CA STE S AND TR I B E S

SOUTHERN IND IA

EDGAR THURSTON,

Sup e r in t enden t , M ad ras Governm en t Mus eum ; C o x respondan t E t rang er ,S ocné t é (I

'

An thropo log ie de P aris ; Soc io Corri spondan t e ,

Socne ta Rom ana d i An th x opo log ia .

ASS I STE I ) BY

K . RANGACHAR I,M .A .

,

of the Madras Governm ent Mu seum .

VO LUME I I —C TO J

G O V E R N M E N T P R E S S ,M A D R A S

CASTES AND TRIBES

OF SOUTHERN INDIA .

VOLUME Il .

ANJ I (gruel ) . —An exogamous sept of Padma

Sale. Canj i i s the word “ i n use al l over Indiafor the water , i n whi ch r i ce has been boi led

I t also forms the usua l starch of Indian washermen.

As a sept of the Sale weavers,i t probab ly has reference

to t he gruel,or s ize

,which i s app l ied to the warp

.

Chacchadi . -Haddi s who do scavenging work,with

Whom other Haddi s do not free ly intermarry .

Chadarapu Dhompti (square space marr iage offering) .— A sub -divi s i on of Madigas , who , at marr iages ,offer food to the god i n a square space .

Chakala.—See Tsaka la .

Chakkan .—Recorded in the Madras Census Report

,

190 1 , as“ a Malabar caste of oi l-pressers (chakku means

an o il-mi l l ) . Fol lowers of thi s cal l ing are known a l so

as Vattakkadan s i n South Malabar , and as Van iyans in

North Malabar,but the former are the higher in soc ia l

status,the Nayars be ing pol luted by the touch of the

Van iyan s and Chakkans , but not by that of the

Vattakkadans . Chakkan s and Van iyans may not enter

Brahman temp les . Thei r customs and manners are

s im i lar to those of the Nayars , who wi l l not , however,

Yu le and Burnel l . Hobson -Jobson .

CHAKK ILIYAN 2

marry the ir women . Chakkingalavan appears as a

synonym for Chakkan .

Chakki liyan . The C hakkiliyans , Mr . H . A .

Stuart write s,

! 6 “ are the leather ~ workers of t he Tami l

d i str i cts,correspond ing to the Mad igas of t he Te lugu

country . The Chakkiliyans appear to be immigrants

from the Telugu or Canarese d i st r ict s, for no ment ion i s

made o f thi s caste e i ther in the early Tami l i n scr ipt ions,or i n early Tami l l i terature . Moreover, a very large pro

port i on of the Chakkiliyan s speak Telugu and Canarese .

In soc ial pos it i on the Chakkiliyan s occupy the lowest

rank,though there i s much di spute on thi s po int between

them and the Paraiyan s . Nominal ly they are Saivite s,

but in real ity devi l -worshippers . The avaram p lant

(Cassz’

a aum'

eu lm‘a) i s he ld i n much venerat ion by them ,

’

r

and the tal i i s t i ed to a branch of i t as a pre l im inary to

marriage . Girl s are not u sua l ly married before puberty .

The br idegroom may be younger than the bride . The ir

widows may remarry . Divorce can be obta ined at the

p leasure of e ither party on payment of Rs . 1 2— 1 2—0 to

the other in the presence of the local head of the cas te .

Thei r women are cons idered to be very beaut i fu l,and i t

i s a woman of th i s caste who i s genera l ly se l ected for the

coarser form of Sakt i worship . They indulge very free ly

in intoxicat ing l iquors,and wi l l eat any fl esh , i nc luding

beef,pork , e tc . Hence they are cal led

, par ex cel lence,

the fl e sh -eaters (San skr i t shatkul i) . I t was noted by

S onnerat,i n the e ighteenth century

,1that the C hakki l i

yans are i n more contempt than the Pariahs,because

‘i ‘ Manual of the North Arcot d istrict .1? The bark of the avaram plan t is one o f the most valuable I nd ian tann ing

agen ts .

1 Voyage to the East I nd ies , 1774 and 1781 .

3 CHAKK I LI YAN

they use cow leather in making shoes . “ The Chucklers

or cobb lers,the Abbé Dubo i s writesfi‘?

“ are cons idered

infer iors to the Pariahs al l over the peninsula . They are

more addicted to drunkenness”

and debauchery . Thei r

orgie s take p lace pr inc ipal ly in the even ing,and the ir

vi l lages resound,far into the n ight

,wi th the yel l s and

quarre l s which re su l t from the ir intoxicat i on . The

very Pariahs refuse to have anything to do wi th the

Chucklers,and do not admi t them to any of their feasts .

In the Madura Manual,

1868,the C hakkil iyans are

summed up as “ dres sers of l eather, and makers of

s l i ppers , harnes s , and other leather art ic le s . They are

men of drunken and fi l t hy hab it s,and the ir moral s are

very bad . Cur ious ly enough,the ir women are he ld to

be of the Padman i kind, of pecul iar beauty of face

and form,and are al so said to be very virtuous . I t i s

we l l known,however

,t hat zamindars and other r ich

men are very fond of in tr igu ing with them , part icularly

in the ne ighbourhood of Paramagudi , where they l ive in

great numbers . There i s a Tami l proverb that even a

C hakkil i g ir l and the ears of the m i l let are beaut i ful

when mature . I n the Tanj ore d i str ict , the Chakkil iyars

are said T to be “ cons idered to be of the very lowest

status . I n some part s of the di str ict they speak Te lugu

and wear the namam (Vaishnav ite sect mark) and are

apparen t ly immigrant s from the Te lugu country .

Though they are Tami l—speak ing peop le , the Chakkili

yans,l ike the Te lugu Madigas

,have exogamous sept s

cal led gotra in the north ,and k i la i i n the south . Unl ike

the Mad igas , they do not carry out the pract ice of

making Basav is (dedicated prost itute s) .

H indu Manners, Custom s and C eremon ies .

1‘ Manual o f the Tan jore d istr ict , 1883.

1 1—1 B

CHAKK IL IYAN 4

The corre lat ion of the most important measurement s

of the Madigas of the Te lugu country,and so -ca l led

Chakkiliyans of the c ity of Madras , i s c lear ly brought

out by the fo l low ing figures

Statu reCephal ic length

b readthindex

Nasal heigh tb readthindex

The Chakkiliyan men in Madras are tattooed not

on ly on the forehead , but a l so with the ir name , conven

t ional devices , danc ing -g irl s,etc .

,on the chest and upper

extremit ie s .

I t has been not i ced as a curious fact that,in t he

Madura di str ict ,“ whi le the men be long to the r ight

hand fact i on,the women belong to and are most

energet ic supporters of the l eft . I t i s even said that,

during the ent ire per iod of a fact ion r iot , the Chakkili

women keep aloof from their husbands and deny them

the ir marital r ights . ” i s

I n a very interest ing note on the leather industry of

the Madras Pre s idency,Mr . A . Chatterton write s as

follows l‘ The pos i t ion o f t he C hakkil iyan i n the south

differs great ly from that of the Madiga of the north , and

many of his pr ivi leges are enj oyed by a sub - sect ’ of the

Pariahs cal led Ve t t iyans . These peop le posse ss the

r ight of removing dead catt le from vi l lages,and in return

Manual of the Madura d istr ict .1' M onograph of Tann ing and Working in Leather, 1904 .

5 CHAKK ILIYAN

have to supp ly leather for agri cultural purposes . Themajori ty of C hakkiliyans are not tanners , but leather

workers , and , in stead of gett ing the hide s or skin s direct

from the Vet t iyan , t hey prefer to purchase them ready

tanned from traders , who bring them from the large tan

n ing centres . When the Chuckler start s making shoesor sandal s , he purchases the leather and skin which he

requi re s i n the bazar , and , taking i t home , first proceeds

with a pre l im inary currying operat ion . The leather isdamped and wel l st retched , and dyed with an i l ine , the

usua l colour be ing scarlet R .R . of the Badi sche Ani l in

Soda Fabrik. Thi s i s purchased in the bazar in packets,

and is dissolved in water,to which a l i tt le oxal ic ac id

has been added . The dye i s app l ied with a p iece of rag

on the gra in s ide , and a l lowed to dry . After drying,

tamarind paste is app l ied to the flesh s ide of the skin,

and the latter i s then ro l led between the hands, so as to

produce a coarse grain ing on t he outer s ide . I n making

the shoes,the leather is usual ly wetted

,and moulded

into shape on wooden moulds or lasts . As a rule,

nothing but cotton i s used for sew ing,and the waxed

ends of the Engl i sh cob ler are ent ire ly unknown . The

largest consumpt ion of leather in thi s Pres idency i s for

water-bags or kavalais , which are used for rai s ing water

from wel l s,and for o i l and ghee (c lar ified but ter) pots , i n

which the l iqu ids are t ran sported from one p lace to

another . Of i rr igat ion we l l s there are in the Pres idency

more than and,though some of t hem are fitted

with i ron bucket s,nearly al l of them have leather bags

with leather di scharging trunks . The buckets hold from

ten to fifty gal lons of water,and are general ly made

from fa ir ly we ll tanned cow hides , though for very large

buckets buffal o hides are somet imes used . The number

of oil and ghee pots in use i n the country is very large .

CHAKK ILIYAN 6

The use of leather vesse l s for thi s purpose is on the

dec l ine,as i t i s found much cheaper and more conven ient

to store o il i n the ub iqu itous keros ine—o i l t in,and i t i s

not improbab le that eventual ly the industry wi l l d ie out,

as i t has done in other countr ie s . The range of work

of the coun try Chuckler is no t very extens ive . Bes ide s

leather s trap s for wooden sandals , he makes crude

harne ss for the ryot’

s catt le , i nc luding leather co l lars

from which numerous be lls are frequent ly suspended,

leather whip s for the cat t le driver s,ornamenta l fr inge s for

the bul l’s forehead , bel lows for the sm ith , and smal l boxes

for the barber,in wh ich to carry his razor s . I n some

p laces,leather rope s are used for var ious purposes

,and

i t i s customary to attach b ig co ir (cocoanut fibre) rope sto the bodie s of the larger temp le cars by leather harne ss

,

when they are drawn in process ion through the streets.

Drum -heads and tom -toms are made from raw hides by

Ve tt iyans and Chucklers . The drums are often very

large,and are transported upon the back of e lephant s

,

horses,bul l s and camel s . For them raw hides are re

quired,but for the smal ler in strument s sheep -skin s are

suffi c ient . The raw hides are shaved on the flesh s ide,

and are then dr ied . The hair i s removed by rubbing

with wood -ashes . The use o f l ime in unhair ing i s'

not

permi ss ib le,as it material ly decrease s the e last i c i ty of

the parchmen t . The C hakkil iyans beat the tom - tom

for Kammalan s , Pal l i s and Kaikolan s,and for other

castes i f des ired to do so .

The Chakkil iyan s do not worship Matang i , who is

the spec ial de ity of t he Madigas . Thei r gods inc l ude

Madurai Vi ran , Mariamma,Mf meswara ,

D raupadi and

Gangamma . O f these,the last i s the most important ,

and her fe st ival is ce lebrated annual ly,i f poss ible . To

cover the expense s t hereof,a few Chakkiliyans dres s up

7 CHAKKIYAR

so as to represent men and women of the Marathi b ird

catching caste,and go about begging in the stree t s for

n ine days . On the tenth day the fest ival term inates .

Throughout i t,Gangamma

, represen ted by three deco

rated pots under a smal l pandal (booth) se t up on the

bank of a r iver or tank beneath a margosa (M elee

or pi pal (F icus tree , i s worshipped.

O n the last day , goat s and fowls are sacr ificed , and

l imes cut .

During the first menstrual per iod , the Chakki liyangirl i s kept under poll ut ion in a but made o f fre sh green

boughs,which i s erected by her husband or maternal

unc le . Meat,curds

,and mi lk are forb idden . O n the last

day,the hut i s burnt down . At marr iages a Chakkiliyan

usual ly officiate s as pr iest , or the services of a Valluvan

pr ie st may be en l i sted . The consent of the g ir l’s mater

nal unc l e to the marr iage i s e ssent ia l . The marr iage

ceremony c lose ly resemb les that of the Paraiyans . And,

at the fina l death ceremon ies of a Chakkil iyan ,as of a

Paraiyan, two br icks are worsh ipped , and thrown into a

tank or stream .

Lean chi ldren,espec ia l ly of the Mala , Madiga , and

C hakkiliyan c lasse s , are made to wear a leather strap ,spec ial ly made for them by a Chakkiliyan , which i s

be l i eved to he lp the ir growth .

At t imes of census,some C hakkiliyans have returned

themse lves as Pagadaiyar, Madar i (conce i t or arrogance) ,and Ranavi ran (brave warr ior) .

Chékkiyar.—The Chakkiyars are a c lass of Ambala

vas i s , of whom the fo l l owing account i s g iven in the

Travancore Census Report,190 1 . The name i s gener

al ly der ived from S laghyavakkukar (those wi th eloquen t

words) , and refers to the tradit ional funct i on o f the caste

in Malabar soc iety . Accord ing to the Jat in irnaya, t he

CHAKKIYAR 8

Chakkiyars represent a caste growth of the Ka l iyuga .

The offence to whi ch the fi r st C hakkiyar owes hi s pos i

t i on in soc iety was , i t wou ld appear , brought to l ight

after the due performance of t he upanayanasam skara .

Persons,in re spect of whom the lapse was detected

before that sp ir i t ua l i z ing ceremony took p lace , became

Namb iyars . Manu der ives S uta , whose funct ions are

ident ica l with the Malabar Chakkiyar, from a prat i loma

union , of a Brahman wife w i t h a Kshatr iya husbandfi"

The girl s e i ther marry into the ir own caste , or enter

into t he sambandham form of al l iance with Nambut iris .

They are cal led l llottammamar. The ir j ewe lry resem

bl es that of the Nambut iris . The Chakkiyar may choose

a wi fe for sambandham from among the Namb iyars .

They are the ir own pr iest s , but the Brahmans do the

pur ificat i on (punyaham ) of house and person after b irthor death pol l ut ion . The pol lut i on i t se l f lasts for e leven

days . The number of t imes the Gayatr i (hymn ) may

be repeated i s ten .

The tradit i onal occupat i on of the Chakkiyans i s

t he rec i tat ion of Puran ic storie s . The account s of the

Avataras have been con s idered the h ighest form of

scr ip ture of t he non -Brahman ical c las ses,and the ear ly

Brahmans ut i l i sed the interval s of thei r Védic r i tes ,the afternoons , for l i s ten ing to their rec i tat ion by castes

who could afford the lei sure to study and narrate t hem .

Spec ial adaptat ion s for t hi s purpose have been composed

by writers l ike Narayana Bhattapada,general ly known

as the Bhattat irippat , among whose works Dutavakya,

Panchal isvayamvara, S ubhadrahana and Kauntéyash taka

are the most popular . I n addi t i on to these , standard

works l i ke B hogachampu and Mahanataka are often

Prat i loma, as Opposed to an anu loma un ion , is the marr iage of a female of

a h igher caste w ith a man of a lower one.

9 CHAKK IYAR

pressed into the Chakkiyar’

s service .a N umerous upa

kathas or ep i sodes are brought in by way of i l lustrat ion,

and the marve l l ous flow of words,and the tel l ing humour

of t he utterances , keep the audience spel l -bound . On

the utsavam programme of every important temp le,

espec ial ly in North Travancore,the Chakkiyarkut tu

(Chakkiyar’

s performance) i s an essent ial i tem .A

spec ial bui ld ing , known as kut tampalam ,i s intended for

thi s purpose . Here the Chakkiyar i n struct s and regales

hi s hearers , ant iquely dressed , and seated on a three

legged stoo l . He wears a pecul iar t urban with go lden

r im and s i l k embossments . A long p iece of c l oth with

coloured edges , wrapped round the lo ins in innumerable

vert i cal fo lds wit h an e laborateness of detai l d i ffi cul t to

descr ibe,i s the Chakkiyar

’

s d i st inct ive apparel . Behind

him stands the Namb iyar, whose tradi t i onal kinship with

the Chakkiyar has been referred to , with a big jar - shaped

metal drum in front of him cal led m ilavu,whose bas s

sound resembles the echo of d i stan t thunder . The

Namb iyar i s ind ispensable for the Chakkiyarkut tu ,and

sounds hi s m ighty instrument at the beg inn ing,at the

end , and al so dur ing the course of h is rec i tat ion , when

the Chakkiyar arr ives at t he m iddle and end of a

Sanskr i t verse . The Nangayar, a female of the Nambi

yar caste,is another indi spensab le e l ement

,and s it s in

front of the Chakkiyar with a cymbal in hand , which

she sounds occas ional ly . I t i s interest i ng to note that,

amidst al l t he boi sterous merr iment i nto which the

audience may be thrown,there i s one person who has to

s it mot ion less l i ke a statue . I f the Nangayar i s moved

to a smi le,the kuttu must stop

,and there are cases

where , i n certa in temp l es , the ku t tu has thu s become a

thing of t he past . The Chakkiyar often makes a fe int

of represent ing some of hi s audience as h i s characters

CHAKKIYAR 10

for the scene under dep ictment . B ut he does i t in such

a gentee l way that rare ly is offence taken . I t is an

unwr i tten canon of C hakkiyarkuttu that the performance

should s top at once i f any of the audience so t reated

should speak out i n answer to the C hakkiyar, who , i t

may be added , would stare at an admir ing l i stener , and

thrust que st i on s on him with such direc tness and force

as to need an extraordinary effort to res i st a rep ly . And

so real i st i c i s hi s performance that a trag ic instance i s

sa id to have occurred when , by a crue l i rony of fate , hi s

superb ski l l cost a Chakkiyar h is l i fe . Whi l e he was

exp la in ing a port i on of the Mahabharata with in im itable

theatr ical effect , a desperate fr iend of the Pandavas

rose from hi s seat in a fi t o f uncontro l lab l e pass ion,

and actual ly knocked the Chakkiyar dead when ,i n an att it ude of unmi stakable though assumed heart

l e s sness,he , as personat ing Duryodhana , inhumanely

r efused to al low even a p in -po int of ground to hi s

ex i l ed cous in s . Thi s , i t i s be l i eved , occurred in a

pr ivate house , and thereafter kutt u was prohib ited except

at temp l es .

I t i s noted , i n the Gazetteer of Ma labar , that

C hakkiyars or S laghyar-vakukar are a caste fo l lowing

makkattayam (i nher i tance from father to son ), and wear

the pfi n t’

i l (thread) . They are recru ited from gir l s born

to a Nambud iri woman found gui l ty of adu l tery, after

the date at wh i ch such adul tery i s found to have

commenced,and boys of s imi lar or ig in , who have been

al ready invested wi th the sacred thread . Boys who have

not been invested with the punfi l when'

t heir mo ther is

declared an adulteress , jo in the c las s known as C hakkiyar

Namb iyars , who fol l ow m arumakkat tayam (inheri tance

in the female l ine ) , and do not wear the thread . The

g irl s j o in e ither caste ind ifferent ly . Chakkiyars may

I I GHALIYAN

marry Nangiyars , but Chakkiyar Namb iyars may not

marry I llotammamar .

Chaliyan .—The Chal iyans are a caste o f Malayalam

cotton weavers,concern ing whom Mr . Franc i s wr i tes as

fo llows’f" I n dres s and manners they resemble the

art i san castes of Malabar,but

,l ike the Pattar Brahmans

,

they l ive in street s,which fac t probab ly po ints to the ir

be ing comparat ive ly recent sett ler s from the east coas t .

They have the ir own barber s cal led Potuvans,who are

al so the ir puroh its . Th ey do not wear the sacred

thread,as the Sale weavers of the east coast do . They

pract i se ancestor worship,but wi thout the ass i stance of

Brahman pr iest s . Thi s is the only Malabar caste which

has anyth ing to do wi th the r ight and l eft-hand fact ion

d isp utes,and both d ivi s ions are represen ted in i t

,the

left hand be ing cons idered the super ior . Apparently,

therefore,i t sett led in Malabar some t ime after the

beg inn ings of thi s d i spute on the east coast,t hat i s

,

after the el eventh century A .D . Some of them fol l ow

the m arumakkatayam and others the makkatayam law

of i nher itance,which l ooks as i f the former were earl ier

sett ler s than the latter .

The Chal iyans are so cal l ed because , un l ike most of

the west coast c lasses,t hey l ive in streets , and Teruvan

(teru, a s treet) occurs as a synonym for the caste name .

The right -hand sect ion are said to worship the elephant

god Ganesa , and the left Bhagavat i .

The fo l lowing account of the Chal iyans i s g iven in

the Gazetteer of t he Malabar di str i ct : Chaliyans are

almost certa in ly a c las s of immigrants from the east

coast . They l ive in regu lar s treet s , a c ircumstance

strongly support ing thi s view . The tradi t ional account

Madras Census Report , 190 1 .

GHALIYAN 1 2

i s to the same effect . I t is sa id that they were or ig inal ly

of a high caste , and were imported by one of t he

Zamorin s , who wi shed to introduce the wor ship of

Ganapath i , to which they are much addicted .The

latter’s m in i ster, the Mangatt Acchan,who was en trusted

w ith the enterta inment of the new arr ival s,and was

nett l ed by the ir fast id iou sness and constant comp laint s

about hi s cater ing , managed to degrade them in a body

by the tr i ck of secret ly m ix ing fi sh with their food.

They do not , l ike the i r counterpart s on t he east coast,wear the thread but i t i s not iceab le that t he i r pr iest s

,

who bel ong to their own caste,wear i t over the r ight

shou lder in stead of over the l eft l i ke the Brahman’s

punul , when perform ing certa in puj as (worship ) . I n

some part s , the p lace of the regular punfi l i s taken by a

red scarf or sash worn in the same manner . They are

remarkab le for being the on ly caste in Ma labar amongst

whom any trace of the fami l iar east coast d iv i s ion into

r ight -hand and left -hand fact ions is to be found . They

are so d iv ided ; and those bel ong ing to the r ight -hand

fact ion deem themselves po l l uted by the touch of those

be long ing to the left -hand sect,which i s numer ica l ly

very weak . They are much addicted to devi l -danc ing ,

which r ite i s performed by certa in of the ir numbers

cal led Komaram s i n honour of Bhagavath i and t he

minor de it ies Vettekkorumagan and Gul ikan (a demon) .

They appear to fo l low makkatayam (descent from father

to son) i n some p laces , and marumakkatayam (inher itance in the female l ine) i n other s . Their po l l ut ionper iod i s ten days

,and the ir pur ificat ion is performed by

the Tal ikunnavan (spr inkler) , who belongs to a some

what degraded sect ion of t he caste .

”

The affai rs of the caste are managed by headmen

ca l led Uralans, and the caste barber , or Pothuvan , act s as

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CHALLA 14

On the day before the wedding -day the br idegroom,

accompan ied by h is male re lat ion s,proceeds to the

house o f the br ide , where a feast i s held . O n the

fo l l owing day the br ide i s bathed,and made to stand

before a l igh ted lamp p laced on the fl oor . The bride

groom’

s father or uncl e p laces two go ld fanam s (co ins)i n her hands , and a further feas t takes p lace .

I n the seventh mon th of pregnancy, the ceremony

cal l ed pul i kudi (or drink ing tamar ind) i s performed .

The woman’

s bro ther br ings a twig of a tamar ind tree,

and , after the leaves have been removed,p lants i t in the

yard of the house . The j u ice i s extracted from the

leaves , and mixed wi th the j u ice of seven cocoanut s .

The elderly femal e re lat i on s o f the woman give her a

l it t l e o f the mixture . The ceremony i s repeated dur ing

three days . B irth pol l ut ion i s removed by a barber

woman spr ink l ing water on the n inth day

The dead are bur ied . The son carr i es a pot of

water to the grave , round which he takes i t three t imes .The barber makes a ho le in the po t

,which i s then

thrown down a t the head of the grave . The barber al so

tears off a p iece o f the c loth,in which the corp se i s

wrapped . This i s , on the tenth day , taken by the son

and barber to the sea or a tank,and thrown into i t .

Three stones are set up over the grave .

Chal iyan al so occurs as an occupat i onal t it l e o r sub

d iv i s ion o f Nayars,and Chaliannaya as an exogamous

sept of Bant . I n the Madras Census Report , 190 1 ,

Chal iyan i s g iven as a sub—cas te o f Van iyan (o i l

p ressers) . Some Chaliyans are , however , o ilm ongers

by profess ion .

C ha l la.—Chal la

,mean ing apparent ly eaters o f refuse ,

occurs as a sub -d ivi s i on of Vanadi s , and mean ing butter

m i lk as an exogamous sep t o f Devanga . Challakut i,

1 5 CHANDRA

mean ing those who eat o ld or co ld food,i s an exo

gamous sept of Kapus .

Chamar .—Near ly three hundred members o f thi s

Bengal caste of tanners and workers in leather were

returned at the cen sus , 190 1 . The equivalent C hamura

occurs as the name of l eather-workers from the Central

Provinces .

(mandala—At the census , 190 1 , more than a

thousand individual s returned themse lve s as Chandala,

which i s defined as a gener i c term , mean ing one who

pol l utes,to many low caste s .

“ I t i s ,” Surgeon-Major

W . R . Corn i sh writesfi"“ characteri st i c of the Brahma

n ical i nto lerance o f the comp i lers o f t he code that the

origin of the lowest caste of al l (the Chandala) should

be ascr ibed to the intercourse of a S fi dra man and a

Brahman woman,whi le the un ion of a Brahman male

w i th a Sadra woman i s said to have re su l ted in -one o f

the highest of the m ixed c las se s . By Manu i t was la id

down that the abode of t he Chandala and Swapaca must

be out of the town . They must not have the use of ent i re

vessel s . Their so le wealth must be dogs and asses .The ir c lothes must be the mant le s of the deceased ;t he i r d i she s for food broken pot s thei r ornament s rusty

iron ; cont inual ly must they roam from p lace to p lace .

Let no man who regards hi s duty , re l ig ious and c ivi l ,ho ld any intercourse with them

,and let food be g iven to

them in pot sherds,but not by the hand of the g iver .

”

Chandra (moon) .— An exogamous sept o f Kuruba .

The name Chandravam sapu (moon peop le ) is taken by

some Raz us, who c la im to be Kshatr iyas , and to be

descended from the lunar race of kings of the Maha

bharata .

Madras Census Report , 187 1 .

CHANIPOYI NA I 6

Chan ipoy ina (those who are dead) . -An exogamoussept of O rugunta Kapu .

Chapa (mat) . —An exogamous sept of Boya.

Chappadi (i n s ip id) . —An exogamous sept of jogi .Chapparam (a panda l or booth) .— An exogamous

sep t of Devanga.

Chapparband—The Chapparbands are manufac

turers of Spur ious co in , who hai l from the Bombay

Pres idency , and are watched for by the po l i ce . I t isnoted

,i n the Pol i ce Report , 1904 ,

that good work was

done in Ganjam in trac ing certain gangs of t hese co iners,

and bringing them to convict ion .

For t he fo l low ing note I am indebted to a report *

by Mr . H . N . Alexander of the Bombay Po l i ce Depart

ment . The name Chapparband refers to the ir ca l l ing ,chapa mean ing an impress i on or stamp .

“ Among

themse lves they are known as Bhadoos,but in H indu

stan,and among Thugs and cheat s genera l ly

,they are

known as Khoolsurrya, fal se co iners . Whi le in

the ir vi l lages,they cu lt ivate the fie lds

,rear pou l try and

breed sheep,whi le the women make qu i lts , which the

men sel l whi le on the ir tours . But the real bus iness of

thi s c lass i s to make and pass off fal se co in . Laying

as ide the ir ordinary Muhammadan dress,they assume

the dress and appearance of fakirs of the Muddar sect ion,

Muddar be ing the ir P ir, and , unaccompan ied by the ir

women,wander from vi l lage to v i l lage . Marathi i s t he ir

language,and

,i n add i t ion , they have a pecul iar s lang of

the ir own . Like al l peop le of th i s c lass , they are super

st it ious , and wi l l not proceed on an expedit i on un less a

favourab le omen i s obtained . The fol lowing account i s

g iven,showing how the fal se co in i s manufactured . A

Madras Pol ice Gazette, 1902 .

I 7 CHAPPARBAND

mould serves only once , a new one be ing requ ired for

every rupee or other co in . I t i s made of uns laked l ime

and a kind of ye l low earth cal l ed shedoo,finely powdered

and s i fted,and pat iently kneaded w i th water to about

the cons i stency of putty . One of the coin s to be

im itated i s then pre ssed wi th some of the preparat i on,

and covered over,and

,be ing cu t al l round

,i s p laced in

some embers . After becoming hardened , i t i s carefu l ly

laid open wi th a kn i fe,and

,the co in being taken out

,i t s

impress ion remains . The upper and lower p ieces are

then j o ined together w i th a k ind of gum ,and

,a smal l

hole be ing made on one s ide , molten t in i s poured in ,and thus an im itat i on of the co in i s obta ined , and i t only

remains to rub i t over with dirt to give i t the appear

ance of o ld money . The t in I S purchased in any bazaar ,and the fa lse money i s prepared on the road as the

gang travel s a long . Chapparbands adopt several ways

of gett ing ri d of the i r fa l se co in . They enter shop s

and make purchases,showing true rupees in the first

i n stance,and subst i tut ing fal se ones at the t ime of

payment . They change fal se rupees for copper money ,and al so in exchange for good rupees of other currenc ie s .

Natura l ly,they look ou t for women and s imp le peop le.

though the manner of pass ing off the base co in i s c lever,be ing done by sleight of hand . The fal se money i s kept

in pocket s formed within the fo lds of the ir langut is (lo in

cloths) , and al so hidden in the pr ivate part s .

The fol lowing addit i onal informat ion concern ing

C happarbands i s contained in the I l lustrated Criminal

I nvest igat i on and Law Digest * ' They trave l general ly

in smal l gangs,and their women never fo l low them .

They consul t omens before leav ing their vi l lages . They

I . N o . 4 . 1908, Vel lore .

1 1—2

CHAPPARBAND I 8

do not leave their v i l lages dres sed as fak irs . They

general ly vi s i t some p lace far away from the i r res idence,

and there d i sgu i se themse lves as Madar i fakirs,adding

Shah to the ir names . They al so add the t i t l e Sahib ,and imi tate the Sawals

,a s ing - s ong begging tone of

t hei r c las s . Their l eader,Khagda,

i s imp l ic i t ly obeyed .

He i s the treasurer of t he gangs,and keep s with him

the inst rument s used in co in ing,and the necessary metal

p iece s . But the leader rarely keep s the co ins w ith him .

The duty of passi ng the fal se co ins belongs to t he

Bhondars . A boy general ly accompan ies a gang . He

i s cal led Handiwal . H e act s a s a handy chokra

(youngster) , and al so as a watch over the camp when

the fal se co in s are be i ng prepared . They genera l ly

camp on high ground in c l ose vic in i ty to water,which

serves to rece ive the fa l se co ins and imp lement s,should

danger be apprehended . When moving from one camp

to another , t he Khagda and hi s chokra travel al one , t he

former general ly r iding a smal l pony . The rest of t he

gang keep busy pas s ing the co in s in the neighbourhood ,and eventual ly j o in the pa ir i n the p lace pre -arranged .

I f t he p lace be found inconven ient for the ir purpose ,another i s se lected by the Khagda,

but suffi c ient indica

t i on i s given to the rest that the rendezvous might be

found out . Thi s i s done by making a mark on t he chief

pathway leading to the p lace sett led fi rst , at a spot

where another pathway leads from it i n the d irect ion he

i s go ing . The mark cons i st s of a mud heap on t he s ide

of the road,a foot in l ength

,s ix inches i n breadth , and

s ix in he ight,with an arrow mark point ing in the direc

t i on taken . The Khagda general ly makes three of these

marks at interva l s of a hundred yards , to avo id the

chance of any be ing effaced . Moulds are made of

Mu ltan i or some st icky clay . G0pichandan and badap

I 9 CHAPPARBAND

are also used . The c lay, after being powdered and

s i fted,i s m ixed with a l i tt l e water and o il

,and wel l

kneaded . The two halves of the mould are t hen roughly

shaped with the hand,and a genuine co in i s pressed

between them,so as t o obtain t he obverse on one hal f

and the reverse impress ion on the other . The who le i s

then hardened in an extempore oven,and the hole to

admit the metal i s bored,so as t o admit of i t s be ing

poured in from the edge . The ha lves are then separated ,and the genuine rupee is t i lted out the mo lten al loy o f

t in or pewter is poured in , and al lowed to cool . Accord

ing to the other method,badap c lay brought from the ir

own country i s considered the most suitab le for the

moulds,though Mu ltan i c lay may be u sed when they run

out of badap . Two di scs are made from c lay kneaded

with water . These di sc s are then h ighly po l i shed on

the inner surface with the top of a jvari stalk cal led

dan thal. A rupee,s l ight ly o i led

,i s then p laced between

the d i scs,which are firmly pre ssed over i t . The whole

i s then thorough ly hardened in the fire . The al loy u sed

in these mou lds d iffers from that used in the others , and

cons i st s of an al loy of lead and copper . I n both cases ,

the m i l l ing i s done by the hand with a kn ife or a p iece

of she l l . The Chapperbands se lect the ir v ictims care

ful ly . They seem to be fair ly clever j udges of personsfrom the ir phys iognomy

.They easi ly find out the

duffer and the gul l in both sexes,and take care to avoid

persons l ikely to prove too sharp for them . They

g ive preference to women over men . The commonest

method i s for the Bhondar t o show a quant i ty of copper

co l lected by him in hi s character of beggar , and ask for

s i lver in its p lace . The dupe produces a rupee , WhiCh

he l ooks at . He then shakes hi s head sadly , and hands

back a counterfe i t co in,say ing that such coms are not

l I- Z B

CHAPPARBAND 20

current in hi s country , and moves on to try the same tri ck

e l sewhere . Thei r dexteri ty in changing the rupee s i s

very great,the resul t of l ong pract ice when a Handiwal .

Further informat ion in connect i on with the Chappar

bands has recent ly been p ubl i shed by Mr . M . Panpa

Rao Naidu,from whose account ”

A the fol l owing extrac t

i s taken . C happerbands , as their name impl ie s , are

by profes s ion bu i lders o f roofs , or , i n a more general

te rm , bui lders of hut s . They are She ikh Muhammadans ,and original ly bel onged to t he Punjab . During the

Moghul invas ion of the Carnat i c,as far back as

1687—88

, a large number of them fo l l owed the great

Moghul army as bui l der s of hut s for the men . They

appear to have fol l owed the Moghul army to Aurangabad,

Ahmednagar , and Ser ingapatam un t i l the year 1 7 14 ,

when B ijapur passed into the hands of t he Peshwas .

The Chapperbands t hen formed part of the Peshwa’

s

army in t he same capac ity,and remained as such t i l l t he

advent of t he Bri t i sh in the year 1818, when i t would

appear a maj or i ty of them,finding the ir pecul iar profes

s ion not much in demand,returned to the north . A part

of those who remained beh ind pas sed into t he N iz am ’

s

terr i tory , whi l e a part sett l ed down in t he Province of

Tal ikota . A l egendary tale , narrated before the Super

intenden t of Pol i ce,Raipur

,i n 1904 ,

by an inte l l igent

Chapperband,shows that they learnt th i s art of manu

facturing co in s dur ing the Moghu l peri od . He said In

t he t ime of t he Moghul Emp ire , C happerbands sett led in

the B ijapur d i stri ct . At that t ime , a faki r named Pir

Bhai P ir Makhan l ived in the same d istr i c t . O ne of t he

C happerbands went to thi s fakir , and asked him to

intercede with God,i n order that Chapperbands might be

4“ Cr im inal Tr i bes o f I nd ia, N o . I I I . [ 90 7 °

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CHAPTEGARA 132

The fo l lowing case of swind l ing,which occurred in

t he Tanj ore d istr i ct , i s recorded in the Pol ice Report ,1903. A gang of Muhammadans professed to be ab le

to dup l icate currency notes . The method was to p lace

a note with some b lank sheets of paper between two

p ieces of glas s . The whole was then t ied round w i th

str ing and c loth , and smoked over a fi re . On Opening

the packet,two notes were found

,a second genu ine one

having been surrept i t i ous ly introduced . The success o f

the first Operat ion s w ith smal l notes soon attracted

c l ients,some of t hem wea l thy ; and , when the ba it had

had t ime to work,and some very large notes had been

submitted for operat ion,t he sw ind lers dec lared that

these large note s t ook longer to dup l icate,and that the

packet must not be Opened for several days . Before

the t ime appo inted for Open ing , they d i sappeared , and

the notes were natura l ly not found in the packet s . One

gent leman was fleeced i n th i s way to the value of

Rs . The admin i strat ion of an enema to a fa l se

co iner wi l l somet imes br ing to l ight hidden treasure .

Chaptégé ra.—The Chaptegaras or Cheptégaras

are descr ibed by Mr . H . A . Stuart * as carpenters who

speak Konkan i,and are be l ieved to have come from

the Konkan country . Caste affa irs are managed by a

Gurikar or headman , and the fines col lected are paid to

the Sringer i math . They wear the sacred thread, and

emp loy Karad i Brahmans as puroh its . I nfant marr iage

i s pract i sed,and widow marr iage i s not permitted . The

dead are burned i f means a l low ; otherwi se they are

bur ied . They are Saiv ite s,and worship Durga and

Ganapat i . They eat fl esh and drink l iquor . The ir t itles

are Na ik, S henai, etc . I t i s noted , in the Madras

Manual of the South Canara d istr ict .

23 CHELU

Census Report , 190 1 , t hat Saraswat Brahmans wi l l eat

with them . C houtagara has been recorded as a corrup t

form of Chaptegara .

Charamfi rti .—A c las s of Jangam s,who go from

vi l lage to vi l lage preaching .

Charodi .—The Charodis have been descr ibed * as

Canarese carpenters corresp onding to the Konkan i

Cheptégaras (or Chaptegaras) , and there is very l it t le

d ifference in the customs and manners of the two castes ,except that the former emp loy S h ivalli and Konkanash ta

Brahmans in stead of Karadi s . Their t i t le i s Naika .

I n the Madras Census Report,190 1 , Mesta i s returned

as a Konkan i - speaking sub -caste of Charodi .

Chatla. (winnow) . -An exogamous sep t of Madiga .

Chat la Dhompt i occurs as a sub -d iv i s ion of Mad igas ,who

,at marriages

,p lace the offer ing of food , etc .

(dhompt i) , i n a w innow .

Chatri .—Recorded , i n the Madras Census Repor t,190 1 , as an equ ivalent of Kshatr iya . I t occurs a l so as

the name of an exogamous sep t , mean ing umbrel la, of

the H oleyas .

Chaturakshari .—A sub -divi s ion of Satan is , who

be l ieve in the efficacy of the four syl lab les Ra-ma-nu -ja .

Chaudari .—Chaudar i , or Chowdari, i s recorded as at i t l e of Haddi

,Kal ing i , and Komat i .

Chaya (co lour) K urup .—A c lass of Kol lans i n

Malabar, who work in lacquer .

Ché li (goat) .— An exogamous sep t of Bottada and

Matt iya .

Chelu (scorp ion) .— An exogamous sept of Kuruba .

The equ iva lent thelu occurs among the Padma Salé s .

Manual of the South Canara d istrict.

CHEMBADI 24

Chembad i .—The Chembadis are a Telugu caste,

the occupat i ons of which are fresh—water fi shing,and

rowing boats or corac les . I n fish ing,unl i ke the Besthas

who use a cast -net, they employ a large drag -net,ca l l ed

baith ivala, the two ends of wh ich are fastened to po les .

When a new net i s made , i t i s fo l ded up , and p laced on

the edge of a pond or tank . Mud is spread over i t,and

on i t are p laced three masse s of mud kneaded into a

con ica l shape . These repre sent the God,and cakes

,

cal led kudum ulu, are set before them . A male member

of the caste , b it ing one of the cakes and keep ing i t

between h i s teeth , goe s round the ne t , and then drags

i t to the water , i n which the con ical masse s become

di s in tegrated . Like the Besthas,they smear a new

net w ith the blood o f the first fi sh caught in i t,but they

do not burn a mesh of the net .

Some Chem badis regard Gurappa Gurunathadu as

their caste de i ty,and connect h im

,for some unknown

reason,wi th the jammi tree (P rosop z

'

s spz'

czgem ) . j ammi

occurs as the name of a gotra , and some chi ldren are

named Gurappa or Gurunathadu . When such ch i ldren

are five,seven

, or n ine years o ld,they are taken

on an ausp ic ious day to a jamm i tree and shaved , after

the tree has been worsh ip ped w ith offerings of cooked

food,e tc .

At the betro thal ceremony in th i s caste , immediate ly

after the gir l has taken up areca nuts,p laced them in her

l ap,and folded them in her c loth

,t he headman takes up

the betel l eave s and areca nut s (thambulam ) before himwith cro ssed hands . Thi s ceremony corresponds to the

thonuku thambulam of the l ower c lasses , e .g ., Malas and

Mangalas . Among the Mangalas and Tsakalas , the

thambulam i s sa id to be taken up by a Ba l ij a Set t i . For

the funeral ceremon ie s,the Chem bad is engage a Dasari

2 5 CH EMBOTTI

of the i r own caste . During the ir performances , fl esh and

toddy may not be offered to the deceased person .

Chembian .—A name assumed by some Pal l i s or

Vann iyan s , who c laim that they belong to the Chela

race,on the suppos i t i on that C hemb inadu i s a synonym

for Chela.

Chembi l lam (chembu , copper) . —An exogamous

sect ion of Mukkuvan .

Chembotti .—In t he Madras Census Report , 190 1 ,

i t i s stated that the name Chem bOt t i i s derived from“ chembu

,copper , and kott i , he who beat s . They

are coppersmi th s in Malabar , who are d i st inct from

the Malabar Kammalan s . They are supposed to be

descendant s of men who made copper idol s for temp les,

and so rank above the Kammalans in soc ia l pos i t ion,

and about equal ly wi th the l ower sect ion s of the Nayars .The name is al so u sed as an occupat i onal term by

the Konkan Nat ive C hri st ian coppersmi ths . I n the

Cochin and Travancore Cen sus Report s,Chembukot t i

i s recorded as an occupat ional t i t l e or sub—caste of

Nayars who work in copper , chiefly in temp les and

Brahman houses .

I n the Gazetteer of the Malabar d i strict,the Chem

bott i s are described as copper-workers , whose tradi t ional

bus iness i s the roofing o f the Sri -kovi l, or i nner sh r ine

of the temp le wi th that metal . They are said to have

or ig inal ly formed part of the Kammalan commun ity .

When the great temp le at Tal iparamba was comp leted ,i t was purified on a scal e of unprecedented grandeur , no

le ss than a thousand Brahmans be ing emp loyed . What

was thei r d i smay when the ceremony was wel l forward ,to see a C hem bott i coming from the Sri -kovi l , where he

had been putt ing fin i shing touches to the roof. Thi s

appeared to i nvo lve a recommencement of the whole

CHEMPAKA‘

RAMAN 26

ted ious and cost ly ri tual , and the Brahmans gave vent tot he i r fee l i ngs of despair , when a v i s ion from heaven

reassured them , and thereafter the Chembett is have

been rai sed in the soc ial sca le,and are not regarded as

a pol lut i ng caste .

Chembett i , or Chemmatt i , mean ing hammer, occurs

as an exogamous sept o f the Telugu Vanadi s .

Chempakaraman .—Recorded

,i n the Travancore

Census Report , 190 1 . as an honorific t i t le of Nayars .Chenchu .

—The C henchus or Chen tsus are a Tel uguspeak ing j ung le tr ibe inhab i t ing the hi l l s of t he Kurnoo l

and Ne l l ore d i str icts . I n a l etter addres sed to the

Bengal As iat i c Soc iety , ”6 transm itt ing vocabular ie s of

var ious tr ibes inhab i t ing Vizagapatam,by Mr . Newi l l ,

i t i s stated that the Chenchu tr ibe,whose language

i s a lmost ent i re ly corrup t H indi and Urdu wi th a few

except i ons from Bengal i , affords one more example to

t he many forthcom ing of an uncu l tured abor ig inal race

having abandoned the ir own tongue .

” The comp i ler of

t he Kurnoo l Manual (1885) remarks that Mr . New ill’

s

vocabulary seems to bel ong to the d ialect spoken by

Lambadi s , who somet imes wander about the hi l l s , and

i t i s not un l ikely that he was mis led as to t he character

of t he person s from whom hi s l i s t was taken .

”

As

examp le s of the words given by Mr . Newi l l , t he

fol low ing may be quotedBone, had. One, yek.

Cat, bi l leyi . Ten , das.

Ear, kan . Far, dur.

E lephant, hate. Drink, p i .T iger, bag.

Sweet, m itha.

I t i s probab le that Mr . Newi l l confused the Chenchus

w i t h the Bon thuk Savaras (ya ) who speak corrup t

Journal As iat ic Society , ! ! V, 1857 .

55-7 CHENCHU

Oriya,and are cal led Chenchu vandlu

,and

,l ike the

Chenchus , bel ieve that t he god Naras im ha of Ahobi lam

marr ied a girl be longing to the i r tr ibe . As a further

example of t he confus ion concern ing the Chenchus,I

may quote the remarks of Buchanan about t he Irulas,

who are a Tami l -speaking j ung le tr ibe : “ I n thi s h i l ly

tract there i s a race of men cal led by the other nat ive s

Cad Eril igaru , but who cal l themse lves Cat Chensu .

The language of t he C hens u i s a d ialect of the Tami l,

with occas iona l ly a few Karnata or Tel inga words inter

mixed , but the ir accent i s so d i fferent from that of

Madras that my servant s d id not at fi rst understand

what they said . Thei r or ig inal country,they say ,

i s the

An imalaya fore st be low the ghat s , which is confirmed

by the ir dia lect . ” I n t he Census Report,190 1 , Chenchu

i s said to be the name by which Irulas of North Arcot

and the Mysore p lateau are cal led somet imes,and

,i n

the Census Report,189 1 , Chenchu is g iven as a sub

d iv i s ion of the Yanadis . There can be l i t t l e doubt that

the Chenchus and Yanadis are descended from the

same orig i nal s tock . Mackenz ie,in the local records

co l lected by h im,speaks of the Chenchus as being

cal led Yanad i Chenchus . The Chenchus themselve s

at the present day say that they and the Vanadi s are

one and the same,and that the tr ibe s intermarry .

I n Scott’s Ferish ta,

’ the Chenchus are described as

they appeared before Prince Muhammad Masum , a son

of Aurangz ib , who passed through the Kurnool d i str ict

in 1694 , as“ exceedingly black

,with long hair, and on

the ir heads wore cap s made of the l eaves of trees .

Each man had wi th h im unbarbed arrows and a bow for

hunting . They molest no one ,and l ive in caverns or

Journey through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar.

CHENCHU 28

under the shady branche s o f trees . The prince presen

ted some of them with gold and s i lver,but they d id not

seem to put any val ue on e ither,being qui te unconcerned

at rece iving i t . Upon the fir ing of a gun,they darted

up the mounta in s w ith a surpri s ing swiftness uncommon

to man . I n Taylor’

s Catal ogue rai sonné of O r ienta l

Manuscript s ,’

the Chenchus are descr ibed as peop le whol ive to the westward of Ah0balam

,Sri sa i lam

,and other

p laces , i n the woods or wi lds , and go about , constant ly

carry ing in their hands bows and arrows . They c l o the

themse lve s wi th l eaves , and l ive on the sago or r ice of

the bamboo . They rob t rave l ler s,ki l l ing them i f they

oppose . Thi s peop le affl ict every l iv ing creature (k i l lfor food i s supposed to be meant) . I t i s noted in the

Kurnool Manual that in former t imes the Chenchu

headman used to “ d ispose of murder case s,the murderer

,

on proof of gu i l t , be ing put to death with the same

weapons w i t h wh ich the murder was comm ittedfi’f

Capta in Newbold,wr it ing in 1846, says that , pass ing

through the j ungle near Pacharla,he observed a skul l

b leached by the sun dangl ing from the branch of a

tamar ind tree,which he was informed was that of a mur

derer and h i l l - robber p ut to death by the headman . I n

t he t ime of the Nabobs , some of the Chenchu murderers

were caught and pun i shed,but the pract i ce seems to

have preva i led among them more or le ss t i l l the i ntro

duct ion of the new pol ice in 1860 ,s ince which t ime al l

case s are sa id to be reported to the nearest p ol i ce

offi cer . ”

A Chenchu Tal iar i (vi l lage watchman) , who came to

see me at Nandyal , was wear ing a badge with h i s name

engraved on i t in Telugu,which had been presented to

Journal Royal As iat ic Soc iety , V I I I , 1846.

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29 CHENCHU

him by Government i n recogn it ion of h i s shoot ing w ith

a double -barre l led gun two Donga Oddes who had rob

bed a v i l lage . Another aged Tal iari had a s i lver bangle

bear ing a Telugu inscr ipt ion , which had been g iven

to him in acknowledgment of h is captur ing a murderer

who was wanted by the pol ice , and came to hi s but .

The casual v i s itor exp la ined that he was on hi s way

to Hyderabad , bu t the Chenchu , not i c i ng bl ood on hi s

cl othe s,t ied him to a post , and gave informat ion that he

had secured h im . The same man had al so rece ived

presents for report ing cases of i l l i c i t d i st i l lat ion under

the Abkar i Act .

I n recent accounts of the Chenchus of the Nal la

mala i h i l l s by a forest offi cer , i t i s noted that p i lgr ims , .

on the ir way to the Sr i sa i lam temp le ,“ are exp lo i ted at

every turn,the Chentz u be ing seen in hi s true colours at

thi s per iod,and , be ing among the most act ive agents

in the exact i ons , but not be ing by any means the on ly

p l underer . I n return for the protect ion,the Chentz u

levie s a to l l per head , and as much more as he can extor t .We had to interfere with t he perqu i s ites of one drugged

spec imen of th i s race , who drew a kn i fe on a peon

(order ly) , and had to be sent down under escort

I t i s commonly supposed that the Chentz us are a semi

w i ld,i nnocent

,inoffens ive h ill tr ibe , l iv ing on roots

,

honey, wi ld fruit s , and game . I f thi s was so,we should

have no d ifficul ty in contro l l ing them . They are actual ly

a semi -wi ld,lazy

,dr inking set of brigands . They levy

blackmai l from every v i l lage a long the foot of the h ills,

and,i f any ryo t (cult ivator) refuses to pay up , his crop

si lent ly d i sappears on some moon les s n igh t . They levy

blackmai l from every p i lgr im to the shr ines in the hi l l s .

They levy b lackmai l from the graz iers i n the h i l l s . They

borrow money from Kem at is and Bun iah s (merchant s

CHENCHU 30

and money-lenders) , and repay i t i n kind— sto len t imber ,minor forest p roduce , etc . They are constant ly in debt

t o the Komat i s , and are p ract i cal ly the i r s lave s as

regards the supp ly of t imber and other forest p roduce .

They think nothing of fe l l ing a tree in order to col lec t

it s fru i ts , and they fi re m i l es of forest in order t o be ab le

to co l lect with ease certa i n m inor p roduce, or to trace

game . They po i son the streams throughout the hi l l s,

and i n short do exact ly as they p lease throughou t the

l ength and breadth of the Nallamalais . The Conser

vator of Forest s expressed h i s bel ief that th i s p i c ture

was not overdrawn , and added that the Chenchu s are“ a danger to the fore st in many ways

,and I have always

thought i t a p ity that they were given some of the

r ights at sett lement , which stand aga inst t he ir names .

These r ight s were

(1 ) Rights o f way, and to car ry torches.

(2) Righ ts to draw and dr ink water from ,wash or bathe in al l

streams, spr ings, wel ls and poo ls.

(3) Rights to forest p roduce for home use.

(4 ) Righ ts to fi sh and shoot,

(5 ) Righ ts to graz e a l im ited number of cattle, sheep and

goats,

(6) Righ ts to co l lect for sale or barter certain m inor p roduce,

I n connect i on with r ight t he D i str ict Forest

Officer suggested that “ the quant i ty to be taken annual ly

must be l imited,espec ia l ly in the case of wood , bamboos ,

fibre,fi rewood and honey . The qual i ty of the wood and

of other forest p roduce should be defined . Chenchus

do not requ ire teak or ebony beams or yegi (P l erom rpus

M arsupium ) spokes and fel l oe s for domest i c p urposes ;but

,as the right now stands

,they can fe l l whatever

t hey l ike,and

,t hough we may know it i s for sale to

merchants,the Chenchus have only to say i t i s for

domest i c use,and they cannot be puni shed . The wood

31 CHENCHU

should be l im ited to po les and smal le r p ieces of th i rd

c lass and unc lass ified trees .

I n 1898 the Governor in Counc i l made the fo l l ow

ing rules for regulat ing t he exerc i se of the r ights

of the Chenchus l iv ing in the reserved forest s on the

Nallamalais

1 . The carry ing of t orches , and the l ight ing of

fi re s in fire -protected blocks dur ing the fi re season are

prohib ited .

2 . There shal l be no r ight to wash or bathe i n

such spr ings , wel l s , poo l s or port i ons of streams as are

espec ia l ly set apart for drinking purposes by the Di str ict

Forest O ffi cer .

3. No more than the quant i ty which the Co l lector

may cons ider to be actual ly requ ired for domest ic use

shal l be removed in the exerc i se of the r ight to take

wood,bamboos , fibre , thatch ing grass , fi rewood

,roots

,

fru i t s , honey and other forest produce . The term“ other forest produce shal l be taken to mean other

minor forest produce , not i nc l ud ing tusks and horn s.

N0 wood other than po le s and smal ler p ieces of third

c lass and unc lass ified trees shal l be removed .

4 . N o gudem (Chenchu vi l lage) shal l , without the

spec ia l permi ss i on of the Col lector , be al lowed to keep a

larger number of guns than that for whi ch l i censes had

been taken out at the t ime of sett lement . Every gun

covered by a l icense shal l be stamped with a di st inct ive

mark or number . The u se of po i son and exp los ive s in

water,and the sett ing of cru ives or fixed engines

,or

snares for the capture or destruct i on of fi sh,are str i ct ly

prohib ited .

5 . For purposes of reg enerat ion , a port i on of the

area set apart for the graz ing of catt le , not exceeding

one-fifth,may be c lo sed to graz ing at any t ime , and

CHENCHU 32

for such length of t ime as the D i str ict Forest O ffi cer

deems fit .

6. The right o f pre -empt ion of al l m inor forest

produce co l lected by the C henchus for sal e or barter

shal l be re served to the Fores t department . The

exerc i se of the r ight o f col lect i ng wood and other pro

duce for domest ic u se , and of co l lec t ing m inor produce

for sale or barter , shal l be confined to natural growth ,and shal l not inc lude forest produce which i s the resu l t

of spec ial p lantat ion or protect ion on the part of the

Forest department .

I n connect ion wi th a scheme for deal i ng with the

m inor fore s t produce in the Nal lamalais,the Conserva

tor of Forests wrote as fo l lows in 1905 .

“ I bel i eve

that i t i s general ly recogn i sed that i t i s imperat ive to

obtain the good-wi l l of the Chenchus even at a cons ider

ab le l o ss,both from a pol i t i ca l and from a forest po int

of view ; the latter being that , i f we do not do so,the

who le of the Nallamalai fores ts w i l l,at a not very

remote date,be utter ly destroyed

'

by fi re . The Chen

chus,be ing a most abnormal type of men

,must be treated

in an abnormal way ; and the proposal s are based ,therefore

,on the fundamental pr inc ip le of al lowing the

two D istr ict Forest O ffi ce rs a very free hand in deal ing

with these p eop le . What i s main ly asked for i s to make

an exper iment, of endeavour ing to get the Chenchu s to

co l lect m inor produce for the department , the D i str ict

Forest Offi cer s be ing al l owed to fix the remunerat ion as

they l ike,in money or barter , as they may from t ime to

t ime find on the spot to be best . I n commenting on

the scheme,the Board of Revenue s tated that “ act ion

on the l ines proposed i s j ust ified by the presen t s tate o f

the Nallamalais . These valuab le fore sts certa in ly stand

in danger of rap id de struct i on by fi re,and , according to

33 CHENCHU

the loca l offi cers , the Chench us are a lmos t en t i re ly

respons ib le . The department has at p re sent no means

of br ing ing in fl uence to bear on the Chenchus,or secur

ing the ir ass i stance in putt ing ou t fires . Repress ive

measures w i l l be worse than u se le s s,as the Chenchu s

wi l l mere ly hide themselve s , and do more damage than

ever . The on ly way of gett ing into touch with them i s

to enforce the r ight of pre -empt ion in the matter of

minor produce reserved to Government at the t ime of

fore st sett lement , and by deal ing with them in a j us t

and generous way to secure the ir confidence . I f th i s

i s achieved,the department may hope to secure the i r

co-operat i on and valuable ass i stance in preven t ing

jungle fires . The departmen t can certain ly afford to

se l l at a profit,and at the same t ime give the Chenchu s

better pr ices than the sowcars (money- lenders) , who aresa id i nvariab ly to cheat them . The Board bel ieves that

the ul t imate l oss from advance s wi l l no t be ser ious,as

advances wi l l ord inar i ly be smal l in amount, except in

cases where they may be requi red by Chenchus to pay

off sowcars . I t wi l l be wel l , therefore , i f the Col lector

and the Distr ict Fore s t Offi cers w i l l ascertain as soon as

possible how much the Chenchu s are indebted to the

sowcars,as i t wi l l p robab ly be necessary for the success

of the scheme to l iqu idate these debts .”

From a no te on the Chenchus of the Nallamalai

hi l l s,I gather that a s tr iking con trast i s afforded

between those who i nhabi t the be l t of fores t stretching

from Venkatapuram to Bairnu t i, and those who dwel l in

the j ung le on the ski rts of the great trunk road , which

formed the chi ef means of communi cat i on between the

pr inc ipa l town s un t i l the Sou thern Mahratta rai lway

diverted traffi c in to another channel . I n the former

we behold the Chenchu semi -c iv i l i sed and cl othed . He11—3

CHENCHU 34

possesse s flocks and herds, sm i l ing fie lds and even gar

dens,and evince s an apt i tude for barter . The super ior i ty

o f the Bairnut i Chenchu has been brought about by the

influence,example

,labours , and generos i ty of a s ingle

Engl i shman,who bui l t a substantial stone dwel l ing in

the dep th s of the great Bairnut i fore st . There a l so he

erected ind igo vats,and p lanted ind igo , and a grove o f

cho ice mango grafts,orange and l ime trees . He

bought buffaloes,and by carefu l se lect ion and breeding

evo lved a magn ificent type . These buffaloes have now

become a lmost en t i re ly fru i t -eaters , and are engaged in

seek ing for and devour ing the forest fru i ts , which— par

t icularly the m owhra and forest fig— l i t ter the ground in

vast quanti t ie s . This hab i t of fru i t-eat ing imparts to

the i r m i lk a pecu l iar ly r ich nutty flavour , and the cream

i s of abnormal ly r ich qual i ty . The Chenchus manufac

ture th i s into ghee (c lar ified butter) , which they turn to

p rofi tab l e account . The brethren of the Bairnut i Chen

chus dwe l l ing in the fore st of Pacherla pre sen t very

d ifferent cond it ion s of l i fe . They accentuate the ir naked

ness by a narrow bark thread bound round the wai st,

i nto which are thrust the i r arrows and kn i fe . Thi s i s

the i r fu l l dre ss . The hair, they aver, i s the great and

natura l cover ing of mankind . Why, therefore , vio late

the ord inary laws of nature by invent ing supererogatory

c l oth ing ? A miss ionary sport sman was fai r ly non

p lussed by these arguments,part icu lar ly when his

inter locutors po inted to a ce lebrated pass or gorge,

through which the amorous Kristna i s averred to have

pursued and cap tured a fasc inat ing Chenchu damse l .

You see,’

said the Chenchu logic ian,

‘ the beauty o f her

form was so man i fe s t i n i ts rude s imp li c i ty that even the

god could not re s i st i t . ’ E n passant i t may be no ted

that , when a Chenchu wi she s to expres s superlat ive

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CHENCHU I RE S-CL IMBING .

35 CHENCHU

admirat ion of a be l le , he compares her to a monkey . I n

hi s eye s,the supremest beauty o f fem in in i ty i s agi l i ty

.

The gir l who can shin up a lofty tree,and bring him

down fru i t to eat i s the acme o f feminine perfect ion . Ah,

my sweet monkey gir l,

’ said a demora l i sed Chenchu,

who was too idle to c l imb up a tree himse l f,

‘she has

been c l imbing tree s al l day,and throwing me fru it .

There i s not a man in the forest who can c l imb l ike my

monkey gir l .’ The Chenchus are wi se ly emp loyed by

the author it ies as road-po l ice or Taliaris,to prevent

highway daco it ie s . Thi s i s an astute p iece of d ip l omacy .

The Chenchus themse lve s are the on ly daco it s there

abouts,and the salary paid them as road -pol ice i s

vi rtual ly b lackmai l to induce them to guarantee the

freedom of the forest highways . The Chenchu barters

the produce of the forest s in which he l ives,namely,

honey and wax,deer horns and h ides

,tamarinds

,wood

app les (Fer/ on ia elepAan i am ) , and mowh ra (B assia lati

f o/ia) fru it and flowers,and real i ses a very considerable

income from these source s . He reap s annual ly a rich

harve st of hides and horns . The sambur (Cer t/as i mi

co/or ) and spotted deer (Cer t/as ax is) shed the ir horn sat certain seasons . The se horn s are h idden in the rank

l uxur iant grass . But,when the heat of the dry weather

has wi thered i t,the Chenchu app l ie s fi re to i t by rubbing

two dried st icks together,and

,walking in the wake of

the flames , p icks up the horns d i sc lo sed to view by the

reduct ion of the vegetat ion to ashes . He supp lements

th i s method wi th h i s bow and rifle , and by the latter

means alone obtains h i s h ides . The Chenchu i s every

b i t as bad a shot as the average abor ig inal . He rare ly

stalks , but , when he does, he makes up by hi s ski l l in

woodcraft for h i s inexpertness with hi s gun . He under

stands the importance of not giv ing the deer a slant o f1 1—3 13

CHENCHU 30

hi s wind,and , i f they catch a g l imp se of him

,he wi l l

stand mot ion le ss and black as the tree trunks around .

The ambush by the sal t- l ick or water—hole,however

,i s

h i s favour i te method of sport . Here,fort ified w ith a

supp ly of the p ungent- sme l l ing l iquor which he i l l ic i t ly

d i st i l s from the m owh ra flower he wi l l l i e n ight and day

ruthle ssly murdering sambur , spotted deer , n i lga i (B ose

lap/z i /s tragoeamelas) , four-horned ante lope (TetraeerasTiger s often sta lk down

,and drink and

ro l l in the pool , but the Chenchu dares not draw a bead

on him . Perhap s the ind i fference of hi s shoot ing,of

which he i s consc io us , deters him . When in danger

from t igers or leopard s , the Chenchus c l imb a tree , and

shout . The Chench us recogn i se two d i st inct var ie t ie s

o f leopards cal led ch i rra pul i and ch irta pul i,concern ing

which B lanford wr i te s as fo llows .

”AQ Most o f the

sport smen who have hunted in Central I nd ia,and many

nat ive sh i kar i s (sportsmen) di st ingui sh two forms , and in

part s o f the country there i s some appearance of two

race s— a larger form that inhab i ts the hi l l s and forests,

and a smal ler form commonly occurr ing in patche s o f

gras s and bushe s amongst cul t ivated fie lds and gardens .

The larger form i s said to have a shorter ta i l,a longer

head with an occ ip i tal cre st , and c learly defined spots on

a pale r ground -colour . The smal ler form has a com

parat ive ly longer tai l , a rounder head , l ess c lear ly defined

spots,and rougher fur . I cannot he lp suspect ing that

the d i fference i s very often due to age .

A Chenchu who was asked by me whether they ki l l

wi ld beasts rep l ied that they are wi ld beas ts themse lves .

I n devour ing a feast of mutton provided for those who

were my guests in camp,they certa in ly behaved as such ,

Fauna, Bri t ish Ind ia, Mammal ia.

CHENCHU .

37 CHENCHU

gnawing at the bones and tear ing off the fle sh . To the

Chenchus a feast, on however l iberal a sca le the food

may be,i s noth ing without a cop ious supp ly o f toddy

,o f

which even infants rece ive a smal l share . I n the absence

of toddy , they sometimes manufacture i l l i c i t l iquor from

the flower-buds of the mahua (or m owhra) tree . The

man who gained the pr ize (a coarse cotton c loth) i n a

shooting match with bow and arrow,wi th the head of a

straw scarecrow as bu l l’s -eye,was in an advanced s tage

of intox i cat ion,and used h is success as an argument

in favour of dr ink . I n a long d istance shoot ing match ,the pr ize was won w i th a carry o f 144 yards , the arrow

be ing shot high into the a ir . I t was noted by Captain

Newbo ld that the Chenchus are no t remarkab ly exper t

as archers,to j udge from the awkwardness they exhib ited

in d i spatching an unfortunate sheep p icke ted for them

at forty yards , which was he ld out to them as the pr ize for

the best marksman . Some t ime ago a Chenchu , who

was the bu l ly of h is sett lement,beat another Chenchu

and h is wife . The inj ured man appealed to the Dis tr ic t

Fore st Office r,and

,exp lain ing that he knew the law did

no t a l low him to kill h is enemy , app l ied for a wr i tten

permit to go after him wi th a bow and arrow .

Some Chenchus bear on the head a cap made o f

wax-c loth , deer or hare sk in . By the more fash ionable

the tufted ear or bushy tai l -end of the large I nd ian

squirre l (Sciaras I nd ians) i s attached.by way of ornament

to the str ing with which the hair of the head i s t ied in to

a bunch behind . Leafy garments have been rep laced by

white loin -c loths,and some of the women have adopted

the ravike (bod ice) , in im itat ion of the fema le co stume

in the p lains . Boys,girl s

,and women wear brace lets

made of P anama: or palmyra palm leaves . By some

p iece s of st ick strung on a thread , or seeds of Gi z/otia

CHENCHU 38

rol l /enf orm is , are worn as a charm to ward off var ious

forms of pain . Some o f the women are tattooed on

the forehead , corners o f the eyes,and arms . And I

saw a few men tattooed on the shou lder as a cure forrheumat i sm .

The huts of which a present day gudem i s composed

are e ither in the shape of bee -hives l i ke those of the

Vanad i s , or ob long wi th S lop ing roof, and s ituated in a

grove near a pond or stream . The stap le food of the

Chenchu s cons i st s of cerea l s , supp lemented by yams

(D ioscorf ea) which are uprooted w i th a digg ing -st ick

t ipped with i ron,fore st fru i t s , and var iou s an ima l s such

as peacock,crow

,l i zard bear

,and black

monkey . They are very fond of the young flowers and

buds of the mahua tree , and tamarind fru it s , the ac id i ty of

which is removed by mixing with them the ashes of the

bark o f the same tree .

The fore st products co l lected by the Chenchus

i nc lude myrabolam s,fru i ts of the tamar ind

,S emecaifpas

anacaifaiam ,Safi i i ca

’as i i f if oZiac

‘

as (soap -nut) , B acaanan ia

Zatifol ia,B acaaaam

’

a aagasi if ol ia ,and F icus glomeif aia

roots of A r is iolocaia [ aa’ica and H em ia’esmas [ na

’i cas ;

seeds of A er/ as precac‘or ias ; flowers of B assia Zacif ol ia ;

horns,and honey .

The Chenchus recogn i se two kinds of bees,large

and smal l,and gather honey from nest s in trees or

rocks . I t i s stated in the Cuddapah Manual that“ the Yenadis or Chenchus a lone are ab le to c l imb

miracu l ou s ly into d i ffi cu l t and apparently inaccess ibl e

p lace s,and over perpend icular c l i ffs in some p lace s

from a hundred to two hundred feet h igh . Thi s they

do by means of a p lai ted rope made of young bam

boos t ied together . Acc ident s somet imes happen by

the rope g iving way . I t i s a nervous s ight to watch

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CHENCHU 40

w ith cowdung. I n the centre a bow and arrow t ied

together are fixed in the ground , and the br ide and

bridegroom are made to move round i t,when the men

assemb led bless them by throw ing some r ice over them,

and the marr iage i s comp lete . Accord ing to the third

mode,a Brahm in is consul ted by the e lder s of the fami ly .

An ausp i c ious day i s fixed,and a rai sed p ial (p latform)

is formed,on wh ich the br ide and br idegroom be ing

seated,a tal i (marr iage badge ) is t ied , and ri ce poured

over the i r heads . The services of the Brahmin are

engaged for th ree or four days,and are rewarded with a

p iece of new c loth and some money . This ceremony

re semb les that of the ryot (cult ivat ing ) c l ass among the

H indus . I t i s evident ly a recent Brahmin i cal innovat ion .

O n marr iage occas ion s general ly tom -toms,i f ava i lab le ,

are beaten,and a dance takes p lace . I n the second

form of marriage , as descr i bed to me , t he br ide and

bridegroom s it oppos ite eac h other w it h four arrows

s tuck in the ground between them . I n Mackenz i e’s

record i t i s stated that the Chenchus make the brida l

pair s it with a s ing le arrow between them,and

,when

there i s no shadow,some elder ly men and women throw

r ice over the i r heads . The importance of t he arrow

w ith the Chenchus,as with the Vanadi s , i s that the

moment when i t cast s no shadow is the ausp ic ious t ime

for t he comp let i on of the marr iage r i te . The remarr iage

of w idows i s perm i tted , and the second husband i s sa id

to be in most cases a brother of the deceased one .

As an example of the Chenchu songs , the fo l lowing

marr iage song , sung by two men and a woman , and

recorded by my phonograph,may be c ited

The tal i was of avaram leaves,Oh the lo rd of the Chenchus .

Cassi a aan calata .

4 1 CHENCHU

Th e bash ingham was made of the leaf of a wild tree,Oh I the lo rd o f the Chenchus.

Wi ld tu rmeric was used for the kankanamOh I the lord of the Chenchus.

Wear ing a garment made of the leaves o f the palm tree ,Oh I the lord o f the Chenchus.

Wearing a bod ice made o f the leaves of the pann u tree,

Oh I the lo rd o f th e Chenchus.

Roam ing over inaccess ible h i l ls ,Oh I the lord of the Chenchus.

Wandering th rough dense forests,Oh I the lord .of the Chenchus .

Comm itting acts that ought not to be done,Oh I the lo rd of the Ch enchus.

Obalesa’

s mar riage was ce leb rated,Oh I the lord of the Chenchus.

A fou r-cornered dais was made,Oh I the lord of th e Chenchus.

On the dais arrows were stuck ,Oh I the lord of the Chenchus.

Bamboo r ice was used to th row on the heads of the pai r,Oh I the lord of the Chenchus.

Cocoan ut cups were stuck on the po ints of the arrow,Oh I the lord of the Ch enchus.

The marriage was th us ce leb rated .

At a dance in my honour , men and women executed

a ser ie s of step dance s in t ime w i th a drum (thappata)re semb l ing a big tambour ine , which , at the conc lus ion

of each dance , was passed to and fro through a b laz ing

fire of cho l um straw to br ing i t up to the proper p itch .

An elder ly hag went through a var iety of gest i c u lat ions

l i ke those of a Deva-das i (danc ing -gir l) . A man dressed

up in straw and fragment s of mat s p icked up near my

camp,and another d isgu i sed as a woman

,with bel l s

round hi s ank les,supp l ied the comic bus iness .

Marr iage chap let worn on the forehead .

1 Wr ist-threads dyed Wi th turmer ic .

CHENCHU 4 2

I n the Kurnoo l Manua l i t is stated that “ as soon as

a ch i l d i s born , the umbi l i cal cord i s cut (with a kn i fe orarrow) , and the ch i ld i s washed in co ld or hot water ,according as the season i s hot or co ld . O n the th ird

day,al l the women o f the tr ibe are i nvi ted

,and served

wi th bete l nut . On the fourth day,an o ld woman gives

a name to the chi ld . The baby i s genera l ly laid in a

cradle made of deer sk in s , and su spended from a bamboo

by means of str ings or dusara creepers .

The dead are carried to the buria l -p lace in a c loth

s l ung on a pole . The body , after i t has been laid in the

grave,i s covered over wi th leafy twigs , and the grave i s

fi l led in . The spot i s marked by a mound of earth and

stone s p i led up . O n the second or third day,some

cooked food i s offered to the sou l of the deceased

person,near the grave , and , after some of i t has been

set apart for the crows , the remainder is bur ied in the

mound or within the grave . The same ri te is repeated

after the e ighth day .

The Chenchus are said ”A, l ike the Yanadis

, to

worship a god cal led Chenchu Devata , t o whom offer ings

of honey and fru i t s are some t imes made . They be l ieve,

as has been ment ioned al ready, that the god Naras im ha

of Ahob i lam ,whom they cal l Obalé sudu

,carri ed off a

beaut i fu l Chenchu gi r l , named Chench ita,and marr ied

her . To prevent the occurrence of a s im i lar fate to

o ther fema le s of the t r ibe , C hench ita ordained that they

shou ld in future be born ugly , and be devo id of persona l

charm s . The Chenchus c laim Obalé sudu as the i r

brother-in - l aw,and

,when they go to the temple for the

annual fest ival,carry c loths as presen ts for the god and

goddess . The legend of the i r or igin is to ld as fo l low s

Madras Census Report , 1891 .

43 CHENCHU

by Captain Newbold . Previous to the incarnat ion of

Sri Kri shna in the Dwapara Yug (the third of the great

ages ) , the Chenchwars were shepherds of the Yerra

Gol la caste . Obal I swara,the swami (de ity) of O balam ,

a ce lebrated hi l l shr ine in the Nal la Mal las,having

taken away and kept as a Chench ita a maid of the Yerra

Go l la fami ly,begat upon her chi ldren

, of whom they

are descendants . Among o ther m inor de it ie s,the

C henchus are said to worship Ankalamma,Potu Razu

,

Sunkalamm a,Mal lamma, and Guruppa .

I n the absence of luc i fer matches,the Chenchus

make fire w ith fl i nt and steel,and the sl ight ly charred

floss of the whi te cotton tree , E r ioa’eaa

’if oic aaf rf accaosam ,

I am informed that,l i ke the Pan iyans of Malabar

,they

al so obtain fire by fr ic t i on , by means of the hor izontal or

sawing method,with two p ieces of sp l i t bamboo .

Some Chenchus st i l l exhib it the prim it ive short

stature and high nasal index,which are character i st i c of

otherljungle tr ibes such as the Kad irs , Pan iyan s , and

Kurumbas . But there i s a very consp icuous want of

un i form ity in the ir p hys i cal characters,and many indi

v iduals are to be met wi th ,above m iddle he ight or ta l l ,

with long narrow noses . A case i s noted in the Kurnool

Manual,in which a br ick -maker married a Chenchu gir l .

And I was told of a Boya man who had married in to the

tr ibe,and was l iv ing in a gudem . I n th i s way i s the

pure type of Chenchu metamorphosed .

S tature, cm . N asal index .

By the dol i chocephal i c type of head which has

pers i sted,and which the C henchus posses s in common

CHENCHU 44

with var ious other j ungle tr ibe s , they are , as shown by

the fo l lowing table , at once d i fferent iated from the

mesat icephal ic dwel lers in the p lains near the foot of the

Nallamalais

40 Chenchus60 Go l las50 Boyas

39 To ta Bal i jas49 Motat i Kapus

19 Upparas

16 Mangalas

1 7 Yerukalas

12 Medaras

The vi sual acui ty o f the C henchus was tested with

Cohn’s letter E ,No . 6. For c l in ica l purposes

,the vi sua l

acu ity wou ld be represented by a fract ion, of which 6 is

the denominator, and the number of metre s at which the

pos it ion of the letter was recogn i sed by the ind ividua l

tested i s the numerator , eg .

V.A .

The average di stances in metres,a t which the letter

was recogn i sed by the var ious castes and tribe s exam ined

by myse l f and Dr . W . H . R . R ivers,were as fo l lows

16 Shelagas (Rivers)94 Kotas 1 28

180 Badagas 1 26

50 Parai yans

58 Te lugu ryats 1 2 4

28 Chenchus

55 Ural is

30 Brahmans, Myso re

30 Non-Brahmans, Mysore 1

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CHERUMAN 46

i n North Malabar . Even in South Ma labar where they

are cal led Cheruman,a large sub -divi s ion number ing

over i s ca l l ed Pula Cheruman . The most

important of t he sub -divi s ion s returned are Kanakkan,

Pula Cherum an,E ralan

,Kudan and Rolan . Kanakkan

and Pula C heruman are found in al l the southern taluks,

K t'

i dan a lmost who l ly in Walluvanad, and Eralan i n

Palghat and Walluvanad . I n the Census Report , 190 1 ,Alan (s lave) , and Paramban are given as sub -castes o f

Cherum an .

Accord ing to one vers ion,the name Cheruma or

Cheramakkal s ign ifie s son s of the so i l ; and , according

to another,Cheriamakkal means l i tt le chi ldren

,as

Parasurama d i rected that they shou ld be cared for,and

treated as such . The word Pu layan i s said to be der ived

from pula,mean ing po l l ut ion .

Of the Cherumans, the fo l l owing account i s g iven in

the Gazetteer of Malabar . They are said to be divided

into 39 d ivi s ions , t he more important of which are the

Kanakka Cheruman s, t he Pula Cherumans or Pu layas

,

the E ra Cheruman s or Eralans,the Rol i Cheruman s or

Relans , and the K t'

i dans . Whether these sub -divi s ions

should be t reated as separate castes or not , i t i s hardly

poss ib l e to determine ; some of t hem at least are

endogamous group s , and some are st i l l further sub

divided . Thus the Pulayas of C h irakkal are said to be

divided into one endogamous and e leven exogamous

group s,cal led Mavadan ,

E lamanam, Tacchakudiyan ,

Kundaton ,C heruvulan

,Mulat tan

,Talan

,Vannatam

,

Eramalodiyan ,Mullaviriyan ,

Egudan ,and Kunden .

Some at least of these group names obvious ly denote

differences of occupat ion . The Kundot t i , or woman ofthe last group , act s as m idwi fe and in consequence the

group i s cons idered to convey po l l ut ion by touch to

4 7 CHERUMAN

members of the other gro up s,and they wi l l ne ither eat

nor marry with those be longing to i t . Death or birth

pol lut ion i s removed by a member of the Mavadan c lass

ca l led Maruttan,who spr inkle s cowdung mixed with

water on t he feet,and mi lk on the head o f t he person

to be purified . At weddings , the Maruttan receives 32

fanam s,the pre scr ibed pri ce of a br ide , from the bride

groom,and give s i t to the bride’s peop le . The Era

Cherumans and Kanakkans , who are found only in the

southern taluks of the di str i ct , appear to be divided into

exogamous groups ca l led Kfi ttam s,many of which seem

to be named after the house -name of th e masters whom

they serve . The Cheruman s are almost so lely emp loyed

as agricu l tura l labourers and coo l i e s but they a l so make

mats and basket s .

I t i s noted * by Mr . L . K . Anantha Kr i shna - I ye r

that “ from trad it i on s current among the Pulayas,i t

wou ld appear that,once upon a t ime

,they had dominion

over severa l part s of the coun try . A person cal led

A ikkara Yajaman,whose ancestors were Pulaya kings ,

i s st i l l held in considerab le re spect by the Pu layas of

North Travancore,and acknowledged as the ir ch ieftain

and lord , whi le the A ikkaranad i n the Kunnethnad taluk

st i l l remains to lend co lour to the tale . I n Tr ivandrum ,

on t he banks of the Vel l i lake,i s a h i l l cal led Pulayanar

Kotta, where i t i s be l ieved that a Pu laya king once ru led .

I n other p laces,they are al so sa id to have he ld sway .

As a Paraya found at Me lkota the image of Selvap illai ,as a Savara was or iginal ly in possess ion of the sacred

stone which became the ido l i n the temp l e of j aganath ,

so a l so i s the worship of Padmanabha at Trivandrum

int imately connected with a Pu layan . O nce a Pulaya

Monograph, E th . Survey of Coch in ,

No . 6, 1906.

CHERUMAN 48

woman, who was l iv ing wi th her husband in the Ananthan

kadu (jung le) , sudden ly heard the cry of a baby . She

rushed to t he spot , and saw to her surpri se a chi ld lyingon the ground , protected by a snake . She took p i ty on

i t,and nursed i t l ike her own chi ld . The appearance of

t he snake int imated to her the d ivine orig in of the

i nfant . This p roved to be true , for the chi ld was an

incarnat ion of Vishnu . As soon as the Raja of Travan

core heard of the wonderfu l event,he bu i l t a shrine on

the spot where the baby had been found,and ded icated

i t to Padmanabha . The Pu layas round Trivandrum

assert to th i s day that , i n former t imes , a Pu laya king

ru led,and had hi s cast le not far from the present cap i ta l

o f Travancore . The fo l low ing story i s al so current

among them . The Pulayas got from the god S iva a

boon,with spade and axe , to c lear forest s , own lands

,

and cu lt ivate th em . When other peop le took possess i on

of them ,they were advi sed to work under them .

”

According to Mr . Loganfif the Cheruman s are of two

sec t i on s,one o f which , the I raya , are of s l ight ly h igher

soc ial standing than the Pulayan .

“ As the names

denote,the former are permitted to come as far as the

eaves (i ra) of the i r employers’ hou ses

,whi le the latter

name denote s that they convey pol lut ion to al l whom

they meet or approach . The name Cheruman i s

supposed to be der ived from cheru , smal l , the Cheruman

be ing short of stature,or from chera

,a dam or l ow - lying

ri ce fie ld . Mr . Logan , however , was of op in ion that

there i s amp le evidence that the Malabar coast at one

t ime const i tuted the kingdom or Emp ire of Chera,and

the nad or county of Cheranad ly ing on the coast and

in land south -east of Cal icut remains to the pre sent day

Manual of Malabar .

49 CHERUMAN

to give a loca l habitat ion to the ancient name . More

over,the name of the great Emperor of Malabar

,who i s

known to every chi ld on the coast as C heraman Perumal,was undoubted ly the t it le and not the name of the

Emperor,and meant the ch ief (l i tera l ly, big man) of the

Chera peop le .

O f the h i story of s lavery in Malabar an admirable

account i s g iven by Mr . Logan , from which the fo l low

ing extracts are taken .

“ I n 1 79 2 , the year in whichBrit i sh rule commenced , a proc lamat ion was i ssued

again st deal ing in s laves . I n 1819 , the pr incipal Co l lector

wrote a report on the cond it ion of the Cherumar,and

rece ived orders that the pract ice of se l l ing slaves forarrear s of revenue be immed iately d i scont inued . I n

182 1,the Court of Directors expressed cons iderable

d i ssat i sfac t i on at the lack of prec i se informat ion wh i chhad been vouchsafed to them ,

and said ‘ We are to ld

that part of the cu l t ivators are he ld as s lave s that they

are attached to the so i l,and marketable property .

’ I n

1836, the Government ordered the rem i ss ion in the

Col lector’s accounts of Rs . 9 2 7—13—0 , which was the

annual revenue from slave s on the Government lands in

Ma labar , and the Government was at the same t ime‘ p leased to accede to the recommendat ion in favour of

emancipat ing the s laves on the Government lands i n

Ma labar . ’ I n 184 1 , Mr . E . B . Thomas , the J udge at

Cal i cut,wrote in strong terms a letter to the Sadr Adalat ,

in which he pointed out that women in some tal uks

(d ivi s ions) fetched higher pr ice s , i n order to breed slaves

that the average cos t of a young male under ten years

was about Rs . 3—8—0 ,

of a female somewhat less ; that

an infan t ten mon ths o ld was so ld in a court auct ion for

Rs . 1— 10- 6 i ndependen t of the pri ce of i t s mother and

that , in a recent su it, the r ight to twenty- seven s laves1 1-4

CHERUMAN 50

was the ‘ so le matter of l i t igat i on , and was di sposed of on

i t s meri t s .’ I n a further letter , Mr . Thomas po inted out

t hat the s laves had increased in numbers from at

t he Census,1835 , to at the Census

,184 2 . I t

was apparent ly these letters which dec ided the Board of

Directors t o send out orders to l eg i s late . And the

Government of I ndia passed Act V of 1843, of which

the provi s i on s were wide ly pub l i shed through Malabar .

The Co l lector exp lained to the Cherumar that i t was in

the i r interest , as wel l as the ir duty , to remain with the ir

masters , i f k ind ly treated . He proc la imed that t he

Government wi l l not order a s lave who is i n the emp loy

of an individua l t o forsake him and go to the servi ce of

another c laimant nor wi l l the Government interfere

with the s lave’s in c l inat ion as to Where he w i shes to

work .

’

And again,

‘ Any person c laim ing a s lave as

janmam, kanam or panayam ,

the r ight of such c la im or

c laim s wi l l not be invest igated into at any one of t he

pub l i c o ffi ces or court s . ’ I n 1852 , and again in 1855 , the

fact that traffi c in s laves st i l l cont inued was brought to

the not i c e of Government,but on ful l cons iderat ion no

further measures for the emanc ipat ion of the Cherumar

were deemed to be necessary . The Cherumar even yet

have not real i sed what pub l i c Op in ion in Eng land wou ld

probab ly have forced down the ir throat s fi fty years ago ,

and there i s reason to th ink that they are st i l l , even now ,

with th e i r fu l l con sent bought and so ld and hired out ,

al though , of course , the transact ion must be kept secret

for fear of the penal t ie s of the Penal Code , which came

into force in 1862,and was the real fina l blow at s lavery in

I ndia . The s laves,however

,as a caste wi l l never under

stand what real freedom means,unt i l measure s are adopted

to give them indefeas i b le r ight s in the smal l orchards

occup ied by them as house-s ites . I t i s noted by

5 1 CHERUMAN

Mr . Anantha Kri shna I yer that “ though slavery has been

abo l i shed many years ago , the name val liyal (a person

rece iving va l l i,i .e. , paddy given to a s lave) st i l l surv ives .

By the Pena l Code i t i s enacted that

Whoever import s,exports , removes , buys , se l l s , or

di sposes of any person as a s lave , or accept s,rece ives

,

or detain s against hi s wi l l any person as a s lave,sha l l

be puni shed with impri sonm ent for a term which may

extend to seven years,and shal l a l so be l iab le to a fine .

Whoever habi tua l ly imports,export s , removes , buys ,

se l l s, traffics or deal s in s laves

,shal l be puni shed with

t ransportat ion for l i fe,or with imprisonment for a term

not exceeding ten years , and sha l l be l iab le to a fine .

Whoever un lawful ly compe l s any person to labour

against the wi l l of that person,shal l be pun i shed with

impr i sonment for a term which may extend to one year,or with a fine

, or with both .

“ Very low indeed,Mr . S . Appadorai I yer wr ites , *

i s the soc ial p os it i on of these m i serab le beings .

When a Cherumar meet s a person of super ior caste,

he must stand at a d i stance of thi rty feet . I f he comes

wi thin th i s prohib i ted d i stance,hi s approach i s sa id to

cause pol lut ion , which is removed on ly by bathing in

water . A Cherumar cannot approach a Brahman vi l lageor temple , or tank . I f he does so ,

purificat ion becomes

necessary . Even wh i l e u s ing the publ ic road , i f he sees

hi s lord and master,he has to l eave the ordinary way

and walk , i t may be in the mud , to avo id h i s d i sp leasure

by acc identa l ly pol lut ing him . To avoid pol lut ing

the passer-by, he repeats the unp leasant sound O ,

oh, O [I n some p laces , e.g .

,Palghat , one may often

see a Cheruman with a dirty p iece of c l oth spread

Calcutta Review , 1900 .

1 1—4 2

CHERUMAN 52

on the roads ide , and ye l l i ng in a shr i l l vo i ce Ambr'

ane ,

Ambarane,give me some p ice

,and thr ow them on

the H i s pos i t ion i s into lerable in the Nat iveState s of Cochin and Travancore , where Brahman in

fluence i s i n the ascendant whi l e in the Palghat tal uk the

Cherumars cannot,even to th i s day , enter the bazaar .

A me lancholy p icture has been drawn of the Cheruman s

tramp ing a long the marshes in mud , often wet up t o

the ir waists,to avoid pol l ut ing the i r super iors . I n 1904 ,

a Cheruman came wi th i n po l l ut ing d istance of a Nayar,

and was struck with a st ick . The Cheruman went off

and fetched another , whereupon the Nayar ran away .

He was,however

,pursued by the Cherumans . I n

defend ing himse l f with a spade,the Nayar struck the

foremost Cheruman on t he head,and ki l l ed him .

* I n

another case,a Cheruman , who was the servant of a

Mappilla, was fetch ing grass for hi s master, when he

inadvertent ly approached some Tiyans , and thereby

po l luted them . The indignant T iyan s gave not only the

Cherum an,but h i s mas ter al so

,a sound beat ing by way

o f aveng ing the in su l t offered to them .

The status o f the Pulayas of the Cochin State i s

thus descr ibed by M r . Anantha Kri shna I yer . “ They

abstai n from eat ing food prepared by the Ve lakkathala

vans (barbers) , Mannan s (washermen) , Panan s , Vet tuvans

,Parayan s , Nayadis , U lladans

,Malayans

,and

Kadars . The Pulayas in the southern part s of the S tate

have to stand at a di stance of 90 fee t from Brahmans

and 64 fee t from Nayars , and thi s d i stance gradual ly

dim in i she s toward s the l ower caste s . They are po l luted

by Pula Cherumas,Parayas , Nayadis , and U lladans .

[The Pula Cherumas are said to eat beef, and sel l the

t" Madras Po l ice Report , 1904 .

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CHERUMAN 54

(unhusked r ice) i s d i str ibuted to them as wages . Both

theory and pract ice , i n the great maj or i ty of cases , are

that they are fed at the master’s cost the who le year

round , whether they work in the fie lds or not . But i t i s

very se ldom that they can have a ho l iday,regard being

had to the nature of agricul ture in Malabar . I t i s the

Cheruma that should p lough the land , sow the seed ,t ran sp lant the seedl i ngs

,regu late the flow of water in

the fields,uproot the weeds , and see that the crop s are

not des troyed by animal s , or sto len . When the crop s

r ipen,he has to keep watch at n ight . The sentry house

cons i st s of a smal l oval -shaped portable roof, constructed

of palmyra and cocoanut l eave s , supported by four post s ,across which are t ied bamboos

,which form the watch

man’s bed . Wive s somet imes accompany the ir husbands

in the i r watches . When the harve st season approaches ,the Cheruman

’

s hands are fu l l . He has to cut the crops ,carry them to the barn (kalam) , separate the corn fromthe stalk

,and winnow it . The second cr0p operat ion s

immed iate ly fo l l ow , and the Cheruma has to go through

al l these processe s again . I t i s in the summer season

that h i s work i s l ight , when he i s set to prepare

vegetable gardens,or some odd job i s found for h im by

h i s master . The old, infi rm ,and the chi ldren look after

the i r master’s catt l e . Rece iv ing hi s dai ly p i ttance of

paddy,the Cheruman enters h i s hut

,and reserves a

port i on of i t for the purchase of sa lt , chi l l ie s , toddy ,tobacco

,and dried fish . The other port ion i s reserved

for food . The Cheruman spends the greater part of h is

wages on toddy. I t i s a very common s ight in Malabar

to see a group of Cheruman s , inc l uding women and

ch i ldren,s i tt ing in front of a toddy shOp ,

the Cheruman

transferring the unfin i shed port ion of the toddy to hi s

w i fe,and the latter to the chi ldren . A Cheruman

,

55 CHERUMAN

however , rare ly gets intoxicated , or commits cr ime . No

reces s i s al lowed to the Cherumans,except on nat ional

ho l idays and ce lebrated temp le fest ival s observed in

honour of t he goddess Bhagavat i or Kal i , when they are

quite free to indulge in dr ink . On these days,the i r h ire i s

g iven in advance . With thi s they get intox icated , and

go to the poora -paramba or temp le premi ses , where the

fest iva l i s ce lebrated,i n batche s of four

,each one ty ing

hi s hands to another’s neck,and rec i t ing every two

seconds the pecul iar soundLal lé lal le lal lé ho.

Lal lé lal lé lal lé ho.

On the E uropean p lantat ion s in the Wynad theCherumans are in great request

,and many are to be seen

trave l l ing nowadays without fear i n ra i lway carr iages on

the ir way to the p lantat ion s . A few a l so work in the

go ld mines of Mysore

L ike other servi le c lasses,the Cherumans posses s

spec ia l pr ivi leges on spec ial occas ions . For example , at

the chal (furrow) ceremony in Malabar“ the master of

the hou se,the cu lt ivat ing agent

,and Cherumans assemb le

in the barn,a port ion of the yard i n front of the bu i lding

i s painted with r i ce -water,and a l ighted bel l - lamp

p laced near at hand with some paddy and r ice , and several

cup s made of the leaves of the kann iram (S t ifyc/mos m i x

vom ica) — as many cup s as there are var iet i e s of seed in

the barn . Then,p lac ing imp l ic i t fa i th i n hi s gods , and

deceased ancestors,the master of the house Opens the

barn door,fol lowed by the Cheruman with a new painted

baske t contain ing the leaf cup s . The master then takes

a handfu l of seed from a seed -basket,and fi l l s one of the

cup s,and the cu l t ivat ing agen t , head Cheruman

, and

other s who are interested in a good h arvest , fi l l t he cup s

t ill t he seeds are exhausted . The basket , with the CUPS.

CHERUMAN 56

is next taken to the decorated port ion of the yard . A

new p loughshare is fastened to a new p lough , and a pai r

of catt le are brought on to the scene . P lough,catt le , and

basket are a l l pain ted wi th rice -water . A process ion

proceeds to the fie lds , on reaching which the head

C heruman lays down the basket , and makes a mound of

earth wi th the spade . To th i s a l i tt l e manure i s added,

and the mas ter throws a handful of seed into i t . The

catt le are then yoked , and one turn i s p l oughed by the

head C heruman . I n s ide thi s at l eas t seven furrows are

made,and the p lough is dropped to the right . An offer ing

i s made to Ganapath i (the e lephant god) , and the masterth rows some seed into a furrow . Next the head Cheru

man cal l s out May the gods on high and the deceased

ancestors bl es s the seed,which has been thrown broad

cast , and the catt l e which are let loose ; the mother and

chi ldren of the hou se,the master

,and the s laves

,may

they a l so vouchsafe to us a good crop , good sunshine , and

good harvest .’

A cocoanut i s then cut on t he p lough

share,and from the cut port ions severa l deduct ions are

m ade . I f the hinder part is larger than the front one , the

harvest wi l l be moderate . I f the cut passes through the

eye s of the nut , or i f no water i s l eft i n the cut port i on s ,certain mi sfortune i s foreboded . The cut fragments are

then taken w i th a l i t t le water ins ide them,and a leaf of

the tu l s i p lant (Ocimum sanctum ) dropped in . I f the leaf

turns to the right,a prosperous harvest is assured

whereas , if it turn s to the left , certain ca lam ity wi l l fo l low .

This ceremonia l concluded,there i s much shout ing , and

the names of al l the gods may be heard cal led out i n a

confused prayer . The party then breaks up , and the

unused seeds are d ivided among the workmen .

”

At

Karunakara Menon , Madras Mus . Bu l l . , V. 2 , 1906.

57 CHERUMAN

the ceremony in Malabar , when the transp lantat ion of

rice i s completed , during which a goat i s sacrificed to

Man i,the protector of catt l e and field labourers

,the

offic iat i ng pries t i s genera lly the cult ivat ion agent of the

fami ly,who i s a Nayar

,or somet imes a Cheruman .

I n connect ion wi th the harvest ceremon ial i n Coch in,

Mr . Anantha Kr ishna I yer wri te s as fol lows . “ There

are some cur ious customs connected wi th the harvest,

prevai l ing among the Pu layas of the southern parts of the

S tate . Before reap ing , the Pulaya headman asks h ismaster whether he may begin to reap . With h is perm i s

s ion,he faces the east , and puts the s i ckle to the stalks .

The fir s t bundle he reserves for the gods o f h is master,

and the second for those of h is castemen . Before

thrashing,the same headman takes a few bund les of

corn from the sheaf intended for the ir gods,and spr inkles

toddy on them . Another Pulayan does the same for the

var ious reapers,and says , as he does so Come

,thrashing

corn,i ncrease .

’ This is ca l l ed fi l l ing the thrashing floor,

and each man thrashes h is own sheaves . When the

thrashing is over , the h eadman puts h is master’s sheaf

in the centre of the floor , and hi s own at a short d i stance

ou ts ide,i n order that the two se ts of gods may look

kind ly on them . The headman i s pr ivi leged to measure

the corn s i tt ing with h is two ass i stants , saying Come,

paddy,increase

,

’

as he counts . H e a l so ca l l s out Good

paddy,one

’

,bad paddy , two

’

, and so on , unt i l he count s

ten . The e leventh i s the share for the reaper . He takes

a handful,and p laces i t i n a basket , ha l f of which fal l s to

him,h is ass i stant s and the watchman , whi le the other

ha lf i s g iven away in char i ty to the poor men that come

to the thrashing p lace . I n the northern part s o f t he

State,before reap ing

,offer ings of goats , fowl s , and

cocoanuts , are made to Mal lan and M i mi . The Cheruma

CHERUMAN 58

headman faces east, and app l i es hi s s ickle to the sta lks ,reserving the fi r st sta lk for the de i t ie s above ment ioned .

The corn i s thrashed and measured by one of them,and

,

as he does so , he says Labham’

(profit) for one,

‘ Chetham’

(los s) for two , and counts up to ten . The

eleventh goes to the share of the reapers . Thus they

get one para for every ten paras of corn . The poor

peopl e that attend are a l so g iven a handful of the grain .

After reap ing , the members of the caste s named in the

tab le be low rece ive a smal l port ion of the corn for the ir

services rendered to the farmers in the course of the

months during which cul t ivat ion has been carr ied on

is g iven .

Carpenters For mak ing and repai r ingp lough s, etc.

B lacksm ith s For mak ing s ick les, kn i ves,and other tools.

Parayan For l i fting and p lac ing the

loads of stalks on the headsof the Ch erumans, who car ryth em to the farmyard.

Wash erman or Man For keep ing off b irds, insects,nan . etc. ,

from the fields by mag ic.

Vilkurup For treating Cherumas du ringth ei r i l lness, and for sham

poo ing them .

Kan iyan or astrolo For g i v ing in formation of the

ger. ausp icious times for p loughing, sow ing, transp lantingand reap ing , and also of the

time for g iv ing r ice, vege

tab les, oi l , etc. , to the

Cherumas du ring the Onamfestival .

59 CH ERUMAN

The Pulayans rece ive , i n return for watching ,a

sma l l port ion of the fie ld near the watchman ’s rest -hut,

which i s le ft unreaped for h im . I t fetches him a para

of paddy .

“ The Cherumas who are engaged in reap ing get two

bund les of corn each for every field . For measuring

the corn from the farmyard , a Cheruman get s an edan

gaz hy of paddy, i n addi t i on to hi s dai ly wage . Three

paras of paddy are set apart for the local vi l lage de ity .

Dur ing the m on th‘

of Karkadakam,the masters give

every Cheruman a fowl , some o il,garl i c

,mustard

,an i se

seeds,pepper

,and turmer i c . They prepare a decoct ion

of seeds,and boi l the flesh of the fowl i n i t , which they

take for three days,duri ng which they are al lowed to take

rest . Three days’ wages are al so given in advance .

I n Travancore,a fest ival named Macam i s held , of

which the fol low ing account has been “ The

Macam (tenth conste l lat ion Regulus,which fol lows

Thi ru Onam in August) , i s regarded by H indus as a dayof great fest ivi ty. One must enj oy i t even at the cost of

one’

s chi ldren,so runs an adage . The day is cons idered

to be so lucky that a gi r l born under the star Regul us i s

ver i ly born wi th a s i lver Spoon in her mouth . I t was

on Macam, some say, that the Devas , to free themselves

from the curse they were pu t under by a certai n sage ,had to churn the sea of mi lk to procure ambros ia . Be

the cause whi ch led to the cel ebrat i on what i t may , the

H indus of the present day have ever been enthus iast ic

i n i ts observance ; on ly some of the rude customs con

nected wi th i t have died out i n the course of t ime , or

were put a stop to by Governmen t . Sham fights were ,and are st i l l

,i n some p lace s a feature of the day . Such

Madras Mai l , 1908.

CHERUMAN 60

a sham fight used to be carr ied on at Pal lam unt i l,about

a hundred years ago , i t was stopped through the in ter

ven t ion o f Colonel Munro , the Bri t i sh Res iden t i n

Travancore . The p lace i s s t i l l ca l led Patan ilam (batt le

fie ld) , and the tank , on oppos i te s ides o f which the

con tend ing part ies assembled , C horaku lam (pool of

blood) . The s teel swords and spears , o f curi ous and

var ious shapes,and shie lds large enough to cover a man

,

are even now preserved i n the local temple . Many l ives

were los t i n these fights . I t i s not general ly known,

even to peop l e i n these parts , that a sham fight takes

p lace on Maeam and the previous day every year at a

p lace cal l ed Wez hapra , be tween the Changanacherry and

Ambalapuzha ta luks . Three banyan trees mark the

p lace . Peop le , espec ial ly Pu layas and Pariahs , to the

number of many thousands , col l ec t round the outs ide

trees w i th s teel swords , spears , and s l ings i n thei r hand .

A smal l bund (embankmen t) separates the two part i es .

They have to perform certain rel ig ious r i tes near the tree

wh ich stands i n the middle,and

,i n doing so ,

make some

movements w i th thei r swords and spears to the accom

pan imen t o f musi c . I f those stand ing on one s ide of the

bund cross i t , a regular fight is the resul t . I n order to

avoid such things,wi thout at the same t ime in terfer ing

wi th thei r l i berty to worsh i p at the spot , the Government

thi s year made al l the neces sary arrangements . The

Pol ice were sent for the purpose . Everything wen t off

smoothly but for one untoward even t . The peop le had

been told not to come armed wi th stee l weapons , but

wi th wooden ones . They had to pu t them down , and

were then al lowed to go and worship .

”

Of convers ion to Muhammadan i sm at the present

t ime,a good example is afforded by the Cherumans .

“ Thi s caste ,”

the Cen su s Super intendent , 1881 , wr i tes,

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CHERUMAN 62

as cu l t ivat ion requ ired . The madams are very poor huts ,supported on four smal l posts

,and thatched with leaves .

The s ides are p rotected wi th the same kind of l eaves .

There is on ly one room,and the floor

,though s l ight ly

ra ised,i s very damp during the ra iny months . These

temporary bu i ld ings are removed after the harvest,and

put up in p laces where cul t ivat i on has to be carr ied on .

A ll the members of the fami ly s leep together in the same

hut . Smal l temporary huts are somet imes erected,which

are l itt le better than inverted baskets . These are p laced

in the r i ce field whi le the crop is on the ground , and near

the stacks whi l e i t i s be ing thrashed . I n the northern

parts of the State,the Pulaya huts are made ofmud wal l s ,

and provided wi th wooden doors . The roofs are of

bamboo framework thatched with pa lmyra palm leaves .

The floor i s raised,and the huts are p rovided w ith pyals

(ra ised p latforms ) on three s i des . They have al so smal l

compounds (grounds) around them . There i s on ly one

room ins ide,wh i ch is the s l eep ing apartment of the

newly marr ied youngsters . The others , I am told , s leep

on the verandahs . The utens i ls cons ist of a few earthen

po ts for cooking and keep ing water,and a few earthen

d ishes for tak ing food . I n add it ion to these,I found a

wooden mortar,a few pest les

,two pans

,two winnowing

pans , a fish basket for each woman,a few cocoanut she l l s

for keep ing sal t and other things,a few baskets of the i r

own making,i n one of which a few dirty c loths were

p laced,some mats of the i r own making , a bamboo vesse l

for measur ing corn,and a vesse l for contain ing toddy .

During the rainy season,the Cherumas i n the fie ld

wear a few green l eaves,espec ial ly those of the p lantain

tree , t ied round thei r wai sts , and a smal l cone -shaped

cap , made of plantain l eaf,i s worn on the head . This

pract ice , among the females, has fal l en into d isuse in

63 CHERUMAN

Malabar , though i t i s to some ex ten t s t ill found in the

Nat ive States . The Cherum i i s p rov ided with one l ong

p iece of thick cloth , wh ich she wraps round her waist,and which does not even reach the knees . She does not

cover the chest .” 6 The Cheruma femal es have been

descr ibed as wearing,when at work in the Open

,a b ig

oval -shaped handlel ess umbrel la covered with palm

leaves,which they p lace on the i r back , and which covers

the who le of the i r person in the stoop ing at t i tude . The

men use,during the rainy season , a short -handled palm

leaf umbre l la .

The women are profuse ly decorated with cheap j ewel ry

of which the fol l ow ing are examples

1 . Lobes of both ears widely d i lated by ro l led

leaden ornaments . Brass , and two glass bead neck lets ,str ing neck let w ith flat brass ornaments , the s ize of a

Venet ian sequ in,with dev ice as in old Travancore go ld

coins,with two brass cyl inders pendent beh ind

,and

tassel s of red cotton . Three brass r ings on r ight l i tt l e

finger ; two on l eft r ing finger , one brass and two steel

bangles on left wri st .

2 . Several bead neckl ets , and a s ingl e necklet ofmany rows of beads . Brass neckl et l ike preceding

,with

steel prong and scoop , for removing wax from the ears

and p icking teeth,t ied to one of the necklets . Attached

to, and pendent from one necklet , three pa lm leaf ro l l s

w ith symbo ls and Malayalam inscr ip t ion to act as a

charm in dr iving away devi ls . Three ornamenta l brass

bangl es on r ight forearm , two on l eft . I ron bang le

on l eft wrist . Thin brass r ing in hel ix of each ear .Seventy thin brass r ings (alandet i) with heavy brass

ornament (adikaya) in d i lated lobe of each ear .

Calcutta Review , 1900 .

CHERUMAN 64

3. I n add i t ion to glass bead neckl ets,a necklet

with heavy heart-shaped brass pendants . Str ing round

neck to ward off fever .

4 . Str ing necklet wi th five brass cyl i nders pendent

five brass bangles on r igh t wrist ; s ix brass and two i ron

bangl es on l eft wr i st .

Right hand,one copper and five brass r ings on

middle finger ; one i ron and three brass r ings on l i ttl e

fingen

Left hand,one copper and five brass r ings on

middle finger ; th ree brass and two copper r ings on r ing

finger ; one brass r ing on l i t tl e finger .

5 . Trouser bu tton i n hel ix of l eft ear .

6. Brass bead necklet with pendent brass ornament

with l egend “ Best superi o r umbrel la made in j apan ,made for Faz albhoy Peeroo Mahomed , Bombay .

A Ch eruman,at Cal i cu t , had h is hai r l ong and

unkempt,as he played the drum at the temp le . Another

had the hai r arranged in four matted p la i ts , for the cu re

of d i sease in performance of a vow . A man who wore a

copper cyl i nder on h is l o i n st r i ng , contain ing a brass

str i p with mantrams (consecrated formulae) engraved on

i t,sold i t to me for a rupee wi th the assurance that i t

would protect me from devi l s .

Concern i ng the marr iage ceremony of the Cherumans

i n Malabar,Mr . Appadorai I yer wri tes that the br ide

groom’s s i ster i s the ch ief perform er. I t i s sh e who pays

the bride’s p r ice,and carr ies her off. The consent of

the paren ts i s requ ired,and i s s ignified by an in terchange

of vi s i t s be tween the parents of the br ide and bridegroom .

During these vi s i t s,r i ce -water (conj i) i s s ipped . Before

tast i ng the conj i, they drop a fanam (l ocal co in) i nto the

vessel contain ing i t,as a token of assent to the marr iage .

When the wedding party sets out,a large congregati on

65 CHERUMAN

of Cherumans fol low ,and at interval s i ndulge in st i ck

p lay,the women s inging i n chorus to encourage them

‘ Let us see,l et us see the st ick p lay (vadi tal l u) , O h !

Cheruman .

’ The men and women mingle ind iscrim i

nately i n the dance during the wedding ceremony . O n

the return to the bridegroom’s hu t,the bride i s expected

to weep loud ly,and dep lore her fate . On entering the

br idegroom’s hu t,she must tread on a pest le p laced

across the threshold .

” During the dance,the women

have been descr ibed as lett i ng down the i r hai r , and

danc ing with a to lerab le amount of rhythmi c prec i s ion

amid vigorous drumming and s inging . Accord ing to

another account,the bridegroom rece ives from hi s

brother - in - l aw a kerchief,which the giver t i es round h is

wai st,and a bangl e whi ch i s p laced on hi s arm . The

bride rece ives a pewter vesse l from her brother . Next

her cou s in t i e s a kerchief round the groom ’s forehead ,and st i cks a betel leaf i n i t . The bride i s then h anded

over to the br idegroom .

O f the puberty and marr iage ceremon ies of the

Pulayas of Cochin,the fol l owi ng deta i led account

.

i s

given by Mr . Anantha Krishna I yer . “ When a Pulaya

girl comes of age , she i s located in a separate hut . F ive

Val lons (headmen) , and the castem en o f the kara (sett lemen t) , are inv ited to take part i n the performance of theceremony . A song

,cal led m alapattu ,

i s sung for an hour

by a Parayan to the accompan imen t of drum and p ipe .

The Parayan gets a para of paddy,and h is assi stant s

three annas each . As soon as this i s over , seven cocoa ~

nuts are broken,and the water thereof is poured over

the head of the gir l,and the broken halves are d i stri buted

among the five Val l ons and seven gi rl s who are al soinvi ted to be pre sen t . Some more water i s a l so poured

on the gi r l ’s head at the t ime . She i s lodged in aI I—5

CHERUMAN 66

temporary hut for seven days , during whi ch food i s served

to her at a d istance . She i s forb idden to go out and

p lay with her fr i ends . On the morn ing of the seventh

day,the Val lons of the kara and the castemen are again

inv i ted . The latter br ing w ith them some ri ce , vege

tab les,and toddy

,to defray the expenses of the feast .

At dawn,the mother of the gi r l gives o il to the seven

Pulaya maidens,and to her daughter for an oil-bath .

They then go to a ne ighbouring tank (pond) or stream tobathe

,and re turn home . The gir l i s t hen neat ly dressed

,

and adorned in her best . Her face i s painted ye l low,

and marked with spots of var ious co lours . She stands

before a few Parayas , who p lay on the i r flute and drum ,

to cast out the demons , i f any , from her body . The girl

leaps wi th frant i c movements , i f she i s posses sed by

them . I n that case , they transfer them to a tree c lose

by drivi ng a nai l i nto the trunk after due offerings . I f

she i s no t possessed , she remain s unmoved,and the

Parayas br ing the mus ic to a c lose . The gir l i s again

bathed with her compan ions,who are a l l t reated to a

d inner . The ceremony then comes to an end wi th a

feast to the castemen . The ceremony descr ibed i s

performed by the Valluva Pulayas i n the sou thern parts ,near and around the suburbs of Cochin , but is unknown

among other sub -tr ibes el sewhere . The devi l -dr iving

by the Parayas i s not attended to . Nor i s a temporary

hut erected for the g i rl to be l odged in . She i s al lowed

to remain in a corner of the hut,but i s not perm itted to

touch others . She i s bathed on the seventh day,and

the castemen,fr iends and re lat ion s

,are invited to a

feast .“ Marriage i s proh ib i ted among members of the same

koottam (fami ly group ) . I n the Ch itt t'

i r tal uk , members

of the same vi l lage do not intermarry,for they bel i eve

67 CHERUMAN

that thei r ancestors may have been t he s laves of some

local land lord,and

,as such , t he descendants of the same

parents . A young man may marry among the relat ions

of his father,but not among those of hi s mother . I n the

Palghat tal uk , the Kanakka Cherumas pride themselves

on the fact that they avo id gir l s w ith in seven degrees ofrelat ion ship . The marr iage cu stoms vary accord ing to

the sub -d ivis ion . I n the southern parts of the State,

Pulaya gir l s are marr ied before puberty, whi l e in other

p laces,among the Kanakka Ch erumas and other sub

tr ibes,they are marr ied both before and after p uberty .

I n the former case,when a gi r l has not been marr ied

before puberty,

she i s regarded as having become

pol l uted,and st igmat i sed as a woman whose age i s

known.Her parents and unc les lose al l c laim upon her .

They formal ly dr ive her out of the hut , and proceed to

pur i fy i t by spr inkl ing water mixed with cow -dung both

in s ide and outs ide,and al so with sand . She is thu s

turned out of cas te . She was , i n former t imes , handed

over to the Val lon , who e i ther marr ied her to h is own

son ,or sold her to a s lave master . I f a gi rl i s too

poor to be marr ied before puberty , the castem en of the

kara ra i se a subscr ipt ion , and marry her to one of

themselves .“ When a young Pu layan wishes to marry , he app l i es

to his master , who i s bound to defray the expenses . He

gives seven fanam si fto the br ide

’

s master, one fanam

worth of c loth to the br ide -elect , and about ten fanam s

for the marr iage feast . I n al l , hi s expenses amount to

ten rupees . The ceremony cons ists i n tying a r ing

attached to a thread round the neck of the br ide . This

i s provided by her parents . When he becomes t i red of

One fanam four annas e ight p ies.

11- 5 B

CHERUMAN 68

his wi fe,he may d ispose of her to any other person who

wi l l pay the expenses incurred at the marr iage . There

are even now p lace s where husband and wife serve

d i fferent masters,but more frequent ly th ey serve the

same master . The e ldes t mal e chi ld belongs to the

master of t he mother . The rest o f the fami ly remain

with the mother wh i l e young , but , be ing the p roperty

of the owner,revert to him when o f an age to be use fu l .

She also fo l lows them,i n the event o f her becoming a

widow . I n some p laces,a man brings a woman to h i s

master,and says that he w i she s to keep her as h is wife .

She rece ive s her al l owance of r i ce , bu t may leave her

h usband as she l i kes , and i s no t part i cular i n changing

one spouse for another . I n other p lace s,the marr iage

ceremon ies o f the E ra C herumas are more formal . The

b ridegroom’s party goes to the bride’s hu t,and presents

r ice and bete l leaf to the head o f the fami l y,and asks

for the br ide . Consent i s ind icated by the br ide’s

brother p lac ing some rice and cloth before the assembly,

and throwing r ice on the headman o f the caste,who i s

p resent . O n the appo inted day,the bridegroom goes

to the hut w i th two compan ions,and presen t s the g i rl

w i th c lo th and twe lve fanam s . From that day he i s

regarded as her husband,and cohabi tat i on begins at

once . But the bride cannot accompany him un t i l the

ceremony cal led mangalam i s performed . The bride

groom’s party goes in p roces s ion to the bride’s h ut ,wh ere a feas t await s them . The man give s sweetmeat s

to the girl’s bro ther . Th e caste priest rec i tes the fami ly

h i s tory o f the two persons , and the names of the i r

masters and de i t i e s . They are then seated before a

lamp and a heap o f r i ce i n a pandal (booth) . O ne o f

the assembly get s up,and del ivers a speech on the

du t ies of marr ied l i fe,touching on the evi l s of theft

,

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CHERUMAN 70

and a sum of five fanam s i s paid as the bride’s p r i ce .

The members assembled are treated to a dinner . A

s im i lar entertainment i s held at the br idegroom’s hut to

the br ide’s parents,uncl es

,and others who come to see

the br idegroom . On the morn ing of the day fixed for the

wedding , the br idegroom and his party go to the br ide’s

hut , where they are we lcomed , and seated on mats i n a

smal l panda l put up in front of the hut . A muri (p iece

of c loth), and two sma l l mundu s (c loths) are the marr iagep resent s to the br ide . A vesse l ful l of paddy (unhuskedr ice) , a l ighted lamp , and a cocoanut are p laced in acon sp i cuous p lace there in . The br ide i s taken to the

booth,and seated by the s ide of the bridegroom . Before

she enters i t,she goes seven t imes round i t , with seven

vi rg ins before her . With prayer s to the ir god s for

ble ss ings on the couple,the tal i (marr iage badge) is

t ied round the br ide’s neck . The bridegroom’

s s i ster

comp l etes the knot . By a strange cu stom , the br ide’

s

mother does not approach the br idegroom,lest i t shou ld

cause a ceremon ia l po l lut ion . The ceremony i s brought

to a c lose with a feast to those assemb led . Toddy i s an

ind i spen sable i tem of the feast . During the n ight , they

amuse themse lves by danc ing a kind of wi ld dance , in

which both men and women j oyfu l ly take part . After

thi s , the br idegroom goes a long to hi s own hut , along

w ith hi s wi fe and h i s party,where al so they indu lge in

a feas t . After a week, two persons from the bride

’

s hut

come to invi te the marr ied coup le . The bride and

bridegroom stay at the bride’s hut for a few days , and

cannot retu rn to h i s hut un less an entertainment , ca l ledVathal Choru , i s g iven h im .

The marriage cu stoms o f the Valluva Pulayas in

the southern part s o f the State,e spec ia l ly i n the Coch in

and Kanayannfi r taluks , are more formal . The average

7 1 CHERUMAN

age of a young man for marr iage i s between fi fteen and

twenty,whi le that of a gir l is between ten and twe lve .

Before a young Pulayan thinks of marr iage,he has to

con tract a formal and volun tary fr iendship w ith another

young Pulayan of the same age and local i ty . I f he is

not soc iab ly incl ined,h is father se lects one for him from

a Pulaya of the same or higher status,but no t of the

same illam (fami ly group) . I f the two parents agree

among themse lves,they mee t i n the hut of e ither of

them to so l emn ise i t . They fix a day for the ceremony,

and invi te the i r Val lon and the castemen of the vi l lage .

The guests are treated to a feast in the u sua l Pu laya

fash ion . The chief guest and the host eat together

from the same di sh . After the feast,the father of the

boy,who has to obtain a fr iend for h i s son

,enqu ire s

of the Val lon and those assembled whether he may

be permitted to buy fr iendship by the payment of

money . They give the i r permi ss ion , and the boy’s

father g ives the money to the father of the se lected

fr iend . The two boys then clasp hands , and they are

never to quarre l . The new fr iend becomes from that

t ime a member of the boy’s fam i ly . H e comes in

,

and goes out of the i r but as he l ikes . There is no

ceremony performed at i t, or anything done wi thout

consu l t ing h im . He i s thus an inseparable factor in al l

ceremon ies,e spec ial ly in marr iages . I su spect that the

friend has some c laims on a man’

s w ife . The first

observance in marr iage cons i sts in see ing the gir l . The

br idegroom -e lect,hi s fr iend , father and maternal unc l e ,

go to the br ide’s hut , to be sat i sfied with the gi r l . I f

the wedding is no t to take p lace at an ear ly date , the

br idegroom’s parents have to keep up the c laim on the

bride - elect by sending presents to her guard ians . The

presents,which are genera l ly sweetmeats , are taken to

CHERUMAN 72

her hut by the bridegroom and h is fr iends,who are wel l

fed by the mother of the g irl , and are g iven a few necos

saries when they take leave of her the nex t morn ing .

The next observance i s the marr iage negocia t ion ,which

consi sts in g iving the br ide’s pr ice,and choo s ing an

ausp ic i ous day in consu l tat i on wi th the l ocal astro loger

(Kan iyan) . O n the even ing p revious to the wedding,

the fr iends and re lat ion s of the bridegroom are treated

to a feast in hi s hut . Next day at dawn,the br idegroom

and h is fr iend , pur ified by a bath , and neat ly dressed in

a whi te c loth with a handkerch ief t ied over i t,and wi th a

kn ife s tuck in thei r g irdle s,go to the h ut of the br ide

e lec t accompan ied by h is par ty,and are al l wel l rece ived

,

and seated on mats spread on the floor . O ver a mat

spec ial ly made by the br ide’s mother are p laced three

measures o f r i ce,some par t ic le s of gold

,a brass p late ,

and a p lank w i th a whi te and red cover on i t . The

br idegroom,after go ing seven t imes round the pandal ,

S tands on the p lank , and the br ide soon fo l lows making

three rounds,when four women hold a c l oth canopy

over her head,and seven vi rg ins go in fron t of her .

The bride then s tands by the s ide o f the bridegroom ,

and they face each o ther . Her guard ian puts on the

wedding necklace a go ld bead on a str ing . Music is

p layed,and prayers are offered up to the sun to b less

the neck lace which i s t ied round the neck of the g ir l .

The br idegroom ’s fr i end,stand ing behind , t ightens the

knot a lready made . The rel ig ious part of the ceremony

i s now over,and the br idegroom and br ide are taken

inside the hut,and food is served to them on the same

leaf. Nex t the gues ts are fed,and then they begin the

pol i or subscrip t i on . A p iece of s i l k,or any red c loth

,

i s spread on the floor, or a brass p late i s p laced before

the husband . The guests assembled put in a few annas,

73 CHERUMAN

and take leave of the chie f hos t as they depart . The

bride i s soon taken to the br idegroom’

s hut , and her

parents v i s i t her the nex t day,and ge t a cons iderat ion in

return . On the fourth day , the bridegroom and bride

bathe and worship the local de i ty,and , on the seventh

day,they return to the bride

’

s hut , where the tal i

(marr iage badge) i s formal ly removed from the neck of

the gir l,who i s bedecked w i th brass beads round her

neck,r ings on her ears , and armle ts . The nex t morn ing

,

the mother - ih - law presen ts her son -in - law and h is fr iend

with a few necessar ies Of life , and sends them home with

her daughter .During the seven th mon th of pregnancy

,the cere

mony of puli kut i , or tamarind ju ice drinking , i s performed

as among other cas tes . Thi s i s also an occas ion for

cast ing ou t devi ls , i f any , from the body . The pregnant

woman i s brought back to the hut of her own fami ly .

The devi l -dr iver erec ts a ten t - l i ke structure,and covers

i t wi th p lantain bark and leaves of the cocoanut palm .

The flower of an areca palm is fixed at the apex . A

cocoanut palm flower is cut ou t and covered w i th a p iece

of c loth,the cut port i on be ing exposed . The woman i s

seated in front of the tent- l i ke structure with the flower,

whi ch symbol i ses the yet unborn chi ld in the womb,i n

her lap . The water of a tender cocoanut in spoons

made o f the leaf of the jack tree (A r tocarpus in teg r ifol ia)i s poured over the cut end by the Val lon

,guard ian

,and

bro thers and s i sters p resent . The devi l -driver then

breaks open the flower,and

,by looking at the fru i ts

,

predic t s the sex of the chi ld . I f there are frui ts at the

end nearest the stem,the chi ld w i l l l ive and

,i f t he

number of fru i ts i s even,there wi l l be twins . There

wi l l be deaths i f any fruit i s not wel l formed . The

devi l -driver repeats an incantat ion , whereby he invokes

CHERUMAN 74

the aid of Kal i , who i s bel i eved to be present i n the tent .He fans the woman with the flower

,and she th rows r ice

and a flower on i t . He repeats another incantat i on,

which i s a prayer to Kal i to cast out the devi l from her

body . Thi s magi cal ceremony is cal l ed Garbha Ba l i

(p regnancy offer ing) . The structure , with the offer ing ,i s taken up

,and p laced in a corner of the compound

reserved for gods . The devotee then goes through

the remain ing forms of the ceremony . She pours into

twen ty -one l eaf spoons p laced in front of the tent a

m ixtu re of cow’s m i l k

,water of the tender cocoanut

,

flower,and turmeri c powder . Then she walks round

the tent seven t imes,and spr ink les the mixture on i t

w i th a palm flower . Ne x r she throws a handful of r i ce

and paddy , after revolving each handful round her head ,and then covers the offer ing w i th a p iece of c loth .

She now return s,and her husband puts into her mouth

seven globules of prepared tamar ind . The devi l -dr iver

rubs her body with petal s and paddy,

and thereby finds out whether she i s posses sed or not .

I f she i s,the devi l is dr iven out with the usua l offer ings .

The devi l -dr iver gets for hi s service s twelve measure s

and a hal f of paddy,and two p ieces of c loth . The

husband shoul d not,during this per iod

,get shaved .

When a young woman is about to g ive b i rth to a

chi ld,she is l odged i n a smal l hu t near her dwel l ing , and

i s attended by her mother and a few e lder ly women of

the fami ly. After the chi ld is born , the mother and the

baby are bathed . The woman i s pur ified by a bath on

the seventh day . The woman who has acted as midwi fe

draws seven l ines on the ground at interval s of two feet

from one another , and spreads over them aloe l eaves

torn to shreds . Then , wi th burn ing st i cks in the hand ,the mother w i t h the baby goes seven t imes over the

75 CHERUMAN

leaves backwards and forwards , and i s pur ified . For

these seven days,the father should not eat anything

made of ri ce . He l ives on toddy , fru i t s , and other

things . The mother remain s with her baby in the hut

for s ixteen days , when she i s pur ified by a bath so as

to be free from pol l ut ion , after which she goes to the

main hut . Her enangath i (re lat ion by marriage) sweeps

the but and compound , and spr inkles water mixed wi th

cow-dung on her body as she retu rn s after the bath .

I n some p laces,the bark of athi (F icus g lom ezf ac

‘

a ) and

i thi (F icus Tsie/a i swel l beaten and bru i sed,and mixed

with water . Some m i lk i s added to thi s mixture,which

i s spr inkl ed both in s ide and outs ide the hut . O n ly after

thi s do they think that th e hut and compound are puri

fied . Among the Cherumas of Palghat,the pol l ut ion

lasts for ten days .

The ear -boring ceremony is performed dur ing the

s ixth or seventh year . The Val lon , who i s invi ted , bores

the ears w i th a sharp needle . The wound is healed

by app ly ing cocoanut o il , and the hole i s gradual ly

widened by insert ing cork,a wooden p lug , or a rol l of

palm leaves . The castem en of the vi l lage are invited ,and fed . The landlord gives the parents of the g irl

three paras of paddy,and thi s

,together w ith what the

guests bring , goes to defray the expenses of the

ceremony . After the meal they go,with drum -beat ing

,

to the house of the landlord,and present him with a para

of beaten ri ce , which i s d i str i buted among h i s servan ts .

The ear-borer rece ives e ight edangaz h is of paddy, a

cocoanut , a vessel of r i ce , and four annas .“ A woman found to be having intercourse wi th a

Paraya i s outcasted . She becomes a convert to Christ ian ity or Mah omedan ism . I f the irregular i ty takes

p lace with i n the caste , she i s we l l thrashed , and prevented

CHERUMAN 76

from resor t ing to the bad prac t i ce . I n certain cases,

when the i l l i c i t connec t i on becomes publ i c,t he cas temen

meet wi th the ir Val l on , and conduc t a regular enquiry in to

the mat ter , and pronounce a verd ict upon the evidence.

I f a young woman becomes pregnan t before marriage,

her l over , should he be a Pulaya , i s compel led to marry

her , as o therwi se she would be placed under a ban .I f

both are marr ied , the lover is wel l thrashed,and fined

.

The woman is taken before a Thandan (I z huva head

man ) , who , after enqu iry , g ives her the water of a tender

cocoanut , which she is asked to drink,when she i s

be l i eved to be freed from the s in . Her husband may

take her back again as h is wi fe,or she i s at l i berty to

marry ano ther . The Thandan gets a few annas,bete l

l eaves and areca nuts , and tobacco . Both the woman’s

father and the lover are fined , and the fine is spent

in the purchase o f toddy , which is i ndu lged in by

those presen t at the t ime . I n the northern parts o f

t he S tate,there i s a c ustom tha t a young woman before

marr iage mates with one or two paramours wi th the

conn ivance o f her paren ts . Eventual ly one of them

marr ies her , but th is i l l i c i t un ion ceases at once on

marr iage .

O f the death ceremon ie s among the C herumas o f

South Malabar , I gather that“ as soon as a C heruman

dies, h is jenm i or land lord is appr i sed o f the fact

,and i s

by anc ient custom expected to send a fie ld spade,

a white c lo th,and some o il . The drummers of the

commun i ty are summoned to beat the i r drums i n

announcement of the sad event . Thi s drumming is

known as parayadikka . The body is bathed in o il, and

the near re lat ives cover i t over wi th whi te and red c loths,

and take i t to the fron t yard . Then the re lat i ves have

a bath,after whi ch the corp se is removed to the burying

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CHERUMAN 78

elder . From hi s share of r i ce and paddy he gives a

l itt l e to be parched and pounded . Th i s i s g iven after

wards to the inmates . The vis i tors partake of bete l andd i sperse

,being informed that the Pol la or post -obi t uary

ceremony wi l l come off on the thi rteenth day . On the

forenoon of thi s day, the relat ives again gather at the

mourn ing place . The inmates of the house bathe,and

fish and ri ce are brought for a meal . A l i tt le of the fish

i s roasted over a fi re , and each one present j ust n ibble s

at i t . Thi s i s done to end pol l ut i on . After thi s the fi sh

may be freely eaten . Half a seer or a measure of r i ce

i s bo i l ed,reduced to a pulpy mass

,and mixed with

turmer i c powder . Parched r i ce and the powder that

remains after the r ice has been pounded,a cocoanut and

tender cocoanut , some turmer i c powder , p lantai n leaves ,and the r i ce that was boi l ed and coloured with turmer i c

,

are then taken to the bur ia l ground by the Avakas i,a

s inger known as a Ka l lad i or Moonpatkaren ,and one or

two close re lat ives of the departed . With the pu lpedr i ce the e lder mou lds the form of a human be ing . At

the h ead of the grave a l i t t l e mound is ra i sed,cabal ist i c

l ines are drawn across i t with tu rmer i c,and boi led r i ce

powder and a p lantain l eaf p laced over the l i nes . The

cocoanut i s broken,and its kerne l cut out i n rings

,each

of which i s put over the effigy , which i s t hen p laced

recumbent on the p lanta in l eaf. Round the mound,

str ings of j ung le l eaves are p laced . Next the e lder

dr ives a pole into the spot where the chest of the dead

person wou ld be,and i t i s sa id that the pol e must touch

the chest . On one s ide of the pol e the tender cocoanut

i s cut and p laced,and on the other a shel l contain ing

some toddy . Then a l i tt l e copper r ing i s t ied on t o the

top of the pole , oi l from a she l l i s poured over the r ing ,and the water from the tender cocoanut and toddy are

79 CHERUMAN

i n t urn s imi larly poured . After thi s ' myst ic r i te,the

Kal ladi starts a mournful dirge in monotone,and the

other actors in the solemn ceremony jo in i n the chorus .

The chant tel l s of the darknes s and the nothingness that

were before the creat ion of the world,and unfolds a

fanc i ful ta le of how the world came to be created . The

chant has the we i rd refrain O h ! ho ! O h ! ho . O n i ts

conc lus ion,the effigy i s left at the head of the grave

,

but the Kal ladi takes away the pol e with him . The

performers bathe and return to the house of mourn ing,

where the Kal ladi gets into a state of afflat ion . The

sp i r i t of the departed enters into him ,and speaks through

him,tel l ing the mourners that he i s happy

,and does not

want them to gr i eve over much for him . The Kal ladi

then enters the house , and , putt ing a heap of earth in

the corner of the centre room,digs the pole into it . A

l ight i s brought and p laced there,as also some toddy

,a

tender cocoanut,and parched r i ce . The sp ir i t of the

deceased,speaking agai n through the Kal lad i

,thanks

hi s peop le for the ir gi fts,and beseeches them to th ink

occas ional ly of him ,and make him per iodical offer ings .

The assembly then indulge in a feed . R i ce and paddy

are mixed together and div ided into two port i ons,to

one of which eight quarter -annas,and to the other

twelve quarter -annas are added . The lat ter share fal l s

to the Avakas i, whi l e from the former the mixture and

one quarter -anna go to the Kal ladi , and a quarter -annato each of the nearest relat ives . The basket which had

been hung up ear l ier in the day i s taken down and

thrown away,and the jenm i

’

s spade i s returned to him .

” ”A"

I t i s noted by Mr . Logan that “ the Cherumans,l i ke

other c lasses,observe death pol l ut ion . But

,as they

Madras Ma i l , 1895 .

CHERUMAN 80

cannot at certain seasons afford to be idl e fo r fourteen

days consecut ively , they resort to an art ifice to obta in

th is end . They m ix cow -dung and paddy,and m ake i t

i nto a bal l,and place the bal l in an earthen pot , the

mouth o f wh i ch they careful ly cl ose wi th clay . The pot

i s l a id in a corner of the hut , and , as long as it remains

unopened,th ey remain free from pol lut ion , and can mix

among their’

fellows . On a conven ient day they open

th e pot , and are instant ly seized with pol l ut ion , which

cont inues for forty days . O therwi se fourteen days

consecut ive pol l ut ion i s al l that i s requ i red . On the

forty-first or fi fteenth day,as the case may be , r i ce i s

thrown to the ancestors , and a feast fol l ows .

The fol l owing account of the death ceremon ie s i s

g iven by M r . Ananth a Kri shna Iyer . “ When a Pulayan

i s dead,the castem en i n the ne ighbourhood are in formed .

An offer ing i s made to the Kodungallar Bhagavat i , who

i s bel ieved by the Pulayas to watch over the i r wel fare,

and i s regarded as thei r ancestral de ity . Dead bod ies

are general ly bur ied . The relat ives,one by one, bring

a new p iece of cl oth , with rice and paddy t ied at i t s four

corners,for th rowing over the corpse . The cl oth i s

p laced thereon,and they cry al oud three t imes

,beat ing

the i r breast s,after wh ich they ret i re . A few Parayas

are invited to beat drums,and p lay on the i r m us ical

i nst ruments— a performance which i s cont inued for an

h our or two . After thi s,a few b its of planta in leaves

,

with r ice flour and paddy , are p laced near the corpse ,to serve as food for the sp ir it of the dead . The b ier i s

carr i ed to the graveyard by six bearers , three on each

s ide . The p it i s dug , and the body covered with a p iece

o f c l oth . After i t has been l owered in to i t,the p it i s

fi l l ed i n with earth . Twenty-one smal l b its of l eaves are

p laced over the grave,above the spot where the mouth

81 CHERUMAN

of the dead man is , with a double -branched twig fixed

to the centre,a cocoanut i s cut Open

,and its water i s

al lowed to flow in the d i rect ion of the twig which

represents the dead man’

s mouth . Such of the members

of the fami ly as could not g ive h im kanj i (r ice grue l) or

boi led r ice before death , now give it to him . The s ix

coffin-bearers p rostrate themselves before the corpse,

three on each s ide of the grave . The pr iest then puts

on i t a r ipe and tender cocoanut for the sp ir it of the

dead man to eat and drink . Then a l l go home,and

indu lge i n toddy and aval (beaten r ice) . The priest getstwe lve measures of r ice , the grave -d iggers twelve annas ,the Val lon two annas , and the coffin -bearers each an

anna . The son or nephew is the chie f mourner,who

erects a mound of earth on the south s ide of t he hut,

and uses i t as a p lace of worship . For seven days,both

morn ing and even ing , he prost rates h imsel f before it ,and spr inkl es the water of a tender cocoanut on it . On

the eighth day, his relat ives , fr iends , the Val lon , and the

devi l—driver assemb le together . The devi l -dr iver turns

round and b lows hi s conch , and finds out the pos it ion of

the ghost,whether it has taken up i ts abode in the

mound,or i s kept under restraint by some deity . Should

the latter be the case, the ceremony of de l iverance has

to be performed , after which the sp ir i t i s set up as a

househo ld de ity . The chief mourner bathes early in

the morning,and offers a r ice-bal l (p inda ba l i) to the

departed sp ir it . This he cont inues for fifteen days . On

the morn ing of the s ixteenth day,the members of the

fami ly bathe to free themse lves from po l lut ion , and the i r

enangan cleans the but and the compound by sweep ing

and sprinkl ing water m ixed with cow-dung . He also

spr inkles the members of the fam i ly,as they return afte r

the bath . The chief mourner gets shaved , bathes , and11-6

CHERUMAN 82

returns to the hut . Some boi led r ice,paddy

,and p iece s

of cocoanut,are p laced on a p lantain l eaf

,and the chief

mourner,with the members of his fami ly , cal l s on the

sp i r i t of the dead to take them . Then they al l bathe ,and return home . The castem en , who have assembled

there by invi tat ion,are sumptuous ly fed . The chie f

mourner al lows hi s ha ir to grow as a s ign of mourn ing

(diksha) , and , after the exp i ry of the year , a s im i lar feast

i s g iven to the castemen .

”

The Cherum ans are said by M r . GOpal Pan ikkar to

worship certai n gods,who are rep resented by rude

stone images . What few ceremonies are in force

amongst them are performed by pri ests se lected from

thei r own ranks,and these pr i ests are held in great

venerat ion by them . They ki l l cocks as offer ings to

these de it i es , who are prop it iated by the pour ing on

s ome stones p laced near them of the fresh blood that

gushes from the necks of the b irds . The Cherumans

are further sai d to worship part i cu lar sylvan gods,garden

deit ies , and field goddesses . I n a note on cann ibalismfif

t he writer states that “ some s ixteen years ago a Nai r

was murdered in Malabar by some C herum ans . The

body was mut i lated,and

, on my asking the accused

(who free ly confessed thei r cr ime) why had th is beendone ? they answered ‘ T innal papam t i rum , i .e. ,

i f one

eats , the s in wi l l cease I t i s a common bel i ef among

various castes of H indus that one may k il l,provided it

i s done for food , and thi s i s expressed in the proverb

Konnapavam th innal th irum,or t he s in of ki l l ing is

wiped away by eat ing . The C heruman reply p robably

referred on ly to the wreaking of vengeance , and conse

quent sat i s fact ion,wh ich i s often expressed by the

Ind . An t . , V I I I , 1879 .

83 CHERUMAN

lower classes in the words pas i th irndadu ,or hunger i s

sat i sfied .

Concern ing the re l ig ion of the Pulayas,Mr . Anantha

Kri shna I yer wr ites as fol l ows . “ The Pulayas are

anim ists,but are s lowly coming on to the higher forms

of worship . Thei r gods are Parakutty, Karinkutty,

Chathan ,and the sp i r i ts of the ir ance stors . O ffer ings

to these gods are given on Karkadaka and Makara

Sankrant is,Onam

,Vishu

,and other ausp ic i ous days

,

when one of the Pulayas present turns Ve lichapad

(orac le) , and speaks to t he assembly as i f by insp i rat i on .

They are al so devout worshippers of Kal i or Bhagavat i ,whose aid i s i nvoked in al l t imes of danger and i l lness .

They take part i n the vi l lage fest ival s ce lebrated i n

honour of her . Kodunga l l u r Bhagavat i i s the i r guardian

de ity . The de i ty i s rep resented by an image or stone

on a rai sed p iece of ground in the open ai r . Their pr iest

i s one of the ir own castem en ,and

,at -the beginn ing of

the new year,he offers to t he goddess fowls

,fru it s

,and

toddy . The Pulayas a l so be l ieve that Sp i r it s exerc i se

an infl uence over the members of the i r fami l i es,and

therefore regu lar offer i ngs are given to them every year

on Sankrant i days . The chief fest ival s in which the

Pulayas take part are the fol lowing

1 . P ooram Vela — This,whi ch may be described

as the Saturnal ia of Malabar , i s an important fest ival

he ld at the vi l lage Bhagavat i temp le . I t is a fest ival,i n

which the members of al l castes be low Brahmans take

part . I t takes p lace e ither in Kumbham (February

March) , or Meenam (March—Apri l) . The Cherumas of

the northern part , as wel l as the Pu layas of the southern

parts of the State,attend the fest ival after a sumptuous

meal and toddy drinking,and j oi n the process i on . Toy

horses are made , and attached to l ong bamboo poles,

11—6 B

CHERUMAN 84

whi ch are carr ied to the ne ighbourhood of the temp le .

AS t hey go,they leap and dance to t he accompan iment

of p ipe and drum . O ne among them who act s as a

Vel ichapad (devi l -dancer) goe s in fron t of them ,and

,

after a good deal of danc i ng and loud praying in honour

of the de ity , they return home .

2 . Vi l l a [ a’uka — This fest ival consi sts i n putti ng

seeds,or br inging paddy seeds to the temp le of the

vi l lage Bhagavat i . This al so i s an important fest ival ,which i s ce l ebrated on the day of Bharan i

,the second

lunar day in Kumbham . Standing at a d i stance

assigned to them by the vi l l age authori t ie s,where

they offer prayers to Kal i , they put the paddy gra ins ,which they have brought , on a bamboo mat spread in

front of them , after whi ch they return home . I n the

Ch itt t’

i r tal uk , there i s a fes t ival cal led Kath iru,cel e

brated i n honou r of the vi l lage goddess in the month of

Vrisch ikam (November—December) , when these peop le

start from the farms of the i r masters,and go in proces

s ion,accompan ied with the mus i c of p ipe and drum . A

spec ia l feature of the Kath iru fest ival i s the presence,at

the temp le of the vi l lage goddess , of a large number ofdome- l i ke structure s made of bamboo and p lantain

stems,r i chly ornamented

,and hung with flowers

,leaves

,

and ears of corn . These structu res are cal led sara

kootam s,and are fixed on a pai r of paral l el bamboo

poles . These agrest i c serfs bear them in grand proces

s ions,start i ng from the i r respect ive farms , with p ipe and

drum ,shout ing and danc ing

,and with fi reworks . Sma l l

globular packets of palmyra leaves , i n which are packed

handfu l s of paddy rol led up in straw,are also carr ied by

them in huge bunches,al ong with the sarakootams .

These packets are cal l ed kath irkootoos (col l ect ion of

cars of corn) , and are thrown among the crowd of

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CHERUMAN 86

brightly i l l um inated both ins ide and outs ide at n ight .

There i s much mus ic and drum -beat ing at n ight,and

offerings of cooked peas or Bengal gram,and cakes

,are

made to the goddess,after which they are d istr ibuted

among those present . The forty -first day,on which the

fest ival term inates,i s one of great celebrat ion , when al l

castem en attend at the temp le . The Cherumas , Mala

yars,and E ravallars attend the fest iva l in Ch itt t

'

i r . They

also attend the Konga Pata fest ival t here . I n rural

parts of the State,a kind of puppet Show performance

(olapava koothu) i s acted by Kusavans (potters ) andTami l Chett is , i n honour of the v i l lage de ity , to which

they contr ibute thei r share of subscr ipt i on . They a lso

attend the cock fest ival of Cranganore , and offer sacr ifi ces

o f fow ls .

For t he fol low ing note on the rel igion of the Pulayas

of Travancore,I am indebted to Mr . N . Subramani

I yer . ' “ The Pu layas worship the sp ir i t s of deceased

ancestors,known as Chavars . The Matan , and the

Anchu Tamprakkal , bel i eved by the better i nformed

sect i on of the caste to be the five Pandavas , are spec ial ly

adored . The Pu layas have no temp les , but raise square s

in the m idst of groves,where publ i c worship i s offered .

Each Pulaya p laces three leaves near each other,

contain ing raw r ice,beaten ri ce

,and the puveri (flowers)

of the areca palm . He p laces a flower on each of these

leaves , and prays with j oined hands . Chavars are the

Sp i r i ts of in fants,who are be l i eved to haunt the earth

,

harassed by a number of unsat i sfied cravings . Thi s

spec ies of supernatural bei ng i s held i n mingled respect

and terror by Pulayas,and worshipped once a year with

d iverse offer ings . Another class o f dei t ies i s cal l ed

Tevaratumpuran , mean ing gods whom high caste H indus

are in the hab i t of worshipp ing at Parassalay ; the

87 CHERUMAN

Pulayas are given certain Spec ia l concess ion s on fest iva l

days . S imi lar instances may be’

noted at O ch ira ,

Kumaranallur, and Nedumangad . At the last ment ioned

shrine,Mat‘eer wri tes

,

it ‘ where two or three thousand

peop le,mostly Sudras and I z huvaS , attend for the annual

fest ival i n March,one -th i rd of the whole are Parayas ,

Kuravas , Vedars , Kan ikkars , and Pu layas , who come

from al l part s around . They bring with them wooden

model s of cows,neat ly hung over , and covered , in imita

t ion of Shaggy hai r,with cars of r i ce . Many of these

images are brought,e ach in a separate process ion from

it s own p lace . The headmen are finely dressed w ith

c loths stained purp le at the edge . The image i s borne

on a bamboo frame , accompan ied by a drum ,and men

and women in process ion , the latter wear ing quant it ies

of beads,such as several st r ings of red , then several of

white,or strings of beads , and then a row of brass

ornament s l ike rupees,and all utter ing the Kurava cry .

These images are carr ied round the temp le,and al l

amuse themselves for the day .

’ By far the most curi ous

of the rel ig iou s fest ival s of the Pulayas i s what i s known

as the Pula Saturday in Makaram (j anuary—February)at Sastamkotta i n t he ; Kunnattur tal uk . I t i s an o ld

observance,and i s most re l ig ious ly gone through by

the Pulayas every year . The Valluvan, or caste pr iest ,

l eads the assembled group to the v ic in i ty of the banyan

tree in front of the temp le , and offer ings of a d iverse

nature,such as paddy , roots , p lan tain fruit s , game , pu l se ,

coin s,and go lden th reads are most devoutly made .

Pulayas assembl e for thi s ceremony from comparat ive ly

d istant p laces . A deity, who i s bel ieved to be the most

important obj ect of worship among the Pulayas,i s Utaya

Nat ive L i fe in Travancore .

CHERUMAN 88

Tampuran ,by which name they des ignate the r i s i ng sun .

Exorc i sm and sp i r i t—danc ing are deep ly be l ieved in,and

credited wi th great remedia l v irtues . The Kokkara, or

i ron ratt le,i s an instrument t hat i s freely u sed to dr ive

out evi l sp i r i ts . The Valluvan who offers an imal sacr i

fices becomes immediate ly afterwards pos sessed , and

any enquir i es may be put to him without i t be ing at al l

d i ffi cul t for him to furn i sh a ready answer. I n North

Travancore,the Pulayas have certa in consecrated bu i ld

ings of the i r own , such as Kamancheri , Omkara

Bhagavath i, Yaksh i Ampa lam ,Pey Ko i l

,and Valiyapattu

Mut tan , where in t he Valluvan performs the funct ion s of

p r ie sthood . The Pu layas be l i eve i n omens . To see

another Pu laya,to encounter a Nat ive Chr i st ian

,to see

an I z huva with a vessel i n the hand,a cow beh ind , a

boat contain ing r i ce or paddy sacks , e tc.,are regarded

as good omens . On the other hand,to be crossed by a

cat,t o see a fight between an ima l s

,to be encountered by

a person w ith a bund le of c lothes , to meet peop l e carry

ing stee l in strument s, etc . ,

are looked upon as very bad

omens . The l i zard i s not be l i eved to be a p rophet , as

i t i s by members of the h igher castes .

Concern i ng the caste government of the Pu layas of

Travancore , Mr . Subraman ia I yer writes as fo l lows .“ The Ayikkara Yajamanan

,or Ayikkara Tamara (king) i s

the head of the Pu laya commun ity . He l ives at Vayalar

in the S hertalley tal uk in North Travancore , and takes

natural p ride in a lace cap,sa id to have been p resented

to one of hi s ancestors by the great Cheraman Perumal .

Even the Parayas of North Travancore look upon h im

as the i r leg it imate lord . Under the Tamara are two

nomina l headmen,known as Tatteri Achchan and

Mannat Koi l Val lon . I t i s the Ayikkara Tamara who

appo ints the Valluvans , or loca l p riests , for every kara,

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CHERUMAN 90

menses . Adu l tery i s looked upon as the most he inous

of offences , and used to be met w ith cond ign pun i shment

i n t imes of old . The woman was requ i red to thrust her

hand into a vesse l of boi l ing o il,and the man was

compel led to pay a fine of 336 or 64 chuckram s,accord

ing as the woman with whom he connected himse l f was

marr ied or not , and was cast out of soc iety after a most

c ruel r i te cal l ed Ariyum P irayum T it tukka,the prec ise

nature of wh ich does not appear to be known . A marr ied

woman is t r ied by the Valluvan and other offi cers,when

she Shows d isobed ience to her husband .

”

I t is noted by Mr . Anantha Kr i shna Iyer,that

,i n

the Palghat tal uk of South Malabar,i t i s sa id that the

Cherumas i n former t imes used to hold grand meet ings

for cases of theft , adultery , divorce , etc .,at Kannat i

Kutt i Vattal . These assembl ie s cons i sted of the members

of the i r caste in local i t ie s between Valayar forest s and

Karimpuzh a (i n Valluvanad tal uk) , and in those between

the northern and southern h i l l s . I t i s a l so said that

the i r de l i berat i ons u sed to last for several days together.

I n the event of anybody committ ing a cr im e,the pun i sh

ment infl i cted on him was a fine of a few rupees, or

somet imes a sound thrashing . To prove hi s innocence,

a man had to swear By Kannat i Swarupam (assemb ly)I have not done i t . ’ I t was he ld so sacred that no

Cheruman who had commi tted a cr ime would swear

fal se ly by th i s assembly . A S t ime wen t on,they found

i t d i ffi cu l t to mee t , and so l e ft off assembl ing together. ”

I n connec t i on with the amusements of the Pu layas,

Mr . Anantha Kri shna I yer wri te s that “ the i r games

appear to be connected in some way with the i r rel igious

Observances . Thei r favour ite dance is the kole kal i , or

c l ub dance . A party of ten or twelve men , provided

with st icks,each a yard in length

,stand in a c i rc le , and

9 1 CHETT I

move round,striking at t he st i cks , keep ing t ime w ith

the i r feet,and s inging at the same t ime . The c ircl e i s

a l ternate ly widened and narrowed . Vatta kal i is another

wi ld dance . Thi s al so requ ires a party of ten or twelve

men,and somet imes young women j o in them . The

party move in a c i rc l e,c lapp ing the ir hands whi l e they

S i ng a kind of rude song . I n thatt inm el kal i , four

wooden pol es are firmly stuck in the ground , two of

which are connected by two hor izontal p ieces of wood ,over which p lanks are arranged . A party of Pulayas

dance on the top of t his , to the musi c of thei r p ipe and

drum . This i s general ly erec ted in front of the Bhaga

vat i temp le,and the danc i ng takes p lace immediate ly

after the harvest . Thi s i s i ntended to p rop it iate the

goddess . Women perform a c ircular dance on the

occas ion s of marri age cel ebrat ions .

”

The Cherumas and Pu layas are , l i ke the Koragas

of South Canara , Short of stature , and dark - sk inned .

The most importan t measurements of the Cheruman s

whom I invest igated at Cal icut were as fo l lows

Males

Cheruppu-katti (Shoemaker) .— Said to be a Mala

yalam synonym for Madiga .

Chetti —I t i s noted in the Census Report , 189 1 , that

the name Chett i i s used both to denote a di st inct caste ,and also a t i t l e

,and peop l e beari ng thi s t i t le descr ibe

themselves loosely as be longing to the Chett i caste , i n

the same way as a Vel lal a wi l l say that he i s a Mudali .

CHETT I 9 2

Thi s use of Chett i has cau sed some confusion in the

retu rns,for the sub -d ivi s i ons Show that many other castes

have been incl uded as we l l as Chett i p roper . Agai n

i n the Censu s Report,190 1 , i t i s recorded that Chett i

means trader,and i s one of those t i tu lar or occupat iona l

terms,which are often looselv emp loyed as caste names .

The weavers, oil p ressers , and others u se i t as a t i t le ,

and many more tack it on to thei r names,to denote that

trade i s their occupat i on . Stri ct ly emp loyed,i t i s never

theles s , the name of a true caste . The Chett is are so

numerous,and so wide ly d i str ibuted

,that the i r many

sub-d iv i si ons d i ffer very great ly i n the i r ways . The best

known of them are the Ber i Chett is,the Nagarattu

Chett is , the Kasukkar Che tt is,and the Nattukettai

Chett is . Of these , the Ber i and Nattuk0ttai Chett is are

dealt with in spec ial art i c le s . The fo l lowing d ivi s ions

of Chett is , i nhab it ing the Madura d i str i ct , are recorded

in my notes

(a) Men with head c lean -shaved

I lavagai or ThedakOttai .

Karnakudi . Periyaké ttai-ve l lan .

Sundarath than . Pu l iyangud i .Ariyt

'

i r. Val lam or T iruvappur.

Malampatti . Kurungah'

i r.

Palayapattu.

(6) Men with kudumi (hair knot)Puvath thukudi or Marayakkara.

Mannagudi. Pandukud i or

K iramangalam . Manjapath thu.

Val lanattu.

Of these,the Puvaththukudi Chett is , who rece ive

thei r name from a vi l lage in the Tanjore di strict,are

most ly i t inerant petty t raders and money- lenders,who

trave l about the country . They carry on the i r shou lders

a bag contain ing the i r p ersonal effects, except when they

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CHETT I 94

Chola king , says the legend , wanted to marry a Chett i

whereupon the caste set fi re to the town,and only these

e leven boys escaped . They rested on the Ratnagi r i hi l l

to d ivide thei r property ; but however they arranged

i t,i t always divided itse l f i nto twelve Shares i nstead of

e l even . The god of Ratnagi r i then appeared,and asked

them to g ive him one share in exchange for a part of hi s

car . They d id so, and they now cal l themse lves the

twelft h Chett is from the number of the shares,and at

t hei r marriages they carry the br idegroom rou nd i n a

car . They are said to be common in Co imbatore

d i str i ct .”

At the census , 187 1 , some of the less fortunate

traders returned themselves as “ bankrupt C hett is .

The fol lowing caste s and tr ibes are recorded as having

assumed the t it l e Chett i , or its equ ivalent Sett iBal ija. Telugu trad ing caste.

Bant. Tu l u cu ltivating caste.

B i l imagga, Devanga, Patnulkaran, Sal iyan , Sedan , Sen iyan .A l l

weav ing classes.

Dh0bi. O r iya wash ermen .

Gan iga. O i l p ressers.

Gamal la. Te lugu toddy-drawers.

Gauda. Canarese cu lti vators.

Gud igar. Canarese wood-carvers.

Jain .

Janappan . Said to have been or ig inal ly a section o f the Bal i jas,and manu factu re rs of gunny-bags.

Kavarai . Tam i l equ ivalent of Bal ija.

K émati . Telugu traders.

Koracha. A nomad t ribe.

Kudum i . A T ravancore caste, wh ich does serv ice in the housesof Konkan i B rahmans.

Mandadan Chetti .Medara. Te lugu cane sp l itte rs and mat makers.

Gazet teer o f the Tr ich inopo ly d i str i ct .

95 CHETTI

Nayar. Occupational title of some Nayars of Malabar.Pattanavan . Tam i l fishermen .

Pattapu . F ishermen in the Te lugu country .

Sénaikkudaiyan . Tam i l betel-v ine growers and traders.

Shanan . The g reat toddy-draw ing class of the Tam i l country .

Sonar. Goldsm ith s .

Toreya. Canarese fi shermen .

Uppi l iyan . Salt-wo rkers. Some sty le themselves Karp u ra

(camphor) Chetti , because they used to manu factu re campho r.Van iyan . Tam i l o i l-presse rs.

Wynaadan Chetti .

Of proverbs re lat ing to Chett isff the fol lowing may

be quotedH e who t hinks before he act s i s a Chett i

,but he

who act s without th inking i s a foo l .

When the Chett i d i es,h is affai rs wi l l become

pub l i c .

She keep s house l ike a merchant caste woman,i .e.

,

economical ly .

Though ru ined,a Chett i i s a Chett i

,and

,though

torn,S i l k i s st i l l S i l k .

The Chett i reduced the amount of advance,and

the weaver the quant i ty of s i l k i n the border of

the cl oth.

From hi s b i rth a Chett i i s at enm ity with agri

cu lture .

I n a note on secret trade languages M r . C . Haya

vadana Rao wr i tes as fo l l ows . i “ The most interest ing

of these , perhaps , i s that spoken by petty shopkeepers

and c loth merchants ofMadras , who are most ly Moode llys

and Chet t is by caste . Thei r bu si ness most ly cons i st s i n

ready-money transact i ons,and so we find that they have

Rev. H . Jensen ,C lass ified Co l lect ion o f Tam i l Proverbs , 1897 .

1“ Madras Ma i l

, 1904 .

CHETTI 96

a regular tabl e of numeral s . Numbers one to ten have

been given defin i te names , and they have been so l ong

in use that most of t hem do not understand the mean ing

of the terms they use . Thus madi (mind) stands for one ,

mind being always represented i n the H indu Shastras as

a s ingle thing . Vene (act or deed) stands for two, forvene i s of two kinds only, nalvene and th ivene or good

and bad acts . Konam (qual i ty) stands for three , S incethree d ifferent sort s of qual i t ie s are recogn i sed i n H indu

metaphys i cs . These are rajasam , thamasam,and Sath

m ikam . Shuruth i stands for fou r , for the S rut is or

Vedas are four in numbers . Sara (arrow) stands forfive

,after Panchasara,

the five-arrowed,a wel l -known

name of Manmatha , the I nd ian Cup id . Matha repre

sents s ix,afte r the Shan matham s or s ix systems of

H indu ph i losophy . There stands for seven , after the

seven ocean s recogni sed by the Sanskri t geographers .

Gir i (mountai n) rep resents e ight , s ince i t stands forash tagiri or the e ight mountains of the H indus . Mani

stands for n ine,after navaman i

,the n ine di fferent sorts

of prec ious stone s recogn i sed by the H indus . Th isai

represents ten,from the ten points of the compass . The

common name for rupee is ve l le or the white thing .

Thangam ve l le stands for hal f a rupee,p inj i vellé for

a quarter of a rupee , and p ii vel le for an e ighth of a

rupee . A fanam (or I i annas ) i s known as shu lai . The

princ ipa l obj ects wi th which those who use thi s language

have to deal w ith are padi or measure , vel le or rupee,

and madi ana, one anna , so that mad i padi means one

measure,madi ve l le one rupee

,and mad i ana one anna .

S imi larly with the rest of the numera ls . The merchants

of Trich inopoly have nearly the same table of numerals,but the names for the fract ions of a rupee vary cons ider

ab ly. Mt’

tndri ana i s,with them

,one anna e ana i s two

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CH IKKA 98

Ch ikka (smal l) . -A sub -divi sion of Kurn i .Chikkudu (D o/ic/zos L ab/ad) . -An exogamous sept

of Mfi ka Dora .

C h i lakala (paroquet) .— An exogamous sept of

Beya , Kap u and Yanadi .

Ch i l la (S i rycfiuos fi rearm/um : c l ear i ng—nut tree) .An exogamous sept of Kuruba

,and sub -d iv i s i on of

Tot t iyan .

Ch imala (ant) . —An exogamous sept of Boya and

Tsaka la .

Ch impiga (ta i lor) . —Recorded,i n the Madras

Census Report , 190 1 , as a Lingayat sub -caste of Rangar i .I n the Mysore Censu s Report

,190 1 , Darj is are c lass ified

as fol lows (1 ) Darj i , Ch ipp iga, or Namdev ; (2)Rangare .

” The fi rst three,known by the col lect ive

name of Darj i , are profe ss ional tai lors , wh i l e the Rangares

are al so dyers and ca l i co p r inters .

Chimp iri (rags) . -An exogamous sept of Beya .

Ch inérigadu .—A c lass of mendicants connected

with the Padma Sales . (See Devanga . )Ch inda.

—Recorded,i n the Madras Censu s Report

,

190 1 , as a smal l caste of Or iya cu l t ivators in Ganjam and

Vizagapatam .

Ch inese-Tam i l Cross .—Hal t ing in the course of

an anthropol og ical exped it ion on the western s ide of the

N i lg i r i p lateau , I came across a smal l sett lement of

Chinese,who have squatted for some t ime on the S l opes

of the hi l l s between Naduvatam and Gudal t'

i r and

developed,as the resul t of al l iances with Tami l Pariah

women,i nto a colony

,earn ing a modest l ivel ihood by

cul t ivat ing vegetab les and coffee .

The orig inal Chinese who arrived on the N i lgiris were

convicts from the Stra its S ett l ement , where there was

no suffi c ient pr i son accommodat ion,who were confined

99 CH INESE-TAM IL CROSS

i n the N i lg i r i j ai l . I t i s recorded i f that , in 1868,twe lve

of the Chinamen broke out dur ing a very stormy n ight,

and part ies of armed pol ice were sent out to Scour the

h i l l s for them . They were at last arrested in Malabar a

fortn ight later . Some po l ice weapons were found in

thei r possess ion,and one of the part ies of pol ice had

d isappeared— an ominous c i rc umstance . Search was

made al l over the country for the party,and at length

the i r four bod ies were found ly ing in the j ungle at

Walaghat , hal f way down the S ispara ghat path , neat ly

laid out i n a row with the ir Severed heads careful ly

p laced on the i r Shoulders .

The measurements of a s ingle fami ly are recorded in

the fol lowing tabl e

Tam i l Paraiyan . Mother of ch i ldren .

Ch inese Father o f ch i ldren .

Ch inese-Tam i l Girl , aged 18

Ch inese-Tam i l Boy, aged 10

Ch inese-Tam i l Boy, aged 9

Ch inese-Tam i l

The father was a typ ical Chinaman , whose only

gri evance was that , i n the process of convers ion to

Chri st ian ity,he had been obl iged to “

cut him tai l off. ”

The mother was a typ ical dark-sk inned Tami l Para iyan .

The colour of the chi ldren was more c losely al l ied to the

yel lowish t int of the father than to that of the mother

and the semi -Mongol parentage was betrayed in the

Gazetteer of the N i lg ir is .

CH INNA 100

s lant eyes,flat nose and (in one case) consp icuous ly

prominent cheek-bones .

To have recorded the ent i re ser ies of measurements

of the chi ldren wou ld have been usel ess for the purpose

of compari son with those of the parents,and I se lected

from my reperto i re the length and breadth of the head

and nose,which p la in ly ind icate the paternal influence

on the external anatomy of the offspr ing . The figures

g iven in the tabl e br ing out very cl early the great

breadth,as compared with the l ength

,of the heads of all

the ch i ldren,and the resu l tant high cephal i c index . I n

other words,i n one case a mesat icephal ic and , i n

the remain ing three cases,a sub -brachycephal ic head

(80 1 ; 80 1 ; 82 4 ) has resu lted from the un ion of a

mesat icephal ic Chinaman (785 ) with a sub -dol ichoce

phal ic Tami l Paraiyan H ow great i s the breadth

of the head in the ch i ldren may be emphas ised by

not ing that the average head -breadth of the adul t Tami l

Paraiyan man is only 137 cm .

,whereas that of the three

boys , aged ten , n ine , and five only,was 14 3, 14 , and

137 cm . respect ive ly .

Quite as strong ly marked is the effect of paterna l

i nfl uence on the character of the nose ; the nasal i ndex,i n the case of each ch i ld 7 1 7 7 2 7 ; bear ing

a much closer relat ion to that of the long -nosed father

(7 1 7 ) than to the typ ical Paraiyan nasal i ndex of thebroad -nosed mother

I t wi l l be interest ing to note hereafter what is the

future of the y ounger members of th is quaint l itt l e

colony, and to observe the phys ical characters , tempera

ment , fecund ity, and other po ints relat ing to the cross

breed result ing from the blend of Chinese and Tami l .

Ch inna (l i tt l e) .— A sub -d iv i s ion of Beya,Kunnu

van , Konda Dora, Pattanavan ,and Pattapu

,and an

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CH ITRAKARA OR 102

CH ITRAKARO

l i tt l e r ice and a pot of l iquor to the home of the paternal

aunt . I f they are accepted , i t i s taken as a S ign that the

match is agreed to,and the jholla tonka (bride -pr ice) of

twe lve rupees is pa id . After some t ime has elapsed,the

br ide is conducted to the home of her future husband ,and the marr iage is there cel ebrated . A younger

brother may marry the widow of an elder brother,and ,

i f such a woman contracts a marriage w ith Some other

man,her second husband has to g ive a cow to the

younger brother who has been passed over . The dead

are burnt , and death pol l ut ion is observed for three days ,during which the caste occupat ion is not carr ied on . On

the th ird day , the ashes are col lected together , and a

fowl i s k i l led . The ashes are then buried,or thrown

into runn ing water .

Ch i trakara or Ch itrakaro .—The C h itrakaros of

Ganjam,who are a c lass of Or iya painters (chitra ,

paint ing), are returned in the Census Report , 190 1 , as

a sub -caste of Muchi . I n the Mysore Census Report ,189 1 , the Ch itragaras are sa id to be

“ al so cal l ed Ban

nagara of the ~ Rachevar (or Raj u) caste . They are

painters , decorators and gi lders , and make trunks , palanqu ins ,

‘ lacquer ’ toys and wooden images for temp les ,cars

,etc . At Channapatna in Mysore

,I interviewed a

Telugu Chitrakara,who was making toys out of the

wh ite wood of Wr ig/i tia i iuctor ia . The wood was turned

on a pr im it ive lathe,cons ist ing of two steel sp ikes fixed

into two logs of wood on the ground . Seated on thefloor i n front of his lathe

,the art i san chucked the wood

between the sp ikes,and rotated i t by means of a bow

held in the r ight hand,whereof the str ing was passed

round the wood . The chise l was held between the so le

of the r ight foot and palm of the l eft hand . Colours

and varn i sh were app l i ed to the rotat ing toy with st icks

103 CHUNAM

of paint l i ke seal ing -wax , and str ips of palm leaf smeared

with varn ish. In addit ion to the turned toys,model s of

fru its were made from mud and sawdust,cane cradles

made by Medaras were painted and idol s manufactured

for the H ol i fest ival at Bangalore , and the figure of S id i

Vi ranna for the local pseudo-hooks winging ceremony.

The Ch itrakaras , whom I saw at Tumkfi r,had given

up making toys,as i t d id not pay. They manufacture

b ig wooden idol s (grama devata), e .g . , E llamma and

Mariamma,and veh ic les for var ious de it ies in the

shape of bul l s,snakes ,

‘

peacocks , l ions , t igers , and horses .They further make painted figures of Lakshm i

,and

heads of Gauri,the w ife of S iva , decorated with gold

leaf j ewe l s,which are worsh ipped by Brahmans

,Vakka

l igas,Kem at is , and others at the annual Gauri pfija ;

and mandahasa (god houses) with p i l lars carved with

figures of Naras imha and convent ional des igns . These

mandahasas Serve as a receptacl e for the household

gods (Salagrama stone , l ingam ,which are worship

ped dai ly by Smarta and Madhva Brahmans . These

Ch itrakaras claimed to be S uryavam sam,or of the l unar

race of Kshatr iyas,and wear the sacred thread .

Chitravaliar.—A synonym of Alavan .

Ch0gan .—See I z hava.

Cholapuram or S holavaram .—A sub -d ivis ion of

Chett i .

Ch é liya Pattar.—A name for Pattar Brahmans in

Malabar .

Chond i .—See Sondi .Ch éutagara .

—A corrupt form of Chaptegara .

Ch0vatt0n .—Pr iests of Mattans and Tarakans .

Chud itiya.—S ee Kevuto .

Chunam (l ime) .— A sub -d iv is ion of Toreyas , who

are manufacturers of l ime . Chunam ,made from calc ined

CHUVANO 104

Shel l s , l imestone , etc . , i s l arge ly used for bu i ld ing

purposes , and the chunam plaster of Madras has been

long ce lebrated for its marble - l i ke po l i sh . Chunam is

al so chewed with betel .

Chuvan0.—Recorded , i n the Madras Census Report ,

190 1 , as a smal l Or iya cu l t ivat ing caste , supposed to be

of Kshatr iya parentage .

Daind la.—The name denot ing those who hid or

ran away,of a sub -d iv i s ion of Mala .

Daivampati .—Recorded in the Travancore Census

Report,190 1 , as a caste inc l uded among Ambalavas is ,

and a sub-d iv is ion of Nayar .

D akkala.—Dakkala or Dakkal i i s the name of a

c lass of mendicants who beg from Mad igas on ly . I n

the Kurnool d i st r ict they are ISaId to have d iv ided

the d istr ict w ith the Musht is , and not to beg except

within the i r own l im its .

The fo l l owing story i s to ld as regards the or ig in of

the Dakkalas . A smith was asked to m ake a bottu

(marr iage badge) for S iva’s wedd ing

,and for th is purpose

requ ired bel l ows,fire—pot , hammer, etc. jambuvadu

cal led h i s e ldest son ,and prepared the var ious imple

ments from sundry parts of the body, except the back

bone . Being h igh ly p leased at t h is , the gods endowed

the backbone w ith l i fe,and the son went to hi s father

jambuvadu, who fa i led to recogn ise h im , and refused toadmit h im . H e was to ld that he must l ive as a beggar

attached to the Madigas,and was cal l ed Dakkala because

he was brought to l i fe from a vertebra l co lumn (dakka) .The Dakkalas wander from p lace to p lace . They

may not enter Madiga houses , outs ide which mea ls are

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DAMMULA 106

wr ists of the br ide and br idegroom . On the fourth day,

the n ikka r ite i s cel ebrated,and the newly-marr ied

coup le s it together whi l e the nalagu ceremony of smear

ing them with sandal , and waving co loured water

(arat i) , i s performed . The two pots contain ing water

are kept for forty days , and then examined .I f the

water rema ins sweet , and does not “ teem with verm in,

”

i t i s regarded as a good omen . The seed gra ins,too

,

Should by thi s t ime have developed into heal thy

seedl ings .

Dammu la.—Recorded , i n the Madras Census Re

port , 190 1 , as a smal l c l ass of Te lugu beggars,and

pr iests in the temples of v i l lage goddes ses .

Dandas i .—The Dandas is are summed up in the

Ganjam Manual as be ing vi l lage watchmen,many of

whom are great th ieves . I t i s c ur ious,Mr . S . P . Rice

writesf"é to find that the word Naiko [mean ing leader or

chief] , which i s corrupted into the Tel ugu Naidu , i s the

caste di st inct ion of the l owest c lass,the v i l lage watcher

and profess ional thief. Thi s man,for al l that h i s cog

nomen is so lofty , goes by the gener i c name of Dandas i .

This word means worthy of pun ishment,and assured ly

no appe l lat ion ever fitted its owner more complete ly than

does th i s . He is the vi l lage pol iceman and the vi l lage

th ief, a cur ious m ixture of cal l ings . Accord ing to other

vers ions,the name is der ived from danda

,a St ick

,and

as i, sword , from dandabad i, a stout bamboo st ick , or from

dandapas i , st i ck and rope , i n reference to the ins ign ia of

the Dandas i’

s office .

A large number of cr im inal s,undergoing pun ishment

in Ganjam for robbery and th ieving , are Dandas is .

The members of the caste,l i ke the Tami l Kallans

,bel ieve

Occas ional Essays on Native South Ind ian L i fe.

107 DANDAS I

that thieving is the i r t rad it iona l occupat ion , and , as such ,regard it as j ust ifiable . There i s a l egend that they

adopted this occupat ion as the i r p rofess ion because the i r

ancestors ass i sted the Pandavas to escape from the lac

fort which was constructed by the Kurus with a v iew to

ki l l ing them,by d igg ing a secret subterranean passage .

Accord ing to another story,the Dandas is are descended

from the offspr ing of a c landest ine amour of Kr i shna

with D h t’

i th ika,Radha’s handmaid . The Dandas is

perform an interest ing ceremony of i n it iat ion into the

profess ion of th iev ing,when a chi l d i s born . When it

i s three or five days old , the headman (Behara) i sinv ited to attend . A breach is made in the wal l

,or

beneath the door s i l l . Through th is the in fant i s passed

by the Behara three t imes , and rece ived by some

members of the fam i ly . Each t ime the Behara repeats

the words “ Enter , baby enter . May you exce l your

father ! ” The Dandas is , when quest ioned concern ing

this custom , den ied its ex i stence , but some adm itted

that i t was carr ied out in former days . An old woman

stated that her grandch i l d was pas sed through a breach

beneath the door , but was not in cl ined to enter i nto

detai ls .

A number of exogamous septs occur among the

Dandas is, of which the fol l ow ing may be noted . Mem

bers of the Santaras i sept must avo id us ing mats made

of the sedge which goes by th is name . K ilalend ias avoid

touch ing the bamboo posts used by washermen to sup

port the ropes on wh ich c loths are hung to dry . They

sacr ifice a p ig and seven fowl s to ‘ the i r gods on the new

moon day , on which the head of a male ch i l d i s fi rst

shaved . D iyas is Show spec ial reverence for the sun ,and

c loth s , mokkutos (forehead Chap lets) , garlands , and otherart ic l es to be used by the br ide and br idegroom at a

DANDAS I I 08

wedding,are p laced outs ide the house

,! so that they may

be exposed to i t . Members of the Ekopoth iriya sept are

regarded as l ow in the Soc ial scal e,and the fol lowing

legend i s narrated to account for th i s . A Dandas i went ,with his re lat ions and fr i ends , to the house of a Dandas i

of the Ek0poth ir iya sept , to arrange a marr iage . The

guests were hosp itab ly rece ived,and the prospect ive

br ide asked her father what kind of curry was going to

be served to them . H e rep l ied that barikolora (back

yard M om em’ica) was to be cooked . This aroused the

cur ios ity of some of the guests,who went to the backyard

,

where,i nstead of M omom

’i ca,they saw Severa l b lood

suckers (l i zards) runn ing about . They j umped to the

concl us ion that these were what the host referred to

as barikolora,and al l the guests took the i r departure .

Ekopoth iriyas wi l l not partake of food from the same

p late as thei r grown -up chi ldren , even i f a marr ied

daughter comes on a vi s it to them .

The Dandas is worship vari ous Takuran is (v i l lage

de it ie s) , e .g .,Sankaithun i , Kulladankun i

,Kombésari and

Kalimuki . The gods are e ither represented tempo

rarily by brass vessel s , or permanent ly by three masses

of c lay , into each of which a smal l b i t of gold i s thru st .

When B assia (mahua) buds or mangoes are fi rst eaten inthe i r season

,a sacr ifi ce i s made , and a goat and fow l

are ki l led before the produce of the harvest i s fi rst

partaken of.

The Dandas is have a headman , cal led Behara , who

exerc i ses author ity ove r several group s of vi l lages,and

each group i s under a Nayako , who i s ass i sted by a

Dondia . For every vi l lage there i s a Bholloboya,and

,

i n some p laces,there i s an officer, cal led Boda Mund i ,

The fru its of several species of Momercl ica are eaten by Nat ives.

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DANDASI 1 10

bete l nut cutter,on ,

or with some r ice and bete l nut be

tween the un ited hands of the contract ing coup le,and

t ies them together with seven turns of a turmeric-dyed

thread . H e then announces t hat the grand

daugh ter of and daugh ter of i s

un ited to the grandson of and

son of The parents of t he br ide and br ide

groom pour turmeri c water from a chank (Turéiue/Za

rapa) Shel l or l eaf over the i r un i ted hands . The nutcutter i s removed by the bride

’

s brother,and

,after

str iking the br idegroom,he goes away . The coup le

then p lay with cowry (Cg/p ica araéica) She l l s , and , whi l e

they are So engaged,the ends o f the i r c loths are t ied

together,and the r i ce which i s i n the i r hands i s t i ed i n a

knot . When the p lay i s fin i shed,t his knot i s unt ied

,

and the r ice i s measured i n a smal l earthen pot,fi rst

on behal f of the br ide , and i s pronounced to be a l l r ight .

I t i s then again measured,and said to have d imin i shed

in quant ity . Thi s g ive s r i se to jokes at the expense

of t he bridegroom ,who i s cal led a th ief

,and other

hard names . Those who im itate the ceremon ial of

the higher caste s make the bridegroom go away infe igned anger

,after he has broken the pot which i s

hanging over the da i s . He i s brought back by hi s

brother - in—law .

On the occas ion of the fi rst menstrual per iod,a gi rl

i s under po l lut ion for seven days . I f she i s engaged to

be marri ed,her future father - in - l aw makes her a present

of j ewel s and money on t he seventh day , and thereby

confi rms the marriage contract .

The dead are cremated . A widow accompanies the

corp se of her hu sband to the boundary of the vi l lage,

carry ing a ladle and pot,which she throws down at

the boundary,and return s home . On the day after the

1 1 1 DARA

funeral,the embers are ext ingu i shed

,and an effigy

of the deceased i s made on the spot where he was

cremated,and food offered to i t . Toddy i s d istr ibuted

among those who have assembled at the house . O n

the tenth day,food i s offered on ten fragments of pots .

On the eleventh day,i f the dead man was an important

personage in the commun i ty,a ceremony

,correspond ing

to the j ola j ola hand i of the higher caste s , i s performed .

A cloth i s spread on the ground,on the spot where the

corpse was cremated,and the ground round i t swept by

women , whose backs are turned towards the c loth , so

that they cannot See i t . Two men , with swords or b ig

kn ives , s it by the s ide of the c loth and wait t i l l an insect

set t l es on the c loth . They then at once put the swordsor knives on the c loth

,and

,foldi ng it up

,p lace i t on a

new winnowing -basket . I t i s taken home,placed on

the floor, and connected by means of a long thread with

the household god (mass of clay or vessel) . I t i s then

Shaken near the god, so that the insect fal l s out .

Dandas i further occurs as a sub -div i s ion of the

Kondras , the members of which have taken to the

profess ion of vi l lage watchmen .

Dand i (a staff) . -A house name of Korava .

Dandu (army) . —A sub -div is ion of Idiga, and an

exogamous Sept of Boya and Kapu . I t has been

suggested that the name i s not Dandu but Dande,mean ing po le

,i n reference to the apparatus used by

the IdigaS i n c l imbing palm trees for the extract ion

of toddy . Dandu Agasa,indicat ing army washerman ,

occurs as a name for some Maratha Dhob is in Mysore ,whose forefathers probably accompan ied arm ies in t imes

of war .

Dara (stream of water).— An exogamous sept o f

Mal a .

DARABALA 1 12

Darabala.—Taken , i n the Madras Census Report ,

190 1 , as a sub -cas te of Mala . I t i s a common house

name among many Tel ugu castes .Darala (thread) .— An exogamous sept of Madiga .

D arz i .—Darz i or Darj i i s a Muhammadan occupa

t ional term , mean ing ta i l or .“ The cast ,

” i t has been

sa id , *“ now sews by machinery . The name of S inger

i s known from the Mediterranean to the Pac ific.I n

every bazaar i n I ndia one may See men— t hey are

always men,not women— in turban or Mussalman cap,

crouch ing over the needl e -plate , and work ing the

pedal s .

” The value of the imports of sewing-machines

rose,in Br it ish I nd ia , from RS . in 190 1—0 2

to Rs . i n 1904—05 .

DaS .—The t i t l e of J ain immigrants from Northern

I nd ia,most of whom are estab l i shed as merchants

,and

a lso of the Mahan ts o f the Ti rumala (Tirupat i ) temp le ,e.g . ,

Balaram Das,Bhagavan Das

Dasari .—“ Dasar i or Tadan , Mr . H . A . Stuart

WI‘ ItCS , l i s a mend icant caste of Vaishnavas

,t he rep uted

descendants of a weal thy Sadra of one of the northern

d i str i ct s,who , being devo id of offspr ing , vowed that ,

Should he be blessed wi th chi ldren , he would devote one

t o the service of hi s god . He subsequent ly had many

sons, one of whom he named Dasan (servant) , and

'

placed

ent i rely at the servi ce of the de i ty. Dasan forfe i ted

a l l c laim to part i c ipate i n his father’

s e state , and hi s

offspring are therefore al l beggars .

The caste,l i ke that of the Satan is , i s rein forced by

id le members of the lower Sadra c lasses , who , be ing

branded by the gurus of Tirupat i and other shr i nes,

become Dasaris thereby . They usual ly wander a bout,

S idney Low. A V is ion of I nd i a, 1906.

1 Manual of the N orth Arcot d i str ict .

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DASAR I 1 14

not al lowed to d ine with the others . Al l Dasaris areVaishnav ites , and admi ss i on to the commun i ty i s obtained

by being branded by some Vaishnav ite guru . Thence

forward the novice becomes a Dasar i,and l ives by

begging from door to door . The profess ion i s almost

hered itary i n some fami l i es . The five ins ign ia of a

Dasar i are the conch she l l,which he b lows to announce

hi s arr ival ; the gong which he stri ke s as he goes h isrounds ; the tal l i ron lamp (wi th a cocoanut to hold the

o i l for rep len ishing i t) which he keep s l ighted as he

begs ; t he brass or copper vessel (Somet imes w ith thenamam painted on i t) suspended from h is shou lder

,i n

which he p laces the alms re ce ived ; and the smal l metal

image of Hanuman , which he hangs round hi s neck .

Of these,the i ron lamp i s at once the most consp icuous

and the mos t i nd i sp ensab le . I t i s said to represent

Venkatesa, and it must be burn ing , as an un l ighted lamp

i s i nausp ic i ous . Dasaris al so subs i st by do ing paja

(worsh ip) at ceremon ial and fest ival occasi ons for certa in

of the H indu castes . I n the Kurnool d ist r i ct , when a

g ir l i s ded icated as a Basavi (dedicated p ros t i tute) , Shei s not

,as i n some other parts of t he country, marr ied to

an idol,b ut t i ed by means of a garland of flowers to the

tal l standard lamp (garudakambham ) of a Dasar i , andre leased by the man who i s t o rece ive her first favours

,

or by her materna l uncl e .

The Dasaris i n Mysore are descr ibed in the Mysore

Census Report , 190 1 , as“ mend ican ts be longing to

d ifferent c lasses of Sudras . They become Dasas or

servant s ded icated to the God at Ti rupat i by v irtue of a

pecul iar vow,made e ither by themselves or their re la

t ives , at some moment of anxi ety or danger , and l ive

by begging in H is name . Dasaris are always Vai sh

nav ites , as the vows are taken only by those castes

1 15 DASAR I

which are worshippers of that de ity . Dasaris are inv ited

by S fidras on ceremon ial days , and feasted . Properly

speaking,Dasar i i s not a caste

,but s imply an occupa

t ional divi s i on . Among certa in castes , the custom of

taking a vow to become a Dasar i p revai l s . In fulfi lment

of that vow the person becomes a Dasari,and his eldes t

son i s bound to fol low su i t , the others taking to other

walks of l i fe . The fol lowing castes take the vow of

becoming Dasar i z— Telugu Banaj iga,H oleya , Tigala ,

and Vakkal iga . The duty of a Dasari requires that he

Should da i ly bathe his head , and take care that , whi le

eat ing with the profane , the i r v ictuals do not get m ixed

with his . Every Saturday , after bath ing and praying

for some hours,he must cook hi s own food in a c lean

pot . They go about the streets S i ng ing some Har i

Keerthanam s , with a gong and conch to rel ieve the du l l

monotony of t he i r mumbl ings .

Concern ing the synonym Tadan , this i s stated to be

a corrupt ion of the Sanskr it dasa wh ich , with the Tamil

terminat ion an,stands for dasan . The word is often

used in thi s form , but often as Dasar i . The word i s

app l ied to Vai shnava mendicants . They go out every

morn ing,begging for alms of uncooked r i ce , and S inging

bal lads or hymns . They play on a sma l l drum with thei r

fingers,and often carry a conch she l l

,which they b low .

They are given to dr inking . I n the Nel lore Manual,

the Dasrivandlu are summed up as being mendicants

and thieves in the Telugu and Canarese countr ies.

They usual ly pract i se what i s known as sc issor -theft.

’

The mend icant Dasaris,who are dealt with i n the present

note , are stated by Mr . S . M . Natesa Sastri lL to be

cal led Gud i Dasar i , as the gud i or temp le i s the ir home

4“ Manual of the Tanjore d istrict . 1 Calcutta Review, 1905 .

11—8 B

DASAR I 1 16

and to be a set of qu iet,i nnocent and s impl e peop l e

l eading a most id le and S t up id l i fe .

“ Quite opposed,

he adds ,“ to the Gud i Dasaris i n every way are the

Donga Dasaris or thieving Dasaris . They are the most

dreaded of the cr iminal c lasses in the Bel lary d i st r ict.

These Donga Dasaris are only Dasaris i n name . (S eeDonga Dasari . )Some Dasaris are servant s under Vaishnava Brah

mans , who act as gurus to var ious castes . I t i s the i r

duty to ac t as messengers to the guru,and carry the

news of hi s arr ival to h i s d i sc ip les . A t the t ime of

worship,and when the guru approaches a v i l lage

,the

Dasari has to blow a long brass trumpet (tarai) . As the

B rahman may not approach or touch hi s Para iyan

d i sc ip les,i t i s the Dasar i who gives them the holy water

(th irtham ) . When a Paraiyan i s to be branded , theB rahman heats the i nstruments bear ing the devices

of the chank and chakaram , and hands them to the

Dasar i , who performs the Operat ion of brand ing . For

counc i ls,sett lement of marr iage , and the deci s ion of

other soc ial matters,the Dasaris meet , at t imes of

fest ival s,at wel l -known p laces such as T irutan i , Tirupat i

or T iruvalh'

i r.

At the annual fest ival at the temple at Karamadi i n

the Co imbatore d istr ict,which i s vi s i ted by very large

numbers,be longing for the most part to the lower orders

,

var ious vows are fu lfi l led . These i nc lude the giving of

kavalam to Dasaris . Kavalam cons ists of p lantain fru it s

cut up into smal l s l i ces,and mixed w i th sugar , jaggery

(crude sugar) , fr i ed grain , or beaten r i ce . The Dasaris

are attached to the temp le,and wear Short drawers , with

str ings of smal l brass bel l s t i ed to the i r wri st s and ankles .

Th ey appear to be possessed , and move wi ldly about to

the beating of drums . AS they go about , the devotee

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1 1 7 DASAR I

puts some of the kavalam i nto the ir mouths . The

Dasaris eat a l itt le , and sp it out the remainder into the

hands of the devotees , who eat i t . This i s be l ieved to

cure al l d iseases,and to g ive chi ldren to those who

partake of i t . I n add it ion to kavalam ,some put bete l

leaves into the mouths of the Dasaris , who ,after chewing

them,sp it them into the mouths of the devotees . At

n ight the Dasaris carry large torches made of rags , on

which the devotees pour gh i (c lar ified butter) . Some

say that , many years ago , barren women used to take a

vow to vis it the temp le at the fest ival t ime,and

,after offer

ing kavalam,have Sexual i ntercourse with the Dasaris .

The temp le author it ies,however

,p rofess ignorance of

thi s pract i ce .

When proceeding on a p i lgr image to the temp le of

S ubramanya Swami at Pa ln i , some devotees p ierce the i r

cheeks with a long s i lver skewer,which traverses the

mouth cavity ; p ierce the tongue w ith a s i lver arrow ,

which i s p rotruded vert i cal ly through the protruded

organ and p lace a S i lver Shie ld (mouth- lock) i n front ofthe mouth . Some Dasaris have permanent ho les in

the i r cheeks,i nto which they insert skewers when they

go about the country i n pursu it o f the i r p rofess ion .

For the fol lowing note on Dasaris i n the Vizagapatam

distr i ct,I am indebted to Mr . C . Hayavadana Rao .

The caste i s an endogamous un it,the members cal l ing

themse lves Sankhu (or conch -b lowing) Dasaris , and i s

d iv ided into numerous exogamous septs . The menar i

kam custom , according to which a man shou ld marry hi s

maternal unc le’s daughter,i s fo l lowed . The remarr iage

of widows i s perm itted,but d ivorce i s forb idden . The

dead are cremated,and the chinna (smal l ) and pedda

rozu (b ig day) death ceremon ies are observed . TheseDasaris profess the Tengalai form of Vaishnavism ,

and

DASAR I I I 8

get themselves branded. The caste i s more secu lar,

and less rel ig i ous than i n the southern d istr ic ts . A

Dasar i of the North Arcot or Anantapur type,with

conch -She l l , metal gong ,i ron lamp

,copper vesse l

,and

meta l image of H anuman on h is neck,is scarcely met

with . The V izagapatam Dasaris are the most popular

among bal lad -s ingers , and s ing songs about heroes

and hero ines,of which the fol lowing are the most

app rec iated

1 . Bobb il ipata ,which descr ibes the s iege and

conquest of Bobbi l i by Bussy in 1 75 7 .

2 . Ammi Nayudupata, which descr ibes the tyran

n ical behav iour of one Ammi Nayudu ,a vi l l age headman

in the Palkonda tal uk , who was eventual ly murdered , to

the great rel ief of t hose subj ect to him,by one o f hi s

dependents .

3. Lakshmammapata, which re lates the l i fe and

death of Lakshmamma, a Ve lama woman,who went

against the m enarikam custom o f the caste,and was put

to death by her husband .

4 . Y erakammaperantala-pata

,which recount s the

story of one Yerakamma,who commi t ted sat i .

Y erakamma is the local goddess at S rungavarapuketa

i n the Vizagapatam di str i ct . The bal lads sung about

her say that She was the chi ld of Dasar i parents,and

that her b irth was foreto ld by a Yerukala woman (whence

her name ) , who prophes ied that She would have the gi ft

of second s ight . She eventual ly marr ied , and one day

She begged her husband no t to go to hi s field , as sh e

was sure he wou ld be ki l l ed by a t iger i f he did . Her

hu sband went no twithstand ing,and was sla in as she

had foreseen . She committed sat i on the spot where

her shr ine st ill stands , and at th i s there i s a fest ival at

S ivaratri .

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DAYARE 1 20

Hyderabad , st i l l reta in ing the name of I mam Mahadi .

Such pretens ions coul d not be to lerated by the great

mass of Muhammadans , and Sayad Ahmed , together

w ith h is d i sc ip l es , be ing wors ted in a great re l ig ious

controversy , was dr iven out of Hyderabad,and came

to Channapatna in the Bangalore d i st r ict,where they

sett led . The descendant s of these sett ler s bel i eve that

Sayad Ahmed was the Prophet I mam Mahadi p redi cted

in the Koran . They offer prayers in a masj id of the i r

own ,separate from o ther Muhammadans

,and do not

i n termarry with the re st . They are an enterpr i s i ng

body,and carry on a br i sk trade i n s i l k w ith the western

coast . They are most ly domic i led at Channapatna,

where a cons iderable industry in the cocoons of the

mu lberry s i l k -moth is carr i ed on .

When an adul t H indu j o in s the Dayaré s as a convert,

an interest ing mock r ite of c i rcumci s ion i s performed as

a subst i tute for the real operat ion . A stri p of bete l leaf

i s wrapped round the pen is ,3

5 0 that i t project s beyond

the glan s,and i s sn ipped instead o f the prepuce .

Like o ther M uhammadan c lasses o f Southern I nd ia,

the Dayarés are as a whole dol i chocepha l i c . But the

frequent occurrence of ind iv idual s with a high cepha l i c

i ndex would seem to po int to their recru i tment from the

mesat icephal ic or brachycepha l i c Canarese c lasses .

C lass .Local i ty .

1 2 1 DESAYI

Dayyalaku lam (devi l’

s —Recorded , at t imes

of census , as a sub -caste of Gol las,who are wre st l ers

and acrobats .

D edingi . -Recorded as a sub -d iv i s i on of Poroja .

D éra .—Dera , Dendra , and Devara occur as symo

nyms of DEVanga .

D esa.—A sub -divi s ion of Bal ij a . Desadh ipat i , de

not i ng ru ler of a country , i s a name assumed by some

Janappan s , who say that they are Bal ijas .

D é say i .—For t he fol lowing account of the Desayii n st i tut ion

,I am indebted to an exce l lent account t hereof

by Mr . S . M . Nate sa Sastrifi'

6 The word Desayi means

of the country . For almost every tal uk i n the North

Arcot d i str ict there i s a headman , cal led the DesayiChett i

, who may be said i n a manner to correspond toa J ust ice o f the Peace . The headmen belong to the

Kavarai or Bal ij a caste , the i r fam i ly name being Dhana

pala— a common name among the Kavarais— which may

be interpreted as the protector of wealth .

’ The Dhana

pala Desayi Chett i ho lds sway over e ighteen castes ,Kavarai , Uppara , Lambadi , Jogi , Id iga ,

Paraiyan,etc .

Al l those that are cal led valangai, or right -hand caste,

fal l w ith i n hi s j uri sd ict ion . He has an estab l i shmen t oftwo peons (order l i es) , who are cas tem en

,and another

men ial,a sort of bugler , who b lows the horn whenever

the Desayi Chett i goes on c ircu i t . When any deviat i on

in the mora l conduct of any man or woman occurs in a

vi l lage under the Desayi’

s j ur i sd i ct ion , a report of i t i s at

once sent to the Desayi Chett i , t hrough the Paraiya of

the vi l lage,by the Desayi

’

s representat ive in that v i l lage .

He has hi s loca l agent i n every vi l lage within hi s j uri s

dict ion . O n receipt of a report , he starts on c i rcu i t to the

Madras Mai l , 1901 .

DESAY I 1 22

vi l lage,with al l the qua int - l ooking parapherna l ia attached

to h is offi ce . H e moves about from p lace to p lace

i n hi s bul l ock coach , the i ns ide of which i s upho l stered

w ith a soft cu shion bed , with a profu sion of p i l lows

on al l s ides . The Para iya horn -blower runs in front of

t he carr iage b lowing the horn (bhamka) , which he carrie s

s uspended from hi s shou lder when i t i s not in use . On

the Desay i Chet t i arr iv ing at a vi l lage , the horn i s b lown

to announce h i s vi s i t on profess ional matters . Whi le he

camps at a vi l lage,peop le from the surround ing country

wi th in hi s j ur i sd i c t i on usual ly go to him wi th any repre

sen tat ions they may have to make to him as the head

of the i r caste . The DESayi genera l ly encamps in a tope

(grove ) adjoi n ing the v i l lage . At the sound of the born ,

the cas tem en on whose account the v i s i t is made assem

ble at the p lace of encampment,with the D ésayi

’

s l oca l

representat ive at the ir head . The personal comforts of

the D ésay i are fi rst attended to ,and he i s l i bera l ly sup

p l ied w i th art i c les of food by the party on whose account

the vi s i t has been undertaken . A large cup -shaped

spoon i s the ens ign of the Desayi . On the outer surface ,al l round its edge

,are carved i n rel i ef e igh teen figures ,

each one be ing typ ical of one of the castes of which the

Desay i i s the soc ial head . Under each figure i s i nscr ibed

in Tam i l the name of the cas te which that figure typ ifies .

The figures are smeared with red powder and sandal,and

decorated with fl owers . The menial , tak ing up the cup ,r ings the bel l attached to i t , to summon the part ie s . As

soon as the sound i s heard , the castem en amongst whom

any offence has occurred a ssembl e,each house i n the

vi l lage be ing represented by a member,so as to make

up a panchayat (counc i l ) . The Desayi'

s emblem i s then

p laced in front of him in the midst of the panchayat ,and a regular enqu i ry he ld . Suppos ing a per son stands

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r23 DasavI

charged with adu l tery , the accused is brought before the

assembly , and the charge formal ly invest igated with the

advice of the panchayat,the Desayi declares the accused

gu i lty or not gu i l ty,as the case may be . I n the event

of a man be ing pronounced gui l ty,the panchayat di rects

him to pay the aggr ieved husband al l t he expenses he

had incurred in conne ct i on w i th hi s marr iage . I n add i

t ion to thi s , a fine ranging from ten to twenty rupees is

imposed on t he offender by the Desayi , and i s col l ected

at once . A smal l fract ion of th i s fine,never exceeding

four annas,i s pa id toevery representat ive who s its in the

panchayat , the balance going i nto the Desayi’

s pocket .

I f the del inquent refuses to pay the fine , a counc i l of

the same men i s held , and he i s excommuni cated . The

recal c i trant offender soon real i ses the horrors of ex

communi cat ion,and in a short t ime appears before the

Desay i , and fa l l s p rostrate at h i s feet , promi s ing to

obey h im . The Desayi then accompan ie s him to the

vi l lage , cal l s the panchayat aga in , and i n the i r p resence

removes the interd ic t . O n this occas ion,the ex com

mun icated person has to pay double the amount of the

or ig inal fine . But di sobed ience i s rare,as peop le are

al ive to the ser iou s consequences of excommunicat i on .

The Desayi mainta i ns a regular record of al l hi s enqu ir i es

and j udgments,and in the days of the Nawabs these

dec i s ions were,i t wou ld appear

,recogn i sed by the

Courts of J ust ice . The same respec t was , i t i s sa id ,also shown to the Desay i

’

s dec is ions by the early courtsof J ohn Company .

at

Every house be l onging to the e ighteen castes sends

to the v i l lage rep resentat ive of the D issayi , who i s cal ledPeriyatanakaran ,

a pagoda (Rs . 3-8) i n cash , bes ides

John Company, a corrupt ion of Company Jehan , a t it le of the Engl ish

East I nd ia Company.

DES IKAR 1 24

r i ce,dhal (Caj m zus I ndians ) , and other art i c l es of food

for every marr iage that takes p lace,i n the vi l lage . The

representat ive reserves for himse l f al l the per ishabl e

art i c l es,sending only the cash to the Desayi . Thus ,

for every marriage w i thin hi s j ur i sd ict ion,the Desay i

ge ts one pagoda . Of late,i n the case of those Desayis

who have purchased the ir r ights as such from the old

Desayis , i nstead of a pagoda , a fee of two annas and a

hal f i s l evied on each marriage . Every death wh ich

occurs i n a v i l lage i s equal ly a source of i ncome to the

Desayi , who rece ives ar t i c l e s o f food , and fou r annas or

more,accord ing to the c i rcumstances of the part ies in

whose house the death has occurred . As i n the case of

marriage,the local rep resentat ive appropr iates to him

sel f t he art i cl es of food,and tran smit s the money to the

Desayi . The local agen t keeps a l i st of al l domest ic

occurrences that take p lace i n the vi l lage,and thi s l i st

i s most careful ly scrut in i sed and checked by the Desayi

during h i s tours,and any amount le ft unpaid i s then

col lected . Whenever a marr iage takes p lace in hi s own

house,al l the houses w ithi n h i s j uri sdic t i on are bound

to send him r ice,dhal , and other art i c les , and any money

they can afford to pay . Somet imes r i ch peop le send

large sums to the D é say i , to enable him to purchase the

c lothes,j ewel s

,etc .

,requ ired for the marr iage . When

a Desayi finds his work too heavy for him to attend

to s ingle -handed,he sel l s a port ion of hi s j ur i sdi ct ion

for some hundreds or thousands of rupees,according to

i ts extent,to some relat ion . A regular sale deed i s

execu ted and registered .

”

(S ee al so Samaya . )D es ikar.

—A sub -d iv i s i on and t i t l e of Pandaram .

D esur.—The name of a sub -div i s ion of Kapu

,which

is e ither terr i tor ial , or poss i bly der ived from deha , body,and Sara, va lour .

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DEVA-DAS I 1 26

subsi st by danc ing and musi c , and the pract ice of ‘

the

o ldes t profess ion i n the world .

’ The Das i s were probably

in the beginn ing the resul t of l eft -handed un ion s between

members of two d i fferent castes , but they are now part ly

recru i ted by admi ssions,and even purchases

,from other

c lasses . The profess i on i s not now held i n the cou s i

derat ion i t once enjoyed . Formerly they enjoyed a

considerable soc ial pos it ion . I t i s one of the many

inconsi stenc i es of the H indu re l ig i on that , though the i r

p rofess ion i s repeated ly and vehement ly condemned by

the Shastras , i t has always rece ived the countenance of

the church . The r i se of the caste , and i ts euphem ist i c

name,seem both of them to date from about the n in th

and tenth centuri es A .D . , during which much act iv ity

prevai l ed i n Southern I ndia in the matter of bu i lding

templ es,and e laborat ing the servi ces he ld i n them . The

danc ing -gi rl s’ dut ies,then as now,

were to fan the ido l

with chamaras (Tibetan ox tai l s ) , to carry the sacredl ight cal led kumbart i

,and to s ing and dance before the

god when he was carr ied i n process ion . I nscrip t ions *

show that,i n A .D . 1004 ,

the great temp le of the Chola

ki ng Rajaraja at Tanj ore had attached to i t four hundred

talic’ ché r i pendugal , or women of the temp le , who l ived

in free quarters i n the four street s round about i t,and

were al l owed tax-free land ou t of the endowment . Other

temp les had s imi lar arrangements . At the beginn ing

of t he last century there were a hundred danc ing-gir l s

attached to the temp l e at Conjeeveram,who were

,

Buchanan tel l s us,T

‘ kept for the honour of the de it ie s

and the amusement of the i r votarie s ; and any fami l iari ty

between these gi r l s and an infidel would occas ion scandal .’

At Madura,Conjeeveram

,and Tanjore there are st i l l

South I nd ian I nscr ipt ions , Vol . I I , part 3, p . 259 .

1' Journey from Madras through Mysore, Canara and Malabar, 1807 .

1 27 DEVA-DAS I

numbers of them, who rece ive al l owances from the

endowments of the b ig temples at these p laces . I n

former days,the p rofess ion was countenanced not only

by the church,but al so by the S tate . Abdur Raz aak, a

Turki sh ambassador at the court of Vijayanagar in the

fi fteenth century,describes women of thi s c lass as

l iv ing i n State -contro l led inst i tut i ons , the revenue of

which went towards the upkeep of the pol ice .

“ At the p resent day they form a regu lar caste,

having i t s own l aws of i nher i tance , i t s own customs and

ru les of et iquette , and i t s own panchayats (counc i ls) tosee that al l t hese are fo l l owed , and thus hold a posit i on ,which i s perhaps w ithout a paral le l in any other country .

Danc ing -g ir l s,dedicated to the usual profe ss ion of the

caste,are formal ly marr ied in a temp le to a sword or a

god ,the tal i (marr iage badge) being t ied round the i r

necks by some men of the i r caste . I t was a standing

puzz le to the censu s enumerators whether such women

shou ld be entered as marr ied i n the column referr ing toc ivi l condit ion .

Among the Das i s , sons and daughters inheri t

equa l ly,contrary to ord inary H indu usage . Some of the

sons remain in the cast e,and l ive by p laying musi c for

the women to dance to,and accompan iment s to the i r

songs, or by teach ing s inging and danc ing to the younger

gir l s,and mus ic to the boys . These are cal led Nattu

vans . Others marry some gi r l of the caste,who i s too

p lain to be l i kely to be a success in the profess i on,and

dri ft out of the commun ity . Some of these affix to thei r

names the terms P i l la i and Mudali,which are the usual

t it les of t he two castes (Vel lal a and Kaikola) from which

most of the Das i s are recru ited , and try to l ive down the

Ell iott . History of I nd ia.

DEVA-DAS I 1 28

st igma attaching to the i r b i rth . O thers j o i n the Mel ak

karan s or p rofess i ona l mus i c ians . Cases have occurred,

i n which weal thy sons of danc ing -women have been

al lowed to marry g i r l s o f respectable parentage of other

caste s,but they are very rare . The daughters o f the

cas te,who are brought up to fo l l ow the cas te p rofess ion ,

are carefu l ly taught danc ing,s ing i ng , the art of dress ing

wel l,and the am am or z

’

s,and thei r success in keep ing up

thei r c l ien tel e i s largely due to the contrast which they

thus p resent to the ordinary H indu housewife,whose

ideas are bounded by the day’s d inner and the bab ies .

The danc ing -gir l castes,and the ir al l ie s the Melakkaran s

,

are now pract ical ly the so l e repo s i tory of I ndian mus ic,

the system of which i s probab ly one of the o ldest in the

world . Besides them and the Brahmans,few study the

subj ect . The barbers’ bands of the vi l lages usual ly

d i sp lay more energy than sc ience . A notable excep tion,

however,ex i sts in Madras c i ty

,which has been known

to attemp t the Dead March in Saul at funera ls in the

Pariah quarters .

There are two d ivi s ion s among the Das i s,ca l l ed

Valangai (r ight -hand) and Idangai (left -hand) . The

chief d i st inct ion between them i s that the former w i l l

have noth ing to do wi th the Kammalan s (ar t i sans) or

any o ther of the l eft - hand caste s,or p lay or s ing in the i r

houses . The latter d ivi s ion i s no t so part icu lar , and i ts

members are consequently sometimes known as the

Kammal a Das i s . Ne i ther d ivi s ion,however , is a l lowed

to have any deal ings w ith men of the lowes t castes , and

v io lat ion of th i s ru l e of et iquette i s t r ied by a panchayat

of the caste , and vi s i ted with excommunicat ion .

“ I n the Tel ugu d i st r i c ts,the danc ing-gi rl s are

cal l ed Bogam s and San is . They are supposed to be

dedicated to the gods,j ust as the Das i s are , but there i s

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DEVA-DASI I 30

marry w ithi n the i r own caste , without restr i ct i ons of

any kind .

I n Malabar there i s no regular community of

danci ng -gir l s ; nor i s there among the M ussalman s of

any part of the Pres idency .

No doubt,Monier Wi l l iams writesfii Das i s drive

a profitab l e trade under the sanct i on o f re l ig ion,and some

courtesans have been known to amass enormous fortunes .

Nor do they think i t i ncons i stent with the ir method of

making money to spend it i n works of p iety . Here and

there I ndian br idges and other usefu l publ ic works owe

the ir ex i stence to the l ibera l i ty of the fra i l s i sterhood .

The large tank (lake) at Channarayapatna in Mysorewas bu i l t by two danci ng -girl s .

I n the Travancore Census Report , 190 1 , the Das i s

of the Coromande l coast are compared , i n the words ofa Sanskr i t p oet , to wa lking fl esh -trees bear ing golden

fru it s . The observant Abbé Duboi s noticed that, of al l

the women in I nd ia , i t i s e spec ia l ly the courtesans who

are the most decent ly c lothed , as exper i ence has taught

them that for a woman to d i sp lay her charms damp s

sensua l ardour in stead of exc it ing it , and that the imag i

nat i on i s more eas i ly capt ivated than the eye .

I t was not iced by Lord Duffer in , on the occas ion of a

Viceregal vi s i t to Madura , that t he front part of the dress

of the danc ing -gir ls hangs in pett icoat s , but the back i s

on ly trou sers .

The Rev. A . Margosch is wri te s in connect ion with

the pract ice of di lat ing the lobes of t he ears i n Tinnevel ly,

that,as it was once the fash ion and a mark of respecta

b ility to have long ears , so now the converse i s true .

Unt i l a few years ago, i f a woman had short ears , she

Brahman i sm and H in du ism .

131 DEVA-DASI

was asked i f she was a Deva -das i ,‘ because that c lass

kept thei r ears natural . Now,with the change of

customs al l round,even danc ing -girl s are found wi th

long ears . “ The danc ing -g irl s are,

” the Rev . M . Phi l l ip s

wr i te s !“ the most accomp l i shed women among the

H indus . They read , write , s ing and p lay as we l l as

dance . Hence one of the great obj ect i ons urged at fi rst

against the educat ion of gi rl s was ‘We don’t want our

daughters to become danc ing-gir l s

I t i s on record‘

i‘ that , i n 1 79 1 , the Nabob of the

Carnat i c di ned with the Governor of Madras,and that

,

after dinner,they were d iverted with the danc ing wenches

,

and the Nabob was presented with cord ia l waters,

French brandy and embro idered China qu i l ts . The

story i s to ld of a Governor of Madras in more recent

t imes,who

,ignorant of the inverse method of beckon ing

to a person to advance or retreat in the East,was

scandal i sed when a nautch gir l advanced rap idly,t i l l

he thought she was going to s i t in hi s lap . At a nautch

in the fort of the Mandasa Zemindar in honour of S ir

M . E . Grant Duff ]: the danc ing -girl s danced to the ai r

of Ma lbrook se va t’

en guerre . Bussy taught i t to the

danc ing-g ir l s , and they to the i r ne ighbours . I n the

Vizagapatam and Godavar i j ungl es , nat ives apostrophi se

t igers as Bussy . Whether the name i s connected with

Bussy I know not .

Of Deva-das i s at t he Court of Tippoo Su ltan , the

fol lowing account was publ i shed in “ Comme

Souvera in d’

une part ie du Visapour, T ippoo-Saib

Evo lut ion of Hindu ism , 1903.

1‘ J . T . “ Theeler. Madras in th e O lden T ime.

1 Notes from a D iary , 1881—86.

J . Michaud . H isto ire des Progres et de la Chfite de I ’Empire de Mysore,sons les Regnes d

’Hyder

-A ly et Tippoo Sa ib .

11- 9 B

DEVA-DAS I 132

jouissoit de la fac i l it é d’

avo ir parm i ses bayaderes ce l les

qu i éto ient l e s p l us renommées par l eurs talens,leurs

graces , l eur beauté , etc . Ces bayaderes sont des dan

s cuses supér ieures dans leur genre ; tout dan se et tout

j oue en meme - tems chez el l es ; leur tete , l eurs yeux ,l eurs bras , l eurs p ieds , tout leur corps , semblent ne se

mouvoi r que from enchanter ; e l les sont d’une incroyab le

legerete, e t ont le jarret auss i fort que soup l e ; leur ta i l le

est des p l u s sve lte s e t des p l u s é l égantes,et e l l es

m’ont pas un mouvement qu i ne so i t une grace . La p lus

agee de ces femmes n’

avo it pas p lus de se iz e a dix

sep t an s . Auss i tot qu’e l le s at te igno ient cet age ,on l e s

réformoit , et a lors e l l e s allo ien t cour i r les provinces , on

s’

attachoien t ades pagodes,dan s lesque les el l es étoien t

entretenues,e t ou leurs charmes éto ien t un des mei l leurs

revenus des brames .

”

General Burton narrates 9“ how a c iv i l ian of the old

school bu i l t a house at Bhavan i , and es tabl i shed a £07 5

a’e éa/Zez

‘

,i .e. ,a set of nautch girl s

,whose accomp l i sh

ments actual ly extended to s inging God save the King ,and thi s was kept up by the i r descendant s

,so that , when

he vi s i ted the p lace in 1852 ,he was “ greeted by the

Whole party , bed iz ened in al l the i r finery , and squal l ing

the nat ional anthem as i f they understood i t , whi ch they

d id not . With thi s may be contras ted a c i rcu lar from a

modern E uropean offi c ial,which s tates that “ during my

jamabandy (land revenue settl ement) tour, peop l e have

somet imes been k ind enough to arrange s inging or

dancing part i e s,and

,as it would have been d i scourteous

to dec l i ne to attend what had cost money to arrange ,I have accepted the compl iment in the sp i r i t in wh ich i t

was offered . I should,however, be glad i f you would

An I nd ian O l io .

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DEVA-DAS I 134

them food , and not thei r w ive s . At Adon i I have seen

a Basavi,who was work ing at a cotton pres s for a dai ly

wage of three annas, i n fu l l dres s on a ho l iday in honour

of a local de ity, wear ing an elaborate ly chased s i lver

wais t be l t and abundant s i lver j ewel ry . The fo l low ing

are examp les of pet i t ions p resen ted to a E uropean

Mag i strate and Super in tendent of Po l i ce by gi r ls who

are about to become Basavis

P eti tion of aged about 17 or 18.

I have agreed to become a Basav i , and get mysel f stamped by myguru (priest) accord ing to the custom of my caste. I request that myproper age, wh ich entitles me to be stamped

, may be personal lyascertained, and perm ission g ranted to be stamped.

The stamp ing refers to brand ing with the emblems

of the chank and chakram .

P eti tion of

I have got two daughters, aged 15 and 1 2 respectively. As I haveno male issues, I have got to necessari ly celeb rate the ceremony inthe temp le in connection w ith the tying of the goddess’s tal i to mytwo daugh ters under the orders of the gu ru , in accordance w i th the

customs of my caste. I,therefore, subm it th is petition for fear that

the authorities may raise any objection (under the Age of ConsentAct) . I , therefo re, request that the Honou rable Cou rt may be p leasedto g i ve perm ission to the ty ing of the tal i to my daughters.

P eti tion of two girls, aged 1 7 to 1 9.

Ou r father and mother are dead. Now we w ish to be l ikeprostitutes, as we are not w i l l ing to be marr ied

,and th us estab l ish

our hou se-name. O u r mother also was of th is p rofess ion . We~

now

request perm iss ion to be prostitutes acco rd ing to our rel ig ion, afterwe are sent before the Med ical O fficer .The perm iss ion referred to in the above pet i t ion s

bears reference to a dec i s ion of the H igh Court that,a

g ir l who becomes a Basav i be ing incapable of contract

ing a lega l marr iage,her ded icat ion when a m inor i s an

offence under the Pena l Code .

135 DEVA-DASI

At Adon i the dead body of a new -born in fan t was

found in a d i tch, and a Basavi , working w ith others in

a cotton factory, was suspected of fou l p lay. The

station -house officer announced hi s in tent ion of v i s it ing

the fac tory,and she who was in a state of lactat ion

,and

cou ld produce no baby to account for her cond it ion,

would be the culpri t . Writ i ng concern ing the Basavis

of the Bel lary dis trictfilé Mr . W. Franc i s te l l s us that

parents w ithout male i ssue often,in stead of adop ting

a son i n the usual manner, ded icate a daughter by a

s imp le ceremony to the god of some temp le,and thence

forth,by immemor ial custom

,she may inher i t her parents

’

property,and perform the ir funeral r i tes as i f she was a

son . She does no t marry , but l ives i n her parents’ house

wi th any man of equa l or higher caste whom she may

select,and her chi ldren inheri t her father’s name and

bedagu (sep t) , and not those of the i r own father . I f she

has a son ,he inher i ts her property ; i f she has on ly

a daughter,that daughter again becomes a Basavi.

Parents des i r ing male i ssue of thei r own,cure from

s ickness in themselves or the i r ch i ldren,or re l ief from

some calam i ty,wi l l s im i lar ly ded icate the i r daugh ter.

The ch i ldren of a Basavi are leg it imate,and ne i ther they

nor the ir mo thers are t reated as being in any way

infer ior to the i r fe l lows . A Basavi,indeed

,from the

fact that she can never be a widow,i s a most we lcome

guest a t wedd ings . Basav is di ffer from the ord inary

danc ing—gir l s ded icated at temp les in that the i r dut ies in

the temp les (which are confined to the shrine of the i r

dedicat ion) are almos t nominal , and that they do no t

pros t i tute themselves promi scuously for hi re . A Basav i

very usual ly l ives fa i thful ly w i th one man,who al lows her

Manual of the Bel lary d istrict.

DEVA-DAS I 136

a fixed sum week ly for her maintenance , and a fixed

quant i ty of new ra iment annua l ly, and she works for her

fam i ly as hard as any other woman . Basavis are ou t

wardly i nd is t ingui shab le from other women , and are for

the most par t coo l i e s . I n p laces there i s a custom by

which they are cons idered free to change the i r protec tors

once a year at the v i l lage car- fest ival or some s im i lar

ann iversary,and they u sual ly se ize thi s oppo rtun i ty of

putt ing the i r partner’s affect ions to the test by suggest

ing that a new c lo th and bod ice wou ld be a we lcome

present . So poor , as a ru le, are the husbands that the

po l i ce aver that the ann iversar ies are p receded by an

unusual cr0p of petty thefts and burglar ies committed

by them in the i r effo rt s to provide the ir customary g i fts .

A recent report of a Po l i ce I nspector in the Be l lary

d i str ict states that “ cr imes are committed here and there,

as thi s i s Nagarapancham i t ime . Nagarapancham i

fest iva l i s to be ce lebrated at the next Ammavasya or

new-moon day . I t i s at that t ime the peop le keep ing

the p ro st i tutes shou ld pay the i r dues on that day ;otherwi se t hey w i l l have the ir new engagements .

I n the Kurnool d i str ict , the Basav i system i s

pract i sed by the Boyas,but d iffers from that in vogue

i n Be l lary and Mysore . The obj ect of making a Basav i ,in these two loca l i t i es , is to perpetuate the fami ly when

there i s no male he i r . I f the on ly i ssue in a fam i ly is a

female,the fam i ly becomes ext inct i f she marr ies , as by

marr iage she changes her sept . To p revent thi s , she i s

not marr ied,but ded i cated as a Basav i , and continues to

belong to her father’s sept,to which a l so any ma le issue

which is born to her be longs . I n the Kurnoo l di str ic t

the mot ive in making Basav is i s d ifferent . The g i r l i s

not wedded to an ido l,but

,on an ausp ic ious day, i s t i ed

by means ofa gar land of flowers to the garuda kambham

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DEVA-DASI 138

on which i s dep icted the namam of Vishnu,fastened to a

necklace o f black beads , i s t ied round her neck . S he i s

g iven by way of i n s ign ia a cane as a wand carr ied in the

r ight hand,and a gopalam or begg ing basket

,which i s

s lung on the le ft arm . She i s then branded with the

emblems of the chank and chakra . I n another account

of the marr iage ceremony among danc ing -gi r l s,i t i s

s tated that the Bogam s,who are wi thout except ion

p rost i tutes,though they are not al l owed to marry

, go

through a marriage ceremony,which i s rather a costly

one . Some t imes a wealthy Native bears the expense,

makes large p resents to the br ide,and rece ives her fi rs t

favours . Where no such Opportun ity offers i tsel f,a

sword or other weapon represents the br idegroom ,and

an imaginary nupt ial ceremony i s performed . Shou ld

the Bogam woman have no daughter,she i nvariably

adop ts one,usual ly paying a price for her

,the Kaikola

(weaver) caste being the ordinary one from wh ich to

take a chi ld .

Among the Kaikolan music ian s of Co imbatore,at

least one g i r l in every fam i ly should be set apart for the

temp le service,and she i s instructed i n mus ic and danc ing .

At the tal i -ty ing ceremony she i s decorated wi th j ewe l s ,and made to s tand on a heap of paddy (unhusked r ice) .A folded c loth i s held before her by two Das is , who al so

stand on heap s of paddy . The g ir l catches ho ld of the

c loth,and her dancing master , who is seated behind her ,

grasp ing her legs,moves them up and down in time with

the music which i s p layed . I n the even ing sh e i s taken,

astr ide a pony,to the temp le

,where a new c loth for the

idol,the tal i

,and o ther art ic les requ i red for do ing p t

'

ija

(worship) have been got ready . The gir l i s seated fac ing

Manual of the North Arcot d istrict.

139 DEVA-DAS I

the idol,and the offi c iat ing Brahman g ives sandal and

flowers to her,and t ies the tali

,wh ich has been

ly ing at the feet of the idol,round her neck . The tal i

consi sts of a go lden d isc and b lack beads . She cont inues

to learn music and danc ing,and eventual ly goes through

the form of a nupt ia l ceremony . The re lat ions are

invi ted on an ausp ic ious day,and the materna l unc le

,

or hi s representat ive,t ie s a golden band on the g ir l’s

forehead , and , carrying her , p laces her on a p lank before

the assembled guests . A Brahman p r iest rec ite s man

trams (prayers) , and prepares the sacred fi re (homam) .For the actual nupt ial s a r ich B rahman

,i f po ss ib le

,and

,

i f not,a Brahman of more l owly status i s invi ted . A

Brahman i s cal led in , as he i s next i n importance to , and

the representat ive of, the i do l . As a Das i can never

become a w idow , the beads in her tal i are cons idered t o

br ing good l uck to women who wear them . And some

peop le send the tal i requ i red for a marriage to a Das i , who

prepares the st r ing for it,and attaches to i t black beads

from her own tal i . A Das i i s a lso deputed to walk at

the head of H indu marr iage process i ons . Marr ied

women do not l ike to do th i s,as they are not p roof

against ev i l omens,which the process ion may meet .

And it i s be l i eved that Das i s , to whom widowhood i s

unknown,possess the power of ward ing off the effect s of

inausp ic ious omens . I t may be remarked,en passcm t,

that Das i s are not at the p resent day so much patron i sed

at H indu marr iages as i n o lden t imes . Much i s due in

thi s d irect ion to the progress of en l ightened ideas , which

have of l ate been strongly p ut forward by H indu soc ia l

reformers . When a Kaikolan Das i d ies, her body i s

covered wi th a new c l o th removed from the idol , and

flowers are supp l ied from the temp le,to which she

belonged . No paja is performed in the temp le t i l l the

DEVA-DAS I 140

corpse i s di sposed o f, as the idol , being her husband , has

to observe pol l ut ion .

I n former t imes , dancing ~

g irls used to s leep three

n ights at the commencement o f thei r career in the inner

shrine of the Koppesvara temple at Pal ive la i n the Godavari d i st ri c t , so as to be embraced by the god . But oneo f them , i t i s sa id , disappeared one n ight , and the pract ice

has ceased . The funeral pyre of every g i rl of the danc ing

g ir l (San i ) caste dying in the vi l lage should be l i t w i th

fi re brought from the temp le . The same p ract ice i s

found in the Sr i rangam temp le near

The fol l ow ing account of Das i s i n Travancore,where

the i r total s trength i s only about four hundred,i s taken

from a note by M r . N . Subraman i A iyer . Whil e the

Das i s of Kart ikappall i, Ambalapuzha, and S hertal lay

belonged original ly to the Konkan coast,those o f Shen

kottah belonged to the Pandian country . Bu t the South

Travancore Das i s are an ind igenous c lass . The female

members of the caste are,bes ides be ing known by the

ordinary name of Tévad iyal and Das i , both mean ing

servant of God,cal l ed Kud ikkar

, mean ing those bel ong

ing to the house g iven ren t free by the S irkar) ,and Pendukal , or women , the former o f the s e des ignat ion s be ing more popu lar than the latter . Males

are cal led Tevadiyan ,though many p refer to be known

as Nanch inat Ve llalas . Males,l ike these Ve llalas

,take

the t i t l e of P i l la i . I n anc ient days Deva -das i s,who

became exper ts in s ing ing and danc ing , rece ived the

t i t l e of Rayar (king) which appears to have been las t

conferred in 184 7 A .D . The Sou th Travancore Das i s

ne ither interdine nor intermarry wi th the danc ing -gi r l s

of the Tami l -speak ing di str ict s . They adopt g i r ls on ly

Gazetteer of the Godavari d istrict .

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DEVA-DASI 14 2

Padmanabah swam i s t emp l e , and the Dusserah at the

cap i tal ; (2 ) to meet and escort members of the roya l

fami ly at the ir respect ive V i l lage l im it s ; (3) to under

take the prescr ibed fast s for the Apamargam ceremony

in connect i on with the annua l fest ival of the temp le . O n

t hese days str ic t cont inence i s enjo ined,and they are fed

at the temp le,and al lowed on ly one meal a day .

The p rinc ipal deit ie s of the dancing -girl s are those

to whom the temp les,i n which they are emp l oyed , are

ded icated . They observe the new and fu l l -moon days,

and the last Fr iday of every month as important . The

Onam,S ivaratri, Tye -Pongal , D i paval i , and Ch itrapur

nami are the best recogn i sed rel ig ious fest iva l s . M inor

de it i es,such as Bhadrakali

,Yakshi

,and Ghandarva are

worsh ipped by the figure of a tr ident or sword be ing

drawn on the wal l of the house , to which food and sweet

meat s are offered on Fridays . The pr iests on t hese

occas i ons are Occhan s . There are no recognized head

men in the caste . The serv ice s of Brahmans are resorted

to for the purpose of pur ificat ion,of Namp iyans and

Saiva Ve llalas for the performance of funeral r ites,and

of Kurukkals on occas ions of marr iage , and for the final

ceremon ie s on the s ixteenth day after death .

“ Gir l s be longing to thi s caste may e ither be ded i

cated to temp l e service,or marr ied to a ma le member of

the caste . No woman can be dedi cated to the temp le

after she has reached puberty . On the occasion of

marr iage,a sum of from fi fty to a hundred and fi fty

rupees i s g iven to the br ide’s house, no t as a bride

price,but for defraying the marr iage expenses . There

i s a pre l im inary ceremony of betrothal,and the marr iage

i s celebrated at an ausp ic i ous hour. The Kurukkal

rec i tes a few hymns,and the ceremon ies, which inc lude

the tying of the tal i , continue for four days . The coup le

143 DEVA-DASI

commence j o in t l ife on the s ixteenth day after the gi r l

has reached puberty . I t i s easy enough to get a divorce ,as thi s mere ly depends upon the w i l l of one of the two

part ies,and the woman becomes free to rece ive c lothes

from another person in token of her having entered into

a fresh matrimonia l al l iance .

Al l app l icati on s for the presentat ion of a gi rl to the

templ e are made to the temp le authori t ie s by the sen ior

danc ing -gi rl of the temp le , the g irl to be presented be ing

in al l cases from s ix to e ight years of age . I f she i s

c losely related to t he app l icant , no enqu i r ies regard ing

her statu s and c laim need be made . I n al l other cases ,formal invest igat ions are in st ituted , and the records taken

are submitted to the chief revenue offi cer of the divi s ion

for orders . Some paddy (r ice) and five fanam s are g iven

to the fami ly from the temp le funds towards the expenses

of the ceremony . The pract ice at the Such indrum temp le

i s to convene, on an ausp ic ious day, a yoga or meet ing

,

composed of the Valiya Sri -kariyakkar, the Yogatt il

Pott i , the Vattappalli Muttatu,and others

,at whi ch the

pre l im inar ies are arranged . The gi r l bathes , and goes

to the temp le on the morn ing of t he selected day withtwo new c loths

,betel l eaves and nut s . The temp l e

p riest p laces the c loth s and the tal i at the feet of the

image, and set s apart one for the d ivine u se . The tal i

cons i st s of a triangu lar bottu,bear ing the image of

Ganesa, with a go ld bead on e i ther s ide . Taking the

remain ing c loth and the tal i,and sitt ing c lose to the g ir l

,

the pr iest , fac ing to the north,p roceeds to officiate .

The gir l s i t s , fac ing the de ity, i n the inner sanctuary .

The pr iest kindles the fi re,and performs al l the marriage

ceremon ies, fol l ow ing the custom of the T irukkalyanam

fest ival , when S iva i s represented as marrying Parvat i .

He then teaches the gi rl the Panchakshara hymn i f the

DEVA-DAS I 144

templ e i s Saivi te,and Ash takshara i f i t i s Vaishnav ite ,

presents her w ith the cl o th,and t ies the tal i round her

neck . The Nat tuvan ,or dancing -master , i n structs her

for the fi rst t ime in h i s art,and a quant ity of raw rice i s

g iven to her by the temp le author i t i e s . The gi rl,thu s

marr ied,i s taken to her house

,where the marriage

fest iv i t i es are cel ebrated for two or three days . As in

Brahman i cal marr iages,the ro l l ing of a cocoanut to and

fro i s gone through ,the temp le p r iest or an elder ly Das i ,

dressed in ma le att i re,act ing the part of the bridegroom .

The gi rl i s taken in process ion th rough the streets .“ The b irth of ma le chi ldren i s not made an occas ion

for rej o ic ing,and

,as the proverb goes

,the lamp on these

occas ion s i s on ly d im ly“ l ighted . I nher i tance i s i n the

fema le l ine,and women are the abso lute owners of a l l

p roper ty earned . When a dancing -gir l d ies,some paddy

and five fanam s are g iven from the temp le to which she

was attached,to defray the funeral expenses . The

temp le p riest g ives a garland , and aquanti ty of ashes

for decorat ing the corpse . After thi s,a Namp iyan

,an

Occhan,some Vel lal a headmen

,and a Kudikkari

,having

no pol lut i on , assemb le at the house of the deceased . The

Nampiyan consecrates a pot of water w ith p rayers,the

Occhan p lays on hi s mus ica l i n strument,and the Vellalas

and Kudikkari powder the turmeri c to be smeared over

the corpse . I n the case of temp le devotees , the ir dead

bodies must be bathed wi th thi s substance by the pr iest,

after which alone the funeral ceremon ie s may p roceed .

The Karta (chief mourner) , who i s the nearest male

relative,has to get h i s who le head shaved . When a

templ e pr iest d ie s,though he i s a Brahman , the danc ing

g irl,on whom he has performed the vicar ious marriage

r ite,has to go to hi s dea th-bed

,and prepare the turmer ic

powder to be dusted over hi s corpse . The ann iversary

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DEVA-DAS I 146

prost i tu tes . He added that the danc ing -gir l s get good

incomes by bring ing up g irl s in preference to boys .

Another w i tness s tated that danc ing -g ir l s,when they

grow old,obtain g irl s and bring them up to fo l low the ir

profess ion,and that good -look ing girl s are general ly

bought *

(o) The evidence showed that two of the pri soner s

were danc ing -girl s of a certa in temp le,that one of them

took the two daughters of the remain ing pri soner to the

pagoda,to be marked as danc ing -girls

,and that they

were so marked , and thei r names entered in the accounts

of the pagoda . The first pr i soner (the mother of theg irl s) di spo sed of the chi ldren to the thi rd pr i soner for

the cons iderat ion o f a neck ornament and thirty-five

rupees . The ch i ldren appeared to be of the ages of

seven and two years,re spect ively . Ev idence was taken ,

which tended to prove that danc ing -g ir l s ga in the ir l ive l i

hood by the performance of certain o ffices in pagodas ,by ass ist ing in the performance of ceremon ies in pr ivate

houses,by danc ing and s ing ing upon the occas ion of

marr iage,and by pro st itut ion .

’

r

(e) The fi rst pr i soner presented an appl icat ion for

the enrolment of his daughter as a danc ing -gir l at one

of the great pagodas . He stated her age to be th irteen .

She atta ined puberty a month or two after her enrolment .

Her father was the servant of a dancing-girl , the second

pr i soner,who had been teaching the minor danc ing for

some five years . The evidence showed that the second

prisoner brought the gir l to the pagoda , that both fi rst

and second pri soners were present when the bottu (or

tal i) was t ied , and other ceremon ies of the ded icat ion

performed that third prisoner,as Battar of the templ e ,

Ind ian Law Reports , Madras Series, XX I I I , 1900.

1 l ord , Vo l . V , 1869—70 .

14 7 DEVA-DAS I

was the person who actual ly t ied the bottu,which

denote s that the Das i i s wedded to the idol . There was

the usual ev idence that danc ing -g irl s l ive by prost itu

t ion , though occas iona l ly kept by the same man for a

year or more . *

(a’

) The p laint i ff, a Deva-das i , comp lained that ,when she brought offer ings accord ing to custom and

p laced them before the God at a certa in fest ival,and

asked the Archakas (offi c iat ing pr iests) to present theoffer ings to the God , burn incense , and then d ist r ibute

them,they refused to take the offer ings on the ground

that the D éva-das i had gone to a Komat i’s house to

dance . She claimed damages,Rs . 10 ,

for the rej ected

offerings , and Rs . 40 for l oss of honour , and a perpetual

inj unct ion to al low her to perform the mantapa had i

(sacr ifice) at the Ch ittrai Vasanta fest iva l . The prie stsp leaded that the danc ing -girl had

,for her bad conduct

in having danced at a Komat i’s house , and subsequently

refused to exp iate the deed by drinking panchagavyan

(five products of the cow) accord ing to the Shastras , been

expel led both from her caste and from the

(e) I n a certa in templ e two danc ing -girl s were

dedicated by the Dharmakarta to the services of the

temp le without the consent o f the ex i st ing body o f

danc ing-girl s,and the su it was inst ituted against the

Dharmakarta and these two Dava -das i s , ask ing that

the Court should ascerta in and declare the r ights of the

Deva -das i s of the pagoda in regard (1 ) to the dedicat ion

of Deva-das i s, (2 ) to the Dharmakarta

’

s power to b ind

and suspend them and that the Court should ascertain

and declare the r ights of the plaint i ff, the ex ist ing

Dava-das is,as to the excl us ion of al l other Deva -das i s ,

I bid . , Vo l . I , 1876-7 8. 1‘ m a ,

Vo l . VI , 1883.

I I—I O B

DEVA-DAS I 148

save those who are re lated to or adopted by some oneof the Dava-das i s for the t ime being , or those who

,

being approved by al l , are e lected and proposed to the

Dharmakarta for ded icat ion . That the new Das is may

be dec lared to have been improperly dedicated,and not

ent it led to any of the r ights of Deva-das i s , and restrained

from attend ing the pagoda in that character,and from

interfer ing with the du ly dedicated Deva-das i s in the

exerc i se of the i r offi ce . That fi rst defendant be re

stra ined from stamp ing and ded icat ing other Deva -das i s

but such as are duly approved . The J udge d ism issed

the case on the ground that i t would be contrary to

publ ic pol icy to make the dec larat ion prayed for,as

,i n

so doing,the Court would be lend ing itse l f to bringing

the part ies under the cr im ina l law . In the appeal,

which was d ism issed,one of the J udges remarked that

the p laint iffs c laimed a r ight excl us ive to themse lves

and a few other danc ing -women,profess ional prost it utes

,

to present infant femal e ch i l dren for ded icat ion to the

templ e as danc ing -girl s to be stamped as such,and so

accred ited to b ecome at matur ity profess ional prost i

tutes , pr ivate or pub l icfil‘

(f A Dava-das i sued to estab l i sh her right to the

m iras i (fees) of danc ing -g ir ls in a certain pagoda, and to

be put in po ssess ion o f t he said miras i together w i th the

honours and perqu i s i tes attached thereto,and to recover

twenty -four rupees,being the value of sa id perqu is i tes

and honours for the year preceding . She al leged that

the Dharmakarta of the pagoda and h is agents wrong

fu l ly d ism i ssed her from the office because she had

refused to acquiesce in the admiss ion by the Dharma

karta of new danc ing -gir l s into the pagoda service , of

ma , Vo l . I , 1876-78.

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DEVA-DAS I 150

the Bagam caste in the Godavar i d istr ict . The woman

p leaded that the property had been acquired by her

as a prost itute,and den ied her brother’s cla im to i t .

He obtained a decree for on ly Rs . 100 ,being a moiety

of the property le ft by the ir mother . The H igh Court

held,on the evidence as to the local custom of the caste

,

that the decree was r ight . ale

(j ) The accused , a Mad iga of the Be l lary d istr ict ,ded icated hi s m inor daughter as a Basavi by a form of

marr iage with an idol . I t appeared that a Basavi i s

incapable of contract ing a lawful marr iage,and ord i

narily pract ices prom iscuous intercourse with men , and

that her sons succeed to her father’s property . I t was

he ld that the accused had committed an offence under

the Penal Code , which lays down that “ whoever sel ls ,l ets to h ire , or otherwi se d isposes of any minor under

the age of s ixteen years,with intent that such m inor

shal l be emp loyed or used for the p urpose of prost i

tut ion,or for any unlawful and immoral purpose , shal l

be pun ished , etc .” The Sess ions j udge referred to

evidence that i t was not a matter of course for Basav is

to p rost itute themse lves for money,and added : “ The

evidence i s very c lear that Basav is are made in accord

ance with a custom of the Mad iga caste . I t i s al so in

evidence that one of the effects of making a g i r l Basav i

i s that her male i ssue becomes a son of her father , and

perpetuates h i s fam i ly,whereas i f she were marr ied , he

would perpetuate her husband s fam i ly . I n th is part i

cular case , the g irl was made a Basavi that she might

be he ir to her aunt,who was a Basavi

,but chi ldl ess .

S iddal ingana Gowd says that they and the i r i ssue inher i t

the parents’ property . There i s evidence that Basav is

115q Vol , ! IV, 189 1 .

15 1 DEVA-DAS I

are made on a very large scal e , and that they l ive in the i r

parents’

houses . There i s no evidence that they are

regarded otherw ise than as respectable members of the

caste . I t seems as i f the Basavi i s the Mad iga and

Bedar equ ivalent of the “ appointed daughter ”

of H indu

law (M itakshara , Chap . I , s . xi,

Upon the whole,

the evidence seems to establ ish that,among the Mad igas ,

there is a widespread custom of perform ing,in a templ e

at Uchangidurgam ,a marr iage ceremony

,the resul t of

whi ch i s that the g irl i s marr ied without poss ib i l i ty of

widowhood or d ivorce ; that she i s at l i berty to have

intercourse with men at her p leasure ; that her chi ldren

are he irs to her father,and keep up hi s fami ly ; and that

Basav i’

s n ieces,being made Basavis , become thei r hei rs .

The Basav is seem in some cases to become prost i tu tes ,bu t the language used by the wi tnesses general ly po ints

on ly to free in tercourse wi th men,and not necessar i ly

to rece ipt of payment for use of thei r bod ie s . I n fact ,they seem to acqu i re the r ight o f intercourse wi th

men without more d iscred it than accrues to the men of

thei r caste for intercourse with women who are not

the i r w ives . *

I t may be observed that Deva -das i s are the only

c lass of women , who are , under H indu law as adm in is

tered in the Br it i sh Courts , al lowed to adopt g ir l s to

themse lves . Amongst the o ther castes , a w idow , for

in stance,cannot adop t to herse l f

,but on ly to her husband ,

and she cannot adopt a daughter in stead of a son . A

recen t attemp t by a Brahman at Poona to adopt a

daughter,who should take the p lace o f a natural -born

daughter,was held to be inval id by genera l law , and not

sanct ioned by local usage . l‘ The same would be he ld in

I bid . , Vol . XV, 1892 . f Ganga Bai v. Anant. 13 Bom . , 690.

DEVA-DAS I 15 2

Madras “ But among danc ing -girl s,Mayne

“ i t i s customary in Madras and Western I nd ia to adop t

g ir l s to fo l low the ir adopt ive mother ’s profess ion,and

the g ir l s so adopted succeed to the ir prOpertyu No

part icu lar ceremon ies are necessary,recogn it ion a lone

be ing suffi c ien t . I n the absence , however, of a spec ia l

custom,and on the ana logy of an ord inary adop t ion

,

on ly one gir l can be adopted . I n Calcutta and Bombay

these adopt ion s by danc ing -g irl s have been he ld invalid J L

Of proverbs re lat ing to danc ing -girl s,the fo l lowing

may be quoted

(1 ) The danc ing -gir l who cou ld no t dance said that

the hal l was not b ig enough . The Rev . H . J ensen

gives i as an equ iva lent “ When the dev i l cou ld not

sw im,he la id the b lame on the water . ”

(2 ) I f the danc ing -g ir l be a l ive,and her mother

d ies,there w i l l be beat ing of drums ; but , i f the danc ing

girl d ies,there w i l l be no such d i sp lay . Thi s i s exp la ined

by J ensen as mean ing that,to secure the favour of a

danc ing -g irl,many men wi l l attend her mother

’

s funera l ;but

,i f the danc ing-g ir l herse l f d ies

,t here i s noth ing to

be ga ined by attend ing the funeral .

(3) Like a danc ing -gir l wip ing a chi ld . J ensen

remarks that a danc ing -g i r l i s supposed to have no

chi ldren,so she does not know how to keep them cl ean .

Said of one who tr ies to mend a matter, but lacks

exper ience,and makes th ings worse than they were

before .

(4 ) As when a boy i s born i n a danc ing-g ir l

’

s

house . J en sen notes that , i f danc ing -gir l s have chi ldren ,they des ire to have g i r l s

,that they may be brought up

to the i r own profess ion .

H indu Law and Usage. 1' Macnagh ten , D igest .1 Class ified Co l lect ion of Tam i l Proverbs, 1897.

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DEVALA 154

déva or god) . A large number of them,both male . and

fema le,are engaged as domest ic servants . Like the

Bants,they fo l low the a l iya santana law of inher i tance

(i n the femal e l ine) , and they have the same bal i s (sept s)as the Bants and Billavas . I n the i r marr iage cere

mon ies,they c lose ly im i tate the Bants . An interest ing

feature in connect ion therewi th i s that,dur ing the dhare

ceremony,a screen i s i nterposed between the br ide and

bridegroom at the t ime when the dhare water i s poured .

As a s ign of betrothal,a r ing i s g iven to the bride -e lect

,

and she wears i t on the l i tt le finger . The caste is a

m ixed one,and here and there Devadigas are seen to

have the typ ica l prom inent cheek -bones and square face

of the J ains .

I n the Census Report,190 1 , Dakkera Daval i , Padart i,

and Valagadava are returned as sub -divi s ion s of

Devadiga .

D evala (be long ing to God) . —An exogamous sept of

Odde. The equivalent Deval i has been recorded as a

sub—caste of Devad iga, and Devalyal as a d ivi s ion of the

Todas .

9K A divi s ion of the Irulas of the N i lgiris , settled

near the v i l lage o f Dévala,i s known by that name .

D évé nga.—The Devangas are a caste of weavers

,

speaking Te lugu or Canarese , who are found a l l over

the Madras Pres idency . Those whom I studied in the

Be l lary d i stri c t connected my Operat ions in a vague

way wi th the p i lag (p lague) tax , and col l ect ion of

subscript ions for the Vic tor ia Memorial . They were

emp loyed in weaving women’s sar i s in pure cotton , or

wi th a s i l k border,which were sold to r ich merchants in

the l ocal bazaar,some of whom be long to the Devanga

caste . They laughingly sa id that , though they are

Breeks .Account of the Pr im it ive Tr ibes and M onuments of the N i lg iris.

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DEVANGA 156

Chaudeswari , who came r id ing on a l i on , and the Asuras

were ki l led off. The mighty Asuras who met the i r

death were Vajradantan (d iamond -toothed) , Pugainethran

(smoke -eyed) , Pugaimugan (smoke - faced) , Ch ithrasénan

(leader of arm ies) and Jeyadrathan (owner of a victory

securing car) . The blood of these five was co loured

respect ive ly ye l low,red

,white

,green

,and b lack . For

dye ing threads of different col ours,Devalan dipped them

i n the blood . The Davangas c la im to be the descendants

of Devalan , and say that they are Devanga Brahmans ,on the strength of the fol lowing stanza , which seems to

have been composed by a D évanga pries t, Sambalinga

Murt i by nameMan u was bo rn in the B rahman caste.

H e was su rely a B rahman in th e womb.

There is no Sudraism in th is caste.

Dévanga had the fo rm of B rahma.

The legendary or ig in of the Devangas i s g iven as

fo l lows in the Baramahal Recordsfi’

f “ When Brahma

the creator created the charam and acharam,or the

an imate and inan imate creat ion,the Devatas or gods

,

Rakshasas or ev i l demons,and the human race

,were

without a cover ing for the i r bod ies,which d i sp leas ing

the god Narada or reason,he wa ited upon Paramesh

wara or the great Lord at hi s palace on the Kai lasa

Parvata or mount of parad i se,and represented the

indecent s tate of the inhab i tant s of the un iverse,and

prayed that he wou ld be p leased to devi se a cover ing

for the i r nakedness . Paraméshwara saw the propr iety

of Narada’

s request , and thought i t was p roper to grant

i t . Whi le he was so th ink ing,a mal e sprang into

ex i stence from his body, whom he named Deva angam

Sect ion I I I , Inhab i tants. Madras Government Press, 1907.

157 DEVANGA

or the body of God , in a l lus ion to the manner of his

b irth . D éva angam i n stant ly asked h i s progen itor why

he had created him . The God answered Repai r to the

pal a samudram or sea of milk, where you wi l l find Sr i

Maha Vishnu or the august mighty god Vishnu , and

he wi l l te l l thee what to do .

’ Deva angam repaired tothe presence of Sr i Maha Vi shnu , and rep resented that

Paraméshwara had sent him , and begged to be favoured

w ith Vi shnu’s commands . Vishnu rep l ied ‘ Do you

weave c loth to serve as a covering to the inhab i tant s ofthe un iverse .

’ Vishnu then gave h im some of the fibres

of the lotu s flower that grew from hi s navel,and

taught h im how to make i t into c loth . Dava augam

wove a p iece of c lo th , and presented i t to Vishnu , whoaccepted it

,and ordered him to depart

,and to take the

fibres of trees,and make ra iment for the inhab i tants

of the Vi shnu loka or gods . Deva angam created ten

thousand weavers, who used to go to the forest and

co l lec t the fibre of trees,and make it into c loth for the

Davatas or gods and the human race . One day, Déva

angam and his tr ibe went to a forest i n the Bhuloka or

earthly world,i n order to co l lect the fibre of trees , when

he was attacked by a race o f Rakshasas or giant s,on

which he waxed wroth,and

,unbend ing hi s jata or long

p lai ted hair,gave i t a twi st

,and struck i t once on the

ground . I n that moment,a Shakt i

,or female goddess

having e ight hands,each grasp ing a war l i ke weapon ,

sprang from the earth,attacked the Rakshasas , and

defeated them . D éva anga named her Chudé shwari or

goddess of the hai r,and

,as she del ivered hi s tr ibe ou t

of the hands o f the Rakshasas, he made her hi s tute laryd ivin i ty .

”

The triba l goddess of the D évangas i s Chaudé swari,a form of Kal i or Durga

,who i s worshipped annual ly

DEVANGA 158

at a fest ival , in wh ich the enti re commun ity takes part

e i ther at the temp le , or at a house or grove spec ial ly

prepared for the occas ion . During the fest ival weaving

operat ions cease and those who take a prominent part

in the r i tes fast, and avo id po l lut ion . The fi rst day

i s cal l ed alagu n ilupadam (erect ing , or fixing of t he

sword) . The goddess i s worshipped , and a sheep or

goat sacr ificed , un less the sett lement i s composed of

vegetar ian Devangas . One man at least from each sept

fasts,remains pure , and carr ies a sword . I ns ide the

temple,or at the spot se lected , the pajar i (pr iest ) tr i es

to balance a long sword on i t s p o in t on the edge o f the

mouth of a po t , whi l e the alagu men cut the i r chests

wi th the swords . Fai lure to ba lance the sword i s

be l i eved to be due to pol lut i on brought by somebody toget r id of which the alagu men bathe . Cow’s ur ine and

turmer ic water are spr inkled over those assemb led,and

women are kept at a di stance to prevent menstrua l or

other form of po l l ut ion . On the next day,ca l led joth i

arambam (jothi, l ight or sp lendour) as Chaudé swari i s

be l ieved to have sprung from jo th i, a big mass i s made

of r ice flour , and a wick , fed wi th gh i (clar ified butter)and l ighted

,i s p laced in a cavi ty scooped out there in .

Thi s flour lamp must be made by members of a pajari’

s

fami ly ass i sted sometimes by the alagu boys . I n i ts

manufacture , a quanti ty of r ice i s steeped in water,and

poured on a p lantain leaf. Jaggery (crude sugar) i sthen m ixed wi th i t , and , when i t i s o f the proper

cons is tency,i t i s shaped into a cone

,and placed on

a s i lver or bras s tray . On the th ird day,cal led panaka

paja or mahanévedyam ,jaggery water i s offered , and

cocoanuts,and o ther o fferings are la id before the

goddess . The rice mass i s d ivided up , and given to

the pajar i , set t i , alagu men and boys , and to the

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DEVANGA 160

omens are favourab le,the j ot i i s l ighted , sheep and

goat s are ki l led,and ponga l (r ice) i s offered to the j ot i .

The day c loses w ith worsh ip of the pot . On the last

day the r i ce mass i s d i s tr ibuted . A l l Davanga guest s

from other v i l lages have to be rece ived and treated with

respect accord ing to the loca l ru les , which are in

force . For th i s purpose,the commun ity d ivide the ir

set t lements in to S thalam s,Payakattulu, Galugramatulu ,

Peta lu, and Kurugramalu, wh ich have a defin ite order of

precedence .

Among the Devangas the fo l l owing endogamous

sect ion s occur Te lugu ; (2 ) Canarese ; (3) Hathinentu Manayavaru (e igh teen house pe0p1e) ; (4 ) S ivachara ; (5) Ariya ; (6) Kodeka l Hatakararu (weavers) .They are pract ica l ly div ided into two l ingu ist i c

sect ion s, Canarese and Telugu , of which the former

have adop ted the Brahman ical ceremon ia l s to a greater

extent than the latter,who are more conservat ive .

Those who wear the sacred thread seem to preponderate

over the non -thread weaver s in the Canarese sect ion .

To the thread i s sometimes attached meta l charm

cy l inder to ward off evi l sp ir it s .

The fo l l owing are examp les of exogamous septs in

the Te lugu sect ionAkasam , sky.

Anumala, seeds of D otie/zos

Boggula, charcoal .Bandla, rock or cart.Ch in takai, tamar ind fru it.Chal la, b utterm i lk .

Chapparam ,pandal or booth .

D hoddi,cattle-pen, or cou rt

yard.

Dhuggan i , money .

Yerra, red .

Konda, mountain .

Kath th i , kn i fe.

Bandari (treasu rer) .Basam ,

grain .

Dhondapu (Cep/za/ami ra

imz’iea) .

E lugoti, assemb ly .

Gattu, bank or mound.

Paidam ,money .

Gonapala, old p lough .

Gosu,pride.

J igala, p ith .

161 DEVANGA

Katta, a dam .

Kompala, houses .

Kanangi, bufiooxi .

Kat ikala, co l lyri um .

Kathth iri , scissors .

Méksham ,heaven .

Pasupala, tu rmer ic.

P idakala, dried cow-dung cakes.

Pathula, male .

Pach i powaku , g reen tobacco .

Padavala, boat.Pouzala, a b i rd .

Pamm i , c lay lamp .

Thalakoka, female cloth .

Thatla, hole.

Ut la, ropes for hang ing pots.

Vasth rala, cloth s.

The major ity of Dévangas are Saiv i tes , and wear the

l ingam . They do not , however , wash the stone l ingam

with water , in which the fee t of Jangam s have beenwashed . They are not part icu lar as to always keep ing

the l ingam on the body,and g ive as an exp lanat i on

that,when they are at work

,they have to touch al l

k inds o f peop le . Some said tha t merchant s,when

engaged in their bus iness,should not wear the l ingam

,

espec ial ly i f made of spat ikam (quartz) , as they haveto te l l untruths as regards the val ue and qual i ty of their

goods,and ru in would fo l low if these were to ld whi le

the l ingam was on the body .

I n some parts of Ganjam,the country fo lk keep

a large number of Brahmin i bul l s . When one of these

an imals d ies,very elaborate funeral ceremon ies take

p lace,and the dead beast i s carr ied in process ion by

Devangas , and buried by them . As the DEVangas are

Lingayats,they have a spec ial reverence for Basavanna

,

the sacred bul l,and the burying of the Brahmin i bu l l i s

I I—I I

Matam ,monastery .

Mad i ra, l iquor or heap of

earth .

Médam ,fight.

Masi la, d i rt.O l ikala, funeral pyre and

ashes.

P rithv i,earth .

Peraka,ti le.

Puu jala, cock or male.

P injala, cotton-clean ing .

P ichch iga, sparrow .

S ika (kudum i : tu ft of hai r) .Sandala

,lanes.

San tha, a fai r.Sajje (Setaria i ta/iea) .

DEVANGA 162

regarded by them as a sacred and mer itor ious act.

Other castes do not regard i t as such,though they often

set free sacred cows or ca lves .

Devangas and Padma Sales never l ive in the same

street,and do not draw water from the same we l l . Thi s

i s probab ly due to the fact that they be long to the left

and r ight—hand fact ions respect ive ly, and no love i s

l o st between them . Like other l eft -hand castes,Devan

gas have their own danc ing -gir l s , cal led Jathi -biddalu

(chi ldren of the castes) , whose male offspr ing do

achchupan i , prin t ing-work on c lo th , and occas ional ly go

about begging from Devangas . I n the Madras Cen sus

Report,190 1 , i t i s s tated that

“ i n Madura and Tinneve l ly,

the Devangas , or Sedans , cons ider themse lves a shade

super ior to the Brahmans , and never do namaskaram

(obe i sance or salutat ion) to them ,or emp loy them as

pr iests . I n Madura and Co imbatore , the Sedan s have

the ir own danc ing -g ir l s , who are ca l led Devanga or

Seda Das i s in the former , and Man ikkattal i n the lat ter,

and are str ict ly reserved for members of the caste under

pain of excommun icat ion or heavy fine .

Concern ing the or ig in o f the Devanga beggars ,ca l led S ingamvadu , the fo l lowing legend i s curren t .When Chaudeswari and Devalan were engaged in

combat with the Asuras , one of the Asuras hid himsel f

behind the ear of t he l ion , on which the goddes s was

seated . When the fight was over,he came out

,and

asked for pardon . The goddess took p ity on him,and

ordered that hi s descendant s should be cal led S ingam

val l u,and asked Devalan to treat them as servants

,and

support them . Devangas give money to these beggars ,who have the pr ivi lege of locking the door, and carrying

away the food,when the castemen take the ir meal s . I n

assemb l ie s of Devangas , the hand of the beggar serves

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DEVANGA 164

(giving away the bride) , and mangalyadharanam (tyingthe marr iage badge

,or bottu) . The proceedings con

clude with po t searching . A pap -bowl and r ing are put

in to a pot . I f the bride p icks out the bowl , her first

born wi l l be a g irl,and i f the bridegroom gets ho ld of

the r ing,i t w i l l be a boy . On the fifth day , a square

des ign i s made on the floor w ith co loured r ice grains .

Between the contract ing coup le and the square a row of

l ights i s p laced . Four pots are se t,one at each corner

o f the square , and eight pots arranged along each s ide

thereof. On the square itse l f, two pots represent ing

S iva and Uma,are placed , wi th a row of seed l ing pot s

near them . A thread i s wound n ine t imes round the

pots represent ing the god and goddess , and t ied above

to the panda l . After the pots have been worshipped ,the thread i s cut , and worn , with the sacred thread

,

for three months . This ceremony is ca l led Nagavali .

When a gir l reaches puberty,a twig o f A lang i zmz

L amarcki i i s p laced in the menstrual but to keep off

devi l s .

The dead are general ly buried in a s itt ing po sture .

Before the grave i s fi l l ed in,a str ing i s t i ed to the

kudumi (hair kno t) o f the corp se , and , by i t s means , the

head i s brought near the surface . Over i t a l ingam

i s set up , and worshipped dai ly throughout the death

ceremon ies .

The fol lowing curiou s custom i s descr ibed by Mr . C .

Hayavadana Rao . Once in twe lve years,a Devanga

l eaves h i s home , and j o ins the Padma Sales . He begs

from them , saying that he i s the son o f the i r caste,and

as such ent i tl ed to be supported by them . I f a lms

are not forthcom ing , he enters the house , and carr ies off

whatever he may be able to p ick up . Sometimes,i f he

can get noth ing el se , he has been known to se ize a

165 DEVANGA

l ighted c igar in the mouth of a Sale,and run off wi th

i t . The or igin of thi s custom i s no t certa in,but i t

has been suggested that the Devangas and Sales were

or ig inal ly one caste , and that the former separated from

the latter when they became Lingayat s . A Devanga

only becomes a C h inerigadu when he is advanced in

years,and wi l l eat the remnants o f food left by Padma

Sales on the ir p lates . A Ch inerigadu i s , on hi s death,

buried by the Sales .

Many of the Devangas are short of stature , l ight

skinned,wi th sharp - cut features , l ight-brown ir i s , and

de l icate taper ing fingers . Those at H ospet,in the

Be l lary d i str ict,carr ied thorn tweezers (for removing

thorn s of A cacia am oiea from the feet) , tooth-p ickand ear-scoop

,suspended as a Chate laine from the lo in

str ing . The more we l l - to -do had these art ic l e s made ofs i lver

,wi th the add it ion of a s i lver saw for par ing the

nai l s and cutt ing cheroots . The name Pampanna,which

some of them bore , i s connected with the nymph Pampa,who res ides at Hamp i , and asked Parameswara to

become her husband . He accord ing ly assumed the

name of Pampapath i, in whose honour there i s a tank

at Anagt'

i ndi,and temp le at H amp i . He directed

Pampa to l ive in a pond , and pass by the name of

Pampasarovara .

The Sedan s of Co imbatore , at the t ime of my vi s i t

in O ctober,were hard at work making clo thes for the

D ipaval i fest ival . I t i s at t imes of fest ival s and

marr iages,i n years of pro sper i ty among the peop le , that

the weavers reap the ir r ichest harvest .

I n the Madras Census Report , 190 1 , B ilimagga

(white loom) and Atagara (weavers and exorc i st s) are

returned as sub -castes of Devanga . The usual t i t l e o f

the Devangas i s Chett i .

DEVENDRA 166

The shortnes s o f s tature of some o f the weav ing

c lasses which I have examined i s brought out by the

fo l lowing average measurementscm .

I S9°

9

1603

160 5

D évendra.—A name assumed by some Pallans , who

c laim to be descended from the k ing of the gods

(devas).

D habba (sp l i t bamboo) .— Dhabba or Dhabbai i s thename of a sub -div i s ion of Koravas

,who sp l i t bamboos ,

and make various art ic les therefrom .

Dhakkad0.—A sma l l mixed c lass of Oriya cu l t i

vators , concern ing whom there i s a proverb that a

Dhakkado does not know hi s father . They are descr ibed ,i n the Census Report

,189 1 , as

“ a caste of cu l t ivatorsfound in the J eypore agency tract s . They are said to be

the offspr ing of a Brahman and a Sadra girl,and

,though

l iv ing on the hi l l s,they are not an unc iv i l i sed hi l l t r i be .

Some prepare and se l l the sacred thread,others are

Confect ioner s . They wear the sacred thread , and do not

dr ink water from the hands of any excep t Brahmans .Gir l s are marr ied before puberty

,and widow marr iage is

pract i ced . They are flesh-eaters,and the ir dead are

u sual ly bur i ed .

”

I n a note on the Dhakkados, Mr . C . Hayavadana

Rao wr ites that “ the i l leg i timate descendant of a

Brahman and a hi l l woman of the non -po l lut ing castes

i s sa id to be known as a Dhakkado . The Dhakkados

assume Brahman ica l names,but

,as regards marr iages

,

funera l s , etc . , fo l low the customs of the ir mother’s caste .

Her caste peop le intermarry with her chi ldren . A

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DH I PPO 168

D h ippo (l ight) .— An exogamous sep t of Bhondari.The members thereof may not b low ou t l ights

,or ex tin

gu ish them in any o ther way . They wi l l not l ight lamps

withou t be ing mad i,i .e .

, wearing s i lk c loths , or c loths

washed and dr ied after bathing .

D hob i .—A name used for washe rman by AngloI nd ians al l over I ndia . The word i s sa id to be der ived

from dhoha,Sanskr it

,dhav

,to wash . A whi t i sh grey

sandy effl orescence,found in many p laces

,from which

,by

bo i l ing and the add i t ion o f qu ick l ime , an alkal i o f cons i

derab le strength i s obtai ned , i s ca l led Dhob i’s ear th .

*

The express ion dhobie i tch, Manson wr i tes, t al

though app l i ed to any itch ing r ingworm-l ike affect ion of

any part of the skin , most commonly refers to some form

o f ep iphyt ic d isease of the crutch or ax i l la (armp it) .The d isease i s very general ly supposed to be commun i

cated by c lo thes from the wash , but Manson i s of op in ion

that the bel i ef that i t i s contracted from clothes which

have been contaminated by the washerman i s probab ly

not very wel l founded .

Dhob i i s the name , by which the washerman caste

of the Or iyas i s known .

“ They are said , Mr . Franc i s

writesi’

“ to have come orig i na l ly from Orissa . Gi r ls

are general ly marr ied before maturi ty , and , i f th is i s not

poss ib le,they have to be marr ied to a sword or a tree

,

before they can be wedded to a man . Their ordinary

marr iage ceremon ies are as fo l lows . The br idal pai r

bathe in water brought from seven d i fferent houses . The

br idegroom pu ts a bangle on the br ide’

s arm (thi s i s the

b inding part of the ceremony) the left and right wri st s

o f the br ide and br idegroom are t ied together bete l l eaf

and nut are t ied in a corner of the br ide’

s c l o th , and a

Yu le and Burnel l , Hobson-Jobson . 1' Tropical D iseases .

1 Madras Census Report , 190 1 .

169 DHODDI

myrabolam (Term inal /2a fru i t) i n that o f the br idegroom

and final ly the peopl e presen t in the pandal (booth)throw rice and saffron (turmer ic ) over them . Widows

and d ivorced women may marry again . They are Vai shnav ites , bu t s ome o f them also worship Kal i or Durga .

They emp loy Bairagis , and occas ional ly Brahmans , as

the ir pries ts . They burn thei r dead,and perform sraddha

(annual memoria l ceremony) . Thei r t i t l es are Chett i (or

Maha Chett i ) and Behara . The custom of the br ida l

pair bathing in water from seven d ifferen t houses obtains

among many Oriya cas tes,inc l uding Brahmans . I t i s

known by the name of pan i -tula . The water i s brought

by marri ed gir l s,who have not reached puberty

, on the

n ight preceding the wedding day,and the br ide and

bridegroom wash in i t before dawn . This bath i s cal led

ko i l i pan i snano,or cuckoo water -bath . The ko i l i s

the I ndian koel or cuckoo (E ita’

ynam is aonom ta) , whose

crescendo cry ku - il,ku -il

,i s try ing to the nerves dur ing

the hot season .

The fo l low ing proverbs 9“ re lat ing to washermen may

be quotedGet a new washerman, and an old barber.The washerman knows th e defects of the vi l lage he learns

a good deal about the private affai rs o f the various fam i l ies,when recei v ing and de l i ver ing the c lothes) .

When a washe rman gets sick , h is sickness m ust leave h im at

the stone. The stone referred to is the large stone, on wh ichthe washe rman cleans cloth s, and the proverb denotes that,however s ick a wash erman may be, h is work must be done.

D hoddi .—Dhodd i, mean ing a court or back-yard ,catt le -pen

,or sheep -fo ld

,has been recorded as an exo

gamon s sept of Devanga,Koppala Velama

, Kam a Sale,Mala, and Yanad i .

Rev. H . Jensen . Class ified Co l lect ion o f Tam i l Proverbs , 1897 .

DHODD IYAN 1 70

D hoddiyan .—A name given by Tami l ians to Jog is .

D hol lo.—Dho llo i s recorded in the Madras Censu s

Report,190 1 , as the same as Do luva . A correspondent

informs me that D hollo i s sai d to be d ifferen t from

Do luva.

D h6ma (gnat or mosqu i to) . -An exogamous sep t

of Mal a .

D hondapu (Cep/zaiazza’m indica) . —An exogamous

sept o f Devanga. The fru it is one of the commonest of

nat ive vegetable s , and cooked in curri es .

D hen i (boat) .— An exogamous sep t of M i la and

O rugant i Kapu . I n a paper on the nat ive vessel s of

South I nd ia by M r . E dge , publ i shed in the J ournal of

the Royal As iat ic Soc iety,the dhen i i s de scr ibed as a

vesse l of ark- l i ke fo rm,about 70 feet long ,

20 feet broad ,and 1 1 feet deep

,with a flat bo ttom or kee l part, which

at the broadest p lace i s 7 feet .

The who le equ ipment of these rude vesse ls,as we l l

as the ir construct ion,i s the most coarse and unseaworthy

that I have ever seen .

” The dhen i,with masts

,i s

represented in the anc ient lead and copper co inage ofSouthern I ndia .

D hor.—In the Madras Census Report , 190 1 , a few

(164 ) i nd iv idua ls were returned as Dher,a low caste o f

Marath i leather workers .” They were

,I gather from the

Bombay Gazetteer , Dhors or tanners who dwe l l in vari ous

part s of the Bombay Pres idency,and whose home speech ,

names and surnames seem to show that they have come

from the Maratha country.

D hfi dala (ca lves) . —An exogamous sep t of Thamat i

Go l la .

B hudho (mi lk) .— A s ep t of Omanai to .

D huggani (money) . —An exogamous sept of

Devanga.

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DOLUVA 1 7 2

sa id to be der ived from the Sanskr i t do la,mean ing army .

The Doluvas c la im to be descended from the Puri Rajahs

by the i r concubines , and say that some of them were

employed as s i rdars and paiks under these Raj ahs . They

are said to have accompan ied a cer tain Pur i Rajah whocame sou th to wage war

,and to have settled in Ganjam .

They are at the presen t day main ly engaged in agricul

ture,though some are traders

,brick layers

,cart -dr ivers

,

e tc . The caste seems to be d iv ided into five sect ions,

named Kondaiy ito ,Lenka

,Rabba

,Pot t ia,

and Beharan ia ,

of which the first two are numerical ly the strongest and

most widely d i s tr ibuted . Kondaiyito i s sa id to be der ived

from kondo,an arrow

,and to ind icate warr i or . The

Kondaiyitos somet imes styl e themselves Rajah D oluvas ,

and claim super io ri ty over the other sect ions . I t i s

noted,i n the Madras Census Report , 189 1 , that

“ Oriya

Zamindar s get wives from thi s sub -d iv is ion,but the men

o f i t cannot marry in to the Zam indar’

s fam i l ies . They

wear the sacred thread,and are writers . I n former days

,

the t i t l e wr i ter was app l ied to the j un ior grade of C ivi l

Servants of the East I nd ia Company . I t i s now used to

denote a copying cl erk in an office .

Variou s t i t l es occu r among members of the cas te,e .g . ,

B issoyi , B iswalo ,Dole i

,J enna

,Ko tt iya, Mahant i

,Maj hi

,

Nahako ,Porida ,

Ravuto,Samulo

,and San i .

The ord inary caste counc i l system , wi th a hered i tary

headman,seems to be absent among the Doluvas

, and

the affa irs of the caste are sett led by lead ing members

thereof.

The D oluvas are Paramarthos , fol l owing the Cha i

tanya form of Vai shnavism ,and wearing a rosary o f tul s i

(Oeimum sanctum ) beads . They further worship various

Takuran is (vi l lage de it ie s) , among which are Kalva ,Bagadev i, Kotari , Maheswari, and Man ickeswari . They

1 73 DOMB

are in some places very part icular regard ing the perform

ance of sradh (memoria l ceremony) ,’

which i s carr ied

out annual ly in the fol lowing manner . On the n ight

before the sradh day , a room i s prepared for the recept ion

of the sou l of the deceased . This room i s cal l ed p itru

bharano (reception of the ancestor) . The fl oor thereo f i s

cl eansed with cow -dung water,and a lamp fed with gh i

(clarified butter) i s p laced on i t by the s ide o f a p lank .

On thi s p lank a new cl o th is la id for the recep t i on of

various art icl es fo r worsh ip , e.g . , sacred grass , Z izyp/zus

j uj uba leaves , flowers , etc. I n fron t of the p lank a brass

vessel,contain ing water and a too th bru sh ofA eay uau taes

asfiem root , i s p laced . The dead person’

s son throws r ice

and Z i zyfi/zus l eaves in to the air , and cal l s on the deceased

to come and give a ble ss ing on the fol l owing day . The

room is then looked , and the lamp kept burn ing in i t

throughout the n ight . O n the fol lowing day,al l old pots

are thrown away and , after a smal l space has been

cleaned on the floor of the house,a pattern i s drawn

thereon wi th fl our in the form of a square or oblong with

twelve d iv i s ion s . On each divi s ion a jak (A utoeaupus

in tegr if otia) l eaf is placed , and on each leaf the son

puts cooked r ice and vegetab les . A vessel contain ing

A e/zyuau taes root , and a p lank wi th a new clo th on i t,are

set by the s ide of the pattern . After worship has been

performed and food offered , the c loth i s presented to a

Brahman,and the var ious art icl e s u sed in the ceremon ial

are thrown into water .

D emb .—The name Domb or Dombo i s said to

be derived from the word dumba , mean ing devi l,i n

reference to the thiev ing propensi t ies of the tr ibe . The

Dombas,Mr . H . A . Stuart writesfif

‘ “ are a Dravid ian

Madras Census Report , 189 1 .

DOMB I 74

caste of weavers and men ial s , found in the hi l l tracts

of Vizagapatam . This caste appears to be an offshoot

of the Dom caste of Bengal , Behar , and the North

Western Provinces . Like the Dems , the Dombas are

regarded with di sgust , becau se they eat bee f, pork , horse

fiesh,rat s

,and the fl esh of an imal s whi ch have died a

natural death,and both are cons idered to be Chandalas

or Pariahs by the Bengal i s and the Uriyas . The Dembs

weave the c l oths and b lankets worn by the hi l l peop le,

but,l ike the Pariahs of the p la in s , they are al so l abour

ers , scavengers , etc . Some of them are extens ive ly

engaged in trade , and they have , as a ru l e , more

knowledge of the wor ld than the ryots who desp i se

them . They are great drunkards .” I n the Census

Report,187 1 , i t was noted that

“ i n many v i l lages,t he

Dems carry on the occupat i on of weaving , but , i n and

around J aipur,they are emp loyed as horse -keepers

, tom

tom beaters , scavengers , and in other men ial dut ies .

Notwithstanding the ir abj ect p os it i on in the social scale,

some s igns of progress may be detected amongst them .

They are assuming the occupat ion,i n many instances

,

of petty hucksters , eking out a l ive l ihood by taking

advantage of the smal l d i fference i n rates between

market and market“ The Dembs , Mr . F . Fawcett wr i tes

,are an

outcast j ung le peop le,who inhab i t the forests on the h igh

lands fi fty to eighty or a hundred mi les from the east

coast,about Vizagapatam . Being outcast

,they are

never a l lowed to l ive wi thin a vi l lage,but have the i r own

l i tt le hamlet adjo in ing a v i l lage proper,i nhab ited by

peop l e of vari ous super i or castes . I t i s fai r to say

that the Dembs are akin to the Panos of the adjoin ing

Man . , 190 1 .

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DOMB 1 76

I t i s noted by the M iss ionary C loyer * that the

co lour of the skin of the Dembs var ies from very dark to

yel low,and the i r he ight from that of an Aryan to the

short stature of an abor ig ina l , and that there i s a corre

spond ing var iat i on in fac ial type .

For t he fol l owing note on t he Dembs , I am indebted

to Mr . C . Hayavadana Rao . They are the weavers,

t raders,music ians , beggars , and money - l enders of the

hi l l s . Some own catt l e , and cul t ivate . The hi l l peop le

in the i n ter ior are ent i re ly dependent on them for

the i r c lothing . A few Demb fami l i e s are general ly

found to each vi l lage . They act as middlemen between

the hi l l peop le and the Komat i traders . Thei r profits

are said to be large , and thei r chi ldren are , i n some

p laces,found attending hi l l s chool s . As musi c ians

,they

p lay on the drum and p ip e . They are the hereditary

mus ic ian s of the Maharaja of J eypore . A Domb beggar,

when engaged in his profess ional cal l ing,goes about

from door to door , p laying on a l i tt l e p ipe . Thei r

supposed powers over dev i l s and wi tches resu lt in

the i r being consul ted when troubles appear . Though

the Dembs are regarded as a low and po l l ut ing clas s,

they wi l l no t eat at the hands of Komatis,Bhondaris

,

or Ghas is . Some Dombas have become convert s to

Christian i ty through miss ionary influence .

I n the Madras Census Report , 189 1 , t he fo l lowing

sect ions of the Dembs are recorded z— Onom ia,Odia

,

Mandir i , M irgam ,and Kohara . The sub -divis i ons

,how

ever,seem to be as fol l ows z— Mirigan i, Kobb iriya ,

Odiya,Sedabis iya ,

Mand i r i , and And in iya. There are

also various septs , of which the fol lowing have been

recorded among the Od iyas z— Bhag (t iger) , Bal u (bear) ,

Jeypore , Brek lum , 1901 .

I 77 DoMB

Nag (cobra) , Hanuman (the monkey god) , Kochch ipo

(torto i se) , Bengr i (frog) , Kukra (dog) , Surya (sun ) ,Matsya (fi sh) , and Jaikonda (l i zard) . I t i s noted by

M r . Fawcet t that monkeys,frogs

,and cobras are

taboo,and a l so the sunar i tree (Oe/zua squarrosa) . The

big l izard,cobras

,frogs

,and the crabs which are found

in t he paddy fields,and are usual ly eaten by j ungle

people,may not be eaten .

\Vhen a gir l reaches puberty,she remain s ou tside

the hut for five days,and then bathes at the nearest

s tream,and i s presented with a new cl oth . I n honour

of the event . drink i s d istr ibuted among her relat ives .

Girl s are usual ly marr ied after puberty . A man can

cla im his paternal aunt ’s daughter in marriage . When

a proposal of marriage i s to be made,the su ito r carries

some pot s of l iquor,usual ly worth two rupees , to the

g ir l ’s house,and depos it s them in front of i t . I f her

parent s consent to the match,they take the pot s in s ide ,

and drink some of the l iquor . After some t ime has

elap sed,more l iquor

,worth five rupees

,i s taken to the

gir l’s house . A reduct ion in the quant i ty of l iquor

i s made when a man is propos ing for the hand of hi s

paternal aunt’s daugh ter,and

,on the second occas ion ,

the l iquor wi l l on ly be worth three rupees . A sim i lar

reduct ion i s made in the jho lla tonka , or bride pr i ce .

On the wedding day,the bridegroom goes , accompan ied

by hi s re lat ions,to the bride’s home , where , at the aus

p icious moment fixed by the Desar i , his father presents

new c loths to h imsel f and the br ide,which they pu t on .

They stand before the hu t,and on each is p laced a cloth

with a myrabolam (Term iuai ia) seed , r ice , and a fewcopper coins t ied up in i t . The bridegroom

’s right l i t t l e

finger i s l inked wi th the left l i t t l e finger of the bride , and

they enter the hut . On the fol l owing day , the newlyI I—I Z

DOMB 1 78

married coup le repai r t o the home of the br idegroom .

On the third day , they are bathed in turmer i c water ,a p ig i s ki l l ed , and a feast i s held . O n the n inth day

,

the knot s in the c loths,contain ing the myrabolam s

,r i ce

,

and co ins,are un t i ed , and the marr iage ceremonies

are at an end . The remarr iage of w idows i s permitted,

and a younger brother usual ly marr ies the widow of hi s

e lder brother .

I t i s noted in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam

distr i ct,that some o f the Dombus o f the Parvat ipur

Agency fol l ow many of the customs o f the low -country

castes,i nc l ud ing menarikam (marr iage with the maternal

unc le’sdaughter) , and say they are the same as the Paidis

(or Paid i Malas) of the p la in s adj oin ing , with whomthey intermarry .

”

The corp ses of the more prosperous Dembs are

u sual ly cremated . The wood of the sunar i tree and

rell i (Cassia fi stula ) may not be used for the pyre .

The son or husband of a deceased person has hi s head,

moustache,and armp i ts shaved on the tenth day .

Demb women , and women of other t r ibes i n the

J eypore Agency tract s , wear s i lver ear ornaments cal led

nagul , represent ing a cobra j ust about to str ike with

tongue p rot ruded . S imi lar ornaments of go ld,cal led

naga pogul u (cobra- shaped earr ings) , are worn by womenof some Te lugu castes in the p la in s of Vizagapatam .

The persona l names of the Dembs are,as among

other Oriya castes,often those of t h e day of the week

on which the ind ividual was born .

Concern ing the rel ig ion of the Dembs,Mr . Fawcett

notes that “ the i r ch ief god— probab ly an ancestral

sp i r i t— i s cal led Kaluga . There i s one in each vi l lage,

i n the headman’

s house . The deity i s rep resented by a

p ie p i ece (copper co in) , p laced in or over a new earthen

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DOMB 180

s ign i fying one , dua two , and t ia three . Thi s number ofel l s must be added to the measurement of the house

.

Suppos ing that the length of the house i s twelve e l l s,

then i t wi l l be neces sary to add one e l l according to the

nand i system,so that the length amount s to th irteen e l l s

The number four can on ly be used for stables . ”

“ The Damas,

”

C loye r cont inues,

“ are repre sented

as sou l s of the deceased , which roam about without a

home,so as to cause to mankind a l l poss ib le harm . At

the b irth o f a ch i ld , the D rama must be inv ited in a

fr i endly manner to prov ide the chi ld with a sou l,and

protect i t against evi l . For thi s purpose,a fowl i s k i l led

on the n inth day , a bone (beinknochen ) detached , and

pressed in to the hand of the i nfant . The relat i ons are

seated in so lemn si l ence , and utter the formula — When

grandfather,grandmother

,father

,or brother comes

,throw

away the bone,and we wi l l truly be l ieve it . No sooner

does the spraw l i ng and exc ited i nfant drop the bone,t han

the Damas are come , and bo i sterou s glee p revai l s . The

Damas occasional ly give vent to the i r ghost ly sounds ,and cause no l i tt le consternation among the inmates of a

house,who hide from fear . Cunn ing thieves know how

to rob the superst i t i ous by employing instrument s wi th

a subdued tone (dumpftenende) , or by emitt i ng deep

sounds from the chest . The year ly sacr ifice to a Dama

cons i st s of a black fowl and strong brandy . I f a member

o f a fami ly fal l s i l l,an extraordinary sacrifice has to be

offered up . The Dama is not regarded on ly as an evi l

sp i ri t,but al so as a tutelary de ity . He protect s one

against the treacherous at tacks of witches . A p lace i s

p repared for him in the door -hinge, or a fi sh ing-net

,

where in he l ives,i s p laced over the door . The witches

must count al l the knot s of the net,before they can enter .

Devi l worsh ip i s c l ose ly connected with that o f the

181 DOMB

Dama . The devi l’s pr iest s,and in rare cases priestesses

,

effect commun ion between the peop le and the Damas by

a sor t of possess ion,which the sp ir i t

,entering into them

,

i s said to g ive r i se to . Thi s cond i t ion,which i s produced

by in tox icat ing drink and the fumes of burn ing i ncen se ,gives r i se to revo l t ing cramp - l i ke contorti ons

,and

muscular qu iver ings . I n this s tate,they are wont to

commun i cate what sacr ifices the sp ir i t s requ ire . On

spec ia l occas ions,they fal l into a frenz ied s tate

,i n which

they cut the i r flesh with sharp instruments , or pass long ,thin i ron bars through the tongue and cheeks

,during

wh ich operat i on no blood must fl ow . For th is purpose,

the ins truments are rubbed al l over w ith some b lood

congeal ing mater ia l or sap . They a lso affect s it t ing on

a sacred swing,armed wi th long iron nai ls . [Mr . G . F

Paddison informs me that he once saw a v i l lager in the

Vizagapatam distr i ct,s i tt ing outs ide the hou se

,whi le

groans proceeded from within . H e explained that he

was i l l,and his wi fe was swing ing on na i l s wi th the ir

points upwards , to cure him .] The devi l cal l ed JomDuto

,ormessenger of the go ing , i s be l i eved to be a one

eyed,l imp ing

,b lack ind ividual , whose hair i s twisted

into a fr ightful ly l ong horn , whi le one foot i s very long,

and the other resembles the hoof of a buffalo . H e

makes hi s appearance at the death-bed,i n order to drag

his v ic t im to the realm of torture .

Chi ldren are supposed to be born wi thou t soul s,and

to be afterwards chosen as an abode by the soul of an

ancestor . The com ing of the ancestor is s ignal i sed by

the chi ld dropp ing a chicken bone which has been thrust

into i t s hand , and much rej o ic i ng fol lows among the

assembled relat ionsfi‘i

Gazetteer of the V izagapatam d istr ict .

DOMB 182

Mr . Paddison te l ls me that some Dembs are reputed

to be ab l e to pour blaz ing o il over the i r bodies,without

suffer ing any hurt and one man is sa id to have had a

mi raculous power of harden ing hi s skin,so that any one

coul d have a free shot at him,without hurt ing him . He

further narrates that,at S ujanakota i n the Vizagapatam

distr ict,the Dembs

,notwithstand ing frequent warn ings

,

put devi l s into two success ive schoo lmasters .

Various tattoo devices,borne by the Dembs examined

by Mr . Fawcett , are figured and descr ibed by him .

These patterns, he wr i tes , were said to be, one and

al l,pure ly ornamental , and not in any way connected

with totems , or tr ibal emb lems . ” Risl ey,however,

i f

regards four out of the twe lve des igns as pret ty c losely

re lated to the re l ig ion and mytho logy of t he tr ibe two

are totems and two have reference to the tradit ional

avocations . N05 . 1 1 and 1 2 represent a c lass ical scene

in Dom fo lk- l ore , the story of King Har i s-Chandra , who

was so generous that he gave al l he had to the poor and

sold himse l f to a Dem at Benares,who employed him

to watch hi s cremat ion ground at n ight . Whi le he

was thus engaged,hi s w i fe

,who had al so been sold for

char itab le p urposes,came to burn the body of her son .

She had no money to pay her fees,and Har i s-Chandra ,

not knowing her in the darkness , turned her away .

Fortunate ly the sun rose mutual recogn it ion fol lowed

the v ict ims of promi scuous largesse were at once

remarried,and Vishnu intervened to restore the son to

l i fe . Tatu No . 1 1 shows H ari s-Chandra watching the

burn ing-ground by moon l ight ; the wavy l ine i s the

Ganges the dot s are the tree s on t he other s ide the

strokes on e i ther s ide of the k ing are the logs of wood ,

Man .,1902 .

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DOMB 184

had no Op in ion of the deterren t effect s ofmere impr i son

men t on the Dombus . You fa tten them,and send them

back ,’

they said , and suggested that a far be tter p lan

would be to cut off the ir r ight hands . [I t is noted , in the

Vizagapatam Manua l , 1869 , that in cases of murder, the

Rajah of J eypore general ly had the man ’s hands,nose

,

and ears cu t off, but , after al l that , he seldom escaped the

deceased’

s re lat ives ] They eventual ly proposed a p lan

of check ing the catt l e - thefts,which i s now being fo l

lowed in much of that country . The Baranaiks,or heads

of group s of vi llages , were each g iven brands wi th

d i s t inct ive l etters and numbers,and required to ‘brand

the skin s of al l an ima l s which had d ied a natura l death

or been hones t ly k i l led and the possess ion by Dombus ,sk in merchants

,or others

,of unbranded sk ins i s now

cons idered a susp i c ious c i rcumstance,the burden o f

exp lain ing which l ie s upon the possesso r . Unle ss thi s,

or some other way of checking the Dombus’

depredat i ons

proves success fu l , ser iou s danger ex i sts that the rest of

the peop le w il l take the matter into thei r own hands and ,as the Dombus in the Agency number over thi s

would mean real troub le . I t i s further recorded 9“ that

the Paidis (Paidi Malas) , who often commi t dacoi t ies

on the roads ,“ are connected with the Dombus of the

Rayagada and Gunupur taluks , who are even worse .

These peop le daco i t houses at n ight in armed gangs of

fifty or more , wi th the ir faces b lacked to prevent recogn i

t ion.Terr i fying the vi l lagers into staying quiet in the i r

huts,they force the ir way into the house of some wea l thy

person (for cho i ce the l ocal Sond i , l iquor-se l ler and

sowcar,’

r usual ly the on ly man worth looting in an

agency vi l lage,and a shark who gets l i tt le p i ty from hi s

l aid .

it Money-lender.

"

i k DOMMARA ACROBAT.

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DOMMARA 186

crows . When a fr iend was engaged in making ex peri

ments i n connect i on w ith snake venom , some Dommaras

asked for perm iss ion to unbury the corp ses of snakes

and mungooses for the purpose of food .

The Dommaras are , i n the Mysore Cen sus Report ,190 1 , summed up as be ing buffoons , tumblers , acrobats ,and snakecharm ers , who trave l from p lace to p lace , and

earn a precar i ous l iv ing by the i r exhibi t ion s . I n the

Madras Censu s Report , 190 1 , Domban , Kalaikfi ttadi

(pole -dancer) , and Arya Kfi ttadi, are given as synonyms

of Dommara . The Kfi t tad i are summed up , i n the

Tanjore Manua l,as vagabond dancer s , actors , panto

m im ists , and mar ionette exhib itors , who ho ld a very

l ow pos i t ion in t he soc ia l scal e,and always perform in

publ i c street s and bazaars .

By Mr . F . S . Mu llaly’if the Dommaras are divided

into Reddi or Kapu cult ivators) and Aray (Maratha) .“ The women ,

”

combs of horn and wood , and imp lements used by

weavers . These they hawk about from place to p lace,t o

supp lement the profi ts they der ive from the ir exhib it ions

of gymnast ic feats . I n addit ion to perform ing conj ur ing

tr icks,rope -danc ing and the l ike

,the Dommaras hunt

,

fi sh,make mats , and rear donkeys and p igs . The head

of the tr ibe i s cal l ed the Mutl i Guru . He is their high

pr iest,and exerc ises sup reme j ur i sdict ion over them both

he writes ,“ are p rofic ient in making

i n sp ir itual and temporal matters . H is h ead -quarters i s

Ch itvel i n the Cuddapah distr ict . The legend regarding

the offi ce of the Mut l i Guru is as fol lows . At Chi tvel ,or as i t was then known Mutl i

, there once l ived a king ,who cal l ed together a gather ing of a l l the gymnasts

among his subjects . Several c lasses were represented .

Notes on the Cr im inal Classes of the Madras Pres idency.

187 DOMMARA

Pelerigadu ,a Reddi Dommara , so p leased the k ing that

he was presented with a r ing , and a royal edict was

passed that t he wearer of the r ing and h is descendants

shou ld be the head of the Dommara c lass . The r ing

then g iven i s said to be the same that i s now worn by the

head of the tr ibe at Chitvel , which bears an inscrip t ion

in Tel ugu declar ing that the wearer i s the high-priest

or guru of al l t he Dommaras . The offi ce i s hered itary .

The dwel l ings of the Dommaras are somewhat s im i lar

to those of the Koravars and Jogh is , made of palmyra

leaves p lai ted i nto mats with seven strands . These

huts,or gudisays , are located on the outskirts of vi l lages ,

and carri ed on the backs of donkeys when on the march .

S to len c loths,unless of value , are not as a ru l e sold , but

concea led in the packs of the i r donkeys , and after a

t ime worn . The D ommaras are add icted to daco i ty,

robbery,burglary , and thefts . The in strument u sed by

them i s unl ike those used by o ther cr im inal c lasses : i t

is of i ron , about a foot long , and with a chi se l - shaped

point . As catt l e and sheep l i fters they are expert,and

they have thei r regular rece ivers at most of t he catt l e

fai rs throughout the Pres idency .

I t is noted , i n the Nel l ore Manual , that the

Dommaras“ are stated by the Nel lore Tahs i ldar to

possess miras i r ights i n some vi l lages ; that I take

to mean that there i s , i n some vi l lages , a customary

contr ibut ion for tumblers and mendicants,which

,accord

ing to Wi l son , was made in Mysore the p retext for

a tax named Dombar- l ingada-v ira-kan iki . Thi s tax,

under the name Dombar tafrik, was levi ed in Venkatag ir i

in 180 1 . I n the Madura d i stri ct , Dommaras are found

in some vi l lage s former ly owned by zam indars , and they

cal l themse lves chi ldren of the zamindars , by whom they

were probably patron ised .

DOMMARA I 88

Be ing a crim inal c lass , the Dommaras have a thief’s

language of their own , of whic h the fol lowing are

examp lesB idam vadu , Dommara. Dasa-masa, p rostitute.

Pooth i , pol iceman . Kopparam , salt.Mai igam , p ig. Kaljodu, go ldsm ith .

Goparam ,seven .

The Dommaras are said to rece ive i n to the ir com

mun ity chi ldren of Other castes , and women of doubtfu l

morals,and to pract i ce the cus tom of making Basavis

(ded i cated pro st i tu te s ) .

The Tel ugu Dommaras give as thei r gotra Sa lava

patch i , the name o f a mytho log ical b ird . At t imes

of marr iage , they subst it ute a turmer ic -dyed str ing

cons ist ing of 10 1 threads , cal l ed bondhu ,for the golden

tal i or bottu . The marr iage ceremon ie s of the Are

Dommaras are superv i sed by an o ld Basav i woman , and

the golden marr iage badge is t ied round the br ide’s neck

by a Basavi .

A Dommara , whom I i nterviewed at Coimbatore ,carr ied a cotton bag conta in ing a m isce l laneous assort

men t o f rubbi sh used in hi s capac i ty as medic ine man and

snake -charmer,which inc l uded a col l ect ion of spurious

jackal horn s (nar i kompu ) , the ha irs round which were

s tained wi th turmeric . To p rove the genu ineness thereof,

he showed me not only the horn,but al so the feet w ith

nai l s comp lete,as evidence that the horns were not

made from the nai l s . Be ing charged with manufacturing

the horns,he swore

,by p lac ing hi s hand on the head of

a ch i ld who accompan ied him,that he was not dece iving

me . The largest of the horns in hi s bag , he grave ly

informed me,was from a jacka l which he dug out of

i ts ho le on the last new moon n ight . The possessors

of such horns , he assured me , do not go out with the

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189 DOMMARA

pack,and rarely l eave the ir hole s e x cept to feed on dew,

field rat s,etc . These spuri ous horns are regarded

as a tal i sman,and i t i s be l ieved that he who owns

one can command the real i sat ion o f every wi sh . (S ee

Kuruv ikkaran . ) An iron r ing ,which the Dommara was

wear ing on hi s wri st,was used as a cure for hern ia

,

being heated and app l ied as a brand ing agent over

the inguinal regi on . Lamp o il i s then rubbed over the

burn,and a secret med ic ine , mixed with fowl

’s egg ,

admin i stered . The ring was , he said , an ancestral hei r

loom,and as such h ighly pri zed . To cure rheumat i sm

in the b ig joi nt s , he re sorted to an ingeni ou s form o f dry

cupp ing . A smal l i nc i s ion i s made wi th a p iece of

broken g lass over the affected part,and the skin damped

wi th water . The distal end of a cow’s horn

,of which

the t ip has been removed,and p lugged with wax

,does

duty for the cup . A hole i s p i erced through the wax

with an i ron need le,and , the horn be ing p laced over

the seat of d isease,the ai r i s wi thdrawn from i t by

suct ion with the mouth,and the hole in the wax stopped

up . As the ai r i s removed from the cavi ty of the born ,

the skin ri ses up wi th in i t . To remove the horn,i t i s

on ly necessary to readmit ai r by once more bor ing a hol e

through the wax . I n a bad case,as many as three horns

may be app l ied to the affected part . The Pi t t R ivers

Museum at Oxford possesses dry - cupp ing apparatus,

made of cow horn , from M irzapur in Northern I ndia and

from Natal,and of ante lope horn from an unrecorded

local ity in I nd ia . I n cases of scorp ion st ing the Dom

mara rubbed up patent bol u se s wi th human m i l k or

m i lk of the m i lk -hedge p lant (E upkoroia Ti zf ucatti ) ,and app l ied them to the part . For ches t pains he pre

scr ibed red ochre,and for infant i l e d i seases myrabolam

(Term z

'

uatia) fru i t s m ixed with water . I n cases of

DOMMARA 190

snake -b ite,a b lack stone , sa id to be made of various

drugs m ixed together, and burnt , i s p laced over the seat

of the b ite , and wi l l , i t was stated , drop off of i t s own

accord as soon as it has absorbed al l the po i son . I t i s

then put i nto m i lk or water to extract the po i son,and

the fl uid i s thrown away as being dangerou s to l i fe i f

swal lowed . As a remedy for the b ite of a mad dog,a

p lant,wh ich i s kept a secret , i s m ixed with the mi lk of a

white goat,pepper , gar l i c , and other ingred ients, and

adm in i stered internal ly . A single dose i s sa id to effect

a cure .

At Tarikeri i n Mysore , a wander ing troupe of Are

(Maratha) Dommaras performed before me . The women

were decorated with j ewe l s and flowers , and carr ied bel l s

on the ir ankle s . The men had a row of bel ls attached

a l l round the lower edge of the ir short drawers . Before

the performance commenced,a Pillayar (Ganesa) was

made with cowdung, and sa luted . The enterta inment

took p lace in the open a ir am id t he beat ing of drums,

whi st l ing,s ing ing

,and d ialogue . The jests and ant i cs

of the equ ivalent of the c i rcus c lown were a source of

much joy to the throng of v i l lagers who col lected to

witness the tamasha (spectac le) . One of t he princ ipa l

performers,i n the wa its between hi s turns

,p layed the

drum, or took a suck at a hooka (tobacco p ipe) which was

passed round among the members of the troupe . The

enterta inment,i n whi ch both men and women took part

,

consi sted of various acrobat i c feats , turn ing summer

saults and cather i ne wheel s,st i l t -walking , and c lever

feats on the t ight rope . F inal ly a man,c l imb ing up a

l ofty bamboo pole,spun himsel f rap idly round and

round on the top of i t by means of a socket i n an iron

p late t ied to hi s l o in c loth,i nto which ar sp ike i n the

po le fitted .

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DONGA DASAR I 19 2

Donga Dasaris . Somet imes Muhammadan budmashe s

(bad -mash , evi l means of l ive l i hood) and the worst

characte rs from other castes,al so become Donga

Dasar is . The way an a l ien i s made a Donga Dasar i i s

as fo l l ows . The regular Donga Dasar is take the party

who want s to en ter the ir brotherhood to the s ide o f a

r iver,make him bathe i n o il, give him a new cloth , hold

a counc i l , and give a feast . They burn a twig of the

sam i (P rosop is s/az'

czgem ) or margosa (M ei ia A z an’i

m c/zta) tree , and sl ightly burn the tongue of the party

who has jo ined them . This i s the way of pur ificat ion

and acceptance of every new member , who , soon after

the tongue—burn ing ceremony , i s g iven a seat in the

general company , and made to partake of the common

feast . The Donga Dasaris tal k both Tel ugu and

Kanarese . They have on ly two bedagas or fami ly

names,cal led Sunna Akki (thin r ice ) and Ghante lavaru

(men of the bel l) . As the l atter i s a fam i ly name of the

Kabberas , i t i s an evidence that members of the latter

commun ity have jo ined the DongaDasaris . Even now

Donga Dasaris i ntermarry w ith Kabberas , i .e.,they

accept any g i r l from a Kabbera fami ly in marr iage to

one of the ir son s , but do not give one of the ir daughters

i n marr iage to a Kabbera boy. Hanuman i s the i r ch ief

god . Venkatesa , an incarna t i on of Vishnu,i s al so

worshipped by many . But , i n every one of the i r vi l lages ,they have a temple ded icated to the i r v i l lage godde ss

H ul igavva or E llamma, and it i s only before these

goddesses that they sacr ifice sheep or fowl s . Vows are

undertaken for these vi l lage goddesses when chi ldren

fal l i l l . I n add it ion to th i s , these Donga Dasaris are

notor iou s for tak ing vows before start i ng on a thieving

exped it i on,and the way these ceremon ie s are gone

through i s as fo l lows . The gang,before start ing on a

193 DONGA DASAR I

th ieving exped it ion,proceed to a jungle near the ir v i l lage

in the ear ly part of the n ight , worship the i r favou r ite

goddesses H u l igavva or E llamma,and sacr ifice a sheep

or fowl before her . They p lace one of the i r turbans on

the head of the sheep or fowl that was sacr ificed,as soon

as the head fal l s on the ground . I f the turban turns tothe r ight

,i t i s cons i dered a good sign , the goddess

having perm itted them to proceed on the exped it ion ;i f to the left , they return home that n igh t . Hanuman i s

al so consu l ted in such exped it ions,and the way in which

it i s done i s as fol lows .’

They go to a Hanuman temp le

which i s near the ir v i l lage,and

,after worsh ipp ing him

,

gar land h im with a wreath of fl owers . The garland

hangs on both s ides of the neck . I f any flowers on

the right s ide drop down first,i t i s cons idered as a

perm i ss ion granted by the god to start on p l under ing

exped it ions , and , conversely, these exped i t ions are never

undertaken i f any flowers happen to drop from the left

s ide fir st . The Donga Dasaris start on the ir thiev ing

raids with the ir whole fam i ly,wife and chi ldren fol lowing .

They are the great experts in house-breaking and theft,

and chi ldren are taught th ieving by the ir mothers when

they are five or s ix years o ld . The mother takes her

boy or g ir l to the nearest market,and shows the ch i ld

some c loth or vesse l,and asks i t to br ing i t away .

When it fa i l s , i t i s thrashed , and , when stroke upon

stroke fal l s upon it s back,the only rep ly i t is taught to

g ive i s that i t knows nothing . Thi s i s cons idered to be

the rep ly which the chi ld,when i t grows up to be a man

or woman , has to g ive to the pol ice author it ies when it

is caught in some . cr ime and thrashed by them to

confess . Whenever the Donga Dasaris are caught by

the pol ice,they give fal se names and fal se castes . They

have a c ipher language among themse lves . The Donga11—13

DONGA ODDE 194

Dasar i woman i s very l oose , bu t, i f she go astray w ith

a Brahman , Lingayat , Kabbera ,Kuruba

,Upparava,

or

Rajput , her tongue i s burnt , and she i s taken back into

the commun i ty . Widow remarr iage free ly preva i l s .

They avo id eat ing beef and pork,but have no object ion

to other k inds of fl esh .

”

D onga Odde.—The name for Oddes who pract ice

th iev ing as a profess ion .

D ongayato.—A sub -d ivi s ion of Gaudo .

D 0ngrudiya.—A sub -div i s ion of Mal i .

D ora .-Dora , mean ing l ord , has been returned as

the t i t l e of numerous c lasses , wh ich inc l ude BOya,Ekar i ,

Jatapu , Konda Dora , Mutracha,Patra

,Telaga

,Ve lama

and Vanat i . The h i l l Ko i s or Koyis of the Godavar i

d i str i ct are known as Koi Dora or D oralu (lords) . I

am told that , i n some part s of the Tel ugu country, i f one

hears a nat ive referred to as Dora,he wi l l general ly turn

out to be a Ve lama ; and that there i s the fo l lowing

gradat ion in the soc ia l scaleVelama Dora Velama Esqu i re ,

Kamma Varu M r. Kamma.

Kapu Plain Kapu , w ithout an honorific su ffi x.

I n Southern I ndia , Dorai or Dura i (Master) i s theequ ivalent of the northern Sahib , and Dorasan i (M istre ss)of Memsah ib .

I t is noted by S ir A . J . Arbuthnot i f that “ the

appe l lat ion by which S ir Thomas Munro was most

commonly known i n the Ceded d i str i c ts was that of

Co lonel Dora . And to th i s day it i s cons idered a

su ffi c ient answer to enqu ir ies regard ing the reason forany Revenue Rule , that i t was la id down by the Colone l

Dora .

”

Memo ir o f Sir Thomas Munro.

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DUDEKULA 196

some of them Speak H industan i a l so . The ir customs

are a m ixture of t hose of the Musalmans and the H indus .

I nher i tance i s apparent ly accord ing to Muhammadan law .

They pray in mosques,and c ircumc i se the i r boys

,and

yet some of them observe the H indu fest ival s . They

worsh ip the i r tool s at Bakrid and not at the Dasara they

ra i se the azan or Muhammadan cal l to prayers at sunset ,and they pray at the tombs of Musalman sa in ts . I n the

Vizagapatam di str i ct,the Dadekulas are descr ibed as

beat ing cotton,and blow ing horns .

For the fol lowing note on the Dadekulas of the Ceded

D istr i ct s,I am indebted to Mr . Haj i Khaja H ussain .

They c la im Bava Faqrud -din P ir of Penukonda in the

Anantap ur di str ic t as the ir patron sa int . Large numbers

of Muhammadans,i nc l uding Dadeku las , col lect at the

annual fe st ival (mela) at hi s shr ine , and offer the ir

homage in the shape of a fat iha . Thi s, mean ing opener ,i s the name of the fi rst chap ter of the Koran , which i s

repeated when prayers are offered for the sou l s of the

departed . For th i s ceremony a p i lau,made of flesh

,r i c e

and gh i (c lar ified butter) i s prepared , and the Khaz i

repeats the chapter,and offers the food to the sou l of

the deceased saint or re lat ion .

The story of Faqrud -d in P ir i s as fol lows . He was

born i n A H . 564 (about A .D . and was K ing of

Se i stan in Pers ia . O ne day, wh i le he was admin i ster ing

j ust ice,a merchant brought some horses before him for

sale . H i s attent ion was d iverted,and he became for a

t ime absorbed in con templat ion of the beauty of one of

the horses . Awaken ing from hi s rever ie , he blamed

himse l f for al l ow ing hi s thoughts to wander when he

was engaged in the most sacred of hi s dut ies as a k ing .

He summoned a meet ing of al l the l earned moulv is i n

h i s k ingdom , and enqu ired of them what was the penalty

19 7 DUDEKULA

for h i s conduct . They unan imous ly,

decreed that he

shou ld abd icate . Accord ingly he p laced hi s brother on

the throne,and

,becom ing a dervi sh

,came to I ndia

,and

wandered about in the j ungle s . E ventua l ly he arr ived

at Tr ich inopoly, and there met the ce lebrated sa in t Tabr i

Alam ,whose d i sc ip le he became . After hi s adm iss ion

into holy orders,he was told to t rave l about

,and p lant

h i s m iswak wherever he ha l ted , and regard the p lace

where it sprouted as h i s permanent res idence . The

m iswak,or tooth-brush , i s a p iece of the root of the p i l l]

tree (Satoaa’om pers i

'

ca) , which i s used by Muham

madans, and espec ia l l y Faki rs , fo r c l ean ing the teeth .

When Bava Faqrud -di’

n arr ived at Penukonda hi l l,he

,

as usual,p lanted the m iswak, which sp routed . He

according ly dec ided to make th i s Spot h is permanent

abode . But there was c l ose by an important H indu

temple,and the idea of a Muhammadan sett l ing c lose

to it enraged the H indus,who asked h im to leave . He

not only refused to do so,but a l lowed hi s d i sc ip les

,of

whom a number had col lected,to slaughter a sacred bu l l

be longing to the temple . The H indus accordingly

dec ided to ki l l Faqrud-din and h i s d i sc ip les . The Raja

col l ected an armed force,and demanded the restorat ion

of the bul l . Faqrud-din ordered one of hi s d i sc ip les to

br ing before him the sk in,head

,feet and ta i l of the

an ima l,which had been preserved . Str ik ing the sk in

w ith hi s staff,he excla imed “ Rise

,O h ! bul l , at the

command of God. The an imal immediate ly rose in

a comp lete state of re storat i on , and would not leave the

presence of h is preserver . Alarmed at th i s m irac l e , the

H indus brand i shed the i r swords and spears,and were

about to fal l on the M uhammadans,when a dust -storm

arose and bl inded them . I n the i r confus ion,they began

to s lay each other , and left the spot in d i smay . The

DUDEKULA 198

Raj a then reso lved to k i l l the Muhammadans by po i son

i ng them . He prepared some cakes m ixed w ith po i son ,and sent them to Faqrud -din for d i str ibut ion among his

d i sc ip les . The sa int , though he knew that the cakes

were poi soned , partook thereof of himse l f, as a l so d id hi s

d i sc ip l es , without any evi l effect . A few days after

wards,the Raja was attacked with col i c , and his case was

g iven up by the court phys i c ians as hope le ss . As a last

resort, he was taken before Faqrud-din, who offered him

one of the po i soned cakes,which cured him . Fal l ing at

h is feet,t he Raj a begged for pardon , and offered the

v i l lage of Penukonda to Faqrud -din as a jaghi r (annu ity) .

Thi s offer was dec l i ned,and the sa int asked that the

temp le should be converted into a mosque . The Raja

granted th i s request,and it is sa id that large numbers of

H indus embraced the Muhammadan re l ig ion , and were

the ancestors of the Dadekulas .

The Dadekulas , l i ke the H indus , l i ke to possess

some v i s ible symbol for worship,and they enro l great

personages who have d ied among the number of those at

whose graves they worsh ip . S o essent ial i s th i s grave

worship that , i f a p lace i s wi thout one ,a grave is erected

in the name of some sa int . Such a th ing has happened

i n recent t imes i n Banganapal le . A Fakir,named A l la

Bakhsh, d ied at Kurnoo l . A Dadeku la of the Bangana

pal le State v i s ited hi s grave,took away a l ump of earth

from the ground near i t,and buried i t i n agv illage ten

m i le s from Banganapal le . A shr ine was erected over i t

i n the name of the sa int,and has become very famous

for the m iracl es wh ich are performed at i t . An annual

fest ival i s held , which i s attended by large numbers of

Muhammadans and D fidekulas .

Some D fideku las have names whi ch,though at first

s ight they seem to be H indu , are real ly Muhammadan .

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DGDEKULA 200

two names are assumed by an ind ividual , one a H indu

name for every day use,the other Muhammadan for

ceremon ia l occas ions .

The Dadeku las depend for the performance of the i r

ceremon ies large ly on the Khaz i , by whom even the

k i l l ing of a fowl for domest i c purposes has t o be carr ied

ou t . The Dadeku la, l i ke other Muhammadans , i s aver se

to tak ing an imal l i fe without due re l ig i ous r i tes,and the

zahb,or ki l l i ng of an an imal for food

,i s an important

matter . O ne who i s about to do so should fi rst make

vaz u (abl ut ion) , by c lean ing h is teeth and washing hi s

mouth,hands

,face , forearms , head and feet . He shou ld

then face the west , and an ass i stant ho lds the an imal to

be s laughtered up s ide down , and fac ing west . Water

i s poured in to i t s mouth, and the words B i sm i l la hi Al la

hu Akbar uttered . The Operator then cuts the throat,

tak ing care that the j ugu lar ve ins are d iv ided . I n

remote vi l lages , where a Khaz i is not avai lab le , t he

D t’

i dekulas keep a sacr ific ia l kn i fe , which has been

sanct ified by the Khaz i repeat ing over i t the same

words from the Koran as are used when an an imal i s

s laughtered .

The firs t words which a Muhammadan chi ld should

hear are those of the azan , or ca l l to prayer , which are

uttered in its ear immediate ly after b irth . Thi s ceremony

i s observed by those D t'

i dekulas who l ive in towns or big

vi l lages,or can afford the services of a Khaz i . I t i s

noted by Mr . Franc i s that the Dadekulas ra i se the azan

at sunset . A few, who have been thr ough a course of

re l ig ious i nstruct ion at a Madrasa (school) , may be ab leto do thi s . A Muhammadan i s supposed to rai se the

azan five t imes da i ly , v iz ., before sunr ise , between noon

and 3 P .M . , between 4 and 6 P .M. , at sunset , and between

8 P .M . and midn ight .

20 1 Dfi DEKULA

At the naming of an infant on the s ixth day,the

D t'

i dekulas do not , l i ke other Muhammadans , perform the

agu iga ceremony, which cons i st s of shav ing the chi ld’s

head,and sacr ific ing a he—goat . Children are c ircum

cised before the tenth year . On such occas ions the

Muhammadans general ly invi te the ir fr iends,and distri

bute sweet s and pan -supar i (bete l l eaf and areca nuts) .

The Dadekulas s imp ly send for a barber,H indu or

Muhammadan , who performs the operat ion i n the pres

ence of a Khaz i , i f one happens to be ava i labl e . When

a gir l reaches p uberty ,"

the D fi deku las i nvi te the i r fr i ends

to a feast . O ther Muhammadans,on the contrary

,keep

the fact a secret .

At the betrothal ceremony,when sweets and pan

supar i are taken by the future br idegroom and hi s party

to the house of the g i r l whom he seeks in marr iage,the

female members of both fami l i es,and the gir l her sel f

,are

present . Thi s fact shows the absence of the Muham

madan gosha system among D t'

i deku las . A Muhamma

dan wedd ing lasts over five or s ix days,whereas the

ceremon ies are , among the Dadeku las , comp leted wi thin

twenty-four hours . O n the n ight p reced ing the n ikka

day, a p i lau i s prepared , and a feast i s held at the

br idegroom’

s house . O n the fo l lowing morn ing,when

i t i s st i l l dark , the br idegroom ,accompan ied by hi s

re lat ions , start s on horseback i n process ion , with beat ing

of drums and lett ing off of fi reworks . The process ion

arr ives at the br ide’

s house before sunr i se . The Khaz i

i s sent for, and the mahr i s sett led . This is a nomina l

g ift sett led on the wi fe before marriage by the br ide

groom . O n the death of a husband,a w idow has

prior ity of c laim on h is property to the p rom ised amountof the mahr . Two male witnesse s are sent to the br ide

,

to obtain her assent to the un ion,and to the amount of

202

the mahr . The Khaz i , be ing an orthodox Muhammadan ,t reats the D fidekula br ide as str ict ly gesha for the t ime

be ing,and

,therefore

,se lect s two of her near relat ives as

w i tnesses . The lutcha (marr iage badge) , cons is t ing of

a s ingl e or doub le str ing of beads , i s brought i n a cup

fi l led with sandal paste .

The Khaz i chants the marr iage serv ice,and sends the

lutcha in to the br ide with hi s b less ing . I t is t ied round

her neck by the female re lat i on s of the br idegroom ,and

the marr iage r i te s are over .

The usual Muhammadan form of greet ing among

Muhammadans i s the fam i l iar “ Peace be with you .

And with you be peace .

” When a D fideku la greets a

Muhammadan , he s imply bows , and , with members of

hi s own commun ity , uses a Te lugu form of sa lutat ion ,e.g . ,

niku mokkutamu .

The D t'

idekulas,male and femal e

,dress exact ly l i ke

H indu s,but

,as a ru l e

,t he men do not shave the ir beard .

D isputes,and soc ial quest ions affec t ing the com

mun ity,are sett led by a Khaz i .

With the increase in cotton m i l l s , and the dec l ine

of the indigenous hand-weaving industry, the demand

for cotton-clean ing labour has d im in i shed , and some

D fideku las have , of necess i ty , taken to agricu l ture .

Land -owners are very scarce among them,but

some are abkar i (l iquor) contractors , vi l lage schoo l

masters,and quack doctors . I n the Ceded Distr ic ts

,

the cotton -c lean ing industry i s so le ly confined to the

Dadekulas .

The synonyms of Dadekula,Ladaf and Narbash,

recorded at t imes of census , are corrupt ions of Nad-daf

(a cotton dresser) and Nnrbaf (weaving) .

D fidi .—A t i tle of Kurumos , who offi ciate as pr iests

at the temp le s of vi l lage de it ie s .

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ELAKAYAN 204

be the case i f they were synonymous . Nor i s there anys im i lar i ty i n the sub -divi s i ons that are g iven . They are

sa id , i n the Nel l ore Manual , t o be hunters and merce

nar ies , and in Cuddapah , where they are known to some

as Boyas and K iratas , they are c lassed as a forest t r ibe .

I t i s c l ear , however , that they enjoyed some author i ty ,for several rose to be pol igars . Thus the pol igars of

Kall ii r,Tumba

,Pu l icherla

,Bangar i and Gud ipat i are of

this caste,and many of i t s members are vi l lage pol icemen .

They do not wear the sacred thread , bu t emp loy Brah

mans as the ir pr iest s . Their ceremon ies d iffer very l i tt le

from those of the Kapus. They are flesh-eate rs,and

the ir t i t les are Naidu and Dora . The caste possesses

some interest as be ing that which had,i n 189 1 , the

highest proport ion of widowed among females between

the age s of 15 and 39 . Litt l e i s known of the caste

h i story . Some assert that they were former ly H indu

cotton cleaner s , and that the i r name i s derived from the

verb yekuta,to c lean cotton . They returned 74 sub

d ivi s ions,of which the most important seem to be Dodda

(b ig) and Pa la .

”

There is ne ither i ntermarr iage,nor free interd in ing

between Ekaris and Mu trachas . By some,Kamp in ,

and Nagiripil la kayalu , and by others Kamm i and Verra i

were given as sub -d ivi s ions .

One of the recogn ised names of washermen i n Tami l

is Egal i or Ekal i .

E lakayan .—A sub -d iv is ion of Nayar . I t i s re

corded,i n the Madras Census Report , 190 1 , that

“ i ts

hered itary occupat ion is to get p lanta in leaves for the

use of the Cherukunnu temple , where travel lers are fed

dai ly by the Ch irakkal Raja .

”

E layad .—For the fol l owing note on the E layads or

I layatus I am indebted to Mr . N . Subraman i A iyar .

205 ELAYAD

I layatu l i tera l ly means younger, and the name is

employed to denote a caste,which is supposed to be the

last among the numerous sub -d iv is ions of Malabar

Brahmans . The caste -men make use of two t it les ,I layatu and Namb iyat ir i, the latter of which has the

same orig in as Nambat iri,mean ing a person worthy of

worship . Women are general ly known as I layammas,

and,in some parts of North Travancore

,al so Kunjammas .

By the caste-men themselves the women are cal l ed

Akattulavar, or those ins ide , i n the same way as Nam

b t’

i t iri women . Chi ldren are cal led Kunjunn is . The

I layatus exact from the Nayars the name of I layachChan

, or l i tt l e father .

Accord ing to the Jat in irnaya,a work ascr ibed to

Parasurama,the I layatus were once Brahmans of

undimin ished pur ity,but became degraded owing to

the pr iest ly service wh ich was performed for a Nayar ser

vant attached to one of the i r househo lds . Two members

of the house of Az hvancheri Tamprakkal were brothers .The younger reso lved to go to a foreign country

,and

could get no other Nayar servant than one who was

obl iged to perform his mother’s ann iversary ceremony on

the way . He promised to act as the priest on th is occa

s ion,and i s even bel ieved to have eaten the food prepared

by the Nayar . When the matter became known to h i s

elder brother,he assembl ed al l the Vaid ik Brahmans

,

and the younger brother was excommunicated . This

trad it ion,l ike the major ity of Malabar trad it ions

,has to

be accepted with reserve . The I layatus assert that ,unt i l interd icted by Rama Iyen Dalawa in revenge for a

supposed dishonour to h im , they had the pr ivi lege of

commensal ity with Nambat iri Brahmans ; but Rama

Iyen’

s author ity , large as i t was , did not extend to Cochin

and Brit ish Malabar,where too the I layatus appear to

ELAYAD 206

labour under the same d i ffi cul ty . Those who encouraged

the higher c lasses of Nayars with r itual ist ic funct ions

became O nnam Parisha or the fi rst party of I layatus , the

remainder be ing grouped in another class known as

Randam or second party . The latter are l ower in the

soc ia l scal e than the former . The two sect ions do not

intermarry , and interd in ing is restr icted to the male sex .

The I layatus general ly have a dej ected appearance ,and the ir poverty i s p roverb ia l . Most of them earn on ly

a scanty l iv ing by the i r t rad it ional occupat ion,and yet it

i s notor ious that other wa lks of l i fe have abso lute ly no

attract ion for them . Not on ly is Engl i sh educat ion not

we l comed , but even the study of Sanskr it finds on ly

a few steadfast votar ies . The I layatus are , however , a

natura l ly c l ever , and inte l l igent commun ity , and , under

favourab le cond it ions , are found to take a more prominent

p lace in soc iety .

The house of an I layatu i s , l ike that of a Namb t’

i t iri,

cal led illam . I t i s general ly large,be ing the g i ft of some

p ious Nayar . Every I layatu house possesses a serpent

grove,where per iod ica l offerings are made . The dress

and ornaments of t he I layatus are exact ly l ike those of

the Nambr’

i t iris . The wedding ornament i s cal led kettu

tal i . Chi ldren wear a r ing t ied to a thread round the

neck from the moment of the fi rst feed ing ceremony.

The I layatus are str ict vegetar ians , and , though in some

of the i r temples they have to make offer ings of l iquor

to the de ity,they are str ict ly forb idden by caste ru les

from partak ing thereof.

The chief occupat ion o f the I layatus i s the pr iesthood

of the Nayars . The fi rst d ivis ion perform th is service

on ly for the Ilakkar or highest c lass of Nayars , whi l e the

second d ivi s ion do not decl ine to be the pr iests of any

sect ion of that community . I n performing such services ,

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ELLA 208

The I layatus do not om it any of the s ixteen rel igi

ous ceremon ies of t he Brahmans . The rules of name

given are that the eldest son should be named after the

paternal grandfather , the second after the maternal

grandfather,and the th i rd after the father . A paral lel

ru l e obta ins i n g iv ing names to daughters .

The I layatus belong in the main to the white and

black branches of the Yajurveda,and observe the

sfi tras of Bodhayana and Asvalayana. They rec ite on ly

twenty -fou r Gayatr i hymns , thr ice a day . Women are

bel ieved to be pol l uted for n inety days after ch i ldb irth .

I t i s noted in the Coch in Census Report,190 1 , that

the Elayads are“ thei r own pr iests

,and for th i s reason

,

and from the fact that Nayars perform sradhas (memor ial

service) i n the houses of E layads , the Nambfidris do not

cook or take meal s i n the i r houses,nor do they

,

Kshatr iyas or Namp id is , take water from E layads . I n

former t imes , the Elayads used to take the i r meal s in

Nayar houses dur ing the performance of the sradha

ceremony of the Nayars,as Brahmans general ly do on

such ceremon ial occas ions amongst themselves,but they

now decl in e to do it , except in a few weal thy and

influent ial fami l ies . Mathads and Elayads wear the

sacred thread . Though in many respects the Elayads

are more B rahman ical than the Mathads , the major ity

of the Am balavas i castes do not take the food cooked or

touched by the E layads . There are some temples,i n

which they officiate as chief pr iests . The Mathad and

Elayad females are gOsha . They both pract ice po ly

gamy,and perform Sarvaswadanam marr iages l ike the

Nambadris .

E l la (boundary) . —Ah exogamous sept of Mutracha .

E lugoti (assembly ) .— An exogamous sept of

Devanga.

209 ENANGAN

E lugu (bear) . —An exogamous sept of Yanadi .

E luttacchan .—E luttacchan or E z huttacchan ,

mean

ing teacher or master o f learn ing,i s the name for

educated Kadupattans of Malabar employed as school

master s .

Eman .—A corrupt ion of Yajamanan ,

l ord,recorded

,

i n the Travancore Census Report,190 1 , as a t it l e of

Nayar .

Embrantiri .—Embrant iri or Embran i s “ a Mala

yalam name for Tul u Brahmans sett l ed in Malabar .They speak both Tulu and Malayalam . Some of them

cal l themse lves Namb frdris , but they never i ntermarry

with that class . 9" By Wigram they are defined Tas “ ac lass of sacr ific ing Brahmans , chiefly Tul u , who officiate

at Sadra ceremon ies .” I t i s a name for the Tulu S h ivalli

Brahmans .

Emme (buffalo) .— S ee Yemme.

E na K orava .—See Korava .

E nad i .—Recorded , i n the Madras Census Report ,190 1 , as a name for Shanans , der ived from Enadi

Nayanar, a Saiv ite saint . I t al so means Am battan,or

barber . The word denotes a chief, barber , or min ister.

E nangan .—E nangan or l nangan i s defined by Mr.

K.Kannan Nayar l as

“ a member of an Inangu ,this

be ing a community of a number of tarwads , the

members of which may interd ine or intermarry, and are

bound to ass ist one another , i f requ i red , i n the perform

ance of certain soc ia l and rel ig ious r ites . I t i s noted,

in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that“ an Enangan or

l nangan i s a man of the same caste and sub-div is ion or

marr iage groups . I t i s u sual ly translated kinsman,but

i s at once wider and narrower in it s connotat ion . My

Madras C ensus Report , 1901 . f Malabar Law and Custom .

I Malabar Quarterly Review , VI I , 3, 1908.

11- 1 4

ENET I 2 10

Enangans are al l who can marry the same peop le that

I can . An Enangatt i i s a female member of an Enan

gan’s fami ly .

Emeti .—Said to be mendicants , who beg fromGamallas . (See Vanat i . )E ntamara.

—See Yanat i .E ra—E ra Cheruman ,

or E ralan , i s a sub -d iv is ion

of Cheruman .

B radi . -E rad i has been defined * as mean ing a

cow-herd . A sub -divis ion of the Nayar caste,which

formerly rul ed in what i s now the E rnad taluk of

Malabar . I n the Malabar Manual , E rnad i s sa id to be

der ived from E radu , the bul lock country . E radi denotes,

accord ing to the Census Report , 189 1 , a settl ement in

E rnad .The caste of Samantas

, to which the Zamor in

of Cal icut belongs .

”

E ravallar.—The E ravallars are a smal l forest t r ibe

inhab it ing the Co imbatore d istr ict and Malabar . For

the fol lowing note on the E ravallars of Coch in,I am

indebted to Mr . L . K . Anantha Krishna Iy er ]E ravallars are a wi ld tr ibe of i noffens ive hi l l -men

found in the forests of the Cochin State,espec ial ly in the

Ch ittar tal uk . They are al so cal l ed Vi l lu Vedans

(hunters us ing bows ) . Their language is Tamil , though

some speak Malayalam . I n address ing the elderly

members of the caste,they use the t it les Muthan (elder)

and Pattan (grandfather) . Names in use for males are

Kannan (Krishna) , Otukan , Kothandan ,Kecharan

,and

Attukaran ,whi l e females are cal l ed Kann i

,Keyi

,Kai

kayi,O tuka, and Ramayi. These H indu divine names

are recent innovat ions after the names of members of

W i gram . Malabar Law and Custom ,

1 M onograph . E th . Survey o f Coch in , No . 9 , 1906.

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ERAVALLAR 2 I 2

to the i r master . They rai se some crops , and make

some saving to pay off the debt . Shou ld they be so

unfortunate as to fai l in the undertak ing , they w i l l ing ly

mortgage themselves to the i r master , or to some other ,for the wages above ment ioned , and wait for some

favourab le Opportun ity to pay off the debt . Women

never surrender themselves to work in a state of bondage,

but are independent day- labourers . The E ravallars are ,as cert ified by the i r masters , a lways t ruthfu l , honest ,faithful and god -fear ing

,and never

,l ike the Pulayas of

the northern parts of the State , ungratefu l ly run away

from the ir masters .

A gir l,when she comes of age , i s lodged in a separate

hut (m uttuchala) erected at a d istance of a fur long from

the main hut . Only a few gir l fr iends are al lowed to be

in company with her dur ing the per iod of her seclu

s ion,which is genera l ly seven days , during which food

i s served to her at a d istance , when she comes to take

it . No grown -up member approaches her , for fear of

pol l ut ion . She bathes on the morn ing of the seventh

day,and i s then a l l owed to enter the hut . The day i s

one of fest ivi ty to her fr iends and re lat ions . I f a g i r l i s

marr ied before she atta ins puberty,her husband contr i

b utes something for the expenses of the ceremony .

Should a woman cohab it with a man before marr iage

and become pregnant,sh e used , i n former t imes , to be

put to death,but i s now turned out of caste . I nstances

of the k ind are,they say, extreme ly rare .

An E raval lan who wishes to see h i s son marr ied

vis its the parents of a g i r l with his brother-in - law and a

few relat ives,who make the prOposal . I f the parents

agree,the wedd ing day i s fixed , and a l l the pre l im inary

arrangements are made at the hut of the br ide,where

the re lat ives assembled are t reated to a d inner. The

2 13 ERAVALLAR

bride’s pr ice i s on ly a rupee . The parents of the br ide

and bridegroom vis i t the i r respect ive land lords with a

few packets of bete l leaves,areca nuts

,and tobacco

,and

inform them of the marr iage prOposal. The land lords

g ive a few paras of paddy to defray a port ion of the

wedding expenses . They ce lebrate the i r wedd ings on

Mondays . O n a Monday previous to the wedding cere

mony,the s ister of the br idegroom

,with a few of her

relat ions and fr iends,goes to the br ide’s hut

,and presents

her parents with the br ide’s money,and a brass r ing for

the br ide . On the Monday chosen for the wedd ing , the

same company,and a few more

,go there

,and dress the

g ir l in the new garment brought by them . They are

treated to a d inner as on the previous occas ion . They

then return with the br ide to the hut of the br idegroom,

where a lso the part ies assembled are enterta ined . On

the Monday after this,the br idegroom and br ide are

taken to the br ide’s hut,where they stay for a week

,and

then return to the br idegroom’s hut . Marr iage is now

formal ly over . The tal i (marr iage badge) tying is d is

pensed with . This custom of marr iage preva i ls among

the Iz huvas of the Ch itt fi r tal uk . The bridegroom gets

nothing as a present dur ing the wedd ing,but th is i s

reserved for the Karkadaka Sankranth i, when he is

invited by his father - in - law,and g iven two vesht is and a

turban , after sumptuous ly feed ing h im . A widow can

only marry a widower . I t i s cal l ed Mundakettuka

(marrying a widow) . When they both have chi ldren , the

widower must make a so lemn promise to hi s castem en that

he wi l l treat and support the ch i ld ren by both marr iages

impart ial ly . The present of a brass r ing and c loth is essen

t ial . A man can d ivorce h is wife , i f he i s not sat isfied with

her . The d ivorced wi fe can mate on ly with a widower .

Such cases , they say, are very rare among them .

ERAVALLAR 2 14

No ceremony is performed for a pregnant woman

dur ing the fifth or seventh month . I f she dreams of

dogs , cats , or wi ld an imals com ing to threaten her , i t i s

be l ieved that she i s possessed of demons . Then a devi l

dr iver from th is or some other caste i s ca l led in . H e

draws a h ideous figure (kelam ) on the floor with pow

dered r ice,turmer ic

,and charcoa l , and the woman is

seated in front of i t . H e s ings and beats h i s sma l l drum,

or mutters h is mantram (consecrated formu la) . A lamp

is l ighted,and frank incense i s burned . A kaibali i s

waved round the woman’s face . She i s worked up to a

hyster ica l state,and makes frant ic movements . Boi led

r ice,flattened r ice

,p lanta ins

,cocoanuts

,and fow l are

offered to the demon . Quite sat isfied , the demon leaves

her,or offers to leave her on certai n cond it ions . I f the

woman remains s i lent and unmoved a l l the t ime,i t i s

supposed that no demon res ides i n her body . Very

often a yantram (charm) i s made on a p iece of cadjan

(pa lm) leaf, and ro l led . I t i s attached to a thread , and

worn round the neck .

A woman in chi ldbirth i s located in a separate sma l l

hut (muttuchala) erected at a d istance from the main hut .

Nobody attends upon her,except her mother or some old

woman to nurse her . As soon as de l ivery takes p lace ,the mother and ch i ld are bathed . H er po l lut ion is for

seven days,during which she stays in the hut . She then

bathes,and is removed to another hut c lose to the main

hut , and i s again under po l lut ion for five months . Her

d iet during thi s per iod is s imp le,and she i s st r ict ly for

b idden to take meat . The only medic ine admin istered to

her during the per iod is a mixture of pepper , dr ied g inger ,and pa lm sugar m ixed w i th toddy . She comes back to

the main but after pur i fying herse l f by a bath at the end

of the five months . The day i s one of fest iv ity .

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ERAVALLAR 2 I 6

occupat ions . Offer ings are made to Kal i and Mun i ,when they p lough

,sow, and reap . They are so pro

p it iated ,as they are supposed to protect the i r corn from

destruct ion by wi ld beasts . The E ravallers are sk i l fu l

hunters . Owing to the i r fami l iar ity and acquaintance

w ith the forests,they can point out p laces frequented by

wi ld beasts,which they can recogn ise by sme l l

,e ither to

warn trave l lers aga inst danger, or to gu ide sportsmen

to the game . Ten or fi fteen of them form a party,and

are armed with kn ives,bows and arrows . Some of them

act as beaters,and the an imal i s dr iven to a part icu lar

spot,where it i s caught in a large net a l ready spread ,

shot,or beaten to death . Animals hunted are hares ,

porcup ines,and wi ld p igs . The game is a lways equal ly

d iv ided . Being good marksmen , they take sk i l fu l a im

at b irds,and k i l l them when fly ing .

The ord inary d ietary is kanj i (grue l) of chama or

cho lam,mixed with tamar ind

,sa lt and chi l l i es

,prepared

overn ight,and taken in the morn ing . The same i s

prepared for the midday mea l , with a vegetab le curry

cons i st ing of dhol l , horse gram (D oticaos oiftozf us) , and

oth er gra ins grown in the garden of the i r masters , which

they have to watch . They eat the flesh of s heep,

fow ls,p igs

,hares

,quai ls

,and doves . They take food

at the hands of Brahmans , Nayars , Kammalars , and

I z huvas . They refuse to take anything cooked by Man

nans,Panans , Parayans , and Cherumans . They bathe

when touched by a Chakkiliyan ,Parayan

,or Cheruman .

They stand a long way off from Brahmans and Nayars .

Both men and women are decent ly c lad . Males

wear vesh t is , one end of which hangs loose , and the other

i s tucked in between the legs . They have a shou lder

cloth,e i ther hang ing loose ly ove r the i r s houlders , or

somet imes t ied to the turban . They a l low the i r hair to

2 1 7 ERNADAN

grow long , but do not , for want of means,ano int i t

with o il . They grow moustaches . They wear round

the neck a necklace of sma l l white beads to di st ingu ish

them from Malayars , who are a lways afra id of them .

Some wear brass finger r ings . Women wear a potava

(co loured c loth) , ha l f of which is worn round the loins ,whi le the other ha l f serves to cover the body . The hai r

i s not smoothed with o i l . I t i s tw isted into a knot on the

back . I t is said that they take an o il bath once a week .

Thei r ear ornament is made of a long palmyra leaf ro l led

into a d isc,and the ear lobes are suffic ient ly d i lated to

contain them .

E rkol lar.—A Tami l form of the Telugu Yerrago lla,

which i s sub-d ivi s ion of Tott iyan .

Ernadan .—In the Madras Census Report

,190 1 ,

the Aranadans are descr ibed as a hi l l tr ibe in Ma labar,

who k i l l pythons,and extract an o il from them

,which

they se l l to peop le on the p la ins as a remedy for leprosy .

These are,I have no doubt

,the E rnadans

,concern ing

whom Mr . G . H adfield writes to me as fo l lows . They

are a sma l l j ungle tr ibe , found exc l us ive ly in Ma labar ,and are cons idered to be the lowest of the j ungle tr ibes

by the inhabitants of Ma labar, who cons ider themse lves

po l l uted i f an E rnadan approaches within a hundred

yards . Even Pan iyans and Par iah s g ive them a wide

berth,and they are prohib ited from coming with in four

hundred yards of a vi l lage . One of the i r customs i s very

s ingu lar,viz . ,

the father of a fami ly takes (or used to

take) his e ldest daughter as hi s second w ife . The

E rnadans use bows and arrows , pr inc ipa l ly for shoot ing

monkeys,to the flesh of which they are very part ia l .

They are not part icu lar as to what they eat,and are

,i n

fact , on a par with jackals in th i s respect , devouring

snakes and the putr id flesh of var ious an ima ls . They

E‘

RRA 2 18

are fond of co l lect ing the fat of snakes,and se l l ing it

.

Muhammadans emp loy them in fe l l ing t imber,and

cu lt ivat ing fields . Thei r c lothing is exceed ingly scanty,

and , when hard up , they use wi ld p lantain leaves for this

purpose .

Through Mr . Hadfield’

s i nfluence with the t r ibe,

Mr . F . Fawcett was ab l e to examine a few members

thereof, who appeared before him accompan ied by their

Mappilla master , at a s igna l from whom they ran off l ike

hares , to attend to the i r work in the fie lds . Thei r most

important measurements were as fo l lowsMax . M in . Av.

Statu re (cm . ) 1 566 1 506 1 54 5

Cephal ic index 85 7 7 81

Nasal index 88 4

The E rnadans , accord ing to these figures , are short of

stature , p latyrh ine , wi th an unusua l ly high cepha l i c i ndex .

Ema—See Yerra .

E rudand i .—S ee Gangeddu .

E rudukkaran .—See Gangeddu .

E rurnai (buffa lo) . —An exogamous sept of Toreya .

B ruman .—A sub -d iv is ion of Kelayan .

E ttarai (e ight and a ha l f) . —An exogamous sept of

Tami l go ldsmiths .

Ettuvi tan .—Recorded , i n the Travancore Census

Report,190 1 , as a sub -d iv is ion of Nayar .

E uras ian—Euras ian (Eur-asi an) may, after thedefin it ion in Hobson -J obson

,

’ 9“ be summed up as a

modern name for persons of mixed E uropean and I nd ian

b lood,devised as be ing more euphemist ic than ha l f-caste ,

and more prec ise than East-I ndian . When the European

an d Ang lo - I nd ian Defence Assoc iat ion was estab l i shed

Yule and Burnel l , 2nd cd . , 1903.

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EURAS IAN 2 20

highest pos it ion in,and gained the bl ue r ibbon of

,

Government servi ce . Others have held , or st i l l hold ,pos it ions of d ist inct ion in the var ious learned profess ions ,legal

,medical

,educat ional , and ecc les iast ica l .

The influence of the var ious E uropean nat ions

Portuguese,Dutch

,Brit i sh , Dan ish , and French— wh ich

have at d ifferent t imes acqui red terr i tory in pen insu lar

I nd ia,i s c l ear ly vis ib l e in the po lyglot med ley of E uras ian

surnames,e .g .

,Gomes

,Da Souza

,Gonsalvez

,Rozar io

,

Cabral,Da Cruz

,Da Costa , Da S i lva , Da Souza ,

Fernandez,Fonseca

,Lazaro

,Henr iquez , ! avier , Men

don z a,Rodriguez

,Saldana

,Almeyda

,He ldt

,Van Spal l

,

J ansen,August ine

,Brisson

,Corne i l le

,La Grange

,

Lavocat , Pascal , D eVine, Aubert , Ryan , McKert ish ,

Macpherson,Harr i s

,J ohnson

,Smith

,etc . Litt le d id the

ear ly adventurers,i n the dawn of the seventeenth cen

tury , th ink that , as the resu l t of the i r al l iances w ith the

nat ive women , with in three cen tur ies banns of marr iage

wou ld be declared weekly in Madras churches between,

for example,Ben J onson and Al ice Almeyda

,Emmanue l

H enr icus and Mary Smith,Augustus Rozar io and M inn ie

Fonseca , J ohn Harr i s and Clara Corne i l le . Yet th is has

come to pass,and the E uras ian ho lds a recogn ised p lace

among the hal f-breed races of the world .

The ped igree of the early Euras ian commun ity i s

ve i l ed in obscur i ty . But the var ious modes of creat ion

of a ha l f-breed,which were adopted in those early days

,

when the sturdy European p ioneers fi rst came in contact

with the nat ive females,were probably as fol lows

A . Eu ropean man (pu re) B . Nati ve woman (pu re) .C . Male o ffsp ring of A B(fi rst cross) D . Nati ve woman .

E . Female offsp ring of A B!E Eu ropean man.

(fi rst CTOSS) G. Native man .

2 2 I EURAS IAN

( I . Cross— female offspring ofH . Male ofl

‘

spring of C D A B .

L] . Nati ve woman .

(L. Cross— male offsp ring of

I A B1 f f DK Fema e o fsprmg o C (

l M . European man .

LN . Nati ve man .

The Euras ian hal f-breed,thus establ i shed , has been

perpetuated“

by a var iety of poss ibl e combinat ionsEuras ian woman .European manNative woman .

Nati ve woman .

Euras ian man Eu rasian woman .

I European woman .

Eu rasian woman .

Native manEu ropean woman .

I n the early days of the Brit ish occupat ion of Madras,

the traders and sold iers , arr iving with an inadequate

equ ipment of females , contracted a l l iances, regular or

i rregu lar,with the women of the country . And in these

early days,when our terr itor ial possess ions were keenly

contested with both European and Nat ive enemies,an

attempt was made , under author ity from h igh p laces , to

obtain,through the medium of the Br it i sh sold ier

,and

in accordance with the creed that cross ing is an essent ial

means of improving a race , and render ing i t V igorous

by the infus ion of fresh blood from a separate stock,

a good cross,which should be avai lable for m i l itary

purposes . Later on,as the number of the Brit i sh

sett l ers i ncreased,connex ions

,e ither with the Nat ive

women,or with the females of the recent ly establ ished

Euras ian type,were kept up owing to the d i ffi culty

of commun icat ion with the mother -country,and conse

quent d ifficu l ty i n securing Engl i sh br ides . O f these

barbar ic days the detached or Semi-detached bungalows

in the Spac ious grounds of the old pr ivate houses in

EURAS IAN 2 2 2

Madras remain as a memor ial . At the present day the

cond it ion s of l i fe in I nd ia are,as the resul t of steamer

traffi c, very d ifferent , and far more who lesome . TheE uras ian man seeks a w i fe as a r ul e among his own

commun ity ; and , i n th is manner , the race i s main ly

maintained .

The number of Euras ians with in the l im its of the

Madras Pres idency was returned , at the census , 189 1 , as

But on th is po int I must cal l Mr . H . A . Stuart ,the Census Commiss ioner

,i nto the witness box .

“ The

number of Euras ians,

” he wr ites,

“ i s which i s

per cent . more than the number returned in

The figures for the last three enumerat ions are g iven in

the fo l lowing statementYear . Total . Males . Females .

187 1

1881

189 1

I t wi l l be seen that,between 187 1 and 1881

,there

was a great decrease,and that the numbers in 189 1 are

s l ight ly highe r than they were twenty years ago . The

figures , however , are most untrustworthy . The cause i s

not far to seek ; many persons , who are real ly Nat ives ,c la im to be E uras ians

,and some who are Euras ians

return themselves as Europeans . I t m ight be thought

that the errors due to these c i rcumstances wou ld be

fair ly constant,but the d ist r ict figures Show that th is

cannot be the case . Take Ma labar , for examp le , which

has the largest number of E uras ians after Madras,and

where the d ivi s ion between Nat ive Chr ist ians with

E uropean names and peop le of rea l mixed race i s very

shadowy . I n 187 1 there were in th i s d i st r ict

Euras ians ; in 1881 the number had apparent ly fa l len to

whi le in 189 1 i t had again r i sen to or, i f we

inc lude South-east~

Wynaad , as we shou ld do, to

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EURAS IAN 224

the major ity of them are c lerks , whi le very few obtain the i r

l ive l ihood by agr icu lture . I n the course of my invest i

gat ions i n the c ity of Madras , the fo l lowing occupat ions

were recordedAccountant.Attendant, LunaticAsy lum .

Baker.Bandmn an .

Bi l l col lector.B lacksm ith .

Board ing-house keeper.Boatswain .

Bo i ler sm ith .

Carpenter.Chem ist’s assi stant.Clerk , Government.Clerk , commercial .Comm i ss ion agent.Com posi tor.Compounder .Contractor.Coppersm ith .

C rane attendant, harbou r.Draftsman .

E lectric tram dr i ver.E lectric tram inspecto r.Eng ine-d river, ice facto ry.

IZvangeh sL

Ifi ler.

Fi reman .

Fi tter.Hammerer.I I arnessrnaker.

Jewel-sm ith .

Jo iner.Labou rer .Livery stab le-keeper .Mechan ic.

Mou lde r .

Painter .Petition writer.Po l ice I nspector .Porter.P rinter.P roof-reader.Rai lwayAud itor.Chargeman .

Eng ine-dr i ver .Eng ineer.Goods clerk .

Guard.

Locomoti ve I nspector.Parce ls clerk .

P rosecuting I nspector.Sh unter.S ignal ler.Station-master .Storekeeper .T icket co l lecto r.Tool-keepe r.B lock S ignal ler.Carr iage exam iner.

Reporter.Rivette r.Saddler.Sch oo lmaster.Sexton .

Sp ring-sm ith .

Stereotyper.Steward.

Telegraph clerk .

Watchmake r.Watchman .

2 25 EURASIAN

I n the Census Report,190 1 , the fo l lowing stat ist ics

of the occupat ion of Euras ians in Madras c ity

Malabar and Chingleput (486) are g iven .

Most of those i n the last of these three res ide in

Peramb t'

rr, j ust outs ide the Madras mun ic ipa l l im its

Numberof

workers .

Endowments, scholarsh ips, etc. 813

Pens ioners 438

Rai lway clerks , station-masters, guards, etc. 4 2 7

Tai lors 378

Merchants’ and shop-keepers’ clerks 297

Rai lway operati ves 262

Teachers 243

P ub l ic serv ice 2 1 2

P r ivate c lerksMechan ics (not rai lway)CarpentersTe legraph departmentMed ical departmentCooks, grooms, etc.

P r inting presses : workmen and subord inates

I ndependent meansA l lowances from patrons, relatives and fr iends

S u rvey and Pub l ic Works departmen tCoffee and tea estate clerks and coo l ies

I nmates of asy lums

Rai lway po rters, etc.

Mus ician s and actors

Harbou r serv iceWorkmen , gun carr iage factor ies

Postal department

Non-comm issioned officers, Army

Mend icantsMidw ives11—1 5

EURAS IAN 2 26

P riests,m in isters

, etc.

T ramway officialsSe l lers of h ides and bones, shoe and boot makers,tanners, etc.

Local and Mun ici pal serv iceSh ipp ing clerks, etc.

Brokers and agentsLawyers’ clerksMerchants and shop-keepersLandholdersWatch and clock makersMoney-lenders, etc.

Mi l itary clerksB lacksm ith sChem ists and d rugg ists

P r isonersPleadersBrass and copper sm ith s

I nmates of convents, etc.

Sh ip’s o fficers, etc.

P rostitutesAuthors, ed itors, etc. 1 0

Cu ltivating tenants 8

Club managers, etc. 8

Hotel-keepers, etc. 7

Minor occupations 363

As bear ing on the subj ect of E uras ian marr iage,I am

enab led,through the courtesy of a ra i lway chap la in and

the chap lain of one of the pr inc ipa l churches in the c ity

of Madras,to p lace on record the fo l lowing stat i st ics

abstracted from the reg i sters . I t may,i n exp lanat ion

,

be noted that M indicates the br idegroom,F the br ide

,

and W widow or widower remarr iage

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EURASIAN 228

(o) MADRAS C ITY—cont.

Analys ing these figures, with the om iss ion of re

marr iages,we obta in the fol low ing resu l t s

(a) RAILWAY .

Average age

Mean above averageMean below averageRange of age

(a) MADRAS C I TY.

Br idegroom . Br ide .

Average age 26—2 7 1 9—20

Mean above average 28- 29 2 1—2 2

Mean below average 23—24 1 7

—18

Range of age 4 0—20 3 1

—14

From the analys i s of a hundred male cases in Madras,

i n which enqu ir ies were made with reference to the

marr ied state , i n ind ividual s rang ing in age from 2 1 to

50 ,with an average age of 33, I learn that 74 were

marr ied that 14 1 male and 130 female chi ldren had been

born to them ; and that 26, whose average age was 25 ,were unmarr ied . The l im its of age of the men at the

t ime of marr iage were 32 and 16 of thei r w ives 2 5 and

13. The greatest number of chi ldren born to a s ing le

229 EURASIAN

pair was 10 . I n on ly three cases,out of the seventy

four,was there no issue . I n fi fty cases

,which were

examined,of marr ied men , with an average age of 34 ,

207 chi ldren had been born , of whom 9 1 had d ied, for

the most part in early l i fe , from fever and other causes .The rac ia l pos it ion of E uras ians

,and the proport ion

of black blood in the ir ve ins,are commonly ind icated

,not

by the terms mulatto , quadroon , octoroon , Sambo (orzambo) , etc .

,but in fract ions of a rupee . The European

pure breed be ing represented by Rs . 0—0- 0, and the

Nat ive pure breed by 16 annas 1 rupee) , the resu ltant

cross i s,by reference to colour and other tests

,gauged

as being hal f an anna in the rupee (faint admixture of

black blood) , approaching European types e ight annas

(hal f and hal f) ; fifteen annas (predominant admixtureof black blood) , approaching Nat ive types , etc .

The Euras ian body being enve loped in c lothes , i t was

not t i l l they str ipped before me,for the purpose of

anthropometry,that I became aware how preva lent i s the

pract ice of tattoo ing among the ma le members of the

community . Near ly al l the hundred and th irty men

(of the lower c lasses) whom I examined were , in fact ,tattooed to a greater or less extent on the breasts , upper

arms,forearms

,wrists

,back of the hands , or shou lders .

The fo l lowing var ied se lect ion of devices in b lue , w i th

occas iona l red,i s recorded in my case-book

Anchor.Bal let g i r l w ith flag, stars and stripes.Bracelets round w rists.Burmese lady carry ing umb rel la.

B i rd.

Bugles.

Conventional artistic dev ices.

Cross and anchor.Crown and flags.

EURAS IAN 230

Crossed swords and p istols.Dancing-g i r l .Dancing-g i r l p laying w ith cob ras.

E lephant.F loral dev ices.

F lowers in pot.Hands jo ined in centre of a heart.Hands jo ined

,and clasp ing a flower .

Heart.Heart and cross.I n it ials of the ind i v idual, h is friends, relati ves, and inamorata,

sometimes w ith in a heart or lau rel wreath .

Lizard.

Mercy (word on left b reast).Mermaid .

Portraits of the man and h is lady-love.

Q ueen A lexandra.

Royal arms and banners.Sai l ing boat.Scorp ion .

Solomon‘

s seal.Steam boat.Svastika (Buddh ist emblem ).Watteau shepherdess.

The most e laborate patterns were executed by

B urmese tattooers . The in it ia ls of the ind ividua l’s

Chr ist ian and surnames,which preponderated over other

dev ices , were , as a ru le , i n Roman , but occas iona l ly in

Tami l characters .

I n co lour the Euras ians afford examp les of the ent ire

co lour sca le,through sundry shades of brown and ye l low,

to pa le white,and even flor id or rosy . The p i lous or

hairy system was , i n the cases recorded by me , uni form ly

black . The co lour of the i r i s,l i ke that of the sk in , is

l iab le to great var iat ion,from lustrous b lack to l ight ,

with a predominance of dark t ints . B lue was observed

on ly in a so l i tary instance .

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EURASIAN 232

The breadth of the head i s very c lear ly brought "out

by the fol lowing analys i s of forty subj ects belong ing to

each of the above s ix c lasses , which shows at a g lance

the preponderance of heads exceed ing 14 cm . i n breadth

in E uras ians,Brahmans , and (to a l ess extent) i n

Muhammadans

Eu rasiansB rahmans

MuhammadansVel lalas

ParaiyansPal l is

The head of a cross-breed,i t has been said, genera l ly

takes after the father,and the breadth of the Euras ian

head i s a pers ist ing resu l t of European ma le influence .

The effect of thi s infl uence i s c lear ly demonstrated i n

the fo l lowing cases , a l l the resu l t of re-cross ing between

Br it ish men and Euras ian women

Length .

cm .

AverageEu rasian average

The character of the nose i s,as those who have

stud ied ethno logy in I nd ia wi l l apprec iate,a most

important factor in the d ifferent iat ion of race, tr ibe , and

c lass , and in the determinat ion of ped igree . N0 one,

233 EURAS IAN

Mr . Ris ley wri tes ,“ can have glanced at the l i terature

of the subject , and in part i c ular , at the Véd ic accountsof the Aryan advance

,without be ing struck by the

frequent references to the noses of the peop le whomthe Aryans found in possess ion of the p la ins of I ndia .

So impressed were the Aryans with the shortcomings ofthei r enem ies

’

noses that they often spoke of them as‘ the noseless ones ,

’ and thei r keen percept ion of theimportance of thi s feature seems almost to ant ic ipate theOp in ion of Dr . Col l ignon that the nasal i ndex rankshigher as a d ist inct ive character than the stature

, or

even the cephal i c index itsel f. ”

I n the subjoined table,based on the exam inat ion of

forty members of each class,the high proport i on of

l eptorhine E uras ians , Muhammadans , and Vellalas, with

nasal ind ices ranging between 60 and 70mani fest , and requ ires no comment

is at once

60-70 . 70—80 . 80-90 . 90- 100 .

Euras ians 1 9 I 7 3 1

Muhammadans 1 7 18 4Vel lalas 1 4 2 2

3Pal l is 3 25 9

Paraiyans 2 1 7 1 9

from E urope to I ndia . Concern ing the or ig inof the

Indo-Portuguese half-breed,I l earn I that, on h is return

from the recapture of Goa,Albuquerque brought with

him the women he had carr ied away when the Portuguese

Journ . An th . Inst .

, ! ! , 189 1 .

t Danvers . The Portuguese in I nd ia, 1894 .

EURAS IAN 234

were driven out of the p lace . As soon as affai rs became

tol erably settl ed again at that port,he had them con

verted to Chr ist ian ity, and marr ied them to Portuguese

men . N0 l ess than 4 50 of his men were thus marr ied

in Goa, and others who des i red to fo l l ow the i r examp le

were so numerous that Albuquerque had great d i ffi cu l ty

i n grant ing the ir requests . The marr iage of Portuguese

men to nat ive women had al ready been sanct ioned by

Dom Manuel , but this pr iv i l ege was on ly to be conceded

to men of proved character, and who had rendered good

service . A lbuquerque , however , extended the permis

s ion to many far beyond what he was author i sed to do,

and he took care that the women so marr i ed were the

daughters of the pr inc ipa l men of the land . This he d id

in the hope of induc ing them to become Christ ians . To

those who were marr ied Albuquerque al lotted lands,houses and catt l e , so as to g ive them a start in l i fe , and

al l the landed property which had been in possess ion of

the Moor ish mosques and H indu pagodas he gave to

the pr inc ipal churches of the c ity,which he ded icated to

Santa Cather ina .

The names of some members of the commun ity at

Cal icut recal led to m ind Pedro A lvares Cabral, who

anchored before Cal icut in 1 500, and estab l i shed a

factory at Cochin ; the first Portuguese Governor , Dom

Franc iso de Almeida ; André Furtado de Mendonca,who conc luded a treaty with the k ing of Cal icut ; and

many others,whose exp lo its are handed down to poster ity

in the I ndo -Portuguese archives . Though Portuguese

names pers ist at the present day, i t does not fo l low of

necess i ty that the i r owners have any Portuguese blood

in thei r ve ins,for some are mere ly descendants of Nat ive

converts to Christ ian ity,or of household s laves of

Portuguese offi cers . “ I n Malabar,writes the Census

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EURASIAN 236

Coast into that country that has not got a Sea Coast

i s therefore cal l ed a Coaster . A very rude word .

”

Speaking in genera l terms , i t may be said that

E uras ians are of greater stature , and possess sk ins of

l ighter hue than the East I nd ians , who, as the resu l t

of intermarr iage with Nat ive Christ ian women,have

reverted in the d irect ion of the Nat ive type .

The Euras ians examined by me at Cal icut,nearly a l l

of whom were Roman Cathol ics,were earn ing a l ive l i

hood in the fo l lowing capac it ies

Bandsman . Mun ic ipal inspector.Boot-maker. Musician .

Bugler. Petition-wr iter.Carpenter. Po l ice constab le.

Clerk , Rai lway guard.

Co ffee estate w riter. Schoo lmaster.Composito r. Tai lor.Copyist. T in-sm i th .

Mechan ic. Weaver

As in Madras , so i n Malabar, tattoo ing is very preva

lent among the ma le members of the commun ity, and

the devices are character i sed by a predominance of

re l ig i ous emb lems and snakes . The fo l low ing patternsare recorded in my notes

Bangle on w rist. FishBoat. F lags.

B i rd (the Ho ly Ghost) . F lower.Chal ice. F lower and leaves.Ch rist crucified . I n itials .

Conventional and geo Ladder.metr ical designs. Sacred heart.

Cross. Snake enci rcl ing forearms.

C ross and crown . Snake co i led round foreC ross and heart. arm .

Cross and So lomon’s seal.

Crossed swords. Steam boat.

237 EURASIAN

There are,in North Ma labar, many ind ividuals , whose

fathers were European . Writ ing , in 1887 , concern ing

the T iyan commun ity,Mr . Logan states * that “ the

women are not as a ru le excommun icated i f they l ive

with Europeans,and the consequence i s that there has

been among them a large admixture of E uropean b lood,

and the caste itse lf has been mater ial ly rai sed in the

soc ial sca le . I n appearance some of the women are

a lmost as fa i r as Europeans .”

On this po int , the Report

of the Ma labar Marr iage Commiss ion , 1894 , states that“ i n the ear ly days of Brit ish ru le , the Tiyan women

incurred no soc ia l d isgrace by consort ing with Europeans,

and,up to the last generat ion , i f the Sudra g ir l cou ld

boast of her Brahmin lover , the T iyan g i r l cou ld Show

more s ubstant ia l benefit s from her a l l iance with a white

man of the ru l ing race . Happ i ly the progress of educa

t ion,and the growth of a who lesome pub l ic Op in ion

,have

made shamefu l the pos it ion of a E uropean’s concub ine ;and both races have thus been saved from a mode of l i fe

equal ly demora l i z ing to each .

”

During a vi s i t to Ootacamund on the N i lgir i h i l ls,

I was enab led to examine the phys ique of the e lder boys

at the Lawrence Asy lum , the object of which i s “ to

provide for chi ldren of European and East I nd ian offi cers

and so ld iers of Her Majesty’s Army (Brit ish and Nat ive) ,and of E uropeans and East I nd ians in the Med ica l

Service,mi l itary and c iv i l , who are serving , or have

served within the l im its of the Pres idency of Madras,a

refuge from the deb i l i tat ing effects of a trop ica l c l imate,

and from the ser ious drawbacks to the we l l -be ing of

chi ldren inc idental to a barrack l i fe ; to afford for them

a p lain,pract ica l

,and re l ig ious educat ion ; and to train

Manual of Malabar.

EURASIAN 238

them for emp loyment in d i fferent trades,pursu its

,and

industr i es . As the resu lt of examinat ion of th i rty-three

Euras ian boys,I was able to test i fy to the exce l lence of

thei r phys ica l condit ionfl‘ A good c l imate,with a mean

annua l temperature of good food,and phys ica l

t rain ing,have produced a set of boys we l l -nour ished and

muscu lar,with good chests , shou lders , and body weight .

Some fina l words are necessary on l iab i l ity to certain

d iseases , as a d i fferent iat ing character between E uras ians

and Europeans . The Census Commiss ioner,189 1 , states

that E uras ians seem to be pecu l iar ly l iab le to insan ity

and leprosy . To these shou ld be added e lephant ias i s

(fi larial d isease) , concern ing which Surgeon-Major J .

Mait land wr ites as “ A lmost a l l the o ld wr iters

on e lephant ias is be l i eved that the dark races were more

suscept ib l e to the d i sease than white peop le ; but i t i s

ext reme ly doubtful i f thi s i s the case . I t i s t rue that,i n

those countr ies where the d i sease is endem ic,the propor

t ion of persons affected is much g reater among the b lacks

than among the whites ; but i t has to be borne in m ind

that the hab its of the former render them much more

l iab le to the d isease than the latter . The major ity of the

white peop le,being more c iv i l i sed

,are more carefu l

regard ing the pur i ty of the i r drink ing water than the

Nat ives,who are proverb ia l ly care less in th is respect .

I n I nd ia,a l though it i s comparat ive ly rare to meet w ith

Europeans affected with the d isease,yet such cases are

from t ime to t ime recorded . Euras ians are proport ion

ate ly more l iab le to the d isease than pure Europeans ,but not so much so as Nat ives . Doctors Patterson and

H a l l of Bah ia i examined the b lood of 309 persons in

S ee Madras Museum Bu l let in , I I , 2 , Table XXV I , 1898.

1' Elephan t ias is and al l ied d isorders, Madras , 189 1 .

I Veterinarian , June, 1879.

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EURASIAN 240

feature akin to the b io logical phenomenon known as

atavism,but of perhaps doubtfu l ana logy

,for the

poss ib i l ity of a fresh infect ion or inocu lat ion has always

to be borne in mind . There are numerous instances ofsuch hered itary transmiss ion among the pat ients

,both

Nat ive and Euras ian , i n the Leper H osp ital . The

spread of the d isease by contag ion is s low,the most

int imate contact even , such as that between parent and

chi ld,often fa i l ing to effect inocu lat ion . St i l l there is

much evidence in support of its be ing inocu labl e by

cohab itat ion,pro longed contact , wear ing the same

c lothing,shar ing the dwe l l ing , us ing the same cook ing

and eat ing utens i l s , and even by arm -to -arm vacc inat ion .

I nfluenced by a be l i ef i n the last ment ioned cause,

vacc inat ion was former ly regarded with much susp ic ion

and d is l ike by E uras ian s in Madras . But thei r appre

h ens ion s on thi s score have abated s ince an ima l vacc ine

was subst ituted for the human ised mater ia l . I t has

al so for long been a popular be l ief among the same

c lass that the suck l ing of thei r infant s by infected

Nat ive wet -nurses i s a common Source of the d isease .

Attempts to reproduce l eprosy from supposed pure

cu ltures of the leprosy bac i l l us have invar iab ly fai led,

and this st rengthens the bel ief that the d isease would

d ie out i f sufferers from the tubercu lar or mixed forms

were segregated , and intermarr iage wi th members of

known leprous fami l i es interd icted . Exper ience shows

that,where such marr iages are free ly entered into , a

notab le preva lence of the d isease resu lts,as at Pond i

cherry for examp le , where the so -cal led creo le popu lat ion

i s said to contain a large p roport ion of lepers from thi s

cause .

Writ ing concern ing the prevalence of i nsan ity i n

d ifferent c lasses,the Census Commiss ioner

,189 1 , states

24 1 EURAS IAN

that “ i t appears from the stat ist ics that insan ity i s far

more prevalent among the Euras ians than among any

other c lass . The proport ion i s 1 i nsane person in every

4 10 . For England and Wales the proport ion i s 1 i n

every 307 , and it i s s ign ificant that the sect ion of the

populat ion of Madras,which shows the greatest l iab i l i ty

to insan ity , i s that which has an admixture of E uropean

b lood . I have no informat ion regard ing the prevalence

of i nsan ity among E uras ians for any other province or

State in I nd ia except Mysore,and there the proport ion

i s 1 i n 306.

For the fol lowing tabu lar statement of admiss ions

into the Government Lunat ic Asyl um,Madras

,I am

indebted to Captain C . H . Leet -Pa lk,I .M .S

Leaving out of quest ion the Europeans,i n whom

,

owing to the preponderance of the ma le sex i n Madras,

a greater number of male than female lunat ics i s to be

expected,and cons ider ing on ly E uras ians and Nat ives

,

the far higher proport ion of female as compared with

male lunat ics in the Euras ian than in the Nat ive com ~

mun ity,i s very consp icuous . Taking , for examp le , the

numbers remain ing in the Asy lum in 1894 . Whereas

the proport ion of E uras ian males to fema les was 33 3 1 ,

that of Nat ives was 30 6 : 6 8 and the high proport ion11- 16

GABIT 24 2

of female Euras ian inmates was vis ib le in other years .

The subj ect seems to be one worthy of further study by

those competent to dea l with it .

Gah it .—A Bombay fi sh ing caste returned a t the

census,190 1 . To Ma lpe in the South Canara d i str ict

,

dur ing the fi sh ing season , come fi shermen w ith a flot i l l a

of keeled and outr igged sai l ing boats from Ratnag ir i i n

the Bombay Pres idency . H ither also come fi shermen from

Goa . The reasons g iven by the Ratnagi r i fi shermen

for coming southward are that fi sh are not so abundant

off the ir own coast , compet it ion i s keener , and sal t more

expens ive . Moreover , the crysta ls of Bombay sa l t are

too large for successfu l cur ing , and“ do not agree with

the fi sh,of which the flesh is turned b lack . I f

,they

said contemptuously,they were to sun-dry fi sh

,

by the

loca l method,the i r peop le wou ld laugh at them for

br ing ing back,not fi sh

,but dr ied cow-dung for fuel .

The Ratnag ir i boat s go we l l out of s ight of land to the

fi shing ground,where they catch se i r

,pomfret

,cat -fish

(A r ius) , and other b ig fi sh near the surface,and sharks

i n deeper water . I f the fi shing is not good near Ma lpe,

t hey may go south as far as Manga lore . To the Ratna

g ir i fi shermen the seir (Cyéium ) i s the most va luab leand lucrat ive fi sh . Under ex i st ing arrangements

,by

which c lashing of interest s i s avo ided,the fi shery at

Ma lpe is d ivided into two zones,viz .

,the deep sea fi shed

by the large Ratnag ir i boats,and the Shal low l i ttora l

water by the sma l ler loca l and Goa boats .

Gadaba.—The Gadabas are a tr ibe of agricu ltur ist s,

coo l i es , and hunters in the Vizagapatam distr ict .

H unt ing is sa id to be gradual ly decreas ing,as many of

the forests are now preserved,and shoot ing without a

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GADABA 244

I n the Madras Census Report,

187 1 , Mr . H . G .

Turner states that very much akin to the Gadabas are

a c lass ca l led Kerang Kapus . They wi l l not admit any

connex ion with them ; but , as the i r language is a lmost

ident i cal,such gainsay ing cannot be permitted them

.

They are cal led Kerang Kapu from the c i rcumstance of

thei r women weaving c loths , which they weave from

the fibre of a j ungle Shrub ca l led Kerang (Catotrofi is

g igan tea) . Mr . H . A . Stuart remarks that “ the Kapu

Gadabas are poss ib ly the Kerang Kapus ment ioned by

M r . Turner as akin to the Gadabas,for I find no ment ion

of the caste under the fu l l name of Kerang Kapu,nor

i s Kerang found as a sub -d iv i s ion of e ither Kapu or

Gadaba .

” Writ ing concern ing the numera l system of the

Kerang Kapu s , Mr . Turner observes that it runs thus

Moi,Umbar

,J ug i

,O

,Mallo i

,Turu

,Ga

,Tammar

,

Sant ing,Goa

,and for e leven (1 and fol lowing numbers) ,

they prefix the word Go,e.g .

,Gommo i

,Gombaro

,etc .

The Kerang Kapus can count up to n ineteen,but have

no concept ion of twenty . Accord ing to M r . W . Franc is,

the on ly t ribe on the hi l l s wh ich has th i s system of

notat ion i s the Bonda Poraja. The Gadabas have very

s im i lar names for the fi rst five numeral s ; but , after that ,lapse i nto Or iya

,e.g .

,sat

,at , nO

, das , etc . The Bonda

Poraja numeral s recorded by Mr . Franc is are mayi ,baar

, gi i, oo ,mo lo i

,th iri, goo , thamam ,

and so on up to

n ineteen,after which they cannot count . This system ,

as he points out,agrees w ith the one descr ibed by

Mr . Turner as be longing to the Kerang Kapus . The

Guteb Gadaba numerals recorded by Mr . C . A .

H enderson inc lude mu it itt i (1 a hand) , and mart it t i

(2 a hand) .

Madras Census Report, 189 1 .

245 GADABA

Some Gadaba women wear a bust le or dress

improver,cal led i rre or kitte. This art ic l e of att i re i s

accounted for by the fol lowing trad it ion .

“ A goddess

v is ited a Gadaba v i l lage incogn i to, and asked leave of

one of the women to rest on a cot . She was brusque ly

to ld that the proper seat for beggars was the floor,and

she consequent ly decreed that thenceforth a l l Gadaba

women should wear a bust le to remind them to avo id

The Gadaba fema le c loths are manu

factured by themse lves from cotton thread and the

fibre of s illo luvada o r ankudi chettu (H otaurfieua auti

dysenter ica) and bOda luvada or bodda chettu (F icus

gtom euata) . The fibre i s carefu l ly dr ied,and dyed b lue

or redd ish-brown . The edges of the c loth are white ,a blue str ip comes next

,whi le the m idd le port ion is

redd ish-brown with narrow st r ipes of white or b lue at

regu lar i nterva ls . The Gadabas account for the dress

of the i r women by the fol lowing legend . When Rama,

during his ban ishment,was wander ing in the forests of

Dandaka,his w ife Si ta accompan ied h im in sp ite of h is

entreat ies to the contrary . I t was one of the crue l

terms of his stepmother Kaika that Rama shou ld wear

on ly c lothing made from j ung le fibre,before leaving the

cap ita l . Accord ing to the H indu re l ig ion,a vi rtuou s

wife must share both the sorrows and joys of her lord .

Consequent ly S i ta fo l lowed the examp le of Rama,and

wore the same k ind of c lothing . They then left the

cap ital amidst the loud lamentat ion of the c it i zens .During thei r wander ings

,they met some Gadaba women

,

who mocked and laughed at S i ta . Whereupon she

cursed them , and condemned them to wear no other

dress but the c loth made of fibre . I n a note on the

Gazetteer of the V izagapatam d istrict.

GADABA 246

Gadabasfi“ Mr . L . Lakshm inarayan wr i tes that

“ a lthough

mi l l -prepared c loths are fas t rep lac ing house-spunsclothsi n al l commun it ies

,yet

,i n the case of the Gadabas

,there

i s a strong supers t it ion which prevents the use of c loths

p repared outs ide,part icu larly i n regard 11 0 the c loths

worn by thei r women . The legend (about S i ta) i s fu l lybe l ieved by the Gadabas

,and hence thei r re l ig ious

adherence to the ir part icu lar c loth . At the t ime of

marr iage,i t i s absolute that the Gadaba maiden Should

wear this fibre-made c loth,e lse m i sfortune wi l l ru in the

fami ly . A bundle of twigs i s brought,and the s tems

freed of leaves are bru i sed and twisted to loosen the

bark,and are then dr ied for two or three days

,after

which the bark is r ipped out and beaten down smooth

w ith heavy st icks,to separate the bark from the fibre .

The fibre is then co l l ected , and combed down smooth,and spun into a to lerab ly fine twi st . I t i s th is twist that

the Gadaba maiden weaves i n her crude loom,and

prepares from it her marr iage Sar i . Accord ing to a

good custom among these peop le,a Gadaba maiden

must learn to weave her c loths before she becomes

e l ig ib le for marr iage . And no Gadaba ever thinks of

marrying a wife who cannot prepare her own c loths.

Men can use cotton and other c loths,whereas women

cannot do so,for they are under the curse of S i ta . But

the pass ion for fineries i n woman is natural ly So strong

that the modern Gadaba woman is now tak ing the

l iberty of putt ing cotton thread for the woof and ankudu

fibre for the warp,and thus i s able to turn out a more

comfortable and finer c loth . But some o ld crones

informed me that th i s m ixed c loth is not so ausp ic ious

as that prepared who l ly from the fibre .

”

Madras Ma i l , 1907.

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GADABA 248

man go to the gir l’

s house, and the match i s fixed up .

After a meal,they return to the i r homes . On the day

appo inted for the wedd ing ceremonies,the bridegroom’s

relat ions go to the home of the br ide,tak ing with them

a rupee towards the marr iage expenses,a new c loth for

the g ir l’

s mother, and ha l f a rupee for the fema les of the

br ide’s vi l lage , which i s regarded as compensat ion for

the loss of the g ir l . To the bride are g iven a g lass

bead neck lace,and bras s bang les to be worn on the

r ight wri st . A feast fo l lows . On the fo l lowing day,the

br ide is conducted to the v i l lage of the br idegroom,i n

front of whose home a panda l (booth) , made of four

bamboo poles,covered w ith green leaves

,has been

erected . Within the pandal , stems of the Sal (Sam/ea

roousta) , addagirli, and bamboo jo ined together , are set

up as the ausp ic ious post . Bes ide th i s a gr indstone i s

p laced,on which the br ide s i ts , with the br idegroom

seated on her thighs . The fema les present throw

turmer ic powder over them,and they are bathed with

turmeric-water kept ready in a new pot . They are then

presented with new c loths,and thei r hands are j o ined

together by the offi c iat ing D isari . A feast , with much

dr ink ing,fo l lows

,and the day’s proceed ings conc lude

with a dance . On the fo l lowing day , mud is heaped up

near the pandal,into which the D isari throws a handfu l

of i t . The remainder of the mud is carr ied i nto the

panda l by the contract ing coup le,who pour water over

i t,and throw it over those who are assemb led . A l l

then proceed to a stream,and bathe . A further feast

and dance fo l lows,of which the new ly marr ied coup le

are spectators,without tak ing part in i t .

I n a note on marr iage among the Parenga Gadabas ,Mr . G . F . Paddi son wr ites that they have two forms of

marr iage r ite,one of which (b iba) is accompan ied by

249 GADABA

much feast ing,gifts of bul locks , toddy, r ice , etc . The

most interest ing feature is the fight for the br ide wi th

fi sts . A l l the men on each s ide fight , and the bridegroom

has to carry off the br ide by force . Then they al l s it

down,and feast together . I n the other form (lethulia) ,

the coup le go off together to the j ungle , and , when they

return,pay twenty rupees

,or whatever they can afford

,

to the g irl ’s father as a fine . A dinner and regular

marriage fo l low e lopement and payment of the fine .

The ghorojavai system ,accord ing to which a man

works for a stated per iod for hi s future father- in- law ,is

pract i ced by the Gadabas . But a cash payment i s sa id

to be now subst ituted for serv ice . The remarriage of

widows i s perm itted,and a younger brother may marry

the widow of his e lder brother . I f She does not marry

him,the second husband has to pay a sum of money

,

cal led in Or iya the rand tonka , to h im . When a man

d ivorces hi s wi fe,her re lat ions are summoned

,and he

pays her two rupees before send ing her away . Of this

sum,one rupee i s pa id as buchn i for susp ic ion regard

ing her chast ity,and the other as chatn i for dr iv ing her

away. A divorced woman may remarry .

I n the hi l ls,the vi l lage headman i s cal led J ann i or

Nayako,and in the p lains Naidado . H e is ass isted by

a K i rasan i,who i s a lso the caste pr iest .

Concerning the re l ig ion of the Gadabas , Mr. H . D .

Taylor writes i t that i t i s “ s imp le,and cons ists of feasts

at stated intervals . The chief fest iva l is I t takaparva, or

hunt ing feast,i n March and Apr i l . On thi s occasion

,

the who le male populat i on turns out to hunt,and , i f

they return unsuccessfu l , the women p e l t them with

cow-dung on the i r return to the v i l lage ; i f, however ,

Madras Census Report , 1891 .

GADABA 2so

success fu l , they have the i r revenge upon the women

in another way . The chief deit ie s (though spoken: of

general ly under the term Devata or Mahaprabhu) are

Ganga Dev i or Takuran i, I swara or Moul i , Bhai rava ,and Jhankara. I t i s I swara or Mou l i who i s worshipped

at Chaitra . Jhankara i s the god of land , ra infa l l and

crops,and a cow is sacr ificed to him . There are not ,

as a ru l e,temp les , but the p1

‘

1ja (worship) p lace cons ist s

of a sacred grove surrounded with a c irc l e of stones ,which takes the name of J hankara from the god to

whom paja i s performed . Ganga Devi,I swara and

Moul i have temp les at certa in p laces,but as a ru le there

i s no bu i ld ing,and the S i te of paja i s marked by trees

and stones . To I swara a she—buffalo i s sacr ificed at

Chaitra . To t he other Devatas cocks and goats are

sacr ificed . Ganga Devi or Takuran i is the goddess of

l i fe and heal th,both of men and catt le ; to her p igs ,

goat s,and p igeons are sacr ificed . There are one or two

cur iou s superst it ions . I f a member of the caste i s

s upposed to be possessed of a devi l,he or sh e i s abused

and beaten by other members of the caste unt i l t he

dev i l i s cast out . I n some parts the superst it ion i s

that a p iece of wi ld buffa lo horn bur ied in the ground

of the v i l lage wi l l avert or cure catt l e d isease Some

t imes a sal or kasang i t ree i s p lanted,and surrounded

by a bamboo hedge . I t i s worshipped with an imal sacr i

fices at harvest t ime,and the K i rasan i acts as pr iest .

“ There i s,Mr . G . F . Padd ison wr ite s, rather a

cur ious custom in connect ion w ith a vi l lage goddess .

C lose to her Shr ine a swing i s kept . O n this Swing ,once a year at the great v i l lage fest ival , thorns are

p laced,and the v i l lage pr i es t or pr iestess s it s on them

without harm . I f the pfijari i s a male , he has been

made neuter . But,i f the vi l lage is not fortunate enough

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252

both men and women dance to the mus ic o f a fi fe and

drum . Somet imes they form a r ing by jo in ing hands

al l round,and with a long hop spr ing towards the

centre,and then hOp back to the fu l l extent of the ir

arms,whi le they at the same time keep c i rc l ing round

and round . At other t imes , the women dance s ing ly or

i n pai rs,the i r hands rest ing on each other’s wri st s . When

fat igued,they cease danc ing

,and s ing . A man steps

out of the crowd , and s ings a verse or two imfi rf omptu .

One of the women rejo ins,and they s ing at each other

for a short t ime . The point of these songs appears to

cons ist i n g iving the sharpest rej o inder to each other .

The woman reflects upon the man’s ungainly appearance

and want of sk i l l as a cu lt ivator or huntsman , and

the man retorts by reproaching her with her ug l i ness

and s lattern ly habits . I n connect ion with danc ing ,Mr . H enderson wr ites that “ al l t he Gadaba danc ing

I have seen was the same as that of the Porjas , and

cons isted of a sort of women’s march,at t imes aecom

pan ied by a few men who wander round , and occas ional ly

form a r ing through which the l ine of women passes .

Somet imes the men get on each other’s shou lders,and

so form a sort of two -stor ied pyramid The women’s

song i s comparat ive ly qu ite melod ious .

I n recent years , some Gadabas have emigrated to

Assam , to work in the tea -gardens . But emigrat ion has

now stopped by ed ict .

For the informat ion contained in thi s art ic le,I am

main ly indebted to notes by Mr . C . A . Henderson ,Mr . W . Franc i s , Mr . C . H ayavadana Rao , and the

Kumara Raja of Bobb i l i .

Gad i (cart) .— An exogamous sept of Mala .

Gad idhé K and la (donkey’s eyes) .— An exogamous

sept of Boya .

253 GAMALLA

Gadu .—A common suffix to the name of i nd ividual s

among various Te l ugu c lasses , e.g.,Ram igadu ,

Subb i

gadu .

Gaduge (throne) . —A got ra of Kurni .

Gaita.—A sub -divi s ion of Konda Raz u .

Gaj ja l (a smal l be l l) . —A sub -d ivis ion of Toreya .

Gal i .—Gal i or Galollu , mean ing wind , devi l , or

sp ir it,i s recorded as an exogamous sept of Kamma

,

Kuruba,and Mala .

Gamal la.—The Gamal las are a c lass of toddy

drawers,and d ist i l lers and vendors of arrack in the

Telugu country and are supposed to be Idigas who have

bettered themse lves,and separated from that caste .

Both Gamallas and Id igas worship the de ity Kattamayya.

At the census,189 1 , some returned Id iga as the i r sub

d iv is ion . I n the Cuddapah d istr ict some toddy-drawers

styl e themselves As ilivand lu . Poss ib ly the Idiga,

Gamalla,and Asi l i toddy-drawing classes only repre

sent three endogamous sect ions of a s ingle caste . I n

the Nel lore d istrict , the toddy-drawers style themse lves

Gamand la or Gavandlavand lu , and say that they have

one gOtra Kaum andlapu or Gaumand lapu . I t i s prob

able that the name Gamandla or Gavand la has been

co ined by Brahman puroh its , to connect the caste with

Kaumandala Mahar ish i of the Puranas . The Gamallas

say that they were created to draw toddy by the sage

Kavundinya ,and that they belong to the Gaundla

varnam (caste) . I am informed that a Puranam,cal led

Gamand la or Gam ud i Paranam ,has been created . I n

the soc ia l scal e,the toddy-drawers appear to occupy a

higher posit ion in the Telugu than i n the Tami l country,

and they are somet imes said to be Telagas or Bal ijas,who have adopted toddy-drawing as a profess ion . The

more prosperous members of the community are toddy

GAMALLA 254

and arrack (l i quor) shop-keepers , and the poorer members extract toddy from the pa lm-t rees .

The Kapus of the Nel lore d istr ict emp loy Gamallas

as the ir cooks and domest ic servants,and a l l men ia l

serv ice and cook ing are done by Gamallas i n the houses

o f Kapus on the occas ion of fest iva ls and marr iages .

Concern ing the or ig in of the Gamallas,the fo l lowing

legend is current . A Rishi was doing penance by stand

ing on h is head , and , l i ke the chamaeleon , l iv ing on l ight

and air,i nstead of food . Accord ing to some

,the R ish i

was Kaumandla, whi l e others do not know his name .

An Idiga g ir l passed by the R ish i , carrying a pot fi l led

with toddy,which po l luted the a i r , so that the R ish i cou ld

not cont inue the penance . Being struck with the g i r l ’s

beauty,he fo l lowed her to her home

,and pointed out to

her that she was the cause of his m ishap . H e asked her

to become his wife , but she announced that she was

a l ready marr ied . Eventua l ly, however , they became

secret ly united,and, i n consequence, the who le town

caught fire . The gi r l’

s husband , return ing home with

some toddy,was amazed at the s ight

,and she, to protect

him,hid the R i sh i in a vat . I nto th i s vat the husband

poured the toddy,which made the R ish i breathe hard

, so

that the toddy,for the fi r st t ime on record

,began to

foam . Notic ing thi s,the husband found a l ingam

,i nto

which the Rish i had been transformed . This l ingam

was worshipped by the Gamand las , and they are at the

present day Saivites .

Like other Telugu castes,the Gamallas have exo

gamons septs,such as parvathala (hi l ls) , kudumalu

(a cake) , annam (cooked r ice) , and pandhi (p ig) . Among

getras , the fo l lowing may be noted z— kavund inya,karunya, vachalya,

and surapandesvara (sura panda,toddy pot) .

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255 GAMALLA

Marr iage is,as a ru le , adult ,

'

and remarriage of

widows i s perm itted,though the tendency at the present

day i s to abandon the pract ice . At the wedd ing of a

widow,the bottu (marr iage badge) is t ied round her

neck at n ight . Pr ior to the marr iage ceremony, the

worship of female ancestors must be performed . A new

fema le c loth,bete l

,and flowers , are p laced on a tray, and

worshipped by the mothers of the contract ing coup le .

The c loth i s g iven as a present to a s ister or other near

relat ion of the br ide or bridegroom .

The dead are cremated , and the widow breaks one

or two of her bang les . F ire must be carr ied to the

burn ing-ground by the father of the deceased,i f he i s

a l ive . On the day fo l lowing cremat ion , the hot embers

are ext inguished,and the ashes co l lected

,and shaped

into an effigy,near the head of which three con ica l masses

of mud and ashes are set up . To these rep resent

at ives of Rudra , Yama, and t he sp i r it of the departed ,cooked r ice and veget ab les are offered up on three

leaves . One of the l eaves is g iven to the J angam,who

officiates at the r ite , another to a washerman , and the

th i rd i s left,so that the food on i t may be eaten by

crows . A l l , who are assemb led , wait t i l l these birds

co l lect,and the ashes are final ly poured on a tree . On

the n inth,tenth

,or e leventh day after death , a ceremony

cal l ed the peddadinam (b ig day) i s performed . Cooked

r ice,curry

,meat

,and other th ings , are p laced on a leaf

ins ide the house. S itt ing near this leaf,the widow

weeps and breaks one or two of the glass bangles,which

She wears on the wrist . The food i s then taken to a

stream or tank (pond) , where the agnates , after Shaving ,bathing

,and purificat ion

,make an effigy of the dead

person on the ground . C l ose to th is cooked r ice and

vegetab les are p laced on three leaves , and offered to the

GAMALLA 256

effigy. The widow'

s remain ing bang les are broken,and

she i s presented with a new c loth,ca l led munda koka

(widow’s c loth) as a S ign of her cond it ion . Al l Gamal las

,

r ich or poor , engage on this occas ion the services o f

Mal a Pambalas and Bainedus (music ians and story

tel lers) to rec ite the story of the goddess Ankamma.

The performance is ca l led Ankamma kolupu . Some of

the Malas make on the ground a des ign,ca l l ed m uggu ,

whi l e t he others p lay on the drum,and carry out the

rec itat ion . The des ign must be made in five co lours,

green (leaves of Cassia aur icutata) , white (r ice flour) ,red (turmer ic and l ime) , ye l l ow (t urmer ic) , and black

(burnt r ice-husk) . I t represent s a ma le and fema le

figure (Vi rulu , heroes) , who are s upposed to be the

person whose peddad inam i s being ce lebrat ed , and an

ancestor of the Oppos ite sex . I f the fami ly can afford it,

other des igns , for examp le of Ankamma,are a l so drawn .

O n the complet ion of the m uggu ,cocoanuts

,r ice

,and

bete l are offered , and a fow l i s sacr ificed .

Like many other Telugu castes,the Gamallas have

a c lass of beggars , cal led Emet i , attached to them ,for

whom a subscr ipt ion i s ra i sed when they turn up .

The Gamallas are most ly Saivites,and the i r pr iest s

are Aradhya Brahmans , i .e.

, Telugu Brahmans , who

have adopted some of the customs of the L ingayat s .

They worship a var iety of gods and goddesses,who

inc lude POtharaju ,Katamayya, Gangamma

,Mathamma

,

and Thallamma, or Thad lamma. Once or twice dur ing

the year,a pot of toddy is brought from every ho u se to

the shr ine of Thallamma, and the l iquor contained in

some of the pots i s poured on the floor,and the re

mainder g iven to those assembled , i rrespect ive of caste .

At the fest ival of D ipaval i, the ce lebrants bathe in

the ear ly morn ing,and go

,i n wet c lothes

,to an ant -hi l l ,

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257 GANDHAM

before which they prost rate themse lves , and pour a l itt le

water into one of the holes . Round the hi l l they wind

five turns of cotton thread , and return home . S ubse

quent ly they come once more to the ant -hi l l with a lamp

made of flour paste . Carrying the l ight,they go thr ice

or five t imes round the hi l l , and throw into a ho le

there in sp l it pu l se (P leaseotusM uugo) . During the whole

of thi s day they fast . O n the fo l lowing morning they

again go to the hi l l , pour m i lk into it , and snap the

threads wound round it .

At the fest iva l of S ankaranth i, the pr inc ipa l member

of every fami ly observes the worship of ancestors .Various art ic les are p laced in a room on leaf p lates

represent ing the ancestors,who are worshipped by the

ce lebrant after he has been pur ified by bathing . Taking

a l itt le of the food from each leaf, he p laces it on a s ing le

leaf,which i s worshipped

,and p laced in the court-yard

,so

that the crows may partake thereof. The remainder of

the food i s d istr ibuted among the members of the fami ly .

At the census,190 1 , some Gamallas returned t hem

selves as Sett igadu (Chett i) .Gampa (basket) .— A sub -div is ion of Kamma and

Te laga,and an exogamous sept of Odde. The name

,

among the Kammas,refers to a dead ly strugg le at

Gand ikOta,i n which some escaped by hid ing in baskets .

Gampa dhempt i i s the name of a sub-d iv is ion of the

Madigas,whose marr iage offer ings to the god are p laced

in a basket .

Ganayata.—Recorded

,at t imes of census , as a sub

divi sion of Lingayat Jangam s i n the Nel lore , Cuddapah ,and Kurnool d istr icts . The Sanskr it word Ganam means

S iva’s attendants,

Gandham (sanda l paste) .— An exogamous sept of

Bal ijas,one sub-div is ion of whom is cal led Gandhavallu11—1 7

GANDIKOTA 258

orGandhapod i (sanda l perfume se l ler s) . The paste madeby rubbing sandal (Sari ta/um atoum ) wood on a stone

with water i s wide ly used in connect ion with H indu

ceremon ia l observance . A Brahman , for examp le , after

worshipp ing,smears h i s body w ith the paste . At

fest ivals,and other ceremon ia l occas ions

,sanda l paste

i s d ist r ibuted to guests a long with betel leaves and

areca nuts (pan-supar i) . Gandhapod i al so occurs as an

exogamous sept of BOya.

Gand ikota .—A sub-d ivi s ion of Kamma . Gand i

Kettei i s recorded 9“ as a sub-d iv is ion of Kapu or Redd i,

“ found on ly in Madura and Tinnevel ly, and a lso known

S imp ly as Kettei Redd is . KOttei i s the Tami l for a fort,

the correspond ing Te lugu word being keta . Their

fema les do not appear in pub l i c . ”

Gandla.—See Gan iga.

Gangadikara.—Gangad ikara, sa id doubtfu l ly to

mean those who l ived on the banks of the Ganges,has

been recorded as a sub-d iv i s ion of the H oleyas ,

Okkil iyans , and Vakkal igas . The name probab ly refers

to Gangavad i, the country of the Gangas,a royal l ine

which ru led over the greater part of the modern Mysore

in former t imes .

Gangeddu .—The Gangeddulu are a c lass of mend i

cants,who trave l about the country exhib it ing performing

bu l l s . “ The exhib it ion of sacred bu l l s,known as

Gangeddulu (Ganga’s bu l ls) i s very common in the towns

and v i l lages of Southern I nd ia . The presence of the

Swami (god) bu l l , as he i s popularly ca l led , i s made known

by h is keeper p laying on a smal l drum,which emits a

d i sma l,booming sound

,in the interva ls of address ing his

dumb compan ion i n a p ierc ing vo ice . The bu l l i s led

Madras Census Report, 189 1 .

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GANGEDDU 260

somet imes d i spose of the i r de formed calves in a s im i lar

manner . When the trained an imal s are exhibited in

publ ic,the deformi ty, which i s the hal l -mark of a

genu ine Gangeddu ,i s shown , usual ly at the commence

ment of the performance , or at any t ime at the bidd ing

of any of the spectators . I t i s only after the exhib it ion

of the deform i ty, which is usual ly conceal ed withi n the

trapp ings o f the an imal , that remunerat ion , general ly in

k ind,or in old rags and copper co ins

,i s do led out to them

.

Vil lagers worship the bu l l s , when they happen to pass

the i r houses,and , as soon as they enter a vi l lage , the

fema les wash the feet of the animal s with mi lk and water.

They then adorn the ir foreheads with kunkumam (an i l ine

powder) and turmeric paste , and burn incense and

camphor before them . Cocoanut s,plantains

,bete l l eaves

and areca nuts,and money are a l so offered in a p late

,

and are the perqu is ite of the Gangeddu . The bu l l s are

thus venerated,as they represent Basavanna

,the sacred

bu l l which i s the veh icl e of S iva .

The language of the Gangeddulu i s Te lugu , but those

who have migrated to the Tami l country al so speak

the language of the south . They profess the Vaishna

vite re l ig ion,and are of the Tengalai persuas ion . They

have Brahman gurus (re l ig ious preceptors ) , who res ide

at Sri rangam ,Tirupat i

,and other p laces . By them the

Gangeddu lu are branded on the shou lder with the

emb lems of the chank and chakram , and in it iated into

the myster ies of the Dasar i pr iesthood . But,though

they ca l l themse lves Dasaris,the Gangeddulu have no

marital or other connect i on with the Dasaris . I n add i

t ion to train ing and exhib it ing the performing bul ls

and cu l t ivat ing land,the Gangeddu lu officiate as Dasaris

i n the month of Peratas i (September-October) . Thei rpr inc ipa l i n s ign ia of office are the chank she l l

,which i s

261 GANGEDDU

blown to announce thei r arr iva l,and the i ron lamp

(cal led Garudasthambha) , which i s kept burn ing, and i s

said to represent Venkatesa, the pres id ing deity at

Tirupat i . As Dasaris , l i tt le i s expected of them , except

offer ing fru its to the god,and ass i st ing at funera ls .

Several proverbs,of which the fo l lowing are examp les ,

are current concern ing thi s aspect of the i r l i fe

The mist ake of a Dasar i i s excused with an apo logy .

The songs of a Dasar i are known only to the god ,i .e.

,they are un inte l l ig ib l e and unreal .

For the song of a '

Dasari a lms are the payment, i .e.,

that i s al l the song is worth .

S ing again what you have s ung,oh ! Dasar i w ith

d i rty teeth .

When a beggar was asked whether he was a

Dasar i or a J angam,he rep l ied that it depends on

the next v i l lage . This in reference to hi s be ing a

t ime-server .

A Gangeddu mendicant is , l i ke his bu l ls , p icturesque ly

att i red . He is very punct i l ious about having his sect

mark on the forehead,invar iab ly wears a turban

,and hi s

body is c lothed in a long white c loth robe . When go ing

about with the perform ing bu l l s,the Gangeddulu

general ly trave l in pai rs, one carrying a drum ,

and the

other a be l l -meta l gong . One of them holds in one

hand the nose- rope of the bul l,and in the other the

whip . The bu l l s are dressed up in a patch work qu i l t

with two eye -holes in it . Of names which are g iven to

the animals , Rama and Lakshmana are very popu lar .

The tameness of t he bul ls i s referred to in the proverbAs mi ld as a Gangeddu .

The Perumal Madukkarans , or Perumal Erudukka

rans , both of which names ind icate those who lead bu l l s

about , are found chiefly in the Ching leput , North and

GANGEDDU 262

South Arcot d ist r icts . “ Every now and then,Mr.

S . M . NatcsafSastri writesfif“ throughout Madras , a man

dressed up as a buffoon i s to be seen leading about a bu l l ,as fantast ica l ly got up as h imse l f w ith cowr ies (Cy/az a n

auaaica shel l s) and rags of many co lours , from door to

door . The bul l i s cal led in Tami l Perumal erudu , and

in Telugu Ganga eddu ,the former mean ing Vishnu

’

s

bu l l and the latter Ganga’s bu l l . The orig in of the fi rst

i s g iven in a legend,but that of the last i s not c l ear .

The conductors of these bu l ls are neatherds of h igh

caste,cal led P I

‘

I Idaiyan ,i .e.

,flower neatherds (see I dai

yan) , and come from vi l lages in the North and SouthArcot d istr icts . They are a s imp le and ignorant set ,

who fi rm ly bel i eve that their occupat ion ar ises out of

a command from the great god Venkatachalapat i, the

lord of the Venkatachala near Tirupadd i (Tirupat i ) i n the

North Arcot d istr ict . Thei r legend i s as fo l lows . Among

the hab itua l gi fts to the Venkatachala temp le at T irup

pad i were al l the freaks of nature of the ne ighbourhood

as exhib ited in catt le, such as two- ta i led cows , five

legged bul l s,four-horned ca lves

,and so on . The PG

Idaiyans , whose orig ina l duty was to str ing flowers for

the temp le, were set to graze these abort ions . Now

t o graze cows i s an honour,but to tend such creatures

as these the P6 Idaiyans regarded as a s in . So they

prayed to Venkatachalapat i to show them how they

cou ld purge it away . On th is , t he god gave them a bu l l

cal led after himse l f the Perumal bu l l and said My sons,

i f you take as much care of thi s bu l l as you would of

your own chi ldren,and lead it from house to house

,

begging its food,your s in wi l l be washed away .

’ Ever

s ince then they have been purg ing themse lves of the i r

I nd . Ant . ! V I I I , 1889 .

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GANI GA OR GANDLA 264

mi l ls ; and Ont iyeddu Gan igas , who yoke on ly2:oneanimal to the mi l l . They are co l lect ive ly known as

Jet ipans or JOt inagaram s (peop le of the c ity of l ight) .I n add it ion to press ing o i l

,they a lso make palm- leaf

umbre l las, cu l t ivate land , and work as labourers . They

emp loy Brahmans to perform the i r ceremon ies . Thei r

guru is the head of the Vyasaraya mutt at Anegundi.Ear ly marr iage i s pract i ced . Widow remarr iage is not

al lowed . They eat fish , mutton , and fow l s , but do not

drink l iquor . Chett i i s thei r t it le . In the Madras

Census Report , 189 1 , i t i s stated that the guru of the

Gan igas i s the head of the mutt at S ringer i,and that

they emp loy H avig Brahmans for thei r ceremonies .

Sr inger i i s the name of a Smarta (Saivite) mutt or

re l ig ious inst itut ion at severa l p laces,such as Tanjore

and Kumbakonam ; and there i s a town of thi s name in

Mysore,from which the mutt der ives its name .

Concern ing the Gan igas of the Mysore Province,

Mr . V . N . Naras imm iyengar writes as fo l lows .ale “ The

account local ly obtained connects th i s caste with the

Nagartas , as forming the leading commun i t ies of the

left-hand fact ion,i n Oppos it ion to the L ingayat s and

other castes compos ing the r ight-hand fact ion . Caste

supremacy i s ever assoc iated i n I nd ia with preternatura l

mytho logy . I f the average Brahman traces hi s nob i l i ty

l i tera l ly to the face of Brahma,accord ing to the Ved i c

Purusha S t'

ikta,every other caste let c laims a patent

.

of

super ior i ty in a s im i lar m iracu lous orig in . The Gan igas

a l lege that they immigrated from the north at a t ime

beyond l iv ing memory. A Mysore noble, named Ma l la

raj e Ars,estab l i shed and fi rst peop led the pete (market

town) of Banga lore , when the Gan igas fi rst came there,

Mysore Census Report , 1891.

265 GANIGA OR GANDLA

fol lowed by the Nagartas , who are said to have been coemigrants with the Gan igas . Mallaraj made Satt is and

Yajamans (headmen) of the pr inc ipal members of the twocastes , and ex empted them from the house-tax . The

Gan igas are both Vaishnav ites and Saivites . Thei r

guru i s known as D harmas ivacharsvam i i n the Madras

Pres idency,and certa in getras (fami ly names) are said

to be common to the Gan igas and Nagartas , but they

never eat together or i ntermarry . The Gan igas c laim

the pecu l iar p rivi lege of fo l lowing the Vishnu image orcar p rocess ions , throughout the p rovince, with flags

exhibit ing the figures of H anuman and Garuda,and

torches . These ins ignia are a l l eged to have been abo

riginally g iven to an ancestor, named S iriyala Satt i , by

Rama,as a reward for a val uab le gem presented by him

.

The Gan igas ca l l t hemse lves D harm as ivachar Vaisyas

l i ke the Nagartas, and the feud between them used

often to cu lminate in much b itter unp leasantness . The

order inc ludes a sma l l d ivi s ion of the l inga-wearing

oilmongers , known as Sajjana (good men) , whose pOpulat ion i s a smal l fract ion of the commun ity. The

Sajjanas , however , hold no soc ia l i ntercourse of any kind

with the other sub-divi s ions . ”

The Gan igas of Sandt’

I r, i n the l i tt le Maratha State

of that name,returned Yenne (oi l) and Ka l lu (stone) as

sub—divi s ions . The average cephal i c index of these

Gan igas was very high , being 80 5 as against 7 7 6 for

the Gan igas of Mysore c ity.

“ The o il-mi l l of the Gan igas i s , Mr . W. Franci s“ a sort of large wooden mortar

,usual ly formed

out of the heart of a tamarind t ree , and fi rm ly imbedded

in the ground . A wooden cy l inder, shod with i ron , fi t s

Gazetteer of the Bel lary d istr ict.

GAN IGA OR GANDLA 266

rough ly into the cavity . A cross beam i s lashed to thi s

in such a way that one end i s c lose to the ground,and

to thi s a pai r of bul locks or buffa loes are fastened . By

an arrangement of pu llies , the pressure of the cy l inder

can be increased at p leasure . As the bu l locks go round

the t rough,t he seeds are crushed by the act ion of the

cy l inder,so that the expressed o il fa l ls to the bottom

,

whi le the res iduum,as o il- cake, adheres to the s ide of the

mortar. ”

The fol lowing note refers to the Onteddu (s inglebu l lock) Gan igas , who c la im super ior ity over those whoemp loy two bu l locks in work ing thei r o il-mi l l s . The

former be long to the right -hand,and the latter to the

l eft -hand fact ion . Among them are var ious sub-div i

s ions,of which the Deva and Onteddu may intermarry

,

whi le the Kasi,Te l i (ginge l ly : S esamum ) , and Chan

danapu are endogamous . Like other Te lugu castes

they have gOtras , some of which are interest ing , as there

are certain prohib it ions connected with them . For

examp le,members of the Badranollu and Balanollu

gOtras may not cut the t ree E ry tarozy tou monogynum .

I n l i ke manner,members of the Vi ranollu and Vith tha

nollu getras are forb idden to cut F euou ia etepfiautum ,

and those of the Vedanollu getra to cut Ny ctaut/zes

aroor -tuistis . Members of certain other gOtras do not

cult ivate turmeri c , sugarcane , or the m i l let (P an icum

m itiare) .

The O nteddu Gan igas are Saiv ites , and d i sc ip les of

Lingayat Brahmans (Aradhyas) . Some,however

,wear

the sacred thread , and others bear on the forehead the

red st reak of the Vaishnav ites . I n some p laces,thei r

spec ia l deity i s Chaudeswara,who i s the god of some of

the weaving c lasses . I n the Kistna d i st r ict they c laim

Mallikarjunasvam i as thei r deity.

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267 GANIGA OR GANDLA

The i r pr imary occupat ion i s o il-press ing,but some

are t raders i n cotton,oi l -seeds , or cu lt ivators . I n

some local it ie s,the animal which works the o i l -mi l l i s

not b l indfolded,whi le it i s i n Others

,because

,i t i s sa id

,

i t wou ld otherwise fal l down after a few revolut ions .

Crushing g inge l ly o il i s,accord ing to the Shast ras

,a

S infu l act,but condoned inasmuch as Devatas use th i s

o il for lamps,and men in temp les . For the removal of

the o il-cake,or turn ing the seeds in the mi l l

,the left

hand on ly i s used . Burning the tongue with a p iece ofgo ld , as a means of purificat ion after some offence has

been committed,i s a common pract ice .

The marr iage r i tes conform , for the most part , to the

Telugu type . But,whi le the wri st thread i s being t ied

on ,common sal t i s he ld in the hand . A dagger (baku)

i s then g iven to the bridegroom , who keep s i t with him

t i l l the conc l us ion of the ceremon ies . O n the wedding

day,the bridegroom wears the sacred thread . The tal i

i s not an ord inary bottu,but a thread composed of 10 1

thin st r ings,which i s removed on the last day

,and

rep laced by a bottu . O n the th i rd day , the br ide and

bridegroom worship a jammi t ree (P rosop is sfi iczgera) ,and the latter

,removing hi s sacred thread , throws i t on

the t ree . Five young men,cal l ed Bala Dasu lu

,al so

worship the t ree,and

,i f they are wearing the sacred

thread,throw it thereon . The dead are as a ru le bur ied

,

i n a s itt ing posture i f the deceased was an orthodox

Saivite . I f a young man d ies a bache lor,the corpse i s

marr ied to an arka p lant (Caiotr'

op is g igan tea) , and

decorated wi th a wreath made of the flowers thereof.

The final death ceremon ies are performed on the e leventh

day . Food i s offered to c rows and the sou l of the dead

person,who i s rep resented by a wooden post dressed

w i th hi s c lothes . The bang les of a widow are broken

GANTA 268

near the post , which i s final ly thrown into a tank or

st ream .

Gan iga further occurs as an occupat iona l name forLingayat o i l—vendors , and for Mogers who are emp loyed

as o il-pressers .

Ganta .—Ganta or Gant la

, mean ing a bel l , has been

recorded as an exogamous sept of Kamma and Ba l ija.

Gantelavaru ,or men of the bel l , i s g iven by Mr . S . M .

Natesa Sastr i if as the fami ly name of one sect ion of the

Donga (th ieving) Dasaris , and of the Kabberas,who

are said to j o in t he ranks of thi s cr imi na l c lass . Gantu

gaz u la occurs , in the Mysore Census Report , 190 1 , as a

sub-div is ion of Koracha . I n the Vizagapatam Manua l,

the T iragat i Gan t lavallu are zdescribed as repair i ng

hand-mi l l s,catching ante lopes , and se l l i ng the i r sk ins .

Ganti (a hole p ierced in the ear- lobe) . -An

exogamous sept of Gadala .

Garadi .—Garad i or Garadiga i s the name of a c lass

of mendicants in the Te lugu country and Mysore who

are snake-charmers , pract ice s le ight of hand , and per

form var ious j ugg l ing and mountebank t r icks .

Garappa (dry land) .— A synonym of Cha l la Yanadi .Gatt i .—A sma l l caste of cu lt ivators , found chiefly

near Kumbla and Som eswara in the Kasaragod taluk of

South Canara . Other names for the caste are Po ladavaand Holadava, both s ign i fy ing men of the fie ld . Like

the Bants,they fo l low the al iya santana law of inheri

tance (in the fema le l ine) , have exogamous septs or

ba l i s,and

,on the day of t he fina l death ceremon ies

,

construct car- l i ke str uctures , i f t he deceased was an

important personage in the community. The Bants

and Gatt i s interd ine,but do not intermarry. The

Calcutta Review , 1905 .

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GAUDA 270

The names of some of these are as fo l lows : Bangara

(gold) , Nandara, Malara (a bund le of g lass bangles,as

carr ied about for sal e) , Sal u , Hemmana (pride or conceit) ,Kabru

,Gol i (P or tu laca oteracea , a pot -herb) , Basruve

garu (basru ,bel ly) , Balasanna

,and Karmannaya.

Marriage i s usua l ly adu l t,and sexua l l i cen se before

marr iage with a member of the caste i s to lerated,t hough

nomina l ly condemned . The dhare form of marr iage (seeBant) i s u sed , but the brida l pai r ho ld in the i r j o ined

hands five bete l leaves,one areca nut and four annas

,

and,after the water has been poured

,the br idegroom

t ies a tal i to the neck of the br ide . Divorce i s perm itted

free ly,and divorced wives and widows can marry again .

A widow with chi ldren , however , shou ld marry on ly her

late husband’s e lder brother . I f she marr ies any one

e l se,t he members of her former husband’s fami ly wi l l not

even drink water that has been touched by her . They

burn the i r dead . On the thi rd day,the ashes are made

into the form of a man , which i s cut i n two,buried

,and

a mound made over it . I n the house two p lanks are

p laced on the ground,and covered with a c loth . On one

of these , a vesse l contain ing mi lk i s p laced , and on t he

other a lamp,r ice

,cocoanut

,pumpkin

, etc.,are depos ited .

The agnates and some boys go round the p lank three

t imes,and afterwards go to the mound

,taking with them

the var ious art i c les in a c loth . Three p lantai n leaves

are spread in front of the mound , and cooked food , et c . ,p laced thereon . Four post s are set up round the mound ,and c loths st retched over them

,and p laced round the

s ides . O n the s ixteenth day,S i xteen p lantain leaves are

p laced in a row,and one leaf i s laid apart . Cakes , cooked

fowl’s flesh,toddy and arrack (l iquor) are p laced on the

l eaves in sma l l l eaf- cups . The assemb led agnates then

say We have done everything as we shou ld do , and SO

2 7 1 GAUDA

our ancestors who have d ied must take the man who i s

now dead to the i r regions . I put the leaf whi ch i s apart

i n the same row with the s ixteen leaves .

Once a year,i n the month of M ituna (J une-J u ly) , the

Gandas perform a ceremony for the prop it iat ion of al l

deceased ancestors . They have a spec ia l preference for

Venkataramaswam i, t o whom they make money offer ings

once a year in September . They employ Brahmins to

give them sacred water when they are under po l l ut ion,

but they do not seek thei r servi ces for ord inary cere

mon ies . They are , for the most part , farmers , but some

few are labourers . The latter rece ive three or four seers

of paddy a day as wages . Thei r house language i s Tu lu

in some p laces , and Canarese in others , but al l fo l low the

ord inary system of i nher i tance , and not the custom of

descent through females . Thei r t it le i s Gauda .

”

As bear ing on the superst it i ous be l i efs of t he peop le

of South Canara , the fo l lowing case, which was t r ied

before the Sess ions J udge in 1908, may be c ited .A

young Gauda gi r l became pregnant by her brother- inlaw . After three days’ labour , the chi ld was born . The

accused,who was the mother of the g i r l , was the m idwi fe .

Finding the de l ivery very d i fficult , she sent for a person

named Korapulu to come and he lp her . The ch i ld was ,as they thought

,st i l l-born . On it s head was a red

protuberance l ike a bal l round each of i t s forearms were

two or three red bands ; the eyes and ears were fixed

very high in the head ; and the eyes , nose , and mouth

were abnormal ly large . Korapulu and the gi r l’s younger

S i ster at once carr ied the mother out of the out -house

lest the devi l chi ld should do her harm or k i l l her . The

accused ca l led for a man named I suf Saiba, who was

stand ing in the yard outs ide . He came in , and She

asked him to cal l some of the neighbours, to dec ide

GAUD I 2 72

what to do . The chi ld , she sa id , was a devi l chi ld , and

must be cut and ki l l ed,l est i t shou ld devou r it s mother .

Whi le t hey were look ing at the chi ld,i t began to move

and rol l i t s eyes about , and tu rn on the ground . I t i s a

bel ief of the vi l lagers that such a devi l ch i ld,when born

and brough t in contact w ith the ai r , rap id ly grows , and

causes great t roubl e , usual ly ki l l i ng the mother , and

somet imes k i l l ing al l the inmates of the house . The

accused told I suf Saiba to cover the chi ld with a vessel,

which he d id . Then there was a sound from ins ide the

vessel,e ither of the chi ld moving or making some sound

with it s mouth . The accused then put he r hand under

the vesse l,dragged the chi ld hal f way out , and then , whi le

I suf Saiba p ressed the edge of the earthenware vesse l

on the abdomen of the chi ld , the accused took a kn i fe ,and cut the body in hal f. When the body was cut i n two

,

t here was no blood,but a mossy green l i qu id

,or a b lack

l iqu id,oozed out . The accused got two areca leaves

,and

put one p iece of the chi ld on one, and one on the other,and to ld I suf Saiba to get a spade , and come and bury

them . So they went out i nto the j ungl e c lose to the

house,and I suf Saiba dug two ho les about ha l f a yard

deep,one on one hi l lock , and one on another . I n these

two ho les the two p ieces of the chi ld were separate ly

bur ied . The obj ect of th i s was to p revent the two p ieces

j o in ing together again,i n which case the un ited devi l chi ld

wou ld have come out of the grave,and gone to k i l l i t s

mother . The b i rth and death of th i s devi l ch i ld were

not kept secret,but were known throughout the vi l lage .

Gauda or Gaudu further occurs as a t it l e of Idiga,Kuruba

,and Vakka l iga

,an exogamous sept and getra of

Kuruba and Kurn i,and a sub -divi s ion of Go l la .

Gaudi .—It i s recorded,i n the Mysore Census

Report , 190 1 , that a Ma leru (temp le servant) woman ,

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GAUDO 274

the legendary hi story of the orig in of the caste . The

Apoto and Bhatta Gaudos are somet imes emp loyed as

pa lanqu in-bearers . The Mogotho Gaudos , who l ive on

t he hi l l s,are regarded as an infer ior sect ion

,because

they do not abstain from eat ing fowl s . The Sollokhondia

sect ion i s regarded as super ior,and consequent ly a l l

Oriya castes,Brahman and non-Brahman

,wi l l accept

water at the hands of members thereof. An orthodox

Or iya non- Brahman , and a l l Oriya Brahmans , wi l l not

rece ive water from Te l ug u or Tami l Brahmans,whom

they cal l Komma Brahmans,Komma being a corrupt

form of karma , i .e.,Brahmans who are str ict i n the

observance of the var ious karmas (ceremonia l r it es) .

The Sollokhondia Gaudos are agricu ltur i st s , rear

catt le and sheep,and somet imes earn a l iv ing by dr iv ing

carts . They have gotras , among which the most

common are Moi ro (peacock) , Nagas iro (cobra) , and

Koch imo (torto i se) . Thei r caste counc i l i s p res ided

over by a hereditary headman cal led Mahankudo ,who

i s ass i sted by a Bhollobaya,D es iya ,

‘

and Khorsodha or

Dhondia . The Khorsodha i s the caste servant,and the

D es iya eat s with a de l i nquent who i s rece ived back into

the fold after he has been t r ied by the counc i l . The

Sol lokhond ias are for the most part Paramarthos , i .e.,

fol lowers of the Chaitanya form of Vai shnavi sm . They

show a part ial i ty for the worship of Jagannathaswam i, and

var ious Takuran is (vi l lage de it i es) are a l so reverenced .

Bairagis are the caste p ri est s .

The marriage prohib it ions among the S ollokhond ias

are t hose which hold good among many Or iya castes,

but marr iage with the maternal unc le’s daughter (menarikam ) i s somet imes pract iced . On the evening preced

ing the marriage day (bibha) , after a feast , the br ideand br idegroom

’

s part i es go to a temp le,tak ing w i t h

2 75 GAHDO

them a l l the art i c les which are to be used in connec

t ion with the marriage ceremon ia l . On thei r way back,

seven married g i r ls , carrying seven vessel s , go to

seven houses , and beg water , which i s u sed by the

br ida l coup le for the i r baths on the fo l lowing day.

E ither on the day before the wedding day,or on the

h i bba day , the bridegroom i s shaved , and the br ide’s

nai l s are pared . Somet imes a l itt le of the hai r of her

forehead i s a lso cut off. The marr iage r i tes do not

mater ia l ly d iffer from those of the Bhondaris (go ) .The dead , except ing young chi ldren , are burnt . The

e ldest son carr ies a pot of fi re to the burn ing ground.

On the day fo l lowing cremat ion , the mourners rev i s i t

the spot,and

,after the fi re has been ext ingui shed

,make

an image of a man with the ashes on the spot where the

corpse was burnt . To thi s image food i s offered .

Seven smal l flags , made of c loths dyed with t urmer i c ,are stuck into the shou lders , abdomen , l egs , and head

of the image . A fragment of ca lc ined bone i s carr ied

away,put into a l ump of cow-dung , and kept near the

house of the deceased , or near a tank (pond) . On the

n inth day after death,towards even ing , a bamboo, sp l i t

or sp l i ced into four at one end , is set up in the ground

outs ide the house beneath the proj ect ing roof,and on i t

a pot fi l led with water i s p laced . On the spot where

the deceased breathed hi s last,a lamp i s kept . A ho le

i s made in the bottom of the pot , and , after food has

been offered to the dead man , the pot i s thrown into a

tank . On the tenth day,a ceremony i s performed on a

tank bund (embankment) . The p iece of bone , whi ch

has been preserved,i s removed from it s cow-dung case

,

and food,fru it s

,et c . ,

are offered to it , and thrown into

the tank . The bone i s taken home, and bur ied near the

house,food be ing offered to it unt i l the twe lfth day. On

11—18 B

GAULIAR 2 76

t he e leventh day,al l the agnates bathe

,and are touched

wi th gh i (c lar ified butter) as a s ign of pur ifi cat ion .

S radh (memor ial servi ce) i s performed once a year onSankaran th i (Pongal ) day . Food

,i n the form of bal l s

,

i s p laced on leaves i n the backyard , and offered to the

ancestors . Some food i s al so thrown up into the ai r .

Al l sect ions of the Gaudos have adopted infant

marr iage . I f a gi r l fa i l s to secure a husband before she

attain s puberty,she has to go through a form of marr i

age ca l led dharma bibha,i n which the bridegroom i s

,

among the Sollokhond ias , represented by an o ld man ,preferably the g i r l’s grandfather

,and among the other

sect ions by a sahada or Shad i t ree (S treotus asper ) or an

arrow (khando) .Like various other Or iya castes, the Gaudos worship

the goddess Lakshmi on Thursdays i n the month of

November,which are cal led Lakshmi varam

,or Laksh

mi’

s day. The goddess i s rep resented by a basket

fi l led with grain,whereon some p lace a hai r bal l

,which

has been vomited by a cow . The bal l i s cal led gaya

pangbu la, and i s usual ly one or two inches in d iameter .

The owner of a cow which has vomited such a ba l l

regards i t as a p rop it ious augury for the prosperi ty

of hi s fami ly. A feast i s he ld on the day on which the

bal l i s vomited,and

,after the ba l l has been worshipped ,

i t i s careful ly wrapped up,and kept in a box

,i n which

i t remains t i l l i t i s requ i red for further worship . Some

peop le be l i eve that the bal l cont inues to grow year by

year, and regard thi s as a very good s ign . Bu l l s are

said not to vomit the ba l l s,and on ly very few cows

do so .

Gau liar.—A synonym for Lingayat Go l las, or Kan

nadiyan s .

Gaundala.—A synonym of Gamalla.

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GAVARA 2 78

Anakapalli taluk . Thence they marched as far as

Kondakirla, near which they founded the vi l lage of

Wadapalli or WOdapalli, mean ing t he vi l lage of the

peop le who came in boats . They then bu i l t another

vi l lage ca l led Gavarla Anakapall i . They rece ived an

invitat ion from king Payaka Rao,the founder of Anaka

pal l i,and

,moving northwards

,estab l i shed themse lves

at what i s now known as Gavarapeta i n the town of

Anakapall i. They began the foundat ion of the vi l lage

ausp ic ious ly by consecrat ing and p lant ing the sandra

karra (A cacia suua’ra) , which i s not affected by

‘ white

ant s,’

i nstead of the pala karra (M imusojos aex aua

’ra) ,

which i s genera l ly used for thi s purpose . Consequent ly,

Anakapall i has a lways flour i shed .

The Gavaras speak Te lugu,and

,l i ke other Telugu

castes , have variou s exogamous sept s or int iperulu .

Gi r l s are marr ied either before or after puberty . The

custom of menarikam,by which a man marr ies h is

materna l unc le’s daughter,i s i n force

,and i t i s sa id that

he may al so marry hi s s i ster’s daughter . The re

marr iage of widows i s perm itted,and a woman who has

had seven husbands i s known as Beth thamma, and i smuch respected .

Some Gavaras are Vaishnav ites , and others Saivites,but d ifference in re l ig i on i s no bar to i ntermarr iage .

Both sect ions worship the vi l lage de it ies,to whom

an ima l sacrifices are offered . The Vaishnav ites Show

spec ia l reverence to Jagganathaswam i of Orissa , whose

shr ine i s v i s ited by some,whi le others take vows in the

name of t hi s god . On the day on which the car fest iva l

i s ce lebrated at Par i,l oca l car fest iva l s are held in

Gavara vi l lages,and women carry out the performance

of thei r vows . A woman,for examp le

,who i s under a

vow , i n order that she may be cured of i l lness or bear

279 GAZULA

chi ldren , takes a big pot of water , and , p lac ing i t on

her head , dances frant i ca l ly before’ the god, through

whose influence the water , which r i ses out of the pot,

fa l l s back into i t,i nstead of being sp i lt .

The Vaishnav ites are burnt , and the Saivites bur ied

in a s itt ing posture . The usual chinna (l i tt le) andpedda rozu (big day) death ceremon ies are performed .

Men wear a go ld bangle on the left wri st,and

another on t he right arm . Women wear a s i lver bangle

on the r ight wr i st,and a brace let of rea l or imitat ion

coral , which i s fi rst worn at the t ime of marriage, on

the left wri st . They throw the end of thei r body-c loth

over the left shou lder . They do not , l ike women of

other non-Brahman castes i n the Vizagapatam di str ict,

smoke cigars .

The orig ina l occupat ion of the caste i s said to have

been trad ing,and thi s may account for the number of

exogamous septs which are named after Sett is (traders) .At the present day

,the Gavaras are agri cu ltur i st s

,and

they have the reputat ion of be ing very hard-work ing,

and among the best agr icu ltur i sts i n the Vizagapatam

distr ict . The women trave l long d i stances i n order to

se l l vegetab les,mi lk

,curds

,and other produce .

The caste t i t les are Anna,Ayya, and occas ional ly

Nayudu .

Gaya (cow) . —An exogamous sept of Kondra .

Gay inta.—Recorded

,i n the Madras Census Report

,

190 1 , as a smal l caste of hi l l cult ivators , speak ing Oriya

and Telugu . The name i s said to be der ived from gayint i ,an i ron digging imp lement . Gay in ta i s reported to be

the same as Gain t ia,a name of Enet is or Entamaras .

Gaz u la.—Gaz u la or Gaz u l (glass bangle) has been

recorded as a sub-div i s ion of Bal ij a,Kapu

,and Toreya.

The Gaz u la Ba l ij as make glass bangles . The Toreyas

GEDALA 280

have a trad it ion that they orig inated from the bang les

of Machyagandh i , the daughter of a fi sherman on

the J umna,who was marr ied to k ing Shantanu of

Hast inapfi r.

C éda la (buffa loes) .— A sept of Bonthuk Savara .

Geddam (beard ) .— An exogamous sept of Beya and

Padma Sale.

Gejjala (be l l s t ied to the legs whi le danc ing) . -An

exogamous sept of Ba l ij a and Korava .

Gejjegara.—A sub -caste of the Canarese Panchalas .

They are descr ibed , i n the Mysore Censu s Report , 189 1 ,as makers of sma l l round be l l s (gungru) , which are used

for decorat ing the head or neck of bu l locks,and t ied by

dancing-gir l s round thei r ank les when danc ing .

Genneru (sweet -scented o leander) .— An exogamoussept of BOya.

Gent00.—Gentoo or Jentu , as returned at t imes of

census,i s stated to be a genera l term app l i ed to Ba l ijas

and Te lugu Speak ing Sadras genera l ly. The word i s

sa id by Yu le and B urnel l to be “ a corrupt ion of the

Portuguese Gent io,a gent i le or heathen

,which they

app l i ed to the H indus i n contrad i st inct ion to the Moros

or Moors,i .e.

,Mahomedans . The reason why the term

became Spec ifical ly app l ied to the Te lugu peop le i s

probab ly because,when the Portuguese arr ived

,the

Te lugu monarchy of Vijayanagar was dominant over a

great part of the pen insu la .

” I n a letter wr it ten from

pr i son to S i r Phi l ip Franc i s , Raj ah Nuncomar referred

to the fact that “ among the Eng l i sh gentry,Armenians ,

Moores and Gentoos,few there i s who i s not against

me .

” Gentoo st i l l su rvives as a caste name in the

Madras Quarter ly C ivi l Li st

Hobson-Jobson.

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GODAGULA 282

they accord ing ly brought up the meat and dr ink,whereon

God cursed them , saying Begone , you have eaten for

bidden food . They craved for forg iveness,but were

to ld in future to earn the i r l iv ing as bamboo-workers .

The custom of menarikam , accord ing to which a man

Should marry hi s materna l unc le’s daughter,i s so rig id ly

enforced that,i f the unc le refuses to give h i s daughter

in marriage,t he man has a r ight to carry h er off

,and

then pay a fine,the amount of which i s fixed by the

caste counc i l . A port ion thereof i s g iven to the g i r l ’s

parent s,and the remainder spent on a caste feast . I f

the materna l unc le has no daughter , a man may ,according to the eduru (or reversed) menarikam cu stom ,

marry hi s paterna l aunt’s daughter . S ix months before

the marr iage ceremony takes p lace,t he pasupu

(t urmer ic) ceremony i s performed . The bridegroom’s

fami ly pay s ix rupees to the br ide’s fami ly

,to provide

the g i r l with turmer ic,wherewith s he adorns herse l f.

On the day fixed for the wedd ing , the parent s of the

brideg room go with a few of the e lders to the br ide’s

house , and coup le the request to take away the gi r l with

payment of n ine rupees and a new c loth . Of the money

thus g iven , e ight rupees go to the br ide’s parents

,and

the remainder to the caste . The bride i s conducted

to the home of the br idegroom,who meet s her at the

panda l (booth) erected in front of hi s house . They are

bathed w ith turmeric wate r,and sacred threads are put

on thei r shou lders by the Ku la Maistri who Offi ciates

as p r iest . The coup le then p lay with seven cowry

(Cypre a araoica) Shel l s , and , i f the shel l s fa l l w ith thes l i t downwards

,the br ide i s said to have won ; other

wi se the br idegroom i s the winner . This i s fol lowed by

the madu aku la hOmam,or sacr ifice of three leaves . A

new pot , contain ing a l ighted wick , i s p laced before the

283 GODA-Poosn

couple. O n i t are thrown leaves of the rayi aku (F icus

rei ig iosa) , marr i aku (F icus B eugaieusis) , and juvv i aku

(F icus Ts ieta) . The Kula Maistri of the bridegroom’

s

party spreads out hi s r ight hand over the mouth of the

pot.On it the br ide places her hand . The bride

groom then p laces hi s hand on hers , and the Kula

Maistri of the br ide’s v i l lage put s hi s hand on that of

the br idegroom . The e lders then cal l out i n a loud

vo ice “ Know,caste peop le of Vaddadi Madugula ;

know,caste peopl e of Kimed i ; know , caste people of

Gunupuram and Godairi know, caste peop le of al l the

twelve countr i es,that th i s man and woman have become

husband and wife,and that the elders have rat ified

the ceremony . The cont ract ing coup le then throw

r ice over each other . O n the morning of t he fo l lowing

day,the saragatha ceremony i s performed . The br ide

groom ’s party repai r to the bank of the loca l stream,

where they are met by the caste people,who are

presented with betel , a cheroot , and a pot of jaggery

(crude sugar) water as coo l dr ink . The sacred threads

worn by the br ide and br idegroom are removed at the

conc lus ion of the marr iage ceremonies . The remarr iage

of widows i s permi tted , and a younger brother may

marry the widow of an e lder brother,or vice oer sci .

Divorce i s al so al l owed,and a divorcee may remarry .

Her new husband has to pay a sum of money,a port ion

of which goes to the fi rst husband , whi le the remainder

i s devoted to a caste feast . The dead are burnt,and the

chinna rozu (l i tt le day) death ceremony i s observed .

Geda-jati (wal l pe0p1e) .— A sub -divi s ion ofKammas .

The name has reference to a dead ly st rugg le at Gandi

keta,i n wh i ch some escaped by hid ing behind a wa l l .

Geda-poose (wal l po l i sh ing) . —An exogamous septof Tsakala .

GODARI 284

Gedari .—Recorded , i n the Madras Census Report ,190 1 , as Telugu leather-workers i n Ganjam and Viz aga

patam . They are stated , i n the Vizagapatam Manual ,to make and se l l s l ippers i n t hat d i st r i ct . Godar i i s

,I

gather,a synonym of Madiga

,and not a separate caste .

Goddali (Spade or axe) . —An exogamous Sept of

Odde and Panta Reddi .

Godomalia (belong ing to , or a group of fort s) . —Asub-d iv i s ion of Bhondari

,the members of which act as

barbers to Rajahs who res ide i n fort s .

G01aka.—Recorded in the Madras Censu s Report

,

190 1 , as a name mean ing bastard , and c lubbed with the

Moilis , or temp le servant s in South Canara descended

from danci ng -gi r l s . I n the Mysore Census Report,

190 1 , i t i s defined as a term app l i ed to t he chi ldren of

Brahmans by Malerus,or temp l e servants .

Goli (P or tu laca oieracea : a pot -herb) . —An ex oga

mous sept of Gauda .

Golkonda.—A sub -divi s ion of Tsaka la .

Gol la—“ The Go l las,

” Mr . H . A . Stuart writes,

elé

are the great pastora l caste of the Te lugu peop le .

The trad i t ions of the caste g ive a descent from the god

Kri shna,whose Sport ings with the mi lk maids p lay a

prominent part i n H indu mytho logy . The hered itary

occupat ion of the Go l las i s tend ing sheep and catt le ,and se l l ing mi lk

,but many of them have now acqu i red

lands and are engaged i n farming,and some are i n

Government service . They are qu iet,i noffens ive

,and

comparat ive ly honest . I n t he t ime of the Nabobs , thi s

last character i st i c secured to them the pr iv i lege of

guard ing and carry ing treasure,and one sub-div is ion ,

Bokhasa Go l las,owes it s or ig i n to th i s serv ice . Even

Manual of the North Arcot d istr ict.

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GOLLA 286

gave thei r name to Golgonda, and bu i lt the fort s , of

which t races st i l l survive i n those part s ”

. Each Te lugu

New Year’s day , i t i s stated , Gol las come across from

Godavari,and go round the Gol la v i l lages

,rec i t ing the

names of the p rogenitors of the fal len l ine,and exhib it i ng

pa int ing s i l l ust rat ive of t he i r overthrow .

“ At Vajragada (diamond fort) are t he ru ins of a verylarge fort ress

,and local t rad it ion g ives the names of

seven fort s,by which it was once defended . These are

said to have been const ructed by the Gol la k ings . A

ta le i s to ld of the i r hav ing kidnapped a daughter of the

ru ler of Madgole , and he ld out here against hi s attacks

for months,unt i l they were bet rayed by a woman of the i r

own caste,who showed the enemy how to cut off thei r

water-supp ly . They then s lew thei r womenkind,says

t he story,dashed out against the bes iegers

,and fel l to a

man , fight ing to the last .”

Concern ing the Go l las of Mysore,I gather

“E t hat

there are two main d ivi s ions in th i s caste,v iz .

,Uru

(vi l lage) and Kadu (forest ) . The two neither intermarry,nor eat together . A sect ion of t he Gol las , by guard ing

t reasure whi le on transit,have earned the name of

Dhanapala. I n fact,

one o f t he men ial offi ces i n

Government t reasur ies at the p resent day i s that o f

Go l la . The caste worsh ips Kr i shna,who was born in

t hi s caste . The Kadu Gol las are said to have or ig ina l ly

immigrated from Northern I nd ia and are st i l l a nomadic

tr ibe,l iv ing in thatched huts outs ide the vi l lages . Some

of the i r soc ia l c ustoms are ak in to those of the Kadu

Kurubas . I t i s said that,on the occurrence of a chi ld

b i rth,the mother with the babe remains unattended in a

sma l l shed outs ide the vi l lage from seven to th i rty days ,

Mysore Census Report , 1901.

GOLLA JUGG IE R .

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GOLLA 288

out of the vi l lage for three months . The woman’s

husband general ly makes a l i tt l e hut about fi fty yards from

her,and watches over her but he may not go near her on

pain of being outcasted for three months . Food i s

p laced on the ground near the woman’s hut,and she

takes it . O n the fourth day after part urit i on,a woman

of the vi l lage goes to her , and pours water on her,but

she must not come i n contact with her . On the fi fth

day,the vi l lage peop l e c l ear of stones and thorny bushes

a l i tt le b i t of ground about ten yards on the vi l lage s ide

of the hut,and to thi s p lace the woman removes her hut .

No one can do i t for her,or he lp her . On the ninth

,

fi fteenth,and thi rt i eth days

,sh e removes the hut in the

same way nearer to t he vi l lage , and , again , once in each

of the two fo l lowing months . On the n inet ieth day,the

headman of the vi l lage cal l s the woman to come out

of the hut . The dhob i (washerman) then washes herc lothes . She put s on c lean c lothes

,and 3the headman

takes her to the temp le of the ir t ute lary deity Junjappa,where the caste pajar i breaks cocoanut s

,and then aecom

pan ies her to her house , where a purificatory ceremony

i s performed . J unjappa, i t i s said , takes good care of

t he mother and chi ld,

so that death i s sa id to be

unknown .

I t i s stated i f that,i n the Ch italdrfig d ist r i ct o f

Mysore,

“ the wi fe of the e ldest son in every fami ly i s

not permitted to c lean hersel f with water after obeying

the ca l l s of nature . I t i s an art ic l e of the i r bel ief that

thei r flocks wi l l otherwi se not p rosper . ”

Writ ing i n the ear ly part of the last cent ury about the

Go l las,Buchanan informs us that “ th i s caste has a part i

on lar duty, t he transport ing of money , both be longing

Mysore Census Report, 189 1 .

289 GOLLA

to the publ i c and to ind ividua ls . I t i s said that they

may be safe ly int rusted with any sum ; fo r, each man

carrying a certain val ue, t hey t rave l i n bod ies numerous

i n p roport ion to the sum put under t he i r charge ; and

they cons ider themselves bound in honour to d ie i n

defence of thei r t rust . Of course,they defend them

selves vigorously,and are al l armed ; so t hat robbers

never venture to attack them . They have hered itary

chiefs cal led Gotugaru ,who with the usual counc i l sett l e

al l d i sputes,and pun i sh al l t ransgress ions against the

rul es of caste . The most flagrant i s the embezz lement

of money ent rusted to the i r care . O n t his cr ime being

p roved against any of the caste,the Gotugaru app l i es to

Ami ldar,or c ivi l magist rate

,and hav ing obtained his

leave,immed iately causes the del inquent to be shot .

Smal ler offences are atoned for by the gu i lty person

giving an entertainment .

The Go l la caste has many sub -d ivis ions , of which

the fo l lowing are examp les

E rra or Yerra (red) . Said to be the descendants

of a Brahman by a Go l la woman .

Ala or Mekala , who tend sheep and goats .

Paj a or Pun i .

Gangeddu ,who exhibi t performing bu l ls .

Gauda,who

,i n Vizagapatam , v is i t the western

part of the d ist r i ct dur ing the summer months , and

sett le outs ide the vi l lages . They tend thei r herds , and

sel l mi lk and curds to the v i l lagers .

Karna .

Pakanat i .

Racha (royal) .Peddet i . Most ly beggars

,and considered low in

the soc ial scal e,t hough when quest ioned concerning

themselves they say they are Yerra Go l las .I I- I g

GOLLA 290

At the census, 190 1 , the fo l lowing were returned as

sub-castes of the Gol las

Dayyalakulam (wrest lers) , Per ike Muggalu or

Mush t i Gol la (beggars and exorc ists) , PodapOtula (whobeg from Gol las) , Gavad i, and Vadugayan ,

a Tami l

synonym for Go l las in T innevel ly . Another Tamil

synonym for Go l la i s Bokhisha Vadugar (t reasury

northerners) . Gol la has been g iven as a sub -d iv is ion of

Dasaris and Chakkil iyans , and Gol la Woddar (O dde) asa synonym of a thief c lass i n the Te lugu count ry. I n a

v i l lage near Dummagudem in the Godavari d ist r i ct,t he

Rev . J . Cain wr ites , f are“ a few fami l i es of Basava

Gollalu . I find they are rea l ly Ko is,whose grandfathers

had a quarre l with,and separated from , the i r neighbours .

Some of t he present members of t he fam i l i es are anxious

to be re-admitted to the soc iety and p r ivi leges of the

ne ighbour ing Kois . The word Basava i s common ly

said to be der ived from bhasha , a language , and the

Go l las of th is c lass are sa id to have been so ca l led in

consequence of the i r speak ing a d i fferent language from

the rest of the Gol las .”

Like many other Te lugu castes , the Go l las have

exogamous sept s or int iperu , and getras . AS examp les

of the former , the fo l lowing may be quotedAgn i , fi re. KOkala, woman’

s cloth .

Avula, cows. Katari , dagger.Ch in thala, tamar ind. Mag i

,dumb .

Chevvula, ears. Nakkala, jackal .Gundala

,stones. Saddikfi du, cold r ice or food .

C u rram , horse. Sévala, serv ice.

Gorrela, sheep . Ul l ipeyala, on ion s.Gerantla, henna (Law Vankayala, b rinjal

souia atoa). melongena).

I nd . Ant . VI I I , 1879 .

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GOLLA 292

Accord ing to another legend , t here were five

brothers,named Pol i Raj u , E rranoku Raj u , Katama

Raj u,Peddi Raj u , and E rrayya Raj u , who l ived at

Yel lamanchi l i,which

,as wel l as Sarvas iddh i

,they bu i l t .

The Rajas of Nel lore advanced against them , and ki l led

them,with al l t hei r sheep

,i n batt le . On th i s

,J anaga

mayya,the son of Pedd i Raj u

,who escaped the

general s laughter,made up hi s mind to go to Kas i

(Benares) , and offer oblat ions to h i s dead father andunc les . Thi s he d id

,andt the gods were so p leased with

him that they transported him in the ai r to h i s nat ive

p lace . H e was fol lowed by three persons , viz . , (1)Ku lagentadu ,

whose descendant s now rec i te the names

of the progen itors of t he caste ; (2 ) PodapOttu (or

j ugg ler) , whose descendant s carry meta l be l l s , s ing ,and

produce snakes by mag ic ; (3) Thevasiyadu ,whose

descendants paint the events which led to the destruct ion

of the Go l la roya l ty on large c loths,and exh ib it them to

the Gol las once a year . At the t ime when Janagamayya

was t rans lated to heaven,t hey asked him how they were

to earn the i r l iv ing,and he advi sed them to perform the

dut ies ind icated,and beg from the caste . Even at the

present day,the i r descendant s go round the country

once a year,after the Te lugu New Year’s day

,and

co l lect the i r dues from Go l la v i l lages .

By re l ig ion the Gol las are both Vallam ulu (Vaishna

vites) and S triramanth ulu (Saiv ites) , between whom

marr iage i s perm iss ib le . They belong to the group of

castes who take part i n the worship of Ankamma. A

Spec ial feature of the i r worship i s that they p lace in a

bamboo or rattan box three or four long whip - l i ke ropes

made of cotton or Agave fibre,along with Swords ,

sandal s and idol s . The ropes are cal l ed Vi rathadlu , or

heroes’

ropes . The content s of the box are set beneath

GO LLA GANGA MUGHU .

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GOLLA 294

Three Pambalas , or Madigas sk i l led in thi s work , and

in rec it ing the stori es of var ious gods and goddesses,

commence thei r work on the afternoon of the thi rd day,

and use white powder (r ice flour) , and powders co louredye l low (turmer ic) , red (t urmer ic and chunam), green

(leaves of Cass ia aur icutata) , and b lack (charred r ice

husk) . On an occasion when my ass i stant was p resent,

the des igns were drawn on the floor of the courtyard

of the house,which was roofed over . During the

preparat ion of the des igns,peop l e were exc luded from

the yard,as some i l l - l uck

,espec ia l ly an attack of fever ,

wou ld befal l more part icu lar ly boys and those of

feeb le m ind , i f t hey caught s ight of the m uggu before

the dr i sht i th iyadam ,or ceremony for removing the evi l

eye has been performed . Near the head of the figure

of Ganga,when comp leted

,was p laced an old bamboo

box,regarded as a god

,conta in ing ido l s

,ropes , bete l ,

flowers,and sma l l swords . C lose to the box

,and on the

r ight s ide of the figure,an earthen t ray

,contain ing a

l ighted wick fed with gh i (c lar ified butter) was set . On

the left s ide were depos ited a kalasam (brass vesse l)represent ing S iva

,a row of chembus (vesse l s) ca l led

bOnalu (food vesse l s) , and a smal l empty box t ied up

in a c loth dyed with turmer ic,and cal led Brammayya.

Between these art ic les and the figure,a sword was la id .

Severa l heaps of food were p i led up on the figure , and

masses of r i ce p laced near the head and feet . I n add i

t ion,a con ica l mass of food was heaped up on the r ight s ide

of the figure,and cakes were stuck into i t . A l l round

thi s were p laced smal ler con ica l p i les of food , i nto which

broomst i cks decorated with betel leaves were thrust .

Masses of food,scooped out and converted into lamps,

were arranged in var ious p laces,and bete l leaves and

nuts scattered al l over the figure . Towards the feet

295 GOLLA

were set a chembu fi l led with water, a lump of food

co loured red,and incense . The preparat ions conc luded ,

three Go l las stood near the feet of the figure , and took

ho ld of the red food,over which water had been sprin

k led , the incense and a fowl . The food and incense were

then waved in front of the figure,and the fow l

,after i t

had been smoked by the incense,and waved over the

figure,had its neck wrung . Thi s was fol lowed by the

break ing of a cocoanut,and offering fru it s and other

th ings . The three men then fel l prost rate on the

ground before the figure,and sa luted the goddess . One

of them , an o ld man , t ied l i tt l e bel l s round his legs , and

stood mute for a t ime . Gradua l ly he began to persp ire ,and those present exc la imed that he was about to be

possessed by the sp i r i t of an ancestor . Taking up a

Sword , he began to cut himse l f w ith it , espec ia l ly in the

back, and then kept str ik ing h imse l f w ith the b lunt edge .

The sword was wrested from him,and p laced on the

figure . The o ld man then went severa l t imes round

the m uggu , Shaking and twi st ing hi s body into various

grotesque att it udes . Whi le th i s was go ing on,the br ide

groom appeared on the scene,and seated himse l f near

the feet of the figure . Throwing off h i s turban and

upper c loth , he fe l l on the floor,and proceeded to k ick

his legs about,and eventua l ly

,becoming calmer

,com

m enced to cry . Being asked hi s name,he rep l ied that

he was Kariyavala Raj u . Further quest ions were putto him , to which he made no response , but cont inued

crying . I ncense and l ight s were then carr ied round the

image , and the old man announced that the marr iage

wou ld be ausp i c ious,and blessed the br ide and br ide

groom and the assembled Go l las . The ceremony con

c luded with the burn ing of camphor . The b ig mass of

food was eate n by Pan i Go l las .

GOLLARI 296

I t i s stated in the Manual of the Nel lore d i st r ict that,

when a Gol la br idegroom set s out for the house of hi s

mother- in - law,he i s se ized on the way by hi s com

pan ions,who wi l l not re lease him unt i l he has paid a

p iece of gold .

The custom of illatom ,or app l i cat ion of a son - in- law

,

obtai ns among the Gol las , as among the Kapu s and

some other Te lugu classes fi'

6

I n connect ion with the death ceremon ies,i t may be

noted that the corpse , when it i s be ing washed , i s made

to rest on a mortar , and two pest les are p laced by it s

s ide,and a l ighted lamp near the head .

There i s a p roverb to the effect that a Gol la wi l l not

scrup le to water the m i lk which he sel l s to h is own father .

Another p roverb refers to the corrupt manner in whi ch

he speaks hi s mother-tongue .

The insigne of t he caste at Conj eeveram i s a s i lver

churn ing st i ckstGol lari (monkey) . —An exogamous sept of Gadaba .

G0mma.—Recorded by the Rev . J . Cain as the

name for Keyi s who l ive near the banks of the Goda

var i r iver . Vi l lages on the banks thereof are cal l ed

gommu fi l lu .

Genapala (o ld p lough) .— An exogamous Sept of

Devanga.

Gendaliga.—The GOndal igas are descr ibed , i n the

Mysore Census Report,190 1 , as be ing mendicants

“ of

Mahratta or ig in l ike the Badabud ikes , and may perhaps

be a sub—d ivi s ion of t hem . They are worshippers of

Durgi . Thei r occupat ion,as the name ind icates

,i s to

perform gondala,or a k ind of torch- l ight dance, usua l ly

Sec C . Ramchendrier, Co l lect ion o f decis ions o f H igh Courts and the Pr ivyCounci l appl icable to dancing -g irls , i l latom , etc. ,

Madras , 1892 .

r J . S . F. Mackenz ie , Ind . Ant IV, 1875.

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CONDAL IGA MUS IC IAN S .

29 7 GORAVARU

performed in honour of Amba Bhavan i , espec ia l ly after

marr iages in Desastha Brahman’

s houses,or at other

t imes in fu lfi lment of any vow .

”

Gene (a sack) . —An exogamous sept of Mala . The

Gone Per ikes have been summed up as be ing a Telugu

caste of gunny -bag weavers , correspond ing to the Jamap

pans of the Tami l country . Gunny-bag i s t he popular

and t rad ing name for the coarse sack ing and sacks made

from j ute fibre , which are extens ively used in I ndian

tradefi"

6 Gone i s further an occupat i onal sub-div i s ion of

Komat i .

The GOn igas of Mysore are descr ibed , i n the Census

Report,190 1 , as sack-weavers and makers of gunny

bags,agri cultur ists , and grain porters a t Bangalore ; and

it i s noted that the abnormal fal l of 66 per cent . i n the

number of the caste was due to thei r be ing confounded

with Gan igas .

Gonjakari .—A t i t le of H add i .

Gonj i (Gly cosm is — An exogamous sept

of Mala .

Gepalam (a lms given to beggars) .— An exogamous

sept of Togata .

Gopalan (those who tend catt le) . -A synonym of

Idaiyan .

G0popuriya .—A sub -d ivi s ion of Gaudo .

Gorant la (L awson ia atoa henna) . —An ex oga

mous sept of Gol la and Padma Sale. The leaves of thi s

plant are wide ly used by Nat ives as an art i c l e of to i let

for sta in ing the nai ls,and by M uhammadans for dyeing

the hai r red .

Gorava .—A synonym of Kuruba .

G0ravaru .—A c lass of Canarese mend i can ts .

Yule and Burnel l . Hobson -Jobson .

GORE 298

G0re.—Recorded

,at t imes of census , as a synonym

of Lambad i . Gora means t rader or shOp-keeper, and

trad ing Lambad is may have assumed the name .

Gorige (Cyamopsis fisoratioicies) .— An exogamous

sept of Devanga .

Gorre la (sheep ) . —An exogamous sept of Go l la ,Kamma

,and Kap u . Konda gorr i (hi l l sheep) occurs as

an exogamous sept of Jatapu .

Gesangi . -A synonym for Madiga,recorded as

Kesangi , i n t he Madras Census Report , 190 1 . The

Gesangulu are descr ibed in the Vizagapatam Manual

as “ beggars who sty le themselves descendants of

Jambavanta, t he bear into wh ich B rahma t ransformed

himse l f,to ass i st Rama in destroy ing Ravana . The

Gesangis are cons idered to be i l leg i t imate descend

ants of Madigas,and a cur ious thing about them is that

the i r women dress up l ike men,and s ing songs when

begging . As mend i cants they are attached to the

Madigas .

Gfi sayi or GOSWam i .—The Gesayis are immigrantre l ig ious mendicant s from Northern and Western I nd ia .

I gather from the Mysore Census Report s that “ they

most ly be long to the Dand i sub -d ivi s ion . The Gesayi

i s no caste common ly any devotee i s ca l led a Gesayi,whether he l ives a l i fe of cel ibacy or not ; whether he

roams about the country co l lect ing a lms,or res ides i n

a house l ike the rest of the peop le ; whether he leads

an id le ex i stence, or emp loys himse l f i n t rade . The

mark , however, that d i st ingu ishes al l who bear thi s name

i s that they are devoted to a re l ig ious l i fe . Some

besmear thei r bod ies with ashes,wear the i r hai r d i s

bevel led and uncombed,and in some instances co i led

round the head l ike a snake or rope . They roam about

the country in every d i rect ion,v i s i t ing espec ial ly spot s

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300

same process and i s bur ied,but never burned or thrown

into the r iver .

A few Gesay is , at the Mysore census , returned

getras , of which the chief were Ach fi ta and Daridra

(poverty- st r icken ) . I n the Madras Census Report,190 1 ,

Mandula (medic ine man) and Bavaj i are retu rned as a

sub -divi s ion and synonym of GOSay i . The name Gu se

or Guse i i s app l i ed to O r iya Brahmans owing to thei r

r ight of act ing as gurus or fami ly p riest s .

GOS U (pr ide) . —An exogamous sept of Devanga.

G0undan .—It i s noted

,i n the Salem Manual

,that

some of the agr icu ltura l c lasses hab itua l ly append the

t it l e Goundam as a sort of caste nomenc lature after t he i r

names,but the word app l i es

,par excel lence

,t o the head

of the vi l lage , or U r Goundan as he i s cal l ed . As

examp les of castes which take Goundan as thei r t it le,the Pal l i s

, Okkil iyans , and Vellalas may be c ited . A

planter,or other

,when hai l i ng a Ma layal i of t he

Shevaroy hi l ls , a lways ca l l s h im Goundan .

Goy i (l i zard : Varanus) . —An exogamous sept of

Bottada.

Graman i .—The t it l e of some Shanans , and of t he

headman of the Khatris . I n Ma labar,t he name gramam

(a vi l lage) i s app l ied to a B rahman ical co lony , or col

lect i on of houses,as the equ iva lent of the agraharam of

the Tami l countryf’f

Gfi dala.—The Gadalas are a Te lugu caste of basket

makers in Vizagapatam and Ganj am . The name i s

der ived from gada,a basket for bal i ng water . For the

fo l l ow i ng note I am indebted to M r . C . Hayavadana Rao .

The orig inal occupat ion of the caste is sa id to have been

the co l l ect ion of medic ina l herbs and roots for nat ive

W igram . Malabar Law and Custom .

30 1 GIJDAVANDLU

doctors and S i ck persons, which i s st i l l carr ied on by

some Gadalas at Salnru town . The’

principal occupa

t ions , however, are the manufacture of bamboo basket s ,and fi shing in fresh water .Like other Telugu castes

,t he Gadalas have

exogamous septs or int iperulu ,e.g .

,korra (Setar ia

i tatica) , path th i (cotton) , nakka (jackal) and gant i (holep ierced in the ear- lobe) .

”

The custom of menarikam,

whereby a man should marry hi s mate rnal unc le’s

daughter,i s p ract iced . Marr iage general ly takes p lace

before a g i r l reaches p uberty . A Brahman offi ciates at

wedd ings . The bride-p rice (vOli) cons ists of a new cloth

for the br ide,and seven rupees for her parents

,which

are taken by the br idegroom’s party to the br ide’s house,

together with some O il and turmeri c for the br idal bath,

and the sathamanam (marr iage badge) . A feast i s

held , and the sathamanam i s t ied on the br ide’s neck .

The new ly marr ied pai r are conducted to the house of

the br idegroom,where a further feast takes p lace

,after

which they retu rn to the br ide’s home,where they

remain for three days . Widows are perm itted to remarry

thr ice,and the vol i on each success ive occas ion i s Rs . 3,

Rs . 2,and Rs . 2—8—0 . When a widow is remarried

,

the sathamanam i s t ied on her neck near a mortar.

The members of the caste reverence a deity cal led

Ekkaladevata, who is said to have been left behind at

thei r original home . The dead are cremated,and the

chinna rozu (l i tt le day) death ceremony i s observed .

On the thi rd day,cooked r ice i s thrown over the spot

where the corpse was burnt .

Gfidavand lu .—Recorded

,i n the Nel lore Manual , as

Vaishnav ites, who earn the i r l ivel ihood by begging .

The name means basket peop le,and p robably refers to

Satan is,who carry a basket (gada) when begging.

GUD I 302

Gudi (temp le) .— A sub-d ivi s ion of Okkil iyan ,an

exogamous sept of Jogi , and a name for temp le Dasari s,

to d i st ingu i sh them from the Donga or thiev ing Dasaris .

Gudigara .—In the South Canara Manua l

,the Gudi

garas are summed up as fol lows . They are a Canarese

caste of wood ~ carvers and painters . They are H indus

of the Saivite sect , and wear the sacred thread . Sh ivalli

Brahmans officiate as the i r p r iests . Some fo l low the

al iya santana mode of inher i tance (i n the female l i ne) ,Others the ordinary law . They must marry within the

caste,but not with in the same gotra or fami ly . I nfant

marr iage i s not compu lso ry,and they have the dhare form

of marr iage . Among those who fol low the al iya santana

law,both widows and divorced women may marry again

,

but thi s i s not perm itted among the other sect ions . The

dead are e ither cremated or bur ied,the former being the

p referent ial mode . The use of a lcoho l i c l i quo r,and fi sh

and flesh i s perm itted . The i r ord inary t it l e i s Sett i .

The Gudigars , or sanda l -wood carvers , Mr . D’

Cruz

writesfi" are reported to have come or ig ina l ly from Goa

,

the i r migrat i on to Mysore and Canara having been occa

s ioned by the attempts of the ear ly Portuguese invaders

to convert them to Chr i st ian ity. The fact that the i r

or ig inal language i s Konkan i corroborates the i r reputed

Konkanese or igin . They say that the der ivat ion of the

word Gudigara i s from gud i , a temp le , and that they

were so cal led because they were,i n thei r own country

,

emp loyed as carvers and painters in the ornamentat i on

of temp les . Another der ivat ion i s from the Sanskr it

kuttaka (a carver). They assert that the i r fel low

castem en are st i l l employed in t urn ing , paint ing , and

other decorat ive art s at Goa . Like the Ch itrakaras

Thurston . Monograph on Wood-carving in Southern Ind ia. 1903.

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GUD I GARA 304

t urn ing . Others , having acqu i red land , are engaged in

cu lt ivat ion,and fast lo s ing al l touch with the art . At

Udip i i n South Canara , some Gud igars make for sal e

large wooden buffaloes and human figures,which are

presen ted as vot ive offer ings at the I swara templ e at

H iriadkap . They al so make wooden dol l s and painted

c lay figures .

The fol low ing ext ract s from Mr . L . Rice’s Mysore

Gazetteer’ may be app ropriately quoted .

“ The des igns

with which the Gud igars ent i rely cover the boxes , desks ,and other art ic les made

,are of an ext remely involved and

elaborate pattern,cons i st i ng for the most part of int r icate

in terlac ing fol iage and scrol l -work,completely envelop ing

medal l ions contain ing the rep resentat ion of some H indu

deity or subj ect of mythology, and here and there re l ieved

by the int roduct ion of an imal forms . The detai l s,though

in themselves often highly incongruous , a re grouped and

blended with a Ski l l that seems to be inst i nct ive in the

East,and form an exceed ing ly r ich and appropriate

ornamentat ion,dec idedly or iental i n styl e

,which leaves

not the smal l est port ion of the surface of the wood

untouched . The mater ia l i s hard , and the m inuteness of

the work demands the utmost care and pat ience . Hence

the carving of a desk or cab inet involves a labour of

many months,and the art i sts are sa id t o lose there eye

s ight at a comparat ively early age . E uropean designs

And again “ The art i c l es1t hey im itate to perfect ion .

’

of the Gud igar’

s manufacture ch iefly in demand are boxes,

caskets and cab inets . These are completely covered wi th

minute and del icate scrol l—work,interspersed with figures

from the H indu Pantheon,the general effect of the p ro

fuse deta i l being ext remely rich . The carving of Sorab

i s considered super io r to that of Bombay or Canton ,and , being a very ted ious p rocess requi r ing great care , i s

305 GUD IGARA

expens ive . The Gud igars wi l l im itate admi rably any

designs that may be furn ished them . Boards for album

covers,plates from Jorrock

’

s hunt,and cabinets su rrounded

with figu res,have t hus been produced for E uropean

gent l emen with great success . A gold medal was

awarded to the Gud igars at the Delh i Durbar Exhib it ion ,1903, for a magn ificent sandal -wood casket (now in theMadras Museum) , ornamented with panel s represent ing

hunt ing scenes .

When a marr iage i s contemplated,the parents of the

coup le,i n the absence of horoscopes

,go to a temple

,and

rece ive from the priest some flowers which have been

used for worship . These are counted,and

,i f the i r num

ber i s even,the match i s arranged

,and an exchange of

betel l eaves and nuts takes p lace . O n the wedding day,

the br idegroom goes,accompan ied by hi s party

,to the

house of the br ide,taking with him a new cloth

,a female

jacket,and a st ring of black beads with a smal l gold

ornament . They are met en route by the bride’s party .

Each party has a t ray contain ing r ice,a cocoanut

,and a

looking -glass . The females of one party p lace kunkuma

(red powder) on the foreheads of those of t he other party ,and spr inkle r ice over each other . At the entrance to

the marr iage pandal (booth) , the br ide’s brother pou rs

water at the feet of the bridegroom,and her father leads

him into the pandal . The new c loth , and other art i c l es ,are taken ins ide the house

,and the mother or s ister of

the bridegroom,with the permiss ion of the headman

,t ies

the necklet of black beads on the br ide’s neck . Her

maternal uncle takes her up in hi s arms,and carries her

to the pandal . Thither the bridegroom i s conducted by

the bride’s brother . A cloth i s held as a screen between

the cont ract ing coup le,who p lace garlands of flowers

round each other’s necks . The screen i s then removed .

I I—20

GUDI SA 306

A smal l vessel , contain ing mi lk and water, and decorated

with mango leaves , i s p laced in front of them ,and the

br ide’s mother, taking hold of the right hand of the bride,p laces i t in the right hand of the br idegroom . The

offi c iat ing Brahman places a bete l leaf and cocoanut on

the br ide’

s hand , and her parent s pou r water from a

vesse l thereon . The Brahman then t ies the kankanam s

(wrist - threads) on the wrists of the contract ing coup le,

and kind les the sacred fi re (hemam) . The guests presentthem with money, and l ights are waved before them by

elder ly females . The br idegroom,tak ing the bride by

hand,leads her into the house

,where they s it on a mat

,

and drink m i lk ou t of the same vesse l . A bed i s made

ready,and they s it on i t . wh i le the br ide g ives betel

to the br idegroom . On the second day , l ight s are waved ,i n the morning and even ing , i n front of them . On the

th i rd day,some red-colou red water i s p laced in a vessel

,

into which a r ing,an areca nut

,and r ice are dropped .

The couple search for the r ing,and

,when it has been

found,the bridegroom puts it on the finger of the bride .

They then bathe,and t ry to catch fi sh in a c loth . After

the bath,the wr ist -threads are removed .

Gudisa. (hut) . —An exogamous sept of BOya and

Kapu .

Gudiya.—The Gud iyas are the sweet-meat se l lers

of the O r iya count ry . They rank high in the soc ia l scale,

and some sect ions of Oriya Brahmans w i l l accept dr ink

ing water at the i r hands . Sweet—meat s p repared by them

are purchased for marr iage feast s by a l l castes,i nc lud ing

Brahmans . The caste name i s derived from gudo

(j aggery) . The caste i s d iv ided into two sect ions, one of

which i s engaged in se l l ing sweet-meats and crude sugar,and the other in agr icu l t ure . The former are ca l led

Gudiyas, and the latter Ko lata, H olodia, or Bolasi

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GULIMI 308

NattukOttai Chett is , Gujarat i s, and other mercant i le

c lasses . The mover of the resol ut ion observed that

Gujarat i s were most anxious,on re l ig ious grounds

, to

save al l an imal s from pain,and i t was a rel ig ious

bel ie f w ith them that i t was s infu l to l ive in a town

where there was no p injrapole . A p injrapole i s p roper ly

a cage (p inj ra) for the sacred bul l (pola) re leased in the

name of S ivafif I t i s noted by M r . D rummond l t hat

every marr iage and mercant i le t ransact ion among the

Gujarat i s i s taxed with a cont r ibut ion ostens ibly for the

p injrapole . I n 1 9 0 1 , a prOposal was Set on foot to estab

l i sh a Gujarat i l ibrary and read ing - room in Madras,t o

commemorate the s i lver j ub i lee of the admin i st rat ion of

the Gaekwar of Baroda .

Gu l im i (p ickaxe) .— An exogamous sept of Kuruba .

Gu l lu (S otauuucf erooc) . —A getra of Kurn i .

Gulti .—A sect ion of BOya,members of which are to

be found i n Choolay, Madras C ity .

Gummad i (Cucurbi ta max ima) .— An exogamous

sept of Tsakalas,who wi l l not cul t ivate the p lant

,or eat

the pumpk in thereof.

Gfi na.—Gnna or Gani i s a sub-d ivi s ion of Ve lama.

The name i s der ived from the large pot (gfrna) , which

dyers use .

Gti na Tsakala (hunchbacked washerman) . —Said

to be a der is ive name given to Velamas by Bal ijas .

Gunda la (stones) .— An exogamous sept of Gol la .

Gundam (p it) . —An exogamous sept of Chenchu .

Gundu (cannon -bal l ) . -A got ra of Kurn i .

Guni .—Guni i s the name of Oriya dancing-gir l s and

prost i tutes . I t is der ived from the Sanskri t guna,mean

ing qual ificat ions or ski l l,i n reference to the i r possess i on

Yule and Burnel l . Hobson -Jobson .

1' I l lustrat ions o f the Guz arattee , Mah rattee, and Engl ish languages, 1808.

309 GURUKKAL

of qual ificat ion for , and sk i l l acqu i red by t ra in ing when

young in enchanting by mus ic,danc ing , etc .

Gunta (wel l) .— A sub—div is ion of Beyas , found in the

Anantapt'

i r d ist r ict,the members of which are emp loyed

in d igging wel l s .

Guntaka (harrow) .— An exogamous sept of Kapu .

Guntala (pond) . —An exogamous sept of Beya .

Gupta.—A Va isya t it le assumed by some M t

'

i ttans

(trad ing caste) of Ma labar , and Tami l Pal l i s .

Guri .—Recorded , i n the Vizagapatam Manua l , asa caste of Paiks or fight ing men . Gurikala (marksman)occurs

,i n the Madras Census Report

,190 1 , as a sub

divis ion of Patra .

Gurram (horse) . -An exogamous sept of Chenchu,

Gol la,Mala

,Padma Sale

,and Togata . The Gurram

Togatas wi l l not r ide on horseback . Kudire,a lso

mean ing horse,occurs as a getra or exogamous sept of

Kurn i and Vakkal iga .

Gurukkal .—For the fol low ing note on the Guruk

ka l s or Kurukkals of Travancore , I am indebted to Mr .

N . Subraman i Aiyar . The Kurukkals are pri est s of

castes,whose rel ig ious r i tes are not pres ided over by

I layatus . They are p robably of Tami l or ig in . Ma les

are often cal led Nainar and females Nachch iyar, which

are the usual t it les of t he Tami l Kurukkals a lso . I n

the Keralolpatt i the caste men are descr ibed as Chi lam

pant is , who are the adiyars or hered itary servants of

Padmanabhaswam i i n Trivandrum . They seem to have

been once known also as Madam fi tal is or headmen of

matts,and Tevara Pandaram s

,or Pandaram s who ass isted

the Brahman pr iest i n the performance of re l ig ious r ites

i n the Maharaj a’s palace . I t i s said that the Kurukkals

orig inal ly belonged to the great Vaisya branch of Manu’

s

fourfo ld system of caste,and migrated from the Pandyan

GURUKKAL 310

count ry,and became the dependant s of the Kupakkara

fami ly of Pott is i n Tr ivandrum ,whose i nfluence

,both

rel ig ious and secu lar,was of no mean order i n mediaeva l

t imes . These Pott is gave them perm iss ion to perform

al l the pr iest ly services of the Ambalavas i fami l i es,who

l ived to the south of Qui lon . I t wou ld appear from

the Keralolpatt i and other records that they had the

kaz hakam or sweep ing and other services at the inner

entrance of S ri Padmanabha’

s temp le t i l l the t ime of

Umayamma Ran i i n the e ighth century of the Ma la

bar era . AS,however

,during her re ign

,a Kurukkal

i n league with the Kupakkara Pott i handed over the

l etter of inv itat ion,entrusted to him as messenger

,for

the annua l utsavam to the Tarnallur Namb fid iripad , the

chief ecc les iast ica l funct ionary of the temp le,much later

than was requ i red,t he Kurukkal was d i smi ssed from

the temp le serv ice,and ever afterwards the Kurukkals

had no kaz hakam r ight there . There are some temp les,where Kurukkals are the recogn ised pr iest s, and they are

free ly admitted for kaz hakam servi ce i n most South

Travancore temp les . To the north of Qu i lon , however,the Variyars and Pushpakan s enjoy thi s r ight i n prefer

ence to others . Some Kurukkals kept gymnasia i n

former t imes,and t ra ined young men in mi l i tary ex er

c i ses . At the present day,a few are ag r icu ltu ri sts .

The Kurukkals are general ly not so fai r i n comp lexion

as other sect ions of the Ambalavas is , Thei r houses are

known as bhavanams or vidus . They are str ict vege

tarians,and prohib ited from dr ink ing sp i r it uous l iquor.

The females (Kurukkatt is) t ry to im itate Namb ii t iri

Brahmans in the ir dress and ornaments . The aras ilattal i,which c lose ly resembles the cherutal i, i s worn round the

neck,and the chu ttu i n the ears . The m ukkutt i, but not

the gnattu, i s worn in the nose . The m innu or marr iage

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GURUKKAL 31 2

sambandham , which invariab ly takes p lace after a g i r l has

reached puberty,the re lat i ons of the fu tu re husband vis it

her home,and

,if they are sat i sfied as to the des i rab i l i ty of

the match,inform her guard ians of the date on wh ich

they w i l l demand the horoscope . When it i s received 011the appo inted day , the ast ro loger is consu l ted , and , i f

he i s favou rab ly inc l i ned , a day i s fixed for the sambandham ceremony . The gi r l i s l ed forward by her maternal

aunt,who s it s among those who have assembled

,and

formal ly rece ives c loths . C loths are also p resented to

the materna l unc le . Divorce i s common,and effected

with the consent of the Vadhyar. I nheri tance i s in the

female l ine (marumakkathayam ) . I t i s bel i eved that,at

the t ime of thei r migrat ion to Travancore,the Kurukkals

wore thei r tuft of hai r (kudumi) beh ind , and fo l lowed the

m akkathayam system of inher itance (in the ma le l ine) .

A change is sa id to have been effected in both these

customs by the Kupakkara Pott i in the years 1 752 and

1 7 7 7 of the Ma labar era .

The Ku rukkals observe most of the re l ig ious cere

monies of the Brahmans . No rec itat ion of hymns

accompan ies the r i tes of namakarana and annaprasana.

The chau la and upanayana are performed between the

n inth and twel fth years of age . On the p revi ous day ,the fami ly pr iest ce lebrates the purificatory r it e, and t ies

a consecrated thread round the r ight wr i st of the boy .

The tonsu re takes p lace on the second day, and on the

th i rd day the boy is invested with the sacred thread , and

the Gayatr i hymn rec ited . On the fourth day , the

Brahmacharya r ite i s c losed with a ceremony correspond

ing to the Samavartana. When a gi r l reaches puberty,some near female relat ion invi tes the women of the vi l lage ,who vi si t the house

,bring ing sweetmeats w ith them .

The g i r l bathes,and reappears in pub l ic on the fi fth day .

313 HADD I

Only the pu l ikud i or drinking tamarind ju ice , i s celebrated ,as among the Nayars

,during the fi rst pregnancy . The

sanchayana,or co l lect ion of bones after the cremat ion

of a corpse,i s observed on the th i rd

,fi fth

,or seventh

day after death . Death pol lut ion lasts for e leven days .

Tekketus are bu i l t i n memory of deceased ancestors .

These are smal l masonry st ructu res bu i l t over graves,i n

which a l ighted lamp is p laced,and at which worship i s

performed on ann iversary and other important occas ions

(S ee Brahman . )Guteb .

—A sub-d ivis ion of Gadaba .

Gutta K 0y i .—Recorded by the Rev . J . Cain as

a name for hi l l Keyis .

Guvvala (doves) .— An exogamous sept of Boya and

Mu tracha.

Hadd i .—The Haddis are a low class of Oriyas,

correspond ing to the Telugu Malas and Madigas,and the

Tami l Paraiyans . I t has been suggested that the name

i s der ived from haddi,a lat r ine

,or hada

,bones

,as

members of the caste co l l ect a l l sort s of bones,and trade

in them . The Haddis p lay on drums for al l O riya

castes,except Khondras

, T iyoros , Tu labinas,and Sanis .

They consider the Khondras as a very low c lass,and wi l l

not purchase boi led rice so ld in the bazaar,i f i t has been

touched by them . Castes lower than the H addis are the

Khondras and Jaggalis of whom the latter are Te lugu

Madigas,who have sett led in the southern part of

.Ganjam ,

’

and l earnt the Oriya language .

The Hadd is may be d ivided into H addis p roper,Rellis , and Chachad is , which are endogamous d ivis ions .

HADDI 314

The H add is p roper never do sweep ing or scavenging

work,which are , i n some p laces , done by Rell is . The

Re lli scavengers are often cal led Bhatta or Karuva

Hadd is . The Hadd is p roper go by var i ous names,e .g .

,

Sudha Hadd i,Godomal ia Haddi , etc .

,i n d i fferent loca l i

t i es . The H add is work as coo l i es and fie ld labou rers,

and the sel l ing of fru its , such as mango , tamarind ,Z i zyp/zus j uj uoa ,

etc ., i s a favou ri te occupat ion . I II

some p laces,the sel l ing of dri ed fish i s a monopo ly of

the Rellis . Somet imes H add is, espec ial ly the Karuva

Hadd is,se l l human or yak hai r for the pu rpose of

femal e to i lette . The Haddis have numerous septs or

bam sam s,one of which , hath i (e lephant) i s of spec ia l

interest,because members of th i s sept , when they see the

foot -print s of an e lephant , take some dust from the spot ,and make a mark on the forehead with i t . They a lso

draw the figu re of an e lephant , and worship i t when

they perform s radh (memoria l service for the dead) and

other ceremonies .

There are,among the H add i communit i es

,two

caste offi cers ent i t led Behara and Nayako, and di fficu lt

quest ions which ar ise are sett led at a meet ing of the

offi cers of several vi l lages . I t i s said that somet imes,i f

a member of the caste i s known to have committed an

offence,the officers select some members of the caste

from h is vi l lage to attend the meet ing,and borrow money

from them . This i s spent on drink,and

,after the

meet ing, the amount i s recovered from the Offender . I f

he does not p lead gu i l ty at once,a quarre l ensues

,and

more money is borrowed,so as to increase the debt .

I n add it ion to the Behara and Nayako,there are

,in

some p laces,other offi c ial s ca l l ed Adhikar i or Chowdri,

or BodOporicha and Bhollobhaya. The caste t it le i s

Nayako . Members of higher castes are somet imes ,

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HADD I 316

The bride’s brother arr ives on the scene,dressed up as

a woman,and st rikes the br idegroom . This i s cal led

so labidha,and i s p ract i ced by many Oriya castes . The

ends of the c loths of the br ide and bridegroom are t ied

together,and they are conducted ins ide the house

,the

mother- in - law throwing Z iaypfius l eaves and r ice over

them .

Like other Oriya castes,the H addi s observe pol lut ion

for seven days on the occasion of the fi rst menstrua l

per iod . On the fi rst day,the girl ‘

is seated,and

,after

She has been smeared with o il and tu rmeric paste , seven

women throw Z iayfi éus l eaves and r ice over her . She

i s kept e ither in a corner of the house,or in a separate

hut , and has by her a p iece of i ron and a gr ind ing-stone

wrapped up in a c loth . I f avai lab le,twigs of S try cauos

N ux -vom ica are p laced in a corner. Within t he room

or hut , a sma l l framework , made of broom-st icks and

p ieces of pa lmyra pa lm leaf, or a bow,

is p laced , and

worshipped dai ly . I f the girl i s engaged to be marr ied ,her futu re father-in - law i s expected to give her a new

c loth on the seventh day .

The H add is are worshippers of var iou s Takuran is

(vi l lage de it ies) , e.g.,Kalumuki

,Sathabavun i, and

Baidaro . Cremat ion of the dead is more common than

buria l . Food i s offered to the deceased on the day after

death,and al so on the tenth and e leventh days . Some

H addi s proceed,on the tenth day

,to the spot where the

corpse was cremated or bu ried,and

,after making an

effigy on the ground,offer food . Towards n ight , they

proceed to some d istance from the house,and p lace food

and fru it s on a c loth spread on the ground . They then

ca l l the dead man by hi s name,and eager ly wait t i l l

some insect sett les on the c loth . As soon as th i s happens,

the c loth i s fo lded up,carr ied home

,and shaken over the

31 7 HADD I

floor c lose t o the spot where the household gods are

kept,so that the insect fal l s on sand spread on the floor.

A l ight i s then p laced on the sanded floor,and covered

with a new pot . After some t ime , the pot i s removed ,and the sand examined for any marks wh i ch may be left

on i t . This ceremony seems to correspond to the j o la

j o la hand i (p ierced pot) ceremony of other castes (seeBhondari) .

“ The Rellis , Mr . H . A . Stuart wr i tes,

* “ are a

caste of gardeners and labou rers,found ch iefly in the

d ist r icts o f Ganjam and Vizagapatam . I n Telugu the

word relli or rel lis means grass,but whether there i s

any connect i on between thi s and the caste name I

cannot say . They general ly l ive at the foot of the h i l l s,

and sel l vegetab les,most ly of hi l l product ion .

For the fo l lowing note on the Rell is of Vizagapatam,

I am indebted to Mr . C . Hayavadana Rao . The Rell is

are also known as Sachchari,and they fu rther cal l

themse lves Sap i r i . The caste recogn ises the custom

of menarikam ,by which a man marr ies h i s maternal

unc le’s daughter . A girl i s u sual ly marr ied after

puberty . The bride-price i s paid somet ime before the

day fixed for the marr iage . O n that day,the br ide goes

,

with her parents,to the house of the br idegroom .

The

caste deit i es O dda Pelamma (commonly known as Sap i r iDaivam ) and Kanaka Durgalamma are invoked by the

elders , and a p ig and sheep are sacrificed to them .A

str ing of black beads i s t ied by the bridegroom round

the bride’

s neck , and a feast i s held , at which the sacr ificed animals are eaten , and much l iquor i s imb ibed .

On the fo l lowing morning , a new c loth , kunkumam (red

powder) , and a few p ieces of tu rmeric are p laced in a

Madras Census Report , 189 1 .

HADD I 318

smal l basket or winnow , and carried in p rocess ion , to the

accompaniment of music , through the streets by the

bride,with whom i s the bridegroom . The ceremony is

repeated on the th i rd day, when the marriage fest iv it i es

come to an end . I n a note on the Rellis of Ganjam,

Mr . S . P . Rice wr ites that “ the br idegroom,with the

permi ss ion of the Vi l lage Mag ist rate,marches st raight

into the bride’

s house , and t ies a wedd ing necklace

round her neck . A gift of seven and a hal f rupees

and a p ig to the castem en, and of five rupees to the

br ide’s father,comp letes th i s very prim it ive ceremony

.

Widows are al lowed to remarry,but the st ring of beads i s

not t ied round the neck . The caste deit ies are usual ly

represented by crude wooden do l l s , and an annual fest i

val in thei r honou r,with the sacrifice of p igs and sheep

,

i s held in March . The dead are usual ly buri ed,and

,

as a ru le,po l lut ion i s not observed . Some Rellis have

,

however,begun to observe the ch innarOz u (l i t t le day)

death ceremony,which corresponds to the ch innad inamu

ceremony of the Telugus . The main occupat ion of the

caste i s gardening,and se l l ing fru it s and vegetables .

The famine of 1875—76 reduced a large number of Rell is

to the verge of starvat ion , and they took to scavenging

as a means of earn ing a l iv ing . At the present day,the

gardeners look down on the scavengers , but a prosperous

scavenger can be admitted into the i r soc iety by paying

a sum of money,or g iving a feast . Pol lut ion attaches

on ly to the scavengers,and not to the gardening sect ion .

I n the Censu s Report,190 1 , the Pakais or sweepers

in the Godavar i d ist r ict , who have , i t i s said , gone

thither from Vizagapatam,are retu rned as a sub -caste of

Rell i . The usual t it le of the Rell is i s Gadu .

O ccasional Essays on Nat ive South I nd ian L i fe.

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HAJAM 320

the main with that of the H add is e lsewhere,but has been

to some extent mod ified by the Telugu envi ronment .The custom

,referred to by M r . S . P . Rice

,of suspend ing

an earthen pot fi l led with water from the marr iage

booth i s a very general one,and not pecu l iar to the

Ghas is . I t i s an im itat ion of a custom observed by the

higher Oriya castes . The str ik ing of the br idegroom

on the back by the br ide’s brother i s the solab idha of

other castes,and the mock anger (rusyano) in which

the latter goes away corresponds to the alag i povadam

of Te lugu castes .

At the fi rst menst rua l ceremony of a Ghas i g i r l,she

s it s in a space enc losed by fou r arrows,round which a

thread i s passed seven t imes .

The name Odiya Tot i (Oriya scavenger) occu rs as aTami l synonym for H add is emp loyed as scavengers in

Munic ipal it i es in the Tami l country .

Hajam .—The H industan i name for a barber

,and

used as a general p rofess ional t it le by barbers of var ious

c lasses . I t is noted , in the Census Reports , that on ly

fi fteen ou t of more than two thousand ind ividuals retu rned

as H ajam were Muhammadans , and that , in South

Canara,H ajam s are Konkan i Kelas is

,and of Marath i

descent .

Halaba.—See Pent iya.

Halavakki .—A Canarese synonym for Badu

budukala .

Halepaik.—The Halepaiks are Canarese toddy

drawers,who are found in the northern taluks of the

Sou th Canara d i st r ict . The name i s commonly derived

from hal e,old

,and paika

,a sold ier

,and it i s sa id that

they were formerly emp loyed as sold iers . There i s

a legend that one of the i r ancestors became commander

o f the Vijayanagar army, was made ru ler of a State ,

32 1 HALEPAIK

and g iven a vi l lage named Halepaikas as a jaghi r

(hered itary assignment of land) . So 'me Halepaiks say

that they be long t o the Tengina (cocoanut pa lm) sect ion ,because they are engaged in tapp ing that palm for toddy .

There i s intermarriage between the Canarese-speaking

Halepaiks and the Tu lu-speaking B illava toddy-drawers,

and,i n some p laces

,the Billavas also ca l l themse lves

Halepaiks . The Halepaiks have exogamous septs or

bal i s,which run in the fema le l ine . As examp les of

these,the fol lowing may be noted |Chend i (Ceroera Otto/tum ) , Honne (Ca/opAytium

Tolar (wol f) , Devana (god ) and Ganga . I t

i s recorded i t of the H alepaiks of the Canara d i st r ict i n

the Bombay Pres idency that “ each exogamous sect ion,

known as a ba l i (l i teral ly a creeper) , i s named after someanima l or t ree

,which is he ld sacred by the members of

the same . This an imal , t ree or flower, etc.

,Seems to

have been once considered the common ancestor of the

members of the ba l i , and to the present day it i s both

worshipped by them,and he ld sacred in the sense that they

wi l l not inj ure it . Thu s the members of the nagbali ,

named apparent ly after the nagchampa flower,wi l l not

wear thi s flower in thei r hai r , as th i s wou ld invo lve

inju ry to the p lant . The Kadavebal i wi l l not k i l l the

sambhar (deer : kadave) , from which they take the i r

name . The H alepaiks of South Canara seem to attach

no such importance to the sept names . Some, however,avo id eat ing a fish ca l l ed Sr in ivasa , because they fancy

that the st reaks on the body have a resemb lance to the

Vaishnav ite sectar ian mark (namam) .

Al l the Halepaiks of the Kundapt'

I r taluk profess

to be Vaishnav ites , and have become the d isc ip les of a

Monograph , Eth . Survey of Bombay, 12 , 1904 .

l I—Z I

HALEPAIK 322

Vaishnava Brahman sett led in the vi l lage o f Sankarappa

kOdlu near Woudse i n that tal uk . Though Venkata

ramana i s regarded as thei r ch ief de ity,they worsh ip

Baiderkulu ,Panju rli , and other bhfi thas (devi l s) . The

Pajaris (pr iest s) avoid eat ing new gra in , new arec a nut s ,new sugarcane

,cucumbers and pumpk ins

,unt i l a feast

,

ca l l ed kaidha paj a,has been held . This i s u sual ly

celebrated in November-December , and cons i st s in

offe ring food,etc .

,to Baiderkulu . Somebody gets

possessed by the bh fi tha,and p ierces hi s abdomen with

an arrow .

I n the i r caste organ isat ion,marr iage and death

ceremon ies,the Halepaiks c lose ly fol low the Billavas .

They do not,however

,con st ruct a car for the fina l death

ceremon ies . As they are Vaishnav ites , after pu rifica

t ion from death po l lu t ion by the i r own caste barber,a

Vaishnav ite mend icant,cal led Dassaya, i s cal led in , and

pu r ifies them by sprinkl ing ho ly water and putt ing the

namam on t he i r foreheads .

There are said to be some d ifferences between the

H alepaiks and Billavas i n the method of carrying out the

p rocess of drawing toddy . For examp le,the Halepaiks

general ly grasp the kn ife with the fingers d i rected

upwards and the thumb to the right,whi le the B illavas

hold the kn i fe w ith the fingers d i rected downwards and

the thumb to the left . For crush ing the flower-buds

within the spathe of the palm,Billavas genera l ly use a

stone,and the Halepaiks a bone . There i s a be l ief that ,

i f the spathe i s beaten with the bone of a buffalo which

has been ki l l ed by a t iger,the y ie ld of toddy wi l l , i f the

bone has not touched the ground,be greate r than i f an

ord inary bone i s used . The Billavas general ly carry a

long gou rd,and the Halepaiks a pot , for co l lect ing the

toddy in .

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HAN I FI 324

known as H and i Jogi or Handich ikka, handi be ing the

Canarese fo r p ig .

Han ifi .—A sect o f Muhammadans

,named after Abfi

Hani fah Anhu fman ,the great Sunn i Imam and ju riscon

su l t,and the founder of the Han ifi sect

,who was born

A H . 80 (A .D .

Hanuman .—Hanuman

,or Hanumanta

,the monkey

god,has been recorded as a sept of Demb

,and gOtra of

Medara .

Hari S hetti .—A name fo r Konkani - speak ing Van is

(t raders) .

Harm an—A sub-d iv i s ion of the Badagas of the

N i lgi r i h i l l s .

Hasala.—Concern ing the H asalas or Hasu las

,Mr.

Lewis R ice wri tes that “ th i s t r i be resemb les the Sol iga

(or Shelagas) . They are met w i th a long the ghat s on

the north-western front ier of Mysore . They are a

short,th ick- set race

,very dark in colou r

,and with cu r led

hai r . Thei r ch ief employment i s fe l l ing t imber,but

they somet imes work in areca nut gardens and gather

wi ld cardamoms,pepper

, etc. They speak a d ialect of

Canarese .

I n the Mysore Census Report, 189 1 , i t i s stated that

“ the Hasalaru and Maleru are confined to the wi ld

reg ions of the Western Malnad . I n the caste generat ion,

they are said to rank above the Halepaikas, but above

the H oleyas and Madigas . They are a d iminut ive but

muscu lar race , with cu r ly hai r and dol ichocephal ous

head . Thei r mother-tongue i s Tu lu . Thei r numbers

are so ins ign ificant ly smal l as not to be separately defined .

They are immigrants from South Canara, and lead a l i fe

l itt l e e levated above that of p rimord ial barbar ism . They

l ive in smal l i so lated huts,wh ich are

,however

,in the

case of the Hasalas,provided not onlygwith the usual

325 B ASALA

p rinc ipal ent rance , through which one has to craw l i n,

but al so with a hal f-concea led ho le in ' the rear,a k i nd of

postern,through which the shy i nmates steal out into the

j ungl e at the merest susp ic i on of danger,or the app roach

of a st ranger . They col lect the wi ld j ung le produce ,such as cardamoms

, etc.,for the i r customary emp loyers ,

whose agrest ic slaves they have vi rtual ly become . Thei r

huts are annual ly or period ical ly Shifted from p lace to

p lace,usual ly the most inaccess ib le and th ickest parts of

the wi lderness . They are sa id to be very part ial to toddy

and arrack (alcohol ic l iquor) . I t i s expected that these

savages smuggle across the front ier large quant it ies of

wi ld pepper and cardamoms from the ghat forests of the

p rovince . Thei r marr iage customs are character ised by

the utmost s imp l ic ity,and the part p layed there in by the

astro loger is not very ed i fying . Thei r rel ig ion does not

Seem to t ranscend dev i l worshi p . They bury the dead .

A very cu r ious obsequ ial custom prevai ls among the

Hasalas . When any one among them dies,somebody

’

s

dev i l i s c red ited with the m ishap,and the ast ro loger is

consu lted to ascerta i n i ts ident ity . The latter throws

cowries (she l l s of Cyp re a moueta) for d iv inat ion , and

ment ions some neighbou r as the owner of the devi l th ief.

Thereupon , the sp i r it of the dead i s redeemed by the he i ror relat ive by means of a p ig , fow l , or other guerdon .

The sp i r it i s then cons idered re leased,and i s thence for

ward domic i led in a pot,which i s supp l ied period ical ly

with water and nou rishment . This may be looked upon

as the elementary germ of the posthumous care-taking ,which finds art icu lat ion under the name of sradh in mu lt ifarious forms, accompan ied more or less with much

d isp lay in the more c ivi l i sed sect ions of the H indu

community . The Hasalaru are confined to T i rthahal l iand Madigere.

”

HASER 326

I t i s fu rther recorded in the Mysore Censu s Report,

189 1 , that“ i n most of the pu rely Malnad or h i l ly taluks

,

each vargdar, or prop rietor of landed estate , owns a set

of servants sty led H uttalu or H uttu -alu and Mannalu or

Mannu -alu . The former i s the hered itary serv itor of the

fami ly,born in servitude , and performing agricu l tu ra l work

for the landho lder from father to son . The Mannalu is

a serf attached to the so i l , and changes hands with it .They are usual ly of the H olaya c lass , but in some p laces,the Hasalar race have been enterta ined . (See H oleya.)

Concern ing the Hasalaru,Mr . H . V . Nanjundayya

writes to me that the i r marr iages take p lace at night,

a pujar i of the i r caste t ies the tal i,a golden d isc

,round

the br ide’s neck . Being influenced by the su rround ing

castes,they have taken of late to the pract ice of inv it ing

the ast ro loger to be p resent . I n t he soc ial scale they

are a l i t t le super ior to Madigas and H oleyas , and , l ike

them,l ive outs ide the v i l lage

,but they do not eat beef.

Thei r approach i s cons idered to defi l e a Brahman,and

they do not enter the houses of non-Brahmans such as

Vakkal igas and Ku rubas . They have thei r own caste

barbers and washermen,and have separate we l ls to draw

water from .

”

Hasbe .—Hasbe or H asubu

,meaning a doub le pony

pack—sack,has been recorded as an exogamous sept of

H oleya and Vakka l iga .

Hastham (hand) .— An exogamous sep t of BOya.

Hatagar.—A sub-d ivi s ion of Devangas, who are also

cal led Kodeka l Hatagaru .

Hath i (e lephant) . —A sept of t he Oriya H add is .

When members of th i s sept see the foot-prints of an

e lephant,they take some dust from the spot , and make

a mark on the forehead with it . They also draw the

figu re of an e lephant,and worship it

,when they perform

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HEGGANIGA 328

the amusement of al l present that he is not the bride

groom . The bride’s party then , confess ing the i r inabi

l ity t o find the br ideg room , request the owner of t he

house to produce him . H e i s then produced , and

conducted in p rocess ion to the bride’s house .

”

Some Bants who u se the t it le Heggade wear the

sacred thread , fo l low the hered itary p rofess ion of temp le

funct ionar ies,and are keepers of the demon shrines

which are dotted al l over South Canara.

Of the H eggades who have sett led in the Coorg

count ry,the Rev . G . Richter states i t that they conform ,

i n superst it ions and fest iva l s,to Coorg custom ,

but are

exc luded from the community of the Coorgs , i n whose

p resence they are a l lowed to s it on ly on the floor , whi lst

the former occupy a chai r,or

,i f they are seated on a mat ,

the H eggades must not touch it . I n the Mysore and

Coorg Gazetteer,H eggade i s defined by M r . L . Rice as

the headman of a vi l lage,the head of t he vi l lage po l i ce ,

t o whom,in some part s of the Prov ince , rent-free lands

are ass igned for his support .H eggade i s somet imes used as a caste name by

Kurubas,and occu rs as an exogamous sept of S tan ikas .

Hegganiga.—A sub -d iv i s ion of Gan igas , who use

two oxen for t he i r o i l -press ing mi l ls .

Helava.—H elava

,mean ing lame person , i s the name

of a c lass of mendicants, who , i n Bel lary, Mysore, and

other loca l it ies,are the cu stod ians of vi l lage h istor ies .

They general ly arr ive at the v i l lages mounted on a

bu l lock,and with the i r legs concealed by woo l l en blankets .

They go from house to house,g iving the history of the

d i fferent fami l ies,the names of heroes who d ied in war,

and so forth .

Manual of Coorg .

329 HOLEYA

H Ij ra (eunuchs) . -See Khoja .

H ire (big) .— A sub -d iv is ion of Kurn i .

H i ttu (flou r) . —A gOtra of Kurn i .

Holadava.—A synonym of Gatt i .

Holeya.—The bu lk of the H oleyas are, in the Madras

Pres idency,found in South Canara , but there are a con

s iderable number in Coimbatore and on the N i lgiris

(work ing on c inchona, tea, and coffee estates) . I n the

Manua l of the South Canara d ist r ict i t is noted that

Holeyas are the field labou rers,and former agrest ic

serfs of South Canara , Pu layan being the Ma layalam and

Paraiyan the Tami l form of the same word . The name

is derived by Brahmins from ho le, pol lut ion , and by others

from hola,land or so i l , in recognit ion of the fact that , as

in the case of the Paraiyan , there are customs remaining

which seem to indicate that the H oleyas were once

masters of the " land ; but , whatever the derivat ion may

be,i t is no doubt the same as that of Paraiyan and

Pu layan . The H oleyas are d ivided into many sub

d ivi s ions,but the most important are Mar i

,Mera

,and

Munda la or Bakuda . The Mera H o leyas are the most

numerous,and they fol low the ord inary law of inheritance

through males,as far as that can be said to be poss ib le

with a c lass of peop le who have absolute ly noth ing to

inher it . Of c ou rse,demon p rop it iat ion (bh t

’

I ta worship)is pract ical ly the exc lus ive idea of the H oleyas, and every

one of the above sub -d iv is ions has four or five demons to

wh ich fowls, beaten rice, cocoanuts and toddy, are offered

monthly and annua l ly. The H oleyas have , l i ke other

c lasses of South Canara,a number of ba l i s (exogamous

septs) , and persons of the same bal i cannot intermarry.

Though the marriage t i e i s as loose as is usual among the

depressed and low castes of Southern Ind ia,thei r marr iage

ceremony is somewhat e laborate . The br idegroom’s

HOLEYA 330

party goes to the br ide’s house on a fixed day w i th ri ce,

bete l leaf and a few areca nuts,and wait s the who le n ight

outs ide the br ide’

s hut,the br idegroom be ing seated on

a mat spec ia l ly made by the bride . On the next morn ing

the bride is made to S i t Oppos it e the brideg room,with

a winnow i ng fan between them fi l led with bete l leaf, etc.

Meanwhi le the men and women present throw rice over

the heads of the coup le. The bride then accompan ies

the bridegroom to hi s hut,carrying the mat w i th her. On

the last day the coup le take the mat to a r iver or tank

where fish may be found,dip the mat into the water

,and

catch some fi sh,which they let go afte r k iss ing them .

A grand feast comp letes the marr iage . Divorce i s easy ,and widow marr iage is free ly pract iced . Holeyas wi l l

eat flesh inc lud ing beef,and have no caste scrup les

regard ing the consumpt ion of sp i r ituous l i quor . Both

men and women wear a sma l l cap made of the leaf of the

areca palm . The H oleyas who were interviewed by us

a l l said that they do not go through the ceremony of

catching fish , which i s performed by Sh ivalli Brahmans

and Akkasales .

A l l Tu lu Brahmin chronic les, Mr . H . A . Stuart

writes i f “ agree in ascrib ing the c reat ion of Malabar

and Canara,or Kerala

,Tu luva

,and H aiga to Parasu

Rama,who rec laimed from the sea as much land as he

cou ld cover by hurl ing his batt le-axe from the top of the

Western Ghauts . A mod ified form of the t rad it ion

states that Parasu Rama gave the new ly rec laimed land

to Naga and Mach i B rahmins,who were not t rue

B rahmins,and were tu rned ou t or dest royed by fisher

men and Holeyas, who he ld the count ry t i l l the Tulu

Brahmins were int roduced by MayL'

I r Varma (of the

Manual of the South Canara d istrict.

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HOLEYA 332

whatever they can get , beef inc luded . Thei r worsh i p

is addressed to E iyappa Devaru and Chamund i , or Kal i

goddess once every month and once every year they

sacrifice a hog or a fowl .”

Of the H oleyas of the Mysore province , the fol low ing

account i s g iven in the Mysore Census Reports,189 1

and 190 1 .

“ The Ho leyas number persons,

be ing per cent . of the total popu lat ion . They

const itute,as the i r name imp l ies , the back-bone of

cu l t ivat ion in the country . Ho la i s the Kanarese name

for a dry-crop fie ld , and Holeya means the man of such

fie ld . The caste has numerous sub -d iv is i ons,among

which are Kannada , Gangad ikara,Maggada (loom) ,

and Morasu . The H oleyas are ch iefly emp loyed as

labourers in connect ion w ith agri c u ltu re,and manufac

tu re with hand - looms var ious k inds of coarse c loth or

home-spun,which are worn extens ive ly by the poorer

c lasses,notwithstand ing that they are be ing fast sup

planted by fore ign cheap fabr ics . I n some parts of t he

Mysore d ist r ict,cons iderable numbers o f the H oleyas are

spec ial ly engaged in betel -vine garden ing . As labourers

they are emp loyed in innumerable pursu its,i n which

manua l labou r p reponderates . The A leman sub-d iv is ion

furn ishes recruits as Barr sepoys . I t may not be amiss

to quote here some interest ing facts denot ing the measure

of mater ial wel l -be ing ach ieved by,and the re l ig ious

recogn it ion accorded to the outcastes at certain first -c lass

shr ines in Mysore . At Melkote in the Mysore d ist r ict ,the outcastes

,i .e.

,the H o leyas and Mad igs , are said

to have been granted by the great Vis ish tadvaita

reformer , Ramanujacharya, the p rivi lege of entering the

Vishnu temp le up to the sanctum sanctorum , a long with

B rahmans and others,to perform worsh ip there for three

days during the annua l car process ion . The fo l low ing

333 HOLEYA

anecdote,recorded by Buchanan

,supp l ie s the raison

ci’

e’

tre for the concess ion , wh ich i s said to have al so been

earned by the i r forebears having guarded the sacred

mart i o r ido l . O n Ramanujacharya go ing to MelkOta

to perform h is devot ions at that celebrated shrine , he

was informed that the p lace had been attacked by the

Turk K ing of Delh i , who had carried away the ido l .

The Brahman immediate ly se t out for that cap ital , and

on arr iva l found that the K ing had made a present o f

the image to h is daughter , fo r i t i s sa id to be very hand

some,and she asked for i t as a p layth ing . All day the

pr incess p layed with the image , and at n ight the god

assumed his own beaut i fu l form ,and enjoyed her bed

,

for Krishna i s add icted to such forms of adventu res .

Ramanujacharya, by vi rtue of certain mant ras , obtained

possession of the image , and wished to carry it off. He

asked the B rahmans to ass ist h im ,but they refused on

which the Ho leyas vo lunteered , p rovided the righ t of

entering the temple was granted to them . Ramanuja

charya accepted the i r p roposal , and the Holeyas, having

posted themse lves between Delh i and MelkOta, the

image of the god was carr ied down in twenty- fou r hou rs .The service also won for the outcastes the envied t it le ofTiru-kulam or the sacred race . I n 1 799 , however, when

the Dewan (pr ime min ister) Parnaiya vis ited the ho lyp lace

,the r ight of the ou tcastes to enter the temp le was

stopped at the dhvaja stambham ,the consecrated mono

l i th ic co lumn , from which po int alone can they now

obtain a view of the god . On the day of the car process ion , the Ti ru-ku lam people , men , women and chi ldren ,shave the i r heads and bathe with the h igher castes in the

kalyan i or large reservo i r,and carry on thei r head smal l

Journey through Mysore, Canara and Malabar.

HOLEYA 334

earthen vessel s fi l led wit h r ice and o il,and enter the

temp le as far as the flagstaff refe rred to above,where

they de l iver thei r offerings,which are appropriated by

the Dasayyas , who resort s imu ltaneously as p i lgr ims to

the shrine . Besides the privi lege of enter ing the temp le,

the Ti ru -ku la H oleyas and Madigs have the right to

drag the car , for wh ich service they are requ ited by

gett ing from the temp le two hundred seers of ragi (grain) ,a quant i ty of jaggery (crude sugar) , and few b its of the

dyed cloth u sed for decorat ing the pandal (shed) wh ich i s

erected for the process ion . At the c lose of the proces

s ion,the representat ives of the aforesaid c lasses rece ive

each a flower garland at the hands of the S than ik or ch ief

worsh ipper,who manages to drop a garland synch ro

nously i nto each p late held by the rec ip ients, so as to avo id

any susp ic ion of undue preference . I n retu rn for these

p r iv i leges,the members of the Ti ru-ku lam used to render

gratu itous serv ices such as sweep ing the st reet s round

the temp le da i ly, and in the n ight pat ro l l ing the whole

p lace with drums dur ing the cont inuance of the annual

p rocess ion,etc . But these services are said to have

become much abridged and nearly obso lete under the

recent pol i ce and mun ic ipal regime . The privi lege of

enter ing the temp le dur ing the annua l car process ion i s

enjoyed also by the outcastes in the Vishnu temp le at

Belar in the H assan d ist r ict . I t i s,however

,s ignificant

that in both the shrines, as soon as the car fest ival i s over ,i .e. ,

on the l oth day , the concess ion ceases , and the

temples are ceremonial ly pu rified .

“ I n the pre -su rvey period,the H oleya or Mad ig

Ku lvad i , in the maidan or easte rn d ivi s ion , was so c lose ly

ident ified with the so i l that h is oath,accompanied by

certain formal it ies and awe- insp i r ing solemnit ies , was

cons idered to give the coup de grace to long exi st ing and

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HOLEYA 336

the t rad it ions of bi rth , immemor ia l custom ,ignorance

, and

never-to -be-paid-off loads of debt,tend to p reserve in

greater or less integr ity the condit ions of semi -slavery

under wh ich these agrest ic slaves l ive . I t i s local ly

considered the acme o f unwisdom to loosen the immemorial re lat ions between cap ita l and labou r

,espec ial ly

i n the remote backwoods , i n wh i ch free labou r does not

exi st,and the r i ch supar i cu lt ivat ion whereof wou ld be

ru ined otherw ise . I n order furthermore to r ivet the t ies

which b ind these hered itary labou rers to the soi l,i t i s

al leged that the local cap ital i st s have improvi sed a k ind

ofGretna Green marr iage among them . A legal marr iage

of the orthodox type contains the r i sk of a fema le servant

be ing lost to the fami ly in case the husband happened

not to be a Hu ttalu or Mannalu . So,i n o rder to obviate

the possi b le loss,a cu stom prevai ls accord ing to which a

fema le Huttalu or Mannalu i s espoused in what i s local ly

known as the m an ikattu form , wh i ch i s ne ither more nor

l ess than l icensed concub inage . She may be given up

after a t ime,subject to a sma l l fine to the caste

,and any

body else may then espouse her on l ike condit ions . Not

only does she t hen remain in the fam i ly,but her ch i ldren

w i l l also become the land lord’s servants . These peop le

are paid w i th a dai ly supp ly of paddy or cooked food , and

a yearly present of c lothing and b lanket s (kamblis) . On

spec ial occas ions,and at car feast s, they rece ive in

add it ion smal l money a l lowances .

I n ru ra l c i rc les,in wh ich the H oleyas and Madigs

are kept at arm’s length by the Braman ical bod ies, and

are not a l lowed to approach the sacerdotal c lasses beyond

a fixed l im it,the outcastes maintain a st r ict sem i-rel ig ious

ru le,whereby no Brahman can enter the Ho leya

’

s

quarters without necess itat i ng a pur ificat ion thereof.

They be l i eve that the d i rest calamit ies w i l l befal l them

337 HOLEYA

and the i rs i f otherwise . The u l t raconservat ive sp i r it of

H indu pr iestcraft casts into the far d istance the real i zat ion

of the hope that the lower castes wi l l become soc ial ly

equal even with the c lasses usual ly termed Sadras . But

the t ime i s loom ing in the near d istance , i n which they

wi l l be on a leve l in temporal prosper ity with the soc ial

organ isms above them . Unl ike the land tenu res said to

prevai l in Chingleput or Madras , the Mysore system

ful ly permits the Holeyas and Madigs to ho ld land in

the i r own r ight , and as sub-tenants they are to be found

almost everywhere . The highest amount of land assess

ment paid by a s ing le H oleya is Rs . 2 79 in the Bangalore

di st r ict,and the lowest s ix p ies in the Ko lar and Mysore

d ist r icts . The quota paid by the outcastes towards the

land revenue of the country aggregates no less than

three lakhs of rupees,more than two-th i rds be ing paid by

t he H oleyas , and the remainder by the Madigs . These

facts speak for themselves,and afford a re l iab le index to

the comparat ive we l l -being of these peop le . I nstances

may a lso be read i ly quoted,i n which ind ividual Ho leyas ,

etc . , have r isen to be money- l enders , and enjoy compara

t ive affluence . Coffee cu lt ivat ion and al l ied indust r ies

have thrown much good fortune into the i r lap . Here

and there t hey have also establ ished bhajane or prayer

houses,i n which the ist ic prayers and psalms are rec ited

by period ical congregat ion . A beg inn ing has been made

towards p lac ing the fac i l i t ies of educat ion with in easy

reach of these depressed c lasses .

I n connect ion with the H oleyas of South Canara, i t

i s recorded *! that “ the ord inary agricu ltu ral labou rers

of th is d ist r ict are H oleyas or Par iahs of two classes,known as Malada H oleyas and Salada Ho leyas , the

Manual of the South Canara d istrict .I I-2 2

HOLEYA 338

former be ing the old hered itary serfs attached to Mal i

wargs (estates) , and the latter labou rers bound to the i r

maste rs’ service by be ing in debt to them . Nowadays,

however,there i s a l i tt le d ifference between the two

c lasses . Neither are much g iven to chang ing masters ,and

,though a Malada Holeya i s no longer a s lave , he is

usual ly as much in debt as a Salada Holeya,and can

only change when h is new master takes the debt over .

To these labou rers cash payments are unknown , except

occas ional ly in the case of Salada Holeyas , where there

i s a nom inal annua l payment to be set off against interest

on the debt . I n other cases interest i s foregone , one or

other of the perqu is ites be ing somet imes docked as an

equ iva lent . The gra in wage cons ist s of r ice or paddy

(unhusked r ice) , and the loca l seer i s , on the average , asnear ly as poss ible one of 80 to las . The dai ly r ice pay

ments to men,women

,and ch i ldren vary as fo l lows

Men from I seer to 2 seers.Women 3 to 2

Ch i ldren 3 to 1 seer.

I n add it ion to the dai ly wages,and the m idday meal

of bo i led r ice which i s g iven in a lmost a l l parts,there are

annual perqu i s ites or priv i leges . Except on the coast ofthe Mangalore taluk and in the Coondapoor taluk

,every

Holeya i s al lowed rent free from 3 to 3 acre of land , and

one or two cocoanut or palmyra t rees,with somet imes a

jack or mango t ree in add it ion . The money-va lue of thep roduce of th i s l itt le al lotment i s var ious ly est imated at

from I to 5 rupees per annum . Throughout the who le

d ist rict , c loths are g iven every year to each labourer, the

money va lue be ing est imated at I rupee per adu lt,and 6

annas for a ch i ld . I t i s al so customary to g ive a cumbly

(blanket) in the ne ighbourhood of the ghauts,where the

damp and cold render a warm cover ing necessary . On

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HOLEYA 340

care to tear the int ruder’

s c loth , t ie up some salt in one

corner of it,and tu rn h im out . This i s supposed to

neutral i ze al l the good luck wh ich might have accrued to

the t respasser,and avert any evi l which might have

befal len the owner of the house . A l l the thousand-and

one castes , whose members find a home in the vi l lage,

unhes itat ing ly admit tha t the Ku lwadi i s de j ure the

r ightfu l owner of the v i l lage . He who was i s st i l l,i n a

l im i ted sense,lord of the v i l lage manor.

’

I f there i s a

d ispute as to the vi l lage boundaries, the Ku lwadi i s the

on ly one competent to take the oath as to how the

boundary ought to run . The old custom for sett l ing such

d i sputes was as fo l lows . The Ku lwad i, carry ing on h is

head a bal l made of the vi l lage earth , i n the cent re of

which i s p laced some water, passes along the boundary .

I f he has kept the proper l ine , everything goes we l l but

shou ld he,by accident , even go beyond hi s own proper

boundary,then the bal l of earth

,of its own accord

,goes

to p ieces,the Ku lwad i d ies w ith in fi fteen days

,and his

house becomes a ru in . Such i s the popu lar be l ief.Again

,the sk ins of a l l an ima ls dying with in the vi l lage

boundari es are the property of the Ku lwad i, and a good

income he makes from th is sou rce . To thi s day a vi l lage

boundary d ispute is often dec ided by th is one fact . I f

the Ku lwad is agree , the other inhabitants of the vi l lages

can say no more . When— in our forefathers’ days,as

the nat ives say— a vi l lage was fi rst estab l i shed,a stone

cal led ‘ karu kal l u ’ i s set up . To thi s stone the Patel

once a year makes an offe ring . The Ku lwadi,after the

ceremony i s over,i s ent it led to carry off the r ice

,etc . ,

offered . I n cases where there i s no Pate l,the Kulwad i

goes through the year ly ceremony . But what I think

proves st rongly that the H ol ia was the fi rst to take

possess ion of the so i l i s that the Kulwad i rece ives, and i s

34 1 B OLEVA

ent i t led to rece ive,from the fr iends of any person who

dies in the vi l lage,a certa in fee or as my informant

forc ibly put it,

‘ They buy from him the ground for the

dead .

’ This fee i s st i l l cal led in Canarese ne la haga ,from nela earth

,and haga

,a co in worth 1 anna 2 p ies .

I n Munz erabad the Kulwadi does not receive th i s fee

from those ryots who are re lated to the headman . Here

the Kulwad i occup ies a h igher pos it ion . H e has,i n

fact , been adopted into the Pate l’s fam i ly

,for

,on a death

occu rr ing in such fami ly,the Kulwadi goes into mourn

ing by Shaving h is head . He always rece ives from the

friends the c lothes the deceased wore,and a brass

bas in . The Kulwadi,however

,owns a superior in the

matter of buria l fees . He pays yearly a fowl,one

hana (4 annas 8 p ies) , and a handfu l of r ice to the

agent of the S udgadu Siddha, or lord of the bu rn ingground

A Kulwadi, whom I came across, was carrying a

brass ladle bearing the figure of a couchant bu l l (Basava)and a l ingam under a many-headed cobra canopy . This

lad le i s carr ied round,and fi l led with r ice

,money

,and

bete l , on the occasion of marr iages in those castes,of

which the ins ign ia are engraved on the hand le . These

insignia were as fo l lows

Weavers— Shutt le and brush .

Bestha— Fish .

Uppara— Spade and basket for co l lect ing salt .

Korama— Baskets and kni fe for Sp l i tt ing canesand bamboos

.

Idiga— Kni fe, and apparatus for c l imb ing pa lmtrees .

Hajam— Barber’s sc i ssors,razor

,and sharpening

stone .

Gah iga— Oi l-p ress .

B OLEVA 34 2

Madavali— Washerman’

s pot,fire-p lace

,ma l let

,

and stone .

Kumbara— Potter’

s whee l,pots

,and mal let .

Vakka l iga— P lough .

Chett i— Scales and basket .

Kuruba— Sheep -shears .

A smal l whist le,cal led kola-s inganatha, made of gold ,

s i lver , or Copper, i s t ied round the neck of some H oleyas ,

Vakkaligas , Besthas , Agasas and Kurubas , by means of

threads of sheep’s wool intertwined s ixteen t imes . Al l

these castes are supposed to belong to the fam i ly of

the God Bhai ra, in whose name the wh ist le i s t ied by

a Bairag i at Chunch ingiri near Nagamangala . I t is

usual ly t ied in fu lfi lment of a vow taken by the parents ,and the ceremony costs from a hundred to two hundred

rupees . Unt i l the vow is fu lfi l led,the person concerned

cannot marry . At the ceremony,the Bai rag i bores a

hole in the r ight ear- lobe of the ce lebrant with a need le

cal led d iksha chu ri,and from the wound ten drops of

blood fal l to the ground (cf . Jog i Pu rusha) . H e is then

bathed before the wh i st le i s t ied round h is neck . As the

resu l t of wearing the wh ist le,the man atta ins to the rank

of a priest in h is caste,and is ent it led to rece ive a lms

and meals on fest ive and ceremon ial occas ions . He

b lows h i s wh ist le,wh ich em its a th in squeak , before

partak ing of food,or perform ing h is dai ly worsh ip .

I t i s noted in the Mysore Census Report , 190 1 , that

the marr iage of the Holeyas is“ noth ing but a feast , at

which the bridegroom t ies the bottu (marriage badge)round the br ide’s neck . The wi fe cannot be d ivorced

except for adu l te ry . Widows are proh ib ited from re

marrying , but the caste w inks at a widow’s l iv ing with

a man .

”

I n an account g iven to me of marriage among

the Gangad ikara Holeyas, l was to ld that , i f a g i r l

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HOLEYA 344

Ane, e lephant. Hasubu,pack-sack .

Male, gar land . Mal ige,jasm ine.

Neral i , E ugen ia j ambotana . Tene, S etar ia i tatica.

Hutta, an t-h i l l. Chatri,umb re l la.

Halu , m i lk . Mo la, hare.

Kavane,sl ing. Jenn , honey .

I t is recorded i n the Mysore Censu s Report,190 1 ,

that “

35 1 ou t of the ent ire popu lat ion of have

retu rned gOtras , the names thereof be ing H arichandra,

Kal i,Yekke

,and Karad i . I n thu s doing

,i t i s evident

that they are learn ing to venerate themse lves,l ike others

in adm itted ly higher grades of soc iety .

”

Some Holeya fami l ies are cal led H ale Makkalu,or

old ch i ldren of the Gangad ikara Vakkal igas , and have

to do certa in services for the latter, such as carrying the

sandals of the br idegroom ,act ing as messenger in con

veying news from place to p lace,carrying fi re before

corpses to the burn ing-ground,and watch ing over the

bu rn ing body . I t i s said that,i n the performance of

these dut ies,the exogamous septs of the Holeya and

Vakka l iga must co inc ide .

I n the Census Report,190 1 , Balagai, Bakuda, Begara

or Byagara, Kasa (or Uppara) Mai la, and Ran ivaya

(be long ing to a queen) are recorded as sub-sects of the

Holeyas . Of these,Balagai i s a synonym , ind icat ing

that the H oleyas be long to the r ight-hand sect ion . The

Bakudas are said to resent the app l icat ion of that name

to them,and ca l l themselves A ipattukuladavaru ,

or the

peop le of fi fty fami l i es,presumab ly from the fact that

they are d ivided into fi fty ba l i s or fami l ie s . These ba l i s

are said to be named after deceased fema le ancestors .

Begara or Byagara i s a synonym ,app l ied to the Holeyas

by Kanarese Lingayats . Mai la means d i rt , and probably

refers to the washerman sect ion,j ust as Mailari (washer

man) occu rs among the Malas .

345 HOLEYA

The Tulu -speak ing H oleyas must not be confounded

with the Canarese-speak ing H oleyas. I n South Canara,

H oleya i s a general name app l ied to the po l lut ing classes,Nalkes

,Koragas , and the th ree d ivis ions of H o leyas

p roper,which d iffer widely from each other in some

respects . These d ivi s ions are

(1 ) Bakuda or Mundala—A stranger, asking a woman i f herh u sband is at home, is expected to refer to h im as her Bakuda

,and

not as her Mundala.

(2 ) Mera or Mugayaru, wh ich is also cal led Kaipuda.

(3) Mari or Mariman isaru .

Of these,the fi rst two sect ions abstain from beef

,and

consequent ly cons ider themse lves super ior to the Mar i

sect ion .

The Bakudas fo l low the al iya santana law of succes

s ion (i n the fema le l ine) , and , i f a man leaves any property ,i t goes to h is nephew . They wi l l not touch dead cows or

calves,or remove the p lacenta when a cow calves . Nor

wi l l they touch leather, espec ial ly in the form of shoes .They wi l l not carry cots on which r ice sheaves are

thrashed,chai rs

,etc.

,wh ich have fou r legs

,but

,when

ordered to do so , e ither break off one leg , or add an ext ra

leg by tying a st ick to the cot or cha i r. The women

always wear the i r c loth in one p iece,and are not al lowed

,

l ike other H oleyas, to have it made of two p ieces . The

Bakudas wi l l not eat food prepared or touched by B i l i

maggas,Jadas

,Paravas or Nalkes . The headman is

cal led Mukhari . The offi ce is hered itary,and

,i n some

p laces,i s

,as with the Gutt inaya of the Bants

,connected

with h is house-S i te . This be ing fixed,he shou ld remain at

that house,or h is appo intment wi l l lapse

,except with the

genera l consent of the community to h is reta in ing it . I n

some places , the Mukhari has two assistants,cal led Jam

mana and Bondari , of whom the latter has to d ist r ibute

HOLEYA 346

toddy at assemb l ies of the caste . On al l ceremon ia l

occas ions,the Mukhari has to be t reated with great

respect,and even an ind ividua l who gets possessed by the

bh t'

I tha (devi l) has to touch h im with h is kadasale (sword) .I n cases of adu ltery, a purificatofy ceremony, cal led gud i

suddha,i s performed . The err ing woman’s re lat ions

const ruct seven smal l huts, through which she has to

pass,and they are bu rned down . The fact of th i s purifi

catory ceremony taking p lace i s usual ly proc la imed by

the Bendar i , and the saying i s that 280 people shou ld

assemble . They spr inkle water brought from a temp le

or sthana (devi l shr ine) and cow’s u rine over the woman

j ust before she passes through the huts . A sma l l quant ity

of hai r from her head , a few hai rs from the eye l ids, and

nai ls from her fingers are thrown into the huts . I n some

p laces,the de l inquent has to dr ink a cons iderable quant i ty

of sa lt -water and cow-dung water .

Her relat ives have to pay a sma l l money fine to the

vi l lage de ity . The ordea l of pass ing through huts is

a lso p ract i ced by the Koragas of South Canara . The

suggest ion,

” Mr . R . E . Enthoven wr i tes ,“ seems to be a

rap id representat ion of seven ex i stences , the outcaste

regain ing h is (or her) statu s after seven generat ions havepassed without further t ransgress ion . The paral le l suggested is the law of Manu that seven generat ions are

necessary to efface a lapse from the law of endogamous

marriage .

The spec ial bh t'

I thas of the Bakudas are Kodababbu

and Kamberlu (or Kang ilu ) , but J umad i, Panjurli, andTan iman iya are also occas i onal ly worsh ipped . For the

p rop it iat ion of Kodababbu ,Nalkes are engaged to put

on the d isgu ise of th is bh t’

I tha, whereas Bakudas them

selves d ress up for the prop it iat ion of Kamberlu in

cocoanut leaves t ied round the head and wa ist . Thus

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HOLEYA 348

fin ished off by the bestman . The bridal coup le then

stand once more on the mat , and the Mukhari j o ins the i r

hands,saying No unlawfu l marriage Shou ld take p lace .

Prohib ited re lat ionsh ip must be avoided .

” He sprinkles

water from culms of Cy noa’on D acty lon over the un ited

hands .The body of a dead Bakuda i s washed with hot water

,

i n wh ich mango (M ang ifera ina’ica) bark i s steeped .

The dead are bur ied . The day for the final death

ceremon ies (bojja) i s u sual ly fixed by the Mukhari or

Jammana . On that day, cooked food is offered to the

deceased,and al l c ry “ muriyo,

m uriyo .

” The son,

after be ing shaved , and with h is face ve i led by a c loth,carr ies cooked r ice on his head to a smal l hut erected forthe occas ion . The food i s set down

,and al l present

throw some of i t into the hut .

The Mera or Mugayar Holeyas, l i ke the Bakudas,absta in from eat ing beef, and refuse to touch leather in

any form . They have no object ion to carrying fou r

legged art ic les . Though the i r mother tongue is Tu lu,

they seem to fol low the makkala santana law of inheritance

(in the male l ine) . The i r headman i s ent it led Kuruneru,

and he has , as the badge of offi ce,a cane with a s i lver

band . The offi ce of headman passes to the son i nstead

of to the nephew . Marr iage i s ca l led Badathana,and

the deta i ls of the ceremony are l ike those of the Mar i

Ho leyas . The dead are bu r ied, and the fina l death

ceremonies (bojja or savu) are performed on the twe l fth

or S ixteenth day . A feast is g iven to some members of

the community,and cooked food offered to the deceased

at the house and near the grave .

The Mar i or Mariman isaru Holeyas are somet imes

ca l led Karadh i by the Bakudas . Like certa in Malayalam

castes,the Holeyas have d ist inct names for the i r homes

349 HOLEYA

accord ing to the sect ion . Thus , the huts o f the Mar i

Holeyas are cal led kelu , and those of the Mera Holeyas

patta . The headmen among the Mar i Holeyas are

cal led Mal ia,Bolt iyadi, and Kallali . The office of head

man fol lows in the fema le l ine of success ion . I n add it ion

to var ious bhfi thas , such as Panjurl i and Jumadi, the

Mar i H oleyas have two Spec ial bhathas , named Kattadhe

and Kanadhe , whom they regard as the i r ancestors . At

t imes of fest ivals,these ancestors are supposed to descend

on earth,and make the i r p resence known by tak ing pos

sess ion of some member of the community . Men who

are l iab le to be so possessed are cal led Dharipuneyi, and

have the pr iv i lege of tak ing up the sword and be l l

belong ing to the bhfi thasthana when under possess ion .

Marriage among the Mar i Holeyas i s cal led pora

thavu . At the betrothal ceremony , the headmen of the

cont ract ing part ies exchange bete l leaves and areca nuts .The br ide-pr ice usual ly cons ist s of two bund les of r ice

and a bundle of paddy (unhusked r ice) . On the wedd ing

day the br idegroom and h is party go to the home of the

bride,tak ing with them a basket conta in ing five seers of

r ice,two metal bangles

, one or two cocoanuts,a comb

,

and a white woman’s c loth,which are shown to the

headman of the br ide’s party . The two headmen order

bete l leaf and areca nuts to be d ist r ibuted among those

assemb led . After a mea l , a mat i s spread i n front of the

hut,and the br ide and br idegroom stand thereon . The

bridegroom has in h is hand a sword,and the br ide holds

some bete l leaves and areca nuts . Rice i s thrown over

the i r heads , and presents of money are g iven to them .

The two headmen l i ft up the hands of the contract ing

coup le , and they are jo ined together . The bride i s l i fted

up so as to be a l itt l e higher than the br idegroom,and

i s taken indoors . The bridegroom fol lows her,but is

HOLEYA 350

p revented from enter ing by his brother-in - law,to whom

he g ives bete l leaves and areca nuts . H e then makes

a forc ib le ent rance into the hut .When a Mar i Ho leya gi rl reaches puberty , she i s

expected to remain with in a hut for twe lve days, at the

end of whi ch t ime the castem en are invited to a feast .

The gi rl i s seated on a patte rn drawn on the floor . At

the fou r corners thereof,vesse ls fi l l ed with water are

placed . The g irl’s mother ho lds over her head a p lanta in

leaf,and fou r women be long ing to d ifferent bal i s (septs)

pou r wate r thereon from the vesse ls . These women

and the g i r l then s it down to a mea l , and eat off the

same leaf.

Among the Mar i Holeyas , the dead are u sual ly bu ri ed ,and the fina l death ceremonies are performed on the

twel fth day . A pit i s dug near the grave , into wh ich an

image of the deceased,made of r ice st raw,

i s put . The

image is set on fi re by h is son or nephew . The ashes

are heaped up,and a rude hut i s erected round them by

fixing three st i cks in the ground,and cover ing them w i th

a c loth . Food i s offered on a leaf,and the dead person

i s asked to eat i t .

The Kasa H oleyas speak Canarese . They object to

carry ing art i c l es w ith fou r legs,unless the legs are

crossed . They do not eat beef, and wi l l not touch leathe r .They cons ider themselves to be super ior to the other

sect ions of H oleyas , and u se as an argument that the i r

caste name is Uppara,and not H oleya. Why they are

cal led Uppara i s not c lear , but some say that they are

the same as the Upparas (salt workers) of Mysore , who,in South Canara

,have descended in the soc ial sca le . The

hered i tary occupat ion of the Upparas i s making salt from

sa lt earth (ku ,earth ) . The headman of the Kasa

Holeyas i s cal led Buddivant . As they are d i sc ip les of a

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HONNUNGARA 352

Moger . The Halepaiks somet imes ca l l the sept Su ra

I i onne.

Honnungara (gold ring) . —Ah exogamous sept of

Kuruba .

Hu l i (t iger) . —An exogamous sub -sept of Kap

p iliyan .

Hul lu (grass) .— A gOtra of Kurn i .

Hunise (tamar ind) . —An exogamous sub -sept o f

Kapp iliyan .

Hu tta (ant -hi l l) . —An exogamous sept of Gangad i

kara Holeya .

Huvvina (flowers) . —An exogamous sept o f Odde

and Vakkal iga .

Ichcham (date -palm : Pacen ix sy tvestris) . —Ich

cham or Ichanjanar i s reco rded , i n the Tanjore Manual ,as a sect ion of Shanan . The equ iva lent Ichang occu rs

as a t ree or kothu of Kondaiyankettai Maravans .

Idach é r i .—An occupat ional name for a sect ion of

Nayars,who make and se l l dai ry produce . The word

corresponds to Idaiyan i n the Tam i l country .

I daiyan .—The Idaiyans are the great pastora l or

shepherd caste of the Tami l count ry, but some are land

owners,and a few are in Government emp loy . Those

whom I examined at Coimbatore were engaged as

m i lkmen,shepherds

,cu lt ivators , gardeners , cart-dr ivers,

shopkeepers,constab les , fam i ly doctors, and mend icants .

I t i s recorded in the Tanjore Manua l that “ the Rev .

Mr.Pope says that Ide ir are so-ca l led from ide i

,middle

,

being a k ind of intermed iate l ink between the farmers

and merchants .” Mr . Ne lson cons iders th i s derivat ion

Manual of the Madura d istr ict .

353 IDAIYAN

to be fanc i fu l,and th inks that “ perhaps they are so cal led

from orig inal ly inhabit ing the lands which lay midway

between the h i l l s and the arable lands,the jungly p lains

,

su ited for pastu rage the m idd le land out of the five

groups of land ment ioned in Tami l works,viz Kurinj i,

Palai,Mu l lai

, Marutam,Neytal] . The c lass consi sts

of several c lans,but they may be broadly d ivided into

two sect ions , the one more thoroughly organ ised , the

other retain ing most of the essent ial character ist i cs of an

aborig ina l race . The fi rst sect ion fol low the Vaishnava

sect,wear the namam

,and cal l themselves Yadavas .

Those be longing to the second sect ion st i ck to the i r

demon worsh ip,and make no pretens ions to a descent from

the Yadava race . They daub the i r foreheads with the

sacred cow-dung ashes,and are regarded

,apparent ly from

th i s c i rcumstance alone,to be long to the Saiva sect .

I n the Madras Census Report,187 1 , i t i s noted that

mi lkmen and cowherds appear to hold a soc ial pos it ion

of some importance , and even Brahmans do not d isdain

to dr ink mi lk or cu rds from the i r hands . Fu rther,the

Census Superintendent,190 1 , writes that the Idaiyans

take a h igher soc ial pos it ion than they would otherwise

do,owing to the t rad it ion that Kri shna was brough t up

by the i r caste,and to the fact that they are the only

pu rveyors of mi lk , gh i (c larified bu tter) , etc. ,and so are

ind i spensab le to the communi ty . Al l B rahmans,except

the most orthodox , wi l l accordingly eat butter-mi lk and

butter brough t by them . I n some p laces they have the

privi lege of break ing the butte r-pot on the GOku lashtam i,

or Krishna’s b i rthday

,and get a new c loth and some

money for doing it . They wi l l eat in the houses of

Ve llalas,Pal l i s

,and Nattamans .

Madras Census Report , 189 1 .

IDAIYAN 354

The Idaiyans c laim that Timma Raja,the p rime

min iste r of Krishna Deva Raya of Vijayanagar, who

executed various works in the Ching l eput d i st ri ct,was

an Idaiyan by caste .

The Idaiyans have retu rned a large number of

d ivi s ions,of whi ch the fol lowing may be noted

Kalkatt i and Pas i . The women,contrary to the

usual Tami l custom,have b lack beads in the i r tal i -st r ing .

The pract ice i s apparent ly due to the influence of Te lugu

Brahman pu rOh its , as var iou s Telugu castes have g lass

beads along with the bottu (marriage badge) . I n l ike

manner,the marr i ed Pandamut t i Pal l i women wear a

necklace of b lack beads . Accord ing to a legend , pas i i s

a pebble found in r ivers,from which beads are made .

A giant came to k i l l Krishna when he was p laying with

the shepherd boys on the banks of a r iver . He fought

the g iant with these pebb les,and ki l led h im .

Pal,mi lk . Corresponds to the Halu (mi lk) d iv is ion

of the Canarese Kuruba Shepherd caste .

Pendukkum ekki, denot ing those who are subserv ient

to the i r women . A man,on marr iage

,j o ins h is wi fe’s

fami ly,and he succeeds to the property

,not of h is father ,

but of his father - in - law .

S iv iyan or S ivala . An occupat iona l name , mean ing

palanqu in -bearer .

Sangukat t i, or those who t ie the conch or chank She l l

(Turbinetta rapa) . I t is narrated that Kr ishna wanted

to marry Rukmani,whose fami ly insi sted on marrying

her to S ishupalan . When the wedd ing was about to

take p lace,Krishna carr ied off Rukmani , and p laced a

bangle made of chank she l l on her wrist .

Samban,a name of S iva . Most members of th i s

d ivis ion put on the sacred ashes as a sectar ian mark . I t

i s sa id that the Yadavas were in the habit of making

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I DAI YAN 356

Shel ia . Terr itor ial name denot ing inhabitant s of the

Chol a country .

Anaikombu,or elephant tusk

,which was the weapon

used by Krishna and the Yadavas to k i l l the giant

Sakatasura .

Karu tthakadu ,black cotton count ry . A sub -d ivis ion

found most ly in Madu ra and Tinneve l ly,where there i s a

cons iderable t ract of black cotton soi l .

The Perumal Madukkarans or Perumal E rudukkarans

(see Gangeddu ) , who t ravel about the country exh ib it ing

perform ing bu l l s , are sa id to be long to the PG (flower)Idaiyan sect ion of the Idaiyan caste . This i s so named

because the primary occupat ion thereof was,and in some

p laces st i l l i s , making garlands for temp les .

I n the Gazetteer of the Madura d ist r ict,i t i s recorded

that Podunattu (Pudunattu Idaiyans have a t rad it ion

that they original ly be longed to T inneve l ly , but fled to

th i s d ist r ict secret ly one n ight in a body in the t ime of

Tirumala Nayakkan , because the loca l ch ief oppressed

them . Tirumala welcomed them ,and put them under

the care of the Kal lan headman Piumai Devan,decree ing

that,to ensu re that th i s gent leman and h is successors

faithfu l ly observed the charge,they shou ld a lways be

appointed by an Idaiyan . That cond it ion i s Observed to

th i s day . I n th is sub -d iv i s ion a man has the same r ight

to marry h i s paternal aunt’s daughter as i s possessed by

the Kallans . But,i f the woman’s age i s much greater

than the boy’s,she i s usual ly marr ied instead to h is cousin

,

or some one e l se on that S ide of the fami ly . A Brah

man officiates at wedd ings , and the sacred fi re i s used , but

the br idegroom’s s i ster t ies the tal i (marr iage badge) .

Divorce and the remarr iage of widows are p roh ib ited .

The dead,except infant s

,are burnt . Caste affai rs are

sett led by a headman cal led the Nattanmaikaran , who is

357 I DAIYAN

assi sted by an a ccountant and a peon . A l l th ree are

e lected . The headman has the management of the caste

fund,wh ich i s ut i l i sed in the celebrat ion of fest ivals on

certa in days in some of the larger temples of the d is

t r iet . Among these Podunattus , an uncommon ru le of

i nher itance i s in force . A woman who has no male

i ssue at the t ime of her husband’s death has to return

hi s p roperty to h is brother, father , or maternal uncle , but

is al lotted maintenance , the amount of which is fixed by

a caste panchayat (counc i l) . Among the Valasu and

Pendukkum ekki sub -d ivi s ions , another odd form of main

tenance subs ists . A man’s p roperty descends to h is

sons- ih - law,who l ive with h im , and not to hi s sons

.

The sons merely get maintenance unt i l they are marr ied.

I n the Madras Census Report , 190 1 , Pendan or

Pegandan i s recorded as a sub -caste of Idaiyans , who are

palanqu in -bearers to the Zamorin of Ca l icut . I n th is

connect ion,i t i s noted by M r . K . Kannan Nayar that

“ among the Konar (cowherds) of Poondurai near E rode

(in the Coimbatore d i st r ict ) , who , accord ing to t radit ion ,original ly belonged to the same tr ibe as the GOpas l iv ing

in the southern part of Kerala,and now form ing a sect ion

of the Nayars,the former matr imon ial customs were

exact ly the same as those of the Nayars . They, too

,

celebrated tal i -kettu kalyanam , and , l ike the Nayars , d id

not make i t b inding on the br ide and bridegroom of the

ceremony to l ive as husband and wife . They have now,

however, abandoned the custom ,and have made the

tying of the tal i the actual marr iage ceremony .

”

The typ ical panchayat (vi l lage counc i l) system exists

among the Idaiyans , and the only di st ingu i sh ing feature

is the ex i stence of a headman , cal led K i thari or Ki lar i ,

Malabar Quart . Review, I I , 1903.

IDAIYAN 358

whose bus iness i t i s to look afte r the sheep of the vi l lage,

to arrange for penn ing them in the fie lds . I n some

p laces the headman i s ca l led Ambalakkaran . I n bygone

days,those who were convicted of adu ltery were t ied to

a post , and beaten .

I n some p laces,when a gir l reaches puberty

,her

maternal unc le , or h is sons,bu i ld a hut with green

cocoanut leaves,which she occup ies for s ixteen days ,

when purificatory ceremon ies are performed .

The marr iage ceremon ies vary accord ing to loca l i ty,

and the fo l low ing detai ls of one form therefore,as carr ied

ou t at Co imbatore,may be c ited . When a marr iage

between two persons i s contemp lated,a red and white

flower , t ied up in separate bete l leaves , are thrown before

the ido l at a temp le . A l itt le ch i ld i s told to p ick up

one of the leaves,and

,i f she se lects the one contain ing

the wh ite flower,the omens are cons idered ausp ic ious,

and the marr iage wi l l be arranged . On the day of the

bet rothal,the futu re br idegroom ’s father and other re la

t ions go to the gi r l’s house with presents of a new c loth ,fru its , and ornaments . The br ide pr i ce (pariyam ) i s paid ,and betel exchanged . The bridegroom -e lect goes to the

g i r l’

s cous ins (materna l unc le’s sons) , who have a r ight

to marry her,and presents them with fou r annas and

bete l . The acceptance of these i s a S ign that they con

sent to the marr iage . On the marr iage day , the br ide

groom p lants the mi lk-post,after i t has been blessed by

a Brahman pureh it , and i s shaved by a barber . The

br ide and her female re lat ions fetch some earth,and a

p latform i s made out o f i t in the marr iage pandal (booth) .

The Brahman makes fi re (hemam) , and p laces a cowdungPillayar (Ganesa) i n the pandal . The bride then husks

some r ice there in . The re lat ions of the br ide and bride

groom fetch from the potter’s house seven pots ca l led

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IDAIYAN 360

to ind icate the union between the two fami l ies . I nto one

of the large pots a go ld and s i lver r ing , and into the

other an i ron Sty le and p iece of palm leaf are dropped .

The’

couple perform the pot -search ing ceremony , and

wh ichever gets ho ld of the go ld ring or style i s re

garded as the more c lever of the two . The br idegroom

p laces h i s r ight foot,and the bride her left foot on a

grindstone,and they look at the star Arundath i . The

stone represents Ahalliya, the wi fe of the sage Gautama ,who was cu rsed by her husband for her misconduct with

I ndra,and tu rned into a stone

,whereas Arundath i was

the wife of Vasi shta and a model of chast ity . The newly

marr ied couple , by plac ing the i r feet on the stone , i nd i

cate the i r intent ion of check ing unchaste desi res,and by

look ing at Arundath i,of remain ing fai thfu l to each other .

The br ide decorates a smal l gr indstone with a cloth and

ornaments,and takes i t round to al l her re lat ions who

are present,and who bless her with a hOpe that she wi l l

have many ch i ldren .

I n the Marava count ry, a grown-up Idaiyan g ir l i s

somet imes marr ied to a boy of ten or twelve . Among

some Idaiyans , i t i s cu stomary for the tal i to be t ied by

the s ister of the br idegroom , and not by the br idegroom ,

who must not be present when it is done .

I t i s sa id that , in some places , l i ke the Go l las , when

an Idaiyan bridegroom sets ou t for the house of his bride ,he i s se ized by his compan ions, who wi l l not re lease h im

t i l l he has paid a p iece of gold . I n the Madura Manual

i t is noted that “ at an Idaiyan wedd ing , on the th i rd day,when the favou ri te amusement of spr inkl ing tu rmeric

wate r over the guests i s conc luded,the who le party

betake themselves to the vi l lage tank (pond) . A friend

of the br idegroom br ings a hoe and a basket , and the

young husband fi l l s three baskets with earth from the

361 IDAIYAN

bottom of the tank , whi le the wie takes them away , and

throws the earth beh ind . They then’

say We have dug

a d itch for char i ty .

’ This pract ice may probably be

exp lained by remember ing that , i n ar id d i st r icts , where

the Idaiyans often tend the i r catt le , the tank is of the

greatest importance .

I t i s said that the S iv iyan and Pendukkumekki sub

dw i srons take low rank , as the remarr iage of widows is

freely permi tted among them . I n the Ramnad terr i tory

of the Madura d ist r ict , the marriage of widows i s at tri

buted to compu ls ion by a Zamindar . Accord ing to the

story,the Zamindar asked an Idaiyan whether he wou ld

marry a widow . The reply was that widows are aruthu

kattadhavar, i .e. , women who wi l l not t ie the tal i st r ing

again,after snapp ing it (on the husband

’s decease) . This

was cons idered impert inent by the Zamindar,as marr iage

of widows was common among the Maravars . To

compe l the Idaiyans to resort to widow marr iage , he took

advantage of the ambigu ity of the word aru thukatta

dhavar, which wou ld also mean those who do not t ie up

in a bundle after cutt ing or reap ing . At the t ime of the

harvest season , the Zamindar sent h i s servants to the

Idaiyans with orders that they were not to t ie up the

r ice p lants in sheaves . This led to severe monetary

loss,and the Idaiyans consented re luctant ly to widow

remarriage .

On the death of a married Idaiyan ,at Coimbatore ,

the corpse i s p laced in a seated postu re . A measu re of

r ice,a l ighted lamp

,and a cocoanut are p laced near

i t , and burn ing fire -wood i s laid at the door of the house .

When the relat ions and friends have arr ived,the body

i s removed from the house,and p laced in a pandal

,sup

ported behind by a mortar . The male re lat ions put on

the sacred thread , and each brings a pot of water from

I DAI YAN 362

a tank . The widow rubs o il over the head of the corpse ,and some one , p lac ing a l i tt le o i l i n the hands thereof,rubs i t over her head . On the way to the bu rn ing

ground,a barber carr ies a fire-brand and a pot , and

a washerman carr ies the mat , c loths , and other art ic les

u sed by the deceased . When the idukadu,a Spot made

to rep resent the shr ine of Arichandra who is in charge of

the burial or burn ing ground , i s reached , the pol luted

art ic les are thrown away, and the b ier i s p laced on the

ground . A Paraiyan makes a cross-mark at the fou r

corners of the b ier,and the son

, who is ch ief mourner,p laces a smal l co in on three of the marks

,leaving out

the one at the north -east corner . The Paraiyan takes

these co ins and tears a b it of c loth from the wind ing-sheet,

which i s sent to the widow . At the bu rning-ground,

the relat ions p lace r ice , water, and smal l co ins in the

mouth of the corpse . The coins are the perqu is ite of

the Paraiyan . The son, who i s c lean -shaved , carr ies

a pot of water on h i s shou lder thr ice round the pyre,

and,at each tu rn , the barber makes a ho le in i t w i th

a chank She l l,when the head is reached . Final ly the

pot i s broken near the head . The sacred threads are

thrown by those who wear them on the pyre,and the

son sets fi re to i t,and goes away without looking back.

The widow meanwhi le has broken her tal i st r ing,and

thrown it into a vesse l of mi lk, whi ch i s set on the

spot where the deceased breathed h i s last . The son,

on his retu rn home after bath ing, steps across a pest le

p laced at the threshold . Arath i (wave offer ing) is per

formed,and he worsh ips a l ighted lamp with in the house .

On the fo l lowing day,r ice and S esoan ia g rana

’iftora a re

cooked,and served to the re lat ives by the widow’s

brothers . Next day,mi lk

, gh i (clar ified butter) , curds,tender cocoanuts

,n ine kinds of grain , water , and other

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IDAIYAN 364

o f Krishna’

s b i rthday . They Show spec ial reverence for

the vesse ls u sed in dai ry operat ions .

The proverb that the sense of an Idaiyan i s on the

back of his neck , fo r i t was there that he rece ived the

blows,refers to “ the story of the shepherd enter ing the

gate of hi s house w ith a crook p laced hor izontal ly on his

shoulders,and find ing himse l f unable to get in

,and his

be ing made able to do so by a coup le of blows on his

back,and the removal of the c rook at the same t ime .

Another p roverb i s that there i s ne ither an And i among

Idaiyans , nor a Tadan among the potters . The And i i s

a lways a Saiv ite beggar , and , the Idaiyans being always

Vaishnav ites , they can never have in the i r m idst a

beggar of the Sa iv ite sect , or vice versei . Being ex

t rem ely stup id , whenever any d i spute ar i ses among

them,they can never come to any defin ite sett lement

,

or, as the p roverb says , the d isputes between Ida iyans

are never eas i ly sett led . Keep ing and rear ing catt le,

graz ing and mi lking them , and l iv ing thereby, are the i r

al lotted task in l i fe , and so they are never good agr i

cu ltu r i sts . This defect i s al luded to in the proverb that

the field watered by the Idaiyan , or by a member of the

Pal l i caste,must ever remain a waste .

” i t

Other p roverbs,quoted by the Rev . H . J ensenn

L are

as fol lows

The shepherd can get some foo l to serve h im .

Like a sheph erd who wou ld not g i ve anyth ing , but showed an

ewe b ig w ith young.

The shepherd destroyed hal f, and the foo l hal f.

I n 1904 , an elementary school for Ida iyans , cal led the

Yadava school , was establ i shed at Madura .

Madras Ma i l , 1904 .

t Class ified Co l lect ion o f Tam i l Proverbs , 1897.

365 IDAIYAN

The usua l t it le of the Idaiyan s i s Kenan or Ken

meaning King , but , i n the Census Report , 190 1 , the

t it les P i l la i and Kariyalan are also recorded . I n the

Census Report,189 1 , Idaiya i s g iven as a sub-d iv is ion

of Vakkal iga ; and , i n the Salem Manual , Idaiyan appears

as a synonym of Shanan .

For the fol lowing note on the Idaiyans who have

sett led in Travancore,I am indebted to Mr . N . Subra

mani A iyar . They consi st of two wel l -defined sect ions,

namely,the Tami l -speaking Idaiyans , who are but recent

immigrants,and large ly found in Tevala, Agast isvaram

and Shenkotta,and the Malayalam - speaking branch

,who

are early sett le rs res id ing ch iefly in Kart ikapalli and

other taluks of Central Travancore . The Idaiyans are

not large ly found in Travancore , because a branch of

the indigenou s Sadra commun ity , the Idacheri Nayars ,are engaged in the same occupat ion . They are divided

into two c lasses,viz . ,

Kangayan (shepherds) and Puvan

dans,who neither i nterd ine nor intermarry . The latter

appear to be d ivided into fou r c lasses,Pas i

,Gopalan

,

Nambi,and Valayitayan . Puvandan i s another form of

the word Pendan,which means a palanqu in -bearer . I t

i s we l l known that,i n the Tami l country , th i s was one of

the dut ies of the Idaiyans , as i s evident from a sub

d ivi s ion cal led S ivi or S iv iyar (palanqu in) exist ing among

them . I n the early sett lement records of Travancore ,they are referred to as S ibis . Many fancy

,though

incorrect ly , that the word means one who col lects flowers .

As the S ib is were expert s in palanqu in-bear ing,they

must have been brought from the Tami l count ry to serve

the med iaeva l Rajas . At the present day , besides pu r

su ing the i r t radit ional occupat ion,they al so engage in

agricu ltu re and trade . The posit ion of the Puvandans i n

soc iety is not low . They are ent it led to the serv ices of

IDAKOTTU 366

the Brahman’

s washerman and barber,and they may

enter temples , and advance as far as the place to which

Nayars go , excep t i n some parts of Cent ral Travancore .

They are flesh - eaters , and the dr inking of intox icat ing

l iquor i s not p roh ib ited . On ceremonia l occasions,

women wear the Tami l Idaiya dress , whi le at other t imes

they adopt the att i re of Nayar women . Thei r ornaments

are foreign , and c lear ly indicate that they are a Tami l

caste . The marr iage badge i s cal led sankhu tal i,and a

smal l conch -shaped ornament forms its most conspicu

ous featu re . Besides the ord inary H indu de it ies,they

worship Matam , Yaksh i , and Maruta . At wedd ings,

the Idaiyan bridegroom holds a sword in h i s left hand ,whi le he takes ho ld of the br ide by the right hand .

Funeral ceremon ies are supervi sed by a barber,who

officiates as p r iest . Corpses are either bu rnt or bur ied .

Though they appear to observe on ly e leven days’ death

pol lut ion,they cannot enter a temp le unt i l t he exp i ry

of s ixteen days . An ann iversary ceremony in memory of

the deceased i s performed on the new-moon day in the

month of Karkatakam (J u ly—August ) , and , on this day,most members of the caste go to Varkalai to perform the

r ite . Many pure ly Tami l names are st i l l p reserved in the

caste , such as Tambi , Chami , Bhagavat i , and Chattu .

Idakottu (those who break) . -An exogamous sept of

Oddes , who , du ring the i r work as navvies, break stones .

Idangai (left -hand ) . —Recorded,at t imes of censu s,

as a d iv is ion of Devadasis,who do service for castes

belonging to the left -hand sect ion .

Id iga .—The Te lugu toddy-drawers

,whose hered itary

occupat ion i s the ext ract ion of the ju ice of the date and

palmyra palms,go by d i fferent names in d ifferent

local it ies . Those , for example , who l ive in the Salem ,

North Arcot and Ch ingleput d ist r icts,are cal led Id igas

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iD IGA 368

Brahmans are rece ived on terms of equal i ty by other

Brahmans . They bury the i r dead , and observe pol lut ion

for twelve days,dur ing wh ich they absta in from eat ing

flesh . The consumpt ion of al coho l i s St r ict ly proh ib ited,

and i s severe ly pun ished by the headman of the caste .

They eat with al l Bal ij as, except the Gaz u lu sect ion .

Thei r t it les are Aiya , Appa , and Gandu .

I t i s noted by M r . F . Fawcett that in the northern

d i st r i ct s,among the Te lugu popu lat ion the toddy-drawers

u se a ladder about e ight or n ine feet In length,which i s

p laced against the t ree , to avo id c l imbing a th i rd or fou rth

of i t . Whi le in the act of c l imbing up or down , they

make use of a wide band,wh ich i s passed round the body

at the smal l of the back , and round the t ree . This band

i s easi ly fastened with a togg le and eye . The back i s

p rotected by a p iece of thick soft leather . I t g ives great

ass i stance in cl imb ing, which it makes easy . Al l ove r

the southernmost port ion of the pen insu la,among the

Shanans and Tiyans , the ladder and wai st-band are

unknown . They cl imb up and down with the i r hands

and arms,u sing on ly a soft grummel of co i r (cocoanut

fibre) to keep the feet near together .The Id igas c laim to be descended from Vyasa, the

t radit iona l comp i ler of the Mahabharata . I n a note by

M r . F . R . Hemingway on the Id igas of the Godavar i

d ist r i ct,they are said to worsh ip a de ity

,to whom they

annual ly offer fow l s on New Year’s day , and make dai ly

offer ings of a few drops of toddy from the fi rst pot taken

from the t ree . I n th i s d ist r i ct they are commonly cal led

Chett i .

The insigne of the Id igas , as recorded at Conjeeveram ,

i s a ladderfi’"

J . S . F .Mackenz ie , I nd . Ant., IV,

1875.

369 ILAMAGAN

I diya (pounder) .— Recorded , i n the Travancore

Censu s Report,190 1 , as a d ivi s ion of Konkan i S t

'

Idras .

The Id iyans prepare r i ce in a spec ial manner . Paddy is

soaked in water,and roasted over a fi re . While hot , i t

i s p laced in a mortar,and pounded with a pest le . This

r ice i s cal led avi l,which i s said to be large ly used as a

de l i cacy in Travancore,and to be employed in certa in

re l igious ceremonies .

The Idiyans are stated to have left the i r nat ive land

near Cochin,and sett led in Travancore at the invitat ion of

a former sovere ign . On arr ival in the land of the i r

adopt ion,they were given

,free of tax

,cocoanut gardens

and r ice land . I n retu rn,they were requ i red to supp ly

,

free of charge , the palace of the Maharaj ah and the

temp le of Sr i Padmanabhaswam i at Tr ivandrum with

as much beaten r i ce (avi l) as might be requ i red from

t ime to t ime .

Iga (fly) .— An exogamous sept of Mutracha . The

equ ivalent Igala occu rs as an exogamous sept of Yanad i .I lai (leaf) .— I la i or Ele has been recorded as a sub

d ivi s ion of T igalas and Toreyas who cu lt ivate the bete l

v ine (P ip er oette) . E la i Van iyan occu rs as a synonym

of Senaikkudaiyans, who are bete l leaf se l lers in Tinne

ve l ly .

I laiyattakudi .—A sub-d ivi s ion of Nattukettai

Chett i .

I lakutiyan .—Recorded

,in the Travancore Census

Report,190 1 , as a sub-d ivi s ion of Nayar .

I lamagan—The I lamagans are descr ibed by Mr .Franc i s * as a cu lt ivat ing caste found ch iefly in the

Zamindar i taluk of Tiruppat tfi r i n Madura . The word

l iteral ly means a young man,but the young i s

Madras Cen sus Report , 1901 .

11- 24

ILAMPI 370

i nterp reted by other castes in the sense of i nfer ior . One

says that i t i s made up of the sons of Vallamban females

and Vel lala males, another that it i s a m ixtu re of outcasted Valaiyans, Kallans and Maravans

,and a thi rd that

i t i s descended from i l leg i t imate ch i ldren of the Vellalas

and Pa l l i s . Like the Kallans and Valaiyans , the members

of the caste st retch the lobes of the i r ears,and leave the i r

heads unshaven . The caste i s d ivided into two or three

endogamous sect ions of terr itor ial or ig in . They do not

employ Brahmans as purOh its the i r w idows may marry

again ; the i r dead are u sual ly bu ried and they wi l l eat

pork,mutton

,fowls

,and fi sh . They are thus not high

in the soc ia l scale , and are , i n fact , about on a par with the

Kallans . The headmen of the caste are ca l led Ambalam .

”

I t i s suggested,i n the Census Report , 189 1 , that , from

the fact that I lamagan appears as a sub-d ivi s ion of the

Maravans , i t may perhaps be inferred that the two castes

are c losely a l l i ed .

Hamp i .—Recorded , in the Travancore Census

Report,190 1 , as a sub -d iv is ion of Nayar .

I layatu .—See Elayad .

I lla (of a hou se) . —An exogamous sept of Yanad i .

I l lam .—Defined by M r . Wigram as meaning the

house of an ord inary Nambfi dri Brahman . I t i s recorded,

i n the Travancore Censu s Report , 190 1 , as a sub-d iv i s ion

of Nayar . The name I llam Ve l lala has been assumed by

some Pan ikkans i n the Tami l country , whose exogamous

septs are cal led I llam . I n Travancore , I lakkar or I llathu ,

mean ing those attached to Brahman houses,i s said to be

an occupat iona l sub -d iv i s ion of Nayars . I lakkar further

occu rs as an exogamous sept of Mala Arayans, known as

the Three Thousand .

Malabar Law and Custom .

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IRANYAVARMA 372

Thei r camp general ly cons ists of a few smal l tents,a

few pon ies , pack saddles to secu re the i r cu l inary uten

si l s , the i r d i rty c lothes, the leather or gunny bags contain

ing the i r art ic les of merchand ise,a few fight ing cocks ,

and cages of bi rds . They are very fond of cock fight ing,

even on wagers of 10 to 50 rupees on each . They tra in

these cocks spec ia l ly brough t up to fight . For infor

mat ion concern ing the cr im inal methods of the I ran is,

I wou ld refer the reader to Mr . Panpa Rao Naidu’

s

account thereof.

Iranyavarma.—The name of one of the ear ly Pallava

kings,retu rned at t imes of census as a caste name by

some wealthy Pal l i s,who also gave themselves the t it le

of Selakanar, or descendants of Chola K ings .

Irattai S ekkan .—A sub-div i s ion of Van iyans , who

use two bu l locks for the i r o il-mi l ls .

Iraya.—A name for Cherumans

,i n Malabar, who

are perm itted to come as far as the eaves (i ra) of the i remployers’ houses .

Irchakkol lan (t imber sawyer) . —A synonym , i n

Travancore,of Tacchan (carpenter) Kammal an .

Irku li .—Irku l i or Irangoll i Ve l lala, said to mean

Vellalas who k i l led dampness,i s a name assumed by

some Vannans .

Irp ina (comb) . —An exogamous sept of Kamma .

Iru las of the N i lg i r i s . I n the Kotagi r i bazaar ,which i s an excel lent hunt ing-ground for the anthro

polog ist , may be seen gathered together on market-day

Kotas,Badagas

,Kanarese

,Irulas

,Kurumbas , and an

occasional Toda from the Kodanad mand . A tr ibal

photograph was taken there,with the resu lt that a depu

tat ion subsequent ly waited on me with a pet i t ion to the

effect that “ We,t he unders igned

,beg to submit that

your honour made botos of u s,and has paid us noth ing .

373 IRULA

We,therefore

,beg you to do th is common act of j ust ice .

The deputat ion was made happy w ith a pourooire.

I n my hunt after Iru las , which ended in an attack

of malar ial fever,i t was necessary to invoke the assi stance

and proverbial hosp ital i ty of var ious p lanters . On oneoccasion news reached me that a gang of Iru las

,col lected

for my benefit under a promise of substant ial remunera

t ion,had arr ived at a p lanter’s bungalow

,whither I

proceeded . The party inc luded a man who had been

wanted for some t ime in connect ion with the shoot ing

of an elephant on forb idden ground . He,suspect ing me

of base designs , refused to be measured , on the p lea that

he was afraid the he ight-measur ing standard was the

gal lows . Nor would he let me take h i s photograph ,

fear ing (though he had never heard of Bert i l lonage) lest

i t shou ld be used for the pu rpose of cr im inal ident ifica

t ion . Unhapp i ly a mischievous rumou r had been circu

lated that I had in my t rain a wizard Kurumba,who wou ld

bewitch the Irulas,in order that I m ight abduct them

(for what purpose was not stated ) .As the Badagas are the fai rest

,so the Iru las are the

darkest-sk inned of the N i lgir i t r i bes , on some of whom,

as has been said,charcoal wou ld leave a white mark .

The name I ru la,in fact

,means darkness or b lackness

(irn l) , whether in re ference to the dark jungles in which

the Iru las,who have not become domest i cated by work

ing as contractors or coo l i es on planters’ estates,dwe l l ,

or to the darkness of the i r sk in , is doubtful . Though the

typ ica l I ru la i s dark-sk inned and p latyrh ine,I have noted

some who,as the result of contact metamorphos is , pos

sessed skins of marked ly paler hue , and lep torhine noses .

The language of the Iru las i s a corrupt form of Tami l .

In the i r rel ig ion they are worsh ippers of Vishnu under

the name of Rangasvam i, to whom they do paj a

I RULA 374

(worsh ip) at the i r own rude shr ines, or at the H indutemple at Karaimadai

,where Brahman pr iests officrate .

An I ru la pajar i,Breeks wr ites ,

“ l ives near the

I ru la temp les,and r ings a be l l when he performs paja to

the gods . He wears the Vishnu mark on his forehead .

H is office i s hered itary,and he i s remunerated by offer

ings of fru i t and m i lk from I ru la worshippers . Each

I ru la vi l lage pays about two annas to the pajar i about

May or J une . They say that there i s a temp le at

Kallampalla i n the Satt iyamangalam taluk,north of

Rangasvam i’

s peak . This i s a S iva temp le,at wh ich

sheep are sacr ificed . The pajar i wears the S iva mark .

They don’t know the d i fference between S iva and Vishnu .

At Kallampalla temp le i s a thatched bu i lding , conta in ing

a stone cal led Mariamma,the wel l-known goddess of

smal l -pox,worshipped in thi s capac ity by the Irulas . A

Sheep is led to thi s temp le , and those who offer the

sacr ifice Sprinkle water over it,and cut i t s throat . The

pajar i S it s by,but takes no part in the ceremony . The

body i s cut up,and d ist r ibuted among the Iru las p resent ,

i nc lud ing the pajar i .

I n connect i on with the shr ine on Rangasvam i peak ,the fo l lowing note i s recorded in the Gazetteer of the

N i lg i r i s . I t i s the most sacred h i l l on al l the p lateau .

H indu legend says that the god Rangasvam i used to

l ive at Karaimadai on the p lains between Mettupalaiyam

and Co imbatore , but quarre l led w i th hi s wi fe , and so

came and l ived here alone . I n p roof of the story , two

footpr ints on the rock not far from Araked vi l lage be low

the peak are pointed out . This, however , i s probab ly an

invent ion designed to save the hi l l fo lk the to i lsome

journey to Rangasvam i’

s car fest iva l at Karaimadai,

‘l Pr im it ive Tr ibes of the Nilg ir is .

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IRU LA ,N I LG IR I S .

375 IRULA

which u sed once to be cons idered incumbent upon them .

I n some places,the Badagas and Kotas have gone even

further,and estab l i shed Rangasvam i Bettus of the i r own ,

handy for the i r own part icular v i l lages . On the rea l

Rangasvam i peak are two rude wa l led enc losures sacred

to the god Ranga and hi s consort,and with in these are

vot ive offer ings (chiefly i ron lamps and the notched

st i cks used as we ighing machines) , and two stones to

represent the de it ies . The hered itary puj ar i I S an I ru la ,and

, on the day fixed by the Badagas for t he annual feast,

he arr ives from h is hamlet near Nand ipuram ,bathes in a

poo l be low the summit,and marches to the top Shout ing

Govinda ! Govinda ’

! The cry i s taken up with wi ld

enthus iasm by a l l t hose p resent,and the who le crowd

,

which inc ludes Badagas,Iru las

,and Kurumbas

,su r

rounds the enc losu res,whi le the I ru la pr iest i nvokes the

de it ies by b lowing his conch and beat ing h is drum,and

pou rs ob lat ions over , and decorates w ith flowers,the

two stones which rep resent them . That n ight,two stone

basins on the summit are fi l led with ghee and l ighted,and

the glare is vis ib le for mi les around . The ceremon ies

c lose with prayers for good rai n and fru it fu lness among

the flocks and herds,a wi ld dance by the I ru la

,and the

bo i l ing (ca l led pongal , the same word as ponga l the Tami l

agricu ltural feast) of much r ice in m i lk . About a m i le

from Arakod i s an overhanging rock ca l led the kodai -kalor umbre l la stone

,under which i s found a whit i sh c lay .

This c lay i s used by the Iru las for making the Vaishnava

marks on the i r foreheads at th is fest ival .

The fol lowing account of an I ru la temp le fest ival i s

given by Harkness . * “ The hai r of the men,as we l l

as of the women and chi ldren,was bound up in a fantast i c

Description of a s ingu lar Abor ig inal Race inhab it ing the Neilgherry Hi l ls,

I RULA 376

manner with wreaths of p lai ted straw . Thei r necks,ears

,

and ank les were decorated with ornaments formed of the

same mater ia l,and they carr i ed l itt l e d ried gourds

,in

wh i ch nuts or smal l stones had been inserted . They ratt led

them as they moved,and

,with the rust l ing of the i r ru ra l

ornaments,gave a sort o f rhythm to the i r mot ion . The

dance was performed in front of a l i tt le thatched shed,

wh ich,we learnt

,was the i r temp le . When it was con

c luded,they commenced a sacr ifice to the i r de ity

,or

rather de it ies,of a he -goat and three cocks . This was

done by cutt ing the th roats of the v ict ims,and throwing

them down at the feet of the ido l,the who le assembly

at the same t ime prostrat ing themse lves . With in the

temple there was a winnow, or fan , which they cal led

Mahri— evident ly the emblem of Ceres ; and at a short

d i stance,i n front of the former

,and some paces in

advance one of the other , were two rude stones , which they

cal l,the one Moshan i , the other Kouad i Mari , but which

are subord inate to the fan occupying the inter ior of the

temple .

”

A vi l lage near a coffee estate , which I inspected ,was

,at the t ime of my vis it , in the possess ion of pariah

dogs and nude chi ld ren , the e lder ch i ld ren and adu l ts

be ing away at work . The v i l lage was protected against

noctu rnal fe l ine and other feral marauders by a rude fence ,and consi sted of rows of s ingle -storied huts , with verandah

in front,made of sp l it bamboo and thatched , detached

huts,an abundance of fowl -houses , and cucu rb i taceous

p lants twin ing up rough stages . Surround ing the vi l lage

were a dense grove of p lanta in t rees , castor-o il bushes ,

and catt le pens .When not engaged at work on estates or i n the forest ,

the Iru las cu lt ivate , for the i r own consumpt ion , rag i

(E teusine Coracana) , samai (P an icum m itiaro) , tenai

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IRULA 378

kind le a fi re upon the nearest la rge stone or fragment of

rock,and

,when it i s we l l heated , bru sh away the embers,

and scatte r the grain upon i t , which , soon becoming

parched and dry, is read i ly reduced to mea l , which i s

made into cakes . The stone i s now heated a second

t ime,and the cakes are put on i t to bake . Or

,where

they have met wi th a stone which has a l i t t le concavity,

they wi l l,after heat ing it , fi l l the ho l low w i th water , and ,

with the meal,form a sort of porr idge . I n th i s way the

who le fami ly,the i r fr iends , and ne ighbours , wi l l l ive t i l l

the grain has been consumed . The who le per iod i s one

of merry-making . They celebrate Mahri,and invite a l l

who may be pass ing by to jo in in the fest iv it ies . These

fami l ie s w i l l , i n retu rn , be invited to l ive on the fie lds of

the i r ne ighbours . Many of them l ive for the remainder

of the year on a k ind of yarn,wh ich grows wi ld

,and i s

ca l led E ru la root . To the use of th is they accustom the i r

chi ldren from infancy .

Some I rulas now work for the Forest Department ,which al lows them to l ive on the borders of the forest ,grant ing them sites free

,and other concess ions . Among

the minor forest produce,which they co l lect

,are myra

bolam s , bees-wax , honey, vembadam bark (Ven ti iago

M adraspatana) , avaram bark (Cassia aur icutata) , deer’s

horns,tamarinds

,gum

,soapnu ts , and sheekoy (A cacia

concinna) . The forests have been d iv ided into b locks,and a certa in p lace w i th in each block has been se lected

for the forest depot . To th is p lace the co l lect ing agents

most ly Shelagars and I ru las— br ing the produce , and

then it i s sorted,and pa id for by spec ial superv isorsfi

‘

The co l lect i on of honey i s a dangerou s occupat ion . A

man,with a torch in h i s hand , and a number of bamboo

A . W. Lush ing ton, I nd ian Fo res ter, 1902 .

379 I RULA

tubes suspended from h is shou lders,descends by means

of ropes or creepers to the vic in ity of the comb . The

s igh t of the torch drives away the bees , and he proceeds

to fi l l the bamboos with the comb , and then ascends to

the top of the rock .

’

The Iru las wi l l not (so they say) eat the flesh of

buffaloes or catt le,but wi l l eat sheep and goat

,fie ld-rats

,

fowls,deer

,p ig (which they shoot) , hares (which they

snare with sk i lfu l ly made nets) , j ungle- fowl , p igeons , andquai l (which they knock over with stones) .They informed Mr . Harkness that ,

“ they have no

marriage contract,the sexes cohab it ing a lmost ind is

crim inately ; t he opt ion of remaining in un ion,or of

separat ing,rest ing pr inc ipa l ly with the female . Some

among them,the favou r i tes of fortune , who can afford to

spend four or five rupees on fest iv it ies, wi l l ce lebrate

the i r un ion by giving a feast to a l l the i r fr iends and

ne ighbours ; and , i nvit ing the Kurum bars to attend with

the i r p ipe and tabor,spend the n ight in dance and

merr iment . This,however

,i s a rare occu rrence . The

marr iage ceremony,as descr ibed to me

,i s a very s imp le

affai r . A feast i s held , at which a Sheep is ki l led, and the

guests make a present of a few annas to the br idegroom ,

who t ies up the money in a c loth , and , go ing to the

br ide’s hut,conducts her to her futu re home . Widows

are permitted to marry again .

When an I ru la dies,two Kur umbas come to the

vi l lage,and one shaves the head of the other . The shorn

man i s fed,and presented with a c loth

,which he wraps

round h is head . This quaint ceremo n ial i s supposed ,i n some way

,to br ing good luck to the departed .

Outs ide the house of the deceased , i n which the corpse

Agricul tural Ledger Series, 1904 .

I RULA 380

is kept t i l l the t ime of the funeral,men and women

dance to the mus ic of the I ru la band . The dead are

bu ried in a s itt ing postu re , with the legs c rossed

tai lorwise . Each vi l lage has it s own bu r ial -ground . A

ci rcu lar p i t i s dug , from the lower end of wh ich a

chamber is excavated,i n which the corpse

,c lad in it s

own c lothes,jewe lry , and a new cloth , is p laced with

a lamp and grain . The p it i s then fi l led in,and the

pos it ion of the grave marked by a stone . On the th i rd

day a sheep i s said to be k i l led,and a feast he ld . The

fol lowing descr ipt ion of an annual ceremony was given to

me . A lamp and o il are pu rchased,and r ice i s cooked

in the vi l lage . They are then taken to the shr ine at the

bu r ial -ground , offered up on stones , on wh ich some of the

o il i s poured,and paj a i s done . At the Shrine

,a pt

'

Ijari,with three white marks on the forehead

,officiates . Like

the Badaga Devadari,the I ru la pajar i at t imes becomes

insp i red by the god .

Writ ing concern ing the Ku rumbas and Iru las , Mr .

Walhouse says if that “ after every death among them ,

they br ing a long water-worn stone (devva kotta kal lu) ,and put it into one of the old crom lechs spr ink led over

the N ilgiri p lateau . Some of the larger of these have

been found p i led up to the cap-stone with such pebb les ,which must have been the work of generat ions . Occa

s ionally, too , the t r ibes ment ioned make sma l l cromlechs

for bur ia l purposes,and p lace the long water-worn

pe bb les in them .

The fo l lowing sub-d iv is ions of the tr ibe have been

descr ibed to me — Poongkaru,Kudagar (peop le of

C oorg) , Kalkatt i (those who t ie stone) , Vellaka, Devala,and Kopp ilingam . Of these , the fi rst five are cons idered

Ind . VI , 1877 .

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IRU LA ,N I LG IR I S .

381 IRULA

to be in the relat ion of brothers , so far as marr iage i s

concerned , and do not intermarry .

‘

Members o f these

five c lasses must marry into the KOppilingam sub

d ivision . At the census , 190 1 , Kasuva or Kasuba was

retu rned as a sub -caste . The word means workmen,i n

a l lus ion to the abandonment of j ungle l i fe in favou r of

working on p lanters’ estates , and elsewhere .

I t i s recorded by H arkness that “ dur ing the winter,

or whi le they are wander ing about the forest s in search

of food , dr iven by hunger , the fam i l ie s or part ie s separate

from one another . On these occas ions the women and

young ch i ldren are often left alone,and the mothe r

,having

no longer any nour i shment for her infant , ant ic ipates i t s

final m isery by burying it al ive . The account here given

was in every instance corroborated,and in such a manner

as to leave no doubt in our minds of i t s correctness . ”

The fo l lowing notes are abst racted from my case

book .

Man,set . 30 . Somet imes works on a coffee estate .

At present engaged in the cu lt ivat ion of gra ins,pumpkins

,

jak- fru it,and p lanta ins . Goes to the bazaar at Mettu ~

pa laiyam to buy rice,salt

,ch i l l ies

,o il

,etc. Acqu ires

agricu ltu ra l imp lement s from Kotas,to whom he pays

annual t r ibute in grains or money . Wears brass ear

rings obtained from Kotas in exchange for vegetables

and fru it . Wears tu rban and plain lo in-cloth , wrapped

round body and reach ing be low the knees . Bag con

ta in ing tobacco and bete l sl ung over shou lder . Skin

very dark

Woman,se t . 30 . Hai r cur ly

,t ied in a bunch beh ind

round a b lack cotton swab . Wears a p lain waist -cloth ,and print body-c loth worn square across breast s and

reach ing below the knees . Tattooed on forehead . A

mass of glass bead necklaces . Gold ornament in left

I RULA 382

nostr i l . Brass ornament in lobe of each ear . E igh t brass

bangle s on r ight wr i st two brass and s ix glass bang les

on left wr ist . Five brass r ings on r ight fi rst finger ;fou r brass and one t in r ing on r ight forefinger .

Woman,set . 2 5 . Red cadjan (palm leaf) ro l l i n d i lated

lobes of ears . B rass and g lass bead ornament in he l ix

of r ight ear . Brass ornament in left nost r i l . A number

of bead neck lets,one with young cowry she l l s pendent

,

another cons i st ing of a heavy rol l of black beads . The

latter i s very character i st ic of I ru la fema le adornment .

One stee l bangle,e ight brass bang les

,and one chank

she l l bang le on r ight wr i st three lead , s ix g lass bang les,and one g lass bead bangle on left wri st . One stee l and

one brass r ing on left l i tt le finger .

Woman,se t . 35 . Wears loin-c loth only . Breasts

fu l ly exposed . Cap of Badaga pattern on head .

Girl,set . 8. Lobe of each ear be ing d i lated by a

number of wooden st i cks l i ke matches .

Average statu re 159 8 cm . nasal index 85 (max .

Iru las of Ching leput , North and South Arcot . The

Irulas , or Villiyans (bowmen) , who have sett led in the

town of Chingleput , about fi fty m i les d i stant from Madras,have atta ined to a h igher degree of c iv i l i sat ion than the

j ungle I rulas of the N i lgiris , and are defined , in the Census

Report, 190 1 , as a sem i -Brahman ised forest t r ibe

,who

Speak a corrupt Tami l .

I n a note on the Iru las,Mackenz ie wr ites as follows .

i é

After the Yuga Pralayam (de luge , or change from one

Yuga to another) the Vi l lars or Irulans , Ma layans, andVedans

,supposed to be descendants of a R ish i under the

i nfl uence of a mal ignant curse,were l iv ing in the forest s

in a state of nat ure,though they have now taken to

Or iental Manuscr ipts .

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IRULA 384

i s kept by the highe r c lasses for catt l e . This grue l i s

a l so h ighly apprec iated by the Yanad is . Whi le husk ing

r ice,they eat the bran

,and

,i f not carefu l ly watched

,wi l l

stea l as much of the r ice as they can manage to secrete

about themse lves . As an addit ion to the i r p lain d ietary

they catch field (J erboa) rat s, which they d ig out with

long st icks,after they have been asphyx iated with smoke

b lown into the i r tunnel s through a smal l hole i n an

earthen pot fi l led with dr ied leaves,which are set on

fi re . When the nest i s dug out , they find materia l for a

meat and vegetable curry i n the dead rats,with the

hoarded store of r ice or other gra in . They feast on the

bod ies of winged wh ite -ants (Term i tes) , which theysearch with torch - l igh t s at the t ime of the i r seasona l

ep idem ic appearance . Some years ago a theft occurred

in my house at n ight , and it was proved by a p laster

cast of a foot -pr int in the mud p roduced by a nocturnal

shower that one of my gardeners,who d id not l ive

on the spot , had been on the prow l . The exp lanat i on

was that he had been col lect i ng as a food -stuff the

carcases of the wi nged ant s , which had that evening

appeared in myr iads .

Some Iru las are herbal i st s , and are be l ieved to have

the powers of cu ring certa in d i seases , snake—poi son ing ,and the b ites of rat s and insects .

O ccasional ly the I ru las co l lect the leaves of the

banyan,B utea f rona

’osa, or lotu s, for sal e as food

p latters,and they wi l l eat the refu se food left on

the p latters by Brahmans and other h igher c lasses .

They free ly enter the houses of Brahmans and non

Brahman castes,and are not considered as carrying

pol lut ion .

They have no fixed p lace of abode , which they

often change . Some l ive in low,palmyra—thatched

385 I RULA

hut s of smal l d imens ions ; others under a t ree , in an

Open p lace,i n ru ined bu i ld ings , Or the st reet pials

(verandah) of houses . Thei r domest ic utens i l s cons ist

of a few pots , one or two winnows , scythes , a crow-bar ,a p iece of fl int and stee l for mak ing fi re

,and a d irty

bag for tobacco and betel . I n making fi re,an angu lar

fragment of quartz i s he ld against a smal l p iece of

p ith,and dexterously st ruck with an i ron implement

so that the spark fal l s on the p ith , which can be rap id ly

b lown into a blaze . To keep the ch i ldren warm i n

the so-cal led cold season (with a min imum o f 58° to

they put the i r bab ies near the fi re in p its dug i n

the ground .

For mar ital pu rposes they recognise t ribal sub

d ivi s ions i n a very vague way . Marriage i s not a

very impressive ceremon ial . The br idegroom has to

present new cloths to the br ide , and his futu re father and

mother- in - law . The cloth g iven to the last—named is cal led

the pal ku l i (mi lk money) for having nursed the br ide .

Marriage i s ce lebrated on any day , except Satu rday .

A very modest banquet , i n p roport ion to thei r s lender

means,i s he ld

,and toddy provided , i f the state of

the finances wi l l run to i t . Towards evening the

br ide and bridegroom stand in front of the house,

and the latter t ies the tal i , which cons ist s of a bead

necklace with a round brass disc . I n the case of a

marriage which took p lace du ring my vis it,the bride

had been,wearing her new bridal c loth for a month

before the event .

The Irulas worsh ip per iod ical ly Kann iamma,the i r

t r ibal de i ty,and Mar i

,the general goddess of ep idemic

d isease . The deity i s represented by five pots arranged

in the form of a square,with a s ing le pot in the cent re

,

fi l led w ith tu rmeri c water . C lose to these a lamp11- 25

I RULA 386

i s l ighted , and raw rice , j aggery (crude sugar) , r iceflou r , betel leaves and areca nuts are offered before it .Mar i i s rep resented by a wh ite rag flag dyed with

tu rmeric , hoi sted on a bamboo in an Open space near

thei r dwe l l i ngs , to which fowls, sheep , and other cookedart ic les

,are offered .

The dead are bu ried lying flat on the face,with

the head to the north,and the face tu rned towards

the east . When the grave has been hal f fi l led in,

t hey throw i nto i t a pr ick ly-pear (Qonn tia D itten i i )shrub , and make a mound over i t . Around th is they

p lace a row or two of prick ly-pear stems to keep

off j acka ls . No monumenta l stone i s p laced over thegrave .

By means of the fo l lowing tab le a compari son can be

read i ly made between the statu re and nasal i ndexof t he jung le Shelagas and N i lg i r i Iru las , and of

the more c iv i l i sed Iru las of Chingleput and Ural i s of

Coimbatore

Shelagas

I rulas , N i l g ir is

I rulas , Ch ingleput

Ural is

The table shows c lear ly that,whi le a l l the fou r

t r ibes are of short and un i form statu re,the nasal

i ndex,both as regards average

,maximum and m in imum ,

i s h igher in the Sholagas and Iru las of t he N i lgiri jungles

than in the more domest icated Irulas of Chingleput

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I RULA, CH INGLEPUT .

387 I RULA

and Ural i s . I n brief, the two former , who have ming led

less with the outs ide world,retain

'

the archaic type

of p latyrhine nose to a greater extent than t he two

latter . The reduct ion of platyrh iny, as the resu l t of

c ivi l i sat ion and emergence from the jungle to the vic in ityof towns

,i s st i l l fu rther brought out by the fol lowing

figures relat ing to the two c lasses of I ru las,and the

Kan ikars of Travancore,who st i l l l ive a jungle l i fe

,

and those who have removed to the outski rts of a

popu lou s town

Nasal index .

I rulas , j ungle

Kan ikars , j ungle

Kan ikars , domest icated

The I ru las o f North Arcot are c lose ly re lated to

those of Ching leput . Concern ing them,Mr . H . A .

Stuart wr ites as fol lows . * “ Many members of th i s

forest t ribe have taken to agricu l tu re in the neigh

bouring vi l lages , but the majori ty st i l l keep to the

h i l l s,l iv ing upon roots and wi ld an imals

,and bartering

forest produce for a few rags or a smal l quant ity o f

grain . When Opportunity offers,they indu lge in catt le

theft and robbery . They d isc laim any connect ion with

the Yanadis , whom they hate . Thei r avers ion i s such

that they wi l l not even al low a Yanadi to see t hem eat ing .

They offer worship to the Sapta Kann ikais or seven

vi rg ins, whom they represent in the form of an earthenware

Manual of the North Arcot d istrict .

11—2 5 B

I RULA 388

o il- lamp , wh i ch they often p lace under the bandar i

(D oa’oncea viscosa which i s regarded by them as

sac red . These lamps are made by ord inary vi l lage

potters , who , however , are obl iged to knead the clay

with the i r hands , and not w ith the i r feet . Somet imes

they p lace these rep resentat ives of the i r goddess in

caves,but

,wherever they place them

,no Pariah or

Yanad i can be al lowed to approach . The ch ief occas ion

of worship,as w ith the Kurumbas and Yanadis

,i s at the

head- shaving ceremony of ch i ldren . Al l ch i ldren at

these t imes,who are less than ten years old

,are co l lected

,

and the maternal uncle of each cuts off one lock of hai r,

whi ch i s fastened to a rag i (F icus rel igiosa) bough .

They rare ly cont ract marr i ages,the voluntary assoc iat ion

of men and women being term inable at the wi l l of e ither .The more c ivi l i sed

,however

,im itate the H indu cu l t i

vat ing castes by tying a gold bead , stuck on a thread,

round the br ide’s neck , but the marriage t ie thu s formed

i s eas i ly broken . They always bu ry the i r dead . Some

Iru las are cred ited with supernatu ral powers , and are

app l ied to by low Sadras for advi ce . The ceremony i s

cal led suth i or rangam . The med ium affe cts to be

possessed by the goddess,and utters unmean ing sounds

,

be ing,they say, unconsc ious al l the wh i le . A few of

hi s compan ions p retend to understand with d i ffi cu lty the

mean ing of h i s words,and interpret them to the inqu i rer .

The Iru las never al low any sort of musi c du ring the i r

ceremonies,nor wi l l they wear shoes , or cover the i r body

wi th more than the scant iest rag . Even in the coldest

and dampest weather,they prefe r the warmth of a fi re to

that of a cumbly (blanket ) . They refuse even to cover

an infant wi th a cloth,but d ig a smal l ho l low in the

ground,and lay the newly-born babe in it upon a few

leaves of the bandar i . "

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I RULA ,

389 IRULA

There are two classes of Iru las in the North Arcot

d i st r ict,of which one l ives in towns and vi l lages , and the

other leads a jungle l i fe . Among the latter, as found

near Kuppam,there are two d ist inct d ivi s ions, cal led

Iswaran Vagaira and Dharmaraja . The former set up

a stone beneath a temporary hut,and worsh ip i t by

offer ing cooked r ice and cocoanuts on unam (L ettsom ia

eti ifi tica) leaves . The god D harmaraja is represented

by a vesse l i nstead of a stone , and the offer ings are

p laced in a basket . I n the jungle sect ion,a woman may

marry her deceased hu sband’s brother . The dead are

bu ried face upwards,and three stones are set up over

the grave .

The Iru las of South Arcot , Mr . Franc i s wr ites, are

ch iefly found about the G ingee h i l ls,talk a corrupt Tami l

,

are very dark Skinned,have very cu r ly hai r, never Shave

the ir heads,and never wear tu rbans or sandals . They

dwel l in scattered huts— never more than two or th ree

in one place —which are l i tt le,round

,thatched hove ls ,

w i th a low doorway through which one can j ust craw l ,bu i lt among the fie lds . They subsi st by watch ing crops ,bal ing water from we l ls

,and

,when t imes are hard

,by

cr ime of a mi ld k ind . I n Vi l l upu ram and Tirukkeyilfi r

taluks , and round Gingee , they commit bu rg lar ies in a

mi ld and unsc ient ifi c manner i f the season i s bad,and they

are p ressed by want , but , i f the ground-nut crop i s a

good one , they behave themselves . They are perhapsthe poorest and most m iserable communi ty in the d ist r ict .On ly one or two of them own any land

,and that i s on ly

dry land . They snare hares now and again,and col lect

the honey of the wi ld bees by lett ing themselves down

the face of c l i ffs at n ight by ladders made of tw i sted

Gazetteer of the South Arcot d istrict .

IRULA 390

creepers . Some of them are p rost i tutes,and used to

d isp lay the i r charms in a shame less manner at the Chett i

palaiyam market near G ingee,decked out i n quant it ies

o f cheap jewel le ry,and with the i r eye l ids darkened in

c lumsy im itat ion of the i r s isters of the same profess ion

in other castes . There is l i tt le ceremony at a wedd ing .

The old men of the caste fix the ausp ic ious day,the

br idegroom br ings a few presents,a pandal (booth) i s

made , a tal i i s t ied , and there i s a feast to the re lat ions .

The r ites at bi rths and deaths are equal ly s imp le . The

dead are usual ly bu r ied , ly ing face upwards , a stone and

some thorns be ing p laced over the grave to keep off

j ackal s . On the e leventh day after the death,the e ldest

son t ies a cloth round h is head— a th ing which i s other

w ise never worn— and a l itt le r i ce i s co lou red with

saffron (tu rmer ic) and then thrown into water . This i s

cal led cast ing away the s in,and i l l- luck wou ld befa l l the

e ldest son i f the ceremony were om itted . The Iru lans

pay homage to almost al l the gramadevatas (vi l lagede it ies) , but probably the seven Kann imars are the i r

favour ite de it ies .

As a l ready ind icated , the Iru las , l i ke the Yerukalas,

i ndu lge in soothsaying . The Yerukala fortune-te l ler

goes about with her basket,cowry She l ls

,and rod

,and

wi l l carry out the work of her p rofess ion anywhere,at

any t ime,and any number of t imes i n a clay . The I ru la

,

on the contrary , remains at h i s home , and wi l l on ly te l l

fortunes close to h i s hut,or near the hut where h is gods

are kept . I n case of s ickness,peop le of al l c lasses come

to consu l t the I ru la fortune -te l ler,whose occupat ion i s

known as Kann imar varn iththal . Taking up h is d rum ,

he warms it over the fi re , or exposes i t to the heat of the

sun . When it i s su ffi c ient ly dry to vibrate to h is sat i s

fact ion,Kannimar is worsh ipped by break ing a cocoanut ,

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39 I IRUNUL

and burn ing camphor and incense . C los ing h is eyes ,the I ru la beats the drum ,

and shakes h i s head about,

whi le h is w i fe,who Stands near him

,spr ink les tu rmer ic

water over h im . After a few minutes , be l ls are t ied to

h is r ight wr i st . I n about a quarter of an hour he beg ins

to Shiver,and breaks out in a profuse persp i rat ion . Thi s

i s a su re s ign that he i s possessed by Kann iamman .

H is wi fe unt ies his kudumi (tu ft of hai r) , the shak ing

of the head becomes more violent,he breathes rap id ly,

and hisses l ike a snake . H is wife pra i ses Kann imar.

Gradual ly the man becomes calmer,and addresses those

around h im as i f he were the goddess,saying

,

“ Oh !

ch i ldren . I have come down on my car,which is

decorated with mango flowers,margosa and jasm ine .

You need fear noth ing so l ong as I ex ist,and you

worsh ip me . This country wi l l be prosperous,and the

peop le wi l l cont inue to be happy . E re l ong my prec iou s

car,immersed in the tank (pond) on the h il l

,wi l l be

taken ou t , and afte r that the country wi l l become more

p rosperous,

” and so on . Quest ions are genera l ly put to

the insp i red man,not d i rect ly

,but through his wi fe .

Occas ional ly,even when no c l ient has come to consu l t

h im,the I ru la wi l l take up his drum towards dusk

,and

chant the p rai ses of Kann imar, somet imes for hours at a

st retch , with a crowd of I ru las col lected round him .

The name Sh ikar i (hunter) i s occas ional ly adopted as a

synonym for I ru la . And , in South Arcot , some Iru las cal l

themse lves Ten (honey) Vann iyans or Vana (forest ) Pa l l i s .

I ru la (darkness or n ight) .— An exogamous sept of

Kuruba .

Irumpu (i ron) Kol lan .

—A sub -d ivi s ion of Ko l lan .

Irun ti l (two str ings) . —A d ivi s ion of Marans i n

Travancore , i n which the remarr iage of widows i s

permitted .

IRUVU 39 2

Iruvu (b lack ant) . —An exogamous sept of Kuruba .

I san (god) . —A t it le of Kel iyan .

Iswaran Vagaira—A d ivi s ion of the Irulas of

North Arcot . The name denotes that they be long to the

Iswara (S iva) sect ion .

Ite .—The ltevandlu are a c lass of Telugu j ugg lers

and acrobats,who “ exh ib it shows

,such as wrest l ing

,

c l imb ing high posts,rope-walking

,etc . The women

,

l i ke Dommara females,act as common prost it utes . ” ale

I tattara.—Recorded

,i n the Travancore Census

Report , 190 1 , as a sub—d iv i s ion of Nayar .

I z hava .—The I z havans or I lavans

,and T iyans , are

the Malayalam toddy-draw ing caste s of Malabar,Coch in

and Travancore . The etymo logy of the name I z havan

i s deal t w ith in the art i c le on Tiyans .

For the fo l lowing note on the I z havas of Travan

core,I am

, when not otherwi se recorded , indebted to

M r . N . Subraman i A iyar . These peop le are known

as I z havas i n South and part s of Centra l Travancore,

and Chovas in part s of Centra l and North Travancore .

They const it ute 1 7 per cent . of the tota l populat ion of

the State . Iz hava i s said to mean those be longing to

I z ham,a corrupt ion of S imhalam ,

one of the old names

of Cey lon . J affna,i n the north of that i s land , appears

to have been spec ial ly known by the name of I z ham ,

and from th i s p lace the I z havas are be l i eved to have

or ig ina l ly proceeded to Malabar . Chova i s supposed to

be a corrupt ion of Sevaka, or servant . I n some old

boat songs current in Malabar,i t occurs in the less

corrupt form of Chevaka. Accord ing to a legend , a

Pandyan pr incess named Al l i marr i ed Naras imha, a

Raj ah of the Carnat i c . The royal coup le m igrated to

Manual of the Nel lore d istr ict .

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IZHAVA 394

Porkkad has not many Nayars,in the p lace of whom he

is served by Chegos ,”

and that in t imes of c iv i l war orrebel l ion , the Chegos are bound to take up arms forthei r lawful sovere ign .

” The Pan ikkans of Ambanat

house in the Amba lapuzha tal uk were the leaders of the

I z hava force , and many powers and pr ivi leges were

conferred upon thi s fam i ly by the Chembakasseri

(Ambalapuzha) pr inces . Even so late as the days of

Maharaja Rama Verma , who d ied in 9 73 M .E . ,large

numbers of I z havas were emp loyed as so ld iers of the

State,i f we may be l ieve the account of Fr iar Bartolomeofi

'“

who i s general ly a very accurate wr iter . The South

Travancore Iz havas used to d iv ide themse lves i nto two

part ies on the occas ion of the Onam fest iva l,and fight at

Kaithamukku near Trivandrum . Any young man who

did not attend thi s camp of exerc i se had a p iece of wood

t ied as a wedding ornament round hi s neck,was led in

process ion thr ice round the vi l lage,and transported to

the sea-coast .

The I z havas proper are d iv ided into three sub

sect ions cal led Pachch ili, Pand i , and Malayalam . The

Pachch il is l ive in the t ract of land cal led Pachchalfi ri n the Neyyatt inkara tal uk between Tiruve llam and

Kova lam . They are on ly a handfu l i n number . The

Pandis are large ly found in Tr ivandrum and Ch irayinkil .

Most of them take the t it le of Pan ikkan . The Malayala

I z havas are sub -d ivided into fou r exogamous groups or

illam s,named Mutt i llam ,

Madamp i or Pallichal,Mayan

att i,and Chozh i . Pallichal i s a p lace i n the Neyyatt in

kara tal uk,and Mayannat i n O u ilon . The members of

the Chozhi illam are be l ieved to have been later sett lers .

There i s another d iv is ion of these I z havas cal led

Voyage to the Eas t I nd ies . Translat ion , 1800 .

395 I ZHAVA

Pat ikramam s,based on a more or l ess geograph ica l

d ist inct ion . These are also four in number , and cal led

Pallikkattara,Palat tara

,Irunku lamgara, and Tenganad ,

the i r soc ia l p recedence be ing in thi s order . Pallikkattara

i s i n Ch irayinkil, Palattara i n Qui lon , Irunku lamgara i n

Tr ivandrum,and Tenganad i n Neyyatt inkara . The

Palat tara sect ion is the most orthodox , and rigorously

preserves it s endogamous character, though some of the

t i tular d ign i taries among the Chovas of Central Travancore have found i t poss ible to contract al l iances w i th

them . The d ivi s ions of the I llam and Pat ikkramam are

absent among the Chovas . Among these,however

,

there is a d ivis ion in to Sthan i or Me lkudi , Tan ikudi,and

K iz hkudi, the fi rst denot ing the t itu lar head,the

second the ord inary c lass , and the thi rd those under

communal degradat ion . Among the last are inc luded

the toddy-drawing fam i l ies , Vaduvans,and Nad is

.

Vaduvans are the slaves of the I z havas,and

,i n anc ient

days,cou ld be regularly bought and sold by them .

Nadis l ive in Kart ikapalli and some other parts of

Central Travancore . They are peop le who have been

outcasted from the community for various offences by the

headmen,and cannot enter the kitchen of the ord inary

I z havas . They are served for ceremon ial purposes not

by the regular priests of the I z havas,but by a d ist inct

outcaste sect l ike themselves,known as Nadikuruppus .

The I z havat t is,who are the pr iests of the caste , form a

dist inct sect with Spec ial manners and customs . Channan ,a corrupt ion of the Tami l word

, Chanror or ch iefmen,is

the most important of the t i t l es of the I z havas . This

t i t le was conferred upon d i st ingu i shed members of the

caste as a fami ly honour by some of the anc ient

sovere igns of the count ry . Pan ikkan comes next in

rank,and i s der ived from pan i , work . Tantan , from

I ZHAVA 396

danda meaning p unishment or cont rol , i s a popu lar t it le

in some parts . Asan,from Acharya , a teacher , i s

ext remely common . The rec ip ient s o f thi s honour were

inst ructors in gymnast ics and mi l i tary exerc i ses to Nayar

and I z hava sold iers in bygone t imes, and even now ruins

of ol d kalaris or exerc i se grounds attached to the i r

houses are di scern ible i n many p laces . Some I z havas

i n South Travancore appear to be honoured with the

t it l e of Mudal iyar . Many fami l ies were invested with

s imi lar honours by the anc ient ru l ing houses of Ambala

pu z ha ,Kayenkulam ,

and Jayas imhanad (Qui lon) . Even

now,some t i t l es are conferred by the Rajah of Idappall i .

The wives of these d ign itar ies are respect ive ly known as

Channat t i , Pan ikkat t i, etc .

The houses'

O f the I z havas resemb le those of the

Nayars in form . Each house i s a group of bu i ld ings,

the most substant ial of which , known as the arappu ra,

stands in the centre . On the left s ide i s the vadakkettu

or woman’s apartment , inc lud ing the k it chen . There i s

a cou rt -yard in front of the arappura, and a l itt le bu i ld

ing cal led kizhakkettu enc los ing it on the eastern s ide .

H ouses invar iably face the east . The main entrance

stands a l itt l e to the sou th of the kiz hakkettu,to the

sou th of which again i s the toz hut tu or cow-shed . These

bu i ld ings,of cou rse , are found only in r ich houses , the

poor sat i sfying themselves wi th an arappura, a vatakketu ,

and a toz hu ttu . A tekketu i s to be seen to the south of

the arappura in some cases . This i s erected mainly to

perpetuate the memory of some deceased member of

the fami ly known for learn ing , p iety, or bravery . A p i tha

or seat , a conch , a cane , and a smal l bag contain ing ashes,are secu red with in . I t i s kept scrupu lou sly free from

po l lut ion,and worsh ip is offered on fixed days to the

ancestors . The tekketu i s enc losed on al l the three s ides,

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IZHAVA 398

los ing favou r . I t was never in vogue in North

Travancore .

The I z havas eat both fi sh and flesh . Rabbits,deer

,

p igs , sheep , porcup ines , fowls , doves , gu inea-fowls , pea

cocks,and owls are bel ieved to make popu lar d ishes

.

The sweetmeat cal led ariyunta , and the cu rry known as

mu t irakkary, are pecu l iar to the Iz havas , and prepared

best by them .

The most important occupat ion of the Iz havas t i l l

recent ly was the cu lt ivat ion o f palm t rees,and the

p reparat ion of toddy and arrack . Barbosa,writ ing in

the s ixteenth century,states that “ the i r p rinc ipal employ

ment i s to t i l l the palm t rees , and gather the i r fru it s ;and to carry everyth ing for h i re from one point to another

,

because they are not in the habit of t ransport ing them

with beasts of bu rden,as there are none and they hew

stone,and gain the i r l ive l ihood by al l k inds of labou r .

Some of them bear the use of arms,and fight in the wars

when it i s necessary . They carry a staff in the i r hand of

a fathom’s length as a s ign of the i r l ineage . With the

progress of cu l tu re and enl ightenment,the oc cupat ion of

ext ract ing l i quor from the cocoanut palm has ceased to

be looked upon with favou r,and such fami l ies as are

now given to that pursu it have come to be regarded as a

low d iv is ion of the Chovas . I n some part s of Travancore,

the latte r do not even enjoy the p riv i lege of commensal ity

with the other Iz havas . Agr icu ltu re i s a prom inent

p rofess ion,and there are severa l wealthy and influent ial

land lords in the community . There i s al so a fai r percent

age of agricu l tu ral labou rers . A pre l im inary ri te , cal led

poz hutana sowing , i s performed by farmers , who throw

three handfu l s of r ice seed on a clay image represent i ng

Ganesa , and pray that the i r fie lds may yield a good

harvest . Before the t ime o f reap ing , on an ausp ic ious

399 I ZHAVA

morn ing , a few sheaves are brought , and hung up in

some prominent p lace in the house .

’ This ceremony i s

known as ni ra , and i s common to al l H indu castes . At

the end of i t , the inmates of the house partake of put tarior new r i ce .

There are a few other customary ri tes observed by

agricu ltu ri sts,v iz .

(I ) Met iyittu-varuka

,or throwing the gra ins o f the

fi rst sheaf upon another,and cover ing i t with it s st raw

,

th is be ing afterwards appropr iated by the chie f agri

cu ltu ra l labourer present .

(2 ) Koytu -

p it ichcha-katta-kotukkuka

, or hand ing

over the fi rst sheaves of grain fastened together with

S try cknos N uoc-vom ica l eaves to the owner of the fie ld,who

is obl iged to p reserve them t i l l the next harvest season.

(3) Kotut i, or offering of oblat ions of a few grains

d ipped in toddy to the sp i r i t s of agr i cu ltu ral fie lds,the

Pu laya pr iest crying aloud Pol i,Va

,po l i

,va,

’ mean ing

l ite ral ly May good harvest come .

AS manufactu rers,the Iz havas occupy a posit ion in

Travancore . They p rodu ce several k inds of cloth,for

local consumpt ion in the main,and make mats

,t i les

,and

ropes,with remarkab le sk i l l . They are also the ch ief

lemon -grass O i l d ist i l lers of Travancore . I n the pro

fess ions of med ic ine and ast rology , the I z havas have

large ly engaged themselves . Whi le i t must be confessed

that many of them are utter st rangers to cu ltu re , there

are several who have rece ived a sound educat ion ,espec ial ly in Sanskr it . On the whole , the I z havas may

be said to be one of the most i ndustr i ous and prosperou s

communit ies on the west coast .

The I z havas form a p ious and orthodox H indu caste .

Though they cannot enter the inner court -yard of

temples,they attend there in considerable numbers , and

IZHAVA 400

make the ir p ious offer ings . Over several temp les theTravancore I z havas have a jo int r igh t w ith the Nayars .I n i l l ust rat ion

,the sh r ines of Sakt iku lamgara i n Karu

nagappal i , and Chett ikulangara in Mavel ikara , may be

ment ioned . Over these and other temples,the rights

that have been enjoyed from t ime immemoria l by certain

I z hava fami l ies are respected even at the present day .

I n most p laces,the Iz havas have the i r own temples

,with

a member of the ir own or the Iz havatt i caste as pr iest .As no provis ion had been made in them for dai ly worship

,

t here was no necess i ty in early t imes for the regu lar

emp loyment of pr iest s . The de ity usua l ly worsh ipped

was Bhadrakal i , who was bel ieved to he lp them‘ i n the i r

m i l i tary undertakings . The offerings made to her

i nvo lved anima l sacr ifi ces . The temp les are general ly

low thatched bu i ld ings with a front porch,an enc losure

wal l,and a grove of t rees . There are many instances

,

i n wh ich the enclosure wal l i s absent . The Bhadrakali

cu l t i s gradual ly los ing favou r under the teaching of a

Vedant i c scho lar and re l ig ious reformer named Nanan

Asan . I n many Centra l and South Travancore shr ines,

images of Subraman ia have been set up at hi s instance,

and dai ly worship i s offered by bachelor pr iest s appo inted

by the castem en . An assoc iat ion for the soc ial,material

,

and re l ig iou s amel iorat ion of t he commun ity,cal led

Narayana Dharma Paripalana Vogam ,has been started .

I t s head-quarters i s at Aruv ippuram in the Nayyat inkara

taluk . Every morn ing,the sun i s spec ial ly worsh ipped

by the cu ltu red c lass . I n anc ient t imes,the adorat ion

o f Anchu Tampurakkal or the five de it ies , now ident ified

wi th the Pandavas of the Mahabharata,prevai led among

these people . This worsh ip i s found among the Pulayas

al so . At Mayyanad in Q u i lon , there i s st i l l an I zhava

temp le ded icated to these five lords . Women vis i t

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I ZHAVA 402

I n connect ion with the t fikkam ceremony,Mr . L . K .

Anantha Kri shna Aiyar wr ites as fol lows . * There are

two kinds of hook -swinging,namely Garuda (Brahmin i

k ite) and thon i (boat) t fi kkam . The ceremony is per

formed in fu lfi lment of a vow ,to obtain some favou r of

the de i ty Kal i,before whose presence it i s carried out .

The performer of the ceremony shou ld bathe early in the

morning,and be in a state of preparat ion e ither for a

year or for forty -one days by worshipp ing the de ity

Bhagavat i . He must st r ict ly abstain from meat , al l

k inds of intoxi cat ing l iquors,and assoc iat ion with women .

During the morn ing hou rs,the performer dresses h imsel f

in a garment tu cked into the waist -band,ru bs h i s body

with O il,and i s shampooed part icu lar ly on the back , a

port ion of the flesh in the midd le of which i s st retched

for the insert ion of a hook . He i s al so taught by h is

i n st ructor to perform various feat s cal led payit ta . This

he cont inues t i l l the fest ival,when he has to sw ing in

fu lfi lment of the vow . I n k ite swing ing,a k ind of car ,

rest ing on two axles provided with four whee ls,i s

emp loyed . On i t,there i s a horizontal beam rest ing on

two vert i cal supports . A strong rope t ied to a r ing

attached to the beam i s connected with the hook which

passes through the flesh of the back . Over the beam

there i s a ku taram (tent) , whi ch i s tasteful ly decorated .

I ns ide it , two or three persons can swing at a t ime .

There i s a different arrangement in some places . I nstead

of the beam and the supports,there i s a smal l pole , on

which rests a hor izontal beam provided with a metal l i c

r ing at one end . The beam acts as a lever,so that one

end of i t can be e ither raised or l owered , so as to g ive

some rest to the swinger . The rope t ied to the r ing i s

Monograph Ethnograph Survey of Coch in ,N o . 10 ,

I zhavas , 1905

403 IZHAVA

connected with the hook and the wai st-band . For boat

swinging,the same kind of vehicle

,.without wheel s

,i s

in use . For kite swinging,the performer has hi s face

painted green . He has to put on art ific ial l ip s and wings

in imitat ion of those of the kite,and wears long locks of

hai r l ike those of an actor in a Kathakal i . As he swings,

the car i s taken three , five , seven , nine , or eleven t imes

round the temp le . I n boat swinging , the car i s l ikew ise

carr ied round the temple,wi th the swinger perform ing

hi s feats,as in the case of kite swinging

,to the aecom

pan im ent of music . He has to put on the same kind

of dress,except the l ips and wings . I n p illayeduthu

t t’

i kkam ,or swinging with a ch i ld in fu lfi lment of a

vow,the chi ld i s taken to the temple by h i s parents

,

who pay to the temple author it ies th i rty- four chuckram s

in Travancore,and s ixty-four puthans * in Coch in . The

ch i ld i s then handed over to the swinger,who carries the

chi ld as he swings . These performances are somet imes

made at the expense of the temple , but more general ly of

persons who make the out lay in fu lfi lment of a vow . In

the latter case,i t cost s as much as Rs . 150 for the kite

swinger,but only Rs . 30 for the boat swinger . During

the fest ival,they are fed in the temple

,owing to the i r

be ing in a state of vow . I t i s the Nayars , Kammalars,

Kuruppans , and Iz havas , who perform the swing ing in

fulfi lment of a vow . I n the fight between the goddess

Kal i and the demon Darika,the latte r was comp lete ly

defeated,and the former

,bit ing him on the back

,drank

his bl ood to grat i fy her feel ings of an imos ity . Hook

swinging symbol ises th is inc ident,and the bloodshed by

the insert ion of the hook through the flesh i s intended

as an offer ing to the goddess . ”

Chuckram s and puthans are co ins.

11—26 B

IZHAVA 404

Of the hook -swinging ce remony as performed a few

years ago at the Kollangadu temple i n Travancore , an

excel lent account i s g iven by the Rev . T . Know les,

* from

which the fo l l owing p réc is has been comp i led . I n front

of the temp le was a booth contain ing the image of the

goddess Bhadrakal i,a crue l de ity

,who is supposed to

de l ight in b lood . At a l i tt l e d i stance was the car . The

bottom part of th i s was very much l ike a lorry used when

t ransport ing large logs of t imber by means of e lephants .

There were four sol id whee l s of t h ick t imber,with

a frame work , l ike a ra i lway waggon on a smal l scale .

To thi s were at tached two thick cab le ropes . J o ined to

the S ides of the car were two upr ight post s,about 1 5 feet

high,st rengthened w ith stays and cross -p ieces . On the

top was a p iece o f th ick t imber with a hole in i t,and the

bottom rounded , whi ch fi tted into a cross -p iece,and

al lowed the long beam on which the men were swung to

move up or down . Thi s beam was 35 or 40 feet long ,and about 9 i nches i n diameter . I t was placed t hrough

the ho le in the p iece of t imber on the top of the up right

frame,and ba lanced in the m iddle l ike a huge see—saw .

At one end of the ho le was a covered canopy , and at the

other long ropes were fastened,which t rai l ed on t he

ground . The whole arrangement of the car was such

that,by lowering one end of the long beam to t he ground

,

and fasten ing a man to it,and then pu l l ing down the

other end by the ropes,the man cou ld be ra i sed into

the a i r to a he ight of some 40 feet or more . The who le

car could then be dragged by the thick cable ropes round

the temp le . While the subject was be ing prepared for

swing ing,a mat was st retched above hi s head

,part ly to

do him honour,part ly to protect h im from the sun . H is

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IZHAVA 406

I n connec t ion wi th the re l ig ion of the I lavars,the

Rev . S . Mateer wri te s as “ Demon worship,

espec ia l ly that of Bhadrakali,a female demon descr ibed

as a mixture of mischi ef and crue l ty,i s the customary

cu l tus of the caste , wi th sacr ifices and offer ings and

devi l -danc ing l ike the Shanars . Shastavu and Vi ra

bhadran are al so venerated , and the ghosts of ancestors .

Groves of trees stand near the temp l es,and serpent

images are common , these creatu res be i ng accounted

favouri tes of Kal i . They carry the ir superst it i ons and

fear of the demons into every department and inc ident

of life . I n some temp les and ceremon ies,as at Paroor,

Sarkare i,etc . ,

they c losely assoc iate w ith the Sadras .

The I lavar temp les are general ly low ,thatched bu i ld ings

,

with front porch,a good deal o f wooden rai l ing and

carving about them,an enclo sure wa l l , and a grove or

a few trees,such as F icus rel igiosa,

P tumer ia,and B ass ia .

At the I lavar temp le near Chakk i i n the outsk irts o f

Trevandrum ,the goddes s Bhadrakal i i s represented as

a female seated on an image , having two wings , g i l t and

covered wi th serpents . Tw i ce a year , fowl s and sheep

are sacr ificed by an Ilavan pr iest , and offerings of gra in ,fru i t

,and fl owers are presented . The s ide -p ie rc ing

ceremony i s al so performed here . A temple at Manga

lattukenam ,about ten m i le s south of Trevandrum

, at

which I witnessed the ce lebrat ion of the annua l fest iva l

on the day fol low ing Meena Bharan i , i n March or Apr i l ,may be taken as a fai r example of the who le . I n

connect ion w ith this temple may be seen a pecu l iar

wooden p i l lar and smal l shr ine at the top , Somewhat l ike

a p igeon -house . This i s cal led a tan i maram , and i s a k ind

of al tar , or res idence , for the demon Madan , resembl ing

Nat ive L i fe in Travancore, 1883.

407 IZHAVA

the temporary shr ines on st icks or plat forms erected bythe Pulayars . O n i t are carv ings of many -headed serpents ,et c . ,

and a project ing lamp for o i l . For the fest ival,the

ground around the temple was c leared of weeds , the

outhouses and sheds decorated with flowers,and on the

tan i maram were p laced two bunches of p lanta ins,at i t s

foot a number of devi l -danc ing st i cks . C lose by were

five or s ix framework shr ines , const ructed of soft palm

leaves and p i th of p lanta in t ree , and ornamented with

flowers . These were supposed to be the res idence of

some minor powers,and in them were p laced , towards

n ight,offer ings of flowers , r i ce , plantains , cocoanuts , and

blood . The I lavars who assembl e for the fest iva l wear

the marks of S iva,a dot and hor izon tal l ines on the

forehead,and three hor izon tal l ines of yel low turmeric on

the chest . They beg in to gather at the temp le from noon,

and return home at n ight . The fest ival lasts for five

days . Some of the neighbouring Sadras and Shanars

also attend,and some Pulayars , who pay one chuckram

for two shots of fi rework guns in fulfi lmen t of the i r vows .

O ffer ings here are general ly made in retu rn for re l ief from

s ickness or troub le of some kind . The pajar i , or prie st ,i s an I lavan , who rece ives donat ions of money , r ice, e tc .

A kind of mi ld hook-swing ing ceremony is p ract i sed .

On the occas ion referred to,fou r boys

,about fi fteen or

s ixteen years of age , were brought . They mus t part l y

fast for five days p revious ly on p lain rice and vegetable

curry , and are induced to consen t to the Operat ion,

par t ly by supers t i t ious fear,and part ly by br ibes . O n

the one hand they are threatened wi th worse danger i f

they do no t fu lfi l the vows made by the i r parents to the

devi (dei ty) on the other hand,i f obed ient

,they rece ive

presen ts o f fine c lo thes and money . Dressed in hand ‘

some c loths and turbans,and adorned with go ld brace lets

I ZHAVA 408

and arm lets,and gar lands of flowers

,the poor boys

are brought to p resent a l i ttl e of the i r b l ood to the

sanguinary goddess . Three t imes they march round the

temp le then an i ron i s run through the musc les of each

s ide , and sma l l rattans inserted through the wounds .

Four men se ize the ends of the canes , and al l go round

in p roces s ion,with music and s inging and c lapp ing of

hands, five or seven t imes , accord ing to the ir endurance ,t i l l qu ite exhausted . The pajar i now dre sses in a red

c loth, with t in se l border, l i ke a B rahman , takes the

danc ing -c lub i n hand,and dances before the demon .

Cocks are sacrificed,water be i ng first poured upon the

head ; when the b ird shakes i t se l f, the head i s cut off,

and the b lood poured round the temp le . Rice i s bo i led

in one of the sheds i n a new pot,and taken home with

the fowl s by the peop le for a feast in the house . At

Mayanadu , the Bhagavath i of the sma l l temp le be longing

to the I lavars i s regarded as the s i ster of the one

worshipped in the larger temp le used by the Sadras,

and served by a Brahman p rie st ; and the cars of the

latte r are brought annual ly to the I lavar’

s temp le,and

around i t three t imes before return ing to the i r own

temp le . At the I lavar’

s temp le,the same n ight

,the

women bo i l r i ce i n new earthen pots,and the men offer

Sheep and fow l s in sacr ifice . I n further i l lustrat ion of

the strange superst i t i ous p ract ices of thi s tr ibe,two more

inc idents may be ment ioned . An I lavatt i, whose chi ld

was unwe l l , went to consu l t an astro loger , who informed

her that the d i sease was cau sed by the sp ir i t of the

ch i ld’s deceased grandmother . For i t s remova l he wou ld

perform var ious i ncantat ions,for which he requi red the

fo l low i ng,v iz .

—water from seven we l l s , dung from five

cowsheds,a larva of the myrme leon, a crab, a frog, a

green snake,a vi ral fish , parched rice, ada cake,

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I ZHAVA 4 10

be g iven by h im to the v il lagers . I n cases of fai l ure,the

se rv i ces of the vi l lage pr i est and washerman,and al so the

barber,are refu sed

,and the cu lpri t becomes ostrac ised

from soc iety . The headman has to be paid a sum of ten

chuckram s on al l occas ions of ceremon ies,and the Nalu

v itanmar fou r chuckram s each . There i s a movement

in favou r of educat ing the pri es ts , and delegat ing some of

the above powers to them .

Three forms of inher i tance may be said to prevai l

among the I z havas of Travancore,v iz . (I ) makkathayam

(inher i tance from father to son) i n the ext reme south ;

(2) m arumakkatayam (through the female l i ne) i n al l

tal uks to the north o f Qui lon (3) a mixture o f the twobetween N eyyat inkara and that tal uk . Accord ing to the

m ixed mode,one’s own chi ldren are not left abso lute ly

dest i tute,but some port ion of the property i s g iven them

for maintenance,i n no case

,however

,exceeding a hal f.

I n fam il ie s observ ing the marumakkatayam law , male

and female he i rs own equal r ights . Part i t ion,though

possib le when al l consent,rare ly take s p lace in p ract ice

,

the e ldest male member ho ld ing in his hands the manage

ment o f the who le p roperty . I n O u ilon and othe r

p laces,the widow and her chi ldren are p r iv i leged to

remain in her husband’s house for ful l one year after hi s

death,and enj oy al l the property be long ing to him .

On the subj ect o f inher i tance,the Rev . S . Mateer

writes as fo l lows . The nepot i s t i c law of inh eritance i s ,to a cons iderable exten t

,fo l lowed by thi s caste . Those

in the far south be ing more c lose ly connec ted with the

Tam i l peop le,t he i r chi ldren inher i t . Amongst the

I lavars i n Trevandrum d istr i c t,a cur ious attempt i s made

to un ite both systems of inheri tance , hal f the property

acqu i red by a man after hi s marriage , and during the

l i fet ime of hi s wi fe,go ing to the i ssue of such marr iage

,

4 1 1 IZHAVA

and hal f to the man’

s nepot i st ic hei r s . I n a case dec ided

by the Sadr Court , i n 1872 , the daugh ter of an I lavanc laimed her share in the movab le and immovable

p roperty of her deceased father , and to have a sale made

by him whi le al ive dec lared nul l and void to the extent

o f her share . As there was ano ther s imi lar he i r,the

Court awarded the c laimant a hal f share,and to thi s

exten t the c la im was inval idated . The i r rule s are thus

stated by G . Kerala Varman Tirumu lpad : I f one

marr ie s and give s c lo th to an I lavat t i (female) , and hasi ssue

,of the property acqu i red by him and her from the

t ime of the un ion , one - tenth is deducted for the

husband’s labou r or i nd ividual p rofi t ; of the remainder,hal f goes to the woman and her chi ldren , and hal f to the

husband and h is hei rs (anandaravans ) . The property

whi ch an I lavan has inheri ted o r earned before hi s

marr iage devolves so le ly to his anandaravans,not to hi s

ch i ldren . I f an I lavatt i has continued to l ive with her

husband,and she has no i ssue , or her chi ldren d ie before

obtain ing any Share of the property,when the husband

d ies possess ing property earned by bo th,hi s he irs and

she must mutual ly agree , or the castem en dec ide what i s

fai r for her support and the husband’

s he i r take s the

remainder . ’

The marr iage o f I z hava girl s consi s ts o f two di st inc t

r i tes, one before they at ta in puberty cal led tal i -kettu

,

and the other general ly after that period , bu t i n some

cases before,cal led sam bandham . I t i s , however , neces

sary that the gi r l must have her tal i t ied befo re some one

contrac ts sam bandham wi th her . The tal i - t ier may be,

bu t often i s no t,as among the Nayars , the futu re husband

of the gir l . But,even for him ,

the re lat ion wi l l no t be

complete wi thout a formal c lo th presentat ion . The

leg it imate un ion for a person i s wi th hi s maternal unc le’s

IZHAVA 4 I 2

or paterna l aunt’s daughter . Genera l ly there i s a separate

ceremony cal led Grihapravesam , or en trance into the

house of the bridegroom after sambandham . Widows

may cont ract a l l iances w i th other person s after the death

of the fi rst husband . I n al l cases , the I z hava husband

takes hi s w i fe home , and cons iders it inf ra a’ig. to stay in

the house of hi s father—in - law .

The method of ce lebrat ing the tal i -kettu di ffers in

d ifferent part s ofTravancore . The fol lowing i s the form

popu lar in Cent ral Travancore . Al l the e lder ly members

of the vi l lage assemb le at the house of the g i r l,and fix

a p i l lar of jack (A r tocarpus in tegr if otia) wood at the

south -east corner . On the Kan iyan (astro loger) be ingthree t imes loudly consu lted as to the ausp ic iousness of

the house he g ives an affi rmat ive rep ly, and the guard ian

of the g i rl , rece iv ing a s i lver r ing from the goldsm ith ,hands i t over to the Vatt i (priest) , who t ies i t on thewooden post . The carpenter

,Kan iyan ,

and go ldsmith

rece ive some l i t t le p re sents . The next it em in the

p rogramme i s the p reparat ion of the r ice necessary for

the marr iage,and a quant i ty of paddy (unhusked r ice)

is brought by the g ir l to the panda l ground, and

formal ly bo i led in a pot . The panda l (booth) is general lyerected on the south s ide of the house . The chartu

, or

a chi t from the Kan iyan ,certi fy ing the ausp ic iou sness of

the match and the su i tabl e date for i ts forma l adopt ion,

i s taken by the guard ian and four Machchamp is or

Inangans to the headman of the latter . These Mach

champ is are Iz havas of the v i l lage,equa l i n stat us to the

guardian of the g i rl . A l l the pre l im inary arrangements

are now over,and

,on the day previous to the marr iage ,

the g i r l bathes,and

,wear ing the bleached c loths supp l ied

by the Mannan (washerman) , worships the loca l deity,and await s the arr ival of t he br idegroom . I n the

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I ZHAVA 4 14

re spect s . I n the former, on the appo inted day,the

br idegroom , who i s a d i fferent person from the tal i - t ier,accompan ied by h i s re l at i on s and fr iends

,arr ive s at the

br ide’s hou se,and the guard ian of the former offers a

sum of money to the guard ian of the latter . A su it ofc lothes

,with ten chuckram s or ten rasi s (co ins ) , i s

p resented by the br idegroom to the br ide,who stands in

a room with in and rece ives it,be ing afterwards dressed

by hi s s i ster . The money goes by r ight to her mother ,and i s known as Ammay ippanam . Now comes the t ime

for t he departure of the br ide to her husband’

s house,

when she rece ive s from her guard ian a nut -cracker,l ime

can,a di sh fi l led with r ice , and a mat . A red c loth i s

thrown over her head,and a few members accompany

the party for some di stance . In South Travancore, the

br idegroom i s accompanied , bes ide s others , by a com

pan ion, who asks i n the m idst o f the assembly whether

they assent to the proposed al l iance , and , on the ir

favourable rep ly , hands over a sum of money as an

offer ing to the l ocal shrine . Another sum i s g iven for

the maintenance of the bride , and , i n the presence of the

guard ian,a sui t of c lothes i s given to her by the br ide

groom . The w i fe i s , as el sewhere , immediate ly taken

to the husband’s house . Thi s i s cal led Kud ivaippu ,

and corre sponds to the Grahapravesam ce l ebrated by

Brahmans .The fo l low ing account of marr iage among the I z havas

of Malabar i s given i n the Gazetteer of that d ist r i ct .“ A gir l may be marri ed before puberty , but the con

summat ion i s not supposed to be effected t i l l a fter

puberty,though the g i r l may l ive wi th her husband at

once . I f the marriage i s performed before p uberty,the

ceremony i s apparent ly combined with the tal i -kettu

kalyanam . The bride i s fetched from the devapura or

4 15 IZHAVA

fami ly chapel w i th a si lk ve i l over her head , and holdi ng

a betel leaf i n her r ight hand in front of her face . She

stands in the pandal on a plank , on wh ich there i s some

r ice.On her r ight stand fou r enangans o f the bride

groom,and on her left four of her own . The elder of

the bridegroom’s enangans hands one of the br ide’s

enangans a bundle contain ing the tal i , a mundu and pava

(c loths) , some ri ce , bete l leaves , and a co in cal led

meymelkanam ,which should be o f gold and worth at

least one rupee . Al l these are p rovided by the br ide

groom.He next hands the tal i to the bridegroom’s

s i ster,who t i es it . After th is , al l the enangans scat ter

r ice and flowers over the br ide . I n th is caste,the c la im

of a man to the hand of h i s paternal aunt’

s daughter

i s recognised in the ceremony cal led padikkal tada

(obstruct i on at the gate) , which cons i st s of a formal

obstruct ion offered by eleven ne ighbours to the bride’s

removal,when she i s not so re lated to her husband

.

They are bought off by a fee of two fanam s,and a

packet of betel leaf. The girl i s then taken to the

br idegroom’s house . I f very young,she i s chaperoned

by a female re lat ive . On the fourth day there i s a feast

at the br idegroom’s house cal led nalam kalyanam ,and

thi s conc l ude s the ceremon ies . Marriage after puber ty

i s cal led Pudamari . The ceremon ial i s the same,but

there i s no padikkal tada .

When an I z hava g i rl reaches puberty,the occas ion

i s one for a fou r days’ re l ig ious ceremon ial . O n the fi rst

day,the Vatt i p r iestess ano ints the g i rl w i th oi l

,and

,

after a bath,dresses her in the c loth supp l ied by the

Mannatt i (washerwoman) . She i s then laid on a broad

wooden p lank,and i s supposed not to go out unt i l she

bathes on the fourth day . Al l the female relat ions of the

fami ly present her wi th sweetmeats . On the seventh

IZHAVA 4 16

day,she i s again taken to and from the v i l lage tank

(pond) wi th much éclat , and , on her return , she e ither

t reads on cloths sp read on the floor,or i s carr ied by an

e lderly woman . After thi s , she husks a quant ity of

paddy,and cooks the rice obtained thence . I f th i s

ceremony takes p lace at the house of a headman,the

vi l lagers present h im with a vesse l fu l l of sugared r ice.

A two days’

ce remonia l , cal led Pulikudi i n north

Travancore,and Vayattu Pongala i n the south , which

corresponds to the Pum savana of Brahmans,i s observed

at the seventh month of p regnancy . On the fi rst day,

at twi l ight in the even ing , the pregnant woman , p receded

by the pr iestess, proceeds to the foot of a tamarind t ree

on the southern s ide of the compound . Arr iving there,

She rece ives a thread seven yards in length ,t o wh ich a

S i lver r ing is attached at one end,and

,by means of

c i rcumambulat ion , entwines t he t ree with the thread .

I f the thread i s by chance or inadvertence broken dur ing

th i s p rocess,the popu lar bel ie f i s that e it her the mother

or the chi ld wi l l d ie soon . Next day,t he thread i s

unwound from the tree , and a handfu l of tamarind leaves

i s g iven to the woman by her husband . On re-entering

the house,tamar ind j u ice i s poured through the hands

of the husband into those of the wi fe,who drinks it .

The priestess then pours a quant i ty of o il on the nave l

of the woman from a bete l leaf, and , from the manner in

which it flows down , i t i s be l ieved that she i s ab le to

determ ine the sex of the unborn chi ld . The woman has

to lean against a cutt ing of an ambaz ham (Spona’ias

mang ifera) t ree whi le she is dr ink ing the j ui ce,and this

cutt ing has to be p lanted i n some part of the compound .

I f i t does not grow properly,the advers ity of the

progeny i s cons idered to be sealed . The husband i s

g iven a r ing and other p resents on th is occasion .

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JADA 4 18

t hr i ce round the corp se . As he does so,the p r iest

p r icks the pot thr i ce with an i ron instrument . F inal ly,

the pot i s broken on the pyre , and the ch ief mourner

ret urns home wi thout turn ing back and l ook ing at the

corp se . O n the se cond day, an oblat i on of food (p inda)i s offered to the depar ted . The i nmates of the house

are fed with conj i (r ice grue l ) on thi s day by t he

relat ives . The Sanchayana, or col lec t i on of bones,

takes p lace on the fi fth day . Pol l ut i on las ts for fi fteen

days i n Centra l and Nort h Travancore,but only for ten

days i n t he south . There are some r i tes,no t observed

necessar i ly by al l member s of the caste,on the forty

fi rst day,and at t he end of the first year . Persons who

have d ied of contagi ous di seases , women who die after

concep t ion or on del ivery,and ch i ldren under five years

of age,are bur ied . Pol lut ion i s observed only for n ine

days when chi ldren d ie and,i n the case of men who die

of contagious d i sease,a spec ial group of ceremon ies i s

performed by the sorcerer . Those who are under pol l u

t ion , bes ides be ing forb idden to enter shr ines and o ther

sanctuar ies , may not read or wri te , or partake of l iquor ,butter , mi lk , gh i , dhal , or jaggery .

Jada.—Jada or Jandra

,mean ing great men , has

been reco rded as a synonym of Devanga and Kurn i .

J aggali .—The Jaggal is are defined , in the Manualo f the Ganjam di str ic t

,as Ur iya workers in leather in

Ganjam . I t i s recorded,i n the Madras Census Repor t ,

190 1 , that “ the trad i t i onal occupat i on o f thi s caste was

apparent ly leatherworking,but now it i s engaged in

cu l t ivat ion and m i sce l laneous labour . I t s members

4 19 JAIN

speak both Oriya and Te lugu . They admit outcaste s

from other communit ie s to the i r ranks on payment of a

smal l fee.Marriage i s e i ther in fant or adu lt, and widows

and d ivorcées may remarry . Satan is are emp loyed as

p r iest s . They eat bee f and pork , and drink alcoho l .

They bury their dead . I n some p laces they work as

syces (grooms) , and in others as firewood- se l lers and as

labourers . Patro and Behara are thei r t i t les . I t may,

I think,be accepted that the Jaggal is are Telugu

Madigas , who have sett led in Ganjam , and learnt the

O r iya language . I t i s suggested that the name i s

der ived from the Oriya jagiba, watching , as some are

vi l l age crop -watchers .

J aikonda (l i zard). —A sept of Demb .

J ain . Few,

” Mr . T . A . G0p inatha Rao writesfi‘i

even among educated persons , are aware of the ex ist

ence of J ainas and Ja ina centres in Southern I nd ia.The Madras Pre s idency d i sc l o ses vest iges of J a ina

domin ion almost everywhere , and on many a roadside

a stone Ti rthankara , stand ing or s i tt ing cro ss- legged,i s

a common enough s ight . The present day interpreta

t ion s of these images are the same al l over the Pres i

deney . I f the images are two,one rep resents a debtor

and the other a cred itor,both having met on the road

,

and wa it ing to get thei r accoun ts sett led and c leared .

I f it i s on ly one image,i t rep resents a debtor paying

pena l ty for not having squared up h i s accounts wi th hi s

cred itor .

I t i s recorded , in the Madras Census Report , 189 1 ,that “

ou t of a total o f J ains,as many as

have returned both caste and sub -d iv i s ion as J ain . The

remainder have returned 2 2 sub -d ivi s ions,o f which some

,

‘i ‘ Malabar Quart . Review , IV, 3, 1905 . S ee also T . C . R ice . Jain Sett lem en ts in Katmata . I I I , 4 , 1904 .

11-2 7 B

JAI N 4 20

such as Digambara and Swetambara,are sectar ian rather

than caste d ivi s ion s,but others l i ke Marvadi

, O sval,

Ve llalan, etc .

, are d i st inct castes . And the return s a l so

show that some Jains have returned we l l -known caste s

as the i r main caste s, for we have J ain B rahmans ,

Kshatriyas , Gandas , Vellalas, etc. The J ain Bant s

however, have a l l re turned J a in as the i r main caste .

At the Madras census,190 1 , J a ins were returned .

Though they are found in nearly every d i str ict of the

Madras Pres idency , they occur in the largest number

in the fo l lowing

South CanaraNorth ArcotSouth Arcot

At the Mysore census,

190 1 , Ja in s were

returned . t i s recorded in the report that “ the D igam

baras and Swe tambaras are the two main d ivi s ion s of

the Jain fai th . The roo t of the word D igambara means

space c lad or sky c lad ,i .e. ,

nude,whi le Swetambara

mean s c lad in white . The Swe tambaras are found more

in Northern I nd ia , and are rep re sented but by a smal l

number in Mysore . The Digambaras are sa id to l ive

abso lute ly separated from soc iety,and from a l l wordly

t ies . These are genera l ly engaged in trade,se l l ing

most ly brass and copper vesse l s,and are scattered al l over

the country,the largest number of t hem be ing found

in Shimoga,Mysore

,and Hassan di s tr ic ts . Sravana

Be lagola,in the H assan d i s tr ic t

,i s a chief seat of the

J ains of the province . T i rthankaras are the p r iests of

the J ain rel ig ion,and are al so known as Pitambaras .

The Jain Yat is or c lergy here belong to the D igambara

sect,and cover themse lves wi th a ye l low robe , and

hence the name Pithambara .

” The Dasa Banaj igas

o f Mysore style themselves Ja ina Kshatr iya Ramanujas .

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JA IN 4 22

he ight of the figure may be stated at 5 7 feet , thoughhigher est imates have been g iven— 60 feet 3 i nches by

S i r Arthur Wel les ley (afterwards Duke of Wel l ington) ,and 70 feet 3 i nches by Buchanan . Of thi s figure

,

Fergusson wr ites * t hat “ nothing grander or more

impos ing ex i sts anywhere out of Egypt,and even there

no known statue surpasses i t in he ight , t hough , i t must

he confessed,they do exce l i t in the perfect ion of art

they exhib it . ”

Other col ossa l statue s of Gummata are s i tuated on the

summit of hi l l s out s ide the towns of Karka l and Venfi r

or Yen t'

Ir i n South Canara . Concern ing the former,

Dr . E . Hult z sch wr ite s as follows .

”

r“ I t i s a mono

l i t h cons i st ing of the figure it se l f, of a s lab against

which it l ean s,and which reaches up to the wrist s

,and

of a round pedestal which i s sunk into a thousand

peta l led lotus flower . The legs and arms of the figure

are entwined w ith vines (draksha) . On both s ides of the

feet,a number of snakes are cut out of the S lab aga in st

which the image leans . Two inscript ion s l; on the S i de s

of t he same S lab state that th i s image of Bahubalin

or Gummata J inapati was set up by a chief named

Vira-Pandya,the son of Bhai rava

,i n A .D . 1431

—32 . An

inscr ip t i on of the same chief i s engraved on a graceful

stone p i l lar in front of the outer gateway . Thi s p i l lar

bears a seated figure of Brahmadeva,a chief of Patt i

pombuchcha, the modern H umcha in Mysore , who , l i ke

Vi ra-Pandya , bel onged to the fam i ly of J inadatta, bui l t

the Chaturmukha bast i i n A .D . 1586—87 . A s its name

(chaturm ukha,the fou r-faced) imp l ie s , thi s temp le has

History of I nd ian and Eastern Arch itecture.

1" Annual Report on Epigraphy , Madras , 1900—1901 .

I The inscri pt ions on the three Ja ina Co loss i o f Southern Ind ia have beenpub l ished by D r. Hul tz sch in Epigraph ia I nd ica, VI I , 1902- 1903.

STATUE OF GUMMATA AT KARKAI

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4 24

The high pr iest of the J ain bast i at Karka l in 1907

gave as hi s name Lal itha K irth i Bhattaraka Pattacharya

Variya J iyaswam igalu . H i s fu l l-dress consi sted of a

red and gold-embro idered Benares body-c loth , red and

go ld turban,and

,as a badge of offi ce

,a brush of

peacock ’s feathers mounted in a go ld handle,carr ied i n

hi s hand . O n ord inary occasion s , he carr ied a s imi lar

brush mounted in a s i lver handle . The abh ishekam

ceremony i s performed at Karkal at interva l s of many

years . A scaffold i s erected , and over the co lossa l

stat ue are pou red water , mi lk , flowers , cocoanuts , sugar ,j aggery

,sugar-candy , gold and s i lver flowers

,fr i ed

r ice,beans

,gram , sanda l paste , n ine k inds of prec iou s

stones , etc.

Concern ing the statue at Yent'

I r, Mr . Walhouse

writes that i t i s lower than the Karkala statue (4 1—5feet ) , apparent ly by three or fou r feet . I t resemb les

i t s brother co loss i in al l e ssent ial part i cu lars,but has the

spec ial pecu l iar ity of the cheeks being dimp led with a

deep grave smi le . The sa l i ent character i st i cs of al l these

co loss i are the broad square shou lders,and the thi ckness

and remarkable length of t he arms,the t ip s of the

fingers,l ike Rob Roy’s

,near ly reaching the knees .

[One of S i r Thomas Munro’s good qual i t ies was that ,

l i ke Rama,hi s arms reached to hi s knees or

,i n other

words,he possessed the qua l i ty of an Ajanubahu ,

which

i s the her itage of k ings,or those who have blue b lood

in them .] Like the others , thi s statue has the lot us

enwreath ing the legs and arms, or

,as Dr . Burnel l

s uggests,i t may be j ung le creepers

,typ ica l of wrap t

med itat i on . [There is a legend that Bahubal in was so

absorbed in med itat i on in a forest that c l imbing p lant s

Loc. ci t .

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JA IN 4 26

band o f scu lptures,among wh i ch the figure of a g i raffe

deserves to be noted . The idol in the dark innermost

shr ine i s sa id to cons ist of five metal s (pancha- t a) ,among which s i lver predominates . The bast i next in

importance i s the Gurugalabast i , where two anc ient

tal ipot (sri talam ) cop ies of t he J a ina S iddhanta arep reserved in a box with three locks

,the keys of whi ch

are in charge of three d i fferent persons . The m inor

bast i s conta in three rooms , viz .

,the Garbhagriha,

the

T irthakaramandapa , and the Namaskaramandapa .One

of the s ights of Mfidab id ire i s the ru ined palace of

the Chautar . a loca l ch ief who fol lows the Ja ina creed,

and i s in rece ipt of a pension from the Government .The pr inc ipal object s of i n terest at the palace are a

few n icely -carved wooden p i l lars . Two of them

bear representat i on s of the pancha -nari turaga,i .e.

,the

horse composed of five women,and the nava-nar i -kunjara

,

i .e.,the e lephant composed of n ine women . These are

fantast ic an imal s , which are formed by the bod ies of a

number of shepherde sse s for the amusement of the irLord Kri shna . The Jains are d iv ided into two c lasses

,

viz .,priest s (indra) and laymen (srivaka) . The former

cons ider themse lves as Brahmanas by caste . Al l t he

J a inas wear the sacred thread . The pr ie st s d ine with the

laymen,but do not intermarry with them . The former

pract ice the makkalasan tana,i .e.

,the inher i tance through

sons,and the latte r al iya- santana, i .e .

, the inheri tance

through nephews . The J ainas are carefu l to avo id

pol lut ion from contact w ith outcastes , who have to get

out of their way in the road , as I not iced myse l f. A

Jaina marr iage process ion,which I saw pass ing

,was

accompan ied by H indu dancing-gir l s . Near the western

end o f t he street in wh ich most of the J ainas l ive , a cur ious

spectac le present s it se l f. From a number of high trees,

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JAI N 4 28

ghee (c larified but ter) or jaggery (crude sugar) , e tc . ,from any bu t those o f the i r own caste . They are defi led

by en tering a Pariah vi l l age , and have to puri fy them

selves by bathing and assum ing a new thread . The

usual caste affix is Nainar , bu t a few ,general ly strangers

from other d i str icts , are cal led Rao , Chett i , Das , or

hdudahyan

At Pillapalaiyam , a suburb o f Conj eeveram in the

Ching lepu t d i s tr ict , i s a J a in temp le of cons iderab le

art i st i c beauty . I t i s noted by S i r M . E . Grant Duff I

that thi s i s le ft unfin ished , as i t would seem ,by the

o rig inal bu i lders , and adapted later to the Sh iv iteworship . Now i t i s abandoned by al l i t s worshippers

,

but on i t s front stands the censu s number 9 -A

emblemat i c of the new order o f things . ”

Concern ing the Jains of the South Arcot d i st r i ct,

Mr . W . Franc i s wr i tes 1" that “ there i s no doubt that i n

anc ient days the J ain fait h was powerfu l i n thi s d i str ict .

The Periya Puranam says that there was once a Ja in

monastery and co l lege at Patal iputra, the old name forthe modern T irupapul iyar, and remains o f J ain images

and sculptures are comparat ive ly common in the d istr ic t.

The influence of the rel ig ion doubtless waned in cou se

quence of the great Saivi te revival,which took p lace in

the early centur ies of the p resent era,and the Per iya

Puranam gives a story in connect ion therewith , which i s

of local i nteres t . I t says that the Saivite poet - sa in t

Appar was at one t ime a student in the J a in co l l ege at

Patal iputra,but was converted to Saivi sm in consequence

of the p rayers of hi s s i ster , who was a devotee of the

dei ty in the temp le at Ti ruvadi near Panrut i . The loca l

king was a Ja in , and was at fi rst enraged with Appar

Notes from 3. D iary , 1881- 86 1‘ Gazetteer of the South Arco t d istr ict .

4 29 JAI N

for hi s fervent support of hi s new faith . But eventual ly

he was h imsel f induced by Appar to b ecome a Saivi te,

and he then tu rned the Pal ipu tra monastery into a temple

t o S iva,and ordered the ext irpat ion of al l J a ins . Later

on there was a j a in rev ival , but thi s i n i ts turn was

fo l l owed by another persecut ion of the adheren ts of that

fa ith . The fol l owing story connected wi th thi s latter

occu rs in one of the Mackenz ie Manuscr ipts , and i s

supported by ex i st ing t rad it ion . I n 14 78 A .D . ,the ruler

of Gingee was one Venkatampettai , Venkatapat ifif who

bel onged to the comparat ively low caste of t he Kavarais .

H e asked the l oca l B rahmans to g ive h im one of the i r

daughters to wi fe . They said that , i f the J a ins wou ld do

so,they would fo l low su it . Venkatapat i told the J ains

of thi s answer , and asked for one of the i r g irl s as a br ide .

They took counsel among themselves how they might

avo id the di sgrace of connect ing themse lve s by marriage

with a man of such a caste , and at last pretended to agree

to the king’s proposal , and sa id that the daughter of a

cer ta in prominent J ai n wou ld be given him . On the day

fixed for the marr iage , Venkatapat i went in state to the

gi r l’s house for t he ceremony , but found i t deserted and

emp ty,except for a b itch t ied to one of the posts of t he

verandah . Fu r ious at the insul t,he i ssued orders to

behead al l J a ins . Some of the fai th were accordingly

decap itated , others fled , others again were forced to pract i ce the ir r i tes secret ly, and yet others became Saivi te s toescape death . Not long afterwards , some of the king

’s

offi cers saw a Jain named Virasénacharya performing the

ri te s pecu l iar to hi s faith in a wel l in Velur near Tind i

vanam,and hai led him before the ir master . The latter,

however,had j ust had a chi ld born to him

,was in a good

Local oral trad it ion gives h is name as D apala Kis tnappa Nayak .

JAI N 430

temper,and let the accused go free and Virasénacharya,

sobered by h i s narrow escape from death, reso lved to

become an ascet ic,went to Sravana Belgola , and there

studied the holy books of the J ai n rel ig ion . Meanwhi le

another J ain of the Gingee country , Gangayya Udaiyar

o f Tayanur i n the Tindivanam ta luk , had fl ed to the

p rotect ion o f the Zamindar of Udaiyarpal aiyam in Tr ichi

nOpoly, who befr i ended him and gave h im some land .

Thus assured of protect ion , he went t o Sravana Be lgo la ,fetched back Vi rasenacharya, and with h im made a tour

through the G ingee country, to cal l upon the Ja ins who

remained there to return to the i r anc ient fai th . These

peop le had most ly become Saivites , taken off the ir

sacred threads and put holy ashes on the ir foreheads,and

the name N i rpus i Ve llalas , or the Ve llalas who put on

holy ash,i s st i l l reta ined . The m iss ion was success fu l

,

and Jain i sm rev ived . Vi rasénacharya eventual ly d ied at

Velur,and there

,i t i s sa id , i s kept in a temp le 3. meta l

image of Parsvanatha, one of t he twenty- four Ti rthan

karas,which he brought from Sravana Belgo la . The

descendants of Gangayya Udaiyar st i l l l ive in Tayanur,and

,i n memory of the serv ice s of the i r ancesto r to the Jain

cause,they are g iven the fi rst betel and leaf on fest ive

occas ion s,and have a leading voice in thee lect ion of the

high -pr ie st at S ittamur i n the Tind ivanam taluk . Thi s

high-priest,who i s cal led Mahadh ipat i, i s e l ec ted by

representat ives from the ch ief J a in v i l lages . These

are,i n Tind ivanam ta luk

,S ittamur i t se l f

,Vi ranamur

,

Vilukkam ,Peramandur

, A lagramam,and the Velu r

and Tayam‘

i r a l ready ment ioned . The high -priest has

supreme author ity over al l j ains south of Madras , but not

over those i n Mysore or South Canara,with whom the

South Arcot communi ty have no relat ions . He trave l s

round in a palanqu in w i th a su ite of fo l lowers to the

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JAIN 432

playing of music , and rec i t ing of sacred verses . These

ceremon ie s are performed by members of the Archaka

or pri e st c las s . The dai ly private worship in the houses

i s done by the laymen themse lves before a smal l image

o f one of the Ti rthankaras , and dai ly ceremon ie s

resemb l ing those of the Brahmans , such as the pronoun

c ing of t he sacred mantram at daybreak , and the rec i ta l

o f forms of prayer thr ice da i ly , are observed . The j ain s

bel ieve in the doctrine of re-b i rths,and hold t hat the

end of al l i s N i rvana . They keep the S ivaratri and

D ipavali feast s , but say that they do so,not for the

reasons which lead H indus to revere these dates,but

because on them the fi rst and the last of the twenty- four

T i rthankaras atta ined beat i tude . S im i lar ly they observe

Pongal and the Ayudha p uj a day . They adhere c lose ly

to the inj unct ions of the i r fa ith proh ib it ing the taking

of l i fe,and

,to guard themse lves from unwitt ingly

infr ing ing them , they do not eat or drink at n ight lest

they might thereby destroy smal l i n sec ts which had got

unseen into the i r food . For the same reason,they fi lter

through a c loth al l m i lk or water which they use,eat

on ly curds , ghee and o il which they have made them

selve s with due precaut ions against the taking of i n sect

l i fe , or known to have been s imi larly made by other J ain s ,and even avo id the use of she l l chunam (l ime) . The

Vedakkarans (Shikar i or hunt ing caste) trade on these

scrup le s by catch i ng smal l b i rds,bring ing them to j ain

houses,and demand ing money to spare the i r l ives .

The Jain s have fou r sub -divi s ions,namely

,the ord inary

laymen , and three pr i es t ly c lasses , Of the latte r,the

most numerous are the Archakas (or Vadyars) . Theydo the worship in the temples . An ord inary layman

canno t become an Archaka ; i t i s a c las s apart . An

Archaka can , however , r i se to the next higher o f the

433 JAIN

pries t l y c lasses , and become what i s cal led an Annam

or Annuvrit i,a kind of monk who i s a l lowed to marry

,

bu t has to l ive according to certa in spec ial ru les of conduct . These Annams can again r i se to the highest of

the three c lasses,and become N irvan is or Mun i s

,monks

who lead a ce l ibate l i fe apar t from the wor ld . There

i s al so a s i sterhood of nuns , ca l l ed Aryanganais , who

are sometimes maidens , and somet imes women who

have left thei r husbands,but must in e ither case take a

vow of chast ity. The monks shave thei r heads,and

dres s in red the nuns s im i lar ly shave,but wear whi te .

Both of t hem carry as marks of the ir condit ion a bras s

vesse l and a bunch of peacock’s feathers , with which

latter they sweep c lean any p lace on which they s it

down , l est any insect should be there . To both c lasses

the other j ains make namaskaram (re spectfu l sa lutat i on)when they meet them

,and both are maintained at the

cost of the rest of t he community . The laymen among

the j ain s wi l l not intermarry , though they wi l l d ine with

the Archakas,and these latter consequent ly have the

greatest trouble in p rocuring br ides for the ir son s,and

often pay Rs . 200 or Rs . 300 to secure a sui table match .

Otherwi se there are no marr iage sub -d ivi s ions among

the commun ity,all J ains south of Madras free ly inter

marrying . Marr iage takes p lace e ither before or after

puberty . Widows are not al lowed to remarry, but are

not required to shave the i r heads unt i l t hey are m iddle

aged . The dead are burnt , and the death pol l ut ion

lasts for twe lve days , after whic h per iod pur ificat i on i sperformed

,and the part ie s must go to the temp le .

j ain s wi l l not eat with H indus . The ir domest i c

ceremonies,such as those of bir th, marr iage , death and

so on resemble general ly those of the B rahmans . A

cur ious difference i s that,t hough the gir l s never wear

11—28

JAIN 434

t he thread,t hey are taught the thread -wearing mantram ,

amid al l t he ceremon ies usual in the case of boys , when

they are about e ight year s old .

I t i s recorded,i n the report on E p igraphy , 1906

1907 , that at Ey il i n the South Arcot d ist r ict the J ains

asked the Co l lector for perm i ss i on to use the stone s of

t he S iva temp le for repair ing the ir own . The Co l lector

cal led upon t he H indus to put the S iva temp le in order

wi thin a year,on pai n of i t s be ing treated as an e scheat .

Near the town of Madura i s a large i so lated mass

of naked rock , which i s known as Anaimala i (e lephant

hi l l ) .“ The Madura S thala Purana says i t i s a petr ified

e lephant . The Ja in s of Conj eeveram ,says t h i s chro

n ic le,tr ied to convert the Saiv i te peop le of Madura to

.he J a i n fa i th . Find ing the task diffi cul t,t hey had

recourse to magic . They dug a great p it ten m i les l ong,

performed a sacr ifice t hereon,and thus caused a huge

e l ephant to ar i se from it . Thi s beast they sent against

Madura . I t advanced towards the town,shak ing the

whol e earth at every step , with the j a in s marching

c lo se behind i t . But the Pandya king invoked the a id

of S iva, and the god aro se and s lew the e lephant with

hi s arrow at the spot where i t now l ie s petrified.

” 6

I n connect ion with the long barren rock near

Madura cal led Nagamalai (snake hi l l) ,“ l ocal legends

dec lare that it i s the remains of a huge serpent , brought

into ex i stence by the magic art s of t he Ja ins,which was

on ly prevented by the grace of S iva from devour ing t he

fervent ly Saiv ite c i ty i t so near ly approaches . T Two

miles south of Madura is a smal l hi l l of rock named

Pasumalai . “ The name means cow hi l l , and the legend

in the Madura S thala Purana says that the J a ins , be ing

Gazetteer of the Madura. d istr ict. 1 M i d .

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JAI N 436

i nfluence,and he and a l l h i s subjects had become con

vert s to the new fai th . The queen and the pr ime

min i ster,however , were secret adherent s t o the cu l t of

S iva,whose temp le was deserted and closed . They

secret ly inv ited S ri Gnana Sammandha to the cap ital,

i n t he hope that he m ight he lp in ext i rpat ing the

fol l owers of the obnoxious J a in re l ig ion . H e accord

ingly arr ived w i t h t housands of fo l lowers , and took up

hi s abode in a mutt or monastery on t he north s ide of

the Vaigai r iver . When the J ain pr ie st s,who were

e ight thousand i n number,found thi s out , they se t fi re

to hi s re s idence with a view to destroying him . H is

d i sc ip les,however

,extingu i shed the fl ames . The saint

,

re sent ing the comp l i c i ty of the k ing in the plo t,wi l led

that the fi re should turn on him,and burn him in the

form of a v iru lent feve r . Al l the endeavours of the J ain

p r iests to cure him with medic ines and incantat ion s

fa i led . The queen and the p r ime -min i ster impressed

on the roya l pat ient the vi rtues of the Saiva saint,and

p rocured hi s admi ss ion into the pa lace . When Sam

mandha Swami offered to cure the king by s imp ly

throwing sacred ashes on him , the j a in pr iest s who

were present contended that they must st i l l be g iven a

chance . So it was mutual ly agreed between them that

each party shou ld undertake to cure hal f the body ofthe pat ient . The hal f a l lotted to Sammandha was at

once cured , whi le the fever raged wi th redoub led sever

ity i n the other hal f. The king acco rd ing ly requested

Sammandha to t reat the rest of hi s body, and ordered

the J a ina priests to w ithdraw from h is p resence . The

touch of Sammandha’

s hand , when rubb ing the sacred

ashes over him,cured not on ly the fever , but a l so the

hunched back . The king now looked so gracefu l that

he was thenceforward cal led Sundara (beaut i fu l) Pandyan .

437 JAIN

He was re -converted to Saiv i sm , the doors of the S iva

temple were re-opened,and the wo rsh ip of S iva therei n

was restored . The j ain p riest s , not sat i sfied with their

d iscomfiture , offered to establ i sh the mer its of thei r

re l ig ion in other ways . They suggested that each party

shou ld throw the cadjan (palm - leaf) books contain ing

the doctr ines o f their respec t ive re l ig ions into a big fi re,

and that the party whose books were burnt to ashe s

shou ld be cons idered defeated . The saint acced ing to the

proposal,the books were thrown into the fi re , with the

resu l t that those fl ung by Samm andha were un inj ured,

while no t race of the J a in books remained . St i l l not

sat i sfied,the J ains p roposed that the rel ig ious books

of both part ies should be cast into the flooded Vaigai

r ive r,and that the party whose books trave l led against

the curren t shou ld be regarded as victor ious . The

Jains promi sed Samm andha that , i f they fai led in this

tr ial,they wou ld become h i s s laves , and serve him in

any manner he p leased . But Sammandha rep l ied :“ We have al ready got s ixteen thousand d i sc ip les to

serve us . You have p rofaned the name of the supreme

S iva,and commi tted sacr i lege by your avers ion to the

use of h is emb lems , such as sacred ashes and beads .

So your pun ishment shou ld be commensurate with your

vi le deeds . ” Confident of succes s,the Ja ins offered to

be impa led on stakes i f they lost . The tria l took p lace,

and the books of the Sa ivi tes t rave l led up stream .

Sammandha then gave the J ain s a chance of escape by

embrac ing the Saiva fai th , to which some of them

became convert s . The number thereo f was so great

that the avai labl e supply of sacred ashes was exhaus ted .

Such of the Jains as remained unconverted were impaled

on stakes resembl ing a su la or t ri dent . I t may be noted

that , i n the Mahabharata , R i sh i Mandav iar i s said to

JAI N VAI SYA 438

have been impa led on a stake on a fa l se charge of theft .And Ramanuja, t he Guru of the Vaishnav ites

,i s also

said to have impaled heret ic s on stake s i n the Mysore

p rovince . The event s recorded in the narrat ive of

S ammandha and the j ains are gone through at five of

the twelve annua l fe st ival s at the Madura temp le . On

these occas ions , which are known as impa l ing fest iva l

days,an image represent ing a j ain impaled on a stake

is carried i n process ion . According to a trad it ion the

vi l lages of Mela K i lavu and K i ] K i lavu near Solavandan

are so named because the stakes (ki lavu) p lanted fort he destruct ion of the j ains i n the t ime of Tirugnana

extended so far from the town of Madura .

For detai l s of the l iterature re lat ing to the J ains , I

wou ld refer the reader to A . Guérinot’

s‘ Essa i de

B ib l i ographie J aina,

’ Anna les du Musée Gu imet,Pari s

,

1906.

J ain Vaisya .—The name assumed by a sma l l co lony

of Ban ians,who have sett l ed in Nat ive Cochin . They

are sai d * to frequent the kal l i (s tone) pagoda in the

Kannuthnad taluk of North Travancore,and be l i eve

t hat he who p roceeds th ither a suffic ient ly large number

of t imes obta in s sa lvat i on . Of recent years,a figure of

Brahma i s said to have sp rung up of i t se l f on the topo f the rock , on which the pagoda i s s i tuated .

J akku la.-Descr ibed Tas an infer ior c lass of prost i

tutes , most ly of the Bal ij a caste and as wizards and a

danc ing and theat r ical caste . At Tena l i,i n the K i stna

di str ic t,i t was cu stomary for each fami ly to give up one

g i r l for p rost i tut i on . She was “ marr ied to any chance

comer for one n ight with the usual ceremon ie s . Under

the influence of soc ial reform , the members of the caste ,

N . Sunkun i Wariar. I nd . An t. , ! ! I , 1892 .

f Madras Census Report , 1901 Nel lore Manual .

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JALAGADUGU 440

and in the sweep ings of go ldsmi ths’ shop s . A modest

l ivel ihood i s a lso obta ined,in some p laces

,by extract ing

gold from the bed of r ivers or nu l lahs (water-courses) .The name i s der ived from ja la

,water

, gadugu ,wash .

The equ ivalent Jalakara i s reco rded , i n the Be l lary

Gazet teer,as a sub -divi s ion of Kabbéra .

I n the c ity of Madras , go ld-washers are to be found

work ing in the fou l s ide drain s in front of j ewe l lers’ shops .

The Hea l th O fficer to the Corporat ion in forms me that

he often chases them,and breaks the ir

'

pots for obstruct

ing publ i c drain s in the ir hunt for p ieces of go ld and

ot her metal s .

For t he fo l lowing note on t he go ld-washers of

Madras,I am indebted to Dr . K . T . Mathew :

“ Thi s

industry i s carr ied on in t he c i ty by the Oddars , and was

pract ical ly monopo l i sed by them t i l l a few years back,

when other caste s,most ly of the lower orders , stepped in .

The Oddars now form a popu lat ion of severa l thousands

in the c ity,the i r chief occupat ion be ing conservancy

coo ly work . The process of gold wash ing i s carr ied out

by women at home , and by the aged and adu l t s in the ir

spare hours . The ashes,sweep ings

,and refuse from the

go ldsmiths’

shop s are co l lected on payment of a sum

rang ing from one rupee to ten rupees per mensem ,and

are brought in baskets to a conven ient p lace a longs ide

the ir huts , where. they are stored for a var iab le t ime .

The drain s i l ts from street s where there are a large

number of j ewe l lers’

shops are s im i lar ly co l lected,but

,in

thi s case the on ly payment to be made i s a present to

the Mun ic ipal peon . The materia l s so co l lected are left

undi sturbed for a few days or several months,and thi s

storing away for a t ime i s said to be necessary to fac i l i tate

the extract i on of the gold,as any immediate attempt to

wash the stuff re su l t s in great loss in the quant ity

44 1 JALAGADUGU

obtained . From the heap as much as can b e taken on

an ord inary spade i s pu t into a boat -shaped tub open at

one end,p laced c l o se to the heap , and so arranged tha t

the waste water from the tub flows away from the heap

behind,and co l lect s in a sha l low poo l in front . The

water from the pool i s co l l ected in a smal l chatty (earthenvesse l ), and poured over the heap in the tub , which i s

cont inua l ly st irred up with the other hand . A l l the

l ighter stuff in thi s way flows out of the tub,and a l l the

hard stones are every now and then p icked out and

thrown away . Thi s process goes on unt i l about a coup le

of handfu ls of dark sand , etc.,are left in the tub . To

this a sma l l quant i ty of mercury i s added , bri sk ly rubbed

for a minute or two,and the process of washing goes

on , cons iderab le care be ing taken to see t hat no part ic le

of mercury e scapes,unt i l at last the mercury, with a great

many part ic les of meta l l i c dust attached , i s co l lec ted in

a smal l chatty— often a broken p iece of a pot . The

mercury, with the meta l l ic part ic l e s in i t , i s then we l l

washed with c lean water , and put into a t iny bag formed

of two layer s of a p iece of rag . The mass i s then gent ly

pressed unt i l al l the mercury fa l l s into a chatty be low,

leaving a smal l flattened mass of dark substance in the

bag,which i s carefu l ly co l lected , and kept i n another dry

chatty . The washing process i s repeated unt i l enough

of the dark substance— about a third of a teaspoonful

i s co l le c ted . Thi s sub stance is then mixed w ith powdered common sa l t and br i ck-dust

,put into a broken p iece

of a pot , and covered with another p iece . The whole i s

p laced in a large earthen vessel,with cow-dung cakes

wel l packed above and below . A b laz ing fire i s soon

produced,and kept up t i l l the mass i s mel ted . This

mass is careful ly removed , and again me lted with borax

in a hole made in a p iece of good charcoal,by b lowing

JALARI 44 2

through a reed or ho l low bamboo,un ti l t he gold separates

from the mass . The fi re is t hen sudden ly quenched,and

the p iece of go ld i s separated and removed.

Jalari .—The Jalaris are Te lugu fi shermen , palanquinbearers , and cul t ivators in Ganjam and Vizagapatam .

The name , Mr. C . Hayavadana Rao wr ites,i s derived

from jala , a net . Some are fresh -water fi shermen,whi le

others fi sh with a cas t -net (v isuru valalu) from the sea

shore , or on the Open sea . They bear the name Ganga

vam sam u,or peop le of Ganga , i n the same way that a

d ivi s i on of the Kabbéra fi shing caste is ca l l ed Gangi

makkalu . I n caste organ i sat ion,ceremon ia l

,etc

.,the

Jalaris co inc ide wi th the M i las . They are ca l led No l i

ya s by the Oriyas of Ganjam . They have house-names

l ike other Te lugus , and the i r fema les do not wear brass

bangle s,as low-caste O r iya women do .

The Jalaris have two endogamous d ivi s i ons , ca l led

panrendu kot la (twelve pos ts) , and edu kot la (seven

posts) , i n reference to the number of posts for the booth.

The former c la im super ior i ty over the latter, on the

ground that they are i l legit imate Jalaris , or recent ly

admitted into the caste .

Like o ther Te l ugu castes , t he Jalaris have a caste

counc i l under the control of a headman cal l ed Pi l la.I n

im itat ion o f the O r iyas , t hey have created an ass i stan t

headman cal led Do lobehara, and they have the usual

caste servant .

I n t he ir p uberty,marr iage and death ceremon ies

,

t hey clo se ly fo l l ow the Vadas and Fal le s . The proh ib i

t ion s regard ing marriage are of the Te lugu form,but

,

l ike the O r iya castes , the Jalaris al l ow a widow to marry

her deceased hu sband’s younger brother . The marr iage

ceremon ie s las t fo r three days . O n the firs t day,the

panda l (booth) , with the usua l mi lk -post , is erected . For

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JALARI 444

d igamet lu (shou lder-po le) , with two baskets t ied to theends

,i s carr ied . I n one of the basket s a number of s ieve s

and smal l baskets are p laced , and in the other one or more

cat s . Thi s digame tlu i s a lways referred to by the Vadas

when they are quest ioned as to t he d ifference between

the ir marr iage ceremon ie s and those of the Jalaris .

Other caste s laugh at th i s custom,and it i s consequent ly

dying out .

The Jalaris always marry young gir l s . One reason

ass igned for th i s i s t he i ncome to marr ied young g i r l s

at the t ime of the marriage ceremon ies . Two or more

marr ied coup les are i nv ited to remain at the house i n

which the marriage takes p lace,to he lp the bridal coup le

in the ir to i lette,and ass i st at the nalagu , evi l eye waving ,

and other r i tes . They are rewarded for t he ir serv i ce s

w ith present s . Another in stance of in fant marr iage

be ing the ru le on account of pecun iary ga in i s found

among t he D iksh itar Brahmans of Chidambaram . Only

marr ied ma les have a vo ice in temp le affa irs,and rece ive

a share of the temp l e income . Consequent ly , boys are

somet imes marr ied when they are seven or e ight years

old . At every Jalari marr iage , meal s must be g iven to

the castemen ,a rupee to t he representat ives of the

patnam s , twe lve annas to the headman and h is as s i stant ,and three rupees to the Malas .

Like other Te lugu caste s , t he Jalaris have int ipérus

(sept s) , which resemble those of the Vadas . Amongthem

,J onna and Bugur i are common . I n the i r re l ig i ous

Observances,the Jalaris c l o se ly fo l low the Vadas .

The Madras Museum possesse s a co l lect ion of c lay

and wooden figure s,such as are worshipped by the

fi shing caste s at Gopa lpur,and other p lace s on the

Ganjam coast . Concern ing these , Mr . J . D’A . C . Rei l ly

wr ites to me as fo l lows . The spec imens represent the

445 JALARI

chief gods worshipped by the fi shermen . The Tahs i ldar

of Berhampu r got them made by'

the potters and

carpenters,who usual ly make such figures for the

GOpalp t'

I r fi shermen . I have found fi sherm en’

s shrine s

at several p laces . Separate fami l ie s appear to have

separate shrines , some cons i st ing of large chatt ie s

(earthen pot s) , occasional ly ornamented , and turnedup side down

,with an Open ing on one s ide . O thers

are made of bri cks and chunam (l ime) . A l l that I haveseen had thei r opening towards the sea . Two c lasses

of figures are p laced in these shr ine s , viz .,c lay figures o f

gods,which are worshipped before fi sh ing expedit ions

,

and when there i s danger from a part icu lar d i sease which

they prevent and wooden figures of deceased re lat ions,

which are quite as imaginat ive as the c lay figures.

Figure s of gods and re lat ions are p laced in the same fami ly

shr ine . There are hundreds of gods to choose from,and

the se lect ion appears to be a matter of fami ly taste and

tradi t ion . The figure s which I have sent were made by

a potter at Venkatarayapalle ,and painted by a carpenter

at Uppulapat t i , both vi l lages near GOpalp r. The

Tahsi ldar te l ls me that , when he was inspect ing them

at the Gopalpur trave l ler’

s bunga low, s ixty or seventy

firshermen objected to thei r gods be ing taken away . H e

pac ified them by tel l ing them that i t was because the

Government had heard of the i r devoti on to the i r gods

that they wanted to have some of t hem in Madras . The

co l lect ion of c lay figures inc ludes the fo l lowing

Benga l i Babu .

—Wears a hat , and rides on a b lack

horse . He b lesses the fi shermen , secures large hau l s

of fish for them,and guards them aga inst danger when

out fi shing .

Samalamma .

—Wears a red skirt and green coat

and protect s the fi shermen from fever .

446

Rajamma, a female figure , with a sword in her r ight

hand,r id ing on a black e lephan t . She b lesse s barren

women with chi ldren,and favours her devotee s with

b ig catche s when they go out fi sh ing .

Yerenamma,r id ing on a white horse

,with a sword

in her right hand . She protect s fi shermen from drown

ing,and from be ing caught by b ig fi sh .

Bhagi rathamma,r id ing on an elephant

,and having

e ight or twe lve hands . She help s fi shermen when

fi shing at n ight,and protects them against chole ra

,

dysentery,and other i nte st inal d i sorders .

Nukalamma .

—Wears a red jacket and green skirt,

and protect s the fi shing commun ity again st smal l -pox .

O rosondi Ammavaru .

-Prevents the boats from

be ing sunk or damaged .

Bhagadev i .— Rides on a t iger

,and protects the

commun ity from cho lera .

Veyyi Kannula Ammavaru , or the goddes s of a

thousand eyes , represented by a pot p ierced w ith holes ,i n which a g inge l ly (S esamum ) o il l ight i s burnt . She

attends to the genera l wel fare of the fi sher fo lk .

J é li (A cacia am éz'

ca) . -A gotra of Kurn i .

J alli .—J al l i , mean ing palm tasse l s put round theneck and horn s of bul l s

,occurs as an exogamous sept

of Jogi . The name occurs further as a sub -divi s ion of

Kevuto .

J émbava .—A synonym of the Madigas , who c laim

descent from the r i sh i Aud i Jambavadu .

J ambu (E ugen ia j ambo/cm a) . —An exogamous sept

of Odde.

J émbuvar (a monkey king with a bear’s face) . -An

exogamou s sep t of Kondaiyamkottai Maravan .

J amkhanvala (carpet -maker) .— An occupat ional

name for Patnulkarans and Patvégars .

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JANAPPAN 448

(j anapa , Cram/ar ia f um ed ) , and so obta ined the i r name .

But they are now met wi th as Dasaris or re l ig iou s

beggars , sweetmeat -se l l e rs , and hawkers of Engl i sh

c loths and other goods . By the t ime they have obtained

to the last honourabl e p rofess ion,they assume to be

Bal ijas . Telugu i s the i r vernacu lar,and Chett i the ir

usua l caste name . Accord ing to the i r own trad it i on,

they sprung from a yagam (sacr ifi c ia l r i t e) made byB rahma

,and the ir remote ancestor thu s produced was

,

they say,asked by the merchants of the country to

inven t some means for carry ing about the i r wares. H e

obtained some seeds from the ashes of Brahma’s yagam,

which he sowed,and the p lant which sprang up was the

country hemp,which he manu factu red into a gunny-bag .

The Janapa Chet t is are enterpr i s ing men in the ir way,

and are much emp loyed at the fai rs at Gud iyattam and

other p laces as catt le -brokers .”

The Saluppans say that they have twenty-fou r

gotras , which are d ivided into group s of s ixteen and

e ight . Marriage i s forb idden between members of

the same group,bu t perm itted between members of the

s ixteen and e ight gotras . Among the names of the

gotras , are the fo l lowing

Vasava.

Vamme.

Mummudi.

P i l l i Vankaravan .

Makkiduvan .

Thal lelan .

Gendagiri.

The Janappans of the Telugu country a lso say that

they have on ly twenty-fou r gotras . Some of these are

totemi st i c i n character . Thus , members of the Kappala

(frog) gotra owe thei r name to a trad it ion that on one

449 JANAPPAN

occas ion,when some of the fam i ly were fi sh ing

,they

caugh t a hau l of big frogs in stead of fi sh . Consequently,

members of thi s gotra do not inj ure frogs . Members of

the Thonda or Thonda Maha R i sh i got ra abstain from

using the fru it or leaves of the thonda p lant (Crap/Ia

l andm The fru i ts of th i s p lant are among

the commonest of nat ive vegetables . I n l ike manner,

members of the Mukkanda sept may not u se the fru i t of

M omordz’

m Ckam n tz’

a . Those o f the Vamme got ra

abs tain from eat ing the fi sh cal led bombadai,because

,

when some of the i r ancestors went to fetch water in

the marriage pot , they found a number of th i s fi sh in

the water col lected in the po t . So,too

,i n the Kola

gotra, the eat ing of the fi sh cal l ed kolas i i s forb idden .

I n thei r marriage cu stoms , those who l ive in the

Telugu country fo l low the Telugu Puran ic form ,whi le

those who have sett l ed i n the Tami l country have

adopted some of the marriage r i tes thereof. There are,

however , some po int s of i nterest i n the i r marr iage

ceremonies . On the day fixed for the betrothal,tho se

assembled wait s i lent ly l i s ten ing for the chi rp ing of a

l izard , which i s an au sp ic ious s ign . I t i s sa id that the

match i s broken off, i f the ch i rp ing i s not heard . I f the

omen proves au sp ic ious , a smal l bund le of n ine to twe lve

kinds of pul ses and gra in i s g i ven by the br idegroom’s

father to the father of the br ide . This i s p reserved,and

exam ined severa l days after the marr iage . I f the grain

and pu lses are in good condi t i on,i t i s a s ign that the

newly marr ied coup le w i l l have a prosperous career.There are both Saiv i tes and Vaishnav ites among

these people, and the former predom inate in the

sou thern d i str ict s . Most of the Vaishnav ites are

d i sc ip l es of Bhatraz us . The Bhatraz u pr iest goesround per iodical ly

,co l l ect i ng h i s fees . Those among

I r—29

JANDAYI 4so

the Saiv i tes who are rel ig ious ly incl ined are d i sc ip les o fPandaram s of mu t t s (re l ig ious inst itut ions) . Those

who have sett led in the Salem dist r i ct seem to consider

Damayant i and Kamatch i as the caste de it ie s .The manufacture of gunny-bags i s s t i l l carr ied on

by some members of the caste,but they are main ly

engaged in trade and agr icu ltu re . I n the c ity of

Madras,the sa le of var iou s kinds of fru it s i s large ly in

the hands of the Janappan s .

Sat hu vand lu , mean ing a company of merchants or

t ravel lers , occurs as a synonym of Janappan .

I n the Mysore Census Report , 190 1 , Janappa i s

returned as a sub -d iv i s ion of the Gon igas , who are

sack -weavers,and maker s of gunny-bags .

J anday i (flag) .— An exogamous sept of Yanadi .

J anga (ca l f of the leg) . —An exogamous sept of

Mala .

J angal Jati .—A synonym , denot ing j ung le fo lk , ofthe Kuriv ikaran s or Kattu Marathi s .

J angam .—It i s noted , i n the Madras Census Report ,

190 1 , that“ str i ct ly Speaking , a Jangam i s a priest to the

re l ig i ous sect of Lingayats , but the term i s frequent ly

l oose ly app l ied to any Lingayat , which accounts for the

large numbers under th i s head Jangam s

proper are said to be of two c las se s , Pat tadikaris , who

have a defin ite head -quarters , and Charamurt is , who go

from v i l lage to v i l lage , p reaching the pr inc ip les of the

Lingayat sect . Many Jangam s are pr iests to Sudras

who are not Lingayats , others are mere ly re l ig ious

beggars,and others of them go in fo r trade . I n the

Census Report,189 1 , i t i s further recorded that

“ the

fu l l name i s Jangama Lingayat, mean ing those who

always worship a moveable l ingam , i n contrad i st inct ion

to the S thavara (immoveable ) l ingam of the temp le s .

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JANMI 4 52

Janman denotes (I ) b irth , b irthright , p roprietorship (2 )freeho ld property

,which i t was cons idered d i sgracefu l to

a l ienate . Janmabhogam i s the share in the produce ofthe land , which i s due to the I n 1805

—1806,

the Co l lecto r of Malabar obta ined , for the purpose of

carry ing out a scheme of assessment approved by

Government,a return from al l p rop r ietors of the

seed,p roduce

,etc .

,of al l the ir fie lds . This ret urn i s

usual ly known as the Janm i pymaish of 981 ME .

(Malabar era) . lL

Writ ing to me concern ing Ma labar at the present

day,a correspondent state s that “ i n almost every tal uk

we have j ungle tr ibes , who cal l t hemse lves the men of

Janm is . I n the o ld days , when forest s were so ld , thei nhab itants were actual ly entered in the contract as part

of the effects , as , i n former t imes , the landlord so ld the

aa’scmjfi z

’

or ascm’

fi z‘

z

’

g leéx with the land . Now that i s

not done . However , the re lat ion ship ex i st s to the fol

lowing extent,accord i ng to what a Tahs i ldar (nat ive

mag i st rate) te l l s me . The t ribesmen roam about the

forest s at wi l l,and each year select a p lace , whi ch has

lain fa l l ow for five years o r more for a l l k inds of cul t i

vat ion .Somet imes they inform the Janm is t hat they

have done so ,somet imes they do not . Then , at harvest

t ime,the Janm i , or h i s agent , goes up and takes hi s

share of the p roduce . They never try to dece ive the

Janm i . He i s asked to sett le the i r d ispute s , but these

are rare.They never go to law . The Janm i can ca l l

on them for labour, and they give i t wi l l ingly . I f bad ly

treated,as they have been at t imes by encroaching

p lainsmen,they run off to another fore st

,and serve

another Janm i . At the Onam fest iva l they come with

W igram ,Malabar Law and Custom .

1‘ Logan ,

Manual of Malabar, wh ich contains fu l l detai ls concern ing J anm is.

453 JATAPU

gifts for the Janm i, who stands them a feast . The

re lat ion between the j ungle folk and the Janm i showsthe inst inc t in a pr imit ive peop l e to have a lord . There

seems to be no gain in having a Janm i . H is p rotect ion

i s not needed , and he i s hardly ever ca l led in to interfere .

I f they refused to pay the Janm i h i s dues , he wou ld

find it very hard to ge t them . St i l l they keep him . I n

the m iddle of the last century,when p lanters fi rst began

to sett le in t he Malabar Wynad , they purchased theland from the Janm is with t he Pan iyans l iv ing on i t,who were pract ical ly slaves of the landowners .

The hered itary r ights and perqu i s ite s c la imed,i n the i r

v i l lages,by the astro loger

,carpenter

,go ldsmith

,washer

man , barber , etc .,are cal led Cherujanmam .

J anni .—The name of t he caste pr iest s of Jatapus .

J apanese .—At the Mysore censu s , 190 1 , two

J apanese were retu rned . They were managers of the

s i l k farm inst ituted on J apanese methods by Mr . Tata

of Bombay in the vi c in i ty o f Bangalo re .

J i m—A few members o f thi s North I ndian c lass ofMuhammadans

,engaged in trade

,have been returned at

t imes of census i n Mysore .

Jatapu .—The Jatapus are defined , i n the Madras

Census Report , 190 1 , as“ a c ivi l i sed sect ion of the

Khonds,who speak Khond on the hi l l s and Telugu

on the p la in s,and are now pract i cal ly a d ist inct caste .

They con sider themse lves super ior to those Khonds

who st i l l eat beef and snakes,and have taken to some

of the ways o f the castes of the p la ins . ”

For the fol lowing note,I am indebted to Mr . C .

Hayavadana Rao . The name Jatapu i s popu lar ly be

l ieved to be an abbrev iated form of Konda Jatapu

Doralu,or l ords of t he Khond caste . To t h i s caste the

old chiefs of the Palkonda Zamindar i are said to have

JATAPU 454

be longed . I t is d iv ided into a number o f septs,such

,

for examp le , as

Thor ika or Thoyika, who revere t he thor ika kodi ,a spec ie s of wi ld fowl .

Kadrika,who revere another spec ies of fow l .

Mamdangi , who revere the bu l l or cow .

Addaku , who revere the addaku (B atu /t im er m ae

mosa) , which i s u sed by low-country peop le for eat ing

p latters .

Konda Gorre, who revere a certa in breed of sheep .

Naval ip itta , who revere the peacock .

Arika, who revere the arika (P asfi al zzm scroéz

’

cu

latum ) .

Other sept s,recorded in the Census Report

, 190 1 ,

are Koalaka (arrow) , Kutraki (wi ld goat) , and Vinka

(white ant , T

Marr iage is ce lebrated e ither before or after a g ir l

reaches puberty . A man may c la im hi s paterna l aunt’s

daughter as hi s w ife . The marr iage ceremon ies c losely

re semble those of the low—country Telugu type . The

br ide-pr i ce,cal led vol i , i s a new c loth for the bride

’s

mother,r i ce

,var iou s k inds of grain , and l iquor . The br ide

i s conducted to t he house of the br idegroom , and a

feast i s he ld . On the fo l lowing morn ing , the kallagolla

sambramam (toe-nai l cutt ing) ceremony takes p lace ,and

,later on

,at an ausp ic i ou s hour

,the wri st threads

(kankanam ) are t ied on t he wr i sts of the contract ing

coup le,and the ir hands j o ined together . They then

bathe , and another feast i s he ld . The remarr iage of

widows i s a l l owed,and a younger brother may marry

the widow of hi s e lder brother . Divorce i s perm itted ,and divorcées may remarry .

The dead are u sual ly buried,but those who d ie from

snake -b ite are said to be burnt . Death po l lut ion last s

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JAURA 456

I t i s recorded by Mr . M . Paupa Rao Naidu’l< that

some Koravas, who go by the name o f Jat ipall i Kora

vas, are prevalen t in the southern d i str ict s of the Madras

Pres idency,moving always in gangs

,and giving much

troub le . Thei r women tat too in retu rn for gra in,money

,

or c loths , and he lp their men in gett ing acqua inted with

the nature and conten ts o f the houses .

J aura .—The J auras are a smal l O r iya caste

,c lose ly

a l l ied to the Khoduras , the members of which manufac

t ure lac (j au) bangles and o ther art ic les . Lac,i t may be

noted , i s large ly used in I nd ia for the manufactu re of

bang l es,r ings

,beads , and o the r tr inkets worn as orna

ments by women of the poorer c lasses . Dh ippo (l ight)and moh iro (peacock) occur as common exogamous

septs among the J auras, and are objects of reverence .

The J auras are main ly Sa iv ites , and Suramangala and

Bimmala are the caste de i t ie s . Tit le s used by members

of the caste are Dansé,Sahu

,Dhov

, and Mahapatro .

J avvé di (c ivet -cat) .— An exogamous sep t of Medara .

J e lakuppa (a fish) . —An exogamous sep t of Kuruba .

J én (honey) .— A sub-d ivi s ion of Kurumba .

J enna .-A t i t le of Oriya castes , e.g . , Bolasi and

Kalinj i.

J erribé tula (cent ipedes) . —An exogamous sep t ofBoya .

J etti .—A Te lugu caste of p rofe ss iona l wrest lers andgymnasts

,who

,i n the Te l ugu d i str ic ts

,shampoo and rub

in o intments to cure nerve pains and other d i sorders .

I n Tanj ore,though l iving i n a Tami l envi ronment, they

speak Telugu . They wear the sacred thread, and

cons ider themse lves to be of super ior caste , never

descending to any degrad ing work . During the days

History of Korawars, Erukalas, or Kaikaries . Madras, 1905 .

457 I ETTI

of the Rajas of Tanjore , they were emp loyed in guarding

the treasury and j ewe l rooms . But , s ince the death of

the late Raj a,mos t of them have emigrated to Mysore

and other . Nat ive States , a few only remain ing in

Tanj ore,and res iding in the fort .

The J et t is , i n Mysore , are said to have been some

t imes emp loyed as execut ioners , and to have despatched

the ir v i ct im by a twi s t of the neck.T Thus, i n the last

war against Tipu Su l tan , Genera l Matthews had hi s head

wrung from hi s body by the “ t iger fangs of the J ett ies ,a se t of s lave s trained up to grat i fy the ir master wi th

the i r inferna l spec ie s of dex terity .

”

j;

They are st i l l cons idered ski l fu l i n sett ing d is located

jo ints . I n a note regard ing them in the ear ly part o f

the last century,Wilks wr i te s as fo l lows . “ These

persons const i tute a di st i nct caste,tra ined from the i r

in fancy in da i ly exerc i se s fo r the expre ss pu rpose of

exhib it ions ; and perhaps the whol e wor ld does not

produce more perfect forms than those which are

exhib ited at these interest ing but crue l sports . The

combatants,c lad in a s ing le garment of l ight orange

co loured drawers extend ing hal f-way down the thigh,

have the i r r ight arm furn ished w ith a weapon,which

,for

want of a more approp r iate term,we sha l l name a caestus

,

a lthough d ifferen t from the Roman in struments of that

name . It is composed of buffa lo horn,fi t ted to the

hand , and po inted w ith four knobs , re semb l ing very

sharp knuck les,and correspond ing to the i r s i t uat ion

,

with a fifth of greater p rominence at the end nearest the

l i tt le finger,and at r ight ang les with the other four .

This instrument,p roper ly p laced , wou ld enab le a man

R ice, Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer .1‘ Narrat ive Sketches of the Conquest of Mysore, 1800.

I Wi lks’H i stor ical Sketches Mysore, 1810- 17 .

JETTI 458

o f ord inary strength to c leave Open the head of h is

adversary at a blow ; bu t , the fingers be ing introduced

through the weapon , i t i s fastened across them at an

equa l d i stance between the fi rst and second lower j o int s ,in a s i tuat ion , i t w i l l be observed , which does not admit

of attempt ing a severe b low , withou t the r i sk of d islocat

i ng the fi rs t j o ints of a l l the fingers . Thus armed , and

adorned wi th gar lands of flowers,the success ive pai rs of

combatants , previou s ly matched by the maste rs of the

feas t,are led into the arena ; the i r names and abodes are

proc la imed ; and , after making the i r prostrat ions , fi rst

to the Raj a seated on hi s ivo ry throne , and then to the

latt ice s behind which the lad ies of the court are seated,

they p roceed to the combat , fi rst d ive st ing themse lves

o f the gar lands , and st rewing the flowers graceful ly over

the arena . The combat i s a m ixture of wrest l ing and

boxing,i f t he latter may be so named . The head i s the

exc lus ive obj ect perm itted to be st ruck . Before the end

of the contest , both of the combatants may frequent ly be

observed st ream ing with b lood from the crown of the

head down to the sand of t he arena . When victo ry

seems to have dec lared itse l f, or t he contest i s too

severe ly maintained , t he moderators in at tendance on

the Raja make a signal for i t s cessat ion by throwing

down tu rbans and robes , to be presented to the combat

ants . The victor frequent ly goes off the arena in fou r

or five somersau lts,to denote that he ret i res fresh from

the contest . The Jett is are d ivided into five classes, and

the ord inary pr ice of victory is promot ion to a higher

c lass . There are d ist inct rewards for the fi rst c lass,

and in the i r o ld age they are promoted to be masters o f

the feast .I n an account of sport s held before Tipu Su ltan

at Ser ingapatam,J ames Scu rry

, who was one of h is

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460

The Jett is of Mysore st i l l have in the i r possess ion

knuck le-dusters of the type descr ibed above , and take

part annua l ly in matches dur i ng the Dasara fest iva l . A

J et t i pol ice constable , whom I saw at Channapatna , had

wrest led at Baroda,and at the cou rt of Nepal

,and

narrated to me with pr ide how a wrest l er came from

Madras to Bangalore,and chal lenged any one to a

match . A J et t i engaged to meet h im in two matches

for Rs . 500 each ,and

,after going in for a short cou rse of

t ra in ing,walked round him in each encounte r

,and won

the money eas i ly .

The Mysore Jett is are said to be cal led , i n some

places,Mush t igas . And some are stated to use a jargon

cal led Mallabasha .

9k

Jett i further occurs as the name of an exogamous

sept of the Kavarais .

J ew .—I t has been said by a recent wr iter that there

is hard ly a more curious , and in some respects one

might a lmost say a more we i rd s ight than the J ew town ,which l ie s beyond the Br it i sh Sett lement at Cochin .

C ro ss ing over the lagoon from the beaut i fu l l i tt l e i s land

o f Bolghotty, where the Br it i s h Res idency for the

Coch in State nest les in a bower of trop ica l vegeta

t ion , one lands amidst cocoanut trees,Oppos ite to

one of the o ld palace s of the Cochin Rajahs , and ,pass ing through a nat ive bazaar crowded with dark

skinned Malayalis , one ! turns O ff abrupt ly into a long

narrow street , where faces as wh i te as those of any

northern E uropean race,but Sem i t i c in every feature

,

transport one sudden ly in m ind to the J ewi sh quarter

in J eru sa lem , or rather perhaps to some gfietto i n a

Po l i sh c i ty .

”

Manual of the Bel lary d istrict .

461 JEW

I n the preparat ion of the fol lowing note,I have been

much indebted to the Cochi n Censu3 '

Report , 190 1 ,

and to a ser ies of art i c l e s pub l i shed by Mr . E lkan

N . Adler in the J ewi sh Chron ic le .

"6

The c i rcumstance s under which , and the t ime when

the J ews migrated to the Malabar Coast,are wrapped

in obscuri ty . They themse lves are able to g ive accounts

of only i so lated in c idents , s ince whatever records they

had were lost at the des truct ion by the Portuguese O f

thei r or ig inal sett lement at C ranganur in 1565 , and by

the destruc t ion at a later - per iod of such fragment s as

remained in the ir po ssess ion in the s truggle between

the Portuguese and the Dutch , for the Portuguese , sus

pect ing that the J ews had he lped the Dutch , p lundered

the i r synagogue in Cochin .

I t i s recorded by the Dutch Governor Moens 1' thatwhen Heer van Goen s bes ieged Coch i n

,t he J ews

were qu i te eager to provide the troop s of the Dutch

Company with v ict ual s , and to afford them al l the

ass i stance they could , hOp ing that they would enjoy

under thi s Company the greatest poss ib le c iv i l and

re l ig ious l iberty but , when the above -ment ioned t roops

were compe l led t o leave th i s coast before t he end of

the good monsoon , without having been ab le t o take

Cochin , the Portuguese did not fa i l to make the J ews

fee l the terr ible consequences o f the i r revenge . For,

no soone r had the Dutch retreated , than a detachment

of sold iers was sent to the J ewish quarters , which were

p i l laged and set fi re to , whi l s t the inhab itants fl ed to the

high - lands,and returned only after Cochin was taken by

the Dutch .

May r1th , June I st and 29th , 1906.

1 For th e translat ions from the Dutch I am indebted to the k indness of the

Rev. P . Grote ,

462

The J ews,who st i l l hold that the Ma labar I srae l

i te s were i n po ssess ion of an o ld copy of t he Sepher

Thora,say that t hi s c opy , and al l other documents ,

got l o st on the occas ion when the Portuguese destroyed

t he J ewi sh quarte rs , but th i s i s not l i kely . For, whereas

they had t ime to save the i r most va luab le property

accord ing to the ir own te st imony, and to take it to

t he mountains , they wou ld not have fa i l ed to take along

with them these documents , whi ch were to t hem of

i ne st imab le value . For it i s re lated t hat for a new copy

of the Pentateuch which at that t ime was i n the ir

synagogue they had so much respect,and took such

great care of i t,that they even secu red thi s Copy

,

and took i t a long , and (when they returned) carr ied

i t back w ith great rej oic ing , as i t was done in o lden

t imes with the Ark of the Covenant .

Writ ing i n the e ighteenth century,Captain H ami l

t on state s that the J ews “ have a synagogue at Coch in ,not far from the King

’s Palace,i n which are carefu l ly

kept the i r Records,engraven on copper p late s in

Hebrew characters and when any of t he characters

decay,they are new cut

,so that they can show the ir

own H istory from the Re ign o f Nebuchadnez z ar to th i s

present t ime . Myn H eer Van Reeda,about t he year

169 5 , had an Abstract of the i r H i story t rans lated from

the H ebrew into low Dutch . They dec lare themselves

to be of the Tr ibe of Manasseh , a Part whereof was , by

order of that haughty Conqueror Nebuchadnezzar ,carr ied to the easternmost Province of hi s large Emp ire ,which

,i t seems

,reached as far as Cape Comerin ,

which

j ou rney of them trave l led in three years from

the ir sett ing out of Baby lon .

4“ A new account of th e East I nd ies , 1744 .

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JEW 464

We have given to Isuppu Irabban " Ansuvannam (as

a pr incipal i ty ) , and seventy-two proprietary r ights

(apfi cr tain i flg to ! li e diga ic‘

y of a f eaa’ai Zom

’

) also

tr ibute by reverence and offer ings , and the profit s

of An suvannam ,and day- lamps , and broad garments

(as opposed fa Me cascam of M alabar ) , and palankins ,and umbre l las

,and large drums , and trumpets , and smal l

drums and garlands,and garlands across st reets , etc .

,

and the l i ke,and seventy -two free houses . Moreover ,

we have granted by th i s document on copper t hat he

shal l not pay the taxes paid by the houses of t he c ity

into the royal treasury , and t he (aaoae-saia’

) priv i leges

to hold To I suppu Irabban, prince of Ansu

vannam ,and to hi s descendants , hi s sons and daughters ,

and to hi s nephews,and to (the nephews) of his

daughters in natura l success ion , Ansuvannam (i s) an

hereditary e state,as long as the world and moon ex i st .

S ri . The charter i s w itnessed by various local ch iefs .

A somewhat d ifferent read ing i s g iven by Dr . G .

Oppert i’ who renders the t ranslat ion as fo l l ows

“ Hai l and happ iness ! The K ing of K ings , H is

H ol iness S ri Bhaskara Ravi Varma , who wie lds t he

scep tre i n many hundred thousand p laces,has made

th i s decree on the day that he was p leased to dwe l li n Muy irikodu i n t he thi rty-s ixt h year o f hi s re ign .

We have granted unto J oseph Rabban Anjavannant he [dign ity of] Pr ince , with al l the seventy-two r ight s

of ownersh ip . He shal l [enjoy] the revenues from

fema le elephants and r id ing an imal s,and the income

of Anjavannan . He i s ent it led to be honoured by

lamps by day,and to u se broad-c l oth and sedan chairs

,

1 .e. , Yusuf Rabban .

f Ueber d ie J udischen Co lon ien in Ind ien . Kohut Memor ial Vo lume,Sem it ic S tud ies, Ber l in, 189 7 .

465 JEW

and the umbre l la and the drums of the north and

trumpet s,and l i tt le drums , and gates , and garlands

over the s treets,and wreaths , and so on . We have

gran ted unto h im the land tax and we ight tax . More

over,we have by these copper tablets sanct ioned that

,

when the houses of the c i ty have to pay taxes to the

palace,he need not pay , and he shal l enj oy o ther

priv i leges l ike unto these . To J oseph Rabban,the

pr ince of Anjavannam , and to hi s descendants , and to

h i s sons and daughter s , and to the nep hews and

sons- in - law of hi s daughters,i n natural success ion

,so

l ong as t he world and moon exi s t, Anjuvannam shal l

be hi s hered i tary possess ion . I t i s suggested by Dr.

Oppert that Anjuvannam is i dent ical w i th the fi fth or

fore ign caste .

Dr . E . H ultz sch, the late s t au thor i ty on the subj ec t

of the Copper p la tes,g ives the fo l lowing translat ion :ale

Hai l Pro sper i ty (The fo l l ow ing) g ift (prasada) was

grac iously made by him who had assumed the t i t le‘ King of K ings ’

(Kogon) , H is Majes ty (t i ruvad i) the

King (kO) , the glo r io us Bhaskara Rav ivarman,i n the

t ime dur ing which (he) was wie ld ing the scep tre andrul ing over many hundred thousands of p lace s

,i n the

thi r ty- s ixth year after the second year,on the day on

which (he) was p leased to stay at Muyi r ikkodu . We

have given to Issuppu I rappan (the v i l lage of) Anjuvan

nam,toge ther with the seven ty-two proprie tary r ights

the to l l s on femal e e lephants and o ther r id ing

an imals,the revenue of Anjuvannam ,

a lamp in day-t ime,

a clo th spread (in fron t to walk on) , a palanquin , a

paraso l,a Vaduga Telugu ?) drum , a large trumpe t ,

a gateway,an arch

,a canopy (in the shape) of an arch ,

Epigraph ia I nd i ca, I I I , 1894—95.

JEW 466

a gar land,and so forth . We have rem i tted to l l s and the

tax on balances . Moreover, we have granted with

(these) Copper- leaves that he need not pay (the dues)which the (other) i nhab i tants of the c i ty pay to the roya l

pa lace (kOyil), and that (he) may enj oy (the benefit s)which (they) enjoy . To Issuppu Irappan ofAnjuvannam ,

to the ma le ch i ldren and to the fema le chi ldren born of

him,to hi s nephews , and to the sons - in -law who have

marr ied (hi s) daughters (we have g iven) Anjuvannam

(as) an hered i tary estate for as long as the wor ld and the

moon shal l ex i st . Hai l ! Thus do I know, GOvardhana

Martandan of Venadu . Thus do I know ,Kodai

S rikan than of Vénapalinadu . Thus do I know , Mana

vépala-Manavyan of Eralanadu. Thus do I know

,

Irayiram of Valluvanadu . Thus do I know,Kodai Ravi

of Nedumpuraiyurnadu . Thus do I know,Markham

Sattam,who ho lds the o ffi ce of sub -commander of the

forces . The wr it ing of the Under ~ Secretary Van

Talaiséri— Gandan KunrappOlan .

”

“ The date of the inscr ip t ion , Dr . H ultz sch adds,

was the thi rty - s ixth year Oppos ite to the second year.

As I have shown on a previous occas ionff the mean ing

of th i s myste r ious phrase i s p robab ly ‘ the thi rty-s ixth

year (of the king’

s coronat ion , which took p lace) after the

second year (of the king’

s The inscrip t ion

records a grant whi ch the king made to Issuppu I rappan ,

i .a. , J o seph Rabban . The occurrence of thi s Sem it ic

name , combined with the two facts that the p lates are

st i l l w i th the Coch in J ews , and that the latte r po ssess a

H ebrew trans lat ion of the document,proves that the

donee was a member of the anc ient J ew i sh co lony on

the weste rn coast . The grant was made at Muriyikkodu .

o I nd . Ant . , x x , 189 1 .

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JEW 468

the town (of Ko l lam P) . From these extract s,and from

the reference i n the Payyanu r Pat tola,i t appears that

Anjuvannam and Man igramam were sem i - independent

t rad ing corporat ions . The ep i thet Sett i (merchant)given to Rav ikkorran , the trade r ight s granted to h im ,

and the sources of revenue thrown Open to h im as head

of Man igram am, confirm the view that the lat ter was a

trad ing corporat ion . There i s no thing ei ther in the

Cochin grant,or i n the subj o ined in scr ip t ion to show

that Anjuvannam and Man igramam were,as be l ieved by

Dr . Gundert and others , J ewi sh and Chri st ian pr inc i

pal it ie s , respect ive ly . I t was supposed by Dr . Burne l l

that the p late o f Vi ra -Raghava creaz‘ea

’ the pr inci pa l i ty

of Man igramam,and the Cochin p lates that of Anjuvan

nam,and tha t , consequent ly, the ex i stence o f these two

grants i s p resupposed by t he p late s of S thanu Rav i ,which men t ion both Anjuvannam and Man igram am very

often . The Coch in p late s d id no t create Anjuvannam ,

but confe rred the honours and p riv i lege s connected

therewi th to a J ew named J oseph Rabban . S imi larly ,the rights and honours assoc iated wi th the o ther

corpo ra t ion,Man igramam

,was bestowed at a later

per iod on Rav ikkorran . Therefore,Anjuvannam and

Man igramam mus t have exi s ted as inst i tut ions even

before the earl iest of these three copper -p lates was

i ssued . I t i s j ust pos s ib le t hat Rav ikkorran was a

Chr i st ian by rel ig ion . But hi s name and t i t l e give

no cl ue in thi s d i rec t i on,and there i s noth ing Chr i st ian

in the document,except i t s po ssession by the p resent

owners .

I t i s recorded by Mr . Franc i s Day that Governor

Moens obtained three di fferent tran s lat ions of the p late s ,

The Land of the Permauls, or Coch in , i ts past and i ts present , 1863.

469 JEW

and gave as the most correct vers ion one , i n which

the fo l lowing words occur ' We , E raw i, Wanwara,

Emperor of Malabar g ive th i s deed of

r ights to the good J oseph Rabban , that he may use the

five co lour s,spread h is re l ig ion among the five castes . ”

Mr . Burnel l , however , notes that Dr . Gundert has ascer

tained beyond doubt that Anjuvannan (l i tera l ly five

colours) does not mean some pr ivi lege , but is the name

of a p lace .

Concern ing the copper -p late s , Governor Moens

wr ites thus . “ The fol low ing translat ion i s by the

J ewish merchant E zechie l Rabby, who was an earne st

exp lorer of anything that had any connect i on w ith hi s

nat ion . After th i s I w i l l g ive another trans lat ion , which

I got from our second interpreter Barend Deventer, who

was ass i sted by an o ld and l i terary inhab itant of Malabar

and last ly I w i l l add a th ird one,which I obta ined from

our first interpreter S imon of Tongeren,ass i sted by a

heathen scr ibe of Cal icut , i n order thu s not to al low the

J ews to be the j udges i n the i r own affa ir,but rather

to enable the reader to j udge for himsel f i n th i s doubtfu l

matter . The fi rst translat ion runs thus

By the help of God,who created the un iverse

and appo int s the k ings,and whom I honour

,I,Erawi

Wanwara,Emperor of Malabar, grant i n the 36th year

of our happy re ign at the court of Moydiricotta— al ias

Cranganore— th i s Act of Pr ivi lege s to the J ew J osep

Rabaan,v iz . , that he may make use of the five col ours ,

spread h i s re l ig ion among the five castes or dynast ie s ,fire salute s on all so lemn it ie s

,r ide on e lephants and

horses,hold state ly process ions

,make use of cr ie s of

honour , and in the day- t ime of torches , di fferent mus ica l

i nstruments , bes ides a b ig drum ; that he may walk on

roads sp read with white l inen,ho ld tournaments with

JEW 4 70

st icks , and s it under a state ly curta in . These pr iv i leges

we give to J osep Rabaan and to the 72 househo lds ,provided that the others of thi s nat i on must obey the

orders of hi s and the i r descendants so l ong as the

sun sha l l sh ine on the earth . Thi s Act i s granted in

the p resence of the K ings of Trevancore ,Tekkenkore ,

Baddenkenkore , Cal ico ilan ,Aringut , Sammoryn ,

Palcat

chery,and Colastry ; wr itten by the secretary Ca lembi

Ke lapen i n the year 3481 Kal ijogam .

“ ‘ The second translat ion d iffers in important

statements from the fir st,and would deserve more

attent ion when neutra l peop le o f Malabar cou ld be found,

who cou ld test i fy to the cred ib i l i ty of the same ; but ,notwithstand ing the troub le I have taken to find such

persons,i t has been hit herto i n vain . The second

translat ion runs thus

I n the quiet and happy t ime o f our re ign,we

,

ErawiWanwara, im i tator of (successor to P) the sceptres,which fo r many hundreds of thousands of years have

re igned in j ust i ce and r ighteousness,the g lor ious foot

step s of whom we fo l low , now i n the second year of our

re ign,be ing the 36th year of our re s idence in the town

of Moyd irico tta, gran t hereby , on the obtained good

test imony of the great exper ience of J oseph Rabaan ,that the said person is al lowed to wear long dresses of

five co lours , t hat he may use carr iages together w ith the ir

appurtenances,and fan s which are used by the nobi l i ty .

He sha l l have precedence to the five castes , be a l lowed

to burn day- lamps , to walk on spread out l inen , to make

use of palanquins , Payeng umbre l las , large bent trum

pets,drums

,staff

,and covered seat s . We give him

charge ove r the 72 fami l ie s and the i r temp le s , which are

found both here and e lsewhere,and we renounce our

r ights on a l l taxes and dut ies on both houses . H e sha l l

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J EW 4 72

have to pay h im the to l l s and taxes of the coun try,no

matter in what par t of the country they are l iving these

pr iv i l ege s I g ive to J oseph Raban and hi s descendants,

be they male s or females,as long as any one of them

i s a l ive , and the sun and moon shine on the earth ; fo r

thi s reason I have the same engraved on a copper-p late

as an everlas t i ng remembrance . Witnesses are the

K ings of Travancore,Berkenkore , Sammorin ,

Arangol la,

Palcatchery , Co llas try, and Coram benaddo ; wr itten by

the secretary Ke llapen .

The aforesaid Copper-p late is wr itten in the O ld

broken Northern Tami l language,but w i th different kinds

o f charac ter s,viz .

,San skri t and Tami l

,and i s now read

and trans lated by a heathen scr ibe named Callut il Atsja ,

who was born at Cal icut,and who

,dur ing the war

,fled

from that p lace,and stays at presen t on the hi l l s .

When these translat ion s are compared w ith one

another,i t w i l l be observed at once that

,in the fi rst

,the

pr ivi lege s are granted to the J ew J oseph Rabban,and

to the 7 2 J ewi sh fam i l ie s , whereas , i n the second , no

trace i s found of the word J ew ; and J oseph Rabban i s ,i n the third

,not cal led a J ew

,but t he m in ister of t he

king,a l though he may be taken for a J ew from the

context in the course of the trans lat ion , for he is there

appo inted as f l eaaI of al l cli e ol /cer j ews to Me aameei f of

72 aoases . I t is equal ly certain that the name of Rabaan

i s no t exclus ive ly proper to the J ews on ly . Further

more,the fi rst and last t rans lat i on s grant the above

ment ioned pr iv i leges not on ly to J o seph Rabaan , but a lso

to t he 7 2 J ewi sh fami l i es , whereas , accord ing to the

second translat ion,the same are g iven to J oseph Rabaan ,

hi s fami ly and Offspr ing on ly . The second tran slat ion ,bes ides

,does not a t a l l ment ion the freedom granted ,

and the consent to spread the J ew i sh re l ig ion among

4 73 J EW

the five castes . Thus , i t i s obviou s that these three

trans lat i on s do not agree , that the fi rs t and thi rd

co inc ide more wi th each other than they do wi th the

second ; that , for that reason , the fi r st and last trans

lat ions deserve more to be be l ieved than the second ,which stands a lone ; but that th i s , fo r that very reason ,does not prove wha t i t , properly speaking , ought to

prove,and

,whereas I am not acquainted wi th the

Malabar language,I p refer to refra in from giving my

Op in ion on the subject . For hitherto l have been unable

to come acro ss,e ither among the peop le of Ma labar

and Canara,or among the l ite rary pr ies ts and nat ives

,

any one who was c lever enough to trans la te these o ld

characters for the fourth t ime , no twithstanding the fact

that I had sent a Copy o f these charac ters to the nor th

and south of Cochin,in order to have them deciphered .

The witnesses who were pre sent at the grant ing

of thi s charter d iffer al so . The first and third tran s la

t ions , however , seem al so to concur more with each

other than wi th the second one . But the di screpancy of

the second trans lat ion l ie s in th i s,that in i t not the

personal names of the witnesses are recorded , but on ly

the ir o ffi ces or d ign it ies , i n whic h they offi c iated at that

t ime whereas the m i stake i n the fi rst and third trans la

t ion s cons i st s here in,t hat the witnes se s are cal led k ings

,

and more so of those p lace s by which name s these p laces

were cal l ed some t ime after and subsequent ly when

t imes had changed,and by which names they are st i l l

known . The second translat ion,however

,ca l l s them

mere ly heads of the countr ies , i n the same manner as

they were known at the t ime of the Emperor , when

these heads were not as yet k ings,because these heads

bore the t i t l e of k ing and ru ler on ly after the we l l -known

d ivi s ion of the Malabar Emp ire into four chief k ingdoms ,

4 74

and severa l sma l ler k ingdoms and pr inc ipa l i t ie s . I t must

be adm it ted,however , that the head of the country of

Coch in i s,i n the first and third tran slat ions , not ment ioned

by that name , al though the k ingdom of Cochin i s i n

rea l i ty one of t he four ch ief k ingdoms of Ma labar . I

add thi s here for e l uc idat ion , i n order t hat one shou ld

not wonder,when read ing thi s charter

,that infer ior heads

o f countr ie s and d i str i ct s of the Malabar Emp ire cou ld

be ca l led kings , because the Emp ire be ing at that t ime

not as yet divided , they were not kings . I t seems,

therefore,t o have been a free translat ion , of which the

translator s of the first and third tran slat i ons have made

use ,and which has been po inted out i n the second

trans lat ion .

‘ The o ther statements of th i s charter,espec ial ly

the author ity over the five caste s , must be exp la ined

according to the anc ient t imes , cu stom s , and hab it s of

the peop le of Malabar , and need not be taken into cons iderat i on here . Whether th i s c harter has in real i ty

been granted to the J ews or not , i t i s cer ta in that notat any t ime has a J ew had great author i ty over h i s

co - re l ig ion i sts,and st i l l le ss over the so -ca l l ed five castes .

Moreover,the p roperty of the J ews has never been free

from taxes,notw ithstanding the fact that the kings to

whom they were subject appo inted as a ru le as heads of

the J ews men of the i r own nat ional i ty . They were

known by the name of Moodil iars , who had no other

author ity than to d i spo se of smal l c i vi l d i sputes,and to

impose smal l fines of money .

There i s,however

,a pecu l iar i ty

,whi ch deserves

to be ment ioned . Al though,i n the charter

,some pr i

v ileges are granted , which were al so g iven to othe r

peop le,yet to no one was i t ever perm itted to fi re three

sa lutes at the break of day, or on the day of a marr iage

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JEW 4 76

Governor Moens , the fo l low ing words appear : Writ

ten by the Secretary Calemb i Ke lapoor, i n the year

3481 of the Kal i ' yuga 379 Thi s date doesno t appear , howeve r , i n the trans lat i on s of Gundert

,

E l l i s , Burne l l and Oppert . The charte r was g iven in

the thirty-s ixth year of the re ign of the donor Bhaskara

Ravi Varma . And , as a l l , excep t the last of the fore ign

Viceroys of Kera la , are said to have been e lected for

twe lve years on ly , C heruman Perumal, reputed to be the

last of Perumals,who under excep t i onal c i rcumstance s

had h is term extended,accord ing to Malabar trad it ion

, to

thi rty-s ix years , may be iden t ical w i th Bhaskara Ravi

Varma,who

,Mr . Day says

,re igned t i l l 378 A .D . Mr .

C . M . Whish g ives a st i l l earl ier date,for he fixes 231

A .D . as the probable date of the gran t . I n connect ion

with the c laim to the ant iqu i ty o f the set t lement o f the

J ews in Malabar,it i s s e t forth in the Cochin Census

Report that they are supposed to have fi r st come in

contact w ith a Drav id ian peop le as early as the t ime of

Solomon about B C . 1000 ,for ‘ phi l o l ogy proves that the

prec iou s cargoes of So lomon’s merchant sh ip s came

from the anc ient coast o f Ma labar .’ I t i s poss ibl e that

such vi s it s were frequent enough in the years that

fo l lowed . But the ac tual sett l ement of the J ews on the

Malabar coast m ight no t have taken p lace un t i l l ong

afterwards . Mr . Logan , i n the Manual of Malabar,write s that ‘ the J ews have t rad i t ions

,which carry back

the i r arr ival on the coast to the t ime of the ir escape

from serv itude under Cyrus in the s ixth century

and the same fact is referred to by S i r W . H unter i n hi s‘ H i story of Brit i sh I nd ia .

’ Thi s em inent hi storian ,i n h i s I nd ian Emp i re ’ speaks of J ewish sett lements i n

Malabar long before the second century A .D . A Roman

merchant sh ip,that sa i l ed regularly from Myos H ormuz

4 77 JEw

on the Red Sea to Arab ia , Ceylon , and Malabar , i s

reported to have found a J ewi sh colony in Malabar

in the second century A .D . I n regard to the se tt l ement

of the J ews in Malabar , Mr . Whish observes t hat‘ the

Jews themselves say that Mar Thomas , the apost l e ,arr ived i n I nd ia in the year of ou r Lord 5 2 ,

and them

selves,the J ews

,in t he year In v iew of the

commerc ial in tercourse between the J ews and the peop l e

of the Malabar coas t l ong before the Chri s t ian era , i t

seems highly probable that Chri st ian i ty but fo l lowed in

the wake of J udaism . The above fact s seem to j us t i fy

the concl us ion that t he J ews mu st have set t led i n

Malabar a t l east as early as the fi rst cen tury A .D .

”

At Cochin the J ews enjoyed fu l l p r ivi leges of c it iz en

sh ip,and were able to p reserve the best part of the i r

rel ig i ous and c iv i l l iberty,and to remain here for

centurie s unseen,unknown

,and unsearched by the i r

persecutors . Bu t,i n the s ixteen th century

,they fe l l vic

t ims by turns to the Oppress ion of fanat i cal Moors and

over-zealous Chr i st ians .

“ I n 1 524 ,the Mahom edan s

made an ons laugh t on the Cranganu r J ews,s lew a

great number,and drove out the res t to a vi l lage to the

east but,when they attacked the Chri st ians

,the Nayars

o f the p lace re tal iated , and in turn drove al l the Maho

medans out of Cranganur . The Portuguese en larged

and s trengthened the i r Cranganur fort,and compe l led

the J ews final ly to de sert th e i r anci ent sett l ement o f

Anjuvannam . Thu s,wi th the appearance of a powerfu l

Chr i stian nat ion on the scene , the J ews experienced the

terrors of a new ex i le and a new di spers ion , the deso la

t i on of Cranganu r being l ikened by them to t he deso lat ion

of J eru salem in m in iatu re . Some of them were driven

to vi l lages adjo in ing the i r ru ined p r inc ipal i ty, whi le

others seem to have taken she lter in Cochin and

JEW 4 78

Ernaku lam .

“ C ranganore , Mr . Ad le r wri tes,was

captured by the Mah om edan She ikh or Zamor in in1524 , and razed to the ground . The Rajah Dan ie l

seems to have prev iou s ly sent hi s b rother David to

Europe to negoc iate with the Pope and the Portuguese for

an offensive and defens ive al l iance aga in st the Zamor in .

Anyhow ,a myster i ou s stranger

,who ca l l ed himsel f

David Rubben i , appeared in Rome in March , 1524 , and ,produc ing credent ia l s from the Portuguese authorit ies

in I nd ia and Egyp t , was rece ived with much honour by

the Pope , King J ohn o f Portugal , and the Emperor

Charles t he F ifth i n turn . After some years he fe l l

a v ict im to the inqui s i t i on , but hi s fai l ure and non -retu rn

to I nd ia are more eas i ly exp lained by the fact that

he was too late , and that the State he represented

was no longer ex i stent , than by the cheap assumpt ion

of a l l our historians , i nc l uding Graetz , t hat he was an

impostor w ith a cock -and-bu l l story . Whether the

famous d iary of David Rubben i i s genu ine or not i s le s s

ce rta in . But I have e l sewhere sought to re -e stab l i sh

th i s long-d iscredi ted ambassado r,and here l im i t myse l f

to drawing attent ion to hi s name , which seems to have

been David Rabban i . To thi s day David i s one of the

commonest names among the Coch in J ews , as wel l

as the E’

ne i I srael,and Rabban i is the name of the

ru l ing fami ly under the copper grant . I t s a l te rat ion

into Ruben i was due to s ixteenth century interest in the

lo st ten tr ibe s , and a consequent des i re of i dent i fying

the Roya l fam i ly as sprung from Reuben,the first-born

of I srae l . Reuben , too ,i s a favouri te name among the

B’

ne i I srae l . With the destruct ion of the i r cap i ta l , the

J ews left and migrated,though to no great d i stance .

Within 20 mi le s south of Cranganore are fou r othe r

p lace s,al l on the Cochin back -water

,where the B lack

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JEW 486

l ived formerly some J ews , who even now have a

synagogue allow’

d them wi thout the Fort ificat ions they

are ne i ther White nor B rown , but qu ite black . The

Portuguese H i stor ie s ment ion that at a certa in t ime

certa in bla sphemous papers aga in st our Savio ur,with

some severe reflec t ion s against the J e su it Gonsalvus

Pere ira (who afterwards suffer’

d Martyrdom at MonOpa

tapa) be ing found in a box set i n the Great Church for

the gather ing of A lms ; and the same be ing supposed

to be laid there by some European J ews, who now and

then used to re sor t thi ther p r ivate ly,thi s gave occas ion

to introduce the I nqu i s i t ion into Goa . I t i s noted by

the Rev . J . H . Lord * tha t “ J acob Saphir,a J ewi sh

trave l le r , who v i s i ted hi s co - re l ig ion i st s i n Cochin i n

recent years,hav ing descr ibed some of the J ews res ident

there as black , hasten s to tone down h is words , and

adds,th ey are not black l ike the raven

,or as the

Nub ians,but on ly as the appearance of copper . Bu t

Hagim J acob Ha Cohen , ano ther modern J ewi sh tra

ve l ler,chas t iz ing the latter for cal l ing them black at a l l ,

dec lare s that he wi l l wr i te of th is c lass everywhere as

the non -whi te , and never anywhere (God forb id as the

B lack . The B lack J ews c la im to have been the ear l iest

sett lers,whi le the Whi te J ews came later . Bu t the

latte r assert that the former are pure nat ive s converted

to the J ew i sh fai th . These two di ffi cu l t , yet important ,i ssue s of pr ior i ty of sett l ement and pur i ty of race have

d iv ided ant iquar ian s and hi stor ian s quite as much as

they have estranged the two c lasse s of J ews themselves

from one another . Accord ing to the Rev . C . Buchanan , ]L

t he White J ews dwel l ing in J ews’ town in Mattancher i

are later sett l ers than the B lack J ews . They had on ly

The Jews in I nd ia and th e Far East , 1907 .

1' Chri st ian Researches in I nd ia, 1840 .

481

the B ib le wr itten on parchment , and of modern appear

ance,i n the ir synagogue , but he managed to get from

the B lack Jews much older manuscr ipt s wr it ten on

parchment,goat ’s sk in

,and cotton paper . He says that

i t i s on ly nece ssary to look at the ir countenances to be

sat i sfied that the i r ancestors mus t have arrived in I ndia

many years before the White J ews . Their H indu com

plex ion,and the ir very imperfect re semblance to the

E uropean J ews , i nd icate that they had been detached

from the parent stocks in J udea many ages before the

J ews in the West , and that there have been marriages

wi th fam i l ies no t I srae l i t i sh . The Rev . J . H ough

observes i'

f that the B lack J ews “ appear so much l ike

the nat ive s of I ndia , that i t i s d i fficul t at fir st s ight to

d i st ingui sh them from the H indu . By a l it t le c l oser

observat ion,however , the J ewi sh contour of the i r

countenances cannot be m i staken . I n the l ecture

al ready referred to,Dr. Wil son states that “ the ir fam i ly

names,such as David Cast i l e (David the Cast i l ian) go

to prove that they (the White J ews) are descended of

t he J ews of Spain,probably of those dr iven from that

country in the re ign of Ferd inand and I sabe l la,and of

German and Egypt ian J ews . The real anc ient J ews ofCoch in are the B lack J ews

’

descendants,we bel ieve

,

of J udea-Arab ian s and I ndian prose lyte s . Some rather

obscure reference s t o the J ews of Cochin and Qui lon are

made by Benjamin of Tude la , who returned to Spain

from hi s easte rn voyage in 1 1 73. He found no Whi te

J ews in I ndia . Speaking of t hose in the pepper country

near Chu lam (Qui lon) , he says that al l t he c it ie s and

coun tr ie s inhabi ted by these peop le contain on ly about100 J ews (members of the synagogue) , who are of b lack

H isto ry of Chr is t ian i ty in I nd ia,I , 4 70—7 1 , 1839 .

1 1—3 1

J EW 482

col our as wel l as t he other inhab itant s . Referring to

J an L in schoten’

s‘ I t inerary ,

’ pub l i shed in H ol land in

1 596, Mr . Adle r observes that the J ews who interested

our t rave l ler were the ‘ r ich merchant s and of t he king

of Coch in’s neares t counse llers, who are most white of

colour l i ke men of E urope , and have many fair women .

There are many of them that came of t he country

Palest i ne and J erusa lem thither,and spoke over al l the

exchange verie perfect and good Span i sh .

’ Thi s di rect ly

confi rms the V i ew that t he White J ews were new comers

from fore ign lands . Their knowledge O f Spani sh i s now

quite a thing of t he past,but i t proves that they were

Sephardim .

”

I n regard to t he c la im of t he White J ews to be ing

the on ly genu ine J ews,i t may be of intere st to record

the op in ion O f a J ew,Rabb i David D ’

Beth H ithel,who

trave l led in Cochin i n 1832 . H e says that “ t he White

J ews say of t hem (the B lack J ews) that they are de

scendant s of numerous s laves who were purchased and

converted to J uda i sm , set free and careful ly instructed

by a rich White J ew some centur ies ago . At h is cost,

they say,were al l the i r o ld synagogues erected . The

B lack J ews bel ieve themse lves to be the descendant s of

the fi rst capt ivity , who were brought to I ndia , and did

not ret urn with the I srae l ite s who bui lt the second

temp le . Thi s account I am inc l ined to be l ieve correct .

Though cal led B lack J ews —they are of somewhat darker

comp lexion than the White J ews— yet they are not of

the colour of the nat ives of the country , or of persons

descended from I nd ian slaves .

” Thi s passage bears

reference to a tradit ion current among the B lack J ews

that they are the descendant s of the J ews who were

driven out of the land of I srae l th i rteen years before the

destruct ion of t he fi rst temple bu i lt by Solomon . They

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new 484

r i tual , and re l ig ious Observances are the same .Their

synagogue s are so al ike that i t needs some keenness

o f eyes ight to detect that two p icture s are not o f thei dent i cal bu i ld ing . The only great (P ) d ifference i st hat the White J ews have the ir s t i led with rare old

blue t i le s,over wh ich newspaper correspondent s wax

e loquent . They say the t i le s are o ld Dutch,but real ly

they are genu ine Chinese [blue and white CantonC h ina] ,

i f whereby hangs a tal e . The synagogue was

bui l t nearly 200 years ago i n a corner of the Raj ah’s

palace -yard . A t t hat t ime , the Dutch were in posses s ion

o f what i s now Bri t i sh Cochin , and they were the on ly

peop le trading with China . The Rajah,t hrough hi s

a l l ie s the Dutch , had imported a large quant i ty of the

bes t China t i les to pave hi s Darbar hal l,but the J ews

,

says Mr . Thurs ton , thought t hey would j ust do for t he

s ynagogue they were bui ld ing ,so they to ld the Rajah

t hat he could not pos s ib ly use them ,inasmuch as

bu l lock’s blood had been emp loyed in the ir manufacture .

H i s H ighnes s , much perturbed at the indign i ty to so

s acred an an ima l , bade them take the t i le s away, and

never l et him see them again . Hence the ir presence

i n the synagogue . The other synagogue has t i le s al so,

b ut they are of gleaming white .

” The synagogues , i t

may be added,are square whitewashed bu i ld ings , sur

moun ted by a bel l -tower . I t i s sa id that the Kadya

b agan synagogue of the B lack J ews i s adm i tted by the

White J ews to be the oldest at present exist ing, having

b een bu i l t i n the 1 2 th cen tu ry .

I t i s recorded by Governor Moens that in t he J ew i sh

q uarters (s i tuated) next to the palace of the k ing of

C ochin at Coch in de S ima there are two synagogues,

J . Sp l in ter S tavorinus . Voyages to the East I nd ies , 17 74- 78.

485 J EW

v iz .,one for the White J ews , and the other for the

B lack J ews . The lat ter have readers of the ir own tr ibe,

who hold the serv i ces,but , when a Whi te Rabb i comes

to the i r synagogue,the honour of conduct ing the service

mus t be given to him .

”

“ The dates,the Rev . J . H . Lord writes ,

“ Of the

synagogues of the B lack J ews altogether antedate those

of the White . Thus, t he date on the mural s lab of the

now d i sused and di lap idated Cochin Angad i synagogue

i s A .D . 1344 563 years ago . That of the Kadavam ba

gom synagogue in Cochin i s A .D . 1639 , or = z 68 years

ago . That of the Cochin Theckumbagom synagogue

is A .D . 1586, or : 32 1 years ago whi l e that of the syna

gogue of the White J ews i s A .D . 1666 or = z 4 1 years

ago . Hence the inst i tut ion s of the B lack J ews are

the more anc ient . The tomb - stone date s of the B lack

J ews are al so far more ancient than those of the

White J ews . The ear l ie st date of any tomb - stone of

the B lack J ews i s s ix hundred years old .

I t i s further noted by the Rev . J . H . Lord that “ the

B lack J ews are st i l l the ones who make use of the

privi leges granted in the copper -p late charter . They

s t i l l carry a s i lk umbrel la,and lamp s l i t at day-t ime ,

when proceed ing to their synagogue on the 8th day after

b irth of sons . They spread a c l oth on the ground , and

p lace ornament s of l eaves across the road on occas ion s

when the ir br ides and br idegrooms go to get married.and use then cadanan s (mortars which are charged

w i th gunpowder,and fi red) , and trumpet s . After the

wedding i s over,four s i l k sunshades , each supported on

four pole s,are borne

,with lamp s burn ing in front , as

the br idal par ty goes home . The B lack J ews say that

the White J ews use none of these , and never have done

so . The White J ews aver that they were accustomed

new 486

formerly to use such pr iv i lege s , but have d i scont inued

them .

”

There i s record of d i sputes between the White and

B lack J ews for as early a t ime as that of the Dutch

sett lement, or even ear l ier . J ea lousy and str i fe between

the two sec t ion s on matters of i ntermarr iage and equal

pr iv i l eges seem to have ex i sted even dur ing the t ime of

the Port uguese . Canter Vis scher, i n h i s ‘ Letter s from

refers to these party fee l ings . The blacks,

”

he wr ite s,

“ have a dark co loured Rabb i,who must

stand back i f a white one enters,and must re s ign to him

the honour of perform ing the d iv i ne service i n the

synagogue . On the other hand,when the black Rabb is

enter the synagogue ofWhites , they must only be hearers .

There has late ly been a great d i spute be tween the two

races the B lack w ish ing to compel the White J ewesse s

to keep the i r heads uncovered,l i ke the i r own women ,

and trying to persuade the Rajah to enforce such a ru le .

The d isp ute ended,however

,with perm i ss ion g iven to

every one , both men and women , to wear what they

chose .

More than once,J ewish Rabb i s have been appealed

to on t he subj ect of rac ia l pur i ty,and they have on al l

occas ion s upheld the c la im s of a sect ion of the B lack

J ews to be ing J ews,and the White J ews have as often

repud iated such dec is ions , and quest ioned thei r va l id ity .

The weight of author ity,and the ev idence of local facts ,

seem to m i l i tate aga inst the content ion of the White

J ews that the B lack J ews do not belong to theI srae l i t i shcommun ity , but are the descendants of emanc ipated

slaves and hal f castes . The White J ews appear to

have maintained the pur ity of the i r race by decl in ing

Ed it ion by Major Heber Drury , 1862 . Letter XV I I I .

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JEW 488

the ir number,who took us round the synagogues

, pro

fe ssed to th ink such exc l us iveness exaggerated and

unfa ir,and admitted that the i r own grandfathers had

l ived w ith B lack J ewesse s i n a more or less b ind ing

mar i ta l re lat i on,and i t i s abundant ly c lear that

,t i l l

recent ly,the B lack and White J ews were qu ite fr iendly

,

and the very fact o f t he White J ews hold ing the t it le

deeds mere ly proves that they were trusted by the true

owners to keep them for safe cu stody , as they were r icher

and possessed safes . I n an art ic le in the ‘ Revue des

Deux Mondes ,” f P ierre Lot i , writ i ng of the B lack J ews ,

says that “ le rabb in me fa i t d’

ameres doléances sur la

fierté de s r ivaux de la rue p roche , qu i ne veulent jama i s

consent ir a contracter marr iage , n i meme a frayer avec

ses paro i ss iens . E t,pour comb le , me d it-il, le grand

rabb in de Jerusa lem ,a qu i on ava it adressé une p la inte

co l lect ive,le pr iant d

’

interven ir, s’

est contenté d’émettre,

en réponse,cette généra l i té p lutOt Offensante : Pour

n icher ensemble , il faut etre des moineaux de meme

p lumage .

I n recent years , a d i st i nct ion appears to have grown

up among the B lack J ews , so that they now want to be

d i st ingu i shed as Brown J ews and B lack J ews,the former

cla iming to be Meyookhas im or genuine J ews . I n this

connect ion,Mr . Adler wr ites that “ the Black J ews are

themselve s d ivided into two c lasses , the B lack J ews

proper,who are darker

,and have no surnames

,and the

noble,who have fam i ly names and legit imate descent ,

and cla im to be the true descendants of the Crangan fi r

or S ingil i J ews .

The White J ews are general ly known by the name

of Paradé s is (fore igner s) . Thi s de s ignat ion i s found in

July , 1902 .

489 new

some of the S irkar (State) account s, and al so in a few

Theetooram s or Royal writ s granted to them . I t i s

argued that they must have been so cal led at first to

d i st ingui sh them from the more anc ient I srae l ites . The

exi stence for centur ie s of three smal l colon ie s of B lack

J ews at Chennamangalam and Mala i n the Coch in

State,and Parur in Travancore

,at a d i stance of five

or s ix mi les from Cranganfi r, shows that they must

have sought refuge in those p laces on be ing hard

pressed by the Moors and the Portuguese . There are

no White J ews in any of these stat ions,nor can they

po int to any vested interest s i n the t ract s about

Crangan fi r, the most anc ient J ewi sh set tlement in the

State .

The J ews wear a l ong tun ic of r ich colour,a wai st

coat buttoned up to the neck , and ful l whi te trousers .

They go about wearing a sku l l cap,and put on a turban

when they go to the synagogue . The B lack J ews dress

more or less l i ke the nat ive Mahom edans . Many of

them put on sh irts,and have sku l l cap s l ike the JOnaka

Mapp i las . They general ly wear coloured cloths . The

J ews invariably use wooden sandal s . These,and the ir

locks brought down in fron t of the ears , dist ingu ish them

from other sect ions of the populat i on . The J ewesses

a lways wear coloured c loths . H ebrew i s st i l l the

l iturgical language,and i s studied as a c lass ic by a few ,

but the home language i s Malayalam . The White J ews

celebrate the ir marr iages on Sundays , but the B lack J ews

st i l l retain the anc ien t custom of ce lebrat ing them on

Tuesdays after sunset . Though polygamy i s not proh ib ited, monogamy i s the ru l e . The males general ly

marry at the age of 20 ,wh i le the marr iageable age for

girl s i s 14 or 15 . Marr iages are genera l ly celebrated on

a grand scale . The fest iv i t ies continue for seven days11—33 1

—3

JEw 490

i n the case o f the Whi te J ews , and for fi fteen days among

the B lack J ews , who st i l l make use of some of the anc ient

priv i leges granted by the charter of Cheraman Perumal .The J ews o f al l sect ion s have adop ted a few H indu

customs . Thus,before go ing to th e synagogue for

marriage , a tal i (marr iage badge ) i s t ied round the br ide’s

neck by some near female re lat ive of the br idegroom

(general ly hi s s i s ter) i n im i tat ion of the H indu custom,

amidst the j oyful shou ts (kurava) of women . Divorce

i s not effected by a c ivi l tr ibunal . Marr iages are

d isso lved by the mak ing good the amount mentioned in

the kethuba or marr iage documen t . I n regard to the i r

funeral s , the corp se is washed , but not ano inted , and i s

depos i ted in the burial -ground,which i s cal led Beth

H aim,the house o f the l iv ing .

Like the ir brethren in other parts o f the world , the

Cochin J ews observe the Sabbat h feasts and fasts

blended int imately wi th the i r re l ig i on,and pract i ce the

r i te of c i rcumcis ion on t he e ighth day , when the chi ld

is a lso named . The Passover i s ce lebrated by the

di str ibut ion of un leavened bread,but no kid i s k i l l ed , nor

i s b l ood spr inkled upon the door -post and l i nte l . The

other feasts are the feast of Penteco st , feast of Trumpets,and feast of Tabernac les . The day of atonement , and

the ann iversary of the destruct ion of J eru salem , are

observed as fasts . O n the day of atonement , the J ews

pray in the synagogue from 5 A M . t i l l 7 P .M . The J ewi sh

fasts commence from 5 P .M . on the day p revious to the

fast,and end at 7 P .M . next day . The i r days beg in and

end with sunset . The feast o f Tabernac les i s observed

wi th more pomp and ceremony than other feast s . A

panda l,or temporary shed

,with a flat roof

,covered over

w ith p laited leave s of the cocoanut palm ,and decorated

with festoons,i s put up in the court -yard of, or near

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JHOD IA 49 2

i ntend to app ly to the Cochin Darbar for a grant under

the Educat i onal

I was p resent at the Convocation of the Madras

Un ivers i ty in 1903, when the Chance l lor conferred the

degree of Bache lor o f Arts on the fi rst J ew who had

passed the exam inat ion .

Accord ing to the Cochin Census,190 1 , there were

180 White , and 95 7 B lack J ews .

J hodia.—A sub -d iv i s ion of Poroja .

J horia.—A sub-divi s i on of Gaudo .

J i laga (p ith) . -An exogamous sept of Davanga .

J i lakara (cumin seeds : Cam im cm cym immc) . An

exogamous sept of Ba l ij a and Togata .

J in igar.—“ There are

,

” Mr . H . A . Stuart writes , JL

a few members of thi s caste , ch iefly in the Chendragiri

tal uk , whose ordinary occupation i t now i s to paint

p ic tures . They were,however

,once

,i t is said

,art ificers ,

and the account g iven of them i s as fol lows . They were

or iginal ly Raz us from the Northern C ircars , who , coming

to the Chendragiri Raj a for emp loyment , were set to

watch members of the Kammala caste who served the

Raja,i n order to p revent idleness or fraud . After some

t ime,the Kammalans fin i shed an ido l ’s car , and , be ing

i nfl ated with pr ide,demanded to be al lowed to s it i n i t

before the swami was h imsel f p laced there . For the i r

arrogance they were expe l led,and the Raz us , having by

observat i on l earnt something of the ir craft , discharged

the i r dut ies to the commun ity . Under the Nabobs they

abandoned thi s walk of l i fe , and took to saddlery, whence

came their name from j i n i a saddle , and now they are

merely much is .

”

Madras Mai l , 1907. 1' Manual of the North Arcot d istr ict.

493 I IN IGAR

Mr . W . Franc is informs us if that “ i n Bel lary wood

carving i s done by J in igaras , who have'

taught the art to

some Muhammadans , who are now often more ski l fu l

than the i r teachers . Two of them made a teak doorway,

carved in the Chal ukyan style,which obtai ned a medal

at the Arts Exhib i t ion at the Delh i Darbar,and is now

in the Madras Museum .

At Nandyal in the Kurnoo l d i str ict , I recent ly saw a

J in igar, who makes lacquer ”

(gesso) fans , trays , large

c ircu lar table tops,etc .

,and paint ings of H indu de i t ie s

and mytho log ical subje cts . H e made a number of

panel s used in th e dado of Lady Curz on’

s boudo ir at

the c ircu it house,Delhi . A medal was awarded to him

for hi s gesso ware at the Delh i E xh i b i t i on,but i t was

,

i n co lour ing , in fer ior to that of the co l lec t ion which

was sent to the I ndo -Colon ia l Exhibit ion in 1886. The

lacquer ware of Kurnoo l has been sa id to be perhap s

the finest I ndian gesso work produced anywhe r e . The

work turned out at Mandasa in Ganjam is much bolder,

and su itab le for decorat ion on a large scal e . A sim i lar

method of decorat i on was former ly large ly used in

Saracen ic archi tectural decorat ion of in terio rs in various

countr ies . The pattern s of the Kurnoo l ware are floral ,and in s l ight re l ief

,and the co lours are very bright with

much gi ld ing . At Nossam,i n Ganjam

,l eather d i sh

mats are painted w ith p ic tures o f de i t i e s and floral

designs . Nat ive c ircular p laying -cards,and fan s made

of palmyra leave s or paper and c loth lacquered and

painted in bri l l iant co lours,are al so made here .

I n the Nel lore d i str ic t,the J in iga—vandlu make

toys,p ictures

,and mode l s in paper and p ith . At

Trichinopo ly,very e laborate and accurate mode l s of the

3“ Gazetteer of the Bel lary d istr ict .

J INKA 494

great H indu temp les,art ific ia l fl owers

,bul lock coaches

,

etc . ,are made of the p i th o f sola (d i sc/zy ii omene aspei

f a) ,wh ich i s al so used in the construct ion of sola top i s

(sun -hats) . The Madras Museum possesse s a very

qua int p i th mode l o f the Raj a of Tanjore in darbar,

with perform ing wrest lers and Deva -das i s, made many

years ago .

J inka .—(I ndian

’

gazel le,Gaz el la aemcetl i ) .— Ah ex

ogam ous sept of Padma Sale. The equ ivalent J inkala

is a sept of BOya .

J ira.—In the Be l lary d i st r ict

,a L ingayat who se l l s

fl owers ca l l s h imsel f a J i ra,and h is caste J i ra kula .

J irige (cumin Cam inam cym imcm ) . —An exogamous

sep t of Kuruba,and got ra o f Kurn i .

J ivala (an insect) .— An exogamous sept o f Kuruba .

J ogi .—The Jog is , who are a caste of Te lugu mend icants , are summed up by Mr . H . A . S tuart le as be ing“ l ike the Dasaris , i t inerant j ugglers and beggars .

They are d iv ided into those who sel l beads,and tho se

who keep p igs . They are dexte rous snake -charmers ,and pretend to a profound knowledge of charms and

medic ine . They are very fi l thy i n the i r hab it s . They

have no re str i ct i ons regard ing food,may eat in the

house of any Sudra , and al low widows to l ive in con

cub inage ,on ly exact ing a smal l money penalty , and

proh ib it i ng her from wash ing herse l f w i th turmeri c

water . ” I n addi t i on to begging and p ig -breed ing,the

Jog is are emp loyed in the cu l t ivat i on of land , i n the

destruct ion o f pariah dogs,scaveng ing

,robbery and

daco i ty . Some of the women,ca l l ed K illekyata, are

profe ss ional tattooers . The Jog i s wander abou t the

country,tak ing wi th them (some t imes on donkeys) the

Manual of the North Arcot d istr ict .

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JOG I MEND IGAN'

I‘

.

w »

495 JOGI

mater ial s for the i r rude huts . The packs of the donkeys

are,Mr . F . S . Mul laly informs u sed as recep tacle s

for storing c loths obta ined in predatory excurs ion s .

Jog is encamp on the outskirts o f vi l lage s , u sua l ly on a

p lain or dry bed of a tank . The i r hut s or gud isays are

made of palmyra leave s (or sedge) p laited w i th five

s trands form ing an arch . The huts are complete ly

Open in front .

I n the Tami l country , the Jogi s are cal led D hoddiyan

or Tott iyan (7 7A ) , and those who are emp loyed as

scavengers are known as Koravas or Oddans . The

scavengers do not m ix wi th the rest of the commun ity .

Some Jogi s assert that t hey have to l ive by begging in

consequence of a cur se brought on t hem by Parvat i,

concern ing whose breasts one of the i r ancestors made

some indi screet remarks . They cons ider themse lve s

super ior to Mal as and Madigas , but an Oddan (navvy

caste) wi l l not eat in the hou se of a Jog i . They are

said to eat crocod i les,fie ld rat s

,and cats . There i s a

trad it i on that a Jog i br idegroom,before ty ing the bottu

(marr iage badge) on hi s br ide’s neck , had to t ie i t by

means of a str ing dyed with turmeri c round the neck of

a female cat . Peop le somet imes object to the catching

o f cats by Jog i s for food,as the detachment of a s ing l e

ha ir from the body of a cat i s cons idered a heinous

offence . To overcome the object ion,the Jogi says that

he want s the an imal for a marr iage ceremony . On one

occasion,I saw a Madiga carrying home a bag fu l l of

kittens,which

,he said

,he was go ing to eat .

The Jog i mend ican ts go about , c lad in a dirty lo in

cloth (often red in co lour) and a str ip of c lo th over the

shou lders,with cobras

,pythons

, or rat snakes in baskets ,

Notes on Cr im inal C lasses of the Madras Presidency .

496

and carrying a bag slung over t he shou lder . The

contents of one of these bags,which was exam ined

,

were fru i t s of M imasofi s lcex am l if a and fl ower - sp ike s ofL ifip ia nocl ifl ora (used for medic ine) , a snake -charm ing

reed in st rument , a p iece of cutt l e -fish she l l,porcup ine

qui l l s (so ld to go ldsm iths fo r brushes) , a cocoanu t she l l

contain ing a powder , narrikombu (spurious jackals’horn s)

such as are al so manufactured by Kuruv ikarans,and

two p ieces of wood supposed to be an ant idote for snake

po ison ing . The women go about the street s decorated

w ith bangles and necklaces of beads,sharks vertebrae

,

and cowry she l l s,bawl ing out Subbamma

,Lach

chamma ,” etc .

, and wi l l not move on t i l l a lm s are g iven

to them . They carry a capac iou s gourd , wh ich serve s

as a conven ient receptac l e for sto len art ic les .

Like other Te lugu caste s,the Jog is have ex oga

mous sept s or int iperu,of wh ich the fo l lowing are

examp lesVag iti , cou rt—yard . B indhol lu, b rass water-pot .

U luvala, h orse-gram . Cheruku , sugar-cane .

Jal l i , tasse ls of palmyra leaves Chappad i , in sip id.

put round the necks of b u l ls. Boda Dasiri , bald-headed menVavati (re lationsh ip ) . dicant .

Gund ra, round . Gud i , temp le.

At the Myso re census,

190 1 , K illekyata, H elava,

Jangal iga,and Pakanat i were retu rned as be ing Jog i s .

A few ind iv idual s returned gOtras , such as Vrishabha,Kaverimatha

,and Khedrum aku la. At the Madras

census,S iddaru ,

and Pamula (snake) were returned as

sub -caste s . Pamula i s app l ied as a synonym for Jogi ,i nasmuch as snake -charm ing i s one of the i r occupat ions .

The women of the caste are said to be depraved,

and prost itut ion i s common . As a p roof of chast ity, the

ordea l of drink ing a potfu l of cow-dung water or ch i l ly

water has to be undergone . I f a man, proved gui l ty of

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J OG I 498

l owered into the grave,al l present throw r ice over the

eyes,and a man o f a di ffe rent sept to the deceased

p laces fou r annas in the mou th . \Vith in the grave the

head i s turned on one s ide,and a cavi ty scooped out

,in

which var ious art i c le s of food are p laced . Though the

body i s not burn t,fi re i s carr ied to the grave by the

son . Among the J al l i -val lu,a chi cken and smal l

quan t i ty of salt are p laced in the armp it of the corpse .

O n the karmandh iram,

or day of t he final death

ceremon ie s,cooked r i ce

,vegetab le s

,fru i t

,and arrack

are offered to the deceased . A c loth i s sp read near

t he grave,and the son

,and other agnates

,p lace food

thereon,whi le naming

,one after t he other

,the ir deceased

ancestors . The food i s eaten by Jogi s of sept s other

than the J al l i -val l u, wh o throw i t i n to water . I f septs

other than the J al l i were to do thi s , they wou ld be fined .

Those assembled proceed to a tank or r iver,and make

an effigy in mud,by the s ide o f which an earthen lamp

i s p laced . After the offer ing of cooked r i ce,etc .

,the

lamp and effigy are thrown in to the water . A man who

is celebrat ing h is wi fe’

s death - ri te s then has h i s wai st

thread cut by ano ther w i dower whi le bathing .

The Jogis worsh ip Peddavadu ,Malalamm a

,Gang

amma,Ayyavaru ,

Rudramma,and Madura Vi rudu .

Some women wear,i n add it i on to the marr iage bo t tu

,

a spec ial bott u in honour of one of their gods . This i s

p laced before the god and worn by the e ldest female ofa fam i ly

,pass ing on a t her death to the next e ldest .

As regards the crim inal p ropens i t ie s o f the Jogi s ,Mr . Mul laly wr i tes as fo llows .

i f “ O n an excurs i on

be ing agreed upon by members of a J ogh i gang,others

of the fratern i ty encamped in the vi c in ity are consu l ted .

ci t .

499 JOGI PURU SHA

I n some i solated spot a n im t ree (M el ia A earl irac/cta) i s

chosen as a mee t ing p lace . Here the p re l iminar ies are

se tt led,and the i r god Perumal i s i nvoked . They se t

out in bands of from twe lve to fifteen,armed wi th stout

bamboo st icks . Scan t i ly c lad,and with the i r heads

muffl ed up,they awai t the arr ival of the carts pass ing

the ir p lace of h id ing . I n twos and threes they at tack

the carts,which are u sual ly driven off the road

,and no t

unfrequently upse t,and the trave l lers are made to g ive

al l they posses s . The property is then given to the

headman of the gang for safe—kee p ing,and he secretes

i t in the vic in i ty of hi s hut , and set s about the d i spo sal

of i t . Thei r rece ive rs are to be found among the

respectable ’

O il—mongers of 1 1 vi l lages in the v ic in i ty

o f the i r encampments , whi le p roperty no t d i spo sed of

local ly i s taken to Madras . Readmiss ion to caste

after convict ion,when impri sonment i s invo lved

,i s an

easy matter . A feed and drink at the expense of the‘ unfortunate

,

’ general ly de frayed from the share of

property which i s kept by hi s more for tunate kinsfo lk,

are al l that i s necessary,except the ceremony common

to other c lasses of having the tongue s l ightly burnt by

a p iece of hot go ld . Thi s i s always performed by the

J angam (headman) of the gang . The boys of the c las s

are emp loyed by the ir e lders in steal ing grain stored at

kalams (thresh ing -fl oors) , and , as Opportun i ty offers ,by s l i t t ing grain bags loaded in carts .

”

J Ggi .—A sub -divi s ion of Kudubi .

Jogi Gurukka1.—S ee Yog i Gurukkal .

J ogi P uru sha .—The Purushas or Jog i Purushas

seem to have come into exi stence in recent t imes , and

to be divided into two di st inct c las ses,one of which has

crystal l i sed into a caste,whi l e the o ther merely fo l lows

a cu lt pract iced by several o ther caste s . Those in South

JOGI PURUSHA 500

Canara, who speak Marathi and Tu l u , say that they

form a caste , which wi l l not admi t members of other

caste s into i t s ranks . There i s a head mutt (re l ig io us

inst itut i on) at Kadir i , wi th subordinate mutt s at Halori

and Bhuvarasu,al l i n South Canara . The Jog i Purushas

are d i sc ip le s o f one or other of these mutts . Thei r

Spec ial de i ty i s Bairava,but some regard Gorakshanath

as the i r god . They are in it iated into the Bai rava cu lt

by the i r p riest . They may lead e ither a ce l ibate or

marr ied l i fe . The ce l ibates shou ld have a ho le bored

in the m idd le of the ear,and wear there in a r ing o f

rh inoceros horn or ch ina-c lay . Those who wi sh to lead

a marr ied l i fe need not have a hole in the ear,but

,at

the t ime of the i r in it iat ion,a p iece of c lay i s p re ssed over

the spot where the hole should be . Al l Jog i Purushas

who have become the d i sc ip l e s of a guru (sp iri tua l

i n structor) of the i r cu l t ought to have a brass , copper ,or s i lve r p ipe

,ca l led s inganatha, t i ed on a thread round

the neck . Before taking the i r meal s,they are expected

to pray to Bairava,and blow the p ipe .

The Jog i Puru shas fo l low the Makkalakattu system

o f i nher itance (i n the male l ine) , and , for the i r marr iage

ceremon ies,engage a Karad i B rahman . The dead are

buried in a s i tt ing posture . The bojja,or fina l death

ceremony,i s usual ly performed on the twe l fth day , and

a Brahman pr ie st officiates thereat . The ceremony

consi sts i n offering food to the crows,making pre sents

to Brahmans,and undergo ing purificatory r i tes for the

removal of death po l l ut ion . I f the deceased has been

in i t iated into the Bairava cul t , puj a (worsh ip ) must be

done at the grave every al ternate day from the th i rd day

t i l l the bojja day .

Some Jog i Puru shas are p rofess ional mendicants,

wh i l e o thers work as coo l i e s,peons

,etc .

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PR I NTED BY TH E SUPERINT END ENT,

GOVERNM ENT PR ESS ,MADRAS .

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