, co-passenger and equipment.

Orientation

Process and method

Practice

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Figure 27. Retrieval of equipment from rear interior of Mitsubishi and Volvo The systemic nature of this project had an influence on the cost and value of the end product. The SPF purchased the electronic on-board equipment without consulting and negotiating with Volvo and Mitsubishi. This has led to a situation where both car manufacturers refused to undertake an integrative customisation exercise, mainly because of responsibility issues. To highlight this responsibility issue, “Who will be responsible if the electronic equipment does not function or the vehicle itself encounters complications? Is it the car manufacturer, SPF, the people who install the equipment, or the suppliers of the electronic equipment?” In this case, the SPF was referred to independent sub-contractors and designers for the customisation project. This project is a clear example where the main actor (SPF) took an evolutionary approach, without considering the collaborative contexts of the stakeholders

Figure 28. Foam models to explore the positioning of equipment in the front and rear interior of the vehicles

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4.2.5 Rucksack bag design to facilitate optimum loading


Problem / Context How to design a rucksack bag which facilitates optimal loading and distribution of weight while on the move.

Publication Liem, André, (1994) Rucksack bag design to facilitate optimum loading, Master Thesis


Duration of Project October 1993 – June 1994


Karrimor International Pte.Ltd. Loughborough University of Technology (LUT) Robert Feeney Associates (RFA), Ergonomic and Design Consultants Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering (TUD-ID)


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Positioning Domain Product Ergonomics Specialisation Physical Intervention Preventive Erg. – Industrial

Design Worldview Positivist Generic Strategy Systemic


Problem Solving, Participative.

Practice Ergonomic Research and Industrial Design Value Creation Profit making, User experience,

In collaboration with Robert Feeney Associates (RFA), Loughborough University of Technology, a rucksack bag for long distance hikers was designed for Karrimor International. Since the harness was completed, the focus laid on how to facilitate optimum loading and unloading of items. Hereby, accessibility, space optimization, comfort, stability and maneuverability and applicability in different contexts were key issues to be considered. The result was an integrated solution of a main backpack and a daypack. During long distance traveling, both packs merge into a uniformed holistic form. In a situation, when the traveller has found him-, or herself a base accommodation and intends to make day trips, the daypack can then be used separately on its own. To achieve optimal comfort and performance, anthropometric experiments were conducted with respect to load carrying under fixed laboratory and in-field conditions. The orientation of this industrial design project was based on a preventive intervention within the domain and specialization of physical product ergonomics. The emphasis on research indicated the positivistic nature of this project. A structured design approach was adopted to solve problems as well as prescriptively suggest optimal ways of how to pack a backpack in a systemic context. Methodologically, formal anthropometric and interview methods were used to gain new knowledge about loading, load distribution and load carrying, which were adopted to craft the problem definition and design requirements. To a certain extent,

Orientation

Process and Method

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interviewed users were more involved than was expected and participated by giving concrete design suggestions. In term of practice, this project showed how a designer dealt with a well-defined project brief, experimentation, testing and the management of quantitative data as a resource for hands on designing. With respect to value creation, the aim was to create additional profit for Karrimor International, pursue continuation of research and project work for Loughborough University and RFA, and create a better user experience for backpackers.

Figure 29. Rucksack bag design to facilitate optimum loading

4.3 ANALYSIS OF CASES WITHIN PROSPECTIVE

ERGONOMIC INTERVENTION In this section the following cases will be discussed within the context of Prospective Ergonomic Intervention:

• Product Planning versus Product Positioning • Monitoring Fish Health • Development of culture driven design concepts • CAD as an Idea and Concept Generation tool in the early design stages

4.3.1 Product planning versus product positioning GENERAL

CHARACTERISTICS Problem / Context What method is most suitable in the search of

innovative products and services? Publication Liem, André; Sanders, E.B.N (2013) Human-Centred

Design Workshops in Collaborative Strategic Design Projects; An Educational and Professional Comparison. Design and Technology Education: an International Journal Vol. 18, No.1 (Appendix B-2)


Duration of Project

August 2010 – November 2010 (4 Months)


Various Norwegian companies Norwegian University of Science and Technology

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Worldview Positivist Generic Strategy Classical / Systemic


Problem Solving, Participative

Practice Strategic and Industrial Design Value Creation Profit, User experience, Business Eco-system

From 2005 to 2013, 8–10 established Norwegian firms were yearly involved in a fourth-year collaborative strategic design project. The strategic design project was divided into two stages: Product Planning & Management (PPM) and industrial design. In groups of two or three, students were required to mimic design consultants In recent years, an alternative route to goal finding leading to more detailed directives in formulating the design brief was suggested through the implementation of product/service positioning maps for determining “value creation" opportunities (Cagan & Vogel, 2002). The “how to” design was introduced as a response complementary to the “what to” design as framed by Ansoff’s Product-Market-Technology (PMT) model (Ansoff, 1968). The analysis of nine recent strategic design projects showed that visionary capabilities were important in generating radical and incremental innovations. As shown in figure 30A, a “new product–existing market” strategy was targeted in five of the nine projects, whereas two projects focussed on creating a “new market for existing products and technologies". Two other companies embarked on a “natural” diversification strategy, because they were contract manufacturers and did not have any background and expertise in developing their own core products. Design goals were determined through discussions among company management and design students, driven by a conjecture–analytical design approach. When adopting Cagan and Vogel´s positioning map, all low and high technology projects were categorised in the high style (=ergonomics and form) quadrants (Figure 30B).

Figure 30A. Positioning of strategic design projects on product-market matrix

Figure 30B. Positioning of strategic design projects on Cagan and Vogel’s positioning map (2002)

In terms of orientation, students were subjected to a product planning and management process, where they had to follow a systematic innovation-step model that guided them to determine their design brief (Buijs, 1987; Buijs & Valkenburg,

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1996). The deliverables were innovative products and services. This project was driven by prospective intervention, which is dependent on the type of company collaboration, required physical, cognitive and / or organisational ergonomic specialisation. Based on a positivistic worldview, the project aligns with a classical or systemic strategy, dependent on the contextual influence within each type of collaboration. Concerning methods and practices, a structured problem-solving approach throughout the product planning and industrial stages, was complemented by participative design interventions. The purpose of these interventions was to boost divergent creative thinking, find focus, as well as to align interests among stakeholders. Moreover, it can be clearly seen that prescribed methods are applicable to determine the innovative content of design projects, either from a “what” or “how” approach in both positioning frameworks. Hereby, social, economic, and technological trends formed the basis for strategic thinking and innovation. The value of using product planning and product positioning methods lies within the positivistic realm, mainly focussing on the fulfilment of economic needs. While taking into consideration user, organisation and business eco-system levels of involvement, the educational relevancy for using these frameworks are to make students understand how to develop a structured business context for their project on which they can build further upon to be more specific in their goal product planning and designing activities.

4.3.2 Monitoring fish health project GENERAL

CHARACTERISTICS Problem / Context What are the methods and tools for monitoring

fish health within fish farming activities? Publication Liem, André; Sanders, E.B.N (2013) Human-

Centred Design Workshops in Collaborative Strategic Design Projects; An Educational and Professional Comparison. Design and Technology Education: an International Journal Vol. 18, No.1 (Appendix B-2)


Duration of Project August 2010 – November 2010 (4 Months)


Norwegian fish framing companies Telcage AS Norwegian University of Science and Technology


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Positioning Domain Product (Service) Ergonomics Specialisation Cognitive, Organisational Intervention Prospective – Strategic Design

Worldview Positivist Generic Strategy

Systemic


Problem Solving, Participative

Practice Strategic and Industrial Design Value Creation Profit making, User experience, Network building

Co-creation workshops focused on the context of ”Sea-based Fish-farming”, where students addressed problems and solutions related to monitoring fish health for an information service provider. The objective was to reveal interesting problem areas

Methods and practices

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and business opportunities for the company and its stakeholders and to encourage these participants to be creative and generate new ideas The company is a service provider, developing information and communication services (including the needed communication infrastructure) for the off-shore fish-farming market. Services were given on a subscription basis. Since the benefit of the services were not fully understood by the market (i.e. the market is "under developed"), it has been important for the service provider to develop the services in close co-operation with the users and other stakeholders. The first workshop with ”consumers” revealed existing knowledge and concerns around fish health related to the fish farming industry. The second workshop focused on idea generation and contextualisation of roles and responsibilities, especially those of the service provider (figure 31).

Figure 31. Workshop with ”stakeholders” revealing existing knowledge and concerns around fish health. Ideas that emerged from the sessions were clustered into 5 categories. These were technical solutions, user-friendliness in surveillance, preventive and curative health care using telemedicine, documentation and facilitation of purchase through information. The conclusion from the idea development exercise was to make it easier for the fish farmers and veterinarians to detect illnesses early and decrease the damage, as well as to avoid financial losses connected to massive fish health problems.

Figure 32. Use of co-creation tools and methods to map out the context and generate ideas

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In the third workshop, as new technologies (sensors, communication technology etc.) and new ways of working were introduced, needs and wishes of the different stakeholders connected to activities around fish health were further explored, which led to new opportunities discovered attached to fish health. This project is predominantly service oriented. Ergonomic focus was on cognition and organisation, as solutions were predicted to be in the field of user-interface design. Since the market is under-developed but the context clearly defined, a participative, structured problem solving approach has been practiced in the form of consecutive workshops as described above. Hereby the designer(s) acted as (a) facilitator(s) and introduced co-creation methods and tools to the various workshop participants. This approach aligns with a systemic generic strategy. From a value creation perspective, the workshops have provided useful insights for idea and concept generation in terms of technology implementation, content and service provision for a fish health surveillance interface. Through these insights, two main developments were ascertained: • The usability and accessibility of the interface have improved through

complementary services • Technology development has led to increased information flow among

stakeholders and complementary services.

4.3.3 Development of culture-driven design concepts


Problem / Context How to propose and strategise innovate product and service concepts from an acculturation perspective?

Publication Liem, André; Lind, Ane Linea; Gadaria, Dharmesh (2010) Towards a Culturally Driven Approach for the Development of Strategic Design Concepts. I: Proceedings of Norddesign: International Conference on Methods and Tools for Product and Production Development, Gothenburg, Sweden. The Design Society, pp.97-108 (Appendix B-10)


Duration of Project August 2009 – December 2009 (5 Months) Actors / Stakeholders

Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Product Design


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Positioning Domain Product (Service) Ergonomics Specialisation Physical, Cognitive,

Organisational Intervention Prospective – Strategic Design

Worldview Constructivist Generic Strategy Systemic


Hermeneutic, Reflective Practice

Practice Strategic and Industrial Design Value Creation Profit making, User experience, Resource database

This project proposed acculturation theories for designers to undertake a more comprehensive external analysis in the product planning stages of the innovation process. The concept is based on the assumption that extreme trends and developments in societies´ political, economical and social situation are usually not

Orientation

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favorable and therefore perceived as a motivator for initiating incremental or radical product /service ideas. Several case studies have illustrated the difficulties to change social, political and economical developments overnight in a society, and demonstrated the potential role of design in improving these difficulties through innovative design concepts. A bottom-up analysis of cases resulted in the six (6) preliminary categories, and function as a guide for a broader and more reflective approach in product planning and goal finding. These categories are:

• Healthcare and elderly care • Working and living • Education and manpower development • Purchase of food, products and services • Mobility /Transportation of goods and people • Interaction and Communication

This shows that a cultural approach towards external analysis and product idea generation in the Front-end of Innovation (FEI) can be instrumental in the generation of innovative system and or product ideas to improve quality of life and service not only in developing but also developed nations. In terms of orientation, the diversity of case studies has demonstrated that a systemic approach, based on culture and context towards strategic design should be further explored in the construction of prospective Product Service Systems in the FEI. From a reflective and hermeneutic design reasoning perspective, these various case studies have illustrated the potential role of design in improving the negative aspects of these developments, by understanding extreme cultural trends as well as the potential for acculturation. Potential domains for innovation are within the realm of product / service ergonomics with specialisations either in physical, cognitive and /or organisational ergonomics. With respect to method and practice, mapping case studies on a bi-polar scale, which illustrates extreme cultural trends and developments in certain societies, facilitates the search for new product ideas in the FEI. Furthermore, the results of these mapping exercises can be consolidated into a resource of diverse cases, which help to bottom-up craft out a database of cases for product planning and goal finding. This database of cases, which is a valuable asset, needs to be refined and updated from time to time to maintain relevant as a source for external analysis in the generation of innovative system / product ideas.

4.3.4 CAD as an idea and concept generation tool in the early design stages


Aim / Context How to use CAD as an idea and concept generation tool in the development of new products?

Publication Liem, André (2012). Computer Aided Design as an Idea and Concept Generation Tool in the Early Stages of the Design Process. Proceedings of The Ninth Norddesign Conference, 2012. The Design Society. 2012. 9 pages (Appendix B-7)


Duration of Project January 2012 – May 2012 (5 Months) Actors / Stakeholders

Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Product Design

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DIMENSIONS OF

ANALYSIS

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Specialisation Physical, Cognitive Intervention Prospective – Strategic Design

Worldview Positivist followed by a Constructivist Generic Strategy Systemic


Hermeneutic, Reflective

Practice Strategic and Industrial Design Value Creation Cost reduction in design development, User

experience. Stakeholder involvement The existing tension field on When, Where, and How to use conventional design representations versus CAD is becoming more and more prevalent. This research project attempted to argue that in certain circumstances digital visual representations (CAD) are more effective in the early creative idea and concept generation stages of the design process compared to sketches and drawings. In other words, intensive reflective and processual visualization activities, which immediately renders feedback in computer media influences the designer to generate images more frequently and more precisely in his/her mind, compared to conventional media. The above phenomenon has led to discussions around two factors, which redefine the value of CAD in an educational context. These factors are: • Type of students admitted according to academic inclination • Type of Design Program

Figure 33. Example of a design submission, where the student demonstrated poor manual representation, but good CAD modelling skills Results have shown that because of their sound academic abilities, students, who were admitted only upon good grades, demonstrated a strong aptitude towards learning different CAD systems. However, they were generally weak in (manual) sketching and drawing. This is explicitly shown in interactions among educators and students in the early stages of the idea development and concept generation stages where crucial stages of exploration and reflection are visualised by surprisingly well developed CAD drawings / models, rather than manual sketches and drawings. An interesting correlation can be seen between the type of design program and evangelised processes and methods. Industrial Design Engineering programs, who advocate a structured problem solving process and methods, based on Analysis – Synthesis, are very much inclined in promoting CAD as early as possible design and

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materialisation activities. The inherent tension between CAD and conventional sketching, which is caused by the different perspectives on "what design is about" should encourage design programs to rethink and re-evaluate their educational objectives, in conjunction with which design tools are to be emphasised or not, in terms of design knowledge and skills transfer. In terms of orientation, a positivistic worldview was initially adopted, where students, who participated in the Electrolux Design Lab 2012 competition, argued for the existence of a problem and attempted to solve it from a contextual and systemic viewpoint, based upon the theme, “Design Experience”. In conjunction with the theme, a specific context was explored, researched and analysed from Social, Technological, Economic, Environmental and Political (STEEP) perspectives. Most students were able to formulate clear consumer insights using a structured problem solving approach. However, methodologically and practice wise, students turned to a reflective mode of thinking. Instead of designerly showing comprehensive and explicit representation of ideas and concepts they developed ideas and initial concepts inwardly through low quality thumbnail sketches and much verbal explanations. When the design concept became more concrete in their minds, these students quickly readopt a structured problem solving approach by extensively using of digital design tools in the conceptualisation, detailing and materialisation stages. The value of using CAD in the early design stages, may lead to cost reduction in the design process through new ways of visually representing designs convincingly accurately and fast. Furthermore, the earlier CAD is being adopted, the earlier stakeholders can be invited to participate in the design process

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5.0 CROSS-COMPARISON OF CASES

« Making sense and offering a coherent interpretation of the typically disparate sources of data is far from straightforward.»

Crowe, Cresswell, Robertson, Huby, Avery & Sheikh, 2011, p.6.

« The analytical power of the comparative method increases the closer it approximates the statistical and experimental methods.»

Lijphart, 1971, p.693

Chapter Abstract: The exchange of goods and services are becoming more intricate, because of advanced technologies,

complex user demands and stakeholder interaction. This requires design projects to be more context-driven with varied interests, due to (personal) ambitions and limitations of the different stakeholders. This phenomenon indicates that contextual issues and pluralistic objectives dictate the planning and implementation of the respective projects, emphasising the importance of prospective ergonomic intervention in strategic or systems design project. Positivist and constructivist worldviews has been adopted in these context-driven projects, supported by Problem Solving, Hermeneutic, Participative and Reflective modes of design reasoning to anticipate future plural needs and objectives within the systemic quadrant. These plural needs and objectives within the context of business management and design comprise of a balance among profit maximisation, increased usability, work efficiency and effectiveness, human well-being, etc. In the first stage of the analysis, cases will be cross-compared within each quadrant of the generic strategy framework (Whittington, 2001). Comparisons will be made according to the following criteria:

• Positioning (Domain, Specialisation, Intervention) • Worldview • Design Reasoning Mode and Method. • Practice and Stakeholder Involvement • Value creation

In the second analysis stage, cases will be compared across the different quadrants, based on how each case is classified according to ergonomic and design intervention as well as how they are being mapped alongside the axes of “process” and “outcome” (see figure 35). Figure 34 below recaps and colour codes the different

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projects according to ergonomic interventions. Besides that, it also highlights the domain and specialisation of each project.

Figure 34. Projects classified according ergonomic intervention with their domains and specialisations

5.1 CROSS-COMPARISON OF CASES WITHIN THE

CONTEXT OF DELIBERATE / PLANNED

PROCESSES AND TARGETED OUTCOMES

PROFIT MAXIMISATION /PROBLEM SOLVING In this section selected cases will be compared within the context of deliberate / planned processes and targeted outcomes pertaining to profit maximisation and problem solving. Table 3 below shows the cross-comparison from a classical strategy perspective. In all these projects, a positivist worldview has been adopted, because of the use of prescriptive and structured methods and processes to achieve strategic service or design results. Ergonomic intervention is mainly corrective and preventive, because the contexts have been predetermined for the projects reported in the case studies. This also implies a problem solving approach as a way to reason about design. PE, which has been advocated in the “Product planning and positioning” case, is strategic and builds upon prescriptive methods and tools. These prescriptive methods and tools have been used to determine the innovative content of educational and real-

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life projects, either from a “what to design” or “how to design” approach. For example Ansoff´s PMT-matrix and Cagan and Vogel´s positioning maps were frequently used to classify and frame the objectives of the different collaborative projects. However, in terms of design reasoning, this case also advocates participatory design beyond a problem solving approach, to discover hidden and anticipate future needs.

Table 3. Cross-comparison of cases within the context of deliberate / planned processes and targeted outcomes profit maximisation /problem solving

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Using product planning and product positioning methods and tools contributes significantly to the value of strategic design and PE, while taking into consideration user, organisation and business eco-system levels of involvement. From a systems and human-centered design approach, an abundance of collective processes and methods have been introduced to manage complexity and to involve different stakeholders in strategic design projects. With respect to the NPS case, few difficulties were experienced in defining the system’s outer boundaries, because the logistic structure of system was partly determined by the nature of the project. However, more difficulties were encountered when determining intermediate boundaries and interface connectivity between the elements of the system, concerning overlapping scenarios and products. In the design of a downtown check-in work system, formal anthropometric and interview methods are still very relevant to develop new knowledge. Hereby, the use of digital human models was a suitable platform to facilitate knowledge creation, design activity, and communication among a broader network of stakeholders, enhancing the business eco-system. Using a work system simulation, spatial relationships among virtual humans, check-in facilities, and the workplace within an external environment can be easily manipulated. In the embarkation and disembarkation project concerning bus shelters, research contributed to architects´ and LTA´s insights in designing universally accessible facilities. From a positivist worldview, observations and interviews were mainly used to determine design guidelines.


CONTEXT OF EMERGENT PROCESSES AND

TARGETED OUTCOMES; PROFIT

MAXIMISATION /PROBLEM SOLVING In this section selected cases will be compared within the context of emergent processes and targeted outcomes pertaining to profit maximisation and problem solving. Table 4 shows the cross-comparison between the projects and criteria. In the adoption of an evolutionary strategy perspective, the two cases were characterised by a physical product or product-service offerings. Although strategic design was emphasised in the USB project, the ergonomic intervention was corrective in nature. The constructivist / pragmatic worldview dictates an evolutionary perspective, which does not propel the development of new products and services into the realm of PE.

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Moreover as design developments are emergent in nature, carefully planned processes and the use of structured methods have been absent in both cases. Instead, hermeneutic and reflective reasoning have taken centre stage in design and development activities.

Table 4. Cross-comparison of cases within the context of emergent processes and targeted outcomes profit maximisation /problem solving

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Stakeholders were actively involved in the design process, but were not subject to participatory design methods. Value creation is short-, and mid-term based, and is determined by increased work efficiency, cost minimisation and profit maximisation. This is exemplified by the FRC project, where the Singapore Police Force has opted for adaptive instead of integrative customisation of on board equipment and interior design.


CONTEXT OF DELIBERATE PROCESSES AND

PLURALISTIC OUTCOMES In this section selected cases will be compared within the context of deliberate processes and pluralistic outcomes. Table 6 shows the cross-comparison between the projects and criteria. From a value creation perspective, profit making or cost saving is not the only objective in these systemic projects. User experience and developing networks with stakeholders are equally important if not more. For example, in the rucksack bag project, structured research and design methods were adopted to systematically develop and suggest optimal ways of packing, considering the experience of different type of travellers, as well as contexts they are travelling in. The above example illustrates that cases, which are situated in specific contexts, require to a certain extend planned and structured processes as well as prescriptive methods to determine the outcome of the project. This justifies that a positivist worldview is central in systemic cases, which is characterised by extensive stakeholder participation. Concerning the prospective ergonomic / strategic design interventions, participative and problem solving reasoning modes were prevalent, if the design project suggests a democratic participation of their stakeholders. If the design project is very much influenced by the views and opinions of the designer, pluralistic outcomes are being reached by hermeneutic or reflective practice modes of design reasoning. An example of a democratic case is the “Fish-Health Monitoring” project. The co-creation workshops focused on the context of ”Sea-based Fish-farming”, where students addressed problems and solutions related to monitoring fish health for an information service provider. Using a toolkit, the primary objective of the participatory workshop sessions was to reveal interesting problem areas and business opportunities for a fish health surveillance interface for the company and its stakeholders, as well as to encourage these participants to co-create new ideas, in terms of technology implementation, content and service provision. Cases which deviate fully or partly from deliberate and prescriptive ways of research and design are: (1) Development of Culture Driven Design Concepts, and (2) CAD as an Idea and Concept Generation Tool in the Early Design Stages.

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Table 5. Cross-comparison of cases within the context of deliberate processes and targeted outcomes profit maximisation /problem solving

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In the “Culture Driven Design Concepts” case, extreme cultural and behavioural trends and developments in nations´ social, technological, economical, environmental and political situations, positioned on a bipolar spectrum, were an instigator for strategic and innovative product and service planning. A cultural understanding of societies and regions supported these trends and developments. This methodology, which is constructivist in nature, requires a diverse database of cases to be developed. Moreover, cases are to be refined and categorised from time to time, based on typical contexts and events. Furthermore, to be prescriptively applied as a source for external analysis in the generation of innovative system / product ideas, characteristics of case studies need to be structured and formalised. To exemplify the value of a cultural approach, a systematic and context-based design process has been applied in the “Classroom Systems” and “Interior Concept for Small Space Living” projects. In these projects, hermeneutic and reflective practice modes complement a problem solving approach. Hereby, the way a system should look like is very much influenced by how the designer interprets and translates the formation of a specific context into a holistic system of interacting elements. However, as the ergonomic intervention is preventive, the immediate environment and stakeholders determine the aims of the project and their system constraints. In the CAD and Idea / Concept Generation Tool case, the debate is how to balance the development of practical skills and thinking aptitudes. Participation in the Electrolux Design Lab competition has revealed that students, who were admitted only upon good grades, were generally poor in (manual) sketching and drawing. However, due to their solid academic capabilities, they were capable of envisioning future needs and effectively mastering different CAD systems in a short period of time. This proves that students were able to practice design thinking from different modes of design reasoning; a hermeneutic and constructivist mode in terms of idea generation and goal finding, as well as a structured problem solving mode in learning and using CAD in a versatile manner. Furthermore, the compilation of CAD and conventional representations in the early stages of the design process facilitated the involvement of other stakeholders in the network.

5.4 COMPARISON OF CASE CLUSTERS ACROSS

THE FOUR QUADRANTS Figure 35 gives an overview of how the different cases are positioned within a generic strategy map (Whittington, 2001). Most of the cases are positioned within the systemic and none in the processual quadrant. Cases characterised by a prospective ergonomic intervention are strategy or systems driven, and mainly systemic in nature. This indicates that contextual issues and pluralistic objectives dictate the planning and implementation of the respective projects. Positivist and constructivist worldviews have been adopted in these projects, supported by Problem Solving, Hermeneutic, Participative and Reflective modes of design reasoning. Expressed in a simplified manner, the exchange of goods and services are becoming more intricate, because of advanced technologies, complex user demands and

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stakeholder interaction. This requires design projects to be more context-driven with varied interests, due to (personal) ambitions and limitations of the different stakeholders. What bind the projects together from a prospective and preventive ergonomic intervention are their aims to anticipate and satisfy future user-experience. Projects, which are research driven and where their design scope has been predetermined, are classified within the classical quadrant. Corrective and preventive ergonomic intervention aimed at for example, solving a particular problem or maximising profit, were specific and required structured planning to achieve them. Hereby, the designer adopted a problem solving approach towards design based upon a positivist worldview. The Product Planning versus Product Positioning case is also positioned in the classical quadrant, because some of the strategic design projects were accomplished using a prescriptive product planning and goal finding process.

Figure 35. An overview of the 12 cases positioned within a generic strategy map and characterised according to ergonomic and design intervention

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5.5 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF CASES

ACCORDING TO INTERVENTION,

WORLDVIEWS, MODELS OF DESIGN

REASONING AND GENERIC STRATEGIES In this section, a qualitative assessment of the 12 cases will be presented. The assessment is based upon the juxtapositioning of the different ergonomic and design interventions, with worldviews, models of design reasoning and generic strategies (see table 6).

Ergonomic Intervention Design Intervention Prospective Ergonomics

Design Ergonomics

Corrective Ergonomics

Strategic / Systems Design

Industrial Design

Detail Design

Worldview

Positivism + ++ + ++ + - Constructivism + - - + - -- Pragmatism -- -- - - -- -- Advocacy -- -- -- -- -- --

Models of Design

Reasoning

Problem Solving

+ ++ + +++ - -

Hermeneutic + + -- ++ - -- Reflective + + - ++ - -- Participative + - -- + -- -- Normative -- -- -- -- -- -- Social -- -- -- -- -- --

Generic

Strategies

Classical - - + + + -- Evolutionary -- - - - - -- Processual -- -- - - -- -- Systemic ++ ++ -- ++ + --

Table 6. Ergonomic and design interventions juxtaposed against worldviews, models of design reasoning and generic strategies. Since most of the cases carry two or more perspectives on type of intervention, worldview, mode of design reasoning and strategy, a qualitative approach has been used to analyse trends rather than to specifically pinpoint on qualitative results. Prospective ergonomic intervention happened in only 4 out of the 12 projects, which were positivist and /or constructivist in nature. Positivist, because planned processes have been used, but constructivist, because outcomes, due to contextual reasons and bounded rationality are plural. This undoubltly implies that wide range of design reasoning models from problem solving to participative design are suited to be used complementary to each other. On a management level, the dualistic nature of these cases, which in some instances are positivistic and in other instances are constructivist, aligns well with a systemic generic strategy. An example of such a case is the “CAD as an Idea and Concept Generation Tool in the Early Design Stages”. Although CAD has extensively been used as a tool in the generation of detailed concepts for the Electrolux Design competition by most of the participants, the thinking behind the concepts are mostly hermeneutic and reflective in nature. However, this case can be classified as systemic, because although the

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themes and deliverables for the competition are predefined, the outcomes are plural; Cost reduction in design / development, Enhanced user experience and stakeholder involvement. Similarly, cases where strategic or systems intervention took place, were mostly positivistic and constructivist in nature. In these strategic / systems design cases, problem solving, reflective and hermeneutic modes of reasoning have been adopted to develop design solutions, mostly tied to specific contexts. This signifies that a majority of the strategic and systems intervened design cases are also systemic in nature, but driven by context rather than bounded by human rationality. Moreover, a combination of preventive ergonomic and systems design intervention was present in the following cases:

• Mail Production at the Norwegian Postal Service • Classroom Systems for Elementary School Pupils • Interior Concepts for Small-space Living project

In each of these cases, a design brief has been presented at systems level. The scope of the projects determined the boundaries of the system. There are some similarities between cases, which were subjected to industrial design and preventive ergonomic intervention. Mainly a positivist worldview has been adopted in the development of design solutions. Complementary to a problem solving mode of reasoning, elements of reflective and hermeneutic thinking were present. These cases, which encapsulated a preventive ergonomic and industrial design intervention, also aligned well with a systemic view of strategising, because the design briefs determine their design space, limitations and possibilities. A typical example, which embodies a preventive ergonomic and industrial design intervention is the “Interior Customisation of Singapore Fast-Response Police Car”. However, in this typical case, the project is constructivist in nature and very much driven by a hermeneutic, reflective practice and participatory modes of design reasoning. From an evolutionary strategy perspective, cost savings, operational effectiveness and enhanced user experiences are values, which have been targetted. For cases, which have been intervened from a corrective ergonomic perspective, a positivistic / pragmatic worldview complemented by problem solving and reflective modes of reasoning have been adopted. Related generic strategies are mainly classical and evolutionary, because these cases are aimed at “concrete business and design objectives”, through redesign. The case “Digital Human Models in Work System Design and Simulation” shows how corrective ergonomic and partly detail design interventions have been applied in developing design guidelines for baggage check-in at Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) stations in Singapore. Two cases were positioned in the evolutionary quadrant. In these cases, the designer used an emergent constructivist and pragmatic approach to meet the design goals. Reflective reasoning with the business context was an important impetus for taking an opportunistic design and development approach in the USB project and a trail-and error way in the customisation of the Singapore police car interior.

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Figure 36 complements figure 35 by showing how the 12 cases are positioned according to worldview and design reasoning mode. Although no direct correlations can be made with types of interventions and generic strategy positioning, it can be said that most projects were positivistic in nature and were subjected to a diversity of design reasoning approaches to achieve conceptual or tangible result. However, a group of projects were characterised as constructivist and pragmatic. Designers adopted foremost a reflective practice and hermeneutic approach in formulating the final design brief or in creating a materialised design solution. When adopting a prospective ergonomic view, only the “culture DDC” project was constructivist in nature, where hermeneutic and reflective reasoning prevailed. This shows that PE intervention foremost rely on prescriptive processes, methods and tools.

Figure 36. An overview of the 12 cases positioned according to worldview and design reasoning mode To conclude this chapter, the 12 cases have been mapped according to ergonomic and design intervention. Figure 37 provides a summarised overview of the relationship between ergonomic and design interventions. The mapping exercise has shown that PE as well as strategic / systems intervention took place in 4 out of 12 cases. The 4 projects were broadly defined and no clear system boundaries of the product or service has been defined. Three out of the 12 where the result from strategic /systems design and preventive ergonomic intervention. In these 3 cases, the project brief and system boundaries has been

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clearly predetermined. A preventive ergonomic intervention has mainly been adopted in the creation of system elements (products). An Exceptional case is the USB project. The business case is strategic in nature, but the design of the product, which embodies the business intent is a redesign of existing USB´s. In 2 Out of the 12 cases straightforward industrial design and preventive ergonomic intervention led to novel design outputs , which have never been referenced to previous designs before. The “Busshelter” and “DHM” case are industrial design projects with a tendency to be more detail design oriented. In both cases the scope of ergonomic intervention has been narrowly defined. In the “Busshelter project” it is about investigating and solving the embarkation / disembarkation gap, while in the DHM acceptable queuing standards based upon body ellipse theories has been investigated. Given this predefined and rather narrow context, these cases are characterised as “Corrective Ergonomic” intervened.

Figure 37. 12 Cases positioned and juxtaposed according to Ergonomic and Design Intervention On a final note, prospective and preventive ergonomic interventions alongside strategic and systems design interventions are prevalent in a majority of the cases (7 out of 12). Both interventions adopt a human-centred approach in the design and development of innovative products and concepts, focussing on increased usability, work efficiency and effectiveness and human well-being. The main difference between a preventive and prospective ergonomic intervention in strategic design projects, is that the former accepts a given context or brief, while the latter redefines them, as well as their outcomes, and how to achieve these outcomes.

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6 DISCUSSION

« The main objectives of a discussion is to set forth a complete and plausible explanation or theory for what was found. It brings out the author's own thought processes as he/she

explains the results of the study and their relevance.» Ramakantan, 2007. pp.148-149.

« Prospective ergonomics has major impacts on education and practice, since ergonomists

should not only be trained as human factor experts but also as strategists to reflect on the future and as project managers.» Robert & Brangier. 2009, p.162.

« All of us, at some time in our careers, have been exposed to someone who has influenced

us in some way, either personally or professionally.» Baldwin, 1999, p.5-6.

Chapter Abstract: From an educational standpoint, students and novice designer may not always easily comprehend the

shift from a theoretical to a practice based approach in design, and often lack the experience of

practice in order to develop contextual and holistic understandings of what they have been taught. To

bridge this gap between design theory and practice, it is necessary to develop prospective ergonomic

mindsets among academics and practicing designers through modes of reasoning, methods and tools

as social sustainability and service-oriented design thinking are becoming more important for

developing innovative products and experiences. This implies that they should be engaged more

frequently in mentorship and scholarship activities through collaboration with industry, involving a

broader network of stakeholders and targeting different levels of value innovation.

In this chapter, the earlier mentioned research questions will be discussed with respect to how innovation-driven prospective ergonomics (PE) can be contextualised and reframed within overarching and subordinate fields of ergonomics and distinguished from strategic design and management. Orientation, methods, practices and value are the criteria, which will be used for discussing the similarities and differences between Macro-ergonomics and strategic management, PE and Strategic Design, Preventive Ergonomics and Industrial Design, Corrective Ergonomics and Detail Design. Furthermore, PE will be assessed with respect to its implications for design education. Finally, this chapter will end with a general discussion on PE and its relation to strategic design and strategic management with respect to the development of new products and services.

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6.1 ORIENTATION In this thesis, differences and similarities between PE and strategic design has been discussed in reference to generic strategies, based upon innovation attitudes and ambitions within, and among an ecosystem of organisations and stakeholders. With respect to the motivations for developing future products and services, it can be said that in strategic design, innovation is centered around the growth and development of the organization, whereas in PE a balance between performance / productivity on one hand and human well-being on the other hand is sought after. However, a common perspective, established between strategic design and PE is the aim to develop new products and services, by imagining future user needs, and responding with creative design solutions in a Fuzzy–Front End of Innovation process. Compared to strategic design, where product planning activities also address incremental product extensions, PE mainly focuses on radical innovation centred on human well-being and interests. The clustering of PE projects with a strategic intent in Whittington´s systemic quadrant of generic strategies is a proof it (see figure 37). In industrial design and preventive ergonomic projects, context, initial problem or brief are usually defined. Industrial design approaches the design problem through various perspectives: form, ergonomics, technology, marketing and ecology. However in preventive ergonomics, user and usability aspects will be emphasised. Similarly, the comparison between industrial design and preventive ergonomics, also applies when comparing detail design with corrective ergonomics.

6.2 PROCESSES AND METHODS In strategic and industrial design projects, finding “what to develop” in the fuzzy-front-end is usually driven by the designer with the help of passive involvement of users and other stakeholders (user centered design). In this positivist, problem solving approach, structured processes and methods for product planning and goal finding are being applied. In PE, reflective and participatory methods and tools complement the structured and systematic processes, methods and tools for determining what to design and how to design it. The designer then acts as a facilitator, who deliberately plans and manages co-creation sessions by orchestrating a compilation of design methods and tools to be directly applied and / or to be introduced in a participatory manner. He also constructively extracts stakeholders´ views and competencies to anticipate and create future incremental or radical innovation based on user needs. Concerning preventive ergonomic interventions, prescriptive analytical research and user-centered methods are being advocated to discover and understand user needs. Constraint by existing resources and contexts, the ergonomist creates new products or systems in given a context and according to a predetermined design brief. In some cases, such as in the ICSFRC project, a constructivist way of designing took place to design the interior of fast-response car. Because of the highly contextual constraints,

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which are the predetermined interior spaces of the Mitsubishi and Volvo interior space, on the spot modelmaking and prototyping, sketching, trial and fit session were the predominant activities, which signified a reflective design process. Corrective ergonomics intervened on strategic, industrial and detail design levels. Projects, where corrective interventions lead to an industrial and detail design outcome, were positivist in nature, driven by research and analysis. Examples are the Bus shelter and DHM projects. The USB project, which is characterised by a strategic design – corrective ergonomic intervention, is evolutionary in nature. Since the design is a means to an end (the main objective is to enlarge the clientele for UOB lady´s card), a reflective design approach has been chosen to opportunistically capitalise on unpatented technologies (electronics), as well as Valen Technologies´ injection moulding capabilities to create low cost USB´s.

6.3 PRACTICES The difference between strategic design and PE with respect to practices is that the latter adopts a broader view towards stakeholders´ interests. Reported prospective ergonomic cases incorporate a strategic intent, and are positioned in the systemic quadrant. This means that although processes and methods are carefully planned, objectives and interests are more nuanced. Unlike in pure strategic design projects, where organisational interests and profitmaking are very much prioritised, PE acknowledges the individual interests and capabilities of different internal and external stakeholders at a micro level. Furthermore, it acknowledges that these interests are pluralistic and different for each individual. In terms of innovation, the imagination and design of “human activities” through services, systems or products are being prioritised, sometimes in contrast to strategic design and management, where these are embedded in organisational aims. Cases which are categorised under preventive or corrective ergonomics, mainly considered the user as passive actors in a design project. Furthermore, human activities are existing and observable.

6.4 VALUE CREATION The nature of ergonomics, which focuses on human well-being, inherently promotes long-term profitability in organisations. The concept of achieving long-term profitability and at the same time human well-being can be achieved through socially responsible internal productivity measures within various units of the organisation, for example by eliminating hazardous and occupationally sound working processes, there may be lesser absenteeism, which leads to cost reduction. When discussing value creation through innovation, PE is a field, which facilitates the development of radically new products, systems and services, centered around the creation of human needs and improvement of human-well-being. Hereby, an outward looking ergonomic perspective is being adopted in long-term profit making.

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From a strategic management and design viewpoint, value can be achieved by focussing on long-, and / or short-term profits. The outward looking perspective of strategic design, which aims at increased sales or innovative products and services is being complemented by cost reduction when adopting a broader strategic management perspective towards profit maximisation.

6.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGN EDUCATION Since design education is a topic, which seeks coherence among the different cases as outlined and discussed in chapter 4 and 5, a pedagogical reflection will be made in this section on how to relate the teaching of Strategic Design and Industrial Design with different ergonomic interventions, especially PE. Furthermore, newly redefined paradigms in higher education and research, which are Mentorship, Scholarship and Service, will be discussed on how they can contribute to the field of PE. From an overarching market perspective, four (4) trends will be presented to provide a background for discussing how design programs are to be developed taking into consideration PE. These trends are: (1) Mass-education and rationalisation, (2) Connections between education and research, (3) Globalisation and internationalisation, and (4) Collaboration with industry and commercialisation (see figure 38), (Liem & Sigurjonsson, 2014).

Figure 38. Positioning design education within the context of “market forces” and “active learning” (Liem & Sigurjonsson, 2014)

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6.5.1 A prospective ergonomic intervention on mass-education, rationalisation and Industrial design education The trend in societies, where wealth is more equally distributed and education more accessible, has fundamentally transformed higher education (HE) system to become more expansive and inclusive towards mobility of students and scholars, movement of academic programs and institutions across borders (Altbach, Reisberg & Rumbley. 2009). However, counter measuring the extraordinary impact of technology, and massification within HE, Industrial design education still pursue distinct values and pedagogies that emphasise the importance of low student-faculty ratios, such as project-based learning, one-to-one tutorials, small group critiques, and significant quantities of individual formative feedback and guidance (Swann, 2002), (Design Council, 2006). According to Yang, You & Chen (2005), these highly interactive student-faculty pedagogies may enhance the following three areas in terms of competency building:

• Generic attributes, such as problem solving and communication skills, to rapidly react to immediate contextual changes.

• Specific industrial design skills and knowledge, including design thinking, design methodology, graphical representation and communication, product development and manufacturing processes, manufacturing, materials, design management, environmental awareness, and model making.

• Ancillary skills, such as negotiation with clients (Lewis and Bonollo, 2002), project management, and communication (Sigurjonsson and Holgersen, 2010).

This expansion of required competencies has enabled designers to play a more critical, integrative, and active role in product development processes (Sethia, 2001). For example, the 21st century designer is expected to fulfil the roles of innovator, knowledge worker, sustainable entrepreneur, and responsible citizen, concerned with environmental, societal, commercial, communication issues, and so on. (Press and Cooper, 2003). Furthermore, increasingly complex technologies coupled with more demanding consumers, require specialised designing and design research competencies in order to anticipate user needs and introduce more user-friendly products or systems. The need for competency management has been exemplified in the Norwegian Postal Service case (§4.2.1) In this project, students experienced few difficulties in defining the system’s outer boundaries when the logistic structure of system was partly determined by the nature of the project. However, in the transition from group to individual work some problems were encountred in determining intermediate boundaries and interface connectivity between the elements of the system, concerning overlapping scenarios and products. This calls for collective design processes and methods to better understand and clarify the roles of the stakeholders involved. Being aware of the demanding and sometimes contradictory competency requirements, a PE approach towards mentorship and scholarship should be adopted, not only to improve the faculty’s classroom, but also to advance the practice beyond

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it, which means educating and preparing graduates for “managing” an ever-changing industrial and societal context (Trathen & Varadarajan, 2009).

6.5.2 A prospective ergonomic view on how to link research and education According to the core values of classical European University education, which is embodied in the “Humboldt” model (Bloom, 2005), there is no border between teaching and research. They are complementary and transient activities in knowledge creation and interpretation (Williams, 1991) (Kjeldstadli, 2010). In the future, this means that ‘Teaching’, ‘Research’ and ‘Administration’ need to be redefined into respectively ‘Mentorship’, ‘Scholarship’ and ‘Service, to be perceived as a more global and long-term commitment, determined by discovery, integration, application, and knowledge transfer (Boyer, 1990) (Liem 2008). Typically, this applies for the education of professional design practices, where a mentoring relationship comprises of more personal, closer relationships that demand time, commitment and a level of emotional engagement (Bhagia and Tinsley, 2000). As a proposed learning concept, which opposes traditional methods of classroom teaching, hierarchical and collaborative learning could be an avenue to promote an interactive way of customised learning and knowledge transfer in design. Hereby, a concept of Vertical Studio Teaching and Learning” in conjunction with a Systems Approach towards managing complex design and organisational problems has been proposed as one of the avenues to integrate Industrial Design better in a higher education research environment. Vertical Studio Teaching as an approach to coordinate systems design does not only elevate the designer´s ability to manage complex design problem, but also addresses the intricacies of collaboration and social learning. When these complex design problems are managed thoroughly, it will create opportunities for students, practitioners, researchers and academics and other stakeholders within the same community of practice to collaborate more efficiently according to a Master-Apprenticeship model of learning. The implementation of a structured hierarchical learning system, based on such a master-apprentice relationship throughout all levels of the ‘learning’ organisation, requires the intervention of PE, when managing complex strategic and systems design projects. For example, the focus in the interior classroom for elementary school pupils project was on context-based system thinking. Interactions among group members, teachers, and collaborating companies, “reflective” (Schön, 1995) and “hermeneutic” (Bamford, 2002; Snodgrass & Coyne, 1992; Darke, 1979) approaches to design thinking were used to complement a problem solving oriented way of designing. This reflective and hermeneutic way of designing enhanced by legitimate peripheral participation (LPP) modes of iterative learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991), introduced elements of confusion, but positively enhanced hierarchical and experiential learning (Kolb, 2014)

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6.5.3 Globalisation of higher education Changing demands in higher education, driven by European integration, global market forces and technological advancement, have pressured universities to compete by integrating the international dimension into their research and educational frameworks (Enders, 2004). With respect to Design and PE, globalisation of higher education may encourage web-based delivery of post-graduate courses. Based upon experiences from The Open University, the focus on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) faculty teaching activities, improved the satisfaction and motivation rate among students in their research and design projects (Tjørve, Sutterud, Midtskogen, Krüger, Fulton & Ellefsen, 2010). ICT platform, mechanisms and delivery tools, such as Lynda (2013) and MOOCS (Waldrop, 2013) facilitate physical studio space in face-to-face interactions, enabling flexible peer support, creativity and providing more platforms for various stakeholders to virtually beside physically engaged.

6.5.4 Increased collaboration with industry and commercialisation of research Because of on-going globalisation trends universities are expected to become an integral part of national or regional innovation endeavours. At this level, research-intensive universities are expected to be interactive players who collaborate closely with industry, the community and government. (Etzkowitz & Leytesdorff, 1997). Filtering down to design education, students need to be adequately prepared on how to collaborate, negotiate, and compromise, when they engage themselves in University-Industry collaborative design projects. (Niederhelman, 2001). Moreover, if design aims to engage itself in the future university-education model, it needs to develop connections among subjects, people, disciplines and competencies, which implies facilitating participation and communication within a single organisation, within business ecosystems, and among groups of (potential) users (Brandt and Messeter, 2004). Furthermore, the emphasis on service design research has transitioned knowledge production from being mono-, to cross-disciplinary, which opens up non-linear and transient collaboration, expanding the number of research or knowledge actors (Laurillard, 2000). From a prospective ergonomic perspective, the challenge is to sustain and extend a problem-solving attitude to anticipate future needs within a systemic strategy context. At the same time yielding effective outcomes and meeting the economical interests of industrial collaborators should be driven by the use of effective methods for design development (Friedman, 2000).

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6.5.5 The need for industrial design education and research to adapt to future developments in higher education Since the introduction of a scientific design approach by the Ulm School, the traditional perception of the designer as a creative genius or stylist has changed significantly. Based on acquired “Active” and “Problem-Based Learning” (PBL) skills and attitudes, he or she is currently seen as a team member, interpreter of complex systems, communicator and problem solver (Roth, 1999). Moreover, as social sustainability and service-oriented design thinking are becoming more important for developing innovative products and experiences, students should be equipped with basic knowledge about different worldviews and design reasoning models (Lie, 2012), to be able to select the most appropriate processes and methods and to design with a prospective ergonomic mindset. They should be able to select the most suitable approaches, varying from structured processes, such as “Problem Solving”, “Normative” and “Social”, to emergent practices, such as “Hermeneutics”, “Reflective Practice” and “Participatory”. From a professional practice perspective, it has been debated whether or not Industrial Design education should succumb to market-driven and massification trend imposed by higher education, or that it should take up the challenge to pursue one to one faculty-student relationship in “Design Studio” interactions (Scott, 1998). However, this debate also underlines that if traditional design education is solely pursued, changes are inevitable. Assumed trust between master and apprentice needs to become more explicit and formal (Trathen & Varadarajan, 2009). This means that orientations among faculty members towards research, teaching and administration need to be redefined, as well as support structures to be redesigned to realise a prospective ergonomic driven design programme. Implications are:

• Faculty should be involved in mentorship and scholarship when advocating PE through learning and inquiry from a theoretical, collaborative and process perspective. (research-based learning) (Liem, 2008), Concretely, this implies the study of design processes, methods, and behaviours contextualised within social, economic and cultural phenomena.

• Practicing designers should be engaged more frequently in mentorship to contribute in skills development and sharing of design experiences through a hermeneutic “design thinking” and “designing” lens. These practicing designers can also act as a role model for students on how to plan and manage their projects, as well as how to act convincingly and persuasively in project management and negotiation situations.

• A team of dedicated faculty members and design practitioners should be established, who share consensus in promoting human-centered strategic design and innovation perspectives, processes and methods to imagine and generate new products and services.

• Complementary to interdisciplinary teamwork in design projects and research (Rittel & Weber, 1973), the concept of “Social Learning” and Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP) (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989), (Wenger 2000), should be introduced to students and novice designers to train them to work within complex collaborative contexts, which are often bounded by

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rationality. In practice, this implies that those who are new to the community of design need to become acquainted with the tasks, vocabulary, and organising principles through peripheral activities first, before engaging in more complex senior level tasks and responsibilities (Lave & Wenger, 1991), (Brown et al., 1989).

• From a reflective practice perspective, experimentation, testing and quantitative evaluation of data should be inculcated among students, when dealing with open-ended design problems. For example, CAD educators should encourage more explorative and reflective ways of tool use, rather than introducing them for merely presentation purposes.

• Faculty should be engaged in mentorship and scholarship beyond the “Physical home-based studio environment”, through the use of media technologies for distance education.

6.6 GENERAL PERSPECTIVES ON PROSPECTIVE

ERGONOMICS AND STRATEGIC DESIGN The analysis of the 12 cases underlines that the development of innovative products and services is a common goal for Strategic Design and PE. However, there are some differences between them. Innovation within the context of strategic design is more about profit making, while PE seeks a balance between performance and productivity on the one hand and human welfare on the other. Compared to the Strategic Design, where radical or incremental innovation is primarily driven by the intention of the designer with more or less passive involvement of users and other stakeholders, PE focuses on anticipating future needs to respond with creative design solutions. Even though these ideas are in their infancy stages it takes into account the systemic human, social economical and technological constraints. In a synthetic way, this thesis puts forward five ideas:

1. Strong relations exist between the PE and strategic design, which describe different viewpoints:

a. Both fields share a common ground in «modern» strategic management / innovation

b. Both fields support a deliberate way of « doing things », where planning is an important factor to achieve certain outcomes, whether specific/concrete or plural

c. The adoption of PE and Strategic Design processes are relevant for managing the early stages of development projects as well as for developing strategic directions.

2. PE embraces certain characteristics. For each case, which has been analysed and categorised as a typical cases intervened through PE, we are able to conclude that:

a. PE promotes a systems-oriented way of redefining the future with respect to experiencing products and services in context. Hereby, a human-centered perspective is being adopted, where humans are expected not only to be part of systems, but also shape them (Hollnagel, 2014)

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b. PE strenghtens the systemic strategy approach by accentuating the importance of human needs, capabililties and limitations in innovation processes.

c. PE centers on long-term collaborative advantage. As outcomes are plural and people interact in context, PE intervention promotes collaboration among stakeholders through emergent networks.

d. PE complements the positivistic characteristics of Strategic Design by adopting hermeneutic, reflective and participative modes of reasoning to aim for performance and well-being.

e. The generally « Post-positivistic » nature of design is given an added dimension through PE intervention, encouraging strategic design to adopt broader views towards innovation, but at the same time developing stands.

f. Value creation at individual, organisational, business eco-system and societal levels is being achieved by collaborating well in emergent knowledge networks.

3. As a result, PE offers a more enriched vision on human factors compared to other types of ergonomic interventions. It emphasizes that:

a. New technologies contribute more and more to the development of intangible experiences, which are embodied in services. To develop these innovative experiences, the study and practice of design needs to transition itself from being object to experience oriented.

b. Ergonomics, which historically has a connection with technology /engineering as well as the social sciences, promotes a broader approach towards innovation than strategic design.

c. This enriched vision is similar to how different authors perceive PE. i. According to Zink (2013) ergonomics has been dealing with

economic, social and environmental issues, but not in a simultaneaous and balanced manner.

ii. Several authors claim that a good organisational structure is a prerequisite for systems ergonomics and human factor principles to be effective (Grote, 2013), (So & Lam, 2013).

iii. Norros (2014) argues for a systems approach in ergonomics, as well as the need to understand technology-in-use to promote creativity and learning.

iv. From a Human-computer Interaction (HCI) perspective, Bannon (2011) claims that ergonomics should not only limit itself to «human-technology » fit, but consider more the indirect elements that shape people´s everyday lives, such goals and activities, values, cultures as well as tools and environments.

v. The HFE committee under the guidance of Jan Dul, (Dul et al.,2012) redefines the ergonomic profession by applying theoretical principles, data and methods to design in order to optimise human well-being and overall system performance.

vi. Similarly, Robert & Brangier (2009) state that PE focuses on the development of future products and services by anticipating the user needs. However their approach is foremost positivistic, in the sense that knowledge creation to explain and predict future events is based upon verified facts. Credibility is solely gained through forward-looking representations of future scenarios, or simulated experiments. Somehow, PE has not considered the

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emergent development of processes, strategies and concepts, as well as their outcomes, which have been initiated through unplanned interactions among stakeholders. This means that methods and tools, which have been put forward and used in PE are mainly positivistic in nature (personas, scenarios, drawings, projection). However, the use of constructivist approaches and methods, such as focus groups, dialogues, creative problem solving (CPS) workshops, etc., have just been introduced as part of PE methods and tools package. Therefore, at this point in time it is safe to mention that PE is pragmatic in the sense that it aims to necessarily and inevitably construct representations of the future.

vii. Nelson, Buisine, and Aoussat (2012) proposed to align the product development process with different ergonomic interventions. Developed around speculative scenario building and use, PE is being compared with the early stages of the design process, where future products and / or service proposals are sought after.

viii. Norman (2010) calls for the Human Systems Integration (HSI) community to mobilise themselves to become proactive designers and solution-givers.

d. The juxtapositioning of PE, strategic design upon a strategic management platform is very relevant for today´s management, ergonomic and design science, because interdisciplinary research in the social sciences is being encouraged through globalisation trends.

4. A forward looking and future-oriented view in ergonomics may not always be a commonly accepted phenonmenon in the field (Bartlett, 1962). However, social demands and current economic issues require improved professional practices, which also counts for ergonomics. The various cases, which are presented in this thesis, highlight some of the newly required practices:

a. Ergonomic practitioners need to be more sensitive to social, environmental and political factors when developing human-machine systems.

b. Ergonomic practitioners need to be more proactive in creating and synthesizing innovative products and services.

c. Design practitioners need to understand and consider different management and design perspectives with respect to worldviews, before choosing a suitable design approach in their project.

d. The emphasis on intangibility requires designers to collaborate more actively with ergonomists, sociologists and psychologists to achieve breakthrough innovation.

e. Through the connection with design, the ergonomic and management professions are being infused (challenged) with new ways of (creative) thinking and communication

f. In terms of education, PE should be taught within the context of design thinking, because design thinking refers to design-specific cognitive activities, which apply in the design of products, systems, services, organisations and societies. However, PE intervention contributes with a broader foundation for Design Thinking with respect to worldviews, strategy perspectives, design reasoning mode,

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processes and methods. Furthermore, the intervention of PE on design thinking also promotes a new way of knowledge transfer, which transitions teaching to mentorship and research to scholarship. For the implementation of a PE-oriented Design Thinking course, the focus should be more than strategic design and innovation. It should focus on social innovation and value creation by emphasising and discussing behavioural, cultural, social, technological ecological, political developments in addition to market and economical situations.

5. Even though there are not many evident cases (4/12 ergonomic interventions), exemplifying the impact of PE intervention, research in in the field should continue to develop along the following perimeters that we are seeking to define:

a. Strategic aiming for pluralistic outcomes b. Systems Driven within a systemic perspective c. Human-centered and social innovation oriented

6.7 AUTHOR´S PERSPECTIVES ON PROSPECTIVE

ERGONOMICS AND STRATEGIC DESIGN The purpose of this dissertation was to revisit the topics “Prospective Ergonomics (PE)” and “Strategic Design” from an overarching strategic / innovation management perspective. Based upon 12 cases, theoretical perspectives on PE have been extended by elucidating the relationship among worldviews, generic strategies and models of design reasoning. The main idea of this dissertation is that generic innovation strategies as well as strategic design principles extend the field of PE. Pure positivism does not represent a PE approach in developing new products and services. Instead, a combination of positivist and constructivist worldviews, are fundamental for adopting prospective ergonomic in a systemic strategy context. Both systemic strategizing and PE acknowledges that innovating is a complex activity bounded by social, technological, economic, environment and political constraints, which may lead to plural outcomes. Methodologically, PE should adopt a broader perspective towards the development of products and services. With the emergence of Constructive Ergonomics (Falzon, 2015) and Systems Ergonomics (Wilson & Carayon, 2014), (Dul et al., 2012), (Edwards & Jensen, 2014), the scope of PE can be extended by intervening in the Fuzzy-Front-End of Innovation. In this way, new alignments are being redefined between PE and Strategic Design, between Preventive Ergonomics and Industrial Design and between Corrective Ergonomics and Detail Design (figure 39). The “forward-looking” approach in anticipating innovative products and service, which has been marked as a core element of PE by (Robert & Brangier, 2009), emerges very well in these new alignments. However, differences between PE and Strategic Design have become subtler. Both fields recognise and apply structured processes and prescribed methods as a means to its ends, but PE considers the human-centered aspect in its orientation towards

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innovation. Unlike Strategic Design, which predominantly aims for profit maximisation and problem solving, PE plans for pluralistic outcomes in its innovation process. To summarise the educational section of this chapter, a prospective ergonomic approach may prepare design students to be better equipped to meet future changes and challenges through the cultivation of their abilities in design management, problem solving, lifelong learning and reflective thinking (Schön, 1995), (Friedman, 2000). This means that besides scholarly research, the process of being “design active” should be considered as a form of new knowledge creation (Frayling, 1993). Within knowledge and practice frameworks of PE and strategic design, social, interdisciplinary and inquiry-based learning platforms should be implemented through comprehensive and collaborative studio projects to answer the need for new design themes, and to comply with current design processes and methods. Pedagogically, this may also imply the need for “Vertical Studio Teaching” centred on project-based learning within a master/apprentice relationship (Liem, 2010), which extends beyond traditional learning by being more inclusive towards the engagement of various stakeholders within specific system contexts. As a final note in this chapter, I would like to bring up the “Prospective Turn” in ergonomics, where I consider PE not as “science”, but as “design”. Instead of planning innovation to be globally and generally focussed, PE knowledge should be localised, particular and timely.

Figure 39. Alignment of the product development process with different ergonomic interventions (adapted from Nelson, 2013)

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7 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

« Most empirical studies lead from theory to data. Yet, the accumulation of knowledge involves a continual cycling between theory and data.»

Eisenhardt, 2009, p.549.

« Reasoning draws a conclusion, but does not make the conclusion certain, unless the mind discovers it by the path of experience.»

Bacon / In Balakier, (1989).

« Human Factors has a combination of three fundamental characteristics: (1) it takes a systems approach, (2) it is design driven, (3) it focuses on two closely related outcomes:

performance and well-being.» Dul et al., 2012 p.1.

The need for continued research into PE is considerable, especially considering the paucity of substantial academic works on the subject. In this concluding chapter, the contribution of this research is presented by elucidating how the five research questions have been answered. Furthermore, reflections on limitations and suggestions for future research are given.

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7.1 REFLECTIONS ON THE RESEARCH

QUESTIONS Research Question 1

What are the similarities and differences in terms of attitudes and approaches between PE and Strategic Design, Preventive Ergonomics and Industrial Design, Corrective Ergonomics and Detail Design?

When comparing PE to strategic design, it can be said that the development of innovative products and services is a common goal in both fields. However, the differences between the two fields are:

• In strategic design, innovation is mostly aimed at profit making, whereas in PE a balance between performance / productivity on one hand and human well-being on the other hand is sought after.

• PE aims at developing products, which addresses a product and service, which does not exist yet, and aims at anticipating future needs in certain contexts. The aims in strategic design are more diverse, ranging from product extensions to incremental and radical innovation.

In industrial design and preventive ergonomic projects, the main objective is to conceptualise a feasible product or service design, based upon a given context and initial design brief. Industrial design approaches the design problem through various perspectives: form, ergonomics, technology, marketing and ecology. However in preventive ergonomics, user and usability aspects will be emphasised in the design. Common ground between detail design with corrective ergonomics can be found on the level of materialisation, where both approaches aim for a realised product. Differences between both fields are similar to the differences between industrial design and preventive ergonomics with respect to design activity Research Question 2

From a pluralistic business strategy perspective, does the balancing of performance / productivity on one hand and well-being on the other hand, supports the spirit of PE?

In the process of anticipating user needs and imagining future products and services to fulfil these needs, PE seeks the right balance between on one hand profit maximisation and on the other hand covering pluralistic objectives of internal and external stakeholders involved in product planning and goal finding. Furthermore, when adopting a society and business eco-system perspective, aiming for pluralistic objectives is much more relevant in today´s economy. For example within the context of “network building” and “Open Innovation”, sharing resources may enhance the innovation potential of the entire network as well as their individual actors. Compared to an ego-centric and controlled model of strategizing for innovation, a systemic strategy is most relevant for planning innovation activities in business situations, where knowledge and creativity are deliberately facilitated given specific contexts. Considering a wide range of pluralistic outcomes, such as well-being, personal interest and ambitions, family relations, etc., this systemic strategic viewpoint typically characterises the domain of PE.

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Research Question 3

Does a systemic business strategy, supported by a structured user-centered and context-driven design approach, represents the field of PE in the development of innovative products, systems and services?

The answer to this research question is partly embedded in the answer of research question 2. However, when economic objectives of stand-alone organisations are being targeted, prospective ergonomic intervention may also extend towards supporting a classical approach in product planning. However, the intervention of PE within a classical strategy perspective requires organisations to interactively couple push and pull market strategies throughout all stages of the development process. Furthermore, in the coupling of push-pull innovation strategies parallel innovation processes need to be pursued using information technology structures to induce integrated and concurrent product development. To illustrate the above requirement from a cultural perspective, efficient and targeted interactive parallel innovation processes are difficult for Western companies to emulate, where different stakeholders are rationally bounded. This means that individual interests prevail beyond shared ones, which automatically transitions a interactive-parallel coupled innovation processes from a classical to a systemic or even less efficient and planned processual strategy mode. In contrast, Japanese companies are for example culturally more adaptable and sucessful in focusing on more structured innovation activities, where teamwork is being promoted to meet common organisational objectives and deliverables. The above comparative illustration justifies a PE intervention in an uncertain process of new product and service development. Hereby, human-centered and participatory orientations are needed to involve different internal and external stakeholders in a systemic innovation process, where pluralistic objectives are to be met. Research Question 4

To what extent are prescriptive approaches, methods and tools applicable for solving strategic design problems within the context of PE?

Prescriptive approaches, methods and tools in the positivist mode are essential to systematically manage a prospective ergonomic design process. However these prescriptive approaches should be complemented with constructive modes of reasoning and designing as well as complementary reflective methods and tools. Moreover, the term “problem solving” in the positivistic mode should be contested. Problem solving is a typical design approach, which is supported by a strict design and development process, which may not always align with a more exploratory and anticipative way designing as intervened by PE. Research Question 5

What are the possible design education strategies, processes, methods and tools to be considered for PE?

Design education strategies, which mainly focus upon the teaching of theoretical concepts, are not sufficient to equip students with the skills required to appropriately respond to the challenges faced by the design industry (Hook, Hjermitslev, Iversen & Olivier, 2013). Instead, design educators purposefully train their students to be

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adaptable by being able to apply a repertoire of theories, techniques and skills in response to their reflective assessment of a typical design context; a competency that Donald Schön refers to as a designer’s “artistry” (Schön, 1987, p. 13). However, students and novice designer may not always easily comprehend the shift from a theoretical to a practice based approach in design. They often lack the experience of design practice in order to develop contextual and holistic understandings of what they have been taught. To bridge this gap between design theory and practice, it is necessary to redefine higher “design” education by supporting transitions from Teaching to Mentorship, Research to Scholarship, and Administration to Service. The results of these transitions are newly redefined pillars of higher education, which are more transient, integrative and future oriented. These new pillars are most accommodating for design, allowing PE to play a more extensive role in anticipating and creating future needs in systemic contexts. This implies that collaboration with industry and other stakeholders should be emphasised to groom students to manage complex strategic design problems, involving a broader network of stakeholders and targeting different levels of value innovation. To support such industry collaboration, a team of faculty members and design practitioners should be established, who are dedicated to scholarly and practically develop typical prospective ergonomic modes of reasoning, methods and tools to imagine and generate new products and services.

7.2 FUTURE RESEARCH Regarding my personal research ambitions, there are ample opportunities for continuing interdisciplinary research in the field of PE and strategic design. The in-depth exploration of selected management and design frameworks and models, as well as analysis of design and design research projects have provided a good starting point for aligning PE with strategic design, and repositioning this emergent field of ergonomics within broader contexts of innovation and strategic management. Moreover, this research has attempted to position selected cases within strategic management, worldview, strategic design and design reasoning frameworks. A very important finding is that prospective ergonomic characteristics foremost apply to projects, which are positioned in the systemic strategy quadrant, underlining the collaborative and pragmatic nature of these projects. In these projects, designers complement problem solving approaches with hermeneutic and reflective modes of thinking. With respect to stakeholder involvement and alliance building, these designers advocate the implementation of participatory and creative design methods to anticipate future needs. However, concerning the development of methods and tools, more empirical data needs to be gathered to ascertain the positioning of PE relative to strategic design, within strategic management and innovation frameworks. Examples of research topics, which are relevant to be studied to advance the methodology of PE are:

• The development of systemic frameworks, methods and tools, which can be applied across strategic management, strategic design, PE and industrial design.

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• The development of creative methods and tools, which can promote lateral thinking in design to anticipate prospective user needs.

• The creation of design education programs / courses, where an emphasis is placed on bridging the gap between theory and practice in collaborative project work. This means introducing real-life cases and companies as early as possible in the program.

• The adaptation of Prospective Ergonomic principles to promote a more constructive and reflective ways of designing. Referring to Whitting´s processual quadrant as a foundation for one stream of design thinking, what type of emergent strategic and industrial design processes, methods and tools can be developed and how will the prospective ergonomic intervention be?

From a thematic viewpoint, six prospective ergonomic areas, which are interested to explore with respect to my future research endeavors, as well as for the Norwegian economy, will be elaborated in the upcoming sub paragraphs.

7.2.1 Healthcare and welfare design Complex health care environments render it necessary that a holistic and systematic ergonomic approach is being adopted to understand the potential for accidents and errors to occur (Buckle, Clarkson, Coleman, Ward, & Anderson, 2006). In the last, decade these holistic principles of ergonomics have been employed in different dimensions of the health care sector. Ergonomists have advocated to actively consider the needs of all stakeholders by promoting a multifaceted and comprehensive approach in the health sector to minimize the burden of the occupational hazards. However, it is unknown whether a prospective oriented approach towards ergonomic intervention in the healthcare sector has been explored. Only a few studies have evaluated interventions to reduce injuries among health care workers, based on worker education programs, physical conditioning, or the use of occupational ergonomic interventions. However, education alone, in the absence of work modifications, is not effective in reducing back injuries among health care workers. Physical conditioning, complemented with the utilization of mechanical assistive devices has therefore been suggested as a preventive ergonomic measure to reduce injuries among healthcare workers (Garg and Owen, 1992), (Owen, Keene, Olson & Garg, 1995), (Charney, Zimerman & Walara, 1991), (Feldstein, Valanis, Vollmer, Stevens & Overton, 1993). To promote a holistic value-innovation perspective in the development of the healthcare sector, it is essential to adopt a prospective ergonomic approach to anticipate future products and services. Hereby, it is critical to extend management support to ensure the overall success of the ergonomic process (United States Department of Labour, accessed 2015). In addition, interventions in the form of involvement of workers, patients and other stakeholders through participatory ergonomic and design sessions facilitate early identification of core health issues as well as ancillary arrangements, which need to be put in place. A prospective ergonomic intervention in the design of tasks, routines, workspaces, tools, lighting, and equipment is needed to match the health workers´ physical capabilities and limitations with future patient needs as well as expectations from a broader community of actors who have a stake in healthcare.

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In terms of future research in healthcare and welfare design, I am interested to explore the intersection between “Products & Services”, “Processes and Methods” and how a prospective design thinking approach in these two areas may change attitudes, behaviours and norms within occupational ergonomics among the different stakeholders. In practice, this means that in contrast to the more common ‘‘top-down’’ safety programs, participatory ergonomics and design may more effectively take advantage of worker knowledge and problem solving skills, reduce resistance to change, and improve workplace communication and worker motivation, as well as facilitate in the anticipation for future products and services (Gjessing, Schoenborn & Cohen, 1994); (Moore and Garg, 1996).

7.2.2 Inclusive design According to Clarkson and Coleman (2015, p.235), inclusive Design is designing for disabled and elderly people as a sub-set of the population, and an integral part of a more recent international trend towards integrating older and disabled people in the mainstream of society. From a business perspective, design activities should aim at offering high quality, nice products and services, which may open up prospective business avenues for imaginative entrepreneurs. With respect to targeting the public sector and focusing on legislation, it is a challenge to integrate older people as active, participating and contributing members of society in a comparable way to disabled people. This requires us to adopt a consumer-based approach within inclusive design, which is all about developing products and services that delight the end-user, rather than stigmatise and alienate. Complementing my research plans as described in 8.2.1, and 8.2.5, I am interested to find out what differentiates good design from ‘special needs’ design, as well as generating insights in integrating “good” and “special needs” design. Good design is about making conscious and well-informed decisions throughout the design process. A great product or service is typically built on a foundation of understanding the real needs of the user and other stakeholders. Within the context of the “Business of Inclusive Design” good design should not aim for pure profit maximization, but also target a broader range of objectives within contextual frames of society and legislations.

7.2.3 Service design The focus in service design is to innovate and improve services, which are on one hand useful, usable and desirable from a user perspective, and on the other hand efficient and effective from a management and organizational viewpoint (Mager & Sung, 2011), (Moritz, 2005). More specifically, good service design adds value to user experiences when applied to service sectors, such as retailing, banking, transportation and health care (Stickdorn, 2010), as well as strategically facilitates a better positioning of service offerings among service providers (Mager & Sung, 2011).

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From a strategic management and innovation perspective, service design is less about competition and contextability and more about reducing the gap between what organisations do and what users expect or need (Parker and Heapy, 2006). Given this aim, services need to be understood as a journey of critical encounters that take place over time and across channels. Hereby human-to-human or human-to-product interactions centered on “experiencing” before, during and after the service encounter is considered essential. Human centered approach that investigates or understands people´s experiences as users, service staff, communities, interactions and practices as a main source for redesigning or imagining new services (Meroni & Sangiorgi, 2011, p. 203) Users are diverse and possess a wide variety of capabilities needs and desires. Employees and decision makers within organisations are not simply detached calculating individuals interacting in purely economic transactions, but people, who are embedded in social relations that may involve their families, state, their professional and educational backgrounds, religion and ethnicity (Swedberg et al., 1987), (Whittington, 1992). Within this area, I am planning to make a human-centred strategic link between service design and PE. New theories, frameworks, processes and methods need to be developed, which should embody this human centered strategic link, to be applied in a wide variety of contexts.

7.2.4 Interaction design within the context of culture, acculturation and globalisation “The world is neither a closed system in an ultrastable steady-state, nor an open one with an inexhaustible supply of energy, water and raw materials, but one whose dynamics calls for a continuing evolution of society, and with it a corresponding evolution of ergonomics and human factors methods to deal with the new problems which will continue to emerge both in the workplace and in society at large” (Moray, 2000, p.858). The above citation clearly presents the ergonomic and cultural challenge with respect to interaction design and social innovation. However, when discussing culture and acculturation in relation to present and future societal developments, the effects of globalisation are becoming increasingly evident in the development of services and products. On one hand, through the influence of multinationals, and mass media communication and information, globalisation reached a level of homogeneity among cultures. In other words, globalisation strives for cultural compatibility by destroying diversity or ignoring cultural identity. However, some authors, like Fernandes (1995) appear to be promoting culturalisation as a means of opposing ‘cultural homogenisation’ by claiming that the global process of homogenisation may provoke people to be more aware of their national and cultural identities. On the other hand, globalisation can be seen as a motivator for some originally homogenous societies to become heterogeneous multicultural societies. Some societies have embraced globalisation, while others oppose it or are selective (Shen, Wooley & Prior, 2006).

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The above discussion poses the question whether a localisation or globalisation approach should be adopted in the development of products, services and HCI interface with respect to enhancement of the user experiences. For my future research, I am proposing to further develop a methodology for strategic goal finding based upon acculturation insights, derived from social, cultural, technological, economic and political differences among regions. The development of such a methodology implies the selection of empirical research methods to gain better insights on how to design products, user interfaces and services, bearing in mind cultural differences and globalisation trends. These methods are: • Persona Development and Selection • Scenario Building and Reflection • Cultural Confrontation of Scenarios • Case Study research In my past case study research work, the diversity of case studies, each leading to a proposed design concept, has demonstrated that a cultural and contextual approach towards strategic design should be further explored in the development user interface system and products in the FEI. The process of illustrating framed cases and assessing possible extreme social, political and economical effects in certain societies can identify potential areas for innovation. The framing and assessment occur by mapping showing extreme situations of a case on a bi-polar scale, supported by cultural dimensions. The purpose of developing these methods in a more integrative manner is to build a database of cases, to be refined and updated from time-to-time, which can be further developed into a methodology for creative inspiration in the product planning and goal finding stages of the strategic design process. In other words, once matured, such a database comprising of diverse cases can be used as a resource for deepening the external analysis as well as generating innovative system / product ideas, while considering prevalent economic, social and political status quo of cultures. Furthermore, theme specific cases can be clustered to develop cultural bi-polar scale as source to better understand global tension fields with respect to social, economical, political and environmental developments worldwide.

7.2.5 Aesthetics and experience design User experience influences the individual’s belief about him-, / herself and his / her physical appearance. It is conceived as the sensation of how someone perceives and interprets something that they are surrounded by, and seeing possibilities for the next interaction (Photiadis & Souleles, 2015). User experience encompasses more than just satisfaction. Satisfaction is associated directly with aesthetics, which has to do with emotions, a common quality between aesthetics and user satisfaction (Nielsen, 1999). The individual’s judgment about aesthetics, beauty, or what is pleasing is based upon personal, social and cultural background (user experience). However, recent research has shown that the positive effect of an aesthetically appealing product on perceived usability began to wane with increasing exposure

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time (Sonderegger, Zbinden, Uebelbacher & Sauer, 2012). This means that focusing on corrective and preventive ergonomics has its limitations in the design aesthetic driven products with respect to prospection. Aesthetics and meaning making research should therefore be conducted within the context of innovation. In other words, my research interest within this area is driven by the notion that consumers in mature economies are always enticed by the emotional qualities of a product. To be more specific, they are scouting for forms, which embody new meanings and aesthetics. Within the context of “pleasurable” experiences, which forms the foundation for research in meaning making and aesthetics, personal, cultural and emotional aspects as well as systemic constraints and possibilities, should be addressed in the development of new products and services.

7.2.6 Transportation design Transportation in its many forms has undergone significant transformations to meet the needs of a changing age-diverse society, which has implications for design, research and policies for both older and younger adults across a broad range of contexts. For example, Baby Boomers prefer personal transportation specifically in the form of a personal vehicle, because of the following two reasons:

• They find it hard and confusing to use crowd-sourcing and app-based transportation guidance, making public transportation navigation and use a frustrating experience.

• Most likely, they prefer to use private transportation, because they live in areas that do not have good public transportation (DeGood, 2011; Fisk, Rogers, Charness, Czaja & Sharit, 2009; Turcotte, 2012).

On the contrary, the younger population is driving less, frequently use public transportation, ride sharing and other transportation alternatives. They consistently respond well to crowd-sourcing and app-based transportation guidance, (Davis, Dutzik & Baxandall 2012; Delbosc & Currie, 2013; Puentes, 2012). These needs require researchers to evaluate the design of systems to manage conflicting desires, abilities, cultural and demographic factors, as well as personal goals related to different age groups anywhere from 20 to 60 years. In these systemic cases, it might be productive to create either adaptable or redundant systems, where way finding guidance is included in the physical environment of transportation hubs. As the health and activity gap between older and younger adults are narrowing, it has become easier to introduce inclusive design solutions. However, this may not be the case for all in-vehicle automation situations where human factors solutions for one typical age group may not apply for another. For instance, augmented in-vehicle automation, which is accepted and desired by tech savvy youth, may lead to over-reliance and subsequently skill degradation (Parasuraman & Riley, 1997). On the contrary, older adults are more adverse to automation and resistant to advances, such as automatic braking and self-driving cars. At the same time, age deteriorates their sensory abilities to perceive safety-critical alarms. For example, an alarm that is loud

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enough to be reliably heard by a driver in her 70’s may be extremely intrusive to a much younger driver. Another example showing different views with respect to vehicle design concerns the design and development of special vehicles, such as fire engines, police cars and ambulances. Two different approaches can be identified in the interior design and customization of these vehicles. The first is defined as Vehicle Integrative Customisation and the second, Vehicle Adaptive Customisation. Integrative customisation in Vehicle Design is the implementation of various equipment and devices without compromising on the existing features and space. It is only practically achievable when the design, fabrication and installation of the customized features have been completed in concurrence with the manufacturing of the vehicle itself. Adaptive customisation in Vehicle Design, on the other hand, can be implemented during or at any stage after manufacturing of the vehicle. This implies that the quality of adaptive customisation may vary from a crude add-on to a neatly hidden solution, such as the placement of equipment behind the cladding / dashboard of the vehicle. The above examples show that there are clear tension fields in the area of transportation and vehicle design, which are befitted to be solved through innovative product service systems (PSS) solution, where prospective ergonomic intervention is considered to be essential.

7.2.7 Summary of future research directions, relevant for prospective ergonomics The figure below shows a consolidated view of my future research work centred on PE. I am particularly interested on how prospective ergonomic intervention should contribute to each of the six thematic fields through research and design. With respect to each field, I am targeting the juxtaposition of (1) Processes, Methods & Tools, (2) Perspectives & Mindsets and (3) Challenges as a focal area for reflection with PE (see figure 40).

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Figure 40. Relations between specific “Processes, Methods & Tools”, “Perspectives & Mindsets” and “Challenges”, and how an integrated view connects with prospective ergonomics

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TABLE DES FIGURES Figure 1. Interaction among product and service design, business strategies and preventive

ergonomics towards prospective ergonomics

Figure 2. Alignment of the product development process with different ergonomic interventions (Adopted from Nelson, 2013, p. 9)

Figure 3. Dimensions determining prospective ergonomics

Figure 4. Alignments and differences between compatible macro-ergonomic and strategic management perspectives at different levels of comprehension.

Figure 5. Selected theoretical frameworks and methods to conceptualise prospective ergonomics

Figure 6. Rationalist-historicist and empirical-idealistic dimensions contextualised and positioned according to different technology-push and market-pull approaches.

Figure 7. Overview of presented worldviews and design theories.

Figure 8 Overview of generic strategy perspectives (Whittington, 2001)

Figure 9. Alignment of innovation approaches with generic strategies through a worldview perspective.

Figure 10. Extension of generic strategies to models of design reasoning based upon philosophical worldviews (adapted from Whittington, 2001, figure 2.1, p.10)

Figure 11. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within push-pull innovation initiatives

Figure 12. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within four strategy perspectives

Figure 13. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within Ansoff´s PMT-matrix

Figure 14. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within the value creation product positioning map (adapted from Cagan and Vogel, 2002)

Figure 15. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within design-driven innovation

Figure 16. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specialisations contextualised within design-driven innovation

Figure 17. Low cost USB memory stick for enticing prospective credit card customers

Figure 18. Covered video observation still capture with stick figure superimposed on users

Figure 19. The simulation of check-in queues at the Singapore MRT station

Figure 20. First ideation stage of a systems approach in the development of mail production and distribution concept, considering market and technological developments

Figures 21A, 21B & 21C. Analysis and concept development of a front-seat mail sorter

Figures 22A, 22B & 22C. Examples of user testing and detailing and prototype development

Figure 23. An example of an interior classroom setup for elementary school pupils, designed from a systems and product perspective

Figure 24. An example of indented walls in Singapore apartment housing

Figure 25. The “Flexible Shelf”, consist of standard components to be assembled to achieve any desired width-length ratio.

Figure 26. Interacting with electronic on-board communication equipment in the front interior of Mitsubishi

Figure 27. Retrieval of equipment from rear interior of Mitsubishi and Volvo

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Figure 28. Foam models to explore the positioning of equipment in the front and rear interior of the vehicles

Figure 29. Ruscksack bag design to facilitate optimum loading

Figure 30A. Positioning of strategic design projects on product-market matrix

Figure 30B. Positioning of strategic design projects on Cagan and Vogel’s positioning map (2002)

Figure 31. Workshop with ”stakeholders” revealing existing knowledge and concerns around fish health.


Figure 33. Example of a design submission, where the student demonstrated poor manual representation, but good CAD modelling skills

Figure 34. Projects classified according ergonomic intervention with their domains and specialisations

Figure 35. An overview of the 12 cases positioned within a generic strategy map and characterised according to ergonomic and design intervention

Figure 36. An overview of the 12 cases positioned according to worldview and design reasoning mode

Figure 37. 12 Cases positioned and juxtaposed according to Ergonomic and Design Intervention

Figure 38. Positioning design education within the context of “market forces” and “active learning” (Liem & Sigurjonsson, 2014)

Figure 39. Alignment of the product development process with different ergonomic interventions (adapted from Nelson, 2013)

Figure 40. The relationship among per topic specific “Processes, Methods & Tools”, “Perspectives & Mindsets” and “Challenges”, and how an integrated view each topic connects with Prospective Ergonomics

TABLE DES TABLEAUX Table 1. Classification of Ergonomics according to Domain, Intervention, Focus and

Specialisation

Table 2. Comparison of between prospective ergonomics and strategic design involving their respective roots; classical ergonomics and strategic management

Table 3. Cross-comparison of cases within the context of deliberate / planned processes and targeted outcomes profit maximisation /problem solving

Table 4. Cross-comparison of cases within the context of emergent processes and targeted outcomes profit maximisation /problem solving

Table 5. Cross-comparison of cases within the context of deliberate processes and targeted outcomes profit maximisation /problem solving

Table 6. Ergonomic and design interventions juxtaposed against worldviews, models of design reasong and generic strategies.

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APPENDICES APPENDIX A : Articles supporting the theoretical part

Pages

A-1 Liem, A. (2014). Toward Prospective Reasoning in Design: An Essay on relationships among Designer’s Reasoning, Business Strategies, and Innovation Le Travail Humain, Vol. 77, n°1/2014, 91-102

A-1 to A-13

A-2 Liem, A., & Brangier, E., (2012). Innovation and design approaches within prospective ergonomics. Work. A journal of Prevention, Assesment and rehabilitation. Vol. 41. S. 5243-5250. ISSN: 1051-9815.

A-14 to A-22

APPENDIX B : Articles supporting the case study part Page

B-1 Liem, André; Sigurjonsson, Johannes (2014) Positioning Industrial Design Education within Higher Education: How to face increasingly challenging market forces? UNIPED (Tromsø). Vol 37. (2) s. 44-57. ISSN 1893-8981

B-1 to B-15

B-2 Liem, André; Sanders, E.B.N (2013) Human-Centred Design Workshops in Collaborative Strategic Design Projects; An Educational and Professional Comparison. Design and Technology Education: an International Journal Vol. 18, No.1 ISSN: 1360-1431 / 2040-8633

B-16 to B-31

B-3 Liem, André (2012). Teaching strategic and systems design to facilitate collaboration and learning. FORMakademisk; Volum 5 (1). S. 29-48. ISSN: 1890-9515

B-32 to B-52

B-4 Liem, André (2011) Using design education to survive in the corporate world of higher learning and research, Journal of Design Research Vol 9, No 2. ISSN: 01748-3050 (print), 1569-1551 (online)

B-53 to B-68

B-5 Liem, André, (2011) An Ergonomic Case Study on the Interior Customisation of Fast Response Cars based on Vehicle Adaptation, International Journal of Vehicle Design, Vol. 55, Nos. 2/3/4 ISSN: 0143-3369 (print), 1741-5314 (online)

B-69 to B-88

153

B-6 Liem, André (2004); Development of Interior Concepts to Facilitate Small-Space Living in Singapore; Journal of Southeast Asian Architecture, Volume 7, 2004, ISSN 0218-9593 pages 47-57

B-89 to B-100

B-7 Liem, André (2012). Computer Aided Design as an Idea and Concept Generation Tool in the Early Stages of the Design Process. Proceedings of The Ninth Norddesign Conference, 2012. The Design Society. 2012. ISBN 978-87-91831-51-5. 9 pages

B-101 to B-110

B-8 Liem, André; Huang Yan (2004); Digital Human Models in Work System Design and Simulation. SAE 2004. In Proceedings of Digital Human Modelling for Design and Engineering Symposium, Oakland University, Rochester, MI (Cited in Body Space 3rd edition, ISBN: 978-0-415-28520-9)

B-111 to B-116

B-9 Liem, Andre, Yeo Kang Shua Yeo and Chai Jun Yea (2003) Anthropometric considerations for embarkation and disembarkation at bus shelters. In Proceedings of SEAMEC 2003, ed. Khalid, H.M., Lim, T.Y., and Lee, N.K. (2003): Kuching: UNIMAS. (SEAMEC 2003, 19-22 May 2003, UNIMAS, Kuching, Malaysia)

B-117 to B-125

B-10 Liem, André; Lind, Ane Linea; Gadaria, Dharmesh (2010) Towards a Culturally Driven Approach for the Development of Strategic Design Concepts. I: Proceedings of Norddesign 2010; International Conference on Methods and Tools for Product and Production Development, Gothenburg, Sweden. The Design Society 2010 ISBN 978-91-633-7063-2. p. 97-108

B-126 to B-138

APPENDIX A-1

ARTICLE I

TOWARD PROSPECTIVE REASONING IN DESIGN: AN ESSAY ON RELATIONSHIPS AMONG DESIGNERS’ REASONING, BUSINESS STRATEGIES AND INNOVATION

Author(s):

André Liem • Université de Lorraine - Faculté des Sciences Humaines et Sociales.

PERSEUS: Psychologie Ergonomique et Sociale pour l'ExpérienceUtilisateurs. Metz, France

• Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of ProductDesign, Trondheim. Norway.

Author(s) contribution to the article:

André Liem developed the structure of the article and led the theoretical development of the article. He also wrote the entire article.

Published in:

Le Travail Humain. Vol.77. No 1. (ISBN: 978-2-13-062956-6)

Number of pages:

11 (pp. 91 – 102)

How to Cite?

MLA Liem, André. "Toward prospective reasoning in design: an essay on relationships among designers' reasoning, business strategies, and innovation." Le travail humain 77.1 (2014): 91-102.

APA Liem, A. (2014). Toward prospective reasoning in design: an essay on relationships among designers' reasoning, business strategies, and innovation. Le travail humain, 77(1), 91-102.

Chicago Liem, André. "Toward prospective reasoning in design: an essay on relationships among designers' reasoning, business strategies, and innovation." Le travail humain 77, no. 1 (2014): 91-102.

A-1

16 janvier 2014 09:11 - Le travail humain vol 77 no 1-2013 - Collectif - Le travail humain - 155 x 240 - page 90 / 103 - © PUF -

16 janvier 2014 09:11 - Le travail humain vol 77 no 1-2013 - Collectif - Le travail humain - 155 x 240 - page 91 / 103- © PUF -

Le Travail Humain, tome 77, n°1/2014, 91-102

SYNTHESIS SYNTHÈSE

TOWARD PROSPECTIVE REASONING IN DESIGN: AN ESSAY ON RELATIONSHIPS AMONG

DESIGNERS’ REASONING, BUSINESS STRATEGIES, AND INNOVATION

BY A. LIEM*

RÉSUMÉ

VERS UN RAISONNEMENT PROSPECTIF EN CONCEPTION : ESSAI SUR LES RELATIONS

ENTRE LES RAISONNEMENTS DES CONCEPTEURS, LES STRATÉGIES D’ENTREPRISE

ET LES INNOVATIONS

Le concepteur d’un produit ou service tente toujours d’anticiper les besoins et les activités humaines de façon à créer de nouveaux artefacts qui seront utiles, simples, efficients et fourniront une expérience utilisateur positive. Mais sur quelle base peut-on appréhender les raisonnements des concepteurs ? Cet article propose une synthèse des modèles de raisonnements en design d’innovation, les commente puis les organise conceptuellement. À partir d’une revue de ques-tions pluridisciplinaires, l’auteur souligne, dans un premier temps, l’existence de quatre approches fondamentales des stratégies de conception : une approche classique fondée sur un retour sur investissement rapide, une approche évolution-niste basée sur la mise en compétition des firmes, une approche processuelle qui souligne l’importance des transactions entre les individus et leur organisation, et enfin une approche systémique qui montre que les individus sont imbriqués dans des systèmes sociaux et économiques interdépendants. Dans un deuxième temps, les modèles de raisonnement en conception sont mis en relation avec les visions philosophiques qui les guident : positive, constructive, pragmatique et inclusive. Ces visions et approches sont finalement croisées de manière à dégager dans un troisième temps, six modèles de raisonnement en conception : le modèle de la résolution de problème, le modèle herméneutique, le modèle de pratique réflexive, le modèle de la participation de l’utilisateur, le modèle de l’implication des communautés sociales et le modèle de l’usage des normes de conception. Finalement, les conclusions indiquent qu’en matière d’ergonomie, le concepteur doit intégrer un raisonnement prospectif qui lui permettra de mieux gérer la complexité des stratégies d’innovations actuelles.

Mots-clés : modèle de conception, stratégie d’innovation, conception de ser-vices et produits.

* NTNU - Fakultet for ingeniorvitenskap og teknologi- Institutt for produktdesignTrondheim. Norway. – [email protected]

Design reasoning, business strategies, and service innovationA. Liem

102

A-2

92 A. Liem



I. INTRODUCTION

Strategic planning has been associated with a rational, objective, struc-tured, analytical, and convergent mindset, which most executives regard as abstract, and remote from their daily work. Strategic thinking within organizations and businesses has often been seen as complementary, and crucial to finding the most efficient models to maximize innovation-man-agement efforts. By involving creative, divergent, and synthetic mindsets, as well as associated practices (Jacobs & Heracleaous, 2007), new meth-ods and paradigms are then introduced, which efficiently serve existing and new markets with new or modified products and services (Ansoff, 1986; Christiansen, 2000). However, Utterback and Abernathy (1975) have claimed that processes, and the focus of innovation, change as a firm matures, underscoring its fluid nature with respect to the firm, and to the environment in which it operates.

Likewise, Veryzer (1998) discussed innovation from the perspective of “technological capability” and “product capability” dimensions. In this con-text, innovation involves advanced dynamic capabilities that do not exist in current products and cannot be achieved through the extension of existing technology. This “dynamic capabilities” approach allows the firm to create new products and processes, and to respond to changing market circum-stances using a subset of its capabilities (Teece, Pisano, & Shuen, 1997). Processes and facilitating dynamic capabilities combine different kinds of specialized knowledge, which constitute the essence of product innovation, and are represented by knowledge creation and absorption, integration, and reconfiguration (Bravo Ibarra, Mundet Hiern, & Suñé Torrents, 2009).

In response to positivist worldviews, which engage strategic planning, the rhetoric explains that businesses exist for two main reasons: some exist to make profit, while others serve non-profit making goals. In this context, engineering-inclined industrial designers tend to adopt a classical strategic planning, problem-solving, and merely profit-oriented approach, which is seen as too prescriptive. If perceived through a “strategy or design as practice” lens, this approach can be criticized as being superficial, extending only the mainstream positivist views of strategy (Carter, Clegg, & Kornberger, 2008).

These theoretical concepts on strategies can be confusing, but they motivate us to take a broader, interconnected look at different worldviews, and at generic approaches to strategizing with respect to design-reasoning models (Lie, 2012). In particular, because of the transition from a manu-facturing to a service economy, where business agendas have shifted from goods-oriented to services-oriented (Gloppen, 2011), human-centered methods and tools are becoming more important to investigate future interactions between humans and new artifacts, which remain to be imag-ined (Robert & Brangier, 2012).

These issues will be addressed as follows: first, we present generic approaches for innovation strategy; secondly, we discuss the visions of rea-soning in design; finally, we articulate reasoning models with prospective ergonomics.

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93Design reasoning, business strategies, and service innovation


II. GENERIC APPROACHES TO STRATEGY

The motivation behind a company’s vision and choice of strategy is usually encapsulated in various theories of action in order to achieve competitive advantage (Whittington, 2003). To provide decision mak-ers with fundamentally different ways of thinking about strategy in a wide range of situations, four perspectives on strategy were created and mapped according to process and outcome (see figure 1). These approaches are classical, evolutionary, processual, and systemic. When emphasizing the “outcomes” axis, the “plural” dimension should be interpreted from a more nuanced perspective, considering both the short and the long term, as well as “egoistic” and “altruistic” ambitions of the organization, in contrast to the profit-maximizing dimension. The “processes” axis illustrates a spectrum between deliberate and emergent ways of planning.

Figure 1. Quatre perspectives génériques sur la stratégie

Figure 1. Four generic perspectives on strategy (Whittington, 2003)

II. 1. CLASSICAL APPROACH TO STRATEGY

According to Whittington (2003), profit-maximising is the highest goal of business and rational planning for classicists. This classical theory claims that if Returns-On-Investments (ROI) are not satisfactory in the long run, the deficiency of the business venture should be corrected, or abandoned (Sloan, 1963). Key features of the classical approach are the attachment to rational analysis, the separation between planning and execution, and the commitment to profit maximization (Ansoff, 1986; Sloan, 1963).

II. 2. EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH TO STRATEGY

Evolutionary approaches do not rely on top-management skills to plan and act rationally. Competition is not to be addressed by detached plan-ning and calculation as in the classical approach, but by being engaged in an on-going struggle for survival. In the search of profit maximization, natural selection will determine who are the best performers and the ones that survive (Einhorn & Hogarth, 1981).

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II. 3. PROCESSUAL APPROACH TO STRATEGY

Supporters of processual approaches believe that the existence of a“rational economic man” is not possible, because due to the imperfections of human nature, we cannot oversee all factors at the same time (Cyert & March, 1963). In contrast to classical and evolutionary approaches, and abandoning profit-maximizing ambitions, processual methods do not strive for the ideal but aim to work with what reality offers. Practically, this means that firms are not always united towards a single goal such as profit making. Instead, individuals with different interests, acting in an environ-ment of confusion and mess, determine the course of action. Through a process of internal bargaining within the organization, members set goals among themselves which are acceptable to all.

II. 4. SYSTEMIC APPROACH TO STRATEGY

Densely interwoven social systems influence the means and ends of asystemic approach and define what a suitable behavior is for their members in terms of economic activity (Whittington, 2003). Hereby, the organiza-tion is not simply made up of individuals acting purely in economic trans-actions, but of individuals embedded in a network of social relations that may involve their family, state, professional and educational backgrounds, even their culture, religion, and ethnicity (Whittington, 2003).

III. PHILOSPHICAL WORLDVIEWS FOR DESIGN REASONING

With respect to business strategizing, design thinking and designing,philosophical references and epistemological worldviews are introduced here as a foundation for the discussion of the four generic strategy perspec-tives in conjunction with “Design Reasoning Models”. As explained by Creswell (2009), a worldview can be defined as “a basic set of beliefs that guide action,” and it is similar to a paradigm, or epistemology. The types of philosophical beliefs held by managers and designers will often have a great impact on how they apply theories, methods, and techniques. Four differ-ent worldviews can be distinguished: positivism, constructivism, pragmatism and advocacy, will be presented; they are illustrated in figure 2. The posi-tioning indicates that the presented worldviews may take various forms and should not be considered as rigid and separate, but rather as overlapping to varying degrees. However, the differences between the various worldviews (especially positivist and constructivist) determine how different strategic perspectives and “Design Reasoning Models” will be anchored.

III. 1. POSITIVISM AND POST-POSITIVISM

Positivism also referred to as the “scientific method,” or the “empiricalmethod,” claims that there exists an objective reality, independent from the observer. A structured approach enforces the scientific need to assess and

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identify causes that influence outcomes. In this view, ideas are reduced to a discrete set of “sub-ideas,” which must be tested using careful observation and measurement of the objective reality. Unlike positivism, post-positivism offers a vision that is more nuanced, and better suited to the study of management and to design science; it recognizes that we cannot be absolutely positive about the truth of knowledge when studying humans (Philips & Burbules, 2000).

Figure 2. Aperçu des visions du monde et des théories de la conception

Figure 2. Overview of different worldviews and design theories (Bonnemaire & Liem, 2011)

III. 2. CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism, also referred to as “social constructivism (in terms of learn-ing through interaction in groups)” or “social construction of reality (concerning the created artefact as a result of group interaction)”, is affiliated to postmod-ernism (rejection of absolute truth). It differs radically from post-positivism (Gross & Levitt, 1994; Matthews, 1998), because we are constrained by our own perception; as such, it can only consider reality to be co-constructed by individuals in a social context (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Constructivist research focuses on the contexts and interactions among individuals as beliefs change over time based on described realities. Researchers seek to capture the complexity of multiple views, which are socially and historically influenced.

III. 3. PRAGMATISM

This worldview seeks to clarify meanings based on situations, actions and their consequences rather than antecedent phenomena as in post-positivism (Cherryholmes, 1992). Great importance will be placed on how to derive knowledge about the problem without debating whether reality is objective or

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subjective. This means that an ideology, or proposition, may be considered true as long as it is justified and functions purposefully, based on how its propositional meaning connects to the practical consequences of accepting it. Therefore, the truth of an idea needs to be tested to prove its validity within a given context, whether the context is social, historical, economical, or political.

III. 4. ADVOCACY

Related to constructivism in the embracement of human-centered con-siderations, this worldview advocates the needs of marginalized individuals who face issues of social justice. Examples of issues, which are addressed in this worldview, are empowerment, inequality, oppression, domination, etc. Individuals need to be included in the research and design process in order not to be further marginalized.

IV. MODELS OF DESIGN REASONING

With respect to the different perspectives on strategizing, epistemologi-cal worldviews were introduced in the above section as a foundation for the discussion of six models of design reasoning. According to their relevance for design practice (Lie, 2012), these models are:

– Problem-solving model. Often attributed to Simon (1996), this model represents a systematic and deterministic design approach, ins-pired by a mechanistically inspired engineering process, where the main problem is partitioned into smaller sub-problems accompanied by sub-processes, which can be solved using problem-solving methods.

– Hermeneutic model. The central challenge in this model is to gain a sustained and increasing understanding of the designed product, its contexts, values, and functions until the manager or researcher decides that saturation has been reached (Prasad, 2002). As the potential solu-tions and the choices faced are practically infinite, the designer must reduce this variety by establishing a direct understanding among its objectives, processes and solution. This model therefore implicitly pos-its that the designer’s personal experience, and the subjectivity of the design process, are key elements (Coyne & Snodgrass, 1992).

– Reflective practice model. The constructionist reflection-in-action theory is perceived as a reaction to the rational problem-solving phi-losophy (Schön, 1995). As design problems are unique and difficult to generalize, this model focuses on the designers’ or developers’ actions and efforts, with respect to reflective and conjectural conversations with the situation in order to reinterpret and to improve the problem as a whole. Methods applied by the designer are to be based on acquired knowledge, experience, and reasoning.

– Participatory model. In the transition from a user-centered to a par-ticipatory approach, designers act as facilitators to fill-in the gap between their own perception and understanding of “Design” problems and those

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of stakeholders (Sanders & Stappers, 2008). In this participatory design activity of interpretation, information gathering and facilitation, users make critical decisions in the design process, which is an acceptable way of dealing with these “wicked” problems (Clarke & Steward, 2003).

– Social model. As design activities are enabled by the social commu-nity in which they are situated, a growing conscience of the designers’ role in society marked the beginning of a social model of the design process (Papanek, 2005). Here, professional reasoning is based on the collective wisdom of a community of practitioners, the scope of which is wider than to merely promote social and economical sustainability.

– Normative model. In this prescriptive model, “Design” solutions are fitted to certain standards, values and conventions, in accordance with their role and responsibility. The normative framework can be under-stood as guidelines that should be followed in order to satisfy certain criteria (Van Rompay, 2008).

V. DISCUSSION

Correlations and conjectures exist among worldviews, generic strate-gies and models of design reasoning (see figure 3). In terms of methods and processes, an argument will be made for participative and interactive meth-ods to address pluralistic ways of strategizing with the objective of antici-pating and designing innovative, user-centered products and services.

Figure 3. Extension des stratégies génériques à des modèles de raisonnement en conception basés sur les visions philosophiques du monde

Figure 3. Extension of generic strategies to models of design reasoning based upon philosophical worldviews (adapted from Whittington, 2003, figure 2.1, p.10)

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V. 1. THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG WORLDVIEWS, GENERIC STRATEGIES

AND MODELS OF DESIGN REASONING

Although process and outcome are different for strategizing and designing, the understanding of similarities among different generic strategies, worldviews and models of design reasoning will be invaluable for designers and business managers to create better products and serv-ices. This understanding will lead to an appreciation that business meth-ods and tools for exploring innovation are somehow similar in nature to those used for designing. The following examples demonstrate these similarities.

A positivist worldview underpins the classical strategy approach, where profit making is planned and commanded. This is in line with a focused and structured problem-solving approach, where a systematic design proc-ess (Roozenburg & Eekels, 1995) defines the solution space. The norma-tive reasoning model is exemplified by how a strict and concrete program of requirements complements this problem-solving approach.

The evolutionary and processual strategic approaches are built upon a pragmatic worldview. Lacking a debate as to whether reality is objective or subjective, the emergent characteristics of these strategies determine how organizations behave to achieve their profit-making targets or goals. For instance, as a subset of prospective ergonomics, an evolutionary busi-ness strategy, complemented by a reflective way of designing, would suffice in the imagination and creation of design solutions to address emotional, hedonistic, and aesthetic issues (Robert & Brangier, 2012).

Similarly, there are design-reasoning attitudes, which can be aligned with these emergent approaches. The reflective practice addresses design issues from a constructivist, though pragmatic, perspective. Hereby, con-jectural conversations with the situation holistically reinterpret the design issue (Schön, 1995). The participatory element, where different stakehold-ers are actively or passively involved in the design process, is a real-life and pragmatic phenomenon, which aligns well with an emergent strategy driven by pluralistic objectives, but which may not always lead to profit-maximizing or to an optimal design solution.

The systemic strategy is socially constructed and therefore the real-ity is co-constructed by different stakeholders and individuals in a social context (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Although processes are planned and deliberate, multiple objectives exist because of the complexity of multiple views, which are socially, historically, culturally, and contextually embed-ded in respective communities of practice. Considering a community of design practitioners, the use of selected methods and tools, combined with personal experience and subjectivity, occupy a central place in a design process, which is based on hermeneutic and social reasoning. From a prospective-ergonomics and design perspective, the designer attempts to anticipate human needs and activities so as to create new artifacts that will be useful and provide positive user experience (Robert & Brangier, 2009). Reiterating the importance of systemic embeddedness, contexts, values, and functions should be considered here as a key element in getting any collaborative process going, involving different stakeholders.

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V. 2. SERVICE DESIGN AS A PLURALISTIC APPROACH TOWARDS STRATEGIZING

As technological products continue to converge and become increas-ingly more important in consumer’s daily lives, services expectations con-tinue to rise. This trend requires a shift from production to utilization, from product to process, and from transaction to relationship (Vargo & Lusch, 2008).

Supported by resource-based views and dynamic-capability theories (Teece, Pisano, & Shuen, 1997), services are seen as dynamic activities and processes, while goods are static objects (Gummesson, 2007). Based on consumer-centric and plural intra-organizational perspectives (Michel, Brown, & Gallan, 2008), companies are challenged to conceptualize serv-ices that are perceived valuable by all, extending the service-dominant logic to a larger, complex network of collaborating actors (Vargo & Lusch, 2008). Within this pluralistic and systemic business and design context, it is justified to take a closer look at worldviews and models of design think-ing and reasoning, as well as human-centered methods and tools, which can support these models.

V. 3. HUMAN-CENTERED MANAGEMENT AND DESIGN METHODS

Referring to a service-oriented way of strategizing and designing, interactive human-centered methods are becoming more important in facilitating the search for (strategic) design solutions, leading to the fulfillment of plural objectives. These human-centered methods can be characterized as less strict and structured, but rather playful in foster-ing effective strategy formulation and design (Jacobs & Heracleaous, 2007). Individuals explore management issues through group processes that involve a facilitated playful mode of interactions. An example of a method, which facilitates these interactions, is explicit narratives where generative dialogues are used to spur conversations about strategic chal-lenges (Barry & Elmes, 1997).

Within the context of design practice, significant efforts are concen-trated on user-centered design to develop and analyse future scenarios (Veryzer & Borja de Mozota, 2005). At the same time, design researchers distinguish between traditional experimental methods and design-study methods (e.g., narrative accounts and interpretive frameworks), broaden-ing the debate on positivist and “post positivist” science and advocating the need for a new epistemology that meets the needs of “human sciences” (Phillips & Burbules, 2000). This also implies that product design should start from a deep analysis of user needs, lifestyles, and cultures (Belliveau, Griffin, & Somermeyer, 2004). For exploring service innovation within the plural domain of Whitington´s strategic framework, human-centered and design driven- approaches are seen as equally important. The latest is hardly based on formal roles and methods (Verganti, 2008), but is consid-ered as a manifestation of a reconstructionist or social-constructionist view of the market, determined by interactions among different stakeholders (Kim & Mauborgne, 2005).

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VI. CONCLUSION

This article proposed a strategic and methodological framework as a foundation for understanding prospective knowledge. The positioning of generic strategies, worldviews and design reasoning models according to process and outcome, indicates that there are similarities among them.

Concerning design processes to meet the expectations of creating pro-spective products and services, both a deliberate and an emergent turn can be adopted. In particular, technology-based companies are most at ease when objectives and problems are clearly communicated among the project stakeholders through structured product planning and industrial design processes, characterized by an analysis-synthesis way of working. However, as companies exist through people who are operating in embed-ded contexts of culture, place, family, etc., creative breakthrough ideas are in reality initiated and emerging from daily activities. In such a contex-tualized setting, reflective design practices and a conjecture analysis way of designing are most relevant in anticipating future needs and solutions where profit-maximization is not the only priority.

Considering the creation and envisioning of needs, systematic as well as reflective human-centered design methods involving the participation of a wide variety of stakeholders should be promoted to generate prospective and creative solutions for (lead) users. Hereby, the role of the designer can be twofold: facilitative, by being able to introduce and manage participa-tory design session, as well as visionary, by being able to imagine future products and services, and convince lead-users to accept them through a hermeneutic way of design reasoning.

As prospective ergonomics targets various aspects of “innovation”: aes-thetic (hedonistic/emotional), user-functional, service, etc. all generic strat-egies are relevant for the anticipation and imagination of implicit needs and wants as well as to create future solutions, which have not been iden-tified yet. Based upon the type of problem, context, company objectives, and stakeholder expertise, ergonomists, designers and business managers should jointly decide what type of generic strategy to adopt before using the relevant design-reasoning models, processes and methods. Additionally, social, technological, economical, environmental, and political factors are important contextual determinants, which should be included if plural objectives are to be met through systemic or processual strategizing.

From a designer perspective, the use of human-centered approaches should be balanced as well as critically advanced by design-driven meth-ods and tools. In this context, the input from experts outside the realm of direct users can lead to even more surprising and creative solutions.

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Belliveau, P., Griffin, A., & Somermeyer, S.M. (2004). The PDMA toolbook for new product development. Hoboken: Wiley

Bonnemaire, G. & Liem, A. (2011). The semantic debate in design theories applied to product identity creation. In S. Culley, B. Hicks, T. McAloone, T. Howard, W. Ion (Eds.) Impacting society through engineering design (pp. 130-141). DS68-8(2), Copenhagen, The Design Society.

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Coyne, R., & Snodgrass, A. (1992). Models, Metaphors, and the Hermeneutics of Designing. Design Issues, 9 (1), 56-74.

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Lie, U. (2012). Framing an Eclectic Practice; Historical Models and Narratives of Product Design as Professional Work. Doctoral dissertation, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim.

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Robert, J.-M., & Brangier, E. (2012). Prospective ergonomics: origin, goal, and pros-pects. Work, A Journal of Prevention, Assessment & Rehabilitation, 41, 5235-5242.

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SUMMARY

The aim of this article is to reflect upon philosophical worldviews and models of “Design” reasoning in light of four generic approaches of business strategizing, based upon their relevance for prospective ergonomics and design practice. Through com-parisons of Business Management and Design Thinking literature, similarities can be found among worldviews, generic strategies and design-reasoning models. The under-standing of these similarities is to be used as a framework by business managers, design managers and designers to distinguish between pluralistic and more focused strate-gies for innovation, as well as to categorize methods and tools according to process and outcome. Finally, by taking a pluralistic turn in this strategy framework a closer look will be provided on how prospective products and services should be valued and designed in complex and competitive developed economies. Results also indicate that the prospective role of the designer should be more and more facilitative, being able to manage complex constellations of users, organizations and other stakeholders who will be involved in the creation of prospective products and services. A more inclusive inno-vation strategy is to be adopted, where human-centered methods and tools take more center stage to assist in anticipating hidden needs and creative solutions.

Keywords: Innovation, Generic Strategies, Models of Design Reasoning, Worldviews, Services.

Reçu le 1er décembre 2012.

Accepté après révision par Éric Brangier et Jean-Marc Robert le 15 septembre 2013.

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APPENDIX A-2

ARTICLE II

INNOVATION AND DESIGN APPROCHES WITHIN PROSPECTIVE ERGONOMICS

Author(s):




Eric Brangier • Université de Lorraine - Faculté des Sciences Humaines et Sociales.



André Liem developed the structure of the article and led the theoretical development of the article. Eric Brangier contributed to the development of ideas in the discussion and conclusion sections. He also presented the article at the ancillary IEA 2012 conference in Recife, Brasil

Published in:

A journal of Prevention, Assesment and rehabilitation. Volum 41. (ISSN: 1051-9815)

Number of pages:

8 (pp. 5243-5250)

How to Cite?

MLA Liem, André, and Eric Brangier. "Innovation and design approaches within prospective ergonomics." Work-Journal of Prevention Assessment and Rehabilitation 41 (2012): 5243.

APA Liem, A., & Brangier, E. (2012). Innovation and design approaches within prospective ergonomics. Work-Journal of Prevention Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41, 5243.

Chicago Liem, André, and Eric Brangier. "Innovation and design approaches within prospective ergonomics." Work-Journal of Prevention Assessment and Rehabilitation 41 (2012): 5243.

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Innovation and design approaches within prospective ergonomics André Liema,* and Eric Brangierb

a Department of Product Design, Norwegian University of Science and Technology , Kolbjørn hejes vei 2B, 7491 Trondheim, NORWAY b ETIC-Interpsy- UFR Sciences Humaines et Arts, Université Paul Verlaine – Metz, Ile du Saulcy, F- 57000 Metz, France

Abstract. In this conceptual article the topic of “Prospective Ergonomics” will be discussed within the context of innovation, design thinking and design processes & methods. Design thinking is essentially a human-centred innovation process that em-phasises observation, collaboration, interpretation, visualisation of ideas, rapid concept prototyping and concurrent business analysis, which ultimately influences innovation and business strategy. The objective of this project is to develop a roadmap for innovation, involving consumers, designers and business people in an integrative process, which can be applied to product, service and business design. A theoretical structure comprising of Innovation perspectives (1), Worldviews supported by ra-tionalist-historicist and empirical-idealistic dimensions (2) and Models of “design” reasoning (3) precedes the development and classification of existing methods as well as the introduction of new ones.

Keywords: Prospective Ergonomics, Innovation, Human Centred Research and Design, Worldviews, Processes and Methods.

Corresponding author : André Liem, [email protected]

Work 41 (2012) 5243-5250 DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2012-0013-5243 IOS Press

5243

1051-9815/12/$27.50 © 2012 – IOS Press and the authors. All rights reserved

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1. Introduction

As the global environment is becoming more and more dynamic, organizations and businesses are compelled to permanently seek the most efficient models to maximize their innovation management efforts through new methods and paradigms, which efficiently serve existing and new markets with new and/or modified products as well as services [1]. Within the realm of radical innovation, global trends need to be considered in the planning of future products, services and contexts [2]. Hereby, innovation push and pull models are helpful to characterise drivers for innovation. Traditionally, push-innovation referred to knowledge- or technology driven innovation. Although technology push has been considered as a first and important generation of innovation strategy [3], design driven innovation, originating from an internal knowledge-building within companies and among stakeholders and interpreters, has recently been suggested as most relevant in discovering hidden needs [4, 5].

In Market-pull innovation, consumers and users play a central role in the search for new inspiration or knowledge that could trigger innovation. Von Hippel described lead-user innovation [6], a method to qualitatively testing products with advanced or professional users, which has become significantly popular in industry’s search for innovation ideas [7]. Market-driven innovation as a source for innovation or inspiration relies very much on the understanding of specific consumer needs, defined market segments, or other information that characterise the existing market.

2. Market-Pull and Technology-Push Innovation

The existence of Market-Pull and Technology-Push innovations has implications for ergonomics in terms of focal areas and integration with other fields of study. For example as predicted by Hendricks [8], “Organisational Design and Management” has gained more prominence as micro-ergonomics failed to reach relevant systems effectiveness goals because of inattention to the macro-ergonomic aspects of the system.

However, with respect to macro-ergonomics, not much has been written with respect to Innovation, Product Planning and Goal Finding, Product Service Systems, etc. The focus of macro-ergonomics is mainly on the interfacing of the organizational design

with the technology employed, or to be employed in the system to optimize human-system functioning.

Though with respect to complex human-machine systems as well as socio-technical system concepts, Emery and Trist view organizations as open systems [9], engaged in transforming inputs into desired outputs, and whose permeable boundaries are exposed to the environments in which they exist and upon which they are dependent for their survival. This perspective towards the functioning of organizations provides a linkage for macro-ergonomic thinking in relation to radical innovation, value creation and their processes, where various communities and stakeholders are involved.

In line with macro-ergonomic and product planning processes practices, Robert and Brangier proposed a framework to structure ergonomic activities around corrective, preventive (design) and prospective ergonomics [10, 11, 12], where the latter looks forward in time to defining human needs and activities to create human-centred artefacts that are useful and provide a positive user experience.

Within the context of strategic, service and product design, the commercial element which encompasses designing and marketing, is usually concerned with providing a bridge from technical functionalities to value in a finished product or service [13]. Hereby, Candi (2006) has developed a three-dimensional taxonomy of design consisting of the visceral, the functional and the experiential dimensions [14]: � Visceral design is concerned with appealing to

the human senses [15], and provides a measure of tangibility to services.

� Functional design encompasses usability and performance.

� Experiential design is concerned with message, culture, meaning, and emotional and sociological aspects of a service. In their research on experience design, Pullman and Gross found that one of the key elements for success is creating opportunities for customers to interact with each other, to gain entry into a community [16].

Beyond design, the predictive nature of prospective ergonomics with respect to the development of new products and services justifies the exploration of the following innovation approaches: User-Centred Driven, Design Driven, Market / Consumer Research Driven and Technology Driven.

A. Liem and E. Brangier / Innovation and Design Approaches within Prospective Ergonomics 5244

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3. Innovation Perspectives and the Development of New Products and Services

A matrix, comprising of Rationalist-Historicist and Empirical-Idealistic dimensions, is used to position the earlier mentioned innovation approaches, as well as to demonstrate their relationships. Knowledge, which to certain degree can be applied independently of a specific setting, is referred to be rational. Technological developments and market structures are influential in how the product, system or service is being divided into

interconnecting entities. A historicist view on innovation represents a more constructivist conception of the process as a whole, where an iterative cycle of concept development and testing of solutions are characteristic. To illustrate the above, Ansoff’s perspective on innovation strategy can be seen as an essential tool for directing market and technological research [17], whereas Mintzberg’s strategy model suits a context-based user-or design-driven innovation process better [18].

Fig. 1: Classification of innovation perspectives according to Rationalist-Historicist and Empirical-Idealistic dimensions

In terms of research and information gathering, a priori (idealistic) and a posteriori (empirical) data are gathered and synthesized, as well as which actors are involved. These opposites are considered as equivalent to the push and pull models of innovation. The description is polarized in order to contrast the different models of innovation, where the real world would reflect a continuous transition between the extremities described in this paper.

In user-centred innovation, product development activities start from a deep analysis of user needs. In practice, researchers spend time in the field observing customers and their environment to acquire an in-depth understanding of customer’s lifestyles and cultures as a basis for better understanding their needs and problems [19]. Latest developments in user involved innovation have challenged user-centred design methods from a participatory design and generative design research perspective through the introduction of co-creation methods [20]. Design-driven innovation, which mimics Technology Driven Innovation, has largely remained unexplored and unlike user-centred

processes, is hardly based on formal roles and methods, such as ethnographic research. Design-driven innovation may be considered as a manifestation of a “reconstructionist” [21]. or “social-constructionist” [22] view of the market, where the market is not “given” a priori, but is the result of an interaction between consumers and firms. Hereby, actors and stakeholders need to understand the radically new language and message, to find new connections to their socio-cultural context, and to explore new symbolic values and patterns of interaction with the product. In other words, radical innovations of meaning solicit profound changes in socio-cultural regimes in the same way as radical technological innovations, which solicit profound changes in technological regimes [23].

In terms of “Marketing/ Consumer Research Driven Innovation”, qualitative and quantitative approaches, supported by statistical methods play an important role in analysing consumer and emerging globalisation trends [2].

Design-Driven

User-Driven

Market-Driven

Technology-Driven





PULL

PUSH


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4. Worldviews and Models of “Design Reasoning”

With respect to various perspectives on innovation, epistemological worldviews are to be introduced as a foundation for the discussion of various models of “Design” reasoning. In this context, the term “Design” should be interpreted form a broader viewpoint, incorporating Industrial Design, Engineering design and Ergonomic Design. The worldviews to be used and discussed, which are in line with the earlier mentioned Rationalist-Historicist and Empirical-Idealistic dimensions for classifying innovation perspectives, are: Positivism, Post Positivism, Critical Theory and Constructivism.

The models of “Design” reasoning are: � Problem-solving. Often is credited to Simon

[24], this model represents a systematic and deterministic approach to the design process inspired by engineering, the natural sciences, and the rise of the computer sciences in the mid-1900s. Through a mechanistic world-view, the design process is partitioned into smaller sub-processes or sub-problems, which then can be solved through problem-solving methods [25]. For well-defined problems, this is still the most widely used model for dealing with the design process [26].

� Hermeneutic. At the outset of the design process, the potential opportunities and the choices that designers face are practically infinite. The designer must reduce this variety by establishing a directed understanding that reduce the variety and provide some guidance.

� Reflective Practice. The constructionist reflection-in-action theory, proposed by Schön [27], is perceived as a reaction to the rational problem-solving philosophy. As design problems are unique and difficult to generalise, it focuses on the designers’ or developers’ actions and efforts, with respect to reflective and conjectural conversations with the situation to reinterpret and improve the problem as a whole. Methods applied by the designer are to

be based on acquired knowledge, experience and reasoning.

� Participatory. Designers act as facilitators to mend the gap between their own perception and understanding of “Design” problems and those of stakeholders. In this cooperative or participatory design activity of interpretation, information gathering and facilitation, users make critical decisions in the design process. This turned out to be an acceptable way of dealing with these “wicked” problems [28]. Sanders and Stappers provided an historical overview of participatory design and co-design, as they underlined a transition from a user-centred approach, towards a user that actively participate in the design process [20].

� Social. As design activities are enabled by the social community in which they are situated, a growing conscience of the designers´ role in the society marked the beginning of a social model of the design process [29, 30]. Hereby, professional reasoning is not a personal competency but based on the collective wisdom of a community of practitioners, where the scope was more than to promote social and economical sustainability. Buccarelli underlined the impact of design engineers´ decisions in peoples everyday life [31], as well as described the nature of the process as a sense of ‘social construction’, denying the validity of simple linear models of the design process.

� Normative. In this prescriptive model, “Design” solutions are fitted to certain standards, values and conventions in accordance to their role and responsibility. The normative framework can be understood as guidelines that should be followed in order to satisfy certain criteria, for example ideals of user/product experience [32], manufacturability or sustainability [33]. This way of thinking is often referred to as Design for X [34]., where the X denotes a certain aspect of the design.


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Hermeneutic Participatory

Problem-Solving

NormativeSocial

Reflective Practise

Fig. 2: Mapping of models of design reasoning in relation to Rationalist-Historicist and Empirical-Idealistic dimensions

With respect to figure 2, models of design reasoning will be discussed in relation to Rationalist-Historicist and Empirical-Idealistic dimensions. The following assumptions are made in terms of positioning. In the future, these assumptions need to be verified and elaborated through in depth literature studies, interviews with practicing designers and engineers, as well as through experiments in educational settings. Potentially, theses figures (1&2) provide a framework for prospective ergonomics.

The Problem Solving model, where generic methods are proposed to tackle different types of well-defined problems, is positivist in nature. It is being positioned as a rationalist approach with some “a priori” influence, because of its structured relationship between the problem and the solution as well as its rational decomposition of the design process into smaller sub-problems.

The normative model focuses less on the decomposition into sub-problems, but more on the determined or desired idealistic principles, it is classified as a less generic approach, using more implicit, a priori knowledge. The normative view evaluates whether a solution is good or bad, using a comparison of ideal references.

According to the social design perspective, the social constellation executing the process also defines it. This highly contextual approach of the social design model emphasises in an idealistic manner the responsibility of the designer as a

member of the society. Hence, the decisions defining this type of process are taken on an idealistic and contextual basis.

Despite its focus on reflections and experience of the designer, the reflective practice-model is highly dependent on the scope and context of the design project. As constructivist-thinking processes are considered unique, comprising of both “A Priori” and “a posteriori” inputs, the mind of the designer is the principal factor determining the design. Therefore, this model is classified as strictly historicist with regard to the design epistemology.

Reference to a Post-Positivism, Hermeneutics emphasise the importance of how knowledge is interpreted in society or in its area of influence, and must therefore be classified as empirical and historicist. The hermeneutic perspective on design focuses on how the election of methods in the process impacts the end result.

The participatory model can be seen as a response to designers´ lack of ability to manage and solve wicked problems [35]. Solutions to wicked problems derived from a rational decomposition of the design process were obtained through user involvement in the design process. The Information gathered from users is considered external and therefore classified as empirical. The identification of problems, and determination which decisions need to be taken, is considered a rational approach.


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Design

User Market

Technology

HermeneuticParticipatory

Normative

Social

Problem-Solving

Reflective Practise





TRIZ

Structural Complexity Management

Observations

InterviewsQuestionaries

Usability Testing

Intuition

Naming-framing-reflecting

Focus Groups

Universal Design

Design For XSustainable Design

Fig. 3. Epistemological relations between innovation triggers, design models and methods.

5. Relevance and Contribution to the Society and Design Profession

As “Design” is relatively a new field of study and practice, the public sector, industry, civil society and other stakeholders have to be educated about its meaning and value. With respect to (radical) innovation, a key attribute that distinguishes breakthrough products from their closest followers is the significant value they provide for users [36]. Taking it one step further, the more value is created, the higher price people are willing to pay, with the price increasing more rapidly than the costs, resulting in a profit margin, significantly higher for higher valued products. After all, as Drucker has pointed out, "customers pay only for what is of use to them and gives them value". Respective to design and creation [37], Boztepe has categorised user value according to utility, social significance, emotional and spiritual value [38]. Utility value refers to the utilitarian consequences of a product. Social significance value refers to the socially oriented benefits attained through ownership of and experience with a product. Emotional value refers to the affective benefits of a product for people who

interact with it. Similarly, Sanders and Simons identified 3 types of values related to co-creation, which are inextricably linked. These values are monetary, use /experience and societal [39].

Reference to societal value creation, a design driven approach has been suggested by Verganti as most relevant [4], because communities of stakeholders are actively engaged in interactions and interpretation of meanings in relation to the broader context of innovation targeted. However, from a methodology perspective, a design driven approach should not fully rely on “Open Innovation” attitudes. Complementary to working with interpreters and actors in a broader network, prescriptive human / user-centred, engineering and marketing methods should be introduced in the design driven innovation activities involving these interpreters and actors.

From a professional practice perspective, much has been debated on collaboration among engineering and design consultancies, companies and government funded public sector organisations, such as institutes of higher learning. Especially with respect to Industrial and Ergonomic Design, which is a new field of study and practice, many conflicting values and thoughts are present among the different stakeholders, such as consumer organisations, companies, end users, governing


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bodies, etc. concerning collaboration, “fair” competition and growth of the “Design” Profession.

The development of a roadmap, as suggested in our point of view, will provide more clarity in the roles, responsibilities, scopes and limitations of the actors in the field of innovation and design.

6. Discussion and Further Research

For developping prospective ergonomics as innovation attitudes, methods and processes are fluid, dynamic and applicable to specific contexts, a roadmap comprising of innovation perspectives, models of design reasoning, and methods is essential to guide companies, consultancies and educational institutions in their innovation approaches and activities.

As shown in figure 3, the range of worldviews and design thinking approaches can be mapped out according to epistemological relations and innovation perspectives. However, the authors’ conceptual trains of thought, which have been made explicit in this article, need to be complemented with empirical and case studies. It is expected that the playing field of methods and processes for professional practitiones are to be determined by the relation between research and practice as well as their possibilities and short-comings.

In reality, this addresses the tension field where professional knowledge is being considered as an application of scientific research versus research as a reflection over common frames and techniques emerging from practice.

In the first instance, methods and processes supporting laboratory and protocol studies of design; simulated instances of design or design aspects in an environment where variables and context can be controlled and measured, are to be promoted.

In the second instance, either practitioners’ critical self-reflections over common frames and methods, or analysis of general professional discourse is considered the basis for reflective practice.

Finally, in all instances, is probably prospective to be promoted [12]...

References

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[2] T.C. Fingar. Global Trends 2025: A Transformed World,

Superintendent of Documents, US Government Printing Office (2008)

[3] R.A. Roussel., K.N. Saad, and T.J. Erickson, T.J. Third generation R&D: managing the link to corporate strategy, Harvard Business Press (1991).

[4] R. Verganti. Design, Meanings, and Radical Innovation: A Metamodel and a Research Agenda, Journal of Product Innovation Management, vol. 25, s. 436-456 (2008).

[5] L. Rampino. The innovation pyramid: A categorization of the innovation phenomenon in the product-design field. International Journal of Design, vol. 5, s. 3–16. (2011)

[6] E. von Hippel, Democratizing innovation: The evolving phenomenon of user innovation», Journal für Betriebswirtschaft, vol. 55, s. 63–78, (2005)

[7] R. Cooper and S. Edgett. Ideation for product innovation: What are the best methods? PDMA Visions Magazine, vol. 1, s. 12–17 (2008)

[8] H.W. Hendrick. 'Ergonomics in organizational design and management', Ergonomics, 34: 6, 743 -756 (1991)

[9] F.E. Emery, and E.L. Trist. Sociotechnical systems, in C. W. Churchman and M. Verhulst (eds), Management Science: Models and Techniques II (Pergamon, Oxford) (1960),

[10] J.M. Robert and E. Brangier. What Is Prospective Ergonomics? A Reflection and a Position on the Future of Ergonomics B.-T. Karsh (Ed.): Ergonomics and Health Aspects, HCII 2009, LNCS 5624, pp. 162–169, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (2009)

[11] E. Brangier, E., & J-M. Robert, Manifeste pour l’ergonomie prospective : anticiper de futures activités humaines en vue de concevoir de nouveaux artéfacts. In B. David, M. Noirhomme & A. Tricot (Eds) Proceedings of IHM 2010, International Conference Proceedings Series, New-York: ACM, 2010, 57-64. (2010)

[12] E. Brangier, E., & J-M. Robert, L’innovation par l’ergonomie : éléments d’ergonomie prospective. In D. Llerena (Eds) L’innovation entre science et société. Paris : L’Harmattan. (2012, accepted).

[13] V. Walsh. Design, innovation and the boundaries of the firm, Research Policy Vol. 25 (No 4) pp. 509–529, (1996).

[14] M. Candi. The role of design in the development of technology-based services. Design Studies 28:559-583, (2007).

[15] D.A. Norman, Emotional design, why we love (and hate) everyday things, Basic Books, New York, (2004).

[16] M.E. Pullman, and M.A. Gross. Ability of experience design elements to elicit emotions and loyalty behaviors, Decision Sciences Vol 35 (No 3) p. 551, (2004)

[17] H.I. Ansoff. Strategic issue management. Strategic Management Journal, vol. 1, s. 131-148. (1980)

[18] H. Mintzberg. Crafting Strategy, Harvard Business Review (1987).

[19] P.A. Belliveau, A. Griffin, and S.M. Somermeyer,. The PDMA Toolbook for New Product Development, Wiley, Hoboken (2004).

[20] E.B.-N. Sanders and P.J. Stappers. Co-creation and the new landscapes of design, Co-design, 4(1), 5-18 (2008)

[21] W.C. Kim and R. Mauborgne. Blue Ocean Strategy: From Theory to Practice. California Management Review 47 (3):105–121 (2005).

[22] C.K. Prahalad and V. Ramaswamy. Co-opting Customer Competence. Harvard Business Review. January–February, pp. 79–87. (2000).

[23] F.W. Geels. From Sectoral Systems of Innovation to Socio-Technical Systems. Insights about Dynamics and Change from Sociology and Institutional Theory. Research Policy 33: 897–920, (2004).


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[24] H.A. Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial - 3rd Edition,The MIT Press, 1996

[25] Newell. (1972) Human Problem Solving, Prentice Hall. [26] K. Dorst and J. Dijkhuis. Comparing paradigms for

describing design activity, Design Studies, vol. 16, s. 261-274, (1995).

[27] D.A. Schön. The Reflective Practitioner: How ProfessionalsThink In Action, Basic Books (1984).

[28] R. Buchanan, Wicked Problems in Design Thinking, DesignIssues, vol. 8, s. 5-21, (1992)

[29] V.P. Papanek. Design For The Real World: Human Ecologyand Social Change, Academy Chicago Publishers, (2005).

[30] V. Margolin and S. Margolin. A “social model” of design:Issues of practice and research», Design issues, vol. 18,2002, s. 24–30, (2002).

[31] L. Bucciarelli. An ethnographic perspective on engineeringdesign», Design Studies, vol. 9, s. 159-168, (1988).

[32] H.N.J. Schifferstein, and P. Hekkert, P. Product Experience,Elsevier, (2007).

[33] T Bhamra and V. Lofthouse Design for sustainability: apractical approach, Gower Publishing, Ltd (2007).

[34] K. Ulrich, K. and S.D. Eppinger. Product Design andDevelopment, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill/Irwin (2007).

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[36] J. Cagan and C.M. Vogel. Creating breakthrough products:Innovation from product planning to program approval.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. (2002)

[37] P.F. Drucker. The essential Drucker: The best of sixty yearsof Peter Drucker's ideas on management. New York: HarperBusiness (2001).

[38] Boztepe, S.: User Value: Competing Theories and Models.International Journal of Design Vol 1, No 2 online (2007).

[39] L. Sanders and G. Simons. A Social Vision for Value Co-creation in Design. Open Source Business Resource(2009).


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APPENDIX B-1

ARTICLE III

POSITIONING INDUSTRIAL DESIGN EDUCATION WITHIN HIGHER EDUCATION: HOW TO FACE INCREASINGLY CHALLENGING MARKET FORCES?

Author(s):




Johannes B. Sigurjonsson • Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Product

Design, Trondheim. Norway.


André Liem developed the structure of the article and led the theoretical development of the article. Johannes Sigurjonsson contributed to the ideas developed in the discussion and conclusion sections.

Published in:

UNIPED (Tromsø). Vol 37. (2) (ISSN 1893-8981)

Number of pages:

14 (pp. 44-57).

How to Cite?

MLA Liem, André, and Johannes B. Sigurjonsson. "Positioning Industrial Design Education within Higher Education: How to face increasingly challenging market forces?." Uniped 1.02 (2014): 44-57.

APA Liem, A., & Sigurjonsson, J. B. (2014). Positioning Industrial Design Education within Higher Education: How to face increasingly challenging market forces?. Uniped, 1(02), 44-57.

Chicago Liem, André, and Johannes B. Sigurjonsson. "Positioning Industrial Design Education within Higher Education: How to face increasingly challenging market forces?." Uniped 1, no. 02 (2014): 44-57.

B-1

Artikkelen er vitenskapelig vurdert av forskere utenfor redaksjonen

Positioning Industrial DesignEducation within Higher Education:How to face increasingly challengingmarket forces?

Av Andre Liem ogJohannes B.Sigurjonsson

AbstractThis paper discusses how Industrial Design Education should be adapted topressing future challenges of higher education with respect to promoting highquality mentorship and scholarship, as well as being more economicallyself-sufficient through stronger collaborative engagements with industry.The four (4) following trends will be presented on how prospective designprograms are to be developed: (1) Mass-education and rationalisation,(2) Links between education and research, (3) Globalisation andinternationalisation, and (4) Collaboration with industry and researchcommercialisation.

Given the challenges of market forces within academia, a consensuswithin the design education community should be established in orderto expose students more to ‘‘active learning’’ and to vice-versa commutefrom generic to specialist and from abstract to concrete modes of working.Comprehensive and collaborative studio projects should be implementedas platforms, where social, interdisciplinary and inquiry-based learningcan be developed in line with selected design themes, processes andmethods.

1. IntroductionMarket forces have challenged higher education to adapt to emerging

trends such as the increasing mobility of students and scholars, the

movement of academic programs and institutions across borders, the

extraordinary impact of technology, and above all massification

(Altbach et al. 2009). Massification, which is a trend towards broader

post-secondary participation (Altbach et al. 2009), can be accredited

to the following phenomena (Gibbons, 1998):

� Democratisation of politics and society� Growth of the public sector and industrial economies requiring

more highly skilled and educated workers

Andre LiemAssociate Professor,Norwegian Universityof Science andTechnology,Department ofProduct Design.E-post:[email protected]

Johannes B.SigurjonssonAssociate Professor,Norwegian Universityof Science andTechnology,Department ofProduct Design.E-post: [email protected]

Uniped argang 37, 2/2014, side 44�57

Uniped 2014. # 2014 Andre Liem og Johannes B. Sigurjonsson. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the CreativeCommons CC-BY 4.0 License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in anymedium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly

cited and states its license. Citation: Uniped 2014, 37: 23519 - http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/uniped.v37.23519

B-2

http://www.unipedtidsskrift.net/index.php/uniped/article/view/23519

http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/uniped.v37.23519

� Widespread belief that economic development should thrive on a supply of educated

manpower, especially scientists and engineers� Education itself as an important asset to sustain and legitimise democracy in new welfare

states.

Although ‘‘massification’’ is inevitable and may lead to greater social mobility for a grow-

ing segment of the population, new patterns of funding, increasingly diversified higher

education systems and other positive tendencies (Altbach, 2007), it may also bring about

an overall lowering of academic standards. Furthermore, this concern may widen the

disconnect between policymakers and ‘‘classroom teachers’’ in higher education, as there

was a common understanding that higher education was merely reserved for the elite sectors

of a society (Cote and Allahar, 2011).

From a professional practice lens with roots in the visual and plastic arts, it has been

debated whether or not Industrial Design should be part of this market-driven massification

trend, because of the challenges it is currently facing in its one to one faculty-student

relationship in ‘‘Design Studio’’ interactions (Scott, 1998). This debate also underlines

that traditional design education, which assumed trust and was based upon the apprentice-

master model, is changing and becoming more explicit and formal (Trathen and Varadarajan,

2009).

Given these global educational developments, design institutions are challenged to choose

between the paths of University higher education or remain a traditional, practice-driven

design school. Both directions carry consequences in terms of the type of student intake,

students? employment prospects, funding, academic activities of faculty, and so on.

Dependent upon the aims of respective design institutions, this article discusses how

their design education should tailor its teaching and research strategies with respect to

the ambitious and professionally conflicting requirements from higher education and

research.

2. Literature StudiesAcademic capitalism is a regime in which colleges and universities engage in market and

market-like behaviours with the objective to generate revenue from their core educational,

research and service functions, ranging from the production of knowledge (such as research

leading to patents) created by the faculty to the faculty’s curriculum and copyrighted teaching

materials (Slaughter and Rhoades, 2004). As predicted by Kjeldstadli (2010), ‘‘Academic

Capitalism in a New Economy’’ will have an implication on selected global trends in higher

education, especially with respect to design education. The following selected global trends

will be discussed in section 3:

� Provision of mass-education and rationalisation� Increased links between education and research� Globalisation of higher education� Increased collaboration with Industry and research commercialisation

Positioning Industrial Design Education within Higher Education 45

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Section 4 presents more specific literature studies on design education with a focus on how

educational, creative and explorative activities in design are to be adapted to the competitive

and entrepreneurial requirements of University research and education.

In the discussion section (section 5), comparisons are made between the overall the

University research and education arena on one hand and the design education arena on

the other hand with respect to the four global trends. Besides this, recommendations are

introduced on how to efficiently balance economic viability and quality in design research

and education. Figure 1 illustrates the scope of research.

3. Future trends in higher education and research

3.1. Mass-education and rationalisation

Diversification in the process of expansion in higher education has been a key policy issue

since the 1950s when growth of enrolment rates challenged the dominance of teaching and

research-oriented universities (Teichler, 2010). In the past few decades, it has fundamen-

tally transformed the higher education system worldwide. Differentiated academic systems

have emerged, with various institutions serving quite different purposes and roles within

each country. Participation in post-compulsory education has expanded exponentially

throughout the world during the last several decades from 19 percent in 2000 to 26

percent in 2007 (Altbach et al. 2009). Hereby, it was suggested that higher education was

Figure 1. Research scope - A comparative analysis within the context of ‘‘market forces’’ and ‘‘active learning’’

with the objective of positioning a design program

Andre Liem og Johannes B. Sigurjonsson46

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likely to diversify in its expansion process in order to protect the traditional functions of

‘‘elite higher education’’ amidst ‘‘mass and universal higher education’’ (Trow, 2006).

However, Trow (2006) argued that most nations will move toward mass or universal

participation in post-secondary education. Entry rates in higher tertiary education in the

OECD member countries have increased from around 10% in 1960 to 45% at the end

of the 20th century, whereas graduation rates were on the level of 25% on average

(OECD, 2007). For example, in Norway, Finland and the United States � preparation

for all occupations ‘‘above’’ manual skilled labour is on the way to be provided by

higher education, where an enrolment rate of about 70% is seen as appropriate (Teichler,

2003).

3.2. Links between research and education

According to the core values of classical European University education, which is embodied in

the ‘‘Humboldt’’ model (Bloom, 2005), there is no border between teaching and research.

They are complementary and overlapping activities in knowledge creation and interpretation

(Williams, 1991) (Kjeldstadli, 2010). However, strong opinions have existed for many years

denouncing the affinity between teaching and research (Feldman, 1987). For example,

the Leverhulme Report claims that doing research does not improve someone’s teaching

(Williams and Blackstone, 1983). Furthermore, first-rate teaching also occurs in higher

education institutions in which most of the staff pursues very little research; this is still

the case in many polytechnics and colleges. Conversely, excellent research can exists in the

absence of undergraduate teaching. As such, research and teaching need to be operationally

redefined into scholarship and mentorship, perceived as a more global and long-term

commitment, and determined by discovery, integration, application, and knowledge transfer

(Boyer, 1990) (Liem 2008). Typically suitable for the education of professional design

practices, a mentoring relationship comprises of more personal, closer relationships

that demand time, commitment and a level of emotional engagement (Bhagia and Tinsley,

2000).

3.3. Globalisation of Higher Education

Universities are considered international institutions attracting students and faculty from

many countries. However, limited by their capacity, these institutions of higher learning

were not always able to compete in practical terms during the last half-century. (Dill and

Sporn, 1995).

Recently, changing demands in the workplace, driven by European integration, global

market forces and technological advancement, have triggered universities to compete again,

but differently, by integrating the international dimension into their research and educational

frameworks (Enders, 2004). Hereby, postgraduate education and continuing professional de-

velopment became an increasingly important vehicle for attracting financial resources. For

example, the numbers of students registering for part-time studies, opportunities for distance

learning, and the establishment of branch campuses have increased considerably (Jeffries,

2007).


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The challenges of internationalisation or globalisation in higher education are two-fold:

� To meet the demands of developing countries who are searching for means to support the

further expansion and ‘‘nationalisation’’ of their higher education system (Moja and

Cloete, 2001).� To generate opportunities for higher education institutions in industrialised countries to

be more market oriented in an integrated world economy, with respect to knowledge

transfer and manpower development, IT, increased mobility for students, faculty,

programs, and providers.

Operationally, commercial advantage within an international context can be achieved

through several activities, including brand building, knowledge and language acquisition,

and curriculum enhancement with international content. Specific initiatives such as the

establishment of branch campuses, exchange agreements, programs for international

students, English-medium programs and degrees have also been implemented as part of

internationalisation measures (Altbach and Knight, 2007).

3.4. Increased collaboration with industry and commercialisation of research

On-going globalisation has made governments even more aware of their competitiveness,

increasingly relying on universities to become an integral part of the national or regional

innovation systems and a critical component of the evolving triple helix, where these

universities, governments, and industries change their roles through interaction (Etzkowitz

and Leytesdorff, 1997). This has resulted in University-Industry engagements, which extends

beyond intellectual-property (IP) licensing or start-ups, facilitating improved collaborative

performance in terms of innovation and economic development (OECD, 2007).

Within such a context, research-intensive universities are no longer expected to work in

isolation; rather, they are perceived to be interactive players who work closely not only with

industry but also with community and government.

4. How industrial design education should adapt to future trends in higher educationSince the introduction of a scientific approach in design at the Ulm School, the traditional

view of the designer as a creative genius or stylist is changing. Based on acquired ‘‘Active’’

and ‘‘Problem-Based Learning’’ (PBL) skills and attitudes the designer is currently perceived

as a team member, interpreter of complex systems, communicator and problem solver

(Roth, 1999). This chapter discusses on how instructional methods can be introduced into

the classroom that increase conceptual understanding among students (Prince, 2004),

encourage independent thinking about ‘‘real-world’’ projects and complex problems within

certain contexts, and motivate them to collaborate (Jorgensen et al. 2001).

4.1. General required competencies of industrial designers

According to Yang et al. (2005), a comprehensive Industrial Design education program

should at least educate students in three categories of competency: 1) generic attributes, such

as problem solving, communication skills, and adaptability to rapid changes; 2) specific


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industrial design skills and knowledge, including design thinking and design process, design

methodologies, graphical representation and communication skills, knowledge of product

development processes, manufacturing, materials and processes, design management,

environmental awareness, and model making; and 3) knowledge integration, for example

strategies of system integration. In addition to the above-mentioned skills, other skills should

also be emphasised, such as negotiation with clients (Lewis and Bonollo, 2003), project

management, and communication (Sigurjonsson and Holgersen, 2010).

The expansion of required competencies have enabled designers to play a more critical,

integrative, and active role in the product development process (Sethia, 2001). However, in

high- tech industries, increasingly complex technologies coupled with more demanding

consumers, require specialised designing and design research competencies in order to

understand user needs and introduce more user-friendly products or systems. Additionally, a

new designer in the 21st century will need to fulfil the roles of innovator, knowledge worker,

sustainable entrepreneur, and active citizen concerned with issues of environment, society,

commerce, network communication, and so on. (Press and Cooper, 2003).

Considering the demanding and sometimes contradictive competency requirements, it is a

challenge not only to improve the faculty’s classroom, but also to advance the practice beyond

it. Industrial Design education is about educating and preparing graduates for under-

standing an ever-changing industrial and societal context (Trathen and Varadarajan, 2009).

4.2. Implications of mass-education and rationalisation on design education

Over recent years, higher education (HE) in the United Kingdom has developed towards

a mass educational model of provision (Taylor, 2002). From 1995 to 2003, HE in the UK

experienced a 39% growth in the number of students on full time and part time courses

(UUK, 2004). In many subject areas, this has lead to changes in the Student Staff Ratio.

Design and Creative Arts, for example, had a Student Staff Ratio of 1:14.7 in 1994/1995,

which increased to 1:20.3 by 2003/2004 for programmes taught at an undergraduate level.

Although the context for HE has changed considerably in comparison to a decade ago,

design education still aspires to distinct values and pedagogies that emphasise the need for

low Student Staff Ratios, such as project-based enquiry, one-to-one tutorials, small group

critiques, and significant quantities of individual formative feedback and guidance (Swann,

2002), (Design Council, 2006). However, to continue as an ‘‘elitist’’ type of study may not be

economically sustainable. Only a privileged few will be able to survive as stand-alone

educational entities, not affected by market forces and developments in HE.

This means that the majority of design programs may need to seek refuge under the

umbrella of University higher education, being steered to revise their values and pedagogies

in order to cater to the needs of mass- and universal education.

4.3. The Link between design education and design research

Since there is no consensus in the literature on the definition and scope of design research, it

is unclear whether design research should follow the model of traditional academic

disciplines or seek a new model, based on the intimate connection among theory, practice,


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and production (Buchanan, 1996). This dilemma is further complicated due to rapid

technology developments, whereby 50% of the skills students learn in schools today will be

out of date by the time they are employed, and approximately 70% of the competencies of

industrial designers are acquired through on-the-job experience (Schon, 1988), (Lin, 1995).

Therefore, design educators tend to place more emphasis on the design process to facilitate

continuous learning of new skills and knowledge. These developments have changed and

refocused the role of industrial design and industrial design education in the product

development process.

Given these circumstances, the goal of educating design students in universities is then to

cultivate their abilities in design management, problem solving, lifelong learning and

reflective thinking so that they will be better able to adapt to future changes and challenges

(Schon, 1988), (Friedman, 2001). This not only implies that scholarly research leads to new

knowledge, but also that products and artefacts themselves should be considered a form of

knowledge (Frayling, 1993).

Operationally, research-based learning should be advocated through models of scholarship

and mentorship (Liem, 2008), emphasising the study of design processes, methods, and

behaviours referenced to social, economic and cultural contexts. These studies should then

expand the scope of ‘‘designing’’ from artefacts to systems and services.

4.4. Implications of globalisation on design education

Globalisation of higher education has led to the exploitation of web-based delivery of post-

graduate courses. As exemplified by experiences from The Open University, the use of

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in teaching improved the satisfaction and

motivation rate among students by assisting them with their learning and design processes

(Tjørve et al., 2010). ICT delivery tools and mechanisms, such as Lynda (2013) and MOOCS

(Waldrop, 2013) may relieve the increasing pressure on resources and physical studio space in

face-to-face settings, enabling flexible peer support and providing more possibilities for

different stakeholders to be physically as well as virtually engaged. Based upon franchising

constellations, proper implementation of these ICT delivery tools and mechanisms can

positively shape future design education in developing countries, if supported by an ex-

perienced design education community (Holden, 2009).

4.5. Collaboration with industry within the context of designing and design research

As the world becomes more interdisciplinary and our students more diverse, design education

will need to adequately prepare students by imparting valuable skills on how to collaborate,

negotiate, and compromise (Niederhelman, 2001). Connecting subjects, people and dis-

ciplines is not only timely in relation to professional trends, but also necessary if design hopes

to find itself closer to the centre of the university education model. These challenges require

collaboration across various competences, clarity concerning interests and responsibilities, as

well as communication within a single organisation, within an organisational ecosystem, and

between organisations and a group of (potential) users (Brandt and Messeter, 2004). In

addition, a service design orientation has shifted knowledge production to cross-disciplinary,


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application driven, non-linear and transient collaboration, expanding the number of research

or knowledge actors (Laurillard, 2000).

From a science-based design education perspective, the challenge is to sustain and extend

an inquiry-based problem solving attitude linked to effective methods for design develop-

ment (Friedman, 2001), while at the same time yielding effective outcomes and meeting the

economical interests of industrial collaborators. Therefore, an understanding among

different social groups and stakeholders should be established about the concept of ‘‘Social

Learning’’ and Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP) (Brown et al., 1989), which is

complementary to interdisciplinary teamwork in design projects and research (Rittel and

Weber, 1973). Both concepts focus on a dynamic, two-way relationship between people and

the social learning systems in which they participate (Wenger 2000). Contextualised around

project-based learning, observational learning, imitation, and modelling (Omrod, 1999),

novice designers and other stakeholders who are new to the community of design, first

become acquainted with the tasks, vocabulary, and organising principles through peripheral

activities, before moving on to more complex senior level tasks and responsibilities (Lave and

Wenger, 1991), (Brown et al., 1989).

Reciprocally and concurrently, Universities and design schools should implement more

flexible and inclusive policies for the ‘‘Social Learning’’ environment and for encourag-

ing various forms of industry collaboration and a stronger engagement with the design

profession.

5. DiscussionTo facilitate a more seamless transfer of knowledge and skills, design departments and

University management should be more receptive to social learning principles within

communities of practice. The following perspectives have been identified as crucial for

strategizing and developing design programs:

� Conscious positioning of the design program by higher management� Interaction between students and faculty within the context of knowledge acquisition and

dissemination� Influence of models, processes and methods on design programs� Collaboration within a network of stakeholders

5.1. Positioning of design programs

The commitment to a fixed-term first degree, the transferability of credits, and common

criteria for access are only the most visible of the tendencies towards convergence on

American models. European systems move in that direction not because the United States is

a wealthy superpower or the strong influence of American popular culture, but rather for the

following two reasons:

1. American higher education system is simply better adapted, normatively and structurally,

to the requirements of a ‘‘post-industrial’’ age, which is marked by rapid social and

technological change that decision makers in all countries saw the necessity for a wider

Positioning Industrial Design Education within Higher Education 5 1

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distribution of knowledge and skills and therefore a broader access to post-secondary

education (Trow, 2006).

2. ‘‘Spiralling Costs’’, global economic forces and the increasing burden welfare systems

makes it more and more difficult for social-democratic European nations to administrate

a sustainable higher education funding system for all. Recent examples showed that

Sweden has implemented tuition fees and offers scholarships for students from outside

EU/EEA from academic year 2010/2011 onwards (Swedish Institute, 2010), whereas

tuition fees to study at English Universities are obligatory for British, EU and Non-EU

citizens (The Guardian, 2011).

The rising relevance of research in professional graduate education and interdisciplinary

fields is serving as a catalyst for enhanced engagement between research and teaching.

However, the search for a higher status by branding themselves as scientific has resulted in a

quasi-scientific treatment of theory, when modelled on a positivist conception of natural

science. This phenomenon, termed ‘‘academic drift’’ by Slagstad (2007), has also intruded

into the field of Industrial Design, causing detrimental effects to the identity of its

profession.

As it now stands, it is very unlikely that the different views of how Industrial Design should

be positioned within the arena of higher learning will lead to a consensus. Presently three

types of design schools can be broadly identified. Type 1 includes the art and design schools

or ‘Kunsthochschule’ in German. These schools are not affiliated to any University, usually

offering a wide variety of Art and Design Courses. Type 2 design schools are partly

independent. They are affiliated to a University, but are administrated and assessed according

to different criteria. Examples of such design schools are: Umea Institute of Design (Sweden),

Academy of Arts & Design, Tsinghua University (China), Nanyang Technological University,

School of Art Design and Media (Singapore). Type 3 design schools are fully immersed in a

University system. They follow the University’s rules and regulations concerning teaching

and research, whereas the education supporting this research is science or engineering

oriented.

In reference to this third type of design schools, there is an on-going debate as to whether

designers should be educated as generalists or specialists. The School of Design at Carnegie

Mellon University in the U.S. is one example of the generalist-oriented programs, whereas

the Industrial Design department at the Technical University Eindhoven (TU/e) in the

Netherlands is a prototype for the specialist-oriented model. By multiple broad curricula and

the interdisciplinary collaboration with the departments of engineering, management, and

social science on campus, the former may educate design students to have a higher level of

generative design expertise (Buchanan, 2000). The latter is based on the educational goals

of ‘competency-based learning’ and where the student executes specific design projects and

upholds intensive contacts with industry within a simulated professional environment

(Vinke, 2002).

Depending on the type of design education strategy preferred, faculty and students should

decide whether to adopt a scholarly or practical approach for life-long learning and designing


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in Universities. This means that design programs should choose between a specialist or

universal orientation in how they educate undergraduate and post graduate students with

respect to massification trends in higher education.

5.2. Knowledge dissemination and acquisition among students and faculty

Discussions on how to position design programs inevitably challenges higher design edu-

cation institutions to rethink how they allocate and balance faculty resources in terms of

scholarly activities and the dissemination of knowledge. In support of a University-type of

design education, Sigurjonsson and Holgersen (2010) argued for a more active engagement

of practicing designers in tutoring activities if ‘‘designing’’ should remain the core subject of

the educational curriculum. This move would then create more time and opportunities for

tenure-track and tenured faculty to conduct research. Another suggestion is to have faculty

and practicing designers collaborate in the course management, teaching and tutoring. Pro-

ject management, processes and methods are to be inculcated by faculty, whereas skills,

philosophies and experiences from practice are to be communicated by the practicing design

tutor.

5.3. The influence of models, processes and methods on design programs

Presently, most design schools advocate a certain worldview, supported by specific reasoning

models to support their designing activities. However, as social sustainability and service-

oriented design thinking are becoming more important for developing innovative products

and experiences, students should be exposed to a broader range of design models, processes

and methods. The spectrum for design reasoning embraces both structured processes,

such as ‘‘Problem Solving’’, ‘‘Normative’’ and ‘‘Social’’, as well as emergent practices, such as

‘‘Hermeneutics’’, ‘‘Reflective Practice’’ and ‘‘Participatory’’. Being equipped with this basic

knowledge about design thinking models (Lie, 2012), the student should be able to select the

most appropriate processes and methods for their projects. These processes and methods can

either be explicitly structured or remain unstructured.

Furthermore, the understanding of these models, processes and methods will also

better contextualise a broad range strategic design and innovation approaches, such as User-

Centred, Design Driven, Technology Driven and Market Driven.

5.4. Collaboration within a network of stakeholders

In collaborative design and research projects, a good understanding of network dynamics

is needed to discern prevailing interests and objectives among participating stakeholders.

This understanding will enhance the value and outcome of the design project, but also

retrospectively contribute to certain self-awareness among students. Design educators should

create a social learning and research environment that positively encourages mentorship and

scholarship, leads to engaged learning, nurtures a shared commitment and motivation for

the ethic of inquiry and intellectual rigour, to the excitement of speculation, creativity and

discovery.


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At an operational level, the implementation of ‘‘Vertical Studio Teaching’’ at various levels

of the study program and in collaboration with companies can be seen as a first initiative

towards project-based learning within a master/apprentice context (Liem, 2010).

6. ConclusionEconomic imperatives and pressure from University management and external stakeholders

are resulting in more selective and restricted funding, with the intention of increasing

the rate of return on investments in higher education (Ramsden and Moses, 1992).

Somehow, this may endanger an integrated approach towards research and education.

Even in Norway, where institutions of higher education are very well state supported,

research and teaching have become more separate. Market forces determine that

Universities are allocated state funding based on numbers of students passing exams,

whereas research funding is to be applied for at research councils on increasing competitive

terms (Kjeldstadli, 2010).

The distinction between research and teaching challenges the positioning of Industrial

Design education in the ‘‘Corporate World’’ of higher learning and research. This challenge

should be addressed by how models, processes and methods are to be taught in relation to

knowledge dissemination, acquisition, design practice, and collaboration. Based on a

network of pre-selected stakeholders, and their level of involvement and intensity, design

students need to be trained to commute from generic to specialist, as well as from abstract to

concrete modes of working, and vice versa. In such contexts, comprehensive and complex

studio projects should be implemented as platforms, where social and interdisciplinary

learning practices can develop in line with selected design, themes, processes and methods.

Re-emphasising design educational roles and resources, it is recommended to establish a

team with the following roles and qualities:

� Faculty practicing mentorship and scholarship with the interest of promoting learning

and inquiry from a theoretical, collaborative and process perspective (Liem 2008).� Faculty engaged in management, dissemination and promotion of their design programs

beyond the ‘‘Physical home-based studio environment’’, by capitalising on media

technologies for distance education.� Professional designers, who can contribute in skills development and share design

experiences from practice, using a ‘‘design thinking’’ lens.

On a final note and within the context of Systems Thinking, Social Learning and

Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP), students, educators and companies operating

within the field of Industrial Design should be jointly engaged in a collaborative network of

mentorship and scholarship to face the challenging market forces in higher education.

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APPENDIX B-2

ARTICLE IV

HUMAN-CENTRED DESIGN WORKSHOPS IN COLLABORATIVE STRATEGIC DESIGN PROJECTS; AN EDUCATIONAL AND PROFESSIONAL COMPARISON

Author(s):




Elizabeth B.N. Sanders • Ohio State University, Department of Design. Columbus OHIO. USA.


André Liem developed the structure of the article and led the theoretical development of the article. Elizabeth Sanders contributed with her participatory design framework, case examples, and ideas, which were developed in the discussion and conclusion sections.

Published in:

Design and Technology Education: an International Journal Vol. 18, No.1 (ISSN: 1360-1431 / 2040-8633)

Number of pages:

15 (pp. 72-86).

How to Cite?

MLA Liem, André, and Elizabeth B-N. Sanders. "Human-centred design workshops in collaborative strategic design projects: An educational and professional comparison." Design and Technology Education: an International Journal 18.1 (2013).

APA Liem, A., & Sanders, E. B. N. (2013). Human-centred design workshops in collaborative strategic design projects: An educational and professional comparison. Design and Technology Education: an International Journal, 18(1).

Chicago Liem, André, and Elizabeth B-N. Sanders. "Human-centred design workshops in collaborative strategic design projects: An educational and professional comparison." Design and Technology Education: an International Journal 18, no. 1 (2013).

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AbstractIt has been found that the implementation of Human-centred Design (HCD) methods in the Fuzzy Front-End isnot likely to lead to diversification in educational productplanning exercises, where time lines are short andexecutors lack experience. Companies, interested tocollaborate with Master-level Industrial Design students onstrategic design projects, should have realistic ambitionswith respect to innovation and value creation. Moreover,diversification is not the only generic growth strategy togain competitive advantage. Value can also be createdfrom developing new products for existing markets, orcreating new markets for existing products. On thecontrary, companies who aim for diversification in theirgeneric growth strategies, may not always end up with acomplementary ‘high valued’ design outcome. From alearning perspective, the understanding of HCD methodscreated awareness among students and companies thatrespect and empathy for the end-user are important forenriching their design processes, and as such increasingthe chances for diversification in subsequent projects withclients. This study also compares the implementation ofHuman-Centred Design (HCD) methods in a professional/collaborative and an educational/collaborative strategicdesign project.

Key wordsuser-centred design, human-centred design, co-creation,design-led innovation, front end of innovation, positioningmaps, diversification

IntroductionThis article discusses innovation within the context of‘Design Thinking’. Design thinking is essentially a human-centred innovation process that emphasises observation,collaboration, interpretation, visualisation of ideas, rapidconcept prototyping and concurrent business analysis,which ultimately influences innovation and businessstrategy. The objective of this article is to develop aneducational framework for teaching innovation, involvingconsumers, designers and business people in anintegrative process, which can be applied to product,service and business design, based on Human-CentredDesign approaches.

As competition intensifies, product complexity increasesand technological differentiation becomes more difficult(Cova and Svanfeldt, (1993). Within the context of

integrated product development, formulating an effectiveproduct strategy and a design goal is one of the greatestchallenges of the innovation process; however effectivemanagement of the Fuzzy Front End (FFE) may result in asustainable competitive advantage (Koen et al., 2001)

A User-Centred Design (UCD) approach, whereby theneeds of potential end-users are assessed in the productdevelopment process, can then be important for achievinga company’s strategic and innovation goals. However, themain problem is that too many projects suffer frominsufficient market input, a failure to build in the voice ofthe customer, and a lack of understanding of the marketplace (Cooper, 1999). Furthermore, it has been notedthat limited and inadequate market research, resulting inproblematic translation of ‘engineers’ wishes’ into‘customers’ needs’, is a key factor of failure of innovations(Panne et al., 2003)

As a response, user involvement is seen as a way toobtain valuable input from end-users. According to Kujala(2003), involving end-users in research and designactivities can have diverse positive effects: on the qualityor speed of the research and design process; on a bettermatch between a product and end-users’ needs orpreferences; and on end-users’ satisfaction.

Human-centred Design Workshops in Collaborative StrategicDesign Projects: An educational and professional comparisonAndré Liem, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NorwayElizabeth B.-N. Sanders, The Ohio State University, USA

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Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 18.1

Figure 1. Value creation is established by positioning aproduct or service in the ‘Upper Right Quadrant’

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Research aimAs the global environment is continuously changing,organisations and businesses are compelled topermanently seek the most efficient models to maximisetheir innovation management efforts through newmethods and paradigms, which efficiently serve existingand new markets with new and/or modified products aswell as services (Christiansen, 2000) Hereby, Ansoff’sProduct-Market matrix is a frequently used model toposition generic innovation strategies.

Considering the four generic growth strategies (Ansoff,1968), this article aims to argue that the implementationof UCD methods in the Fuzzy Front-End (FFE) is not likelyto lead to diversification in product planning exercisesconducted in an educational setting, where time lines areshort and executors lack experience, as exemplified in this4th year collaborative strategic design project. Howeverfrom a ‘Design Strategy’ and ’Value Creation’ perspective,end-user and other stakeholder’s input can be valuable, ifnot decisive, in promoting a company’s products andservices to the ‘Upper Right Quadrant’ of the 3-D ‘Style’versus ‘Technology’ positioning map (see figure 1),(Cagan and Vogel, 2002).

The concept of value creation in products and servicesIn their investigation of what it takes to createbreakthrough products, Cagan and Vogel concluded thatone of the key attributes that distinguishes breakthroughproducts from their closest followers is the significantvalue they provide for users (Cagan and Vogel, 2002).Taking it one step further, the more value in a product, thehigher price people are willing to pay, with the priceincreasing more rapidly than the costs, resulting in a profitmargin, significantly higher for higher valued products.After all, as Drucker (2001) has pointed out, ‘customerspay only for what is of use to them and gives them value’.

Boztepe (2007) has categorised user value according toutility, social significance, emotional and spiritual value.Utility value refers to the utilitarian consequences of aproduct. Social significance value refers to the sociallyoriented benefits attained through ownership of andexperience with a product. Emotional value refers to theaffective benefits of a product for people who interact withit. Spiritual values are human values, which addressfundamental issues concerning health, vibrancy andviability at work. Similarly, Sanders and Simons identifiedthree types of values related to co-creation, which areinextricably linked. These values are monetary, use/experience and societal (Sanders and Simons, 2009)

According to Dewey (1938), experience is not somethingthat is totally internal to the individual, but instead,’anexperience is always what it is because of a transactiontaking place between an individual and what, at the time,constitutes his environment’ (p.43). Experiences arecontext- and situation- specific; which means they changefrom one set of immediate circumstances, time, andlocation to another. In a similar way, value changes ascultural values and norms, and external contextual factors,change (Overby at al, 2005)

In summary, consumers are willing to pay a higher pricefor product purchases that connect with their ownpersonal values, although monetary value is important indetermining market penetration strategies (Cagan andVogel, 2002)

Innovation perspectives and the development of newproducts and services The predictive nature of innovation with respect to thedevelopment of new products and services justifies theexploration of the following innovation approaches: User-Centred Driven, Design Driven, Market/ConsumerResearch Driven and Technology Driven.

In figure 2, earlier mentioned innovation approaches aremapped according to Rationalist-Historicist and Empirical-Idealistic dimensions to demonstrate their relationships.Knowledge, which to certain degree can be appliedindependently of a specific setting, is referred to berational. Technological developments and market

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Figure 2. Classification of innovation perspectivesaccording to Rationalist-Historicist and Empirical-Idealistic dimensions

Technology-drivenDesign-driven

Marketing-drivenUser-driven

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structures are influential in how the product, system orservice is being divided into interconnecting entities. Ahistoricist view on innovation represents a moreconstructivist conception of the process as a whole, wherean iterative cycle of concept development and testing ofsolutions are characteristic. To illustrate the above, Ansoff’sperspective on innovation strategy (Ansoff, 1968) can beseen as an essential tool for directing market andtechnological research, whereas Mintzberg’s strategymodel suits a context-based user-or design-driveninnovation process better (Mintzberg, 1987)

In terms of research and information gathering, a priori(idealistic) and a posteriori (empirical) data are gatheredand synthesised, as well as which actors are involved.These opposites are considered as equivalent to the pushand pull models of innovation. The description is polarisedin order to contrast the different models of innovation,where the real world would reflect a continuous transitionbetween the extremities described in this paper.

5 User-centred versus design-driven innovationSignificant efforts in this recent literature have beenconcentrated into investigating a specific approach todesign, usually referred to as User-Centred Design(Chayutsahaij and Poggenpohl, 2002), (Vredenburg et al.,2002), (Veryzer and Borja deMozota, 2005). This approachimplies that product developmentshould start from a deep analysis ofuser needs. In practice, researchersspend time in the field observingcustomers and their environment toacquire an in-depth understanding ofcustomer’s lifestyles and cultures asa basis for better understanding theirneeds and problems (Belliveau etal., 2004)

Design-driven innovation, whichplays such a crucial role in theinnovation strategy of designintensive firms, has still remainedlargely unexplored (Verganti, 2008)One of explanation is that itsprocesses are hard to detect whenone applies the typical methods ofscientific investigation in productdevelopment, such as analyses ofphases, organisational structures, orproblem-solving tools (Brown andEisenhardt, 1995), (Shane andUlrich, 2004). Unlike user-centred

processes, design-driven innovation is hardly based onformal roles and methods such as ethnographic research.

Design-driven innovation, which mimics Technology-driveninnovation, may be largely considered as a manifestation ofa reconstructionist or social-constructionist view of themarket, where the market is not ‘given’ a priori, but is theresult of an interaction between consumers and firms (Kimand Mauborgne, 2005), (Prahalad and Ramaswamy,2000). Hereby, users need to understand the radically newlanguage and message, to find new connections to theirsocio-cultural context, and to explore new symbolic valuesand patterns of interaction with the product. In otherwords, radical innovations of meaning solicit profoundchanges in socio-cultural regimes in the same way asradical technological innovations, which solicit profoundchanges in technological regimes (Geels, 2004)

Currently, design-driven innovation is starting to beexplored and discussed (Bucolo and Matthews, 2011).However, the industrial applications tend to be design-ledinnovation accomplished through user-centred designresearch methods. Besides this, design curricula are also inthe midst of discussion and change. Although user-centreddesign methods are being taught, it is often difficult forstudents to bridge the gap between research and design.


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Figure 3. A map of Design Research and Practice

design-led

CRITICAL DESIGN

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usability testing

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applied ethnography

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Students tend to take a design-driven innovation approach,because they find it difficult to extract and incorporate userinvolvement in the ‘later’ designing stages.

Design-driven innovation versus innovation throughco-creation A third perspective on non-technological push approachesto innovation is that of co-creation (sometimes referred toas co-designing). This perspective can also be consideredto be co-design-led innovation (Sanders, 2011)

The map of design research and practice as shown infigure 3 (updated from the map in Sanders, 2008) canserve as a framework on which to compare the threeperspectives: User-centred, design-led and co-creation.The map is defined and described by two intersectingdimensions: approach and mind-set. Approaches todesign research have come from research-led thinking(shown at the bottom of the map) and from design-ledthinking (shown at the top of the map). The research-ledperspective has the longest history and has been drivenby applied psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists, andengineers. The design-led perspective, on the other hand,has come into view much more recently. There are alsotwo opposing mind-sets evident in the practice of designresearch today. The left side of the map describes aculture characterised by an expert mind-set. Designers andresearchers here are involved with designing for people.They consider themselves to be the experts, and they seeand refer to people as ‘subjects’, ‘users’, ‘consumers’, etc.

The right side of the map describes a culture characterisedby a participatory mind-set. Designers and researchers onthis side design with people. They see the people as thetrue experts in domains of experience such as living,learning, working, etc. Designers and researchers whohave a participatory mindset value people as co-creators inthe design process. It is difficult for many people to movefrom the left to the right side of the map (or vice versa),as this shift entails a significant change in mindset of whoshould drive and make creative decisions in the designingof products and services. The change in mindset is partlycultural.

If we strip the map of the design research tools andmethods it serves well as a framework for positioning thethree perspectives on non-technologically driven productdevelopment processes (figure 4). The user-centredperspective uses research-led approaches comingprimarily from marketing and the social sciences to makeincremental improvements to existing products or productlines. The design-led perspective uses design thinking andhas the potential for significant innovation but it does notvalue the input of potential end-users as being participantsin the early front end of the process. The co-creationperspective puts the tools and methods of design thinkinginto the hands of the people who will be the future end-users (and the other stakeholders) early in the front endof the product development process.

Design and research approachStructure of Empirical StudyThe structure of the empirical studies was divided into twostages. In the first stage, nine ‘educational’ strategic designreports from the M.Sc. Industrial design program at theNorwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)were analysed based upon the following criteria:

• Client criteria and constraints: This covers: nature, sizeand business activities of the client company, etc.

• Involvement of internal/external stakeholders and end-users.

• Approach: Processes and methods used in theworkshops.

• Results: This mainly elaborates upon the insightsgained during the workshops and how these havebeen implemented in the follow up product planningand designing activities.

The analysis of the strategic design reports was carried outthrough a procedure of ‘Explanation Building’. In thesecond stage, a closer comparison was made between the‘Monitoring Fish Health’ project (educational) which wasone of the nine student cases analysed above and the‘Living with Type 2 Diabetes’ project (Real-life Industrial).


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Figure 4. Framework for positioning the threeperspectives on non-technologically driven productdevelopment processes

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In both stages, sources of evidence were generated basedon the specific observation and analysis of participative co-design/co-creation activities among various stakeholdergroups, which were described in the strategic designreports. Complementary interviews were conducted withthe respective stakeholders, who were involved in theUCD sessions. In this ‘case study research’ (Yin, 2003), acomparison was made on how various methods wereinstrumental in determining the level and type ofinnovation and to gather insights with respect to the useof co-creation methods for product planning and goalfinding in the Fuzzy-Front-end of innovation.

Educational Strategic Design ProjectIn this educational strategic design project, first year M.Sc.Industrial Design students acted as consultants and wererequired to formulate a design strategy as well asmaterialise the strategy into a product and/or service fordifferent companies. In support of design researchactivities, students were subjected to a short but intensivehands-on workshop on co-creation methods, tools andtechniques early in the semester. The students worked ingroups of two or three in a design studio setting. In theinitial stages of the project, students planned a series ofparticipatory design sessions with various groups ofstakeholders to support their strategic and industrialdesign process. UCD as well as co-creation methods,which were suggested and later on implementedincluded, for example: Observations, Function Mapping(Moolenbeek, 2008), Bulls Eye Collage, ParticipatoryDesign through Making and Acting (Sanders and Stappers,2008), Storytelling (Sametz and Maydoney, 2003), What-If Scenario Building, etc. Students were free to choosewhat kind of approach and what kinds of tools andmethods made sense based on their client and thechallenge they were faced with.

Comparison between an Educational and Real-lifeIndustrial ProjectIn this section, a comparison is made between one of thenine educational strategic design projects, namely the‘Monitoring Fish Health’ project and a past real-lifeindustrial project, where professional researchers anddesigners worked with Roche, a healthcare service provider.

In comparison to the first round of educational, strategicdesign projects, more in-depth interviews were conductedwith the various stakeholders in the ‘Monitoring FishHealth’ project, including customers, suppliers,collaborators, veterinarians, financial supporters, scientistsand legislators. Stakeholders, who were involved in the co-creation sessions, were grouped into three parties. Theseparties were respectively; fellow students representing

consumers, the service provider, responsible for‘Monitoring Fish Health’ project and the other stakeholdersas previously mentioned. All workshop sessions werefilmed for documentation purposes.

Concerning the ‘Living with Type 2 Diabetes’ project, acase study report was developed on the Co-creationprocess and activities with the respective company, whichoperates in the healthcare sector, and its stakeholders. Theproject comprised of a research preparation andimplementation stage. In the preparation stage, thefollowing activities were conducted:

• Background study of the respective company.• Formulation of objectives.• Design of the research process.

In the implementation stage, the following activities tookplace:

• Preliminary investigation.• A meeting to prepare for the field research activities.• The workbook phase.• The in-home research sessions.• Analysis.• Participatory analysis workshop.• The final workshop.

Results and Analysis of Participatory Workshops in anEducational ContextA detailed description and comparative overview of howthe participatory workshops were managed and executedwithin each of the projects is shown in table 1.

Even with the broadening of the approach to design, it canbe generally observed that fundamental tensions betweendesign-driven and user-centred driven innovation areprevalent (Veryzer and Borja de Mozota, 2005), (Verganti,2008). In five of the nine projects, a ‘New Product –Existing Market’ strategy was targeted, whereas twoprojects aimed at creating a new market for thecompanies’ based on existing products and technologies.In addition, two companies adopted a ‘natural’diversification strategy, as they were contractmanufacturers and do not have a history in developingtheir own products. The two reports showed that endusers were not very much involved in the product /serviceidea generation process with respect to these contractmanufacturers. Establishment of design goals andgeneration of concepts mainly took place throughdiscussions among company management and designstudents, based on a conjecture – analytical designapproach (Bamford, 2002).


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Client criteria andconstraints

Involvement ofinternalstakeholders

Involvementof end-users

Involvementof externalstakeholders

Approach taken Results

Heatingsystemsfor thefuture

The client isopen to variousforms ofinnovation anddesign inputwithin thecontext of theirbusiness activity,which is heatproduction

YES, di!erentdepartments(finance,marketing,development,purchasing, etc).

NONE NONE Co-design ledwith internalstakeholders,comprising ofvariousexercises, suchas:• Bulls-eye

method• Visualisation of

values• Future (vision)

mapping,• Scenario-based

interviews

Insights to develop visions anddesign concepts: Water-basedheating system, Multi-purpose andportable heat pump and Modular,decorative heating panels.

Unclear how uses were addressedfor the service providers, such assuppliers, contractors, etc. acrossthe three concepts.

EnergyControlSystemsfor theFuture

NONE NONE In conjunction with thedevelopment of personas andinterviews, the design brief andproblem definition werereformulated. Focus towards user-centreedness combined with alack of design directives from thecompany led to weak physical 3-Dconcepts, but an interestinginterface concept.

NewThinking inBridgeDesign

The client isinterested in astage-wise futuredevelopment ofbridges.However, manyconstraints werecommunicatedconcerningproduction,assembly andmanagement ofsuppliers.

NONE YES NONE Co-design ledwith end users:• Functional

mapping• Collages• Future

mapping• Designing from

context {32}

Input from the workshop providedmainly insight for the near futuredevelopment of bridges. A design-driven innovation approach hasbeen adopted, as it was di"cult forusers to concretely comment onhow the system and elementsshould be designed anddeveloped over time.

Bridge andIdentity

NONE YES NONE User-centeredwith end users• Stakeholder

Analysis• Observations• Informal

Interviews

An emphasis was placed onconsistent identity development aswell as a design driven approach inthe ergonomic development of the“overall” bridge with variousstakeholders in mind

Sweets 15 year-oldadolescentswere defined asa target group

NONE YES NONE Co-design ledwith end-users• InformalInterviews• Co-designing

Interesting spread of ideas anddesign cues. However there was amiss-match between workshopresults (cues) and development ofconcrete design concepts

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As summarised and mapped onto Ansoff´s Product-Marketmatrix (Ansoff, 1968), overall results indicate that Human-centred Design (HCD) methods may not be directlyapplicable for establishing a diversification strategy in aneducational setting, where 4th year design students werefor the first time subjected to co-creation tools andmethods.

However, the design outcome of these industrial projects(see figures 5 and 6) suggested that students were capableof producing innovative design concepts by proposingproducts or services to be positioned in the ‘Upper Left andRight Quadrants’ challenging new technologies and style (=ergonomics and form).


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MonitoringFish Health

The client isopen toinnovativeconceptsconcerning allforms of remoteoperations andmonitoringsystems for theaqua-cultureindustry

YES YES YES Co-design ledwith allstakeholders

Insights for concept developmentof a fish health surveillanceinterface from variousstakeholders. Two maindevelopments are achievable:• The creation of an interface to

improve usability and accessibilityamong end-users and externalstakeholders based uponaccessibility of complementaryservices

• The development of technology,just to facilitate information flowbetween various programs andthe service provider’s services.

However, an integrated servicesolution with improved usability,accessibility and compatibility hasnot been achieved yet.

Multi-functionalOutdoorFireplace

NONE. Theclient’s aim is tooptimise unusedmanpower andmachine capacity

YES NONE NONE Research ledand clientcentred

A standard design driven “ProductPlanning and Goal Finding”exercise

LoadCrosser

The client’s aimis to optimiseunusedmanpower andmachine capacityrelated to sheetmetalconstruction

YES NONE NONE Research ledand clientcentred

A design driven exercise, basedupon iterative rounds of functionalprototyping and testing

SocialGamePlay –LEGO

Development ofdesign directionsand conceptsaround thetheme “SocialGame Play”

NONE YES YES Co-design ledwith end-users• Positioning

robot imageson a spectrum.

• Creating afavourite robot.

• Developing aStorylinearound afavourite robot.

• Focus groupdiscussionswith teachersabout socialplay.

Workshops provided a goodfoundation for the development ofdesign ideas and concepts. Thefollowing objectives were met:• To identify product attributes for

social play with robots.• To find out how boys visualise

and adapt robots.To gain insight how boys interactand stimulate social play.Adaptation and customisation ofrobots were found to be essentialin stimulating social play.

Table 1. A comparative overview of the analysis of the educational workshop sessions

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Companies who have the interest to collaborate withstudents on design/product innovation projects should haverealistic ambitions with respect to value creation. Instead ofbeing fixated or aiming too hard for diversification, theyshould also consider that value can be derived fromdeveloping new products for existing markets, or creatingnew markets for existing products.

A Comparison between the ‘Monitoring Fish Health’ andthe ‘Living with Type 2 Diabetes’ projectsThe comparison is presented in the form of case studiesand substantiated through “Explanation Building”.

Case Study: Monitoring Fish HealthBackgroundThe co-creation workshops focused on the context of ‘Sea-based Fish-farming’, where students addressed problemsand solutions related to monitoring fish health for aninformation service provider. The service provider is aknowledge-based company, developing information andcommunication services (including the neededcommunication infrastructure) for the off-shore fish-farmingmarket that is yet unknown by the industry. The serviceswere given on a subscription basis. Since the benefit of theservices were not fully understood by the market (i.e. themarket is ‘under developed’), it has been important for theservice provider to develop the services in close co-operation with the users and other stakeholders.

As a spin-off from Telenor1 Research, the service provider´sgood experience working with graduate students onchallenging and less concrete projects, provided theopportunity to test or introduce new services/thoughts to themarket, which the company does not want to be associatedwith if they fail. So it say: it makes it safer as a serious actorto test uncertain thoughts/services through student projects.

ObjectivesThe primary objective of the workshop sessions was toreveal interesting problem areas and business opportunitiesfor the company and its stakeholders and to encouragethese participants to be creative and generate new ideas. A toolkit, comprised of a large selection of images connectedto the fish farming industry, a list of words for inspiration,post-its, glue, scissors and different shapes in several colours,was introduced to facilitate expression and communication.The application of the toolkit, which resulted initially in visualmappings of content contributed significantly to theclarification of the project goals and objectives.

Research processEach workshop with the respective stakeholder groupswas divided into two parts. In preparation for theworkshop, the participants were asked to write down 10-20 words on post-its about what they associate with fish


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New

Market

• Sweets• Social Game Play‘Lego’

• Multi- functional OutdoorFire Place

• Load Crosser

Existing Market

• Heating Systems for theFuture

• Energy Control Systemsfor the Future

• Monitoring Fish health• New Thinking in BridgeDesign

• Bridge and Identity

Existing Product New Product

Figure 5. Mapping of nine design projects accordingonto Ansoff’s Product- Market matrix

STYLE

HIG

H

• Sweets• Social Game Play‘Lego’

• Multi- functionalOutdoor Fire Place

• Load Crosser• Monitoring Fishhealth• New Thinking inBridge Design(current and nearfuture concepts)

• Bridge and Identity(current and nearfuture concepts)

• Heating Systems forthe Future

• Energy ControlSystems for theFuture

• New Thinking inBridge Design (Mid-and far-futureconcepts)

• Bridge and Identity(Mid- and far-futureconcepts)

LOW

LOW HIGH

TECHNOLOGY

Figure 6. Mapping of 9 design projects according toCagan´s and Vogel´s Positioning Map

1Telenor is the incumbent telecommunications company in Norway and is mostly an international wireless carrier with operations inScandinavia, Eastern Europe and Asia, working predominantly under the Telenor brand. At the end of 2010, its 203 million subscribersmade it one of the largest mobile phone operators in the world

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health. First the participants are asked to place the post-itsthey had prepared on a map based upon the knowledgethey had on fish and fish-related activities. Then they hadto elaborate on and communicate their domainknowledge using pictures, words and elements from thetoolkit. At the end of each stage, the groups presentedtheir work to each other, followed by a discussion. Thesecond part was even more creative in nature. Based onbrainstorming techniques, each group was given a largeblank paper and asked to come up with ideas that couldsolve some of the problems discovered in the making ofthe previous map. To encourage discussions, participantswere encouraged to write ideas on green ‘post-it’ notesand comments or criticism on red “post-it’ notes.

Investigation through a series of consecutive workshopsThe first workshop with ‘consumers’ revealed existingknowledge and concerns around fish health related to thefish farming industry (figure 7). The second workshopfocused on idea generation and contextualisation of rolesand responsibilities, especially those of the serviceprovider.

Ideas that emerged from the sessions were clustered intofive categories. These were technical solutions, user-friendliness in surveillance, preventive and curative healthcare using telemedicine, documentation and facilitation ofpurchase through information. The conclusion from theidea development was to make it easier for the fishfarmers and veterinarians to detect illnesses early anddecrease the damage, as well as to avoid financial lossesconnected to massive fish health problems.

The objective of the third workshop was to explore theneeds and wishes of the different stakeholders connectedto activities around fish health, as well as discoveropportunities attached to fish health based on underlyingassumptions and changes with the introduction of newtechnologies (sensors, communication technology etc.) aswell as new ways of working. The other objective was totest some of the ideas that emerged during the secondworkshop with the service provider (see figure 8).

ResultsFrom various stakeholders’ perspectives, the workshopshave provided useful insights for idea and conceptgeneration in terms of technology implementation,content and service provision for a fish health surveillanceinterface. Hereby, two main developments wereascertained:

• The usability and accessibility of the interface hasimproved through complementary services.


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Figure 7. First workshop with’consumers’ revealingexisting knowledge and concerns around fish health.

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• Technology development has led to increasedinformation flow among stakeholders andcomplementary services.

However, a high valued integrated solution with improvedusability and compatibility among the different programshas not been achieved yet.

Case Study: Living with Type 2 DiabetesBackgroundAs both a diagnostics and a pharmaceuticals company, aleading health care company is seeking to enablehealthcare to be tailored more closely to patients’individual needs.

In 2007, the company established a new group, referredto as New Concept Incubator (NCI), to explore futureopportunities for product and service development from ahuman-centred perspective. The New Concept Incubatorgroup partnered with a design research (DR) firm toidentify new market opportunities in the form of productsand/or services that could positively impact the lives ofpeople living with Type 2 Diabetes and/or their closefamily members.

The Living with Type 2 Diabetes project was structured toprovide a fist step learning experience for the NCI teammembers in the mindset of a participatory human-centreddesign approach and the skills needed for developingrelevant products and services for the future.

ObjectiveThe primary objective of ‘Living with Type 2 Diabetes’ wasto develop a deep understanding of the daily experiencesof people who are living with Type 2 Diabetes. Thisunderstanding would be used to seed the generation ofideas for improving their lives. The research aimed todiscover and to understand:

• their lifestyle patterns;• their family relationships;• the aspects of their daily routines that were working

well for them currently;• where they struggled and why, i.e., the constraints and

pain points that they faced;• their dreams as well as fears for the future.

Research ProcessThe project took five months from kick-off to the finalworkshop. The short case described below explains howthe principles, tools and methods for co-designing wereapplied to the researcher/end-user relationship. It alsoshows how participatory principles, tools and methods wereused to help integrate the efforts of the collaborating firms.

Preliminary investigation The project started with a one-day hands-on workshopsession about the co-designing process. People from thefirms took part in the hands-on activities, for example, bymaking and presenting collages about what it might be likeand how it might feel to be living with Type 2 Diabetes.

A wide range of potential activities and scenarios for thein-home sessions that would take place with the people(living with Type 2 Diabetes) were introduced. Togetherthe workshop participants identified the issues thatneeded to be developed. This included:• a guide for the informal ethnographic (i.e., shadowing)

sessions;• screeners that would be used to recruit a range of

people living with Type 2 Diabetes (e.g., younger & older,male & female, recently diagnosed vs diagnosed yearsago, etc.);

• the workbook that would be sent to the recruitedparticipants;

• a workbook that would be sent to family members of therecruited participants;

• a moderator’s guide, tools and materials for the in-homesessions;

• instructions for how to perform the various jobs in the in-home sessions and what to bring to the sessions;

• a discussion guide for the in-depth interviews withhealthcare practitioners.

The DR team members shadowed two people living withType 2 Diabetes for one full day each to gain first-handexperiences in living with diabetes. They photographedand audio-recorded the shadowing experiences so thatthey could be shared with the rest of the team later. TheDR team members also read and summarised secondaryresearch relating to Type 2 diabetes and ‘lurked’ ondiscussion forums that are frequented by people who


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Figure 9. Stakeholders involved in co-creation sessions

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have been diagnosed as diabetic. On the forums theymade note of the topics and issues that concerned thediscussants and the questions they asked of each other.

A meeting to prepare for the field research activitiesThe second meeting was held with the core teammembers from the firms in order to finalise all the detailsof the research plan and materials. DR team prepared forthis meeting by creating prototypes of all the researchmaterials, and scheduling in-home visits that were plannedfor the fieldwork phase. This included workbooks to besent to the participants, the discussion guide and thetoolkits needed for the activities planned for the in-homesessions. The plan was to recruit 20 participants to ensurethat 15 in-home sessions could be completed.

The workbook phase The DR team prepared the workbooks that were sent toand returned by the participants before the home visits.The workbooks served two primary purposes: to gatherbackground information about the participants and toimmerse them in thinking about and reflecting upon livingwith Type 2 Diabetes. This immersion step was veryimportant in preparing them for the participatory activitiesplanned for the in-home sessions.

The in-home research sessions The research plan, tools and materials were revised basedon the input from the second meeting. Before conductingany in-home sessions with recruited participants, the toolsand materials were pilot tested and materials revised whenneeded.

Twenty home visits were conducted. Other familymembers, such as spouses, were often also availableduring the session and were very happy to take part.

The visits started by having the people show theresearchers around the house, taking care to let themdecide how much to show.

The next step in the visit was to review and discuss theworkbook with the participant and ask about any answersthat were not clear and probe more deeply into key issues.

The next activity was a card sort (figures 10a and 10b). Wegave the participant a deck of cards that described issuespeople may have who are living with diabetes. We askedthem to sort the issued cards into three piles representingitems in increasing importance. After the card sort, atimeline mapping activity was introduced. We invited theparticipant to map out their personal diabetes timelineusing pictures and words that were provided.

In the final exercise, the participant was given a choice oftwo ways to express their ideas about their future ways ofliving with Type 2 Diabetes (figures 11a and 11b).

Each visit took about two hours and was thoroughlydocumented using audio- and video-recording as well asphotography to facilitate sharing the field experiences withall of the NCI team members.

In-depth interviews with healthcare professionals who seemany diabetic patients were also conducted. Theseinterviews were exploratory and followed a discussionguide that was designed to be flexible enough toaccommodate various types of expertise to emerge.

Analysis The preliminary analysis took three weeks. The first stepwas to get transcripts done for the audio-recordedsegments in order to have complete documentation for


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Figure 10a. Participants sorting issued cards into threepiles representing items in increasing importance

Figure 10b. Participants map out their personaldiabetes timeline using pictures and words

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analysis. A database was used to store and organize theworkbook entries, the card sort data and the image andword selections from the timeline mapping. The databaseapproach helped the researchers to see the patterns inthe data. It was also an effective way to transfer the datato NCI at the end of the project. Surprises and preliminaryinsights were captured, documented and summarised inpreparation for the participatory analysis workshop.

Participatory analysis workshop DR invited the NCI team members to join the analysisprocess since seeing it happen and participating in it first-hand is the best way to learn. The co-analysis spaceallowed the perspectives of all the team members to playa role in making sense of the data and highlighting the keyinsights. A room full of data was the inspiration for thepersona posters that became one of the primarydeliverables of the project. DR continued the analysis withmore in-depth looks at the issues that emerged in theparticipatory analysis workshop.

The final workshopIn the final meeting, the firms met to review the findingsand discuss next steps. DR presented the findings andinsights using the persona posters and short video clipsfrom the in-home visits. DR also presented manyopportunities that emerged from the in-depth analysis. DR then led a participatory workshop to prioritise all theopportunities and discuss the next steps in design orresearch or both. This workshop also served as anintroduction to the ongoing project for several new NCIteam members.

ResultsBecause of the proprietary nature of this project, it is notpossible to share design opportunities, specific results orconsequent business decisions. However, some insights that

helped to guide subsequent efforts in the design explorationof how to address the unmet needs and dreams of peopleliving with Type 2 Diabetes can be revealed.

• People with Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) cannot be lumpedinto a category. Each individual with T2D is unique.

• ‘Self-management’ did not appear to be working formany of the participants in this T2D research. Self-management, if it does work, takes a long time to takeeffect and relapses are common.

• The treatment and management of T2D today focuseson the ‘body’ at the expense of the ‘mind’ and the‘spirit’. Psychosocial components of living with T2D arenot addressed adequately.

• Many of the participants referred to the ‘switch’ thatneeds to be activated/turned on in order for a lifestylechange to take hold. The switch is a transformativeexperience. Some were still waiting for it to happen.Others brought it up as a defining moment in theirexperience of living with T2D.

Comparisons of the two case studiesConcerning the ‘Monitoring Fish Health’ case, the projectgroup came up with new ideas that can be furtherinvestigated in the near future. However, the serviceprovider does not see any quick release of services fromthe project. The ideas introduce both time-consumingsoftware/service development and changes ofprocess/organisation of the customers that take time to introduce.

The process used by the group was new and fascinatingfor the service provider, because persons from differentparties and with varying background were observed co-operating. The process forced the service provider to thinkin different ways than before, using a ‘new’ mindset andchallenging them to step outside their ‘old’ setting. Onequestion that arises is whether the service provider will


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Figure 11a. Participants imagining future productsand services with Velcro-modeling

Figure 11b. Participants involved in a futurestorytelling exercise with puppets

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continue in using their new mindset now that the directinvolvement with the student team has ended. In comparison with the ‘Monitoring Fish Health’ project,the ‘Living with Type 2 Diabetes’ case demonstrated amore rigorous process of co-creation. The twenty in-homesessions were carefully orchestrated to ensure that allactivities could be accomplished in two hours, forexample. Much attention was paid to consistency andefficiency in the collection, documentation and analysis ofthe data as well, in order that the budget estimate and thescheduled timeline would be met. The short case in thispaper described only the preliminary stakeholderinvolvement that was limited to the end user and his orher family members. This project was only the first step ina much longer strategic effort that is still ongoing, and thenext stage was to explore to explore opportunities for newproducts and services for the people who care for thoseliving with diabetes including physicians, nurses andtherapists. And in the stage that followed, the research anddesign teams returned to both the people with diabetesand to the healthcare providers to get their feedback onpreliminary ideas for new products and services.

The ‘Living with Type 2 Diabetes’ case falls into the NewProduct for Existing Market quadrant of the Ansoff Product-Market matrix, as was the intent of the research effort. Itdid, however, lead to a major redefinition for the companyas to what ‘product’ means since the conceptual directionthat is now being developed is more of a service ratherthan a device, which is an entirely new direction for this organisation.

Similarly, the ‘Monitoring Fish Health’ case also targeted aNew Product for an Existing Market. The service providerand stakeholders were fascinated by the group’s work, butthe challenge is whether the former is able to concretisethe insights and ideas in a manner that they can betranslated and materialised into a more concrete service/product.

10 DiscussionIn support of different types of value creation, HCD can beconsidered a useful tool in educating companies andprospective design consultants about how end-users andother stakeholders are to be involved in certain aspects ofthe co-designing process. However, it is recommend thatthese end-users and stakeholders involved in co-creationworkshop activities first identify the desired goals of theworkshop in which they will work and to which they willcontribute, and also identify the intended benefits of theirco-creation activities, and then carefully align these goalsand benefits (Steen et al., 2011)

As demonstrated in the ‘Living with Type 2 Diabetes’ case,considerable effort was spent on setting up the learningexperience for the client team members in the mindset ofa participatory human-centred design approach and theskills needed for developing relevant products andservices for the future. This effort has paid off. The clientteam members have continued to practice participatorymethods with a human-centred mindset throughout laterstages of the design and development process.

However in an educational context, interviews with thestudents have surfaced the following limitations andopportunities for implementing HCD in search of asuitable generic growth and design strategy:• Nature, history and pragmatic attitudes of some of the

companies. For example, in the ‘Monitoring Fish Health’project, new ideas were introduced by the project group.However the service provider did not see any futurequick release of services from the project. The ideaswere both time-consuming and lack a certain level ofconcreteness for software/service developers toimplement.

• Most of the companies have unconsciously influencedthe students to focus on the ‘new product existingmarket’ or ‘existing product/new market’ strategies

• Although in some cases a radical product idea is ‘in themaking’, very aggressive time frames for the projects aswell as the lack of experience among students to frameand communicate, did not provide a convincingatmosphere for the company to pursue diversification.

On the contrary, companies, who aim for diversification intheir generic growth strategies may not always end upwith a complementary ‘high valued’ design outcome, asillustrated through the ‘Multi-functional Outdoor Fire Place’and “Load Crosser” projects.

To extend the educational train of thought from a learningexperience, it becomes more obvious that Front-End ofInnovation (FEI) processes, and HCD methods and toolsare to be transferred to students in conjunction withAnsoff’s Product-Market matrix (Ansoff, 1968), as well asthe 3-D Positioning Maps (Cagan and Vogel, 2002). Thiswill then lead to the following thinking approaches:• Diversification on its own is not the only generic growth

strategy to gain significant competitive advantage.• Focusing on ‘Development of new products for existing

markets’ or ‘Creation of new markets for existingproducts’ as generic growth strategies in combinationwith a design strategy aimed at the ‘Upper RightQuadrant’ may lead to significant value creation forcompanies.


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The understanding of HCD methods (both user-centredand co-creation) created an awareness among students,professionals and companies that respect and empathyfor the end-user are important aspects to consider forenriching their design processes, as such increasing thechances for diversification in subsequent projects withclients. However, in terms of a more systematicimplementation with the ambitions to achieve moreconcrete results, students still have a long way to go.Lessons learned from real-life industrial project indicatethat the human-centred approach takes time to learn anda number of hands-on experiences to master.

ReferencesAnsoff, H.I.: Corporate Strategy: An Analytic Approach toBusiness Policy for Growth and Expansion.Harmondsworth: Penguin (1968).

Bamfort, G. (2002) From analysis/synthesis toconjecture/analysis: A review of Karl Popper’s influence ondesign methodology in architecture, Design Studies23: 245–261.

Belliveau, P., A. Griffin, A. and Somermeyer, S.M.: ThePDMA Toolbook for New Product Development, Wiley,Hoboken (2004).

Boztepe, S.: User Value: Competing Theories and Models.International Journal of Design Vol 1, No 2 online (2007).

Brown, S.L. and Eisenhardt, K.M. Product Development:Past Research, Present Findings, and Future Directions.Academy of Management Review 20 (2): 343–378 (1995).

Bucolo, S. and Matthews, J.: Design led innovation:Exploring the synthesis of needs, technologies andbusiness models. Participatory Innovation Conf., pp. 354-357. (2011).

Cagan, J., and Vogel, C. M.: Creating breakthroughproducts: Innovation from product planning to programapproval. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall (2002).

Christiansen, J.A. : Building the Innovative Organization.MacMillan Press, London (2000)

Cooper, R.G.: The invisible success factors in productinnovation,” Journal of Product Innovation Management,16, 2, 115-133 (1999).

Cova, B.and Svanfeldt, C.: Societal Innovations and thePostmodern Aestheticization of Everyday Life. InternationalJournal of Research in Marketing 10(3): 297–310(1993).

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Drucker, P. F.: The essential Drucker: The best of sixtyyears of Peter Drucker's ideas on management. NewYork: Harper Business (2001).

Chayutsahakij, P. and Poggenpohl, S.: User-CenteredInnovation: The Interplay between User-Research andDesign Innovation. Proceedings of the European Academyof Management 2nd Annual Conference on InnovativeResearch in Management (EURAM), Stockholm, Sweden (2002).

Geels, F.W.: From Sectoral Systems of Innovation to Socio-Technical Systems. Insights about Dynamics and Changefrom Sociology and Institutional Theory. Research Policy33: 897–920 (2004).

Hekkert, P. and Van Dijk, M.: Designing from context:Foundations and Applications of the ViP approach In: P.Lloyd and H. Christiaans (Eds.), Designing in Context:Proceedings of Design Thinking Research Symposium 5.Delft: DUP Science (2003).

Kim, W.C. and Mauborgne, R.: Blue Ocean Strategy: FromTheory to Practice. California Management Review 47(3):105–121 (2005).

Koen, P. A., Ajamian, G., Burkart, R., Clamen, A., Davidson,J., D’Amoe, R., Elkins, C., Herald, K., Incorvia, M., Johnson,A., Karol, R., Seibert, R., A. Slavejkov, A, and Wagner, K.:New Concept Development Model: Providing Clarity and aCommon Language to the ‘Fuzzy Front End’ of Innovation.Research Technology Management 44, 2, March-April,46–55 (2001).

Kujala, S.: User involvement: a review of the benefits andchallenges, Behaviour and Information Technology, 22(1),1-17 (2003).

Mintzberg, H. (1987) Crafting strategy, Harvard BusinessReview.

Moolenbeek, J.: Function Mapping: A Sound Practice forSystem Design, SysCon 2008 – IEEE InternationalSystems Conference, Montreal, Canada. (2008).


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Overby, J. W., Woodruff, R. B., & Gardial, S. F.: The influenceof culture upon consumers' desired value perception: Aresearch agenda. Marketing Theory, 5(2), pp. 139-163 (2005).

Panne, G. v. d., Beers, C.v. and Kleinknecht, A.: Successand failure of innovation: A literature review. InternationalJournal of Innovation Management, 7(3), 309-38 (2003).

Prahalad, C.K. and Ramaswamy, V.: Co-opting CustomerCompetence. Harvard Business Review. January–February,79–87. (2000).

Sametz, R. and Maydoney, A.: Storytelling through Design,Design Management Journal, Fall (2003) issue.

Sanders, E.B.-N.: Sustainable innovation throughparticipatory prototyping. Formakademisk. in press (2011).

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Sanders, L. and Simons, G.: A Social Vision for Value Co-creation in Design. Open Source Business Resource,December (2009). Available athttp://www.osbr.ca/ojs/index.php/osbr/article/view/1012/973

Sanders, E.B.-N., Stappers, P.J.: Co-creation and the newlandscapes of design, Co-design, 4(1), 5-18. (2008).

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Veryzer, R. W. and Borja de Mozota, B.: The Impact ofUser-Oriented Design on New Product Development: AnExamination of Fundamental Relationships. Journal ofProduct Innovation Management, 22: 128–143 (2005).

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[email protected]@osu.edu


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APPENDIX B-3

ARTICLE V

TEACHING STRATEGIC AND SYSTEMS DESIGN TO FACILITATE COLLABORATION AND LEARNING.

Author(s):






Published in:

FORMakademisk; Volum 5 (1). (ISSN: 1890-9515)

Number of pages:

20 (pp. 29-48).

How to Cite?

MLA Liem, Andre. "Teaching strategic and systems design to facilitate collaboration and learning." FORMakademisk 5.1 (2012).

APA Liem, A. (2012). Teaching strategic and systems design to facilitate collaboration and learning. FORMakademisk, 5(1)

Chicago Liem, Andre. "Teaching strategic and systems design to facilitate collaboration and learning." FORMakademisk 5, no. 1 (2012)

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André Liem Teaching Strategic and Systems Design to Facilitate Collaboration and Learning

2012©FORMakademisk 29 Vol.5 Nr.1 2012, 29-48

André Liem Teaching strategic and systems design to facilitate collaboration and learning Abstract As strategic and systems approaches are becoming more relevant in design education when it concerns collaborative projects with the industry, an explicit systems design methodology is needed to structure collaboration and learning among students, educators, and the Norwegian industry. This article describes three alternative studio projects for teaching strategic and systems design with the involvement of Norwegian companies. Besides this, the approaches and fundamental theories of design thinking and reasoning, which are characteristic of these projects, were reflected against each other. In the undergraduate (year 2) systems thinking design studio, the challenge was to train students to understand howsystem elements are rationally interconnected with their suprasystems and subsystems basedon usability and man-machine interactions. In addition to the challenges pertaining tosystems thinking, collaborative learning and designing based on a mentorship learningconcept were introduced in the Vertical Design Studio, which involved second- and third-yearstudents. Concerning the postgraduate fourth-year strategic design projects with the industry,the challenge was to involve Norwegian companies in product planning and goal finding aswell as in innovation and design activities and to assess how supportive and receptive thesecompanies were towards radical innovation/diversification. The analysis of completedprojects shows that the Norwegian industry is supportive of strategic design but is ratherconservative and risk averse when it concerns accepting and implementing radical innovationinitiatives. Referring to user-centred and context-based innovation, this article also supportsthe implementation of a systems approach to facilitate social and hierarchical learning acrossthe second-year systems design studio, second- and third-year vertical studios, and fourth-year strategic design studio.

Keywords: strategic design, systems design, collaborative learning, industrial collaboration

Introduction In a globalised economy, companies constantly seek a competitive advantage through the development of innovative products, services, and systems. The creation of “stand-alone” products would no longer meet the needs for solving complex problems within an environment in which technologies become more advanced and complex and where user needs become more diverse.

To some extent, technology is seen as a means by which manufacturing companies can strive to adapt to the requirements of a competitive and turbulent environment. The growing complexity and pace of industrial technological change are forcing firms to forge new vertical and horizontal alliances and to seek greater speed, flexibility, and efficiency in responding to market changes (Rothwell, 1994). Although underlining the importance of “technology push” and “need pull” in search of innovation, leading-edge innovators and scientists who are believers of the five-generation (5G) innovation processes tend to support an industry dominant design, whereby the nature of innovative activity has shifted from an emphasis on product change to one on manufacturing process change (Abernathy & Utterback, 1978). In such cases, firms can become introspective in their innovation selection criteria (manufacturing cost focus), rejecting possibilities for radical product change and failing to respond to significant market shifts.

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From a product and social sustainability perspective, incremental improvements will not suffice. Radical or systemic innovation is needed, whereby a change in the approach in searching for new solutions is essential (Ehrenfeld, 2008). This is complemented by Zahn’s claim that strategising, as a core process of strategic management, is more than strategic planning and needs strategic thinking, which is foremost in systems thinking (Zahn, 1999).

This paper argues for a strategic and systems thinking approach to be adopted at various stages of the innovation and designing process to achieve a competitive and collabora-tive advantage as well as to enhance “social learning.” Systems theory, as an interdisciplinary theory to investigate phenomena from a holistic perspective, will be used as a “red threat” when discussing various perspectives on systems design in this article (Capra, 1997).

A Multidisciplinary Approach towards Systems Thinking A system can be defined as an entity that is a coherent whole with a perceived boundary around it to distinguish internal and external elements and to identify input and output relating to and emerging from the entity (Ng, Maull, & Yip, 2009). A systems theory is hence a theoretical perspective that analyses a phenomenon seen as a whole and not simply as the sum of elementary parts (Mele, Pels, & Polese, 2010). The focus is on the interactions and relationships between parts to understand an entity’s organisation, functioning, and outcomes. A distinctive characteristic of systems theories is that they developed simultaneously across various disciplines and that scholars working from a systems theory perspective build on the knowledge and concepts developed within other disciplines.

Systems thinking comes from a shift in attention from the parts to the coherent whole(Ng et al., 2009). The relationships between the parts themselves and the events they produce through their interaction become much more important. Luhmann (1990) claims e.g. that this results in a situations where system elements are rationally intertwined towards a shared purpose. From a system-level engineering design approach, every complex system at a certain level stands in relation to suprasystems and subsystems. The former are hierarchically ordered as a function of their influence on the system; the latter ought to be directed and managed by the system to contribute to its finality (Barile, 2006, 2008). With respect to handling higher-level design challenges, Jones (1992) and Archer (1985) argued for a more comprehensive design process to support the management of complex and ill-defined problems (Cross, 1992). This indication that the design process should be extended from its concerns with products to include the design of systems emphasises the whole system rather than the product as a self-contained object. Complex systems may include large products, such as automobiles and airplanes, which comprise many interacting subsystems and components (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2003).

For several years now, corporate business has begun to shift attention from product manufacturing to the provision of a set of systemic solutions with high cultural and social content (Manzini, 1993; Pilat, 2000). In such a new context, the design and development of new products and service systems become a strategic priority (Albrecht & Zemke, 1985). From a management systems perspective, the understanding of system theories, which address issues, such as knowledge creation and learning, value creation, and management of complex network systems, are essential to gaining competitive advantage in a dynamic global environment, which is characterised by an increasingly complex and demanding consumer behaviour. At a subordinate market systems development level, literature related to product design and development addressed this complex and dynamic consumer behaviour and their needs rather than the difficulties encountered in the use of such products (Kotler, 1976; Tushman & Moore, 1982; Dahlman, 1986).

When considering users’ interaction with systems, Jung and Sato (2010) classified mental models into several categories to provide more elaborated and systematic

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explanations. Most commonly, these mental models are classified into two categories: structural and functional models. DiSessa (1986) argued that structural models are involved in users’ in-depth understanding of a system and are not restricted to particular tasks, while functional models represent a system’s functional properties involved in performing a particular task. Preece et al. (1994) also categorised mental models into structural and func-tional models, where structural models represent the mechanisms of a system’s component parts, whereas functional models represent the procedures in using a system.

Different Perspectives on Innovation The changing global environment is compelling organisations and businesses to permanently seek the most efficient models to maximise their innovation management efforts through new methods and paradigms, which efficiently serve existing and new markets with new and/or modified products as well as services (Christiansen, 2000; Ansoff, 1968).

Many authors have written about different models and the impact of these models on the level of “radicalness” in terms of innovation. Utterback and Abernathy (1975) claimed that the relative focus of innovation changes as the firm matures, underscoring its fluid nature with respect to the firm and the environment in which it operates. Crawford (1994) discussed three levels of innovation, pioneering adaptation, and imitation. Likewise, it is suggested that the degree of technological change represented by a product is the most useful way to classify development projects (Wheelwright & Clark, 1992). Lee and Na (1994) distinguished between “incrementally improving innovativeness” and “radical innovativeness” while explicitly excluding commercial performance as a basis for classifying innovations. Christensen (1997) differentiated between two fundamental types of innovation: sustaining innovation, which continues to improve existing product functionality for existing customers and markets, and disruptive innovation, which provides a different set of functions that are likely to appeal to a very different segment of the market. Veryzer (1998) discussed innovation from the perspective of “technological capability” and “product capability” dimensions. In this context, radical innovation involves advanced capabilities that do not exist in current products and cannot be achieved through the extension of existing technology.

Existing firms and their customers are likely to undervalue or ignore disruptive innovations as these are likely to appear inferior to existing technologies in terms of measures of benefit and performance (Tidd, 2001). From a methodological and enquiry perspective, three types of innovation approaches can be distinguished: user-centred, design-driven, and context-based innovation approaches.

Significant efforts in recent literature studies concentrated on investigating a specific approach to design usually referred to as a user-centred design (Chayutsahakij & Poggenpohl, 2002; Veryzer & Borja de Mozota, 2005). This approach implies that product development should start from a deep analysis of user needs. In practice, researchers spend time in the field observing customers and their environment to acquire an in-depth understanding of customers’ lifestyles and cultures to better understand their needs and problems (Belliveau et al., 2004).

Unlike user-centred design processes, design-driven innovation is hardly based on formal roles and methods, such as ethnographic research. However, this type of innovation plays a crucial role in the innovation strategy of design intensive firms but still remains largely unexplored (Verganti, 2008). Its processes are hard to detect when one applies the typical methods of scientific investigation in product development, such as analyses of phases, organisational structures, or problem-solving tools (Shane & Ulrich, 2004). In this case, design-driven innovation may be considered as a manifestation of a reconstructionist or social-constructionist view of the market, where the market is not “given” a priori but is the result of an interaction between consumers and firms (Kim & Mauborgne, 2005; Prahalad &

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Ramaswamy, 2000). Hereby, users need to understand the radically new language and message, to find new connections to their socio-cultural context, and to explore new symbolic values and patterns of interaction with the product. In other words, radical innovations of meaning solicit profound changes in socio-cultural regimes in the same way that radical technological innovations do, soliciting profound changes in technological regimes (Geels, 2004).

In terms of context-based innovation, the user-product relationship is not something that takes place in isolation but is part of a larger context, consisting of all kinds of factors. Examples of factors are social patterns, technological possibilities, and cultural expressions that affect the way people perceive, use, experience, respond, and relate to products (Hekkert, 1997). According to Hekkert and Van Dijk (2003), these factors can be classified as “trends” and “principles.” Trends are developments, which change over time, such as behaviour, values, and preferences, whereas principles refer to immutable laws or general patterns that can be found in human beings or nature. Considering current trends towards innovation, with the ultimate aim of developing revolutionary products and services based on “new offerings” for “new users,” is a priority. Hereby, understanding user behaviour, use, and shortcomings of products and services is important (IDEO, 2009). Examples of Human-centred Design (HCD) methods, which have been researched and applied to better understand user behaviours, are “in-context immersion,” context mapping, cultural probing, and story telling (Stappers, van der Lugt, Hekkert, & Sleeswijk Visser, 2007).

However, when refocussing on user-product relationships from a HCD perspective, a systems thinking approach should be incorporated. This systems thinking approach is based on the understanding that a set of interconnected entities, comprising people, processes, and technologies, is dynamic in behaviour and has a purpose or reason for existence (Singleton, 1974). From an innovation management perspective, systems thinking has surfaced in different network theories and is likely to be associated with different environmental contingencies and types of innovation. For example, complex products have to interface with the products and services of other vendors, and it is in the interest of all organisations to share knowledge to ensure compatibility. In such cases, an “open” network is most appropriate. In contrast, a “closed” network seeks to control standards by economies of scale and proprietary standards to lock in customers and other organisations in the network (Garud & Kumaraswamy, 1993).

Figure 1: Relationship between different types of innovation approaches, value creation, and product-service system development

Context-Based Innovation

Design-Driven Innovation

User-Centred Innovation

Value Creation Approach: Social Value

Value Creation Approach: User and Monetary Value

Social, User, Monetary Value Creation

Product-Service System Development

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The three types of innovation approaches—user-centred, design-driven, and context-based innovation—have initiated a common platform in the search for innovative products and services (see Figure 1). Whether the objectives are radical or incremental, benefiting the receiver (customer/user) or provider (firm), the overall aim is some form of “value creation.” Hereby, a Product Service Systems (PSS) approach would facilitate and enhance the user and social value creation in terms of “user-centred” and “context-based” innovation.

Innovation through Systems Thinking and HCD The introduction of PSS shifted the business focus from designing physical products to designing a system of products and services, which became more and more recognised as an important innovation strategy (Rocchi, 1997). This approach towards innovation and product management was based on a new interpretation of the concept of product, underlining that the client does not really require the products or services but what these products and services help the user to achieve (Mont, 2000; Stahel, 1997; Manzini & Vezzoli, 2002). In a previous study comprising two Scandinavian companies, Stokke and Håg, a strategic approach that is heavily reliant on ergonomic principles was used in the design of their products (Jevnaker, 1993).

From a business perspective, the PSS model could also be explored as a platform to initiate radical innovation as it introduces new types of stakeholder relationships and/or partnerships, new constructions of mutual economic interests, and optimisation of resources (Manzini & Vezzoli, 2002). Within this context, the designer is required to synthesise solutions emerging from the comparison of different viewpoints, needs, and socio-cultural models, iterating from the traditional design domain to the domain of design management, and vice versa (Morelli, 2003).

Methodologically, it may be useful to develop system models of the product design process from a human-centred perspective by involving potential users in the initial stages. The users’ technological and cultural frames as well as behaviour in relation to material and immaterial aspects of service are very closely related to design (Andersson, 1990; Morelli, 2002). The PSS and HCD perspectives can be useful in establishing systems thinking as well as in defining and enlarging the overarching design problem to achieve a significant value-add in the design solution (Kleiner, 2006). According to Maguire (2001), HCD encompasses the following key principles:

The active involvement of users and a clear understanding of user and taskrequirements. One of the key strengths of HCD is the active involvement of end userswho have knowledge of the context in which the system is used.

An appropriate allocation of function between the user and the system. It is importantto determine which aspects of a job or task should be handled by people and whichcan be handled by software and hardware.

Iteration of design solutions. Iterative design entails receiving feedback from endusers following their use of early design solutions. These may range from simplepaper mock-ups to detailed prototypes.

Multidisciplinary design teams. Human-centred system development is a collaborativeprocess that benefits from the active involvement of various parties, each of whom hasinsights and expertise to share. It is therefore important that the development team bemade up of experts with technical skills and those with a stake in the proposedsolution.

HCD Methods and Systems Development Until now, a direct applicable methodology to support systems design has not been developed yet. However, within the context of Systems Engineering (SE), there was an increased interest

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in designing the “user experience” (Chapanis, 1996). The SE “cradle-to-grave” structure and systematic approach was based on the triumvirate of requirements, compliance, and reliability engineering. From a human-centred perspective, it was first applied to the micro-ergonomic range of hardware design/engineering, software development, human factor engineering, and seller/purchaser economics, but it later extended to macro-ergonomic endeavours when it was appropriate to effect organisational change (Hendrick, 1997; Samaras & Horst, 2005). This was emphasised from a life-cycle viewpoint, where the determination and analysis of the organisation’s needs and wants put the consideration of user criteria as early as possible (Carayon, 2003).

The interest in designing experiences can also be seen as an initiative to enlarge the design space, as well as a development of design discourse “beyond the object,” and a response to the shortcomings of existing models of how usage and users are considered in the design process (Thackara, 1988; Mitchell, 1993; Jordan, 2000). Methodologies were used to facilitate the generation of ideas and concepts systematically through specific creative and problem-solving techniques, such as the Morphological Chart Method and the Objective Tree Method, (Cross, 1989). However, most of these studies were approached from a product engineering viewpoint. For example, several design methods were introduced to develop quantified structural variations based on functional surfaces and form factors (Tjalve, 2003).

Concepts in Teaching and Learning to Facilitate Systems and Strategic Design Much has been debated on how to direct undergraduate and postgraduate studio design teaching to create value-add beyond “core industrial design,” focussing on systems and strategic design. At the Department of Product Design in the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), an educational framework for systems and strategic design has been developed for undergraduate and postgraduate industrial design students to interact and collaborate with the industry as frequently as possible. This framework is based on the concept of collaborative learning through mentorship and scholarship to facilitate a win-win situation among educators, researchers, and students (Liem, 2008). Central in this framework are theories on social and hierarchical learning as well as theories on communities of practiceand Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP). Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context where group members are encouraged to learn from and communicate with one another based on concepts such as observational learning, imitation, and modeling (Omrod, 1999).

According to Wenger (2000), learning is defined as an interplay between social competence and personal experience. It is a dynamic, two-way relationship between people and the social learning systems in which they participate. In the field of industrial design, social learning is embodied through project-based learning and master/apprentice relation-ships. Design educators both consciously and unconsciously instil fundamental value systems into students, especially through critiques (Holm, 2006).

The concept of collaborative learning was introduced in the second semester of the second-year undergraduate industrial design studio over a period of five academic spring semesters from 2005 onwards. Hereby, systems thinking was implemented in projects with Norwegian companies, such as the Norwegian Postal Service (Posten) (NPS), Lærdal Medical, Trondheim Renholdsverket, and Cavotec. This systems thinking approach was then pursued as an attempt to structure the fuzzy Front-End of Innovation (FEI) in strategic design projects at the fourth-year postgraduate level from 2005 onwards.

In 2010 of the spring semester, “vertical studio teaching,” in conjunction with systems design, was implemented to facilitate and structure hierarchical learning among second- and third-year design students. This vertical studio was an intentional move to promote social learning theories of communities of practice and LPP. The companies Moelven Nordia,

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SINTEF Fiskeri and Havbruk, and Ulstein Power and Control were involved in this studio project. Although the students were from different stages of their education, their teamwork generally functioned well because they shared the same subjective viewpoints and spoke the same language. In short, they were enculturated (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989).

Systems Thinking in Year 2 Undergraduate Design Studio Teaching In the second-year systems design studio, students needed to approach a problem using an increasing number of parallel lines of thought (Lawson, 1997). Those with an aptitude to process information and think holistically found it easier to structurally develop the system inclusive of its elements, boundaries, and connections compared to those who preferred to process information in parts independently and sequentially. Based on the example of the NPS project, students were exposed to complex systems design thinking at an early stage of their education. According to the idea of the mail transporter, holistic systems were analysed and proposed to improve mail distribution. Subsequently, a wide variety of different products were conceptualised up to the level of design detailing. With continuous support from the NPS, selected designs were pursued for further refinement and materialisation beyond the studio environment.

From a design education perspective, it was a challenging task to be clear and detailed in the organisation and management of studio teaching, as well as in the supervision of students on how to plan and manage their projects. According to Roozenburg and Eekels (1995), the terms “system” and “structure” were introduced in the project. The system is the collection of subsystems and products that make up the mail distribution service, and the structure is the predetermined logistic framework on which this mail distribution system is based. The term “structure” is diachronic in nature, which means that the relationships are time and sequence dependent.

The project stressed the development of ergonomic work systems where students worked in groups of four or five to develop product-service concepts prior to the actual design of its supporting subsystems and products. In the first stage, a wide range of system concepts were generated by the groups. In the second stage, subsystems and products were individually developed further into two or three detailed design concepts. The selected design concept was then subjected to iterative cycles of refinement, user testing, and materialisation. The final stage was an extension of the studio. Selected designs were commissioned by NPS for further development and professional prototyping. Figure 2 shows the connection between the overall system and subsystems.

To understand current systems redesign in the above context, students were guided to undertake observational studies, user-scenario development, story telling, etc., of a wide range of sequential and parallel activities. In the NPS project, the above activities uncovered critical issues in systems thinking and task allocation to student group members, including where to place the boundaries of the system. On the one hand, the tighter the boundaries are placed within the system to define activities, the lesser the number of parameters and variables has to be considered explicitly but the more the crucial interactions will be omitted or simplified. This may lead to errors or an unrealistic understanding of the user’s situation. On the other hand, the further the boundaries are placed, the more complex the set of variables and parameters to be considered is, and the more work in systems thinking and management is required (Siemieniuch and Sinclair, 2006). Course evaluation and feedback sessions showed that a systems design project as such proved to be too complex for undergraduate students to manage. The second-year design students experienced difficulties in combining broad boundaries with concrete consequence analysis. In such a teaching situation, customised supervision is needed to facilitate segmenting the system design process and allocating tasks.

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Figure 2: An example of the “mail distribution system for the Norwegian Postal Service” demonstrates how an overall system is classified into subsystems

Vertical Studio Learning and Teamwork in Year 2 Undergraduate Design Teaching Within the framework of customised and flexible learning, several architecture and design schools have implemented their own programs. From an architectural design perspective, vertical studio teaching and learning have been widely practised to expose novice students to holistic and contextual thinking approaches, which is an inherent part of architectural design education. From an industrial design perspective, the Technical University Eindhoven is a good example of an institution that has introduced competency-based learning in their curriculum and in which students are grouped according to project and interest instead of education level. Similarly, ENSCI: Les Ateliers promotes “customised learning through practice and theory.” On the other hand, studio projects were developed according to themes of interest to the studio teacher, rather than to expose students to various levels of prescribed design complexities.

At the NTNU, vertical studio teaching and learning was implemented in the academic year 2009–2010 with 41 second- and third-year industrial design students. Six groups of six to seven students (comprising two or three third-year students and four second-year students)worked on contextual system design problems with industrial collaborators in the marine and office furniture sectors, respectively (Ulstein Power and Control, Moelven Nordia, and SINTEF. The challenge for students and educators was to manage the hierarchical and intertwined complexity of the design problems as well as the teamwork.

Based on the “collaborative learning model,” a favourable hierarchical learning situation took place where level-3 students understood their mentoring and project management roles and level-2 students accepted their roles as “product designers.” The interaction between second- and third-year students, as well as among students in the same level, proved to augment systems thinking from a usability perspective. Rigour was established by “learning through confusion,” “hierarchical learning,” and “LPP” as each

Sub-system of how to organise the mail inside the vehicle

Sub-system How to navigate to efficiently distribute the mail

Sub-system: How to physically carry different types and sizes of mail

Sub-system: How to sort different types and sizes of mail

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group member tried to create his or her own project space, whilst a decision to adopt an element or functional approach was found to be crucial in the allocation of subprojects. Five of the six groups chose an element approach in the division of project tasks because the group members found it easier to develop a mental image of something that is concrete and tangible (see Figure 3). The group of second-year students that chose to take a functional approach experienced less guidance from their seniors and felt more secure to work closer with one another. This group was unable to develop system guidelines and boundaries.

Figure 3: A systems thinking approach where relations among elements and activities/functions are listed and shown though a link diagram

Figure 4: An example of an interior classroom setup for elementary school pupils, designed from a systems and product perspective

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Figure 4 shows an example of how an interior classroom setup for elementary school pupils is designed from a systems and product perspective. Each group member was allocated a product (element) to conceptualise and detail. Overall, this group was successful in determining the system boundaries as well as the shared boundaries among the elements. Strong leadership qualities among the third-year members accounted for the clarity of design tasks. However, in the detailing and materialisation stage, group members still spent more time and effort in fine-tuning and reassuring that the elements interact in a coherent manner. This demonstrates the presence of an overcompassing iterative process between system and product/element design.

From a design thinking and process perspective, a problem-solving model of design reasoning (Simon, 1996) based on a positivistic philosophical worldview has been adopted in the planning and structuring of the vertical studio project to facilitate a hierarchical mentorhip-driven way of learning. However, in the interactions among group members, teachers, and collaborating companies, “reflective” (Schön, 1995) and “hermeneutic” (Bamford, 2002; Coyne & Snodgrass, 1992; Darke, 1979) approach to design thinking has been adopted. This reflective and hermeneutic way of designing enhanced by LPP modes of iterative learning inherently and positively brings in the element of learning through confusion.

Strategic and Systems Thinking in Postgraduate Design Projects Since 2005, 8–10 established Norwegian companies have been yearly involved in a fourth-year collaborative strategic design project. The strategic design project is divided into two stages: Product Planning & Management (PPM) and industrial design. Students are required to adopt the role of design consultants in working groups of two or three. More than 50 companies, such as Stokke, Håg, Jordan, Ulstein Power and Electro, Tandberg, Lærdal Medical, Glen Dimplex, Vestre, and Lego Systems AS, were involved from 2005 to 2010.

In the PPM stage, students were subjected to a model for integrated product develop-ment where they had to follow a systematic innovation-step model that guided them to determine their design brief (Buijs, 1987; Buijs & Valkenburg, 1996). This activity of strategy development and goal finding lasted for ±6 weeks. Buijs’ innovation process was used to introduce strategic design among the students as no other direct applicable processes were found in the area of SE, Macro-ergonomics, PSS Design, or HCD.

However, in recent years, the introduction of “value opportunities” and value creation through product/service positioning maps has been implemented to provide a more detailed direction to the design brief (Cagan & Vogel, 2002). The “how to” design was introduced as a response complementary to the “what to” design as framed by Ansoff’s Product-Market-Technology (PMT) model (Ansoff, 1968).

Based on the analysis of nine recent strategic design projects, this paper showed that visionary capabilities were important in generating radical and incremental innovations. In five of the nine projects, a “new product–existing market” strategy was targeted, whereas two projects aimed at creating a “new market for existing products and technologies,” Two companies adopted a “natural” diversification strategy because they were contract manu-facturers and did not have a history in developing their own products. Design goals were determined through discussions among company management and design students, driven by a conjecture–analytical design approach (Figure 5A).

However, concerning the new product–existing market and new market for existing products and technologies strategies, six out of the seven projects were driven by a systems design approach, whereby students proposed product and service variations/extensions, which enhanced value creation and competitiveness. This has been achieved through innovative design concepts that challenge new technologies and style (=ergonomics and form) and by

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positioning products and services in the “upper left and right quadrant” of the 3D “style” versus “technology” positioning map, as described by Cagan and Vogel (2002) (Figure 5B). Social, economic, and technological trends formed the basis for systems thinking.

Figure 5A: Positioning of strategic design projects on product-market matrix

Figure 5B: Positioning of strategic design projects on Cagan and Vogel’s positioning map (2002)

Lectures and workshops served as a vehicle for students to learn and reflect over a variety of design issues, research, and design methods, as well as to apply them at certain stages of the project, tied to the main process. A positive correlation has been observed between the quality of the design outcome and the degree in which the student understands the logic of design processes (Radcliff & Lee, 1989). This re-emphasises that postgraduate students who are expected to be more matured in their thinking capabilities should be given explicit exposure to a systematic approach towards design, but not to the extent of a rigid methodology. Additionally, a selection of design models (Lie, 2012) that facilitate complex problem solving should be presented to the students as a framework for design thinking and self-awareness. This framework for design thinking and practice is based on different philosophical worldviews and can be referred to in correlation with each other.

Hereby, the problem-solving model, as advocated by Simon (1996) and which is a key model for teaching processes and methods in industrial design engineering schools, such as NTNU, should be challenged by other design thinking and reasoning models. The most interesting models are the reflective model (Schön, 1995), the hermeneutic model (Darke, 1979), and the participative model (Clarke & Stewart, 2003). However, a reflective-oriented research and design approach (not only “analysis-synthesis” but also “conjecture-analysis”) should be equally emphasised in design thinking and process customisation (Schön, 1995; Bamford, 2002). Acceptance of Strategic and Systems Design Projects within the Norwegian Industry From an innovation perspective, companies often find it difficult to simultaneously adopt an open mind towards strategic and systems design projects, as well as to be enthusiastic and serious about its outcome. Organisations usually have in place a strong set of plans where design and development activities are required to fit in. This is especially so when these organisations are more specialised in their core business activities, such that the strategic problem space may turn out to be rather narrow.

Companies involved in the second-year and “vertical studio” projects were classified into two groups with different objectives. One category of companies, represented, for example, by NPS, Cavotec, and Trondheim Renholdsverket, was found to be more enthusiastic about the individual product design outcomes rather than the holistic system pro-posal. The other category of companies, represented by SINTEF, Moelven, and Ulstein Power

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and Elektro, was more interested in the overarching system design than its individual elements. They are companies with strong technological expertise and are capable of designing and developing elements for the system. However, they seek inspiration for developing new systems based on future user-centred design perspectives.

In the post-graduate (fourth year) strategic design project, companies supported a narrower approach towards strategic innovation by stressing that diversification was not the only generic growth strategy to gain significant competitive advantage in the FEI stage of the product development process. Most of the strategic design projects focussed on value creation through the “development of new products for existing markets” or the “creation of new markets for existing products” as generic growth strategies in combination with a design strategy targeted at the “upper right quadrant” of Cagan and Vogel’s positioning map. However, proactive collaboration with the Norwegian industry proved to be an interesting learning experience for all stakeholders involved. Students were encouraged to think to a greater extent about design issues, processes, and methods.

Therefore, design thinking in design education should be emphasised to enable students to predict future trends and therefore gain strategic advantage in today’s knowledge economy. A structured and comprehensive step-by-step methodology to support the early stages of the strategic design process is to be taught to the fourth-year students who assumed the role of external design consultants for the industry and were exposed to the FEI for the fist time. This structured methodology should be complemented with theories on strategy development and perspectives on how to conduct a more comprehensive external analysis. A Systems-Oriented Methodology for Product and Strategic Design Projects From a design education perspective, the following issues are to be discussed in conjunction with teaching systems and industrial design to undergraduate students, as well as strategic and systems design to postgraduate fourth-year students.

Issues Concerning Systems and Industrial Design Teaching at the Undergraduate Level A systems approach in studio teaching proved to be an effective generator for a wide range of different design projects at a product level while allowing interconnectivity within the defined overarching system. Especially, within the context of vertical studio learning, students were exposed to alternations of team and individual project work. Social learning (Omrod, 1999) and LPP within communities of practice formed the basis for team members to balance between collective and individual practice throughout the entire project.

Fewer difficulties were experienced among students in defining the system’s outer boundaries once the logistic structure of the human-centred system was partly determined by the nature of the project. However, when approaching the transition from group to individual work, students encountered more difficulties in determining intermediate boundaries and connectivity within the system concerning overlapping scenarios and products (see Figure 6). Extra guidance in team and individual work, as well as detailed project planning, was needed in terms of the following:

o to understand at which level of systems thinking concepts had to be generated, suggesting the need for intermediate subsystem development prior to design concepts

o to understand the network relationship between the various stakeholders and their roles within the project

o to determine whether the individual project needed to be centred around a product alone or an activity supported by overlapping products

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Figure 6: Situation A clearly defined the design assignment within the system in the form of a product alone, whereas in situation B difficulties may occur because the design assignment is based on an activity with overlapping products

Methods that could be considered are “scenario and task analysis,” function analysis, and contextualisation of scenarios through a physical scale model of the projected environment (see Figure 4). Issues Concerning Strategic and Systems Design Teaching at the Postgraduate Level As Norwegian companies are not very receptive towards radical product proposals in the FEI stage (see Figure 5A), the “how to” design strategy represented by product positioning maps (Cagan & Vogel, 2002) should be emphasised above the “what to” design strategy as represented by Ansoff’s PMT matrix. The reason for this “how to” emphasis is that chances for creating breakthrough designs can be achieved through a systems-driven, user-centred, or context-based innovation approach (see Figure 1). Figure 7 shows the traditional PPM process in relation to the “industrial design process” based on the PMT matrix (Ansoff, 1968) as reference theory.

Figure 7: The transition between product planning and management and industrial design is clearly segmented into two consecutive stages

However, the methodology and focal areas for external analysis between the “how to” and “what to” design strategies are similar. Besides the analysis of markets, customers, and competitors, a more comprehensive approach involving social, economic, environmental, and technology factors within specific cultural and political contexts should be included in the external analysis. Once such an analysis has been properly conducted, a clear direction can be determined on how to develop a design strategy for value creation based on technology and style criteria.

Figure 8 shows that value creation can be optimised in product position maps when targeting design solutions capitalising on “new style” and “new technology.”

Formulating Goals and Strategies

Product Policy Generating and

Selecting Ideas

Marketing Planning

Production Development

Marketing Plan

Production Plan

Product Design

New Business,

Product Idea

Product Designing

Industrial Design Process Product Planning & Management Process

Time

Activ

ity

Product Product Product A

Product Product

Product

B Product

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Figure 8: The three-dimensional positioning map showing the added value of a systems approach As mentioned earlier, when companies aim to develop a new style based on a new technology, a systems design approach can provide added value in framing a winning design brief as well as guiding design activities from design research to design detailing. Figure 9 proposes an alternative to the traditional PPM process, as illustrated in Figure 7.

Figure 9: A proposed strategic and systems design process, which is characterised by a systems thinking and inquiry-driven approach

As indicated in Figure 9, a flexible and interconnected strategic and systems design process should be introduced in postgraduate studio projects to allow project initiation to take place at three possible entry levels:

A. Product strategy level, where the initiating company adopts an open attitude and is supportive of radical innovation/diversification. Ansoff’s PMT matrix forms the foundation for product planning and goal finding.

B. Design strategy level, where the project assignment has been defined around the second or third quadrant of the PMT matrix (“market development” or “product development,” respectively. In this situation, a design strategy will be proposed to maximise a company’s value opportunity based on one of the four quadrants of the product positioning map style versus technology.

Marketing Planning

Production Development

Marketing Plan

Production Plan

Product Design

Industrial Design Process Strategic & Systems Design Process

Time

Activ

ity

Industrial Design

Systems Design

Strategy Development

Systems Development

Systems Thinking and Inquiry-driven Approach

Product Positioning map

Value Creation

A B C

Internal / external Anlysis

PMT-Matrix

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C. Systems design level, where the assignment has been defined around a set of interconnected entities, comprising people, processes, and technologies.

A Reflection on Design Thinking and Reasoning Design thinking and reasoning have become more important for designers who are searching for processes, methods, and attitudes to solve ill-defined problems or to discover hidden needs. The subject of “design thinking” has also aroused interest in management discourse. According to Johansson and Woodilla (2009, p. 31), design thinking occurs at the merger of business and design. In relation to how design may contribute to business strategy, Brown (2008) argued that thinking like a designer can transform the way you develop products, services, processes, and even strategy (p. 85). Liedtka (2000) linked strategic thinking to design thinking by arguing that they are both abductive in nature.

With respect to the three different design studio projects described in this paper, processes, methods, attitudes, and collaboration among different stakeholders can be reflected against six models of design reasoning (Lie, 2012). The undergraduate “systems design” project conducted with second-year students advocated a positivistic problem-solving approach towards designing (Simon, 1996), whereby the overarching problem/theme was segmented into subproblems, elements, and functions. The “vertical design studio” project maintains the positivistic and problem-solving approach in terms of design content development, but it introduces a reflective (Schön, 1995) and hermeneutic way of designing, mainly through concepts of mentorship and social learning (Omrod, 1999). The postgraduate fourth-year strategic design project embraces problem-solving, reflective, and participative (Clarke & Stewart, 2003) modes of design thinking and reasoning, reflected against a post-positivistic philosophical worldview. Although it is not possible to obtain a complete knowledge of everything as well as full control of the industrial collaboration, much pre-planning and research activities have taken place in these strategic design projects. Discussion and Future Research A deeper analysis of design reports, complemented with interviews with students, has surfaced limitations and opportunities in teaching strategic and systems design. From 2005 onwards, design projects conducted in collaboration with the Norwegian industry from years 2, 3, and 4 of the study programme have demonstrated the usefulness of a systems thinking approach in solving strategic, service, and product design issues. However, a more comprehensive and structured systems design methodology, supported by creativity and analytical tools, should be developed. The criticisms towards teaching students strategic and systems design are outlined below:

Nature, history, and (short-term) pragmatic attitudes of some companies have favoured incremental innovation above radical innovation.

Most of the companies have unconsciously influenced the students to focus on the new product/existing market or existing product/new market strategies.

This has led to a “design strategy” approach towards innovation, where the development of style and/or technology in the design of products and services has been emphasised to create value.

Although in some cases a radical product idea is “in the making,” very aggressive time frames for the projects as well as the lack of experience among students to frame and communicate did not provide a convincing atmosphere for the company to pursue diversification.

On the contrary, companies that aimed for diversification in their generic growth strategies may not always end up with a complementary “high-valued” design

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outcome, as illustrated through the “multifunctional outdoor fireplace” and “load crosser” projects.

The systems design project implemented in the second and third undergraduate design studios lacked an applicable step-by-step methodology. This created a feeling of uncertainty among students in terms of defining the project scope(s), task clarification and distribution, and teamwork. With respect to project scoping in the transition from group to individual work, students encountered difficulties in determining intermediate boundaries and connectivity within the system concerning overlapping scenarios and products.

The second-year design students experienced difficulties in combining broad boundaries with concrete consequence analysis. In such a teaching situation, customised supervision was needed to facilitate segmenting the system design process and allocating tasks.

On a final note, trends in the “corporate world” of higher learning and research demand that industrial design students are to be mentally prepared to commute from generic to specialist as well as from abstract to concrete modes of working and vice versa. Comprehensive and complex studio projects should be implemented as platforms, where social and inter-disciplinary learning as well as collaborative practices can develop in line with selected design, themes, processes, and methods.

From a design educational resource perspective, it is recommended to establish a team with the following roles and qualities:

Faculty inclined towards mentorship and scholarship able to promote learning and inquiry from a theoretical and process perspective.

Professional designers who can contribute in skills development and share design experiences from practice, supported by design thinking.

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APPENDIX B-4 ARTICLE VI

USING DESIGN EDUCATION TO SURVIVE IN THE CORPORATE WORLD OF HIGHER LEARNING AND RESEARCH

Author(s):


PERSEUS: Psychologie Ergonomique et Sociale pour l'Expérience Utilisateurs. Metz, France

• Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Product Design, Trondheim. Norway.



Published in:

Journal of Design Research Vol 9, No 2. ISSN: 01748-3050 (print), 1569-1551 (online)

Number of pages: 15 (pp. 104-118). How to Cite? MLA Liem, Andre. "Using design education to survive in the'corporate world'of higher learning

and research." Journal of Design Research 9.2 (2011): 104-118. APA Liem, A. (2011). Using design education to survive in the'corporate world'of higher learning

and research. Journal of Design Research, 9(2), 104-118. Chicago Liem, Andre. "Using design education to survive in the'corporate world'of higher learning

and research." Journal of Design Research 9, no. 2 (2011): 104-118.

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104 J. Design Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2011

Copyright © 2011 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Using design education to survive in the ‘corporate world’ of higher learning and research

André Liem Department of Product Design, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Kolbjørn Hejes vei 2B, 7491 Trondheim, Norway E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: This paper discusses a strategy on how design and design-related research can gain more leverage within the university system through hierarchical and collaborative learning. This learning concept opposes the traditional method of classroom teaching by promoting an interactive way of customised learning and knowledge transfer. To support this learning concept, the issue of how to integrate design into the playing field of a globalised university research and education system has to be re-examined by redefining its three cornerstones, ‘teaching’, ‘research’ and ‘administration’ into respectively ‘mentorship’, ‘scholarship’ and ‘service’. A concept of ‘vertical studio teaching and learning’ in conjunction with a systems approach towards managing complex design and organisational problems has been proposed as one of the avenues to integrate industrial design better in the ‘corporate world’ of higher learning and research.

Keywords: hierarchical and collaborative learning; mentorship; scholarship and service; design education.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Liem, A. (2011) ‘Using design education to survive in the ‘corporate world’ of higher learning and research’, J. Design Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp.104–118.

Biographical notes: André Liem obtained his MS from Delft University, The Netherlands, in 1994, in Industrial Design Engineering. He is currently an Associate Professor of Industrial Design at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) in Trondheim. Prior to his engagement at NTNU, he taught at the National University of Singapore (NUS) and Nanyang Polytechnic in Singapore. His teaching and research interests span from design methods and design education to ergonomics and transportation design. He has published widely and has been acting as guest editor for several international journals.

1 Introduction

“Your job includes two primary tasks. Task one will earn you an increased salary, will secure your professional mobility, will enhance the reputation of your employer, will result in invitations to attend interesting conferences nationally and internationally, and can be done on a flexi-time basis and at home. Task Two is unlikely to enhance your salary, save your tenure decision, or increase your professional mobility significantly and may, if pursued with too much enthusiasm, undermine these.” (Andre and Frost, 1997)

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Using design education to survive in the ‘corporate world’ 105

The above statement illustrates a cleavage, which is frequently institutionalised and experienced in unsettling ways at an individual level. The corporate world of higher learning and research places increasingly higher demands on numbers of acquired research funding and research publications. These demands have been fuelled by globalisation trends in both economics and politics. Besides this, higher education is much more flexible than in the past. Increased flexibility has been attributed to enlightened incrementalism in response to economic, societal and technological change (Callan, 2007). However, this also incorporates a fundamental challenge to balance the pursuit for institutional success versus the societal demands that are coalescing in unprecedented ways (Alexander, 2007).

Since the introduction of a scientific approach in design at the Ulm School, designers have carved out responsibilities in new areas such as management, marketing, ecology, human factors, etc. According to Roth (1999), the traditional view of the designer as creative genius or stylist is evolving to a perception of the designer as team member, interpreter of complex systems, communicator and problem solver. Therefore, certain design programs have gained entrance into a broad-based and comprehensive university education system. However, being classified under professional practices and having its roots in the visual and plastic arts, it has been debated many times, whether industrial design should continue to be part of formal university education or not. The main reasons for criticism and non-acceptance of industrial design as part of the university system are research-based. Design research output has shown a lack of practical application (Gedenryd, 1998). Form and language in which design process and methods are presented are perceived to be alien and detrimental by many practising designers, as it does not mirror how designers perceive and think about their own practice (Archer, 1990).

Looking from outside the design domain, Slagstad (2007) claims that since the end of the 19th century, existing professions have experienced academic drift. The search for a higher status by branding themselves as scientific has resulted into a quasi-scientific treatment of theory, modelled on a positivist conception of natural science. This is most likely the case with industrial design, causing detrimental effects to the identity of the individual profession.

As it now stands, different views of how industrial design should be positioned within the arena of higher learning are not expected to come to a consensus. Presently three types of design schools can be broadly identified. Type 1 is the art and design schools or ‘Kunsthochschule’ in Germany. These schools are not affiliated with any university, usually offering a wide variety of art and design courses. Type 2 design schools are partly-independent. They are affiliated with a university, but have managed to convince top university management to operate and be administered according to other criteria than those of traditional universities. Examples of such design schools are: Umeå Institute of Design (Sweden), Academy of Arts and Design, Tsinghua University (China), Nanyang Technological University, School of Art Design and Media (Singapore).

The third type of design schools is part of a university system. They follow the university’s rules and regulations concerning teaching and research. The education supporting this research is scientifically oriented. Examples of design universities are Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Delft University of Technology (TUDelft), National University of Singapore (NUS), Department of Industrial Design, Technical University Eindhoven (Netherlands).

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2 Redefining research, teaching and administration

During the past two decades, higher education in economically advanced nations has matured significantly. Driven by a ‘new economic dynamic’, societies require an ever-changing combination of highly skilled human capital and knowledge. Therefore, the current challenges facing Universities will not be temporary, requiring these institutions to define and demonstrate educational objectives in more utilitarian terms.

This calls for greater synergies between research and teaching, which are significant for tertiary design educators, institutions, as well as funding and reviewing bodies. Considering research-rich teaching, educators who are active researchers are more likely to be on the cutting edge of their discipline and aware of international perspectives in their field. They are capable of inquiry-based teaching, making students understand and appreciate the meaning of ‘Discovering what is not yet known’.

Research or inquiry-based teaching occurs when these teachers shift the focus of student learning from the acquisition of subject content, of outputs, to involving students in interdisciplinary research processes and design activities. In the following sections, the redefinition of higher education corner stones and shift from research to scholarship, teaching to mentorship and administration to service will be discussed in detail.

2.1 From research to scholarship

Scholarship becomes the interactive link between research and teaching. Teaching activities of the scholarly educator are essential to the success and growth of an academic environment and require appropriate academic recognition. Scholarship in education should be identified, recorded, and assessed as scholarly accomplishments for academic recognition (Wood and May, 2006). This is supported by the following four elements of scholarship within an academic scholarly environment (Boyer, 1990):

1 discovery: search for new knowledge and definition of what remains to be discovered

2 integration: interpretation of the meaning of knowledge and fact and interconnecting knowledge into concepts and structures

3 application: utilisation of knowledge in solving actual problems or altering and evolving knowledge to resolve a problem

4 teaching: knowledge transformation to develop ideas into usable concepts.

However, for this to occur, there needs to be research-based learning, where academics take an active, scholarly approach to their teaching. They reflect upon their role as learners, using their expertise as researchers, in their interactions with students, to understand how their teaching practices enable students to successfully learn in and contribute to their disciplines, so that they are always empowered and prepared for the complexities of the modern world.

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From this research-based learning perspective, the academic adopts a heuristic approach to teaching where the ‘apprentice’ is encouraged to learn the professional art of research by mind-interaction and joint experimentation with the ‘master’ (Waks, 2001). This ‘apprentice’ – ‘master’ relationship is based on joint acquisition of scientific knowledge in a field of study and usually directed towards a specific problem field. The benefit of such a relationship is mutual. On one hand, the ‘apprentice’ in this case, the student, gets direct access to the latest knowledge and ideas of the ‘master’, in this case, the researcher. On the other hand, the researcher can tap on the student’s enthusiasm and energy to assist him or her in the quest for new knowledge.

2.2 From teaching to mentorship

Good teaching comprises the following four essential qualities:

1 knowledge

2 the skills to convey that knowledge

3 the ability to make the teaching material interesting and relevant

4 a deep-seated respect for the student (Brain, 1998).

These are complemented by Boyer’s suggestion that good teaching is characterised by the same mental rigour associated with research, not only to improve the faculty’s classroom, but also to advance knowledge and practice beyond it.

Sachdeva (1996) sees mentorship as a more global and long-term responsibility for the development of the apprentice. For many, the mentoring accord between master and apprentice is crucial, and comprises more personal, closer relationships that demand time, commitment and a level of emotional engagement (Bhagia and Tinsley, 2000). Hereby, desirable qualities of the master have been identified as follows: knowledge, enthusiasm, a genuine respectful interest, approachability and friendliness, patience, ability to challenge and good communication skills (Alvarado et al., 2003). Considering the needs of the apprentice, mentoring as a source of learning has become particularly relevant given the boundary-less nature of careers today where changing organisational structures create the need for fast-paced learning (Higgins and Kram, 2001). In practice, there needs to be a mindset receptive of new ideas and readiness to invest time and effort to continually reflect on practices and to engage in exploring innovative ways of strengthening the teaching, learning and inquiry connection, as well as its outcomes (Pan, 2001).

2.3 From administration to service

Within the context of globalisation, privatisation and market-like behaviour in the public sector have led to major changes for higher education policy-making and practice (Ntshoe, 2004). Rigidly administrated knowledge production was previously criticised for being the product of the nineteenth century industrial society where universities were elitist and the knowledge they produced was linear and compartmentalised into separate disciplines and subjects (Robertson, 2000). It excludes potential actors and creators of application-based knowledge, and denies the existence of multiple sites of knowledge production. On the contrary, in today’s global competition, a proactive service attitude in

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promoting and marketing its higher institute of learning has shifted knowledge production to cross-disciplinary, application driven, non-linear and transient, expanding the number of research or knowledge actors (Laurillard, 2000; Scott, 2000). Besides this, universities are increasingly losing their monopoly on knowledge production, because new media enables companies, trading in the information industry, to offer ‘expert’ teaching to the growing audiences of higher education. This present situation of knowledge production is characterised by:

1 production in the context of its application

2 trans-disciplinarity

3 heterogeneity in the skills needed for its mastery

4 enhanced social accountability

5 a broader base of quality control (Kearney, 2000).

This means that from a higher educational perspective collaborative learning will be encouraged through partnerships between Universities, the public sector and industry in the production and distribution of research and project work, and that the transformative curriculum should be based on trans-disciplinary activities.

3 Towards scholarship, mentorship and service in design

According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, the term professional refers to a skilled practitioner or expert who is engaged in, and earns a living in a given or implied occupation, conforming to the standards of a learned profession. Examples of professional occupations are law, medicine, architecture, design. To develop and protect these professions, accreditation bodies and organisations, such as The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA), The Law Society, Societies of Certified Public Accountants (CPA), The Society of Human Factors and Ergonomics, etc. were established at an early stage.

However, as technology progressed and the quest for knowledge accelerated in the past few decades, the effectiveness of professional organisations in guaranteeing professional protection is questionable. For example in the field of architecture, new materials, building methods and requirements on living have partly transferred design activities towards other professions, diminishing the creative and intellectual authority of the architect. In the medical field knowledge acquisition through formal research has been put as a pre-requisite for practice. Unlike in before the 80s, newly graduated medical doctors in the Netherlands have to first obtain a PhD, before they can enrol in a specialist traineeship, mentored by a senior practitioner.

According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (see Figure 1), needs are arranged from most to least pressing (Maslow, 1954). In order of importance, they are physiological and safety needs (category 1), followed by social, esteem, and self-actualisation needs, (category 2). Professions serving category 1 needs are considered to be valued and least subject to criticism, whereas professions serving category 2 needs are subjected to severe internal competition, a lack of collegiality, and a loss of sense of common responsibility.

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Examples of category 2 professions are usually related to the creative sector, such as architectural-, industrial-, interior-, graphic design, etc. From a scientific viewpoint, category 2 professional studies are stigmatised as being too practice oriented, and having the wrong mindsets and ambitions towards formal inquiry and knowledge advancement. Therefore, it is most important that educators, students and alumni join forces to elevate these professions through a structured network of scholarship and mentorship within a university environment, supported by industrial and research collaboration. The essence of such a network is the development of a master-apprentice relationship, where both continuously aim to challenge and advance their professional field through practice and/or research.

Figure 1 Two categories of professional practices represented in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

From a design educational perspective, a scholarship-mentorship model (Figure 2) is strongly supported, because of three main reasons:

1 Learning from a ‘good’ master through close interaction stimulates and nurtures intellectual curiosity. It enables students to become sophisticated thinkers by developing their capacities for critical reflection and independent thinking.

2 The enormous growth of mass higher education, where teaching is likened to research at the cost of professionally-oriented skills, is compensated and well served by a master-apprentice mentoring relationship.

3 Professional education requires much more effort and time in course preparation and delivery compared to other fields of study, leaving not much time for the educator to conduct research and advance him- or herself scholarly. Therefore, it is justified to persuade the apprentice to practise or search for new knowledge in the master’s field of interest.

However, such a learning structure has been criticised from an ethical viewpoint by some educationalists claiming the exploitation of the apprentice, as well as limiting his or her freedom of choice and aptitude towards independent learning.

Category 2 professional practices, such as architecture, interior design, industrial Design, etc.

Category 1 professional practices, such as medicine, law, construction engineering, etc.

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Figure 2 Collaborative learning model: hierarchical structure towards mentorship and scholarship

4 Suggestions for enhancing social/collaborative learning based on a master-apprenticeship model within industrial design

Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modelling (Ormrod, 1999). According to Wenger (2000), learning is defined as an inter-play between social competence and personal experience. It is a dynamic, two-way relationship between people and the social learning systems in which they participate.

In the field of industrial design, social learning is embodied through project-based learning and master/apprentice relationships. Design educators both consciously and unconsciously instil fundamental value-systems into students, especially through critiques (Holm, 2006).

Adopting the general collaborative learning model as shown in Figure 2, collaborative learning within the context of industrial design can be customised and made more effective by introducing systems thinking, vertical learning and teamwork based upon communities-of-practice, and legitimate peripheral participation (LPP) (Brown et al., 1989).

Professor/Associate Professor

Assistant Professor/University

Lecturer

Researcher/Post-Doc

Roles Responsibilities

PhD-Student

Postgraduate Master-Student

Undergraduate Bachelor-Student

• Conduct lectures, seminars and perform advanced design research

• Provide leadership in funding application for high level research

• Establish industrial collaboration • Work on professional projects • Train young academics.

• Conduct full-time research • Assist in research applications • Assist in supervising doctorate students

• Conduct 50% research/project work and 50% teaching

• Conduct full-time research on a specific research project under supervision

• Provide ideas for future research projects • Assist in research and project work • Conduct small-scale research projects,

sub-ordinate to larger research programs

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4.1 A systems approach in industrial design

The most inclusive definition of a ‘system’ is an integrated set of interoperable elements, comprising people, processes and technologies, which are dynamic in their behaviour and have a purpose or reason for existence (Singleton, 1974). Each element is explicitly specified and shares bounded capabilities, working synergistically to perform value-added processing to enable a user to satisfy mission-oriented operational needs in a prescribed operating environment with a specified outcome and probability of success (http://www.freetutes.com/systemanalysis/SA001_1.htm). Simon (1962) argues that hierarchy is an inherent organising principle for the structuring of either product design or organisational systems. In other words, ‘hierarchy’ refers to a decomposition of a complex system into a structured ordering of successive sets of sub-systems, which is a partitioning into relationships that collectively define the parts of any whole.

A systems approach in industrial design is not only beneficial for managing complexity in problem solving of design, but when mirrored to the organisation of design activities, encourages collaborative learning within the context of a master-apprenticeship model.

4.2 Vertical learning and teamwork

Within the framework of customised and flexible learning, several architecture and design schools have implemented their own programs. For example, from an architectural design perspective, ‘Vertical Studio Teaching and Learning’ has been widely practised to expose novice students to holistic and contextual thinking approaches, which is an inherent part of architectural design education.

As for examples from an industrial design perspective, the Technical University Eindhoven has introduced competency-based learning in their curriculum, in which students are grouped according to project and interest instead of education level. Similarly ENSCI: Les Ateliers promotes ‘customised learning through practice and theory’. However, studio projects were developed according to themes of interest to the studio teacher, rather then to expose students to various levels of prescribed design complexities.

At the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, ‘Vertical Studio Teaching and Learning’ was implemented among a total of 41 2nd and 3rd year industrial design students. Six groups of six to seven students (2/3 year three and four year two students) were working on contextual system design problems with industrial collaborators in the marine and office furniture sectors. The challenge for students and educators was to manage the hierarchical and intertwined complexity of the design problems as well as teamwork. Based upon theories of ‘Communities-of-practice’, and ‘LPP’, group members were ‘forced’ to learn from and communicate with each other, because they shared the same subjective viewpoints, spoke the same language and had individual stakes in the project. In short they were enculturated (Brown et al., 1989).

Based on the ‘collaborative learning model’, in Figure 2, a favourable hierarchical learning situation took place, where level 3 students understood their mentoring and project management roles and level 2 students accepted their roles as ‘product designers’. The interaction among 2nd and 3rd year students, as well as among their own years has proven to augment systems thinking from a usability perspective. Rigour was established through LPP as each group member was trying to create their own project space, whilst a

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decision to adopt an element or functional approach was found to be crucial in the allocation of sub-projects. Five (5) out of the six (6) groups have chosen an element approach in the division of project tasks, because group members found it easier to develop a mental image of something, which is concrete and tangible (see Figure 3). For the group who chose to take a functional approach, 2nd year students experienced a lack of guidance from their seniors and felt more secure to work closer among one another. Furthermore, the group was not able to develop system guidelines and boundaries.

Figure 3 A systems thinking approach, where relations among elements and activities/functions are listed and shown though a link-diagram (see online version for colours)

Figure 4 shows an example of how, referenced to the collaboration with the office furniture manufacturer, an interior classroom setup for elementary school pupils has been designed from a systems and product perspective. Each group member has been allocated a product (element) to conceptualise and detail. Overall, this group was successful in determining the system boundaries as well as the shared boundaries among its elements. Strong leadership qualities among the 3rd year members accounted for the clarity of design tasks. However, in the detailing and materialisation stage, group members still spent more time and effort in fine-tuning and reassuring that the elements interact in a coherent manner. This demonstrates the presence of an over-compassing iterative process between system and product/element design.

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Figure 4 An example of an interior classroom setup for elementary school pupils, designed from a systems and product perspective (see online version for colours)

5 The influence of vertical learning on design research

Since the end of the 19th century, institutions, which have been occupied with knowledge transfer in professional practice, have experienced academic drift. Academic drift means that design theory is pursued from an academic rather than a professional and practice oriented motivation. According to Slagstad (2007), the motivation is based on the ambition to seek higher status by attempting to re-define specific professional studies, such as design, as scientific and associate their profession with universities and science.

Research in institutions of professional practice, including design, employs multiple methods and approaches including those derived from the social and behavioural sciences, as well as strategic analyses adapted from business and marketing (Roth, 1999).

Considering knowledge creation in the field of design, a distinction was made between design research and design studies. Design studies consider objects and processes from the perspective of critical theory and humanistic inquiry. It characterises a certain conception of basic inquiry in design as distinct from design methods or project- oriented research. Design studies are an interpretive practice, rooted firmly in the techniques of the humanities and the social sciences, rather than in the natural sciences.’ The distinction between project-oriented design research and the scholarly area of design studies reflects the extension of design from a form-giving activity to an interdisciplinary process dealing with complex systems and solutions (Margolin, 1998).

Furthering the discussions on design inquiry, three types of research approaches can be predominantly distinguished. These are design research, participatory/action research and case study research.

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According to Cross (1999), design research can be classified into three main categories:

1 the study of designer behaviour, including theoretical deliberation and reflection on the nature of design ability

2 the study of the processes of design, and the development and application of techniques, which aid the designer

3 the study of the form and configuration of artefacts.

Action research combines theory and practice (and researchers and practitioners) through change and reflection in an immediate problematic situation within a mutually acceptable ethical framework. Action research is an iterative process involving researchers and practitioners acting together on a particular cycle of activities, including problem diagnosis, action intervention, and reflective learning (Baskerville, 1999; Davis, 1971; Hevner et al., 2004).

Comparatively, design research and action research are two proactive research approaches, which have revealed a natural compatibility to scientific inquiry. From an integrative perspective, crucial stages are problem identification, intervention, evaluation and reflection and learning (Cole et al., 2005).

Case study research is defined as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin, 1984). It provides an understanding of a complex issue or object, as well as extends experience or adds strength to what is already known through previous research. Case studies emphasise detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships. Researchers have used the case study research method for many years across a variety of disciplines. Social scientists, in particular, have made wide use of this qualitative research method to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of ideas and extension of methods.

The following example indicates how vertical studio teaching, based on the principles of ‘Social Learning’, can be contextualised and extrapolated as a social activity in design and design related research, affecting different social groups and stakeholders (Rittel and Webber, 1973).

In a conventional situation, a student receives a design assignment in the form of an ill-defined problem. He or she will be guided to solve this problem using a basic, systematic design process (Roozenburg and Eekels, 1995). The final outcome of the assignment is usually a materialised design proposal, visualised through a mock-up, prototype or animated computer-aided design (CAD) models. In this case, the master will merely be rewarded with exemplary material to be used for next semester’s teaching.

In collaborative learning and scholarship, students, mentors and industrial partners will be challenged on design practice, as well as design methodological aspects. In addition to being supervised to solve a design problem in the form of a materialised outcome, the student will also be guided on how he or she manages the design process, as well as experiments with complex systems design methodologies. From a design research perspective, results of these experiments will potentially be publishable and advances theoretical deliberation and structured design thinking.

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6 Discussion

The general argument is that research must necessarily make a dual contribution to academia and practice. First, the research must add to existing theory in order to make a worthwhile scientific contribution (Baskerville, 1999; Davis, 1971). Second, the research should assist in solving practical problems of practitioners, problems that are either current or anticipated.

Research in the field of design is to be carried out for design, through design and into design. This means that not only scholarly research leads to new knowledge, but also products and artefacts by themselves should be considered a form of knowledge (Frayling, 1993). However, there is no consensus in the literature on the definition and scope of design research. Should design research follow the model of traditional academic disciplines, or should it seek a new model, based on the intimate connection among theory, practice, and production, which is the hallmark of design? (Buchanan, 1996).

But what is certain is that knowledge gathered through design, action and case study research requires significantly more time and effort than conventional empirical evidence gathering. The complexity of design and design related research should be considered as an opportunity rather than a limitation for design communities and individuals in the consolidation of their educational, professional and research activities towards a common goal of knowledge creation and professional advancement.

In this way, the redefinition of cornerstones recreates ample opportunities to strengthen the credibility and authority of industrial design. The concept of ‘hierarchical’ learning and knowledge transfer is one of the organisational methods to facilitate mentorship and scholarship, which can be further developed as an interactive link between practice-based teaching and research. Based on this concept, results have indicated that successful collaborative learning and knowledge transfer should, generally and more specifically related to design, rely on:

6.1 Generally

• a vision and strategy for knowledge and skills building through sponsored, long-term collaborative research and development projects

• a common interest among educators, students, industry and research councils to further the field of study beyond traditional learning and research

• clearly defined roles and tasks among the members within the ‘learning’ organisation, aligned to the classification and sub-classification of the overarching research and/or development project

• a well-structured overall educational and research plan with potential for hierarchical learning, based on master-apprentice relationship throughout all levels of the ‘learning’ organisation.

6.2 More specifically related to design

• a systems-driven studio plan on how to manage and coordinate long-term design and research projects into smaller ones with intermediate, connecting milestones

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• a master-apprentice relationship based on ‘vertical studio teaching and learning’, which exemplifies how ‘social learning’ principles can be adopted in time and effort consuming design related research, such as action and case study research.

7 Conclusions

The role of industrial design education should not be underestimated in the survival process in the search for a place a ‘corporate world’ of higher learning and research. Vertical studio teaching based on a systems approach exemplifies how hierarchical learning could be implemented in research approaches for design. A systems approach not only elevates the complexity of the design problem, but is also mimicked in its augmented intricacies of collaboration and social learning. These complexities will create avenues for systems design and research, where students, practitioners, researchers and academics within the same community of practice, which is design, are dependent upon each other to collaborate according to a master-apprenticeship model of learning. Once new knowledge is created based on a systematic approach in managing design and research complexities, design as an institution of professional practice and academic inquiry will gain a stronger foothold in the ‘corporate world’ of higher learning and research.

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Alvarado, K., Keatings, M. and Dorsay, J.P. (2003) ‘Cultivating APN’s for the future: a hospital based advanced practice nursing internship program’, Canadian Journal of Nursing Leadership, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp.91–98.

Andre, R. and Frost, P.J. (1997) Researchers Hooked on Teaching: Noted Scholars Discuss the Synergies of Teaching and Research, Thousand Oaks, Sage.

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Bhagia, J. and Tinsley, J.A. (2000) ‘The mentoring partnership’, Mayo Clinic Proceedings Vol. 75, pp.535–537.

Boyer, E. (1990) Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Princeton, New Jersey.

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Brown, J.S., Collins, A. and Duguid, P (1989) ‘Situated cognition and the culture of learning’, Education Researcher, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp.32–42, IRL Report 88-0008, Institute for Research on Learning, Palo Alto, CA.

Buchanan, R. (1996) Book Review: ‘Elements of Design’ in Design, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp.74–75. Callan, P.M. (2007) ‘Aligning institutional visions with policymakers and the public interest’, in

d’Ambrosio, M.B. and Ehrenberg, R.G. (Eds.): Transformational Change in Higher Education: Positioning Colleges and Universities for Future Succes, pp.48–69, TIAA-CREF, Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., UK.

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Cole, R., Purao, S., Rossi, M. and Sein, M.K. (2005) ‘Being proactive: where action research meets design research, Proceedings of the Twenty- Sixth International Conference on Information Systems, pp.325–336, Las Vegas.

Cross, N. (1999) ‘Design research: a disciplined conversation’, Design Research, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp.5–10, Design Issues.

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Frayling, C. (1993) Research in Art and Design, Research Papers, Royal College of Art, London, UK.

Gedenryd, H. (1998) How Designers Work, Lund University, Lund. Hevner, A.R., March, S.T., Park, J. and Ram, S. (2004) ‘Design science in information systems

research’, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp.75–105. Higgins, M.C. and Kram, K.E. (2001) ‘Reconceptualising mentoring at work: a developmental

network perspective’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 26, pp.264–288. Holm, I. (2006) Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial Design: How Attitudes,

Orientations and Underlying Assumptions Shape the Built Environment, PhD Thesis, Oslo School of Architecture and Design.

Kearney, M.L. (2000) ‘Globalisation: higher education for social inclusion’, Society for Research into Higher Education News, p.14.

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Maslow, A. (1954) Motivation and Personality, Harper and Row, New York. Ntshoe, M. (2004) ‘Higher education and training policy and practice in South Africa: impacts of

global privatisation, quasi-marketisation and new managerialism’, International Journal of Educational Development, Vol. 24, No. 2 , pp.137–154.

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Development of Teaching and Learning (CDTL), Continental Press Pte Ltd, Singapore. Rittel, H.W.J. and Webber, M.M. (1973) ‘Dilemmas in a general theory of planning’, Policy

Sciences, Vol. 4, pp.155–169. Robertson, D. (2000) ‘Students as consumers: the individualisation of competitive advantage’, in

Scott, P. (Ed.): Higher Education Re-formed, pp.78–94, Falmer Press, London. Roozenburg, N.F.M and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design: Fundamentals and Methods, John

Wiley and Sons, UK. Roth, S. (1999) The State of Design Research, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp.18–26, Design Issues. Sachdeva, A.K. (1996) ‘Preceptorship, mentorship and the adult learner in medical and health

sciences education’, Journal of Cancer Education, Vol. 11, pp.131–136. Scott, P. (2000) ‘A tale of three revolution?’, in Scott, P. (Ed.): Higher Education Re-formed,

pp.190–206, Science, Society and the University, Falmer Press, London. Simon, H.A. (1962) ‘The architecture of complexity’, Proceedings of the American Philosophical

Society, Vol. 106, pp.467–482. Singleton, W.T. (1974) Man-Machine Systems, Penguin, London. Slagstad, R. (2007) Høyskolen som kunnskapens hus, Høyskolen I Oslo, Oslo. Waks, L.J. (2001) ‘Donald Schon’s philosophy of design and design education’, International

Journal of Technology and Design Education, Vol. 11, pp.37–51, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands.

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Wenger, E. (2000) ‘Communities of practice and social learning systems’, Organisation Articles, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp.225–246, SAGE, London.

Wood, B.P. and May, W. (2006) ‘Academic recognition of educational scholarship’, Academic Radiology, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp.254–257.

Yin, R.K. (1984) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, p.23, Sage, Newbury Park, CA.

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APPENDIX B-5

ARTICLE VII

AN ERGONOMIC CASE STUDY ON THE INTERIOR CUSTOMISATION OF FAST RESPONSE CARS BASED ON VEHICLE ADAPTATION

Author(s):






Published in:

International Journal of Vehicle Design, Vol. 55, Nos. 2/3/4 (ISSN: 0143-3369 (print), 1741-5314 (online))

Number of pages:

19 (pp. 237-255).

How to Cite?

MLA Liem, Andre. "An ergonomic case study on the interior customisation of Fast Response Cars (FRCs) based on vehicle adaptation." International journal of vehicle design 55.2-4 (2011): 237-255.

APA Liem, A. (2011). An ergonomic case study on the interior customisation of Fast Response Cars (FRCs) based on vehicle adaptation. International journal of vehicle design, 55(2-4), 237-255.

Chicago Liem, Andre. "An ergonomic case study on the interior customisation of Fast Response Cars (FRCs) based on vehicle adaptation." International journal of vehicle design 55, no. 2-4 (2011): 237-255.

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Int. J. Vehicle Design, Vol. 55, Nos. 2/3/4, 2011 237

Copyright © 2011 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

An ergonomic case study on the interior customisation of Fast Response Cars (FRCs) based on vehicle adaptation

André Liem Department of Product Design, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Kolbjørn hejes vei 2B, 7491 Trondheim, Norway E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: This paper discusses the interior customisation of two Police Fast Response Cars (FRCs), namely Volvo V70 Station Wagon and Mitsubishi Space Wagon, from an ergonomic design perspective. Customisation of the front areas addressed the interaction among the electronic communication devices, front-passenger and driver, whereas the retrieval and storage of equipment and tools were explored in the rear interiors. Concerning the rear interior space, the Mitsubishi performed better than the Volvo. A three-layered design improved accessibility of equipment. The installation of on-board computer facilities, secure placement under extreme driving conditions was suggested near the centre console at the front passenger seat.

Keywords: FRCs; fast response cars; workspace optimisation; adaptive vehicle core customisation; ergonomic design.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Liem, A. (2011) ‘An ergonomic case study on the interior customisation of Fast Response Cars (FRCs) based on vehicle adaptation’, Int. J. Vehicle Design, Vol. 55, Nos. 2/3/4, pp.237–255.

Biographical notes: André Liem has been an Associate Professor at the Norwegian University, Department of Product Design, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway, since 2005. As a graduate of TU Delft, he previously taught industrial design for 10 years in tertiary education institutions in Singapore. He has widely published in journals and conferences, as well as co-edited several special issues. His research interests include design process and methodology, design education, product planning and goal finding and transportation design. He has undertaken design consultancy projects in The Netherlands, UK, USA and Singapore. He holds an advisory position within Designinsight, an industrial design consultancy in Singapore.

1 Context and design project

In this paper, a context-driven design approach was adopted for the customisation of Fast Response Cars (FRCs) such as ambulances, fire engines and police vehicles (Hekkert and Van Dijk, 2003). FRC’s are required to be versatile and efficient. In a developed city state, such as Singapore, FRC’s need to respond efficiently and effectively to emergency hotline calls (999 in Singapore) and all incidents reported by

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members of the public and Police Head Quarters. In this section, “Design Brief”, “Customisation Approaches” and “Development of Information and Communication Systems in Vehicle Ergonomics” will be discussed in detail as a contextual framework for this design project.

1.1 Design brief

In 2001, the Singapore Police Force (SPF) launched initiatives to improve and enhance the installation and use of equipment to optimise its FRC operations using police patrol vehicles with in-vehicle information and communication, as well as rear compartmentalisation systems. An adaptive customisation strategy has been proposed, because of budget constraints and a limited planned number of vehicles. Mandatory elements include the positioning of an on-board computer terminal and keyboard, radio and data transfer communication equipment in the front area of the vehicle, as well as efficient storage of other equipment and tools required for Fast-Response Operations, such as bolt cutter, roadblock signs and riot shields, in the rear interior of the vehicle. Originally, these equipment were placed randomly in the rear interiors of the Mitsubishi Space Wagon and Volvo V70 Station Wagon, making them difficult to store and retrieve.

1.2 Two approaches in the customisation of special vehicles

Three distinct strategies for customisation can be derived for the automotive industry – form, optional and core customisation (Alford et al., 2000).

Form customisation involves changing the form of the standard product at the distributor by adding limited changes or enhancements to the actual vehicle. It includes the customisation of the terms of sale to the customer. Distributors offer a package of services that help to differentiate the vehicle from their competitors, and tailor the sale to the needs of the customer. These packages include financing options, warranty and service options, insurance and membership with recovery services.

Optional customisation allows the customer to choose their vehicle from a range of options, though the design of the vehicle may not be changed in any way.

Core customisation entails involving the customer with the design process of the vehicle. It occurs in low-volume, specialist vehicles, where the vehicle is designed to meet a specific market requirement. After completion, there may be a limited scope for the customer to request changes that affect the core design of the product.

In the design and development of special vehicles, such as police cars, fire engines and ambulances, two different approaches can be identified in the interior design and core customisation of these vehicles. The first is defined as vehicle integrative customisation and the second, vehicle adaptive customisation. Integrative customisation in vehicle design is the implementation of various equipment and devices without compromising on existing features and space. This is only practically achievable when the design, fabrication and installation of the customised features have been completed in concurrence with the manufacturing of the vehicle itself. Besides that, this type of core customisation for low-volume applications comes at a cost premium to the customer above that of the standard product. Adaptive core customisation in vehicle design, on the other hand, can be implemented during or at any stage after manufacturing of the vehicle. This implies that the quality of this type of customisation may vary from a visibly crude

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An ergonomic case study on the interior customisation 239

add-on to a neatly hidden solution, such as the placement of equipment behind the cladding/dashboard of the vehicle.

1.3 Developments of information and communication systems in vehicle ergonomics

Advances in vehicle instrumentation are driven by customer demand, the desire of manufacturers to add value and by technology, which offers increasingly sophisticated and cost-effective options. According to Benlamlih and Reid (2001), the world market for in-vehicle telematic systems is forecast to grow to more than 50 million units by 2005 from the current total of 3 million. Complementary to this, a forecast produced after the World Congress on Telematics in Orlando, Florida, in 1996 stated that the telematics industry expected to record a worldwide turnover between DM 200 and 220 bn a year by 2016, as the market for telematics products grows at a dynamic rate. Hereby, Advanced Vehicle Control Systems are expected to account for almost a third of the market eventually (Kargin, 1999).

In-vehicle information and communication systems can assist, for example, with pre-journey and on-trip planning, bringing benefits in terms of better use of the road network. They can reduce uncertainty and stress, thus calming drivers and potentially contributing to safety. However, poor ergonomically designed vehicles could adversely affect driver behaviour, and hence safety, by distracting the driver’s attention from the driving task. Even properly planned integration of telematics services in vehicles creates challenges in presenting the information provided by these services to drivers in a safe and efficient manner. In addition to the need for safe and efficient user interfaces, these services have the potential to increase the cognitive workload of drivers resulting in driver distraction (Harbluk and Noy, 1988).

According to Tian et al. (2002), the maximum workspace for hands is provided in terms of Hand Control Reach by Safety Automotive Engineering (SAE) Standards (SAE J287 JUN88, Driver Hand Control Reach. SAE Handbook, Vol. 4. SAE, Warrendale, PA.SEA J287 JUN88), generated by extreme postures and infrequent reach movements, such as adjusting rear-view mirror, sun visor and knobs or switches on the instrument panel, or opening the glove box. Furthermore, inaccurate, untimely or misleading information could prompt a driver to take inappropriate action, thus endangering themselves or other road users.

Latest vehicle information research and development endeavours have led to a wide range of new in-vehicle technologies being introduced in the market, including Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADASs) and In-Vehicle Information Systems (IVISs). Moreover, the in-vehicle use of portable computing devices (or nomad devices) is increasing rapidly (Amditis et al., 2005). However, only specific on-site installation guidelines of on-board computer systems providers were found. These provider’s guidelines generally addressed ‘Airbag Safety and Compliance’, ‘Mounting and Installation’, ‘Ergonomic Comfort’, ‘Power Management’ and ‘Screen Ergonomics’.1

They do not specifically suggest installation solutions for safe driving under extreme and rugged conditions.

This has resulted in the need for applied research and development to ensure that the communication and information devices for adaptive core customisation of future cars are impact safe and require minimal visual demands. The needs, abilities and preferences

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of drivers are clearly a prime focus, as part of a user-centred design approach (Burnett and Porter, 2001).

2 Research objective and approach

2.1 Objective

The objective of this study is to find out whether adaptive core customisation is a realistic strategy for interior vehicle design by discussing and comparing the necessary ergonomic considerations in the interior customisation of two types of FRC. The audience, who may benefit from this study, are entities, such as designers and engineers, who are engaged in on-site adaptive car customisation. Research questions, which are inherent to this study, are:

Does a structured compartmentalisation of boot area facilitate the retrieval and storage of equipment as specified in Table 3?

What are the effects of safety and driving performance between the two cars when subjected to different ways of adaptive customised compartmentalisation?

How to develop safe and ergonomic comfortable operating conditions during static and on-the-move extreme driving conditions for the driver and front-passenger?

2.2 Approach

For this case study, vehicle adaptive core customisation was selected, as vehicle integration is only achievable when the project is initiated and championed by the original vehicle manufacturer.

The case study consisted of two parts, a customisation/design part and an evaluation part. The study was comparative and included two vehicles, a Volvo V70 Station Wagon (Figure 1(a)) and a Mitsubishi Space Wagon (Figure 1(b)). The ergonomic design of the front and rear interior of both vehicles was evaluated. Customisation of the front area attempted to improve the interaction among the electronic communication devices, co-passenger and driver, whereas customisation of the rear interior addressed the retrieval and storage of equipment and tools of the two types of vehicles.

Figure 1 (a) Volvo V70 Station Wagon and (b) Mitsubishi Space Wagon

(a) (b)

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Following a case study research approach by Yin (2003), two main sources of evidence were used, namely observations and structured interviews. Observations focused on the following aspects:

• Accessibility of equipment in the rear boot pertaining to retrieval and storage

• Interactions among the driver, front-passenger and on-board computer and communication systems

• Procedural road testing according to Singapore Productivity and Standards Board (PSB) (Choy and Teo, 2003a, 2003b).

Interviews were conducted with 8 teams comprising 2 police officers each (one driver and one front-passenger) from SPF, a total of 16 subjects. Six teams constituted of both male driver and front-passenger. Two teams were made up of a male driver and a female front-passenger. The subjects were between the ages of 27 and 40 and physically in good condition. Three subjects, who were below the age of 30, had at least 2 years experience as a cadet officer. All subjects were well versed in using the information and communication equipment at a user level.

In conjunction with the front-seat area of both cars, subjects were asked to perform the following tasks prior to the interview:

• accessing the main switch for activating the communication equipment

• adjusting the Mobile Data Terminal (MDT) monitor by the front-passenger

• retrieving and storing the MDT keyboard by the front-passenger

• undertaking a search activity using the MDT monitor and keyboard by the front-passenger

• operating the Mobile Radio Set (MRS units)

• adjusting the MDT monitor by the driver.

With respect to the rear area of both cars, the following tasks were completed and reflected upon by the subjects in the interview (Table 1).

Table 1 Tasks, which were completed by the subjects with respect to accessibility of equipment stored in the rear interior

Volvo V70 Station Wagon Mitsubishi Space Wagon

• Retrieval and storage of the large black toolbox by 2 persons (Figure 8(a))

• Retrieving riot shields from lower tier (Figure 9(b))

• Retrieving an item from the toolbox(Figure 8(b))

• Retrieving an item from the toolbox (Figure 9(d))

• Retrieval and storage of riot shields (Figure 8(c)) • Retrieval of snake catcher (Figure 9(f))

• Retrieval of roadblock sign (Figure 8(d)) • Retrieving roadblock sign (Figure 9(g))

• Retrieval of an item from the side, such as a raincoat (Figure 8(e))

• Retrieval of bolt cutter (Figure 8(f))

• Retrieving raincoat (Figure 9(i))

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3 Design process

3.1 Development of a design direction

Customisation of both types of vehicles was determined by the electronics, equipment and tools, which were provided by the SPF. This entailed certain constraints in the search for optimal adaptation, as all the equipment and devices were predetermined and therefore sizes, weights and volumes fixed.

3.1.1 Front-seat area

For the design and installation of the electronic and computer devices (see Table 2) in the front-seat area, an emphasis was placed on reach and workspace optimisation for the driver and front-passenger. Issues such as leg space, accessibility of equipment, safety under extreme conditions and ease of operation of communication devices were addressed in the design.

Table 2 SPF installed devices in front-seat area

Devices in front-seat area Function Access frequency Mobile Data Terminal MDT1 keyboard and 1 flat-screen monitor

To access police database and GPRS navigation information

High

Mobile Radio Set MRS2 radio sets and one microphone

To communicate with head quarters and to transfer data

High

Smart Card Reader SCR1 card reader

To read user smart card to gain access to MDT

Low

3.1.2 Rear area

To fit the prescribed equipment and tools (see Table 3), various concepts on space configuration, positioning and installation were proposed, ergonomically tested and evaluated. Vast differences in space availability between the Volvo and Mitsubishi (see Figure 2(a) and (b)) were a major concern for compartmentalisation to achieve optimal storage and retrieval. For the Mitsubishi, the original design elements also limited the driver’s rear-view vision. The design emphasis was on the ease of retrieval, optimisation of driver’s rear-view vision and safety during extreme driving conditions, e.g., restraining smaller monolithic objects such as helmets, which may endanger thepassengers, when not properly fixed.

Table 3 SPF required items in rear area of vehicle

Items in rear area of vehicle Quantity Size (cm) estimated Weight (kg)Stop lock (warning sign) 1 100 × 30 × 30 2.2 Body tent (round) 1 Ø 60 × 5 (thickness) 2.5 Body armour (vest) 2 30 × 50 × 5 2 × 1.5 = 3 Helmet 2 20 × 30 × 20 2 × 0.5 = 1 Raincoat (folded) 2 20 × 20 × 40 2 × 1.0 = 2.0

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Table 3 SPF required items in rear area of vehicle (continued)

Items in rear area of vehicle Quantity Size (cm) estimated Weight (kg)

Protective suit (chemical suit) 2 20 × 20 × 40 2 × 2.1 = 4.2 Weights to hold body tent 4 10 × 10 × 25 4 × 2.5 = 10.0 Riot shield 2 90 × 50 × 20 2 × 2.9 = 5.8 Snake catcher 1 Ø 5 × 120 (length) 1.4 Roadblock sign 1 40 × 80 × 5 5.5 Fire extinguisher 1 Ø 12 × 40 (length) 3 Bolt cutter 1 100 × 10 × 5 5.5 Tool box (with contents) 1 55 × 40 × 30 36.2 Total 82.3 kg

Figure 2 (a) Rear interior of Volvo and (b) rear interior of Mitsubishi

(a) (b)

3.2 Conceptualisation prior to customisation

Foam and cardboard models (see Figures 3(a) and (b), 4(a) and (b)) were used to obtain better knowledge on how the electronics, equipment and tools need to be arranged in a constrained space. This technique provides sufficient flexibility in the exploration of concepts and the performance of user trials in relation to each concept (Stanton, 1998).

Figure 3 (a) Foam models, front-seat area of Volvo V70 and (b) foam models, rear interior of Volvo V70

(a) (b)

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Figure 4 (a) Foam models, front-seat area of Mitsubishi and (b) foam models rear interior of Mitsubishi

(a) (b)

4 Adaptive customisation of front-seat area

To function efficiently and effectively as an FRC, the front area of both vehicles was equipped with the following electronics: integrated MDT system, two units of MRS and Smart Card Reader (SCR).

4.1 Volvo V70

• Main switch: The main switch of the MDT is located below the ignition key(Figure 5(a)).

• MDT monitor: The restricted front interior of the Volvo limits the positioningof the MDT monitor. A choice was made to position it between the centre consoleand the front-passenger (see Figure 5(b) and (f)), supported by a metal-stem-likestructure, of which the base is anchored at the most right-hand end of thefront-passenger seat onto the vehicle base. A ball-joint construction allows the MDTto be adjusted according to the user’s desired angle of vision. A combination ofaluminium and nylon was suggested for the ball-joint construction to providesufficient tightness to uphold the MDT against sudden and extreme dynamic forces.

• MDT keyboard: A modified compartment between the driver and co-passenger wascreated to be a holder for the keyboard (Figure 5(c) and (d)), which can be easilyretrieved when needed and kept out of view when not in use. Two options wereconsidered for the use of the keyboard. On the basis of the co-passenger’spreference, he or she can use it on his or her lap or hook it onto the stem-likestructure.

• MRS units: Predesigned slots in the centre console were made available to housethe two MRS units (Figure 5(e)).

• SCR: Considering its sensitivity and infrequent usage, the SCR has been placedinside the glove compartment for additional protection.

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Figure 5 (a) Reach ability of main switch; (b) front-passenger adjusting MDT monitor; (c) retrieval and storage of MDT keyboard; (d) undertaking a search activity using theMDT monitor and keyboard by the front-passenger; (e) operating the MRS units and(f) driver adjusting MDT monitor

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

4.2 Mitsubishi Space Wagon

• Main switch: The main switch of the MDT is located on the left side of the steeringwheel (Figure 6(a)).

• MDT monitor: Similar to the Volvo, the MDT monitor (see Figure 6(b) and (f))is positioned between the centre console and the front-passenger, supported by ametal-stem-like structure, of which the base is anchored at the most right-hand endof the co-passenger seat onto the vehicle base. A ball-joint construction, identical toVolvo, allows the MDT to be adjusted according to the user’s desired angle of

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vision. As the front-seat area is much bigger than the Volvo, the positioning of the MDT monitor in relation to both users is much more favourable, in terms of screen adjustment and visibility.

• Integrated design for MDT Keyboard and MRS units: For the MDT keyboard andMRS units, a customised platform, comprising a keyboard holder and horizontalplate (which supports the MRS units), has been installed onto the vehicle floorbetween both driver and co-passenger. This integrated design accommodates theMRS units and MDT keyboard neatly, the latter can be easily retrieved when neededand kept out of view when not in use (see Figure 6(c)–(e)). Two options were alsoconsidered for the use of the MDT keyboard. On the basis of co-passengerpreference, it can be operated on the co-passenger’s lap or hooked onto the stem-likestructure supporting the MDT monitor.

• SCR: Considering its sensitivity and infrequent usage, the SCR has been placedinside the glove compartment for additional protection.

Figure 6 (a) Reach ability of main switch; (b) front-passenger adjusting MDT monitor; (c) retrieval and storage of MDT keyboard; (d) undertaking a search activity using theMDT monitor and keyboard by the front-passenger; (e) operating the MRS unitsand (f) driver adjusting MDT monitor

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

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Figure 6 (a) Reach ability of main switch; (b) front-passenger adjusting MDT monitor; (c) retrieval and storage of MDT keyboard; (d) undertaking a search activity using theMDT monitor and keyboard by the front-passenger; (e) operating the MRS unitsand (f) driver adjusting MDT monitor (continued)

(e) (f)

5 Adaptive customisation of rear interior

Similarly, for the adaptive customisation of the rear interior, three Volvo V70 vehicles and three Mitsubishi vehicles were used.

5.1 Volvo V70 Station Wagon

Because of the Volvo’s limited rear area volume to store all the equipment and tools, not much variation could have been considered. A one-tier concept (see Figure 7) was proposed with the toolbox (Figure 8(a) and (b)) positioned in the rear centre. The riot shield (Figure 8(c)) and roadblock sign (Figure 8(d)) were placed between the back seat and toolbox, whereas other equipment and tools such as raincoat and bolt cutter (Figure 8(e) and (f)) were situated left and right from the box. The internal height of the rear interior did not allow the construction of multiple layers to compartmentalise the equipment, as it would block the rear view of the driver.

Figure 7 Arrangement of rear interior (see online version for colours)

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248 A. Liem

Figure 8 (a) At least two persons to move a fully loaded toolbox; (b) retrieving an item from the toolbox; (c) retrieval of riot shields; (d) retrieval of roadblock sign; (e) retrieval of an item from the side, such as a raincoat and (f) retrieval of bolt cutter

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

5.2 Mitsubishi Space Wagon

Because the rear interior space of a Mitsubishi Space Wagon is much larger than the Volvo, a three-tier conceptual approach (Figure 9(a)) has been adopted to systematically arrange the equipment. Importantly, elements that could block the driver’s rear view were removed (see Figure 2(b)). The riot shields (Figure 9(b)) were placed on the lower tier, followed by the toolbox, bolt cutter, helmets, protective suit and weights in the middle tier. A sliding mechanism (Figure 9(c)–(e)) facilitates the access to the toolbox. The top

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tier (Figure 9(f)) is designed to accommodate the roadblock sign (Figure 9(g)), body tent and body armour. In case of malfunctioning of the sliding mechanism, a segment of the top tier can be removed to access the toolbox. Between the back seat and toolbox (Figure 9(h)), much space is available for storage, which can be accessed from the top. Side storage is also available, e.g., raincoats (Figure 9(i)).

Figure 9 (a) Configuration of the rear: A – Lower Tier, B – Middle Tier, C – Top tier; (b) retrieving riot shields from lower tier; (c) sliding mechanism to facilitate accessto toolbox; (d) accessibility of the toolbox, based on sliding mechanism; (e) pushingthe toolbox in through an unlocking mechanism; (f) opening to access items from thetop tier; (g) retrieving roadblock sign; (h) bending and stretching to retrieve itemsbetween backseat and toolbox and (i) retrieving raincoat

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

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250 A. Liem

Figure 9 (a) Configuration of the rear: A – Lower Tier, B – Middle Tier, C – Top tier; (b) retrieving riot shields from lower tier; (c) sliding mechanism to facilitate accessto toolbox; (d) accessibility of the toolbox, based on sliding mechanism; (e) pushingthe toolbox in through an unlocking mechanism; (f) opening to access items from thetop tier; (g) retrieving roadblock sign; (h) bending and stretching to retrieve itemsbetween backseat and toolbox and (i) retrieving raincoat (continued)

(g) (h)

(i)

6 Surveys results

Following the customisations, qualitative surveys were conducted among eight teams from the SPF (one team comprises a driver and co-passenger). Electronic devices and equipment were evaluated according to operation procedures set by SPF. Key variables were operational in ‘stationary’ or ‘while on the move’. In each, both driver and co-passenger were involved in the handling of the electronics, where possible. Survey results are summarised in Table 4.

Table 4 Survey results

Device/tools Volvo V70 Station Wagon Mitsubishi Space Wagon Main switch 6 out of the 8 drivers found that the main

activation switch, below the key ignition, is difficult to remember and reach, user may forget to switch off system

All encountered no problems in identifying and activating the main switch

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Table 4 Survey results (continued)

Device/tools Volvo V70 Station Wagon Mitsubishi Space Wagon No restrictions in movement encountered

Movement of the front-passenger’s upper leg is slightly restricted but there is enough space to manoeuvre The front-passenger has more control

when engaged in typing activities when keyboard is affixed onto stem-like structure

The front-passenger has more control when engaged in typing activities when keyboard is affixed onto stem-like structure, rather than on the lap

MDTkeyboard

Much time and effort is needed to position and detach the keyboard from the stem-like structure

It is easy to retrieve and return keyboard to its holder

Front-passenger has no difficulty in adjusting and viewing the MDT monitor

Careful adjustments need to be made to determine the correct viewing angle for glare prevention, not many difficulties were encountered by the co-passenger during the adjustment of the MDT monitor

MDTmonitor

Handling of the MDT monitor by the driver posed some difficulties in terms of reach ability, adjustment and viewing of the screen. The distance and viewing angle of the screen is not ideal for the driver, who has to bend very much forward, while adjusting, and is subject to glare

From the driver’s viewpoint, no difficulties were encountered in adjusting, as well as viewing and accessing information from the MDT

The manufacturer’s prescribed location of the MRS system allowed easy operation by the driver as well as front-passenger

The location of the MRS system was predetermined for easy access and operation by the driver as well as co-passenger

MRS units

However, the position of the microphone is not very ideal as its retrieval is obstructed by the exposed electrical wiring as well as the MDT keyboard (when it is attached onto the stem-like structure)

There was no negative feedback on the positioning of the microphone

SCR Convenience of use was not compromised by mounting of the SCR inside the glove compartment

Convenience of use was not compromised by mounting of the SCR inside the glove compartment

Retrieval, storage, arrangement and placement of the tools and equipment were found to be satisfactory

The overall configuration of the rear interior in terms of retrieval, storage, arrangement and placement of the tools and equipment were found to be satisfactory

However, it is slightly more difficult to retrieve the riot shields and roadblock sign

To fit all the equipment and tools provided within the restricted rear interior, the user need to carefully arrange and pack

However, it is slightly more difficult to retrieve items, which have been placed between the back seat and toolbox. Shorter individuals have to stretch, bend forward or even stepon the rear door rim to reach an item through the opening of the top tier

Fast responsetools and equipment

Items did not move, shake or rattle, when travelling on uneven terrain. Neither did items fall out of the rear when the back door was opened after driving None of the subjects encountered

difficulties in taking out and placing back the black toolbox as a whole

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252 A. Liem

Table 4 Survey results (continued)

Device/tools Volvo V70 Station Wagon Mitsubishi Space Wagon Fast responsetools and equipment

When travelling on uneven terrain, a certain rattling noise has been heard because of items placed on the top tier. Although properly secured, psychologically it is distracting

7 Road tests

To determine the driving performance and safety of both types of vehicles after adaptive customisation, road tests were conducted by the Singapore PSB (Choy and Teo, 2003a, 2003b) to evaluate the strength and durability of the connections and fastenings, as well as the positioning of the components in conjunction with the vehicle’s inherent performance. The road test procedures and results are outlined in Table 5.

Table 5 Road test procedures and results

Test Procedure Volvo V70 Station Wagon Mitsubishi Space Wagon Not Satisfactory Satisfactory Test A

emergency stopping

In a fully equipped condition, both vehicles were travelling at a speed of 100 km per hour ona straight road. Hereafter, the vehicles were brought to a sudden standstill through abrupt activation of the brakes. The braking distance from the start of pressing the brakes till standstill was25–30 m

Severe movement of the computer mounting stand were observed. It is recommended to anchor the structure even better to the floor, supported with side brackets. The vehicle was able to stop within the stipulated braking distance of 25–30 m

There was no significant adverse effect observed. The structure is rigidly mounted and the ball joint did not loosen under these conditions. The vehicle was able to stop within the stipulated braking distance of 25–30 m

Satisfactory SatisfactoryTest B‘S-Curve’navigation

In a fully equipped condition, both vehicles were subjected to excessive left and right turning, using the S-curve testing method. Cones were placed, in one line, at a distance of 25 m apart, through which the vehicles manoeuvred

There was no significant adverse effect observed. However 80 km/hr was the maximum speed that vehicle was able to navigate around the S-curve cones before the weight of the equipment at the back causes the vehicle to lose control. Therefore, it is recommended that the safe vehicle speed be maintained below 75 km/hr

There was no significant adverse effect observed. However 60 km/hr was the maximum speed that vehicle was able to navigate around theS-curve cones before theweight of the equipment atthe back causes the vehicleto lose control. Therefore,it is recommended that thesafe vehicle speed bemaintained below55 km/hr

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Table 5 Road test procedures and results (continued)

Test Procedure Volvo V70 Station Wagon Mitsubishi Space Wagon

Satisfactory Not SatisfactoryTest C Uneven road driving

In a fully equipped condition, both vehicles were subjected to uneven road conditions.The uneven road was determined in conjunction with the Singapore Police Force

Slight rattling noises were heard. It is recommended to tighten the structure or use absorbers to and fixate loose equipment even better(e.g., Velcro straps) to lower the noise. The vehicle was travelling at 20–40 km/hr throughout the test

A noticeable rattling noise was heard when the vehicle was travelling at 20–40 km/hr throughout the test. It is recommended to tighten the structure or use absorbers to and fix down loose equipment even better (e.g., Velcro straps) to lower the noise

Satisfactory SatisfactoryTest D1 Gradual 90° turn@60 km/hr

In a fully equipped condition, both vehicles were subjected to gradual 90 degrees turns at a speed of 60 km/hour

The vehicle was able to safely make a gradual 90-degree turn at 60 km/hr

The vehicle was able to safely make a gradual 90-degree turn at60 km/hr. At highervehicle speed, the vehicletends to rollout

Satisfactory SatisfactoryTest D2 tight bend turn@40 km/hr

In a fully equipped condition, both vehicles were subjected to a tight bend at a speed of 40 km/hour

The vehicle was able to just make a tight turn at 40 km/hr without any problem. At a higher vehicle speed of 60 km/hr, the vehicle tends to rollout. It is recommended that the vehicle be kept at 40 km/hr for tight turns.

The vehicle was able to just make a tight turn at 40 km/hr. At higher vehicle speed, the vehicle tends to rollout. It is recommended that the vehicle be kept at below 40 km/hr for tight turns

8 Discussion

Adaptive customisation of the interior of FRCs to achieve effective and efficient ergonomic usage is a complicated exercise. Mechanical possibilities and constraints, inherent in the vehicle, determine the quality of the design solution. Generally, both design solutions using Volvo and Mitsubishi have complied with the design brief set by the SPF, in terms of mechanical and ergonomic functionality. Concerning the installation of the on-board computer terminal and ancillary items, a natural placement with good workspace accessibility has been found near the centre console at the front-passenger seat for both cars. The spacious interior and upright seating position within the Mitsubishi led to a more comfortable workspace environment and product interaction between the computer/communication devices and the driver as well as front-passenger. In terms of the positioning of the MDT monitor, a rigid structure, which is properly anchored on to the base and supported on the sides, is crucial. The ball-joint construction meets the requirements under extreme driving conditions, as the ball is made of aluminium and the tightening ring out of nylon. This forms a good friction between the two elements. No difficulties were observed in the readjustment of the monitor. Observations and interviews related to the ergonomic design of the rear interior indicated that the

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254 A. Liem

Mitsubishi performed better than the Volvo. The spacious three-tier interior provided improved accessibility and overview of equipment. Unlike with the Volvo, accurate packing to fit all equipment is not crucial. However, when subjected to dynamic road tests, results show that the Mitsubishi encountered problems in relation to noise control. Because of a roomier rear interior layout made possible by a 3-tier construction, a significant rattling noise occurred when driving under uneven road conditions. A more rigid structure with a tighter fit referenced to the standard rear interior needs to be designed. Absorbers are highly recommended at interface points and surfaces between the original car interior and the structure. A comparative summary of strength and weaknesses is listed in Table 6.

Table 6 A comparative summary of strength and weaknesses between the Volvo V70and Mitsubishi Space Wagon

Strengths WeaknessesVolvo:Rear interior

Compact packing limits the noise caused by rattling equipment

Certain equipment, such as riot shields, are difficult to access. Items need to be packed compactly to optimise the available space

Allocated slots for the MRS-units have been reserved at optimal dashboard positions

The MDT-monitor and its support system slightly limit the leg and workspace for the co-passenger

Volvo V70 front-seatarea

The ball-joint construction forms a rigid structure under extreme driving conditions, as the ball is made of aluminium and the tightening ring out of nylon

In certain orientations, the MDT-monitor blocks the accessibility to the MRS-units

Mitsubishi:Rear interior

Spacious rear interior facilitates an improved and easier organisation of equipment

The 3-tiers storage system causes rattling noise under extreme road condition. A tighter fit and damping to absorb dynamic friction between the structure and original car interior parts are needed

Spacious front area leads to easy accessibility of telematic equipment

Mitsubishi:Front-seatarea The ball-joint construction forms a

rigid structure under extreme driving conditions, as the ball is made of aluminium and the tightening ring made out of nylon

There are no predetermined slots available for the MRS-units. The only place available is in the open space on the car floor between the driver and the co-passenger. This is not very ideal as both passengers need to turn their heads to side in the direction of the floor to access them

9 Conclusion

Adaptive Core Customisation is a design strategy, which can be adopted by vehicle manufactures in the prototype and user testing stages of cars equipped with telematic and storage facilities. Alternatively, it is one of the rare options for selected groups, such as police, firemen, ambulance, who are mainly interested in a limited number of special-purpose vehicles. Usually, a limited number does not economically justify integrated core customisation.

At this junction, the presented case study is a preliminary effort to set ergonomic guidelines and recommendations for the interior customisation of FRCs based on

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adaptive core customisation. More in-depth ergonomic studies on a wider range of subjects, based on prescribed and structured test scenarios within different contexts, are to be undertaken in future.

ReferencesAlford, A., Sackett, P. and Nelder, G. (2000) ‘Mass customisation – an automotive perspective’,

International Journal of Production Economics, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp.99–110. Amditis, A., Andreone, L., Polychronopoulos, A. and Engström, J. (2005) ‘Design and

development of an adaptive integrated driver-vehicle interface: overview of the AIDE project’, Proc. 16th IFAC World Congr., Prague, Czech Republic, 4–8 July.

Benlamlih, F. and Reid, R. (2001) Automotive & Freight Telematics Strategic Report,ARC Group, UK.

Burnett, G.E. and Porter, J.M. (2001) ‘Ubiquitous computing within cars: designing controls for non-visual use’, Int. J. Human-Computer Studies, Vol. 55, pp.521–531.

Choy, K.M. and Teo, A. (2003a) Witness Testing for One Enhanced Mitsubitshi Space Wagon Police Petrol Vehicle, PSB, Singapore.

Choy, K.M. and Teo, A. (2003b) Witness Testing for One Enhanced Volvo V70 XC Police Petrol Vehicle, PSB, Singapore.

Harbluk, J.L. and Noy, Y.I (1988) The Impact of Cognitive Distraction on Driver Visual Behaviour and Vehicle Control, Transport Canada, Ottawa, Canada, TP#13889 E, 2002, SAE, Driver Hand Control Reach, SAE Handbook, Vol. 4, SAE, Warrendale, PA.

Hekkert, P. and Van Dijk, M. (2003) ’Designing from context: foundations and applications of the ViP approach’, in Lloyd, P. and Christiaans, H. (Eds.): Designing in Context: Proceedings of Design Thinking Research Symposium 5, DUP Science, Delft.

Kargin, V. (1999) ‘Market of the intelligent transport systems: investments to the new transport technologies’, Computer Modelling & New Technologies, Vol. 3, pp.126–132.

Stanton, N. (1998) Human Factors in Consumer Products, Taylor and Francis Ltd., UK. Tian, X., Jin, C., Tian, Y. and Tian, Q. (2002) ‘Experimental study on fist-ellipse for Chinese auto

drivers’, Applied Ergonomics, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp.101–103. Yin, R.K. (2003) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 3rd ed., Applied Social Research

Methods Series, Thousand Oaks, California, USA.

Note1http://www.data911.com/Crown_Vic_Brochure.pdf

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APPENDIX B-6

ARTICLE VIII

DEVELOPMENT OF INTERIOR CONCEPTS TO FACILITATE SMALL-SPACE LIVING IN SINGAPORE

Author(s):






Published in:

Journal of Southeast Asian Architecture, Volume 7, 2004, (ISSN 0218-9593)

Number of pages:

11 (pp. 47-57).

How to Cite?

MLA Liem, Andre. " Development of interior concepts to facilitate small-space living in singapore "Journal of Southeast Asian Architecture”, 7, (2004): 47-57

APA Liem, A. (2004). Development of interior concepts to facilitate Journal of Southeast Asian Architecture”, 7, 47-57

Chicago Liem, Andre. "Development of interior concepts to facilitate small-space living in singapore "Journal of Southeast Asian Architecture”, 7, (2004): 47-57

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Goad, P. and Bingham-Hall, P. (2000) ArchitectureBali: Architectures of Welcome, Sydney: PesaroPublishing.Gouda, F. (1995) Dutch Culture Overseas: ColonialPractice in the Netherlands Indies, 1900-1942,Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.Gregory, D. (1999) “Scripting Egypt: Orientalismand the Cultures of Travel,” in Duncan, J. andGregory, D. (eds), Writes of Passage: ReadingTravel Writing, London: Routledge, pp.115-150.Kahn, J.S. (ed) (1998) Southeast Asian Identities:Culture and the Politics of Representation inIndonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand, NewYork: St. Martin’s Press, and Singapore: Institute ofSoutheast Asian Studies.King, A.D. (2003) “Actually ExistingPostcolonialisms: Colonial Urbanism andArchitecture after the PostcolonialTurn,” in R. Bishop, et.al (eds) PostcolonialUrbanism: Southeast Asian Cities and GlobalProcesses, New York: Routledge. pp.167-85.Krause, G. (1988 [1920]) Bali 1912, Wellington:January Books, first published by Folkwang-VerlagGmbH, Hagen.Kusno, A. (2000a) Behind the Postcolonial:Architecture, Urban Space and Political Cultures inIndonesia, London: RoutledgeKusno, A. (2000b) “Imagining Regionalism, Re-Fashioning Orientalism: Some CurrentArchitecturalDiscourses in Southeast Asia,” in Journal ofSoutheast Asian Architecture 2000, 4: pp.45-61,National University of Singapore.Liefrinck, F.A. (1886-7) ‘De Rijscultuur op Bali, inIndische Gids 1886:2 and 1887:1Liefrinck, F.A. (1927) Bali en Lombok, Amsterdam:Gescheiteften.Lancret, N. (1997) La Maison Balinaise enSecteur Urbain: Etude Ethno-Architecturale, Paris:Association Archipel.Macrae, G. and Parker, S. (2002) “Would the RealUndagi Please Stand up?: On the Social Locationof BalineseArchitectural Knowledge,” in Bijdragen tot deTaal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 158 (2): pp.253-81,Leiden: Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- enVolkenkunde.Moojen, P.A.J (1926) Kunst op Bali: Inleide Studietot de Bouwkunst, Den Haag: Adi Poestaka. Morton,P.A. (2000) Hybrid Modernities: Architecture andRepresentation at the 1931 Colonial Exposition,Paris,Cambridge: The MIT Press.Nalbantoglu, G.B., and Thai. W.C. (eds.) (1997)

Postcolonial Space(s), New York: PrincetonArchitectural Press.Nalbantoglu, G.B. (2001) “(Post)ColonialArchitectural Encounters” in Tan Kok Meng (ed.),Asian Architects Volume 2, Singapore: SelectBooks, pp. 19-27.Philokalos (1936) ‘De keerzijde.’ in Djawa 16:p.139.Picard, M. (1996) Bali: Cultural Tourism andTouristic Culture, Singapore: Archipelago Press.Puja, IGN. A. (ed.) (1986) Arsitektur TradisionalDaerah Bali, Denpasar: Departemen Pendidikandan Kebudayaan.Reuter, T.A. (2002) Custodians of the SacredMountains: Culture and Society in the Highlands ofBali, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press.Robinson, G. (1995) The Dark Side of Paradise:Political Violence in Bali, Ithaca and London:Cornell University Press.Said, E.W. (1995 [1978]) Orientalism: WesternConceptions of the Orient, London: Penguin.Said, E.W. (1991) The World, the Text, and theCritic, London: Vintage.Schulte Nordholt, H.( 1986) Bali: ColonialConceptions and Political Change 1700-1940 FromShifting Hierarchies to ‘Fixed’ Order, Rotterdam:Erasmus.Sudradjat, 1 (1991) A Study of IndonesianArchitectural History, PhD Dissertation, DepartmentofArchitecture, University of Sydney.Sullivan, G. (1999) Margaret Mead, GregoryBateson, and Highland Bali: Fieldwork Photographsof Bayung Gede, 1936-1939, Chicago and London:The University of Chicago Press.Tan, R.Y.D. (1967) “The Domestic Architectureof South Bali,” in Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- enVolkenkunde, 123(4): pp.442-75, Leiden: KoninklijkInstituut voor Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde.Van Rornondt, V.R. (1954) Reisgids Bali, Limitedpublication, Bandung.Vickers, A. (1989) Bali: A Paradise Created,Singapore: Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd.(2004) Journeys of Desire: The Balinese Malat asText and History, Leiden: KITLV Press.Walker, B. and Helmi, R. (1995) Bali Style, London:Thames and Hudson Ltd.Wijaya, M. (2002) Architecture of Bali: A SourceBook of Traditional and Modern Forms, Singapore:Archipelago Press and Wijaya Words.

This paper discusses new visions and concepts to enhancethe quality ofsmall—space living in Singapore, using twodesign studies.In developing the interior concepts for i/ic broadly-speaking ‘apartment housing” in Singapore, thispaper considers the recent apartin en! housing trendsin Singapore, the apartment housing dweller c attitudetowards DJY furniture and the Singaporean consamerbehaviour towards small—space living.Zooming into tile apartment housing in Singapore,more indented walls and higher ceilings are becomingincreasing/v conimonpiace. These higher ceilings andindented walls, because of irregularities in alternatingsupporting and non-supporting structures, stimulate newapproaches in the development of interior concepts jbrsmall-space living through two design studies. The firstdesign study discusses the issue of space optimnisationforindented walls, using a flexible shelfsystem. The seconddesign study cap italises on lug/i ceilings to limit as manyobstacles as possible on the.floom; using afloor-integratedfoldable coffee table. Both design studies are approachedfmvm an aesthetic and ergonomic design point of view toachieve affordable, high quality, space efficient Do-It-Yourself (DIY,) home solutions.

Introduction

Singapore is a densely populated city and increasinglyso. For the past 20 years, the population has grownfrom 2.2 to 3.2 million. In 2040 it is predicted thatthe number of people residing in Singapore willreach almost 5.5 million. On a land area of 647.5sqkrn, this translates into a current populationdensity of 5965 people per square km, ballooning to8494 people per square km by 2040.

As a multi-racial island nation, Singapore comprisesof three main ethnic groups. In descending numbers,these groups are Chinese, Malays and Indians.Prior to erection of high-rise public housing, these

later concrete). The former was found in ubiquitous

has an extremely successful story in high-rise high-

Amanda Achrnadi :4 Journal of Southeast Asian Architecture Vol 7(2004)

Development of Interior Concepts to Facilitate Small-space Living inSingapore

Ir. André Liem1/IDSA Fellow

School of Design and Environment, Department ofArchitecture.National University of Singapore, Singapore

ethnic groups generally lived in two types ofhousing: timber village houses with roofs of attap(a combination of palm leaves, corrugated zincplates or asbestos sheets); or shop houses of morepermanent materials (such as brick and mortar, and

1

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I0.

1

semi-rural Chinese and Malay villages (kampong)in the peripheral areas of the island while the latterwere found exclusively in the central downtownareas of the Singapore Island (Chua 1991).Following the nation’s rapid development andintensive building since 1960s, Singapore hasabandoned the low density planning and designcharacter of the village (kampong) and shophouses, and has moved into structured high-rise,high-density constructions to optimise urban spaceutilisation (Bay, 2000).

Nowadays, Singapore housing can be broadlyclassified into two main categories: landed housingand apartment housing. “Landed housing” includesdetached bungalows, semi-detached bungalowsand terrace houses built by commercial developers.“Apartment housing”, on the other hand, refersto flats built by the Singapore public housingauthority (Housing Development Board or HDB),condominiums (flats with common facilities likeswimming pool and tennis courts) and privateapartments built by commercial developers.

The focus of this paper is on apartment housing.Contrary to the disastrous experiences in variouswestern nations like the U.S.A. and U.K., Singapore

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density living (Chua 1991). Factors such goodquality finishings in the units, adequate facilities andthe traditional ideology of family communal livingamong Asians were instrumental in developing apositive attitude in Singaporeans towards high rise,high density living. The success ofhigh-rise housingmakes it worthwhile to look into interior conceptsuseful for its application in Singapore.

Considerations for developing interiorconcepts for apartment housing

In developing interior concepts for apartmenthousing in Singapore, the following considerationswere made.

Smallerfloor areaRecently, the issue of space optimisation within aconfined HDB or Condominium unit has becomeincreasingly important. From a resource pointof view, land is getting more and more scarce inSingapore (land area = 647.5 sqkm). This has shownin the decreasing size of 4- and 5-room flats as wellas condominium units being built during the pastsix years. For example, the HDB flat size of 4- and5-room apartments has decreased approximately 10% in size.

Smaller household sizeIn Singapore today, apartment housing currentlyaccounts for the homes of almost 95% of theSingapore population. They have managed toadapt their cultures and traditions from the moretraditional housing types (village houses and shophouses) to the structure and fabric of public housing(Hee and Wong, 2000).

With this transition to high-density living over thelast two decades, the family structure ofSingaporeanhouseholds has changed. There is a decline in thenumber of multi-nuclei households and an increasein single family nucleus households. The numberof persons in an apartment dwelling is still on thedecline. In addition, there is also an increase in one-

person households, mainly attributed to the risingnumber of expatriates and foreigners working andresiding in Singapore.

Statistically, between 1970 and 1990, the size ofhouseholds has decreased from an average of 5.4 to4.1 (Toh&Tay, 1990).

Apartment housing dwellers’ attitudes towrdinterior decoration and diy home improvementIn Singapore, both public housing and privateapartment, although to a lesser degree, areconstructed in a systematic manner. Especiallyfor public housing, the developers do not providevariations and additions, keeping the apartment toits bare minimum. However, from an apartmenthousing dweller’s viewpoint, this condition does notrestrain his need to establish a personal identity withthe dwelling place. The Home Ownership Scheme,initiated in the 70s, allows residents to pay fortheir flats with their Central Provident Fund (CPF)savings and therefore encourages owners to makemore effort to furnish and embellish their flats. Anew breed of HDB house-proud owners emerged,who often remodeled their humble flats into drearnhomes’ (Hee & Wong, 2000).

Another important consideration in developing anew approach in interior design concepts is thatSingaporeans do not have the luxury of conducivespace for DIY activities, such as an air-conditionedor ventilated garage, attic or breezy open space.Limitation of space to undertake preparatorywork and humid weather conditions are the mainrestrictions for DIY activities. They would prefereasy-to-install, quick-fix solutions.

Consumer behaviour towards small—spacelivingTo better understand the consumer behaviour ofSingaporeans towards small-space living, it isimportant to compare needs, tastes and purchasingpower of Singapore against those of other societies,

both East Asian as well as Western. The hierarchyof needs is first discussed, followed by the evolvingtastes of Singaporeans especially in response toWestern and Japanese approach towards small-spaceliving. Lastly, the purchasing power of present-daySingaporeans is looked into.

Chinese-Asian Hierarchy of Needs (vs Westernversion)SchLitte and Ciarlante (1998) developed a Chinese-Asian equivalent of Maslow’s hierarchy of needsto compare with the Western version. The basicphysiological and safety needs are comparable forthe Asian and Western consumer. However, thedifference lies in the top three levels of the hierarchy.Instead of Maslow’s hierarchy of belonging,prestige and self-actualisation, the Chinese-Asianversion addresses affiliation, admiration and status(see 111.1). The emphasis on achieving personal gainthrough independence, autonomy and freedom,which are characteristic of the individualistic valuesystem of Western cultures, is visibly absent in aChinese-Asian environment, such as Singapore.The difference in emphasis manifests itself in theway Chinese-Asians acquire property, decorate theirinterior and purchase furniture. When evaluatingthe driving forces behind consumer behaviour of aChinese society, such as Singapore, one may observethat socially directed needs of affiliation, admirationand status are considered the most important.

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Emergence of Local TasteIn terms oftaste, it is expected that Singaporeans willform a merged response to Western and Japaneseinfluences in the search and development of a localdirection towards small-space interior concepts.

Response to Western influence: minimum isbeautiful”

In general, preferences in interior design aretaste and function driven. Presently, a majorityis dictated by Western (European, NorthernAmerican, Australian) standards of quality, beauty,functionality and practicality. This has a significantinfluence on the choices Singaporeans make interms of emotional liking and psychological factors.The need to be admired, to show off status and tobelong to a certain group still play an importantrole in the way Singaporeans develop their interiorconcepts. In this context, space is not created byminimising the number of items in the house, butby having bigger houses, not only to create thenecessary desired space, which equals comfort, butalso to house symbols of status, such as impressive“Louis XIV” style of furniture. This resulted in anincrease in demand for more households dwellingswith larger floor areas between 1980 to 1990. Forexample, the number of four and five room HDBflats has increased by four folds during that period.

André Liem Development of Interior Concepts to Facilitate Small-space Living in Singapore

I

F

‘Iy)

I

I

UPPER-LEVELNEEDS PERSONAL

ASIA

SOCIAL

SOCIAL

LOWER-LEVELNEEDS

111.1: Maslow hierarchy ofneeds and the Asian equivalent

B-91

48

density living (Chua 1991). Factors such goodquality finishings in the units, adequate facilities andthe traditional ideology of family communal livingamong Asians were instrumental in developing apositive attitude in Singaporeans towards high rise,high density living. The success ofhigh-rise housingmakes it worthwhile to look into interior conceptsuseful for its application in Singapore.

Considerations for developing interiorconcepts for apartment housing

In developing interior concepts for apartmenthousing in Singapore, the following considerationswere made.

Smallerfloor areaRecently, the issue of space optimisation within aconfined HDB or Condominium unit has becomeincreasingly important. From a resource pointof view, land is getting more and more scarce inSingapore (land area = 647.5 sqkm). This has shownin the decreasing size of 4- and 5-room flats as wellas condominium units being built during the pastsix years. For example, the HDB flat size of 4- and5-room apartments has decreased approximately 10% in size.

Smaller household sizeIn Singapore today, apartment housing currentlyaccounts for the homes of almost 95% of theSingapore population. They have managed toadapt their cultures and traditions from the moretraditional housing types (village houses and shophouses) to the structure and fabric of public housing(Hee and Wong, 2000).

With this transition to high-density living over thelast two decades, the family structure ofSingaporeanhouseholds has changed. There is a decline in thenumber of multi-nuclei households and an increasein single family nucleus households. The numberof persons in an apartment dwelling is still on thedecline. In addition, there is also an increase in one-

person households, mainly attributed to the risingnumber of expatriates and foreigners working andresiding in Singapore.

Statistically, between 1970 and 1990, the size ofhouseholds has decreased from an average of 5.4 to4.1 (Toh&Tay, 1990).

Apartment housing dwellers’ attitudes towrdinterior decoration and diy home improvementIn Singapore, both public housing and privateapartment, although to a lesser degree, areconstructed in a systematic manner. Especiallyfor public housing, the developers do not providevariations and additions, keeping the apartment toits bare minimum. However, from an apartmenthousing dweller’s viewpoint, this condition does notrestrain his need to establish a personal identity withthe dwelling place. The Home Ownership Scheme,initiated in the 70s, allows residents to pay fortheir flats with their Central Provident Fund (CPF)savings and therefore encourages owners to makemore effort to furnish and embellish their flats. Anew breed of HDB house-proud owners emerged,who often remodeled their humble flats into drearnhomes’ (Hee & Wong, 2000).

Another important consideration in developing anew approach in interior design concepts is thatSingaporeans do not have the luxury of conducivespace for DIY activities, such as an air-conditionedor ventilated garage, attic or breezy open space.Limitation of space to undertake preparatorywork and humid weather conditions are the mainrestrictions for DIY activities. They would prefereasy-to-install, quick-fix solutions.

Consumer behaviour towards small—spacelivingTo better understand the consumer behaviour ofSingaporeans towards small-space living, it isimportant to compare needs, tastes and purchasingpower of Singapore against those of other societies,

both East Asian as well as Western. The hierarchyof needs is first discussed, followed by the evolvingtastes of Singaporeans especially in response toWestern and Japanese approach towards small-spaceliving. Lastly, the purchasing power of present-daySingaporeans is looked into.

Chinese-Asian Hierarchy of Needs (vs Westernversion)SchLitte and Ciarlante (1998) developed a Chinese-Asian equivalent of Maslow’s hierarchy of needsto compare with the Western version. The basicphysiological and safety needs are comparable forthe Asian and Western consumer. However, thedifference lies in the top three levels of the hierarchy.Instead of Maslow’s hierarchy of belonging,prestige and self-actualisation, the Chinese-Asianversion addresses affiliation, admiration and status(see 111.1). The emphasis on achieving personal gainthrough independence, autonomy and freedom,which are characteristic of the individualistic valuesystem of Western cultures, is visibly absent in aChinese-Asian environment, such as Singapore.The difference in emphasis manifests itself in theway Chinese-Asians acquire property, decorate theirinterior and purchase furniture. When evaluatingthe driving forces behind consumer behaviour of aChinese society, such as Singapore, one may observethat socially directed needs of affiliation, admirationand status are considered the most important.

WEST

49

Emergence of Local TasteIn terms oftaste, it is expected that Singaporeans willform a merged response to Western and Japaneseinfluences in the search and development of a localdirection towards small-space interior concepts.

Response to Western influence: minimum isbeautiful”

In general, preferences in interior design aretaste and function driven. Presently, a majorityis dictated by Western (European, NorthernAmerican, Australian) standards of quality, beauty,functionality and practicality. This has a significantinfluence on the choices Singaporeans make interms of emotional liking and psychological factors.The need to be admired, to show off status and tobelong to a certain group still play an importantrole in the way Singaporeans develop their interiorconcepts. In this context, space is not created byminimising the number of items in the house, butby having bigger houses, not only to create thenecessary desired space, which equals comfort, butalso to house symbols of status, such as impressive“Louis XIV” style of furniture. This resulted in anincrease in demand for more households dwellingswith larger floor areas between 1980 to 1990. Forexample, the number of four and five room HDBflats has increased by four folds during that period.

André Liem Development of Interior Concepts to Facilitate Small-space Living in Singapore

I

F

‘Iy)

I

I

UPPER-LEVELNEEDS PERSONAL

ASIA

SOCIAL

SOCIAL

LOWER-LEVELNEEDS

111.1: Maslow hierarchy ofneeds and the Asian equivalent

B-92

50 André Liem Development of Interior Concepts to Facilitate Small-space Living in Singapore 5 1

However, and as earlier mentioned, space constraints

drastically reduced the flat size from 1995 onwards.

Being aware of the limitation in space and influenced

by the media on European contemporary living,

young Singaporeans have embraced practicality and

the concept of “minimum is beautiful” has gained

tremendous popularity.

The newer generations of Singaporeans, being

more exposed to Western cultures through media

and education, are beginning to adopt a more

critical approach towards products and lifestyles,

such as interiors and furniture. The “Roman” or

“Louis XIV” interior deco has made way for the

new contemporary and global designs. The younger

generation Si ngaporeans, who are financially

restricted to purchase spacious property such aslarge condominiums, terrace houses, etc., therefore

are increasingly pursuing a contemporary minimalist

approach towards the interior design of their units.

There is also a rising awareness for seif-actualisation

among young Singaporeans instead of the need to

be admired, to show off status and to belong to a

certain group. Instead of the “having a house”, it

has become the ‘living in the house” that is more

important since 68% of all leisure activities, such as

reading, viewing television and listening to music,

take place at home, (Ho and Chua, 1990)

Response to Japanese Influence: ‘Changeabilityandflexibility”

Referring to small-space living in Japan, Ross

(1978) described the philosophy of the Metabolist

Group, which have been established in 1960 by

five young Japanese designers. Changeability and

flexibility were the key elements of metabolism. It

is the biological process by which life is maintained

through the continuous cycle of producing and

destroying protoplasm. In terms of architecture, it

means creating a dynamic environment that could

live and grow, by discarding its outdated parts and

regenerating newer, more viable elements. This

philosophy and attitude towards compact livinghas manifested in the external as well as internaldesign of Japanese housing. Thinking minimally isseen as a virtue, which results in efficient usage ofspace (see III. 2, 3 & 4) and elimination of ‘nonessential’ objects to create space. In many instances,the house itself is treated as a ‘piece of furniture’(Brown 1993).

This is in stark contrast with the situation inSingapore. Although space is considered a scarcecommodity in both Japan and Singapore, unlikeJapan, such an approach is not yet accepted inSingapore.

The Singaporean local taste is expected to internalisethese Western and Japanese approaches to interiorconcepts, integrating them into new directions tofacilitate small-space living in Singapore. This willbe explored in the two design studies to follow inthis paper.

From Ethnic to Economic Culture: Purchasing Powerof New “Middle” ClassSingapore has become an affluent society with rapiddevelopments in the past two decades. The overallpurchasing power has increased, especially with theemergence of a “new middle class” (Chua & Tan1999). This middle class is quite ambitious comparedto the working class and rich, and is continuouslylooking for opportunities to upgrade themselvesfinancially and in status. Within the Singapore

5-ROOM IMPROVED

.... L:_ ..

context, main icons of status are housing (property)and cars. In terms of housing, this automaticallytranslates into the quality of interior decoration.

According to Chua & Tan (1999), multi-racialSingapore is increasingly less integrated in termsof ethnic identity but more bonded by economicpurchasing power. Previous rhetoric has argued thateach ethnic group is integrated vertically, with thepoor and the rich of each group bound by a shared‘ethnic culture’. Furthermore, this rhetoric argued thatthe similarity in culture among members of the threeethnic groups is more significant than the possiblehorizontal integration between Singaporeans alongincome divisions across ethnic lines. However, afterexamining the culture of different classes moreextensively, prevailing rhetoric now perceives thatit is an “economic culture”, derived from the logicof the capitalistic economy, which creates a bondingamong Singaporeans. This clearly points to theemergence of a “New Middle Class” in Singapore.

Variables in apartment housing for interiorconcepts

The following features have been identified asvariables in apartment housing in Singapore.

hidented walls

More and more apartment housing allows forindented walls in the unit to maximise space.Indented walls are inevitably and “naturally” createdwhen supporting and non-supporting structures

I11.2: A inodern-tiuditional Japanese Home

/1.3: A sinai/Japanese room using raisedflooring/br storage. 1/1.4: Storage under the staiic. 1/1.5: Indented wa/Is in a Singapore pub/ic apartment.

B-93

50 André Liem Development of Interior Concepts to Facilitate Small-space Living in Singapore 5 1

However, and as earlier mentioned, space constraints

drastically reduced the flat size from 1995 onwards.

Being aware of the limitation in space and influenced

by the media on European contemporary living,

young Singaporeans have embraced practicality and

the concept of “minimum is beautiful” has gained

tremendous popularity.

The newer generations of Singaporeans, being

more exposed to Western cultures through media

and education, are beginning to adopt a more

critical approach towards products and lifestyles,

such as interiors and furniture. The “Roman” or

“Louis XIV” interior deco has made way for the

new contemporary and global designs. The younger

generation Si ngaporeans, who are financially

restricted to purchase spacious property such aslarge condominiums, terrace houses, etc., therefore

are increasingly pursuing a contemporary minimalist

approach towards the interior design of their units.

There is also a rising awareness for seif-actualisation

among young Singaporeans instead of the need to

be admired, to show off status and to belong to a

certain group. Instead of the “having a house”, it

has become the ‘living in the house” that is more

important since 68% of all leisure activities, such as

reading, viewing television and listening to music,

take place at home, (Ho and Chua, 1990)

Response to Japanese Influence: ‘Changeabilityandflexibility”

Referring to small-space living in Japan, Ross

(1978) described the philosophy of the Metabolist

Group, which have been established in 1960 by

five young Japanese designers. Changeability and

flexibility were the key elements of metabolism. It

is the biological process by which life is maintained

through the continuous cycle of producing and

destroying protoplasm. In terms of architecture, it

means creating a dynamic environment that could

live and grow, by discarding its outdated parts and

regenerating newer, more viable elements. This

philosophy and attitude towards compact livinghas manifested in the external as well as internaldesign of Japanese housing. Thinking minimally isseen as a virtue, which results in efficient usage ofspace (see III. 2, 3 & 4) and elimination of ‘nonessential’ objects to create space. In many instances,the house itself is treated as a ‘piece of furniture’(Brown 1993).

This is in stark contrast with the situation inSingapore. Although space is considered a scarcecommodity in both Japan and Singapore, unlikeJapan, such an approach is not yet accepted inSingapore.

The Singaporean local taste is expected to internalisethese Western and Japanese approaches to interiorconcepts, integrating them into new directions tofacilitate small-space living in Singapore. This willbe explored in the two design studies to follow inthis paper.

From Ethnic to Economic Culture: Purchasing Powerof New “Middle” ClassSingapore has become an affluent society with rapiddevelopments in the past two decades. The overallpurchasing power has increased, especially with theemergence of a “new middle class” (Chua & Tan1999). This middle class is quite ambitious comparedto the working class and rich, and is continuouslylooking for opportunities to upgrade themselvesfinancially and in status. Within the Singapore

5-ROOM IMPROVED

.... L:_ ..

context, main icons of status are housing (property)and cars. In terms of housing, this automaticallytranslates into the quality of interior decoration.

According to Chua & Tan (1999), multi-racialSingapore is increasingly less integrated in termsof ethnic identity but more bonded by economicpurchasing power. Previous rhetoric has argued thateach ethnic group is integrated vertically, with thepoor and the rich of each group bound by a shared‘ethnic culture’. Furthermore, this rhetoric argued thatthe similarity in culture among members of the threeethnic groups is more significant than the possiblehorizontal integration between Singaporeans alongincome divisions across ethnic lines. However, afterexamining the culture of different classes moreextensively, prevailing rhetoric now perceives thatit is an “economic culture”, derived from the logicof the capitalistic economy, which creates a bondingamong Singaporeans. This clearly points to theemergence of a “New Middle Class” in Singapore.

Variables in apartment housing for interiorconcepts

The following features have been identified asvariables in apartment housing in Singapore.

hidented walls

More and more apartment housing allows forindented walls in the unit to maximise space.Indented walls are inevitably and “naturally” createdwhen supporting and non-supporting structures

I11.2: A inodern-tiuditional Japanese Home

/1.3: A sinai/Japanese room using raisedflooring/br storage. 1/1.4: Storage under the staiic. 1/1.5: Indented wa/Is in a Singapore pub/ic apartment.

B-94

52 André Liem

irregularly alternate and when precious space is not

to be wasted. Supporting structures have to abide tocertain regulations to meet the safety requirementsfor building. Non-supporting structures cantheoretically be as thin as possible, as long as theyfulfill the task of partitioning a certain area.Apartment housing commonly has indented walls atvarious locations in the unit.

Higher ceiling

High- ceiling condominiums are becomingincreasingly popular, especially among youngprofessionals during the past five years. Thesecondominiums are almost equivalent in size tothe HDB units, but the ceiling height can be upto 3.5 meters. HDB units have a maximum cap of2.8 meters as internal flat height but it has been inrecent discussion lately on whether it can be relaxedto compete with condominiums.

Wall-less flats

It is worthwhile to note that the idea ofwall-less flatswas also mooted since August 1999. The idea was toallow Singaporeans flexibility to remodel their flatsas their needs change. Buyers get flats with onlyperimeter walls, windows, entrance doors, toiletsand household shelters. There are no other internalpartitions. However, until present, these wall-lessflats are only feasible for the top floors (Lim, 2000).This would be a potential area to explore interiorconcepts in future papers.

Approaches towards interior concepts forspace optimisation

in this section, the spectrum of existing approachestowards interior concepts in Singapore are discussed,followed by its deficiencies.Anew approach togetherwith its design philosophy is then introduced.

Existing interior & /urniture design

When evaluating various interior concepts, one maydistinguish among four types ofdesign approaches in

Singapore interior design. These design approachescan be classified as follows:

Custom-made Furniture

This category of furniture is designed, made andinstalled with the objective of creating sufficientstorage, as well as optimising existing living

space. The design does not follow any systematicprefabricated concept and is not flexible at all. Thefurniture will be constructed on a one-time basis at aspecific predetermined site, becoming one with the

flat as fixtures.

Light Contemporary Decorative Furniture.

This type of furniture may create an atmosphere ofspaciousness, however it does not optimise all areasof the flat. People buy these types of expensivefurniture with the objective of positioning them in

an existing spacious room, more as a decorativeitem. Storage is in most cases not addressed in thedesign of these furniture items. Examples of well-known contemporary furniture manufacturers are:Casprini, Rolf Benz, etc.

Knock-down! Easy to Reassemble System Furniture

Just recently, Singapore has been exposed to qualitysystem furniture. The design and manufactureof this type of furniture are mainly dominated byNorthern European countries, such as Germany,Netherlands. Sweden, and to some extent, Italy.They are characterised by good quality mechanismsand finishes, the ability to provide plenty of storage,and flexibility in configuration. Unfortunately,a product of complete flexibility using standardcomponents, whereby no prefabrication is neededprior to installation, is not available. Examples ofgood quality furniture are Hülsta and Interlubke.

Low-cost Do-It-Yourself (U IY) products

The concept of low-cost DIY products, whichhave been introduced by IKEA Home Furnishings,has gained some popularity in Singapore. Theseproducts are easy to transport, assemble and installby the end-consumer hi rn/herself. Unfortunately,its philosophy does not address the issue of spaceoptirnisation and efficient storage within a Singaporehousehold. The products are directed more towardsEuropean living.

Deficiencies ofexisting approaches

Because of a higher density of population andbuilding trend towards smaller units for public(HDB) as well as private flats in Singapore, theuse of internal flat space has become increasinglyimportant. Interior concepts and furniture designshould therefore centre around space optirnisation.

The above existing approaches to interior conceptsare not targeted towards the requirements of theapartment housing dwellers and does not allowroom for new avenues in space saving, easy totransport, assemble and install furniture, targeted tothe Singapore home market.

The new approach

Space within a public or private flat is restrained byits floor area. Besides hacking away non-supportingwalls, which is a costly exercise, the only alternativesfor space creation is to make full use of its intricatecorners, indented spaces and if possible, internalheight of its units.

Development of Interior Concepts to Facilitate Small-space Living in Singapore 53

111.6: an example of local custom-madeflirn i/tire III. 7: A contemporarl’ minimalist approach111.8: An exaniple o/ Knock—down system furniture (1-Iulstci) 1/1.9: an example of/ow-cost DI)’ furniture (JKE.4)

B-95

52 André Liem

irregularly alternate and when precious space is not

to be wasted. Supporting structures have to abide tocertain regulations to meet the safety requirementsfor building. Non-supporting structures cantheoretically be as thin as possible, as long as theyfulfill the task of partitioning a certain area.Apartment housing commonly has indented walls atvarious locations in the unit.

Higher ceiling

High- ceiling condominiums are becomingincreasingly popular, especially among youngprofessionals during the past five years. Thesecondominiums are almost equivalent in size tothe HDB units, but the ceiling height can be upto 3.5 meters. HDB units have a maximum cap of2.8 meters as internal flat height but it has been inrecent discussion lately on whether it can be relaxedto compete with condominiums.

Wall-less flats

It is worthwhile to note that the idea ofwall-less flatswas also mooted since August 1999. The idea was toallow Singaporeans flexibility to remodel their flatsas their needs change. Buyers get flats with onlyperimeter walls, windows, entrance doors, toiletsand household shelters. There are no other internalpartitions. However, until present, these wall-lessflats are only feasible for the top floors (Lim, 2000).This would be a potential area to explore interiorconcepts in future papers.

Approaches towards interior concepts forspace optimisation

in this section, the spectrum of existing approachestowards interior concepts in Singapore are discussed,followed by its deficiencies.Anew approach togetherwith its design philosophy is then introduced.

Existing interior & /urniture design

When evaluating various interior concepts, one maydistinguish among four types ofdesign approaches in

Singapore interior design. These design approachescan be classified as follows:

Custom-made Furniture

This category of furniture is designed, made andinstalled with the objective of creating sufficientstorage, as well as optimising existing living

space. The design does not follow any systematicprefabricated concept and is not flexible at all. Thefurniture will be constructed on a one-time basis at aspecific predetermined site, becoming one with the

flat as fixtures.

Light Contemporary Decorative Furniture.

This type of furniture may create an atmosphere ofspaciousness, however it does not optimise all areasof the flat. People buy these types of expensivefurniture with the objective of positioning them in

an existing spacious room, more as a decorativeitem. Storage is in most cases not addressed in thedesign of these furniture items. Examples of well-known contemporary furniture manufacturers are:Casprini, Rolf Benz, etc.

Knock-down! Easy to Reassemble System Furniture

Just recently, Singapore has been exposed to qualitysystem furniture. The design and manufactureof this type of furniture are mainly dominated byNorthern European countries, such as Germany,Netherlands. Sweden, and to some extent, Italy.They are characterised by good quality mechanismsand finishes, the ability to provide plenty of storage,and flexibility in configuration. Unfortunately,a product of complete flexibility using standardcomponents, whereby no prefabrication is neededprior to installation, is not available. Examples ofgood quality furniture are Hülsta and Interlubke.

Low-cost Do-It-Yourself (U IY) products

The concept of low-cost DIY products, whichhave been introduced by IKEA Home Furnishings,has gained some popularity in Singapore. Theseproducts are easy to transport, assemble and installby the end-consumer hi rn/herself. Unfortunately,its philosophy does not address the issue of spaceoptirnisation and efficient storage within a Singaporehousehold. The products are directed more towardsEuropean living.

Deficiencies ofexisting approaches

Because of a higher density of population andbuilding trend towards smaller units for public(HDB) as well as private flats in Singapore, theuse of internal flat space has become increasinglyimportant. Interior concepts and furniture designshould therefore centre around space optirnisation.

The above existing approaches to interior conceptsare not targeted towards the requirements of theapartment housing dwellers and does not allowroom for new avenues in space saving, easy totransport, assemble and install furniture, targeted tothe Singapore home market.

The new approach

Space within a public or private flat is restrained byits floor area. Besides hacking away non-supportingwalls, which is a costly exercise, the only alternativesfor space creation is to make full use of its intricatecorners, indented spaces and if possible, internalheight of its units.

Development of Interior Concepts to Facilitate Small-space Living in Singapore 53

111.6: an example of local custom-madeflirn i/tire III. 7: A contemporarl’ minimalist approach111.8: An exaniple o/ Knock—down system furniture (1-Iulstci) 1/1.9: an example of/ow-cost DI)’ furniture (JKE.4)

B-96

54 André Liem Development of Interior Concepts to Facilitate Small-space Living in Singapore 55

The design philosophy of the new approachencompasses the following requirements, in theorder of most to least important:

•The concept should be targeted for efficient useand creation of space.•Where possible, the concept should make full useof indented wall spaces, as well as the height of theunit.•The concept should be adaptable to various flatlayouts.•The concept should not entail major renovationexercises, such as hacking of wall, etc., beforeinstallation.•The concept should be easy to assemble and install,only using simple hand tools, such as screwdrivers,hammer, and at the most a electrical drill.•The concept should be affordable to the workingand lower middle class•The concept should be able to be easily disassembledand reinstalled, in cases of house removal.•The concept must be transported easily uponpurchase by the customer him -or herself.

Design studies

In this section, two design studies of interiorconcepts will be discussed using the new approach.The first addresses the occurrence of indented walls,while the latter capitalises on higher ceilings. Thesedesign studies are respectively a “Flexible Shelf’and a “Floor Integrated Foldable Coffee Table”.

Design study 1:flexible she!!Problem DefinitionIn Singapore, most HDB and private housing haveindented walls. These walls are a natural result of aspace and cost saving exercise, whereby supportingand non-supporting constructions are combined.Space optimisation is only applicable if the objectfits exactly in the indentation. This is seldom thecase.For example, reference to the shorter version ofthe IKEA Lack shelves (130-cm), the buyer had toshorten the shelves (by sawing) to fit them into a120-cm wide indentation. This was a tedious andtime-consuming task, and the construction of theshelf itself was significantly weakened.

Design ConceptA “Flexible Shelf’, which can be extended in lengthand depth, is proposed. The concept is based on amechanism whereby standard parts slide among eachother. This sliding mechanism, with the possibilityof adding standard parts, allows the shelf to formany desired length-width ratio, meeting the need ofexactly fitting the shelf into any width of indentedwall. In this way, the sides of the indentation can alsobe capitalised into serving a supportive function, forexample to keep books from falling sideways. Eachshelf is supported by internal extendable metal bars,which can be adjusted according the desired depth(see Illustrations 11-14).

The standard shelf components will be injectionmoulded in plastic, internally supported byribbings. (III. 12) The metal bars extends based on atelescopic screwing principle. Reference to III. 13,sub-components ‘A’ (Mantel) and ‘B’ (Screw) aremade out of steel, while, ‘C’ is made out of the samematerial as the shelf components for decorativepurposes.

Design study 2: floor inlegratedfoldable cojfretableProblem Definition

Presently, stand-alone furniture, such as sofas,dining and coffee tables, occupies a certain amountof space in the living room. In small-spaces, theymay sometimes be perceived as an obstacle, ratherthan an object of use. In contemporary Japaneseinterior design, the concept of raised floors to storeitems was explored. These concepts provide plentyof space for storage, but are fixed solutions, notsuitable for reuse and reconfiguration.

Design Concept

Capitalising on higher ceilings in private apartments,a modular system of a raised flooring is introduced.A wide variety of layouts can be achieved throughjoining identical tiles, each supported by adjustablelegs at the four corners. The system allows omissionof tiles to cater for the integration of stand-alonesystem furniture, such as a coffee table. The coffeetable can be extracted upwards for use and mergedwith the flooring to create additional space. Thisis achieved through a foldable mechanism, whichconnects the tabletop to the tiles and also functionsas table legs when in use. (Ills. 11-14)

2010

— —rWALL

F——..,

TESI0NER

sP0r

COJET

Ill. 11: The “Flexible Shelf’, consist ofstandard components to be asseinbledio achieve any desired width-length ratio.

11/. 12: A standard shelfcomponent to wit/i internal iibbing to achieve the necessamy strength

Tightener

1/1.13: Conceptual construction ofa metal bar to support the entireflexible shelf

Il/JO: Shelfs needs to be sawim to fit in an indent

B-97


The design philosophy of the new approachencompasses the following requirements, in theorder of most to least important:

•The concept should be targeted for efficient useand creation of space.•Where possible, the concept should make full useof indented wall spaces, as well as the height of theunit.•The concept should be adaptable to various flatlayouts.•The concept should not entail major renovationexercises, such as hacking of wall, etc., beforeinstallation.•The concept should be easy to assemble and install,only using simple hand tools, such as screwdrivers,hammer, and at the most a electrical drill.•The concept should be affordable to the workingand lower middle class•The concept should be able to be easily disassembledand reinstalled, in cases of house removal.•The concept must be transported easily uponpurchase by the customer him -or herself.

Design studies

In this section, two design studies of interiorconcepts will be discussed using the new approach.The first addresses the occurrence of indented walls,while the latter capitalises on higher ceilings. Thesedesign studies are respectively a “Flexible Shelf’and a “Floor Integrated Foldable Coffee Table”.

Design study 1:flexible she!!Problem DefinitionIn Singapore, most HDB and private housing haveindented walls. These walls are a natural result of aspace and cost saving exercise, whereby supportingand non-supporting constructions are combined.Space optimisation is only applicable if the objectfits exactly in the indentation. This is seldom thecase.For example, reference to the shorter version ofthe IKEA Lack shelves (130-cm), the buyer had toshorten the shelves (by sawing) to fit them into a120-cm wide indentation. This was a tedious andtime-consuming task, and the construction of theshelf itself was significantly weakened.

Design ConceptA “Flexible Shelf’, which can be extended in lengthand depth, is proposed. The concept is based on amechanism whereby standard parts slide among eachother. This sliding mechanism, with the possibilityof adding standard parts, allows the shelf to formany desired length-width ratio, meeting the need ofexactly fitting the shelf into any width of indentedwall. In this way, the sides of the indentation can alsobe capitalised into serving a supportive function, forexample to keep books from falling sideways. Eachshelf is supported by internal extendable metal bars,which can be adjusted according the desired depth(see Illustrations 11-14).

The standard shelf components will be injectionmoulded in plastic, internally supported byribbings. (III. 12) The metal bars extends based on atelescopic screwing principle. Reference to III. 13,sub-components ‘A’ (Mantel) and ‘B’ (Screw) aremade out of steel, while, ‘C’ is made out of the samematerial as the shelf components for decorativepurposes.

Design study 2: floor inlegratedfoldable cojfretableProblem Definition

Presently, stand-alone furniture, such as sofas,dining and coffee tables, occupies a certain amountof space in the living room. In small-spaces, theymay sometimes be perceived as an obstacle, ratherthan an object of use. In contemporary Japaneseinterior design, the concept of raised floors to storeitems was explored. These concepts provide plentyof space for storage, but are fixed solutions, notsuitable for reuse and reconfiguration.

Design Concept

Capitalising on higher ceilings in private apartments,a modular system of a raised flooring is introduced.A wide variety of layouts can be achieved throughjoining identical tiles, each supported by adjustablelegs at the four corners. The system allows omissionof tiles to cater for the integration of stand-alonesystem furniture, such as a coffee table. The coffeetable can be extracted upwards for use and mergedwith the flooring to create additional space. Thisis achieved through a foldable mechanism, whichconnects the tabletop to the tiles and also functionsas table legs when in use. (Ills. 11-14)

2010

— —rWALL

F——..,

TESI0NER

sP0r

COJET

Ill. 11: The “Flexible Shelf’, consist ofstandard components to be asseinbledio achieve any desired width-length ratio.

11/. 12: A standard shelfcomponent to wit/i internal iibbing to achieve the necessamy strength

Tightener

1/1.13: Conceptual construction ofa metal bar to support the entireflexible shelf

Il/JO: Shelfs needs to be sawim to fit in an indent

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ReferencesBay Joo Hwa, Philip (2000). “Design for High-riseHigh-density Living — The Tropical Streets in theSky.” 2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCEON QUALITY OF LIFE IN CITIES- 21st CenturyQOL, Report for ICQOLC 2000, Singapore.Brown, Azby (1993) “Small Spaces: Stylish Ideasfor Making More of Less in the Home.” KodanshaInternational, Tokyo.Chan Ying Keung (1983) “Life in Confined Space:With Special Reference to Housing in HongKong.”Chua Beng Huat (1991) “Modernism and theVernacular: Transformation of Public Spaces andSocial Life in Singapore.” Understanding SingaporeSociety, Times Academic Press, Singapore 1997Chua Beng Huat and Tan Joo Ean (1999) “Singapore,Where the New Middle Class Sets the Standard.”Culture and Privilege in Capitalist Asia, Routledge,London.Chng Beng Quan (1992) “Resident’s Feedback onPublic Housing: A User’s Point of View.” HousingDesign 2000 Conference, Singapore, 24-25September 1992.

Hee Limin and Wong Yunn Chii (2000) “TheAdaptation and Re-siting of Traditions in PublicHousing in Singapore.” Housing in the 21stCentury: Fragmentation and Reorientation, ENHR2000 Conference Paper, Gävle, Sweden.Ho Chong Kong and Chua beng Huat (1990)“Cultural and Social Leisure Activities inSingapore.” Department of Statistics, Ministry ofTrade and Industry, Republic of Singapore.Lirn, Cindy (2000) “Wall-less HDB Flats to Debutin Punggol 21.” Straits Times. Singapore, April 15.Ross, Michael Franklin (1978) ‘Introduction.”Beyond Metabolism: The New JapaneseArchitecture. McGraw-Hill, New York.Schütte, Hellrnut and Ciarlante, Deanna (1998)“Chapter 4: Driving Forces in Asian ConsumerBehaviour.” Consumer Behaviour in Asia.MacMillan Press Ltd, London.Tan, Tony (1992) “Public Housing in Singapore:Future Options.” Housing Design 2000 Conference,Singapore, 24-25 September 1992.Toh Mun Heng and Tay Boon Nga (1990)“Household and Housing in Singapore.”Department of Statistics, Ministry of Trade andIndustry, Republic of Singapore.

\ hi c

111.14: Concept ofa nodu1arflooring syste!n with an integrated coffee table

M’.n.luk’

Conclusion

The need to utilise space as efficiently as possible

has led to different approaches in external andinternal design ofapartment housing. Rapid and ever

changing developments in Singapore households

and housing policies, which was merely a resultof the fast economic growth, has changed the waySingaporeans live. The issue of ethnic diversity andculture is becoming more and more insignificant

compared to the rising economic culture. This neweconomic culture has been enhanced and refined

by Western and to some extent Japanese influences

and ideologies. These influences and the continuousglobalisation provides young and middle agedSingaporeans (age group 25 —45) with new insights,

values, tastes and higher expectations, which

reflects in the way they select their interior designs

and furniture, based on space optimisation, storage,

easy assembly and installation and price.

Research in the internal configuration of flats has

revealed two variables for space optimisation,

which are indented walls and higher ceilings. The

two design studies of the “Flexible Shelf” and

“Floor Integrated Foldable Coffee Table”, are good

examples of flexible, easy to assemble and install,

price competitive and space optirnising interior

concepts. Taking into consideration space, climate

and habits, both design concepts provide a new

direction in ‘interior design’ for small-space living

in high-density urban settings, such as Singapore.

The next step would not only be to materialise these

concepts into workable products, but also extend

and further develop the two design into one or more

product ranges to meet the dynamic, functional

needs and reconfigurations of smal 1-space apartment

living in Singapore.

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ReferencesBay Joo Hwa, Philip (2000). “Design for High-riseHigh-density Living — The Tropical Streets in theSky.” 2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCEON QUALITY OF LIFE IN CITIES- 21st CenturyQOL, Report for ICQOLC 2000, Singapore.Brown, Azby (1993) “Small Spaces: Stylish Ideasfor Making More of Less in the Home.” KodanshaInternational, Tokyo.Chan Ying Keung (1983) “Life in Confined Space:With Special Reference to Housing in HongKong.”Chua Beng Huat (1991) “Modernism and theVernacular: Transformation of Public Spaces andSocial Life in Singapore.” Understanding SingaporeSociety, Times Academic Press, Singapore 1997Chua Beng Huat and Tan Joo Ean (1999) “Singapore,Where the New Middle Class Sets the Standard.”Culture and Privilege in Capitalist Asia, Routledge,London.Chng Beng Quan (1992) “Resident’s Feedback onPublic Housing: A User’s Point of View.” HousingDesign 2000 Conference, Singapore, 24-25September 1992.

Hee Limin and Wong Yunn Chii (2000) “TheAdaptation and Re-siting of Traditions in PublicHousing in Singapore.” Housing in the 21stCentury: Fragmentation and Reorientation, ENHR2000 Conference Paper, Gävle, Sweden.Ho Chong Kong and Chua beng Huat (1990)“Cultural and Social Leisure Activities inSingapore.” Department of Statistics, Ministry ofTrade and Industry, Republic of Singapore.Lirn, Cindy (2000) “Wall-less HDB Flats to Debutin Punggol 21.” Straits Times. Singapore, April 15.Ross, Michael Franklin (1978) ‘Introduction.”Beyond Metabolism: The New JapaneseArchitecture. McGraw-Hill, New York.Schütte, Hellrnut and Ciarlante, Deanna (1998)“Chapter 4: Driving Forces in Asian ConsumerBehaviour.” Consumer Behaviour in Asia.MacMillan Press Ltd, London.Tan, Tony (1992) “Public Housing in Singapore:Future Options.” Housing Design 2000 Conference,Singapore, 24-25 September 1992.Toh Mun Heng and Tay Boon Nga (1990)“Household and Housing in Singapore.”Department of Statistics, Ministry of Trade andIndustry, Republic of Singapore.

\ hi c

111.14: Concept ofa nodu1arflooring syste!n with an integrated coffee table

M’.n.luk’

Conclusion

The need to utilise space as efficiently as possible

has led to different approaches in external andinternal design ofapartment housing. Rapid and ever

changing developments in Singapore households

and housing policies, which was merely a resultof the fast economic growth, has changed the waySingaporeans live. The issue of ethnic diversity andculture is becoming more and more insignificant

compared to the rising economic culture. This neweconomic culture has been enhanced and refined

by Western and to some extent Japanese influences

and ideologies. These influences and the continuousglobalisation provides young and middle agedSingaporeans (age group 25 —45) with new insights,

values, tastes and higher expectations, which

reflects in the way they select their interior designs

and furniture, based on space optimisation, storage,

easy assembly and installation and price.

Research in the internal configuration of flats has

revealed two variables for space optimisation,

which are indented walls and higher ceilings. The

two design studies of the “Flexible Shelf” and

“Floor Integrated Foldable Coffee Table”, are good

examples of flexible, easy to assemble and install,

price competitive and space optirnising interior

concepts. Taking into consideration space, climate

and habits, both design concepts provide a new

direction in ‘interior design’ for small-space living

in high-density urban settings, such as Singapore.

The next step would not only be to materialise these

concepts into workable products, but also extend

and further develop the two design into one or more

product ranges to meet the dynamic, functional

needs and reconfigurations of smal 1-space apartment

living in Singapore.

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APPENDIX B-7

ARTICLE IX

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN AS AN IDEA AND CONCEPT GENERATION TOOL IN THE EARLY STAGES OF THE DESIGN PROCESS.

Author(s):






Published in:

Proceedings of The Ninth Norddesign Conference, 2012. The Design Society. 2012. (ISBN 978-87-91831-51-5)

Number of pages:

9 (CD-ROM).

How to Cite?

MLA Liem, Andre. "Computer Aided Design as an Idea and Concept Generation Tool in the Early Stages of the Design Process." DS 71: Proceedings of NordDesign 2012, the 9th NordDesign conference, Aarlborg University, Denmark. 22-24.08. 2012. 2012.

APA Liem, A. (2012). Computer Aided Design as an Idea and Concept Generation Tool in the Early Stages of the Design Process. In DS 71: Proceedings of NordDesign 2012, the 9th NordDesign conference, Aarlborg University, Denmark. 22-24.08. 2012.

Chicago Liem, Andre. "Computer Aided Design as an Idea and Concept Generation Tool in the Early Stages of the Design Process." In DS 71: Proceedings of NordDesign 2012, the 9th NordDesign conference, Aarlborg University, Denmark. 22-24.08. 2012. 2012.

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NordDesign 2012 August 22 – 24, 2012

Aalborg, Denmark

Computer Aided Design as an Idea and Concept Generation Tool in the Early Stages of the Design Process

André Liem Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Product Design

[email protected]

Abstract This article claims that in certain circumstances digital visual representations (CAD) can facilitate a better understanding of the form than sketches and drawings, in the early creative idea and concept generation stages of the design process. Hereby, intensive reflective and processual visualization activities, which immediately renders feedback in computer media influences the designer to generate images more frequently and more precisely in his/her mind, compared to conventional media. The above phenomenon has led to discussions around two factors, which redefine the value of CAD in an educational context. These factors are: • Type of students admitted according to academic inclination• Type of Design ProgramResults have shown that students, who were admitted based only upon good grades, weregenerally poor in (manual) sketching and drawing. However, due to their solid academiccapabilities, they demonstrated a strong aptitude towards learning different CAD systems.When merging these students’ CAD with their analytical and creative thinking skills, it hasbeen observed that communication and interactions among educators and students in the earlystages of the idea development and concept generation stages were more descriptive and atcrucial stages supported by surprisingly well developed CAD drawings / models. It is alsoevident that explicit iteration and gradual development of ideas and concepts supported bysketches were less prominent.Concerning the type of design program, Industrial Design Engineering type of schools, whoadvocate a structured problem solving design process, based on Analysis – Synthesis, tend toalso support the early implementation of CAD in their processes..

Keywords: Digital Design Representation, CAD Tools, Conventional Representation, Design Education.

Introduction One of the most powerful skills the designer possesses is the ability to facilitate decision making by communicating visually, through sketches, drawings, CAD representations and physical models. Designers also place great emphasis on sketches, because they are thought to be associated with creativity [1]. They also allow new ways of seeing and reinterpreting, that could provide new forms and abstract concepts [1, 2, 3]. Computer Aided Design (CAD) tools are currently widely used as a generative and communicative tool in design and engineering practice. However, because of the inherent parts definition, geometric specification and level of precision, it may limit the designer’s

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creativity and ability to make lateral interpretations. In other words, current computer systems demand too much precision too soon in the design process [4], and create a discrepancy between the creative impulse and the input needed to activate digital commands [4]. Therefore, when it comes to using CAD as a generation tool in the early conceptualisation stages of the design process, it is often used as a planning or pre-designing media to avoid troublesome changes later on in the product definition. However, with the recent advancements in (digital) sketching, more and more designers use complementary 2-D and 3-D CAD programs in the preparation, conceptualisation and materialisation stages of the designing process. Moreover, when today’s generation of Industrial design graduates apply for their first professional positions, the ability to use digital design tools has become a key feature of the selection process [6]. This is supported by findings from Yang et al. [7], stating that 55,1% of design job openings required applicants to possess 3-D CAD modelling capabilities. In this article, the author will elaborate on the characteristics and differences of using conventional visualisation and representation versus CAD tools in the early stages of the designing process. Furthermore an educational reflection will be made to what extent CAD tools can replace conventional representation tools, such as drawing and sketching, without affecting the creative and problem solving capabilities of the designer. This reflection will be substantiated by results from interviews with 2nd year Industrial design students at NTNU, Department of Product Design. Finally a reflection will be made on the qualities of student intake as well as on the types of design programs.

Conventional 2-D product representation and communication Sketches can provide insight into and trace the designer’s mode of thinking at any particular point in the design process [8]. One of the most detailed studies of the act of sketching was conducted by Goel [9]. He identified two types of operation occurring between successive sketches in the early stages of design, namely lateral transformations and vertical transformations. In a lateral transformation, movement is from one idea to a slightly different idea. In a vertical transformation, movement is from one idea to a more detailed and exacting version of the same idea. Goel concludes that freehand sketches, by virtue of being syntactically and/or semantically dense and/or ambiguous, play an important role in the creative, explorative, open-ended phase of problem solving. He believes that the properties of the freehand sketch facilitate lateral transformations and prevent early fixations. Olofssen et al. identified 4 types of sketches, each with its purpose, strengths and weaknesses. These are ”Investigative Sketches”, ”Explorative Sketches”, ”Explanatory sketches” and ”Persuasive sketches (renderings)” [10]. Concerning creative development and communication, ‘explorative sketches’ and ‘explanatory sketches’ are most relevant. Explorative sketches promote the dialectical process between a sufficiently specified and coherent physical form, and abstract, conceptual, propositional knowledge in terms of human cognition [11, 12]. According to Suwa and Tversky [13], sketching does not only aid to memory, but also in perceiving visuo-spatial relationships and reasoning about functional issues and goal-setting. It is one of the most influential modes for a dialogue between the designer and what the drawings suggest [11, 14]. Sketches are representations of the results of thinking processes, decreasing the cognitive load of designers, while provoking creativity during designing [15]. Some studies proposed that ambiguity is one of the key factors, because it allows the seeing of new possibilities in the representations, in other words re-interpretations [9, 14, 15]. Sketches also seem to be essential for revising and refining ideas, generating concepts and facilitating problem solving [16]. The convenience and speed of using sketches enable designers to generate and represent ideas easily and quickly [17].

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Explanatory sketches have to be understood within the context of communication, whereby these sketches play a most decisive, but also most challenging role in terms of task clarification, either with colleagues or clients [18].However, persuasive renderings might not always communicate adequately to all external partakers of a project. For example they may appeal to someone in marketing because of its appearance and artistic flair, but will probably fail when shown to product engineers as they seek different and more accurate information. According to Lawson, an additional problem with sketches is their propagandistic intention to convince the client that the design is at least satisfactory or excellent, while concealing weakness as much as conveying strengths in the design [19]. Things that would not work in real life can be tweaked in a drawing, misleading the client to accept a flawed design, which again can prove to be a very costly mistake. This is underlined by Errington-Evans’s opinion that drawing is such a powerful means of communication that it can become an end in itself. This can trap the designer into the designing the drawing rather than the product.” [20]. Designers, who strongly support the use of digital design tools, may find that hand drawings are not accurate enough and need to be complemented by CAD models, even for the final representation and realisation stages.

Computer Aided Design representation and Communication The use of Computer Aided Design (CAD) tools has significantly penetrated the practice of designing throughout almost all stages of the design process. It has also moved from a peripheral component of design education to a central tool in the designing activity [20]. This is due to the wide variety and affordability of CAD software. Examples of popular and user-friendly software are: SolidWorks, Rhino and 3-D Studio Max. The temptation of using digital models rather early in the design process is because of their ability to extract either perfectly machined models, or even stunningly realistic illustrations, at a pace and precision that not even the best illustrator or model maker could ever achieve. This brings along certain implications for designers who adopt a more result oriented approach towards the use of CAD. They find that it does not allow making lateral interpretations, because of the inherent parts definition, geometric specification and level of precision. Therefore, when it comes to using CAD as a sketching tool in the early stages of the design process, such as task clarification and conceptual design, interaction with non-digital representation media, such as sketches are the most common. With respect to the simultaneous use of these tools, it has been shown that most of the designers used sketches to prepare and support CAD-work, whereas the CAD is probably used as a media to avoid troublesome changes to the product definition [18]. However, when designers adopt a more explorative mindset when using digital design tools, some CAD or Computer Aided Conceptual Design (CACD) can be used as a product design structurisation tool, based upon how the designer decides to structure the designing activities manage the properties of the product, as well as its quantified structure [22].

Research Focus This research attempts to redefine the value of CAD in an educational context by find out to what extent and how CAD tools should substitute and / or complement conventional representations tools, such as sketching and rendering. The reference point in this research is not to comprehend CAD from its dualistic character as explained in the previous sections, but to appreciate CAD as a design tool, which is more substitutional then complementary to conventional methods of representation, especially in the early stages of the design process.

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Therefore, a study was undertaken to better understand the distributed use of conventional versus CAD tools in undergraduate design education and to identify opportunities for curriculum development. The aims of this research project were to:

! Confirm that undergraduate students, who demonstrated strong academic performancein science subjects at secondary school and A-levels, were more inclined to learningCAD tools and using them in their design projects

! Support the rhetoric that CAD design tools are to be used more prolific in the earlystages of the design process, substituting conventional representations to a certainextent.

! Confirm that an engineering driven design education program supports and providethe right environment for training and using CAD tools early in the design process.

Empirical data gathering In the 2nd year, 2nd semester design project of the NTNU Industrial Design course, 30 students were tasked to participate in the Electrolux Design Lab 2012 competition. An iterative process of exploration, contextualisation, analysis and ideation took place in the fall 2012 semester, which lasted for 15 project weeks. During the ideation activities, students were different kinds of 2-D and 3-D representations. However, it has been observed that a majority represented their ideas and concept using manual sketching and drawing and / or CAD visualisations. Different research materials were used to analyse 30 students’ aptitudes towards conventional sketching and drawing, versus CAD. These materials comprised of the following:

! A “main design submission”, according to the Electrolux design lab competitionformat. More concretely, the submission format comprises of 6 – 9 poster formatslides, explaining the final product, background history, motivation and client’sinsight. This is complemented by representations, demonstrating the product’s use incontext as well as technical functionality.

! A sketchbook illustrating the ideation and conceptualisation process! A questionnaire comprising of 10 short questions.

Analysis of results Results were classified and discussed according to the following three sources:

! A heuristic analysis of the “main design submission”! A heuristic analysis of the sketchbook. In this analysis, ideation and concept sketches

were categorised according to whether they were designerly represented or not! An analysis of the completed questionnaires

Main design submission In total, all 30 students submitted their “main design submission”. Most of the students demonstrated a good understanding of the contextual problem, which have been well translated into valuable customer insights. In terms of representation and presentation, a strong emphasis has been placed upon CAD and Computer Aided Conceptual Design. Given their current level of education as well as previous exposure to CAD tools, a significant majority submitted an “above expected” level of representation.

Sketchbook illustrating the ideation and conceptualisation process 27 Out of the 30 students submitted an accompanying “Sketchbook”. 17 Out of the 27 students showed rather poor sketches and drawings. The output can be characterised as “child-like” and did not reveal any signs of designerly flair. However, 10 out of the 27

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students demonstrated some designerly flair in the representations of their ideas, concepts, or both. When cross-comparing conventional sketches and drawings with CAD representations, students who were designerly proficient in sketching and drawing also performed well in their CAD representations (Example: see figure 1). Besides that, some students (9 out of 17), who did not do so well in terms of sketching and drawing, showed surprisingly good CAD visualisations (Example: see figure 2). Only 2 out of the 10 students, who were proficient in manual sketching and drawing, demonstrated limited CAD capabilities.

Figure 1 Example of a design submission, where the student demonstrated designerly manual representation as well as CAD modelling skills

Figure 2 Example of a design submission, where the student demonstrated poor manual

representation, but good CAD modelling skills Questionnaire Reference to the student’s science-based academic background, only 25% (5 out of the 20) of the respondents had training in sketching and drawing prior to their commencement at NTNU Department of Product Design. They received their training through electives during their A-level (upper secondary school) education, completed a module in sketching and drawing at another design school before starting with the Industrial design course at NTNU, or taught themselves through video games and You Tube. In this 2nd year design project, 75% of the respondents emphasised more on the use of CAD compared to sketching and drawing, because they had difficulties in sketching and drawing in a designerly way. A majority only use 2D sketches to visualise roughly for themselves, resulting in low quality “thumbnail Sketches”, whereas others do not see the advantages of developing clearer and well developed sketches and drawings. However, a deeper underlying reason was that they felt incapable of developing professional and designerly looking sketches

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and drawings in a short period of time. Their lack of training and practice may also limit their creativity if they were to emphasise designerly sketching. Therefore, this group prefers to design back and forth using quick rough sketches to facilitate their creativity and explore the more concrete forms and concepts by directly using CAD software. On the part of design communication and confidence, only 20 % of the respondents felt insecure, because they were not able to sketch convincingly, which may affect how they communicate their design intentions. The majority did not have any communication problems, because they were able to communicate well using CAD, physical 3D models, as well as verbal and written descriptions.

When focussing more into the use of CAD, all students had some prior basic knowledge about using SolidWorks CAD in the design project (2nd year / 1st semester) prior to this one. However, much of the detailing and rendering activities in CAD has been learned and practiced in this project. 80% of the respondents have invested more than 40 hours in learning CAD in the previous 2nd year / 1st semester design project. This generally led to an atmosphere of great self-confidence among 2nd year students in using CAD for this project. 80% of the respondents felt that they need not to use much time (less than 10 hours) to revise what they have learned previously in CAD and were able to focus on learning other complementary CAD programs, which provide better rendering capabilities. They also use more actively CAD programs in the idea generation or concept development stages of the design process. According to 80 % of the respondents CAD facilitated exploration, testing, and the generation of variations more systematically and quicker than sketches. They also found it more accurate in terms of concept detailing, dimensioning and exploration of possible materials. The proficiency among this generation of 2nd year design students in using CAD is demonstrated in how fast they are able to generate reasonably professional digital representations, given their level of completed design education. 60% of the respondents took less than 20 hours to complete and present their final design in CAD. 20% spent between 20 – 40 hours, whereas only 10% took longer than 40 hours.

Discussion The existing tension field on When, Where, and How to use conventional design representations versus CAD is becoming more and more prevalent. In this section, the results will be further discussed and reflected against the background of the students and limitations of the study. In general, students, who were admitted to the NTNU Industrial Design program, demonstrated strong academic performance in science subjects at secondary school and A-levels. Their average A-level examination score was 57, which was far above the national average and the average of students entering engineering programs at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). As these students entered the Industrial design program based only upon good grades, it was expected that their manual sketching and drawing capabilities were generally poor. Therefore, they were given formal training in drawing and rendering during the first three semesters of the program. However, due to their solid academic capabilities and attitudes towards “what designing is about”, many of them did not have the interest to improve and practice their manual sketching and drawing skills. Instead, they demonstrated a strong aptitude towards learning different CAD systems. Once the students have entered the industrial design program and been exposed to the studio environment, they were also able to benefit from social learning practices, which areembodied in project-based learning and master/apprentice relationships. Social learning

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theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modelling [23]. According to Wenger, learning is defined as an inter-play between socialcompetence and personal experience. It is a dynamic, two-way relationship between people and the social learning systems in which they participate [24]. Concerning CAD training,social learning plays a significant role, where 2nd year design students learn from and imitate their seniors. This interdependent and facilitative learning structure gives another explanationwhy NTNU Industrial Design students are more inclined towards using CAD tools.In taking an adaptive versus a creative behavioural perspective, the author has observed that these 2nd year industrial design students were more structured and adaptive in their thinking patterns and the way they practice design. This is shown by how these students communicate and interact in the early stages of the design process. In the research and analysis stage, all of the students adopted a problem solving approach, where they argued for the existence of a problem and attempted to solve it from a contextual viewpoint, based upon the Electrolux Design Lab 2012 theme, which is “Experience”. In conjunction with the theme, a specific context was explored, researched and analysed from Social, Technological, Economic, Environmental and Political (STEEP) perspectives. Most of the students did this exercise well and were able to formulate clear consumer insights. However, this adaptive, structured and problem solving approach has also perpetuated in the idea development and concept generation stages. Instead of a comprehensive and explicit representation of ideas and concepts, students tend to inwardly develop low quality thumbnail sketches, but rather verbally describe and explain potential design solutions thoroughly. As a kind of compensation for the overall inability to represent in a designerly manner, partly argued from the viewpoint that CAD facilitated exploration, testing, and the generation of variations more systematically, accurately and quicker than sketches, these 2nd year design students emphasised the use of digital design tools in the designing processes, which they managed surprisingly well. The earlier mentioned tension fields between the use of conventional sketching and drawing versus CAD in the design process, challenges the Industrial / Product design education community to act upon opportunities for curriculum development that will equip design students with relevant skills and knowledge. Although this study is still preliminary, one can already assume that the type of design program actively promotes the use of conventional or digital ways of representation in the designing process. Industrial Design Engineering type of schools, who advocate a structured problem solving design process, based on Analysis – Synthesis, tend to also support and earlier and more comprehensive implementation of CAD in their processes.

Conclusion Visual representations are omnipresent throughout the New Product Development (NPD) process, from early sketches to CAD-rendered general arrangement drawings. Usually, as the design progresses, the representations illustrate increasing degrees of concretization and detailing [25]. In other words, as the project evolves from abstract to concrete, the degree of realism also increases. Given this practice context and outcome of this preliminary study, it can be concluded that students with a strong academic science background are more inclined to towards a structured and problem solving approach to design. The fact that they have these strong analytical skills and ability to learn CAD tools fast and independently encourages them less to explicitly communicate through designerly sketches and drawings, especially in the early stages of the design process.

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This observation should encourages design programs to rethink and re-evaluate their educational objectives, in conjunction with which design tools are to be emphasised or not in terms of design knowledge and skills transfer. References [1] Larkin, J.H. and Simon, H.A. “Why a diagram is (sometimes) worth ten thousand

word”, Cognitive Science. Vol. 11, pp 65–100, 1987. [2] Hegarty, M. “Mental animation: inferring motion from static displays of mechanical

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[3] Bauer, M.I and Johnson-Laird, P.N. “How diagrams can improve reasoning”, Psychological Science. Vol. 4, pp 372–378, 1993.

[4] Pipes, A. “Drawing for Designers”. London: Laurence King, 2007. [5] Dorta, T.S., Pérez, E. and Lesage, A. “The ideation gap: hybrid tools, design flow and

practice”. Design Studies, 29, pp 121-141, 2008 [6] Lynn, D. “Automotive design education embraces the digital age”. In Cullen, C. (ed),

Eastman IDSA National Education Symposium Proceedings, Austin, Texas. Dulles, VA: Industrial Designers Society of America, pp 107-114, 2006

[7] Yang, M.-Y., You, M. and chen, F.-C. “Competencies and qualifications for industrial design jobs: Implications for design practice, education and student career guidance”. Design Studies, 26, pp155-189, 2005

[8] Chen, H. H., You, M., & Lee, C. F. “The sketch in industrial design process”, Proceedings of the 6th Asian design conference (CD ROM), Japan: Tsukuba, Oct. 14-17, 2003.

[9] Goel, V. “Sketches of thought”, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1995. [10] Olofsson, E. et.al. “Design Sketching”, KEEOS Design Books AB, Klippan, Sweden,

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No. 2, pp 123–143, 1991 [12] Goldschmidt, G. “On visual design thinking: the vis kids of architecture”, Design

Studies Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 158–174, 1994 [13] Suwa, M and Tversky, B. “What architects see in their sketches: implications for

design tools”. In: J.T. Michael, Editor, Conference companion on Human Factors in Computing Systems: Common ground, ACM, NY, pp 191–192, 1996

[14] D.A. Schon and G. Wiggins, Kinds of seeing and their functions in designing, Design Studies Vol. 13, No 2, pp. 135–156, 1992

[15] Suwa, M., Gero, J.S. and Purcell, T. “Unexpected discoveries and s-inventions of design requirements: important vehicles for a design process”, Design Studies Vol. 21, pp 539–567, 2000

[16] Yi, E., Do, E., Gross, M.D. Neiman, B and Zimring, C. “Intentions in and relations among design drawings”, Design Studies, Vol. 21, No 5, pp 483–503, 2000

[17] Tang, H.H, Lee, Y.Y. and Gero, J.S. “Comparing collaborative co-located and distributed design processes in digital and traditional sketching environments: A protocol study using the function–behaviour–structure coding scheme” Design Studies. Vol. 32, No 1, pp 1-29, 2011

[18] Romer, A., Weißhahn, G., Hacker, W., Pache, M. and Lindemann, U. “Effort-saving product representations in design—results of a questionnaire survey” Design Studies.Vol. 22 No. 6, pp. 473-491, 2001

[19] Lawson, B. “What Designers Know”, Architectural Press, Oxford. (2004). [20] Errington-Evans, Rhy, “Designing with drawings”, www.ngfl-

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ymru.org.uk/vtc/ngfl/dandt/r_evans_design/designingwithdrawings.doc, accessed 15. May 2012

[21] Unver, E. “Strategies for the transition to CAD based 3D design education”, ComputerAided design and Applications, 3, pp 323-330, 2006.

[22] Tjalve, E. “Systematic design of Industrial products”, Butterworth-HeinemannPublishers, Denmark, 2003

[23] Ormrod, J.E. “Human learning” (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall,1999.

[24] Wenger, E. “Communities of Practice and Social Learning Systems”. OrganisationArticles. Volume 7(2): 225-246 SAGE, London, 2000.

[25] Andreasen, M.M. “Modelling: the language of the designer”. Journal of EngineeringDesign. Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 103–115, 1994.

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APPENDIX B-8 ARTICLE X

DIGITAL HUMAN MODELS IN WORK SYSTEM DESIGN AND SIMULATION

Author(s):


PERSEUS: Psychologie Ergonomique et Sociale pour l'Expérience Utilisateurs. Metz, France

• Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Product Design, Trondheim. Norway.

Huang Yan

• National University of Singapore, Department of Architecture, Singapore Author(s) contribution to the article:

André Liem developed the structure of the article, led the theoretical development of the article and wrote most of the article. Huang Yan assisted in the experiment and developed the digital human models

Published in:

In Proceedings of Digital Human Modelling for Design and Engineering Symposium, 15 -17 June 2004 Oakland University, Rochester, MI Warrendale. PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.(Cited in Body Space 3rd edition), (ISBN: 978-0-415-28520-9)

Number of pages: 7 (On CD-ROM) How to Cite? MLA Liem, Andre, and Huang Yan. Digital human models in work system design and simulation.

No. 2004-01-2146. SAE Technical Paper, 2004. APA Liem, A., & Yan, H. (2004). Digital human models in work system design and simulation

(No. 2004-01-2146). SAE Technical Paper. Chicago Liem, Andre, and Huang Yan. Digital human models in work system design and simulation.

No. 2004-01-2146. SAE Technical Paper, 2004.

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2004-01-2146

Digital Human Models in Work System Design and Simulation

Andre Liem and Huang Yan Department of Architecture

School of Design and Environment National University of Singapore

Copyright © 2004 SAE International

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses how digital human models have been applied in the work system simulation of downtown baggage check-in at City Hall Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) Station in Singapore. The challenge was how to integrate the simulation of the personnel, technical, and environmental subsystems into one computer model. The application of digital human models gave another way to describe the body ellipse theory and queuing level-of-service standards. Based on a combination of contemporary technology and traditional theory, researchers from different disciplines were able to discuss the system design within one computer model.

INTRODUCTION

This paper reports on the significance of digital human models in the design and simulation of downtown baggage check-in work system at City Hall Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) Station in Singapore. The work system was designed for air passengers who take MRT services to Changi International Airport. The aim of the work system design was to provide these air passengers with a baggage check-in option at the station and relieve them from carrying the baggage onto the train. Human models were applied to simulate the air passengers, airline check-in staff, and baggage handling workers as well as the MRT commuters. These human models were integrated with the station building environment and check-in instrumentations to simulate the work system.

PROCESS AND METHODS

1. EXPORTING THE 3D BUILDING MODEL TO THE SOFTWARE CAPABLE OF MODELING DIGITAL HUMANS - The 3D model of the work system was created using architecture modeling software (AUTOCAD/3DVIZ), which did not have a human factors module to create and analyze the digital human models from an ergonomic point of view. As the human-centered work system design needs the ergonomic simulation of the personnel subsystem, the building

models created in AUTOCAD/3DVIZ were exported as SAT files to CATIA.

2. DETERMINING THE DIMENSIONS AND LOCATIONS OF DIGITAL HUMAN MODELS IN THE SIMULATION OF THE WORK SYSTEM - The dimensions of the different body parts of human models were manipulated and adjusted by inputting data in the CATIA dialogue box. Another method was to load a human model with dimensions based on certain percentiles of a specific target group. For example, a human model with anthropometric data of the 90th percentile of Singapore male can be directly imported from the human library without inputting data of individual body segments.

The main objective of this research was to determine the possibility of implementing and positioning more than one human model, as well as their relative dimensions within a specific space. In CATIA, human models could be positioned by manipulating the hinge points, which are the points on the digital human body such as the heel point (see Fig. 1). The location of the hinge point, which was initially determined in the 3D space, was then superimposed with the digital human model, through the alignment of the anchor points.

Figure 1. A hinge point on the digital human body.

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However, it did not provide a method for assessing distances and clearances if more than one digital human model is introduced into the system. In addition, it was difficult to manipulate the locations of a larger number of human models merely by using hinge points. This paper would provide another method to describe and control the distances among the human models in the work system simulation, which was based on the queuing level-of-service standards and field studies at Changi International Airport.

According to Fruin (1971), the body ellipse is a simple and convenient method to simulate pedestrians within a specific environment. The body ellipse represents the basic geometric elliptical space that a human body would occupy. A 45.7 by 61.0 centimeters body ellipse was used when he researched on pedestrian space.

By using body ellipse, pedestrian queuing density can be classified into four zones. Based on the pedestrian queuing zones, queuing level-of-service standards were designed and applied for many years in the design of walkways, stairways, and queue areas (Wright, Ashford, & Stammer, 1998). The standards from A to F provided the description of the inter-person spacing within pedestrian queues:

Level of service A (Inter-person Spacing: >1.2m): Space is provided for standing and free circulation through the queuing area without disturbing others.

Level of service B (Inter-person Spacing: 1.1-1.2m): Space is provided for standing and restricted circulation through the queue without disturbing others.

Level of service C (Inter-person Spacing: 0.9-1.1m): Space is provided for standing and restricted circulation through the queuing area by disturbing others. It is within the range of the personal comfort body buffer zone established by psychological experiments.

Level of service D (Inter-person Spacing: 0.6-0.9m): Space is provided for standing without personal contact with others, but circulation through the queuing area is severely restricted, and forward movement is only possible as a group.

Level of service E (Inter-person Spacing: ≤0.6m): Space is provided for standing, but personal contacts with others are unavoidable. Circulation within the queuing area is not possible.

Level of service F (Close contact): Space is approximately equivalent to the area of the human body. No movement is possible and close contact is unavoidable.

The anthropometric data in Fruin’s research was slightly larger than the average anthropometric data of Singaporeans. In this study, the air passengers came from different countries, using larger body dimensions

would be more inclusive for the human models. The body ellipse was hence used to describe and simulate the space occupation of air passengers and other participants of the work system.

The body ellipse of 45.7 by 61.0 centimeters may not be suitable for the passengers with even larger anthropometric dimensions. However, this paper was to provide an example of applying body ellipses in human modeling, as the dimension of the body ellipse can be adjusted for different cases.

Which “level-of-service” should be adopted to describe the spacing among the air passengers is dependent on the major aim of the research. In this simulation of the downtown baggage check-in system, the selection of certain level was based on the real situation of check-in queues at the airport.

The level-of-service standards did not consider pedestrians with baggage, while air passengers at check-in queues at Changi International Airport usually use trolleys to transport their baggage. Under this situation, the queuing level-of-service standards cannot be directly adopted to describe the inter-person spacing among the air passengers.

Furthermore, the field study at City Hall MRT Station indicated that the air passengers would carry no more than one piece of baggage with them when they took the MRT service to the airport, while air passengers who had two or more baggage would usually take a taxi instead. Therefore, the characteristics of the air passengers’ check-in queues at the MRT station would be different from both the common pedestrian queues and the check-in queues at the airport. The theoretical data of queuing level-of-service standards and the results obtained from the field studies at Changi International Airport also needed to be converted for the queuing simulation at the MRT station. Within this context, a more suitable way of approaching queuing level-of-service standards can be described as follows:

The distance (y1) between the centers of the body ellipses in the queuing level-of-service standards was converted to the clearance (y2) between the body ellipses (see Fig. 2).

y1 y2

Figure 2. Conversion of the distance between the body ellipses.

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This has resulted into a conversion of queuing level-of-service standards, which is based on the relative clearance between two persons in a queue as indicated by “y2” in Figure 2 and Table 1.

Table 1. Conversion of queuing level-of-service standards.

Level-of-service y1 (cm) y2 (cm) Level-of-service A >121.9 >76.2Level-of-service B 106.7-121.9 61.0-76.2 Level-of-service C 91.4-106.7 45.7-61.0 Level-of-service D 61.0-91.4 15.3-45.7 Level-of-service E ≤61.0 ≤15.3

Hereby, air passengers carrying baggage/handling trolleys can be considered as one integral block. The clearance (y2) between two blocks was described by the converted queuing level-of-service standards (see Fig.3).

y2 y2

Figure 3. The clearance between the blocks of the integral air passenger and the baggage/trolley.

Although the distances between the center points of the air passengers’ body ellipses at Changi International Airport would be different from those at the MRT station context, the clearances between the air passengers with baggage was estimated to be similar to the situation in the airport departure hall. Similarity in queuing clearance is proposed when heel to front of trolley is compared to suitcase to suitcase side. Therefore, in this simulation, the clearance between the air passengers handling trolleys in the airport departure hall was adopted as the clearance between the air passengers with baggage at the MRT station.

Based on the field study of Changi International Airport, the characteristics of air passengers’ baggage check-in queues were explored. The computer simulation adopted the levels, which were similar to the scenarios of queuing for baggage check-in at Changi International Airport, for the inter-person spacing of the check-in queues at the MRT station.

Field study showed that the y-axis clearance between the passenger who was conducting the check-in and the first queuing passenger was usually between level-of-service B and C. This was larger than the distance between the subsequent passengers, which were usually at level-of-service D (see Fig.4).

x

y

L-o-

s B-C

L-o-

s D

Figure 4. The clearance between the check-in blocks at Changi International Airport.

Therefore, in the simulation of downtown baggage check-in system at City Hall MRT Station , the clearance between the passenger who was conducting the check-in and the first waiting passengers was 610mm at the boundary between queuing level-of-service B and C. The clearance between the following waiting passengers was 200mm at queuing level-of-service D (see Fig. 5-6).

610

700

200

700

460Depth of the body ellipse

Boundary between level-of-service B and C

Depth of a passenger with a bag Level-of-service D

with a bagDepth of a passenger

Check-in Counter Service Counter

300

Figure 5. The simulation of check-in queues at the MRT station (plan).

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Figure 6. The simulation of check-in queues (elevation).

3. CREATING THE HUMAN MODELS BY USING THEBOUNDARY LINES OF THE INTEGRAL BLOCK - Theellipse templates were built before the creation of thedigital human models in the simulation. The humanmodels were then created and located within theseellipse templates, which at the same time served asboundary lines. The same method was applied to the airpassengers with baggage. The manipulation of the hingepoints on the digital human models was converted intothe manipulation of the quadrant points of their bodyellipse or the endpoints of the boundary lines of theblocks. This method would be convenient to locate awide range of human models, representing passengersin different locations of the building environment as wellas to analyze their spatial relationships.

4. CREATING OTHER HUMAN MODELSREPRESENTING DIFFERENT PARTICIPANTS - Alongwith air passengers, participants of the check-in worksystem also include airline check-in staffs and thebaggage handling workers. As the feasibility of the worksystem will be evaluated within an existing MRT station,it would inevitably affect the original transportation flowsof MRT commuters. These commuters were alsoincluded in the check-in simulation.

The locations and actions of these different kinds of people will vary dependent upon their task and environmental context. Therefore, the application of human models would be useful to simulate and manipulate the static and dynamic postures, related to the required tasks and actions (see Fig. 7).

Figure 7. Simulation of the different participants of the work system.

5. SELECTION OF WORKPLACE WITHIN THE CITYHALL MRT STATION - Several locations within the CityHall MRT Station were chosen for the work systemdesign. The spatial arrangement, form and number ofthe check-in counters also differ at the various locationsto match the space requirements for air passengers’baggage check-in as well as not to obstruct the corridorfor the MRT commuters (see Fig. 8).

Figure 8. Simulation of the baggage check-in work system on the ground level of the MRT station.

RESULTS

The research found that a workspace with no more than 3 check-in counters and 1 service counter on the ground level would in comparison to the different schemes be the most suitable workplace for a baggage check-in system at City Hall MRT Station. The digital human modeling simulation showed that the maximum number of passengers in the check-in queues should not exceed 9 at the same time (see Fig. 9). Another maximum 3 passengers are allowed to be in the queue at the service counter. These data would be helpful for the further decision making of the authorities involved.

Figure 9. Human models in the work system design.

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CONCLUSION

Body ellipse templates and queuing level-of-service standards were applied to describe and locate the digital human models in the air passengers’ check-in queuing simulation. The locations of human models, instead of being manipulated by the hinge points on the bodies, were manipulated by virtual points such as the quadrant points of the ellipse outside the body. Their inter-person spacing was therefore decided by the clearance between the quadrant points of the body ellipses. In parallel, a human model with the baggage/trolley can be considered as one integral block. They were positioned and managed by manipulating the endpoints on the boundary lines of the block. In the work system simulation with many human models and objects, this method would make it relatively convenient to manipulate the spatial relationships among the digital human models, the check-in facilities, and the workplace as well as the external environments.

As researchers from different backgrounds need to collaborate in the design of a downtown check-in work system, the uses of digital human models would be a suitable platform to design, assess and communicate the project. The work system simulation, which integrated subjects, check-in facilities, and the MRT station workplace, provided a way for the decision maker and the participants to understand the flow and mechanisms of the work system. Further investigation of the participants’ and decision makers’ comments and feedback could be studied using the same working model. These would affect the work system design and in turn lead to the enhancement of workspace evaluation and design.

REFERENCES

Fruin, John, J. (1971). Pedestrian planning and design. New York: Metropolitan Association of Urban Designers and Environmental Planners.

Hendrick, Hal W., & Kleiner, Brian M. (2000). Macroergonomics: An introduction to work system design. Santa Monica: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.

Kleiner, Brian M. (2002). Laboratory and field research in macroergonomics. In Hal W. Hendrick & Brian M. Kleiner (Eds.), Macroergonomics: Theory, methods, and applications. (pp. 133-150). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Wright, Paul H., Ashford, Norman J., & Stammer, Robert Jr. (1998). Transportation engineering: Planning and design. New York: J. Wiley.

CONTACT

Andre Liem earned his Master’s degree in Industrial Design Engineering from Delft University of Technology. E-mail address: [email protected]

Huang Yan earned her Bachelor’s degree in Architecture from Southeast University. E-mail address: [email protected]

The authors work in the School of Design and Environment, National University of Singapore. Web address: http://www.arch.nus.edu.sg

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APPENDIX B-9

ARTICLE XI

ANTHROPOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR EMBARKATION AND DISEMBARKATION AT BUS SHELTERS.

Author(s):




Yeo Kang Shua , Chai Jun Yea • National University of Singapore, Department of Architecture, Singapore


André Liem developed the structure of the article, led the theoretical development of the article and wrote most of the article. Yeo Kang Shua and Chai Jun Yea assisted in the experiment by conducting covert observations.

Published in:

Proceedings of SEAMEC 2003, ed. Khalid, H.M., Lim, T.Y., and Lee, N.K. (2003): Kuching: UNIMAS. (SEAMEC 2003, 19-22 May 2003, UNIMAS, Kuching, Malaysia)

Number of pages:

8 (CD-ROM).

How to Cite?

MLA Liem, Andre, Yeo Kang Shua Yeo and Chai Jun Yea. Anthropometric considerations for embarkation and disembarkation at bus shelters. In Proceedings of SEAMEC 2003, ed. Khalid, H.M., Lim, T.Y., and Lee, N.K. (2003): Kuching: UNIMAS. (SEAMEC 2003, 19-22 May2003, UNIMAS, Kuching, Malaysia)

APA Liem, A, Yeo K.S. & Chai J. Y. Anthropometric considerations for embarkation anddisembarkation at bus shelters. In Proceedings of SEAMEC 2003, ed. Khalid, H.M., Lim, T.Y.,and Lee, N.K. (2003): Kuching: UNIMAS. (SEAMEC 2003, 19-22 May 2003, UNIMAS,Kuching, Malaysia)

Chicago Liem, Andre, Yeo Kang Shua Yeo and Chai Jun Yea. Anthropometric considerations forembarkation and disembarkation at bus shelters. In Proceedings of SEAMEC 2003, ed. Khalid, H.M., Lim, T.Y., and Lee, N.K. (2003): Kuching: UNIMAS. (SEAMEC 2003, 19-22 May2003, UNIMAS, Kuching, Malaysia)

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Anthropometric Considerations for Embarkation and Disembarkation at Bus Shelters

Andre Liem, Yeo Kang Shua and Chai Jun Yeaa

a Department of Architecture, National University of Singapore, 4 Architecture Drive, Singapore, Republic of Singapore.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the proposition that anthropometric characteristics of Singaporeans affect the ease of embarkation and disembarkation of bus at bus shelters, hence, influencing the design of bus shelters. A “recommended” curb to bus platform distances was derived from static anthropometric sampling data. Overall static anthropometric data determined in 1988, 1986 & 1985 were available but additional sampling measurements had to be carried out to reinforced changes in data since. One hundred and twenty healthy subjects participated in anthropometric measurement.

Keywords: Anthropometry, Buses, Bus Shelters, Embarkation and Disembarkation.

1. IntroductionSingapore is a small country with 4,017,700 inhabitants, in which 3,263,200 are Singapore citizens andpermanent residents (S’pore Census, 2000). Public transportation systems play a fundamental and important rolein the mobility of people in highly dense populated Singapore. This should not only limit itself to theavailability, frequency and capacity of vehicles transporting masses of people, but also to the ancillary facilities,such as bus shelters and walkways. Users’ daily physical contact with bus shelters is directly related to thesystem’s ergonomic conditions (Bins Ely, 1998). In 2000, one in two resident workers commutes every workingday using public transport (public buses, Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), or taxi). 23 per cent of the workerscommute to work by MRT only or with transfer from/to public bus, while 25 per cent commute by public busonly. (S’pore Census, 2000)In Singapore, amelioration of bus shelters’ quality only depends on a checklist provided by the Land TransportAuthority of Singapore (LTA), which has inherited from British Standards, disregarding the differences inanthropometric profiles of the population and climate here. The interface between bus shelter and bus:embarkation and disembarkation, is especially imperative owning to the high flux of users at bus shelters inSingapore. During the period of 2000 - 2004, the Land Transport Authority of Singapore (LTA) is in the processof replacing their bus shelters island wide. Hence, this study is a project undertaken to investigate the ease ofembarkation and disembarkation of bus at bus shelters based on anthropometric measurements based on thesupposition that the bus shelter is the variable, treating buses as constant. Most often it is necessary to takeaccount of the tallest persons to decide on legroom or shortest persons to make sure they can navigate gapsbetween road curb and bus platform comfortably. Therefore, consequently influencing the design of busshelters.

2. Method

2.1. Anthropometric Data Static anthropometric data for individual body dimensions for the 5th, 50th and 95th percentile of Singaporean were required to be sampled. The total sample of population was 120 comprising 60 males and 60 females in each age category of 18 – 55 years. The measurements taken were based on existing guidelines (Clauser, C., 1988; White, R., 1964; & Kroemer, Kark H. E., 1999). There are 19 measurements taken with the volunteers fully clothed. These measurements were chosen which are most likely to be of use to aid the ergonomic design of bus shelters. Data presented are that for Singaporeans in general. No comparison is made between the data of the various ethnic groups in Singapore as the sample population is small and their application rather limited in this study. The data is then compared with existing Singaporean data and data from Hong Kong, Malaysia (Industry Workers), Japan and USA that are often used for designing in Singapore.

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2.2 Covered Video Observation Survey The main objective is to obtain a qualitative understanding on relative embarkation behaviour of users. Bus shelters chosen, were based on the listing of bus shelters, obtained from LTA representative of 3 generic shelters and the rate of usage. The current public bus shelters can be divided into 3 generic categories: Kumpulan type, centrally supported type and cantilevered type. By observing the users’ embarkation movement, a stick figure would then be drawn based on the available anthropometric data with joints positions derived from data for the Hong Kong male population.

3. Data Collection and AnalysisThe anthropometrics sampling data collected is presented in sets of male and female physical dimensions for the5th, 50th and 95th percentiles (See Table 1) Standard deviation is also calculated. Generally, the anthropometricsampling data presented do not reveal any unexpected data. Conversely, when compared to the 1988 Singaporedata, Singaporean’s 50th percentile males and 50th percentile females are 0.83% and 4.45% (stature) tallerrespectively than in 1988. (See Table 1)

3.1 Stick Figure The location of pivot points between the body segments used for the stick figure had to be determined in an attempt to simulate realistic dynamic activity. In order to fix these pivot points it was assumed that the relationship between static measurements were the proportionately the same for the 50th percentile of Singaporean male and Hong Kong male. And the Singaporean female is proportionate to the Singaporean male. The construction of stick figures follows the construction of manikins from the work of Courtney, A. J. and Wong, M. H. (1985). Using the anthropometric data for the 50th percentile Hong Kong male, ratios were established between known static dimensions and joint locations. These ratios were then applied to the known static dimensions of the Singaporean populace to calculate joint locations for the 5th, 50th and 95th percentile stick manikins. For example, the hip height of the 50th percentile Hong Kong male is 855 mm, the ratio of hip height to the length of hip joint to knee joint is 2.238; calculating the length of hip joint to knee joint of the 50th percentile Singaporean male whose hip height is 982 mm would be 438.7 mm. Likewise, calculating the length of hip joint to knee joint of the 50th percentile Singaporean female whose hip height is 899 mm would be 401.6 mm.

Percentiles Dimensions 5th 50th 95th

Hip joint to knee joint 354 382 420 Knee joint to ankle joint 348 380 416 Ankle joint to floor* 97 103 107 Knee height to knee joint 30 33 36 Front to knee to knee joint 47 51 55 Floor to ankle height 71 78 84 * Including 25.4 mm shoe allowanceCourtney, A. J. and Wong, M. H. (1985)

Table 2 – Estimated locations of joint centres for Hong Kong manikins

Male Percentiles Female Percentiles Dimensions 5th 50th 95th 5th 50th 95th

Hip joint to knee joint 405.8 438.7 469.8 365.4 401.6 431.4 Knee joint to ankle joint 398.7 436.4 465.3 359.1 399.5 427.3 Ankle joint to floor* 111.1 118.3 119.7 100.1 108.3 110.0 Knee height to knee joint 34.4 37.9 40.3 31.0 34.7 37.0 Front to knee to knee joint 53.8 58.6 61.5 48.5 53.7 56.5 Floor to ankle height 81.3 89.6 94.0 73.2 82.0 86.3 * Including 25.4 mm shoe allowance

Table 3– Estimated locations of joint centres for Singapore male and female manikins

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Figure 1 – Covered video observation still capture with stick figure superimposed on user

3.2 Construction of Stick Figures All the necessary data for the construction of static stick figures were available; nonetheless, further assumptions have to be made through the generalisation of covered video observations: the average height of the lowest bus platform is deemed to be 350 mm and the average height of the road curb is deemed to be 160 mm. During embarkation from road curb that is lower than bus platform, the user’s front leg – knee to ankle is assumed perpendicular to the ground. The hind leg is assumed to be straight and at an angle of 12 degrees from the centre of gravity, subjected to a maximum hip joint angle of 70 degrees for male and 64 degrees for female; during embarkation from road curb that is higher than bus platform, the user’s the front leg is assumed to be straight. The hind leg’s hip to knee is assumed at an angle of 12 degrees from the centre of gravity and the hind leg – knee’s angle at 26 degrees for male and 29 degrees for female. These boundaries of the comfort areas were determined by using the manikin joint distances together with the construction method suggested by Hochschule für industrielle Formgestaltung (1981) on comfort angles.

3.3 Results Dimensions for the 'recommended' distance of curb at bus shelters to bus platform, determined from the stick figure derived with static data are shown in Fig 2 & 3 for 5th, 50th and 95th percentile male and female of the Singaporean populace. Specification distances of 454.6 mm, 465.8 mm and 509.4 mm were measured from the edge of curb to bus platform for the 5th, 50th and 95th percentile male; and specification distances of 399.0 mm, 451.3 mm and 471.5 mm were measured from the edge of curb to bus platform for the 5th, 50th and 95th percentile female. Conversely, with the intention of formulating a recommended distance of curb at bus shelter to bus platform, the worst-case scenario of the 5th percentile female must be the yardstick. As a result, a series of stick figures are drawn based on the assumption that the bus platform is constant (350mm), with varying road curb height. Two curves are subsequently drawn for embarkation from road curb that is lower than bus platform (stepping up) and embarkation from road curb that is higher than bus platform (stepping down). (See Fig 4, 5 & 6) Based on the results of stick figure investigation, the recommended height of curb should preferably align with the bus platform. This scenario will allow the user to comfortably bridge the distance between bus shelter and platform. (widest range of distance). (See Fig 7)

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Figure 2 – Static Stick Figures drawn for 5th, 50th & 95th Percentile Male

Figure 3 – Static Stick Figures drawn for 5th, 50th & 95th Percentile Female

Centre of Gravity Line Above Edge of Curbe

Centre of Gravity Line Above Edge of Curbe

Stepping from Edge of Curb

Stepping from Edge of Curb

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Figure 4 – Static Stick Figures drawn for 5th Percentile Female with varying curb heights

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Figure 5 – Embarkation from Curb lower than Bus Platform for 5th Percentile Female

Figure 6 – Embarkation from Curb higher than Bus Platform for 5th Percentile Female

Figure 7 – Embarkation & Disembarkation for 5th Percentile Female

E m ba rk a tio n f ro m C urb h ig he r tha n B us P la tfo rm

250.0

300.0

350.0

400.0

450.0

500.0

550.0

600.0

320.0 340.0 360.0 380.0 400.0 420.0 440.0 460.0

C u r b H e i g h t

Embarkation & Disembarkation

200.0

250.0

300.0

350.0

400.0

450.0

500.0

550.0

600.0

200.0 250.0 300.0 350.0 400.0 450.0 500.0

Curb Height

Dis

tanc

e be

twee

n C

urb

& B

us

Plat

form

E mbarkatio n from C urb lower than B us P latfo rm

200.0220.0240.0260.0280.0300.0320.0340.0360.0380.0400.0

200.0 220.0 240.0 260.0 280.0 300.0 320.0 340.0 360.0

Curb Height

Dis

t. be

twee

n C

urb

& B

us

Plat

form

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Khalid and Velasco (Editors) Proceedings of SEAMEC2003, Unimas, Kuching, 2003

4. DiscussionThe anthropometric data presented is only applicable as a guide. Classification of results by ethnic and agegroups was not done because of the limited application in this study and the small sampling population carriedout. Embarkation from a higher curb level than bus platform level is also the same as disembarkation from ahigher bus platform level to the curb level. Although, embarkation showed a laterally inverted relationship withdisembarkation, assumptions that body movement mechanics are the same for both embarkation anddisembarkation should not be made. Derivation of the 'recommended' distances from the static and samplingstick figure was accomplished by considering maxima, minima and general recommendations from literature.However, because of the complex interaction between the various dimensions made it very unlikely that the'recommended' distances would prove to be entirely satisfactory in practice.

5. AcknowledgementThe authors wish to thank all participating subjects, students, and institutions for their contributions. Thanks arealso due to the Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya for making available the Anthropometric data ofMalaysian male and female industrial workers.

6. Notes & ReferencesBINS ELY, V. H. M., TURKIENICS, B. and GONTIJO, L. A. (1998) Grid of Attributes Method: A

Configurational Model to evaluate Bus Shelters. Proceedings of the Human Factors & Ergonomics Society – 42nd Annual Meeting, Chicago. Pg. 624 – 628.

Census of Population Office, Singapore Department of Statistics (2001) Singapore Census of Population, 2000: Advance Data Release No. 5. Singapore Department of Statistics

Centre for Ergonomics in Design and Manufacturing, Department of Engineering Design and Manufacture, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya Anthropometric data of Malaysian male and female industrial workers (unpublished)

CHAPANIS, A. (1975) Ethnic Variables in Human Factors Engineering. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

CLAUSER, C., TEBBETS, I., BRADTMILLER, B., MC CONVILLE, J. & GORDON, C. (1988) Measurer’s Handbook: U.S. Army Anthropometric Survey 1987 – 1988. Anthropology Research Project Inc, Yellow Springs, Ohio.

COCHRAN W (1977) Sampling Techniques. New York: New York. COURTNEY, A. J. and WONG, M. H. (1985) Anthropometry of the Hong Kong male and the design of bus

driver cabs Applied Ergonomics 1985, 16.4. Pg. 259 –266. GROVES R (1989) Survey Errors and Survey Costs. New York: Wiley. HOCHSCHULE FÜR INDUSTRIELLE FORMGESTALTUNG, Halle – Burg Giebichenstein (1981) (Institute

for Industrial Design) Erhebung DDR 1981/85 HU Berlin, KMU Leipzig. JONES P, Dix M, ClARCKE M & HEGGIE I (1983) Understanding Travel Behaviour. Aldershot, Hants,

UK: Gower Publishing. KROEMER, Kark H. E. (1999) Engineering Anthropometry, In: Karwowski, W., Marras, W.S. (Eds) The

Occupational Ergonomics Handbook (pp 139 – 162). LIM L.E.N., NGAN, L.M.T. & LAM, C.Y. (1989) Anthropometric study of the Singapore populace, 1988

Yearbook of Institute of Industrial Engineers, Singapore Chapter, 1988/89, Singapore. LIM L.E.N., NGAN, L.M.T., LAM, C.Y. & NG, B.H. (1987) Anthropometric study of the Singapore

populace, 1986 Final Report for Applied Research Project, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.

LIM L.E.N., NGAN, L.M.T., LAM, C.Y. & NG, B.H. (1988) Anthropometric study of the Singapore populace, 1986 Yearbook of Institute of Industrial Engineers, Singapore Chapter, 1987/88, Singapore.

LIM L.E.N., NGAN, L.M.T., LAM, C.Y. & NG, B.H. & SOO, A.P. (1986) The Singapore Anthropometric Data and its Implications to Industrial Design 1986 Asian Conference on Industrial Engineering, Singapore.

LIM L.E.N., NGAN, L.M.T. & LAM, C.Y. (1986) Anthropometric study of the Singapore populace, 1985 Yearbook of Institute of Industrial Engineers, Singapore Chapter, 1985/86, Singapore.

WHITE, R. (1964) Anthropometric Survey of the Royal Thai Armed Forces. Advanced Research Project Agency, Washington, D.C.

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APPENDIX B-10

ARTICLE XII

TOWARDS A CULTURALLY DRIVEN APPROACH FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF STRATEGIC DESIGN CONCEPTS

Author(s):




Lind, Ane Linea; Gadaria, Dharmesh • Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Product

Design, Trondheim. Norway.


André Liem developed the structure of the article and led the theoretical development of the article. Ane Linea Lind and Dharmesh Gadaria assisted in the project by developing cultural cases

Published in:

Proceedings of Norddesign 2010; International Conference on Methods and Tools for Product and Production Development, Gothenburg, Sweden. The Design Society 2010 (ISBN 978-91-633-7063-2)

Number of pages:

11 (pp. 97-108).

How to Cite?

MLA Liem, Andre, Ane Linea Lind, and Dharmesh Gadaria. "Towards a Culturally Driven Approach for the Development of Strategic Design Concepts." DS 61: Proceedings of NordDesign 2010, the 8th International NordDesign Conference, Göteborg, Sweden, 25.-27.08. 2010. 2010

APA Liem, A., Lind, A. L., & Gadaria, D. (2010). Towards a Culturally Driven Approach for the Development of Strategic Design Concepts. In DS 61: Proceedings of NordDesign 2010, the 8th International NordDesign Conference, Göteborg, Sweden, 25.-27.08. 2010.

Chicago Liem, Andre, Ane Linea Lind, and Dharmesh Gadaria. "Towards a Culturally Driven Approach for the Development of Strategic Design Concepts." In DS 61: Proceedings of NordDesign 2010, the 8th International NordDesign Conference, Göteborg, Sweden, 25.-27.08. 2010. 2010.

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NordDesign 2010 August 25 – 27, 2010

Göteborg, Sweden

Towards a Culturally Driven Approach for the Development of Strategic Design Concepts

André Liem, Ane Linea Lind, Dharmesh Gadaria Department of Product Design

Norwegian University of Science andTechnology Kolbjørn Hejes vei 2B

7491 Trondheim NORWAY

[email protected]

Abstract This article attempts to argue that social, political and economic perspectives supported by a cultural understanding of societies and regions are the cornerstones for a more comprehensive external analysis. Extreme trends and developments in nations´ political, economical and social situation are a source for innovation. As social, political and economical developments in a society are difficult to change overnight; various case studies have illustrated the potential role of design in improving the negative aspects of these developments, usually represented by extreme cultural trends, through innovative design concepts. A bottom-up analysis of the case studies resulted in the six (6) preliminary categories, which can function as a guide for a broader approach in terms of future external analysis and goal finding. These categories are:

• Healthcare and elderly care• Working and living• Education and manpower development• Purchase of food, products and services• Mobility /Transportation of goods and people• Interaction and Communication

However at this moment, it cannot be guaranteed that design concepts generated from a cultural difference perspective are more innovative than others. Keywords: Cultural Dimensions, Product Strategy, Innovation, Goal Finding

1 Introduction To some extent technology is seen as a means by which manufacturing companies can strive to adapt to the requirements of a competitive and turbulent environment. The growing complexity and pace of industrial technological change are forcing firms to forge new vertical and horizontal alliances and to seek greater speed, flexibility and efficiency in responding to market changes [1]. Although underlining the importance of “Technology Push” and “Need Pull” in search of innovation, leading edge innovators and scientists, who are believers of the five-generation (5G) innovation processes tend to support an industry dominant design, whereby the nature of innovative activity has shifted from an emphasis on product change to one of manufacturing process change [2]. In such cases firms can become introspective in

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their innovation selection criteria (manufacturing cost focus), rejecting possibilities for radical product change and failing to respond to significant market shifts. According to Schumpeter, the process of creative destruction’ describes the activity of entrepreneurs who stimulated fundamental change and defined new frontiers in society. Creative destruction takes place through the discovery of new technologies, products, markets, processes and organizational forms that create clear alternatives to existing products and practices [3]. From a product sustainability perspective, incremental improvements will not suffice. Radical or systemic innovation is needed, whereby a change in the approach in the searching for new solutions is essential [4]. Contemporary scholars of entrepreneurship emphasize opportunity and innovation, as well as the processes and modes of organizing through which entrepreneurs achieve their goals [5], [6], [7], [8], [9]. The essence of this collective inquiry is captured in three questions [5]:

1. When, why, and how [in the absence of current markets] do opportunities for thecreation of goods and services in the future arise in an economy?

2. Why, when and how are some able to discover and exploit these opportunities whileothers cannot or do not?

3. What are the economic psychological and social consequences of this pursuit of afuture market not only for the pursuer, but also for the other stakeholders and forsociety as a whole?

2 Methods and Paradigms for Innovation The changing global environment is compelling organizations and businesses to permanently seek the most efficient models to maximize their innovation management efforts through new methods and paradigms, which efficiently serve existing and new markets with new and/or modified products as well as services [10], [11]. Within the context of integrated product development, the level of innovative success in formulating an effective product strategy and a design goal is highly dependent on how thorough ”Product Planning and Goal Finding” processes were carried out in the front-end of Innovation (FEI) [12]. The term ‘(fuzzy) front end’ describes the earliest stage of an idea's development and is one of the greatest areas of weakness of the innovation process, but effective management of the front end may result in a sustainable competitive advantage [13]. Furthermore, the (fuzzy) front end innovation stages are consisting of unknown and uncontrollable factors [13]. In this sense, the focus on the front end is mainly one of opportunity identification and analysis [14]. Hereby, both internal and external sources are important for idea development and goal finding, but, the designer’s approach towards the execution of the external analysis determines the level of innovation targeted [15]. In practice, external analysis focuses mainly on market, competitor’s and stakeholder’s analysis, which has led to incremental innovation, where new products were created for existing markets or new markets for existing products confining itself to the current product or service portfolio of the respective company [16]. In order to achieve diversification, synonymous to radical innovation, a broader approach towards innovation processes is needed to obtain a maximum number of innovative product and process ideas. However, there has been little research done on the issue so far [17]. This article attempts to argue that social, political and economic perspectives supported by a cultural understanding of societies and regions are the cornerstones for a more comprehensive external analysis.

3 Culture and its Cultural Dimensions Culture has been defined in a number of different ways because of its multi-dimensional characteristics. For example, Kroeber and Parsons arrived at a cross-disciplinary definition of culture as “transmitted and created content and patterns of value, ideas, and other symbolic-

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meaningful systems as factors in the shaping of human behaviour and the artefacts produced through behaviour.” [18]. For Hofstede, culture is “the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.” The cultural characteristics thus comprise a constellation of psychological traits, attributes, and characteristics [19]. Identifying cultural characteristics is difficult because it lacks a robust measure that can identify the implicit levels of culture [20]. In an effort to address this issue, researchers have dissected culture as a set of ‘dimensions’ that provide a framework for cross-cultural comparisons of user behaviour [21]. Important work in defining cultural dimensions has been undertaken by Parsons and Shils [21], Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck [22], Hall [23], Hofstede [24] and Trompenaars [25]. Hofstede [24] conducted a survey of IBM employees in 40 different countries and proposed a model, describing national cultures that entailed four dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity vs. femininity, and power distance.Hofstede and Bond [26] subsequently added the fifth dimension to their model, long-term vs. short-term orientation.

4 A Cultural Perspective on Innovation Historically, the “technology gap” theory first stipulated that the potential for knowledge imitation was positively linked to the development gap (often measured in terms of GDP per capita) between countries [27], [28]. According to this theory, a less developed a firm or a country, the smaller is its knowledge stock and therefore the bigger its potential to increase through learning from the leading countries. However, when considering cultural driven innovation, strategists and designers should acknowledge that numerous societies believed that their habits, ideas and customs were what determined the shape of their political and economic arrangements, and were the source of their uniqueness. When Hofstede´s five dimensions [19] are associated with manifestations of cultural difference, thus linking cultural parameters to cultural behaviour, it can be observed that the potential for radical innovation is neither biggest in leading nor developing countries. The feeding ground for radical innovation is the understanding of the status quo of a nation’s cultural, political, economic and social atmosphere, followed by the acknowledgement that drastic improvements in quality of life, service quality or minimizing inequalities within societies, are almost impossible to be achieved through political governance. This calls for a designerly approach, whereby service-oriented, strategic design concepts are proposed to solve cultural extremes at the bi-polar scale of Hofstede´s dimensions [19]. Proper concept development within specific cultural contexts can positively influence life and service quality and solve inequalities in both upcoming and advanced economies.

5 Research Focus and Method Prior to the research questions below, an assumption is made that extreme trends and developments based on Hofstede´s five cultural dimensions, represented by certain nations are unfavourable. A hypothesis is formulated that these unfavourable conditions can be solved through strategic design without affecting a nation’s cultural, political, social and economical disposition. Related research questions are: • As social, political and economical trends of a society are difficult to change overnight,

can design play a role to improve the negative aspects of these trends, and thereforeelevate the life quality of certain groups in the respective societies?

• Can areas for improvement through design be identified by mapping case studies from asocial, political and economic perspective on a bi-polar scale, supported by Hofstede’s”Cultural Dimensions?

• Is there a potential to develop a methodology for strategic goal finding based on social,cultural and political differences on a bi-polar scale?

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• Will the development of innovative design concepts then be more radical byunderstanding the extremities on the bi-polar scale?

A”Multiple Case Studies”research approach was used to gather findings [29]. Sources of evidence were mainly based on literature studies and observations followed by interviews. Prior to that, brainstorm sessions among the researchers led to the identification and selection of potential case studies. The analysis of case study evidence was carried out through a procedure of ”Explanation Building”. Each case study was summarised and tabulated, according to the following topics: “Context”, “Cultural Explanation”, “Cultural Dimension”, “Design Problem” and “Design Concept”. Thereafter, a comparative analysis was done among the case studies on each topic.

6 Summary and Analysis of Case Study Results 14 case studies were summarised and analysed in table 2. On the basis of “Context”, all case studies illustrate a clear contradiction based on cultural differences. The “Cultural Explanation” shares more in-depth knowledge on how these cultural differences affects society and human interaction from an economic and political perspective. All Hofstede´s 5 cultural dimensions were covered by the case studies; however “Power Distance”, “Masculine versus Feminine” and “Collective versus Individual pre-dominantly appear and can be recognised as the main building blocks in determining whether a society is capitalistic or social-democratic. The building blocks were also regrouped as “Large Power Distance – Masculine – Individual” and “Small Power Distance – feminine – Collective” and positioned on the extremes of a bi-polar scale. All “Design Problems” describe a need for improvement from one nation´s contextual perspective in comparison to the opposing nation´s political, social or economical state on the bi-polar axes. The “Design Concepts” were a natural progression of the design problem. However not all solutions could be classified as radical. A bottom-up analysis of the case studies has resulted in the six (6) preliminary categories, which can function as a guide for a broader approach in terms of future external analysis and goal finding. Table 1 classifies the 14 case studies according to the 6 categories.

Table 1. Classification of case studies according to categories

Categories Case Studies

• Healthcare and elderly care Health Care, Denmark versus USA; Physical Activity, Norway versus USA; Elderly Care, Norway versus India; Health Care System: Norway – India

• Working and living Construction Industry, Singapore versus Norway; Waste Collection: Norway versus Singapore

• Education and manpowerdevelopment

Education - India versus Norway

• Purchase of food, productsand services

Home Decoration and Interior Design; Food retail Shopping Experience, India versus Norway; Postal Services in rural regions

• Mobility /Transportation ofgoods and people

Mobility of women , Jeddah versus London; Public Transportation, India versus Norway

• Interaction andCommunication

Making Contact, France versus Norway; Having Lunch – France versus USA

Referenced to Maslow´s hierarchy of needs [30], the six categories can be classified under the first three level of needs of the pyramid; Physiological, Safety, Love / Belonging. This indicates that a cultural approach towards external analysis and product idea generation in the FEI can be instrumental in the generation of innovative system and or product ideas to improve quality of life and service not only in developing but also developed nations.

100B-130

Tabl

e 2.

Sum

mar

y of

13

case

stu

dies

Cas

e T

itle

and

Con

text

C

ultu

ral E

xpla

natio

n D

omin

ant C

ultu

ral

Dim

ensi

on(s

) D

esig

n Pr

oble

m

Des

ign

Con

cept

Hea

lth C

are,

Den

mar

k ve

rsus

USA

: A

cces

sibi

lity

of h

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reco

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stem

s is

grea

ter i

n so

cial

dem

ocra

tic so

ciet

ies,

such

as

Den

mar

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SA. I

n U

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In th

e D

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that

all

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ld h

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l rig

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alth

care

, esp

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lly

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prot

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l med

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SA, a

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SA:

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ause

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and

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ctiv

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way

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ctiv

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rom

the

Am

eric

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pre

sent

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In th

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whi

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peda

ls.

Eld

erly

Car

e, N

orw

ay v

ersu

s Ind

ia:

In N

orw

ay, s

enio

r citi

zens

, who

are

not

abl

e to

take

car

e of

them

selv

es m

ove

to a

n in

stitu

tion

for e

lder

ly.

In In

dia,

eld

erly

will

stay

trad

ition

ally

with

th

eir o

ldes

t son

and

gra

nd c

hild

ren

thei

r en

tire

life.

Whi

le in

goo

d co

nditi

on, t

hey

help

out

with

look

ing

afte

r the

ir gr

andc

hild

ren.

In c

ase

they

no

long

er c

an

take

car

e of

them

selv

es, t

heir

fam

ily w

ill

norm

ally

take

car

e of

them

. Mem

bers

of t

he

fam

ily, e

spec

ially

thei

r dau

ghte

r-in

law

, are

re

spon

sibl

e fo

r pro

vidi

ng p

hysi

cal,

med

ical

, fin

anci

al a

nd e

mot

iona

l sup

port.

In N

orw

ay, t

he so

ciet

y as

a w

hole

is

resp

onsi

ble

for t

akin

g ca

re o

f in

divi

dual

s. D

espi

te th

is

colle

ctiv

istic

thin

king

, in

divi

dual

ism

als

o st

ands

stro

ng in

N

orw

ay. F

reed

om a

nd

inde

pend

ence

is a

n id

eal f

or p

eopl

e in

nee

d of

car

e as

wel

l as t

heir

fam

ilies

. In

Indi

a in

divi

dual

ism

is

less

em

phas

ised

, mak

ing

it m

ore

likel

y th

at e

xten

ded

fam

ilies

will

liv

e un

der o

ne ro

of. T

his n

atur

al

prog

ress

ion

in fa

mily

rela

tions

hips

m

ay li

mit

mem

ber’

s per

sona

l fr

eedo

m a

nd c

ause

con

flict

.

•C

olle

ctiv

e ve

rsus

Indi

vidu

alFr

om a

Nor

weg

ian

pers

pect

ive:

H

ow c

an e

lder

ly p

eopl

e w

ho a

re

livin

g on

thei

r ow

n or

in a

n el

derly

ho

me

and

are

bein

g ta

ken

care

of

by p

rofe

ssio

nal w

orke

rs st

ill fe

el

that

they

are

par

t of t

heir

fam

ilies

? H

ow c

an th

ey m

aint

ain

cont

act

with

thei

r rel

ativ

es a

nd fe

el lo

ved

in a

way

that

they

will

not

be

a bu

rden

to th

eir b

usy

fam

ily

mem

bers

? H

ow c

an th

ey st

ill ta

ke

som

e pa

rt in

the

upbr

ingi

ng o

f the

ir gr

andc

hild

ren?

An

inte

ract

ive

easy

-to-

use

phot

o fr

ame

with

w

hich

you

cou

ld sh

are

pict

ures

with

oth

ers

from

a d

ista

nce.

With

su

ch a

n el

ectro

nic

phot

o fr

ame

elde

rly c

an k

eep

in to

uch

with

thei

r fa

mili

es o

n a

daily

bas

is

with

out f

eelin

g lik

e a

burd

en.

101B-131

Cas

e T

itle

and

Con

text

C

ultu

ral E

xpla

natio

n D

omin

ant C

ultu

ral

Dim

ensi

ons

Des

ign

Prob

lem

D

esig

n C

once

pt

Mob

ility

of w

omen

, Je

ddah

ver

sus L

ondo

n W

omen

in Je

ddah

are

not

allo

wed

to d

rive

any

vehi

cle

nor r

ide

a bi

cycl

e by

them

selv

es.

To g

et a

roun

d a

wom

an e

ither

has

to si

t in

her h

usba

nd’s

or r

elat

ive’

s car

or w

alk.

H

owev

er, s

he is

allo

wed

to g

o by

pub

lic

trans

port,

but

the

publ

ic tr

ansp

ort c

an n

ot

offe

r the

sam

e le

vels

of e

ffic

ienc

y, c

omfo

rt,

secu

rity

or st

atus

as a

priv

ate

car.

In L

ondo

n, m

ost p

eopl

e ch

oose

to g

o by

pu

blic

tran

spor

t. Th

e pu

blic

tran

spor

t sys

tem

is

am

ong

the

best

in th

e w

orld

, con

sist

ing

of

an e

xten

sive

net

wor

k of

tube

s, bu

ses,

tram

s an

d tra

ins.

In S

audi

Ara

bia,

ther

e ar

e st

rong

co

ncep

tions

with

in so

ciet

y co

ncer

ning

gen

der r

oles

. In

addi

tion,

Isla

m is

ofte

n us

ed a

s an

exc

use

for t

he st

rict

limita

tions

to w

omen

’s ri

ghts

in

Ara

b co

untri

es. S

audi

Ara

bian

cu

lture

furth

erm

ore

seek

s to

avoi

d un

certa

inty

by

enfo

rcin

g st

rict r

ules

, law

s and

re

gula

tions

. The

acc

epta

nce

of

ineq

ualit

y be

twee

n cl

asse

s is

also

sign

ifica

ntly

hig

her i

n Sa

udi A

rabi

a th

an in

the

UK

•M

ascu

line

vers

usFe

min

ine

•Po

wer

Dis

tanc

e•

Unc

erta

inty

Avo

idan

ce

How

can

wom

en in

Sa

udi A

rabi

a be

gi

ven

the

poss

ibili

ty

to g

et a

roun

d in

Je

ddah

on

thei

r, ow

n in

a c

omfo

rtabl

e,

safe

and

fash

iona

ble

way

, with

out

viol

atin

g th

e st

rict

law

s and

mor

al

judg

emen

ts li

miti

ng

thei

r fre

edom

?

A c

omfo

rtabl

e, sa

fe a

nd m

oral

pro

of p

ublic

tra

nspo

rt ne

twor

k of

exc

lusi

ve w

omen

’s

min

i bus

es. T

he b

uses

are

equ

ippe

d w

ith

spy

glas

s win

dow

s to

prev

ent m

en o

n th

e ou

tsid

e fo

rm se

eing

the

trave

llers

. Onl

y w

omen

with

a su

bscr

iptio

n m

ay g

et a

n ac

cess

car

d to

ent

er th

e bu

s sto

ps. A

s pa

ymen

t hap

pens

in a

dvan

ce, t

here

is n

o ne

ed fo

r dire

ct in

tera

ctio

n be

twee

n th

e bu

s dr

iver

and

the

pass

enge

rs.

Mak

ing

Con

tact

, Fra

nce

vers

us N

orw

ay

In N

orw

ay it

is n

orm

al to

pre

tend

you

don

't se

e pe

ople

you

don

't kn

ow w

hen

you

pass

th

em o

n th

e st

reet

. Sta

ring

or sm

iling

is

avoi

ded

not t

o em

barr

ass y

ours

elf o

r the

ot

her p

erso

n. S

ales

repr

esen

tativ

es p

rete

nd

they

are

n't t

here

so th

at c

usto

mer

s will

not

fe

el d

istu

rbed

or e

mba

rras

sed.

Con

vers

atio

n in

shop

s is u

sual

ly li

mite

d to

the

stric

tly

prac

tical

and

pol

ite p

hras

es a

re n

ot w

idel

y us

ed. I

n Fr

ance

smili

ng, h

uggi

ng a

nd ta

lkin

g to

peo

ple

you

don'

t kno

w is

per

fect

ly

norm

al.

Nor

weg

ian

cultu

re is

mor

e di

ffus

e th

an F

renc

h cu

lture

, m

eani

ng th

at N

orw

egia

ns w

ill

act r

eser

ved

tow

ards

stra

nger

s, an

d le

t rel

ativ

ely

few

peo

ple

into

thei

r “pu

blic

spac

e” o

f in

tera

ctio

n. H

owev

er o

nce

insi

de th

e sp

here

ther

e is

a le

sser

di

stin

ctio

n be

twee

n cl

ose

and

dist

ant f

riend

s. Fr

ench

cul

ture

is

mor

e sp

ecifi

c, m

eani

ng th

at

peop

le a

re m

ore

open

to

stra

nger

s but

that

few

er p

eopl

e w

ill b

e le

t int

o th

e in

ner s

pher

e

•M

ascu

line

vers

usFe

min

ine

•Po

wer

Dis

tanc

e•

Col

lect

ive

vers

usIn

divi

dual

How

can

N

orw

egia

ns b

e he

lped

to m

ake

cont

act w

ith e

ach

othe

r with

out

mak

ing

them

feel

em

barr

asse

d? H

ow

to g

ive

them

an

excu

se to

cro

ss th

e lin

e of

shyn

ess a

nd

mak

e co

ntac

t with

st

rang

ers?

Bas

ed o

n th

e m

obile

pho

ne n

etw

ork,

ev

eryo

ne w

ho w

ould

like

to g

et to

kno

w

new

peo

ple

adds

a n

ew a

pplic

atio

n (a

littl

e pr

ogra

m) o

n th

eir m

obile

pho

ne. E

ach

user

re

gist

ers p

erso

nal i

nfor

mat

ion

and

pref

eren

ces,

e.g.

wha

t kin

d of

con

tact

they

w

ould

like

to m

ake,

on

thei

r dev

ice.

W

hene

ver y

ou c

ome

clos

e to

ano

ther

pe

rson

with

mat

chin

g pr

efer

ence

s, bo

th

devi

ces w

ill m

ake

a lit

tle so

und

or a

vi

brat

ion.

Kno

win

g th

at th

e de

vice

has

m

atch

ed e

ach

othe

r int

eres

ts,

you

have

an

excu

se to

star

t a c

onve

rsat

ion

Con

stru

ctio

n In

dust

ry, S

inga

pore

ver

sus

Nor

way

In

Sin

gapo

re, t

he c

onst

ruct

ion

indu

stry

is

labo

ur in

tens

ive

and

relie

s muc

h on

un

skill

ed fo

reig

n la

bour

. The

se im

mig

rant

la

bour

ers h

ave

few

citi

zen

right

s and

m

inim

al w

ages

. The

y ar

e tre

ated

as a

Bec

ause

of w

eath

er c

ondi

tions

fle

xibl

e la

bour

law

s and

the

exce

ss o

f uns

kille

d la

bour

from

ne

ighb

ourin

g co

untri

es, t

he

Sing

apor

e co

nstru

ctio

n m

arke

t is

less

er p

reoc

cupi

ed in

se

arch

ing

for i

nnov

ativ

e

•M

ascu

line

vers

usFe

min

ine

•Po

wer

Dis

tanc

e•

Long

- and

Sho

rtTe

rm O

rient

atio

n

How

can

the

cons

truct

ion

indu

stry

be

furth

er

deve

lope

d as

to

mak

e th

e bu

ildin

g pr

oces

s mor

e ef

ficie

nt a

nd

Inno

vativ

e, p

refa

bric

ated

and

mod

ular

pr

oduc

ts fo

r the

con

stru

ctio

n In

dust

ry

whi

ch c

an b

e fix

ed a

nd a

ssem

bled

by

both

sk

illed

and

uns

kille

d w

orke

rs w

ithou

t un

der-

goin

g be

ing

subj

ecte

d to

a te

diou

s le

arni

ng c

urve

.

102B-132

com

mod

ity a

nd a

re n

ot a

llow

ed to

settl

e in

Si

ngap

ore

or d

evel

op fa

mily

ties

. In

N

orw

ay, l

abou

r is e

xpen

sive

, but

co

nstru

ctio

n ac

tiviti

es a

re g

ener

ally

wel

l pl

anne

d. C

onst

ruct

ion

mat

eria

ls a

re to

a

certa

in e

xten

t “pr

efab

ricat

ed”

for e

asy

asse

mbl

y

solu

tions

, whi

ch c

an fa

cilit

ate

the

build

ing

proc

ess.

In

Nor

way

, the

stro

ng D

o-It-

You

rsel

f cul

ture

, com

bine

d w

ith

high

labo

ur c

osts

, dem

ands

for a

sy

stem

atic

app

roac

h in

co

nstru

ctio

n.

affo

rdab

le in

bot

h na

tions

, whi

le

addr

essi

ng th

e w

elfa

re o

f wor

kers

an

d m

eetin

g th

e bu

dget

con

stra

ints

of

the

end-

cons

umer

Was

te C

olle

ctio

n: N

orw

ay v

ersu

s Si

ngap

ore

In S

inga

pore

, 54%

of t

he w

aste

is re

cycl

ed,

43%

inci

nera

ted,

and

3%

land

fille

d di

rect

ly.

In N

orw

ay a

bout

70%

of t

he w

aste

is

recy

cled

, whi

le th

e re

mai

ning

30

% is

in

cine

rate

d or

land

fills

(TR

V 2

007)

. Whe

n it

com

es to

eff

icie

ncy

on a

mac

ro le

vel,

Nor

way

has

a sl

ight

ly b

ette

r was

te c

olle

ctio

n sy

stem

than

Sin

gapo

re, b

ut is

exp

erie

nced

le

ss c

onve

nien

t by

the

end-

cust

omer

. For

ex

ampl

e, in

Sin

gapo

re th

e w

aste

is c

olle

cted

m

ore

ever

yday

and

com

plet

e so

rting

is d

one

by w

orke

rs a

t a w

aste

pla

nt. T

he S

ervi

ce is

al

so c

heap

er in

Sin

gapo

re th

an in

Nor

way

. In

Nor

way

the

user

s hav

e to

pay

hig

h ta

xes

for t

he se

rvic

e, w

hich

is ru

n by

the

loca

l au

thor

ities

In S

inga

pore

imm

igra

nt w

orke

rs

do n

ot h

ave

citiz

en ri

ghts

and

m

inim

al w

ages

do

not e

xist

. For

th

is re

ason

labo

ur-in

tens

ive

low

-ski

ll’s o

pera

tions

like

m

anua

l was

te so

rting

can

be

done

at a

low

cos

t. In

Sin

gapo

re

the

pow

er d

ista

nce

is la

rge;

it is

ac

cept

ed a

s a n

atur

al th

ing

that

so

me

peop

le a

re m

uch

bette

r off

th

an o

ther

s. In

Nor

way

gar

bage

co

llect

ors a

re o

rgan

ized

in a

un

ion,

and

pro

tect

ed b

y “a

nti

soci

al d

umpi

ng “

law

s. Th

eref

ore

they

can

leve

rage

a

rela

tive

high

sala

ry, w

ithou

t the

pr

essu

res t

o co

ntin

uous

ly

impr

ove

thei

r ser

vice

qua

lity.

•Po

wer

Dis

tanc

e•

Long

- and

Sho

rtTe

rm O

rient

atio

n

How

can

use

rs o

f th

e N

orw

egia

n w

aste

col

lect

ion

syst

em e

xper

ienc

e an

as e

ffor

tless

and

pl

easa

nt si

tuat

ion

sim

ilar t

o us

ers i

n Si

ngap

ore

How

can

recy

clin

g be

kep

t or m

ade

mor

e ef

ficie

nt,

whi

le p

ayin

g w

aste

co

llect

ors a

dec

ent

sala

ry?

For u

rban

are

as, w

aste

sorti

ng a

nd

colle

ctio

n co

uld

be m

ore

auto

mat

ic th

an it

is

toda

y. A

n id

ea fo

r how

to d

o th

is is

to

have

a b

ig c

entra

l was

te so

rting

mac

hine

w

ith tu

bes g

oing

from

the

wal

ls in

eac

h fla

t. Th

e us

er si

mpl

y th

row

s the

pie

ce o

f ga

rbag

e in

to th

e ho

le, a

nd a

sens

or w

ill

regi

ster

wha

t kin

d of

was

te it

is a

nd d

irect

it

to th

e rig

ht c

ompa

rtmen

t of w

aste

. A

sim

ilar s

yste

m is

use

d at

the

St.O

lav

hosp

ital i

n Tr

ondh

eim

, Nor

way

.

Hav

ing

Lunc

h –

Fra

nce

vers

us U

SA

In F

ranc

e, h

avin

g lu

nch

is c

onsi

dere

d an

im

porta

nt p

art o

f a d

aily

ritu

al, w

here

peo

ple

mee

t to

soci

alis

e, d

evel

opin

g bu

sine

ss

rela

tions

, etc

. In

the

US

som

e pe

ople

will

go

out t

o a

rest

aura

nt fo

r lun

ch b

ut lu

nch

is

ofte

n le

ss o

f a so

cial

thin

g an

d m

any

peop

le

will

just

gra

b so

met

hing

to e

at q

uick

ly o

n th

eir w

ay so

mew

here

or a

t the

des

k w

hile

w

orki

ng.

The

Fren

ch c

ultu

re is

hig

h in

un

certa

inty

avo

idan

ce. T

his

mea

ns th

e Fr

ench

like

to k

eep

thei

r tra

ditio

ns a

nd re

sist

ch

ange

s to

thei

r bel

iefs

and

in

stitu

tions

. The

ext

ensi

ve lu

nch

is su

ch a

n in

stitu

tion;

an

old

tradi

tion

crea

ting

a re

liabl

e ro

utin

e in

life

. The

Am

eric

an

soci

ety

emph

asis

es o

n th

e tim

e is

mon

ey c

once

pt.

•M

ascu

line

vers

usFe

min

ine

•U

ncer

tain

tyA

void

ance

•Po

wer

Dis

tanc

e

How

can

the

Am

eric

an lu

nch

get

som

e of

the

Fren

ch

lunc

h qu

ality

of

slow

, soc

ial a

nd

sens

ual e

njoy

men

t w

hile

still

not

bei

ng

too

expe

nsiv

e or

ta

king

too

muc

h va

luab

le ti

me?

To p

rovi

de a

nic

e Fr

ench

styl

e lu

nch

for

busy

Am

eric

ans y

ou c

ould

off

er a

take

aw

ay se

rvic

e th

at w

ill d

eliv

er lu

nchb

oxes

at

off

ices

. The

lunc

hbox

is c

ompo

sed

in

such

a w

ay th

at a

ll di

shes

are

segm

ente

d bu

t com

plem

ent e

ach

othe

r. M

ixin

g an

d m

atch

ing

dish

es fr

om se

vera

l lun

chbo

xes

is e

ncou

rage

d. T

he li

d of

eac

h lu

nchb

ox

can

be ta

ken

off t

o be

use

d as

a p

late

, and

th

e lo

wer

par

t of t

he lu

nchb

ox is

div

ided

in

to c

ompa

rtmen

ts w

ith a

cou

ple

of sm

all

dish

es. T

he sm

all d

ishe

s may

be

plac

ed o

n a

tabl

e to

geth

er w

ith b

oxes

from

oth

ers.

103B-133

Cas

e T

itle

and

Con

text

C

ultu

ral E

xpla

natio

n D

omin

ant C

ultu

ral

Dim

ensi

ons

Des

ign

Prob

lem

D

esig

n C

once

pt

Hom

e D

ecor

atio

n an

d In

teri

or D

esig

n Th

ough

situ

ated

ver

y cl

ose

to e

ach

othe

r, th

ere

are

sign

ifica

nt c

ultu

ral d

iffer

ence

s be

twee

n va

rious

cou

ntrie

s in

term

s of h

ome

deco

ratio

n.

•B

elgi

um -

expe

nsiv

e, d

urab

le, c

lass

iclo

okin

g fu

rnitu

re•

Net

herla

nds -

tren

dy a

nd a

ffor

dabl

efu

rnitu

re.

•Si

ngap

ore

– cu

stom

ised

furn

iture

to m

eet

user

’s n

eeds

to fi

t an

apar

tmen

t as a

holis

tic in

tegr

ated

inte

rior c

once

pt.

•G

e rm

any

– fle

xibl

e fu

rnitu

re, w

hich

can

be m

oved

eas

ily•

Nor

way

– F

lexi

ble

and

easy

to a

ssem

ble

furn

iture

.

Nee

ds fo

r diff

eren

t typ

es o

f in

terio

rs a

nd h

ome

deco

ratio

n de

pend

s whe

ther

the

hous

ing

mar

ket i

s ren

tal o

r ow

ners

hip

driv

en. T

he le

vel o

f cus

tom

er’s

ex

pect

atio

n in

term

s of “

mov

e-in

” qu

ality

als

o di

ffer

s wid

ely.

Fo

r exa

mpl

e in

Ger

man

y, a

s m

ost p

eopl

e re

nt ra

ther

than

ow

n th

eir l

ivin

g sp

ace,

ap

artm

ents

are

left

tota

lly e

mpt

y w

hen

peop

le m

ove.

In N

orw

ay

“do

it yo

urse

lf” is

com

mon

pr

actis

e in

hom

e de

cora

tion.

N

early

all

furn

iture

is so

ld fl

at-

pack

ed.

•M

ascu

line

vers

usFe

min

ine

•Po

wer

Dis

tanc

e•

Long

- and

Sho

rtTe

rm O

rient

atio

n

How

can

inte

riors

in

certa

in c

ount

ries b

e de

sign

ed to

be

perc

eive

d as

of g

ood

qual

ity, w

hile

ke

epin

g it

flexi

ble

to

relo

cate

, tre

ndy

pers

onal

and

fun.

A m

odul

ar so

fa to

be

built

up

by si

mpl

e se

ctio

n el

emen

ts th

at c

an b

e cu

stom

ised

an

d pu

t tog

ethe

r by

the

user

him

or h

erse

lf in

a p

erso

nal w

ay. T

he c

over

s are

loos

e an

d m

ay b

e ch

ange

d in

diff

eren

t fab

rics f

or

a st

yle

upda

te.

Foo

d re

tail

Shop

ping

Exp

erie

nce,

Indi

a ve

rsus

Nor

way

A

larg

e pe

rcen

tage

of r

etai

l foo

d is

impo

rted

and

sold

thro

ugh

groc

ery

reta

il ch

ains

. The

se

reta

il ch

ains

con

trol p

ract

ical

ly a

ll of

the

reta

il st

ores

in N

orw

ay. T

he sa

les a

nd

serv

ices

thus

follo

w th

e m

etho

ds a

nd m

eans

in

as i

n a

supe

rmar

ket.

The

food

reta

il se

ctor

in

Indi

a is

bas

ed o

n tra

ditio

nal g

roce

ry sh

ops

know

n as

‘Kira

na’,

baza

ars,

hom

e su

pplie

r ve

ndor

s. Th

e sh

are

of re

taile

r cha

in is

ar

ound

a p

erce

nt in

Indi

a. H

owev

er it

is

grow

ing

at 3

0 to

35

perc

ent p

er a

nnum

. M

ost l

arge

priv

atel

y ow

ned

‘Ind

ian

Supe

rmar

kets

’ are

loca

ted

in a

nd a

roun

d m

ajor

citi

es. T

he In

dian

con

sum

er, u

nlik

e hi

s wes

tern

cou

nter

part,

has

a p

ench

ant f

or

fres

hly

cook

ed fo

od o

ver p

acka

ged

food

.

The

exte

nded

fam

ily is

a si

ngle

un

it. O

ne o

f the

prim

ary

role

s of

the

hous

ewife

is fe

edin

g th

e fa

mily

. Wom

en d

o m

ost o

f the

sh

oppi

ng a

nd m

ake

mos

t foo

d pu

rcha

sing

dec

isio

ns.

Buy

er-

Selle

r rel

atio

nshi

p m

ay re

mai

n un

chan

ged

from

gen

erat

ion

to

gene

ratio

n an

d ar

e ba

sed

mor

e on

mut

ual t

rust

. In

Nor

way

fa

mily

stru

ctur

e is

flex

ible

and

nu

clea

r. Th

e so

cial

mob

ility

is

com

para

tivel

y hi

gher

. Foo

d pu

rcha

sing

is n

ot a

gen

der b

ased

ac

tivity

. Acc

ordi

ng to

law

, foo

d re

taile

rs a

re re

spon

sibl

e to

pr

ovid

e fo

rmal

ly d

ocum

ente

d qu

ality

pro

duct

s to

the

buye

r.

•Lo

ng- a

nd S

hort

Term

Orie

ntat

ion

•M

ascu

line

vers

usFe

min

ine

•C

olle

ctiv

e ve

rsus

Indi

vidu

al

A c

usto

mer

in

Nor

way

has

mos

t of

his f

ood

requ

irem

ents

met

at

a si

ngle

pla

ce.

How

ever

, exp

ert

advi

ce su

ited

to h

is

need

s is o

ften

lack

ing,

as i

t is

prac

tical

ly

impo

ssib

le to

em

ploy

a p

erso

n w

ho is

kn

owle

dgea

ble

of

all p

rodu

cts.

A sy

stem

whe

re a

sing

le c

lick

of b

utto

n ca

n ca

ptur

e an

d pr

oduc

e al

l nec

essa

ry

deta

ils in

a u

ser f

riend

ly m

anne

r to

help

the

buye

r to

mak

e a

purc

hase

dec

isio

n. T

he

Cam

era

Cul

ture

gro

up a

t MIT

has

de

velo

ped

Bok

odes

that

can

car

ry m

uch

info

rmat

ion,

such

as N

ame

of P

rodu

ct,

Dat

e of

Man

ufac

ture

, Dat

e of

Exp

iry,

Con

tent

s, N

utrie

nt V

alue

, and

Cos

t etc

., an

d be

read

by

a st

anda

rd c

amer

a.

104

B-134

Edu

catio

n - I

ndia

ver

sus N

orw

ay

The

curr

ent l

itera

cy ra

te in

Indi

a is

abo

ve

60%

and

gro

win

g st

eadi

ly. A

ccor

ding

to th

e U

nive

rsity

Gra

nt C

omm

issi

on, I

ndia

, the

nu

mbe

r of c

andi

date

s, w

ho p

asse

d te

rtiar

y ed

ucat

ion

in In

dia,

was

aro

und

2592

855,

w

hich

is 0

.244

% o

f the

pop

ulat

ion,

whe

reas

in

Nor

way

it w

as 1

4134

, whi

ch is

0.3

10%

of

the

popu

latio

n. In

the

year

200

5, th

e to

tal

publ

ic e

xpen

ditu

re o

n ed

ucat

ion

as a

pe

rcen

tage

of G

DP

for N

orw

ay a

nd In

dia

wer

e 7.

2 an

d 3.

2 re

spec

tivel

y. T

he

diff

eren

ce in

per

cent

age

of te

rtiar

y ed

ucat

ion

is sm

all c

ompa

red

to th

e lit

erac

y ra

te

betw

een

the

two

coun

tries

. Ind

ia is

the

3rd

larg

est T

V m

arke

t in

the

wor

ld a

nd th

e co

st

of si

ngle

tele

visi

on se

t is a

frac

tion

of y

early

sa

lary

of s

emi-t

rain

ed te

ache

r.

Indi

a is

faci

ng a

toug

h ch

alle

nge

to in

crea

se th

e lit

erac

y ra

tes a

nd

impr

ove

the

qual

ity a

nd

acce

ssib

ility

of t

heir

educ

atio

n sy

stem

. The

edu

catio

n sy

stem

is

hier

arch

ical

and

com

petit

ive

at

all l

evel

s. A

n em

phas

is is

pla

ced

on p

erfo

rman

ce a

nd th

e be

tter

stud

ents

are

favo

ured

and

m

ento

red

to ta

ke fu

ture

key

po

sitio

ns in

indu

stry

and

so

ciet

y. In

Nor

way

, bas

ic

educ

atio

n is

acc

essi

ble

for a

ll.

Perf

orm

ance

is o

nly

emph

asis

ed

in th

e fin

al 3

yea

rs o

f sec

onda

ry

educ

atio

n an

d U

nive

rsity

.

•Po

wer

Dis

tanc

e•

Col

lect

ive

vers

usIn

divi

dual

•Fe

min

ine

vers

usM

ascu

line

The

Indi

an

educ

atio

n sy

stem

st

rugg

les w

ith is

sues

su

ch a

s: h

igh

cost

of

prov

idin

g ed

ucat

ion,

la

ck o

f inf

ra-

stru

ctur

e, tr

aini

ng,

gove

rnan

ce a

nd

supe

rvis

ion

teac

hing

st

aff.

An

inte

ract

ive

audi

o-vi

sual

inte

ract

ion

aid

to b

e m

ade

acce

ssib

le to

all

stud

ents

in

Indi

a. T

he m

ediu

m o

f tra

nsm

issi

on a

nd

com

mun

icat

ion

is b

ased

on

the

exis

ting

tele

visi

on n

etw

ork.

Hea

lth C

are

Syst

em: N

orw

ay –

Indi

a In

Indi

a, tw

o he

alth

car

e sy

stem

s can

be

prac

tical

ly d

istin

guis

hed.

H

igh-

qual

ity m

edic

al c

are

to u

pper

- and

m

iddl

e-cl

ass I

ndia

ns a

nd m

edic

al to

uris

ts

Inad

equa

te p

ublic

hea

lth c

are

for t

he p

oore

r m

ajor

ity o

f the

pop

ulat

ion.

Pro

blem

s inc

lude

th

e fa

ilure

to in

tegr

ate

heal

th se

rvic

es w

ith

wid

er e

cono

mic

and

soci

al d

evel

opm

ent,

the

lack

of n

utrit

iona

l sup

port

and

sani

tatio

n,

poor

par

ticip

ator

y in

volv

emen

t at t

he lo

cal

leve

l, ab

senc

e of

requ

ired

med

icat

ion

and

qual

ified

per

sona

l. N

orw

ay h

as a

gov

ernm

ent r

un a

nd

gove

rnm

ent f

inan

ced

univ

ersa

l hea

lth c

are

syst

em.

It is

des

igne

d to

be

equa

lly

acce

ssib

le to

all

resi

dent

s, re

gard

less

of

soci

al o

r eco

nom

ic st

atus

.

In th

e co

llect

ive

Nor

weg

ian

heal

thca

re sy

stem

, all

cont

ribut

e ac

cord

ing

to th

eir e

arni

ng

capa

bilit

ies,

but b

enef

it eq

ually

ba

sed

on n

eed.

How

ever

in

prac

tice,

the

serv

ice

qual

ity is

de

bata

ble

beca

use

of lo

ng

wai

ting

lists

and

lack

of

qual

ified

med

ical

spec

ialis

t. Th

e cu

ltura

l and

pol

itica

l lan

dsca

pe

does

not

enc

oura

ge th

e m

edic

al

sect

or p

ut in

“th

at e

xtra

pe

rfor

man

ce”

to p

rodu

ce b

ette

r se

rvic

e. T

he In

dian

hea

lth-c

are

syst

em is

subj

ect t

o m

arke

t fo

rces

, whi

ch m

ay c

ompr

omis

e th

e hu

man

and

nob

le in

tent

ions

of

the

med

ical

pro

fess

ion.

•Fe

min

ine

vers

usM

ascu

line

•Po

wer

Dis

tanc

e

How

to d

evel

op a

he

alth

care

syst

em

whi

ch is

acc

essi

ble

for a

ll w

ithin

the

Indi

an c

onte

xt,

base

d on

the

natio

n´s s

ocia

l, po

litic

al a

nd

econ

omic

al sy

stem

of

free

mar

ket

forc

es

A w

ell-c

onne

cted

3 le

velle

d he

alth

care

sy

stem

bas

ed o

n th

e fo

llow

ing

regi

ons:

ur

ban,

sem

i-urb

an a

nd ru

ral.

H

ealth

cen

tres i

n de

velo

ped

larg

e ci

ties

with

bet

ter t

rans

porta

tion

to o

ther

maj

or

parts

of t

he c

ount

ry. W

orld

cla

ss fa

cilit

ies

are

to b

e in

stal

led

at th

is c

entre

for c

ritic

al,

impo

rtant

and

bas

ic h

ealth

car

e.

The

seco

nd le

vel h

ealth

cen

tres c

an b

e de

velo

ped

at se

mi-u

rban

regi

on, I

t is t

o be

eq

uipp

ed w

ith b

asic

faci

litie

s alo

ng w

ith

life

supp

ortin

g sy

stem

s tha

t are

cru

cial

in

case

of e

mer

genc

ies.

The

rura

l hea

lth

cent

res a

re to

be

equi

pped

with

bas

ic a

nd

nece

ssar

y he

alth

car

e fa

cilit

ies.

Te

le-m

edic

ine

and

rem

ote

guid

ance

are

ex

pect

ed to

pla

y a

maj

or ro

le

105B-135

Cas

e T

itle

and

Con

text

C

ultu

ral E

xpla

natio

n D

omin

ant C

ultu

ral

Dim

ensi

ons

Des

ign

Prob

lem

D

esig

n C

once

pt

Post

al S

ervi

ces i

n ru

ral r

egio

ns

In In

dia,

pos

tal s

ervi

ces i

n ru

ral

regi

ons h

ave

exte

nded

thei

r ser

vice

s to

for e

xam

ple

dist

ribut

ion

of in

sura

nces

an

d he

lpin

g ill

itera

tes t

o re

ad a

nd

com

plet

e do

cum

ents

. Nor

way

Pos

t’s

sale

s and

serv

ice

netw

ork

empl

oys

mor

e th

an 1

0 00

0 po

st d

eliv

erer

s and

dr

iver

s ser

ving

Nor

way

’s 2

.7 m

illio

n ho

useh

olds

and

com

pani

es,

dist

ribut

ing

lette

rs, p

acka

ges a

nd

unad

dres

sed

mai

l six

day

s a w

eek.

Of

thes

e, a

roun

d 20

00 a

re ru

ral p

ost

deliv

ers w

ho a

lso

prov

ide

thos

e w

ho

rece

ive

post

with

fina

ncia

l ser

vice

s.

In In

dia,

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

the

post

man

and

the

rece

iver

is p

erce

ived

as l

ong-

term

. Ser

vice

, ext

ende

d be

yond

the

form

al b

ound

arie

s, is

bei

ng p

ract

iced

. In

Nor

way

the

post

al se

rvic

e is

st

ruct

ured

, wel

l-org

anis

ed a

nd

form

al. E

xten

ded

serv

ice

base

do

n go

od-w

ill is

not

a

com

mon

pra

ctic

e

•Lo

ng-T

erm

ver

sus

Shor

t-Ter

mO

rient

atio

n•

Pow

er d

ista

nce

With

in th

e In

dian

con

text

, ho

w c

an w

ork

cond

ition

s be

impr

oved

th

roug

h be

tter

faci

litie

s and

eq

uipm

ent w

ith

resp

ect t

o th

e ph

ysic

al d

eliv

ery

of m

ail?

A m

ail c

arry

ing

syst

em fo

r bic

ycle

s with

safe

ty

feat

ures

.

Publ

ic T

rans

port

atio

n, I

ndia

ver

sus

Nor

way

In

dia's

pub

lic tr

ansp

ort s

yste

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106B-136

Figure 1. A proposal for an interactive design concept to stimulate people to make contact with each other based on similar interests

7 Discussion and Future Studies The diversity of case studies, each leading to a proposed design concept, has demonstrated that a cultural and contextual approach towards strategic design should be further explored in the development system and product ideas in the FEI. Extreme trends and developments in nations´ political, economical and social situation are a source for innovation. As social, political and economical developments in a society are difficult to change overnight; various case studies have illustrated the potential role of design in improving the negative aspects of these developments, usually represented by extreme cultural trends, through innovative design concepts. Potential areas for innovation can be identified by mapping case studies, illustrating extreme trends and developments in certain societies, on a bi-polar scale, supported by Hofstede’s ”Cultural Dimensions. Given the potential for a methodology for strategic goal finding based on social, cultural and political differences on a bi-polar scale, future case studies are expected to refine and update the present categories from time to time. However future case study development needs to be more diverse from a national perspective to be able to ascertain that a categorical top-down approach can be applied as a source for external analysis in the generation of innovative system / product ideas, while considering prevalent economic, social and political status quo of their cultural contexts. At this moment, it is difficult to assess whether design concepts are more innovative by addressing the potential gap of extremities on the cultural bi-polar scale as source for innovation.

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Short Abstract in English

This dissertation argues for a prospective turn in ergonomics to challenge the established fields of strategic design (SD) and management. Differences, similarities and relationships between strategic design and prospective ergonomics are being reviewed using existing theories and frameworks from design, ergonomics, strategic and innovation management. To complement the theoretical part, 12 cases have been analysed in greater depth according to 4 main dimensions of analysis. Outcomes have shown that innovating through PE approach is about finding the right balance between on one hand meeting primary objectives, such as profit maximisation or solving the design problem, and on the other hand achieving social and human well-being, personal interest and ambitions, family relations, etc. Intervention of prospective ergonomics within a classical strategy perspective requires organizations to couple push-pull market strategies while considering the interest of different stakeholders throughout all stages of the development process. This means that prescriptive approaches, methods and tools in the positivist mode should be complemented with constructive modes of reasoning and designing as well as reflective methods and tools, while taking into consideration all levels and perspectives of value creation. From an educational perspective, the transfer of design knowledge and skills requires a mentorship and scholarship approach in research-, or practice-based learning, which implies a hermeneutic, reflective and participatory mode of design reasoning within a constructivist worldview.

Keywords: Prospective Ergonomics, Strategic Design, Generic Strategies, Value Creation

Résumé court

Cette thèse sur travaux traite des différences, similarités et relations entre l'ergonomie prospective (EP) et le Design Stratégique (DS). Son cadre théorique met en relation de l'EP et le DS à travers différents prismes d'analyse: des théories de gestion, des modèles d'innovation, des stratégies de raisonnement en design, des démarches et interventions en ergonomie. Ce cadre de comparaison cherche à définir les modes de raisonnement en œuvre en conception (normatif, par résolution de problème, herméneutique, réflexif, participatif, social) qui contribuent à la compréhension des pratiques et à la création de valeur. Puis viennent les questions de recherche qui visent à positionner l'EP par apport aux sciences du design d'une part, et, à en préciser les contours par rapport aux autres formes d'interventions ergonomiques, d'autre part. Les résultats portent sur une analyse comparée de 12 cas d'intervention en ergonomie corrective, préventive et prospective dans les domaines du transport, de la vie quotidienne, de l'enseignement, des systèmes d'aménagement intérieur, d'élevage des poissons, et plus globalement de projets d'innovation. Les résultats indiquent que l'innovation fondée sur l'EP cherche à mettre l'accent sur un équilibre entre, à la fois, la recherche de la rentabilité et du profit, la réalisation du bien-être social et humain, ainsi que la satisfaction des intérêts personnels et collectifs. Les résultats montrent également que l'ergonomie prospective amène les entreprises à plus se connecter aux stratégies « push-pull » que ne le fait l'ergonomie corrective ou préventive. Enfin, les résultats tendent à souligner que les approches normative et positiviste devraient être complétées par des approches plus constructivistes, créatives et réflexives, qui prennent en considération la création de valeur proposée par l'EP. La discussion suggère des améliorations pour les pratiques d’EP et DS.

Mots clés: Ergonomie Prospective, Design Stratégique, Stratégies Génériques, La Création de Valeur

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