Can teachers bridge the theory-practice gap?

US-China

Education Review

B

Volume 5, Number 4, April 2015 (Serial Number 47)

David

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Publication Information: US-China Education Review B (Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-6248) by David Publishing Company located at 240 Nagle Avenue #15C, New York, NY 10034, USA. Aims and Scope: US-China Education Review B, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-theory researches on Higher Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, Educational Technology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration, Sociology of Education, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education, Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education, Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, Health Education, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, Physical Education, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, as well as other issues. Editorial Board Members: Asst. Prof. Dr. Güner Tural Associate Prof. Rosalinda Hernandez Prof. Aaron W. Hughey Prof. Alexandro Escudero Prof. Cameron Scott White Prof. Deonarain Brijlall Prof. Diane Schwartz Prof. Ghazi M. Ghaith Prof. Gil-Garcia, Ana Prof. Gordana Jovanovic Dolecek Prof. Grigorios Karafillis Prof. James L. Morrison Prof. Käthe Schneider Prof. Lihshing Leigh Wang Prof. Mercedes Ruiz Lozano Prof. Michael Eskay Prof. Okechukwu Sunday Abonyi Prof. Peter Hills Prof. Smirnov Eugeny Prof. Yea-Ling Tsao Manuscripts and correspondence are invited for publication. You can submit your papers via Web submission, or E-mail to [email protected] or [email protected]. Submission guidelines and Web submission system are available at http://www.davidpublishing.com. Editorial Office: 240 Nagle Avenue #15C, New York, NY 10034, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; or [email protected]. Copyright©2015 by David Publishing Company and individual contributors. All rights reserved. David Publishing Company holds the exclusive copyright of all the contents of this journal. In accordance with the international convention, no part of this journal may be reproduced or transmitted by any media or publishing organs (including various Websites) without the written permission of the copyright holder. Otherwise, any conduct would be considered as the violation of the copyright. The contents of this journal are available for any citation. However, all the citations should be clearly indicated with the title of this journal, serial number and the name of the author. Abstracted/Indexed in:Database of EBSCO, Massachusetts,

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DAVID PUBLISHING

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US-China Education Review

B Volume 5, Number 4, April 2015 (Serial Number 47)

Contents Educational Economics and Management

Promoting the Quality of Educational Institutions by Enhancing Educational Leadership 215

Samuel Gento, Günter L. Huber, Raúl González, Ascensión Palomares, Vicente J. Orden

Teacher Education

Can Teachers Bridge the Theory-Practice Gap? An Ethnographic Study of a Teacher 233

Carmen Álvarez Álvarez

Development of the Double Layer Rubric for the Study on the Implementation of School-based Assessment Among Teachers 245

Mohd Sahandri Gani Bin Hamzah, Noorzeliana Idris, Saifuddin Kumar Abdullah,

Norazilawati Abdullah, Mazura Mastura Muhammad

The Status Quo Investigation of the Acculturation of the English Teachers in High School in Western China 257

Long An-bao, Li Sen

History Education

Uncritical Receivers of Historical Myths: A Grim Picture From Turkish High Schoolers 270

Muhammet Avaroğulları, Mehmet Alper Demir

Education and Literature

On the Symbolic Significance of To Kill a Mockingbird 278

Liu Xi, Zhang Li-li

US-China Education Review B, April 2015, Vol. 5, No. 4, 215-232 doi: 10.17265/2161-6248/2015.04.001

Promoting the Quality of Educational Institutions by Enhancing

Educational Leadership

Samuel Gento

National University of Distance Education, Madrid, Spain

Günter L. Huber

University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany

Raúl González


Ascensión Palomares

University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain

Vicente J. Orden


The initial aim of this research on the quality of educational institutions and educational leadership is to obtain

valuable information (based on theoretical background and empirical data) regarding: (a) the importance or

relevance given by professionals and key stakeholders to the different components, dimensions, and descriptors that

define both the quality of educational institutions and educational leadership as practiced in such institutions; and (b)

evidence revealing the presence of these components and demonstrating that the exercise of the leadership is being

carried out in accordance with the descriptors of each dimension. The end aim of the study is by the information

obtained to provide a basis for proposing strategies and alternatives to facilitate the improvement of educational

institutions. Quality of education and quality of educational leadership are both matters of concern for education

professionals, social and political leaders, and people in general. Education is considered today the main motor for

the development of people and societies, and leadership in education is emerging as a fundamental factor for this

improving change. This research is based on two fundamental pillars: (a) the analysis of the evidence and proposals

of a number of relevant authors regarding the quality of education and educational leadership; and (b) the

information provided by the key stakeholders. To obtain this information, we have been helped by professionals

working in the education filed, by university students (of different courses in a number of academic institutions),

and by colleagues who are members of the European Association on “Educational Leadership and Quality of

Education”. To collect empirical data, two questionnaires, one on the quality of educational institutions and the

other on educational leadership in these institutions, have been designed. Both of them have been submitted to

validation in order to check their appropriateness for measuring the included contents. Although the empirical data

(in particular those collected from the questionnaires) are still provisional, they provide an indication of what the

Samuel Gento, Ph.D., full professor, Faculty of Education, National University of Distance Education. Günter L. Huber, Ph.D., full professor, Institute of Educational Research, University of Tübingen. Raúl González, Ph.D., associate professor, Faculty of Education, National University of Distance Education. Ascensión Palomares, Ph.D., professor, Faculty of Education, University of Castilla-La Mancha. Vicente J. Orden, M.A., collaborator professor, Faculty of Education, National University of Distance Education.

DAVID PUBLISHING

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PROMOTING THE QUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

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profile of education in today’s societies should be and how leadership could be exercised within educational

institutions or entities. Data collected from 32 interviews have also been analysed. These data offer information

about the most relevant features characterising an authentic educational or pedagogical profile of educational

entities and of pedagogical or educational leadership.

Keywords: importance of quality, paradigm of total or integral quality, evidence of quality, identifiers of quality,

predictors of quality, values as educational product, educational or pedagogical leadership dimensions, resources,

processes, and results of quality

Introduction

Research Purpose

The purpose of this research is to study the relevant components and indicators of quality for educational

institutions and the dimensions of educational leadership. The aim in analysing these topics is to obtain

information with a view to improving the quality of educational institutions by fostering true educational

leadership. The report on “improving school leadership”, drawn up for the Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development (OECD) by Pont, Nusche, and Moorman (2008), declared that the quality of

leadership in educational institutions plays a fundamental role in the improvement of educational practice and

has therefore become a priority in the educational politics of the OECD and in the countries belonging to this

organization.

Accordingly, the research set out to obtain information regarding the following objectives:

(a) To collect information on the importance that the most representative stakeholders in education and in

educational institutions give to the components and elements that reveal the quality of educational institutions;

(b) To collect data regarding the degree, existence, reality, or effectiveness of these components and

elements in educational institutions;

(c) To obtain information on the importance that the stakeholders attribute to the dimensions and features

that show the implementation of pedagogical or educational leadership in educational institutions;

(d) To collect data regarding the degree, existence, reality, or effectiveness of the exercise of educational

leadership in educational institutions;

(e) To relate the importance and evidence of the quality of educational institutions with the importance and

evidence of the pedagogical or educational leadership in such institutions.

Theoretical Background

The theoretical background is taken from the literature on the quality of education, the quality of

educational institutions, and the leadership exercised in educational institutions. Particular attention is given to

reports on the quality of education in general and in relation to European countries. Studies on educational

leadership are also taken into consideration for defining the theoretical framework.

If the quality of education is today a need widely felt by people and societies for their own development

and progress, there is not a single educational system that could be considered as of true quality, tailored to the

needs of individuals and the corresponding society; if it would not have the necessary resources, the processes

and results appropriate to the quality paradigm and, even better, to the paradigm of total or integral quality.

Today’s movement pro the quality of education has a number of precedents. Among the most notable are:


217

(a) The contribution from the movement of effective schools (Scheerens, 1992);

(b) The movement pro improvement of educational institutions promoted by Hopkins and Lagerweig

(1997);

(c) The movement pro school re-structuring driven by Stoll and Fink (1996).

Among the basic concerns of a good number of today’s developed countries are the following:

1. Education is considered to be a vital factor determining the progress and competitiveness of a country;

2. There is a concern that investment made in educational systems does not appear to be as effective and

profitable as might be expected.

The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) report of 2011 (OECD, 2012) on results

obtained in reading, mathematics, and sciences, collected data of the evaluation of more than 500,000 students

of 15 years old in 65 countries. At the top of the results table in mathematics are a number of countries from

East Asia headed by Shanghai (with the highest number of 613 points, 119 higher than the OECD average of

494), followed by Singapore (with 573), Hong Kong (with 561), South Korea (with 554), Macao (with 538),

and Japan (with 536). These countries, together with Liechtenstein, Switzerland, and the Low Countries, form

the group of the 10 countries with the best results in mathematics.

Among the factors that seem to determine the good results in this evaluation, this PISA report emphasizes

the following:

(a) Quality of teacher training;

(b) Teachers’ acknowledgement and prestige;

(c) Autonomy of educational institutions (to design the curriculum and to carry out evaluations);

(d) Support given to students needing special care (due to their particular difficulties of different types);

(e) Students’ effort to achieve ambitious objectives;

(f) Collaboration among teachers, parents, school principals, and authorities.

The effort made by the students and the acknowledgement that society gives to education appear to be

particularly relevant. These factors would appear to have a greater influence on good results than the original

socio-economic status of students, regions, and countries.

Quality

Concept of Quality

Although there are different interpretations of the concept of “quality” in general (Hopkins & Lagerweig,

1997; Müller-Using, 2010; Murgatroid & Morgan, 2002; Scheerens, 1992; Stoll & Fink, 1996), we understand that

“quality”, with the meaning of integrality or totality, is “the trait attributable to individuals and collective entities

whose structural and functional components meet the criteria of maximum suitability expected from them and

that produce contributions or results valuable in the highest degree and accommodated to their own nature”

(Gento, 2002, p. 11). In its complete and paramount meaning, quality could be considered as “the whole

individual, authentic, integral, and supreme development of all the potentialities of a particular being or entity”.

Quality of Education

The difficulty of defining the quality of education can be easily deduced if we consider that there are a

number of definitions in education literature (Gerecht, 2010; Orden, 1989; Pérez & Martínez, 1989). According

to collected opinions, it must be considered that:


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1. Education is a complex reality;

2. There are important differences among conceptualizations on education;

3. The intellectual activity is not evident in itself, but can be seen by its results;

4. The student or person being educated is a free individual who determines his/her own behaviour in

accordance with his/her own decision.

The fundamental purpose of education could help us define the result of an education of quality in the

following way:

Education is the conscious promotion, implemented in an interrelated and participatory way, of the valuable condition of the whole dimensions of a person, who must tend to his/her own satisfaction and to the satisfaction of those with whom he/she lives in a given context and environment that must be protected and, when it is possible, improved. (Gento, 2002, p. 67)

This integral conception of education is far from the restrictive conceptions that consider education to be

simply the acquisition of knowledge, or in a broadest sense, the promotion of learning. On the contrary, a

human being not only possesses the ability to learn, nor even only the ability to develop his/her intellectual

dimension; a human being also possesses other dimensions that must be considered as potentialities to be

developed by an integral education of quality.

Quality of Educational Institutions

To synthesize different conceptions (Hodson & Thomas, 2003; Lomas, 2007; Smith & MacGregor, 2009;

Wrigley, 2006), we offer our own definition of an educational institution of quality as “The one where the

available resources, the processes carried out, and the results achieved are in keeping with the ideal theoretical

model of a perfectly run educational institution” (Gento, 2002, p. 55). Of course, the specific model of what

constitutes a perfectly run institution should be defined by each individual institution, although other external

models could be used as a valid reference.

Wrigley (2006) defined the peculiarity of an educational institution that tries to improve its quality in the

following way:

Before you set about improving schools, you need to work out what would count as good school. That depends on your view of society, your aspirations for your own people and your hope for the future. How we change schools depends on how we want to change the world. (p. 34)

Stressing the need to give the educational institutions their own autonomy, Sergiovanni (2004) stated that

“When only uniform standards are imposed... these could undermine the local diversity, jeopardize the

institutions’ organization peculiarity, compromise its ability to answer the needed local expectancies and

cripple its efforts to offer effective teaching and learning” (p. 83). As a conclusion to this reflection,

Sergiovanni (2004) declared that “It should be left to teachers and students to define their own standards” (p.

92). Other authors (Smith & MacGregor, 2009) considered that the external control of educational institutions

is perceived by their members as intrusive and threatening to the institutions’ autonomy without acting as

promoter of change.

Assuming that each individual educational institution must define its own model of quality, the referential

model we propose (Gento, 2002) to be submitted to the consideration of any educational community considers

that within the quality of an educational institution, there are a number of components which are “identifiers”

and others which are “predictors” (see Figure 1). The components of the first group act as evidence of quality,


219

and the second group could be used to predict the possibility of quality. In fact, this is a purely methodological

distinction to help us understand a global holistic system (a whole educational institution) and the way it

operates.

Figure 1. Model of quality of an educational institution (Gento, 2002).

Identifiers of Quality of Educational Institutions

The following are proposed as identifiers of the quality of an educational institution: (a) values as an

educational product; (b) staff satisfaction; (c) student satisfaction; and (d) impact of education.

The educational product. In an educational institution, this product will obviously refer to the attainment

of education. But this general concept implies some “elements that should be specified and made operative, in

order to facilitate their control and assessment” (Burbules, 2004, p. 8). A conceptual analysis and reflection

from comparative studies (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 1972;

Marín, 1993) shows that an integral conception of education, particularly within the European context, implies

that the most specific asset of education are values that can be grouped in the following way:

Staffsatisfaction Student

satisfactionImpact

IDENTIFIERS

Availabilityof personaland materialresources

Planningand

organization

Resourcesmanagemen

Values as educational product

Educational methodology

PREDICTORS

Pedagogical leadership


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(a) Physical and emotional;

(b) Intellectual;

(c) Moral or ethical;

(d) Aesthetic or artistic;

(e) Socio-relational and environmental;

(f) Practical and utilitarian;

(g) Transcendental.

Student satisfaction. This quality indicator is similar to what in a producing company or agency of

services is considered as “external customer satisfaction”. It refers to the satisfaction of those whom the

educational product is offered to or who obtain this product (although in an educational institution, students are

besides co-agents of the educational product). For the analysis of student satisfaction, attention should be given

to the following areas:

(a) Basic needs;

(b) Feeling of security;

(c) Acceptance within the group;

(d) Esteem received by the group members;

(e) Opportunity to freely develop themselves;

(f) Opportunity to participate.

Staff satisfaction. Staff satisfaction is related to organizational trends claiming staff participation as an

essential principle (Gento, 1994). The whole assessment of staff satisfaction in a school affects all sectors that

make up the institution, although the relative importance of the different sectors’ satisfaction when considering

its repercussion on the quality of the institution may be taken into account (Braslavski, 2004; Ministry of

Education and Science, 1994). The following are possible elements leading to staff satisfaction:

(a) Attention to the material or physical conditions necessary to members’ well-being and to the exercise of

their duties;

(b) Job and professional security;

(c) Organization and function of the institution they work for;

(d) Obtained results (in this case, mainly student performance);

(e) Professional prestige.

Impact of education. This refers to the repercussion that the education received by people who have been

students has on contexts where they live or carry out activities of different types. It is obvious that educational

institutions of quality must offer educational products that not only improve life conditions and personal

success of people who have been educated in them, but also that these educational products must have an

improving effect on contexts where the subjects live and act. The main contexts where this impact could have

influence are the following:

(a) The academic context: the impact that education has on the success of future educational or academic

programmes (Gento, 2002, p. 101);

(b) The social and environmental context: impact on the society and on the surrounding environment they

live in;

(c) The work and professional context: effect on the work and professional arena produced by people who,

after finishing their studies in an educational institution, have entered the workplace;


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(d) The family context: effect produced on their families by people who have been students at the

corresponding educational institution.

Predictors of Quality of Educational Institutions

The following are proposed predictors of quality for educational institutions: (a) educational methodology;

(b) availability of personal and material resources; (c) planning and organization; (d) management of resources; and

(e) educational leadership.

Educational methodology. Educational methodology refers to the specific way of carrying out the

functions and tasks to attain educational objectives. According to its etymological origin and its conceptual

content, this methodology is of meditational type, as it aims to offer the educational subject the possibility of

objectives to be attained by educational processes. This methodology is primarily used in the classroom or

space where students and teachers most frequently carry out their activity (Scheerens & Creemers, 1989). The

following may be considered to be the basic principles of an educational methodology of quality:

(a) Planned dedication: involving task dedication (individual and collaborative), planning and programming,

organization, use of resources, assessment, and self-analysis;

(b) Adaptation: to people (pupils or students, teachers, parents, etc.), and to the environment and context

(social, familiar, educational, and workplace);

(c) Empowerment of abilities: positive motivation, formative self-evaluation, positive expectancies, promotion

of creativity, encouragement of problem solving, curriculum options, and extracurriculum options;

(d) Positive inter-relational atmosphere: emotional attention; sense of security, order, silence, or quietness;

discipline; open and multidirectional communication; and positive interaction;

(e) Inter-relationship with other entities: with families; with social community; with productive, professional,

and work sectors; with public administration; and with other institutions or entities.

Availability of personal and material resources. Within this component are included those personal and

material elements that form the patrimony the educational institution possesses to perform its activity. Teachers

are, undoubtedly, “a very important asset of an educational institution and highly relevant for its quality”

(Ministry of Education and Science, 1994, pp. 81-97). But the institution also has other members, such as the

non-teaching staff and all the other personnel (of vadministration, maintenance, cleaning, etc.). Students are

also significant members of an educational institution and are a relevant factor for determining its quality.

There are also material resources necessary for the smooth running of an institution of quality (such as facilities,

didactic materials, technological media, etc.).

Planning and organization. This component, sometimes called “strategic design”, is a relevant

component of the general framework of an educational institution, but its supervision must take account of its

dynamic. Although some authors declare that school organization has a very significant effect on the quality of

educational institutions (March, 1978), some researchers consider that this organization could be a framework

propitiating educational practice improvement and research on education (Scheerens, 1992, p. 118). Within the

organizational profile of an educational institution, the following elements should be considered.

Mission. The feeling of mission in an institution is the expression of the aim or basic reason for its existence

(Baker, 1990). This mission will determine the basic path to be followed, and will comprise the conceptual

elements that define the educational project. These conceptual elements will also determine the most suitable

organizational principles for the attainment of the highest levels of quality for the education provided (in its


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conception, processes, and results).

Operational principles. Operational principles will be determined by the mission that the institutions aim to

accomplish. Among the possible operational principles to be adopted by educational institutions are equity, priority

of attention to students, institutional autonomy, openness to communication, horizontal functional structure,

atmosphere nurturing positive interpersonal relations, empowerment to the involved members, care of the

environment, multidirectional intercommunication, participation of all, responsibility, continuous improvement and

innovation, zero defects, immediate intervention, family involvement, institutional self-evaluation, innovative

research, and educative integration and inclusion.

Organization structure. Organization structure refers to the setting up of different elements for the

coordination and management of the institution, including the organs (personal or collegiate) responsible for the

promotion and supervision of processes carried out within the institution. This may also include those organs or

entities that, although not directly forming part of the institution’s organization chart, have a relationship with it.

Written planning documents. Every institution aspiring to high levels of quality requires a number of written

documents defining the strategic plan of the institution, such as the educational project, school regulations,

curriculum project, year and subject programs, and annual institution memory.

Adaptation to context. Every educational institution, particularly a formalized one, is part of an educational

system and is affected by this system’s regulation framework. Furthermore, every institution functions within a

context and an environment that affect it. In addition, students have their own personal needs, expectancies, and

physical and psycho-pedagogical features that define a particular learning style and behaviour. The specific context

of teachers and personnel working in the educational institution should also be taken into account.

Management of resources. This predictor of quality refers to the use of material and personal resources,

and considers the following elements:

1. Management of material resources, which refers to the incidence of use of material resources in the

institution and how this may affect its quality;

2. Optimization of human resources, which is particularly important, as frequent mistakes can occur if

projects for quality improvement are implemented without providing guidance and suitable training for the staff and

personnel, without ensuring that responsibilities are clearly defined, or without entrusting qualified people with the

responsibilities they are fully equipped to undertake;

3. Strategic organizational features, which define the operational framework and the management thereof,

both designed to achieve the highest level of educational quality within the institution. With reference to this

aspect, Brooker, Ready, Flood, Schweitser, and Wisenbaker (1979) demonstrated that 85% of a school’s

performance variance is determined by the model of social system prevailing within the school.

Educational leadership. This component plays a fundamental role as a predictor of quality. But the

implementation of leadership should be considered for different fields of intervention and at different levels.

Although there are a number of descriptions of the profile of a leader, among them those proposed by

Álvarez Arregui and Pérez Pérez (2011), Bolman and Deal (2008), Branson (2010), Fullan (2004; 2011) and

Ogawa and Bossert (2000), we consider that:

A leader is a person (or group of persons) with the ability to provoke the liberation, from inside, of the internal energy existing in other human beings, so that these voluntarily make the effort to attain, in the most effective and comfortable possible way, the aims they themselves have decided to achieve in order to obtain their own dignity and that of those they live within the specific environment and context they are responsible for. (Gento, 2002, p. 183)


223

The power to arouse creativity in other people means that a leader is also at the service of those who are being

led, with the fundamental mission of helping them to overcome obstacles in order to be able to activate their full

capacity to achieve their own objectives and the objectives shared with their own group. As a consequence, the art

of leadership consists of “liberating people to do what is required of them in the most effective and humane

possible way” (De Pree, 1989, p. XX).

Dimensions of Educational Leadership

The exercise of leadership in education can be considered on a number of different levels. The way it is

implemented will vary from the role of the Minister of Education within a country, to that of a teacher in charge of

a group of students and, even, to that of a student acting as a leader of his/her classmates. But, as we are referring

here to leadership as a predictor of quality in educational institutions, we will consider leadership within this

context.

Within an educational institution, leadership must be eminently pedagogical or educational. As a consequence,

although peculiarities commonly applied to any type of leadership could be assigned to leadership within an

educational institution, the main concern of the this type of leadership should be to foster the potential of all the

members of the institution with the aim of achieving an education of quality, preferably within the paradigm of total

quality. Figure 2 shows the different dimensions of pedagogical or educational leadership that should be identified

within an educational institution.

Figure 2. Dimensions of the pedagogical or educational leadership (Gento, 2002).

Charismatic Dimension

This dimension implies that the leader (whether an individual or team) is attractive enough on a personal level

to enable other people to feel comfortable, and is approachable enough to inspire other people to feel confident

about having a close professional relationship.

ADMINISTRATIVE

PARTICIPATIVE

FORMATIVECULTURAL

CHARISMATIC EMOTIONAL

ANTICIPATORY

PROFESSIONAL


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Emotional Dimension

A leader should treat everybody in the educational institution or related to it with the greatest kindness,

consideration, and acknowledgement, and at the same time, be mindful of each person’s dignity and show esteem

and appreciation to all people.

Anticipatory Dimension

This refers to the ability to predict the most suitable strategies and activities to solve future challenges or

problems. It will also mean foreseeing the possible consequences or effects that may result from the solutions or

decisions to be implemented.

Participatory Dimension

The best way of encouraging individuals and groups to engage in intelligent and collaborative work is to

motivate them to offer their cooperative effort in projects they are committed to, and to participate in the

decision-making process throughout every phase. Collected empirical data generally show that in schools of quality,

all members of the institution work together and that its quality is increased if the educational system acts in

coordination with educational institutions.

Cultural Dimension

Leaders should promote the consolidation of the institution’s particular culture or specific cultural profile.

Pedagogical or educational leaders should, therefore, act with the required commitment in order to clarify,

consolidate, defend, and spread the institution’s cultural profile.

Formative Dimension

One of the essential features of authentic leaders requires that they should take responsibility for their own

continuous training and formation, and promote continuous training of the people working with them. The basic

approach of this leadership dimension must, then, be the promotion of personal professional training and

encouragement to obtain the best qualifications in order to carry out the tasks necessary to improve the quality of

education and of the institution.

Administrative Dimension

This dimension refers to the day-to-day administration and bureaucratic activities. In order to achieve

institutions of true quality, bureaucratic activities should be kept to a minimum, or at least, take second place to

educational concerns. These activities cannot be totally eliminated, but it is desirable to simplify them and to ensure

that they do not overshadow the fundamental aim of achieving educational institutions of quality.

Empirical Research

The paradigm or basic focus of this research is of an eclectic or mixed type (Hammersley, 1966), using

qualitative and quantitative techniques with the corresponding instruments used as phases of the same

continuum (Ercikan & Roth, 2006). When circumstances allow it, data obtained by the theoretical and

empirical research could be used to improve the educational or pedagogical leadership and the quality of

educational institutions, of education, and of every aspect related to any one of the mentioned aspects.

The type of methodological research is essentially descriptive or interpretative and, for the initial phases

we are still in, may be considered as exploratory. As descriptive and interpretative research, it aims to “describe

non-manipulative variables and detect inference of generalizations” (Best & Kahn, 2003, p. 21). As exploratory


225

research, it aims to be the origin of a theory or a hypothesis or, at least, to offer new perspectives regarding the

contents researched.

The final aim of this research is to transform education in order to improve its quality through the

implementation of true educational or pedagogical leadership, offering proven solutions that could lead to the

improvement of specific aspects, such as the input, processes, and outcome. Due to this transformative focus,

our study could be considered as action research.

The techniques and instruments used for the collection of empirical data for this study are the following:

(a) Questionnaire on evaluation of the quality of educational institutions;

(b) Questionnaire on evaluation of the educational or pedagogical leadership;

(c) Semi-structured interviews;

(d) Case studies;

(e) Discussion groups.

The questionnaire on evaluation of the quality of educational institutions is designed to collect the

corresponding values (from mark 1 to 9) attributed to the importance and the detected evidence (existence,

reality, or effectiveness) of components and descriptors of such quality (Gento, 2001a; 2002). The nine basic

components are the following:

(a) Value as an educational product;

(b) Student satisfaction;

(c) Staff satisfaction;

(d) Impact of educational product;

(e) Institution organization and planning;

(f) Management of resources (material, personal, and functional);

(g) Educational methodology;

(h) Leadership of the head or principal;

(i) Leadership of other management team members of the institution;

(j) Leadership of teachers.

The questionnaire on educational leadership aims to collect the values given (also from mark 1 to 9)

regarding the importance and evidence of the following dimensions (Gento, 2001b; 2002): (a) charismatic; (b)

emotional; (c) anticipatory; (d) professional; (e) participative; (f) cultural; and (g) administrative.

Semi-structured interviews have also been planned with the aim of collecting qualitative data referring to

educational leadership and its repercussions on the quality of educational institutions. These interviews are to

be carried out with those who have used or been evaluated by the above-mentioned questionnaires (in particular

by the questionnaire on leadership) and will take into account data collected by the questionnaire on leadership

and by the one on evaluation of the quality of educational institutions. The interviews will particularly show the

strengths and weaknesses of leadership, the effect on education or educational institutions, and possible

relevant situations of the exercise of educational leadership.

As a technique of qualitative research, the implementation of particular case studies is also planned. The

use of this technique will facilitate the collection of information on the reality of educational leadership and its

relevance to the quality of education and educational institutions. In some cases, they may show situations or

cases where leadership is exercised with positive effects for the quality of education or the educational

institution. In other cases, they may manifest specific situations where performance has a negative or pernicious


226

effect. In either case, the information obtained could provide useful data to improve leadership and the quality

of education.

The qualitative collection of data also includes the use of discussion groups. People participating in these

groups may be professionals assuming a specific leadership role in different educational institutions or in other

educational initiatives; but they might also be teachers, students, parents, teacher trainers, supervisors, or other

people affected or concerned about the quality of education or educational institutions (such as administrators,

politicians, etc.).

The information collected by these two last qualitative techniques (case studies and discussion groups) is

not offered here, because the sample is still quite small.

Results and Discussion

Data collection began during the academic year 2011-2012. As the research is still in process and the

sample is not very large, the information obtained should be considered as provisional and the result of an

initial exploration of the contents. We have just now processed data obtained from the two questionnaires

mentioned above, and from the semi-structured interviews. Although we insist that data are in no way definitive,

we refer to the following contents:

(a) Results of the questionnaire on evaluation of educational institutions;

(b) Results of the questionnaire on leadership on educational institutions;

(c) Information collected from processed interviews.

Results From the Questionnaire on the Quality of Educational Institutions

Information collected from questionnaires on the quality of educational institutions corresponds to

instruments received up until December 2013; data from questionnaires received after this data have not yet

been processed. The sample includes 916 instruments: 753 proceed from European countries (Spain and Latvia),

and the rest from Latin America. Table 1 reflects the number of questionnaires offered by each country.

Table 1

Questionnaires on Quality of Educational Institutions Received From Different Countries (Up to December

2013)

Country N Valid (%)

Spain 580 63.3

Latvia 173 18.9

Ecuador 45 4.9

Peru 36 3.9

Bolivia 30 3.4

Mexico 28 3.1

Colombia 15 1.6

Chile 8 0.9

Unspecified 1 -

Total 916 100

The information for the gender of people who filled in the questionnaire shows a small majority of females

(59.2%) and fewer males (40.8%). The number of public institutions (79.2%) is higher than those of the private

sector (20.8%). The majority of those who answered the questionnaire (53.9%) proceeded from secondary


227

education (33.3% from lower secondary and 20.6% from higher secondary), but there were also representatives

with university degree courses (10.2%) and postgraduate degree courses (10.1%), apart from others from

primary (9.9%) and even preschool education (2.5%). Representatives of sectors who answered the

questionnaire are specified in Table 2.

Table 2

Sectors Which Filled in the Questionnaire on the Quality of Educational Institutions (Up to December 2013)

Sector N Valid (%)

Students 445 48.6

Teachers 246 26.9

School principals 64 7.0

Parents 89 9.7

Inspectors/supervisors 24 2.6

Teacher trainers 14 1.6

Other 33 3.6

Unspecified 1 -

Total 916 100.0

The questionnaire used to collect information has been drawn up and revised over a period of two years

and we are still continuing to review it. The questionnaires used to obtain the information shown here were

submitted to processes of validation. For this purpose, Cronbach’s alpha (α) gave the index of 0.977. This index

shows that the instrument could be considered as “valid”. Apart from that, the “content” validity was

guaranteed by experts from 10 different countries. They considered the questionnaire to be valid for measuring

the quality of educational institutions. The “construct” validity was checked with the opinion of relevant

authors on research methodology. We also collected data of the “reactive validity” obtained from those who

filled in the questionnaire. Ninety-four percent of them considered that the instrument did not lack any

necessary content and 72.90% considered that it had no unnecessary content.

Although the data obtained cannot be considered as definitive, we include next (see Table 3) the arithmetic

mean and the standard deviation of marks assigned to the importance and evidence of basic components of

quality of an educational institution.

Table 3

Evaluation of the Main Components of Quality of an Educational Institution

Main components of quality of the educational institution Importance Evidence

SD SD

Teachers’ leadership quality 7.99 1.178 7.4 1.445

Leadership quality in other management team members 7.6 1.240 7.3 1.329

Head or principal’s leadership qualities 7.6 1.319 7.1 1.451

Educational methodology 7.6 1.121 7.5 1.089

Management of resources 7.1 1.828 7.5 1.215

Organization and planning 7.3 1.398 6.94 1.562

Availability of resources 7.9 1.117 7.3 1.511

Impact of educational product 7.7 1.166 7.3 1.592

Staff satisfaction 8.1 0.956 6.7 1.937

Values as educational product 6.7 1.826 6.6 1.485

Student satisfaction 7.6 1.617 7.3 1.390


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Considering that the range of possible marks is from 1 (minimum) to 9 (maximum), the assigned marks

given to the importance of the basic components is extremely high. As might be expected, the marks assigned

to the evidence are lower in general (except—surprisingly—for the “management of resources”). It is expected

that as soon as the sample is increased, the differences between the importance and the evidence will be wider,

most probably higher in the first category.

Results of the Questionnaire on Educational Leadership

Data on the evaluation of educational leadership proceed from questionnaires also received up until

December 2013. Those received after that date have not yet been processed; they will be included in subsequent

reports. The sample includes 1,027 questionnaires: 842 correspond to European countries (in particular Spain

and Latvia), and the rest to Latin American countries. Table 4 includes the number of questionnaires received

from every country.

Table 4 Questionnaires on Educational or Pedagogical Leadership Received From Different Countries (Till December 2013)

Country N Valid (%)

Spain 520 50.6

Latvia 322 31.4

Mexico 74 7.2

Peru 42 4.1

Ecuador 24 2.3

Colombia 15 1.5

Chile 9 0.9

Bolivia 6 0.6

Argentina 3 0.3

Unspecified 12 -

Total 1,027 100

Table 5

Sectors Which Filled in the Questionnaire on Educational Leadership (Till December 2013)

Sector N Valid (%)

Students 468 46.43

Teachers 324 32.15

School principals 78 7.74

Parents 64 6.35

Teacher trainers 28 2.77

Inspectors/supervisors 11 1.09

Other 35 3.47

Unspecified 19 -

Total 1,027 100.00

The information regarding the gender of the participants who filled in the questionnaire shows that, also

here, the majority were females (63.3%), considerably more than males (36.7%). One-hundred and one

respondents did not fill in these data. The respondents were mostly from public institutions (81.5%), but there

were also representatives from aided private institutions (12.4%) and from totally private ones (6.1%). Most of


229

those who answered this questionnaire (52.24%) also proceeded from institutions of secondary education

(28.46% from higher secondary and 28.46 % from lower secondary), although there were also representatives

from primary education (10.85%), from university degree courses (10.25%), from university postgraduate

courses (9.55%), from vocational education (8.46%), and also from preschool education (1.89%); other

representatives (7.76%) proceeded from other institutions. Twenty-two respondents of the questionnaires did

not identify themselves as members of any particular institution. Table 5 next includes representatives of the

different sectors who filled in the questionnaire on educational leadership.

As with the questionnaire on educational institutions, this one on educational leadership was also

submitted for assessment of internal consistency to check its validity. For this purpose, the Cronbach’s alpha (α)

(that shows the average internal correlation among the items of the questionnaire) was also calculated. The

obtained index was 0.997. As a consequence, this instrument is to be considered as highly valid (as a minimum

index of 0.60 indicates that an instrument may be considered as valid). The “content” validity was checked by

experts from 14 countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Israel, Japan,

Latvia, Mexico, Peru, Scotland, Spain, and the United States). For the “construct” validity, the opinion of

relevant authors on research methodology was considered. To check the “reactive” validity, the opinion of

those who answered the questionnaire was collected. The majority of the participants (93.7%) who answered

the questionnaire expressed the opinion that the instrument did not lack any important content regarding

educational or pedagogical leadership, and 82.7% considered that there was no unnecessary content on this

topic.

Data processed up to December 2013 and corresponding to 1,207 questionnaires cannot be considered as

definitive due to the small size of the sample. Nevertheless, Table 6 shows the values given to the importance

and evidence of quality of educational or pedagogical leadership. The data included here refer to leadership in

general in educational institutions; it does not differentiate among the three types of leadership mentioned by

the questionnaire (school principal, other members of the school board or leadership team, and teachers). Table

6 shows the arithmetic mean and standard deviation corresponding to the mark given to each one of the

dimensions of educational or pedagogical leadership (The suggested minimum possible mark could be 1 and

the maximum one 9).

Table 6

Evaluation of the Importance of Educational Leadership Dimensions

Basic dimensions of educational leadership Importance Evidence

SD SD

Charismatic 7.6 1.305 7.0 1.812

Emotional 7.6 1.541 7.0 1.654

Anticipatory 7.5 1.379 6.9 1.606

Professional 7.5 1.585 7.0 1.785

Participative 7.5 1.347 6.9 1.636

Formative 7.5 1.479 6.9 1.815

Administrative 7.4 1.614 6.9 1.763

Cultural 7.3 1.632 6.8 1.810

Data included in Table 6 show that, although the average marks given are quite high in both categories

(from 6.8 on), the importance given to the different dimensions was considered more relevant than the evidence.


230

This can be considered as an expression that educational or pedagogical leadership can be improved in any

dimension. When the sample will be wider, the differences between both categories will most probably be

higher, in favour of importance. Although data referring to the importance of leadership show a small range

(from 7.3 to 7.6), there appears to be a small difference in favour of the charismatic and emotional dimensions

(both of them with 7.6). Such differences cannot be considered as significant, but they might indicate a possibly

higher relative importance of these two dimensions. It is expected that data obtained from more instruments

will offer a clearer profile and, perhaps, show significant differences.

Results From Semi-structured Interviews

Semi-structured interviews were carried out after the questionnaires had been filled in. As far as possible,

they were conducted with the respondents of the questionnaire or with those who had been assessed by them.

An interview was initially carried out with the female principal of an institution of preschool, primary, and

lower secondary education in a locality in the south of Spain. Six interviews were subsequently conducted with

six professionals working in educational institutions (three principals of public or aided private schools, two

directors of studies, and one teacher of a secondary public school). The sample was later extended to other

professionals working in educational institutions or others involved in their operation. In total, 32 interviews

received up to December 2013 were processed with the program of Analysis of Qualitative Data (AQUAD),

whose author is Dr. Günter Huber. By using this program, a system of categories was defined and results

appropriately systematized around the different categories. A summary of opinions is shown in Table 7, which

offers a description of the most commonly mentioned traits corresponding to each one of the dimensions of

educational or pedagogical leadership.

Table 7 Most Commonly Mentioned Trait for Each Dimension of Educational Leadership (Information From 32 Interviews Processed Up to December 2013)

Dimension Most commonly mentioned trait N of mentions

Participatory Promotion of collaborators’ team work 47

Professional Encouragement of motivation 36

Emotional Acknowledgment and respect for every person 35

Charismatic Relevant professional profile; Coherence and professional commitment

28 28

Formative Support for collaborators’ training 21

Cultural Impetus to adaptation to context 16

Anticipatory Impulse to the definition of the mission of the entity 13

Administrative Vigilance of compliance with laws and regulations 9

Data offered in Table 7 corresponding to the 32 interviewed people show some interesting information

that is worthy of consideration. The participatory dimension received the highest number of mentions.

According to modern literature on leadership, this dimension is the most relevant for true leadership, the basic

focus of which should be to promote the intervention of collaborators or other co-workers. The other traits most

commonly mentioned in relation to the other dimensions can be considered to manifest the core essence of each

dimension. It is also worth stressing that the administrative dimension received the lowest number of mentions.

This indicates that administrative aspects of an educational institution are less related to the essence of true

educational leadership.


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Conclusion

The most recent literature proceeding from accredited authors shows that the quality of education is

considered today as one of the most important factors impacting on the progress of societies and on the

improvement of people. Recent studies on education also stress that true educational leadership is essential to

drive change leading to improvement in educational institutions.

This study aims to gather empirical data to demonstrate the importance and evidence of the main

components and elements of the quality of educational institutions and of the different dimensions of true

leadership in these institutions. Through interpretative and exploratory research using a qualitative and a

quantitative approach, the authors of this article aim to offer information gathered in different countries. At

present, due to the as yet small sample size, the data offered here are provisional, although some trends can be

detected in the opinions of the main stakeholders.

The research is still unfinished. The use of wider samples will enable us, at a later date, to offer more

consistent information about the two basic topics: quality of educational institutions and educational leadership.

Further empirical data are also being collected in order to correlate the evidence of quality of educational

institutions with the evidence of educational leadership in these institutions. Meanwhile, the theoretical and

empirical data presented here offer an opportunity to reflect on the two basic structural topics: quality of

educational institutions and dimensions of educational or pedagogical leadership.

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Can Teachers Bridge the Theory-Practice Gap? An Ethnographic

Study of a Teacher

Carmen Álvarez Álvarez

University of Cantabria, Santander, Spain

In education, there has been a gulf between the production of pedagogical knowledge and the way that it is put into

practice in education centres, popularly known as the theory-practice gap. This paper presents an approach to how

teachers can bridge this gap so as to bring together both of these dimensions of education. It summarises an

ethnographic case study carried out collaboratively with a Spanish teacher who has explored the relationship

between theory and practice as part of his professional development along his life, and generated his own

relationship model, which has been actively developed in the education establishment where he works. The

conclusion of the paper includes some central ideas that are decisive in the processes of the relationship between

theory and practice, which could be useful for any teacher who seriously seeks to link knowledge and action and

promote their own coherence and the school improvement.

Keywords: theory-practice gap, teacher training, teacher development, coherence, school improvement

Introduction

In general terms, theory is understood as the result of academic production, the rationale and justification

of practices backed by the proposals made by different authors or ideal educational situations. A great diversity

exists in this regard. Practice can be understood as the act of teaching in education establishments, as the

possible application of academic creation, or as what really happens in education. Therefore, a certain variety

of meanings also exist.

In this paper, “theory” is understood to be pedagogical knowledge systematically developed by researchers

and university academics. To refer to “theory”, the term “knowledge”, “science”, or “research” will be used.

“Practice” is understood to be the day-to-day work of teachers in education centres of different levels—from

infant education to the university system—above all in classrooms, but also outside them. When used in this

way, the term “practice” covers all the range of behaviours, actions, attitudes, and values shown by teachers in

their places of work, and more specifically, in their classrooms. To refer to “practice”, terms, such as “praxis”,

“action”, and “teaching”, are used. To sum up, “educational theory”, then, is understood as formal knowledge

produced about education, and “educational practice” as the teaching activity carried out in education

establishments (Álvarez, 2013). Between these two dimensions of education, there is a gap, namely, a distance

that is difficult to bridge due to its intrinsic complexity and historical evolution.

How did the theory-practice gap come about? There are many reasons for the theory-practice gap, and as

stated by Klein (1992) in her research, the reasons are complex; they are interrelated, and not all of them are yet

Carmen Álvarez Álvarez, Ph.D., lecturer, Department of Education, University of Cantabria.

DAVID PUBLISHING

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CAN TEACHERS BRIDGE THE THEORY-PRACTICE GAP

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known. Going to the past can we understand why present and future teachers have considered faculties of

education to be too theoretical and far removed from the reality of teaching; and why, conversely, university

academics have considered the teaching bodies to be fairly unreliable and their efforts and achievements not to

be worthy of much respect (Allen, 2009; Álvarez, 2013; Broekkamp & Hout-Wolters, 2007; Hennessy &

Deaney, 2009; Korthagen, 2007).

In Spain, in infant and primary education, originally there was no theory-practice gap, given that the first

teachers did not have any pedagogical training and their knowledge came exclusively from their day-to-day

teaching experience. There were no educational theories other than the common sense ones imposed by their

own practice. In secondary education, initially, there was no theory-practice gap either, as the teachers’ training

was initially academic, as was their practice. Secondary schools fulfilled the social role of preparing—socially

and culturally—a small select minority for university. It can therefore be stated that, originally, neither primary

nor secondary school teachers were affected in any way by a distancing between theory and practice (Anguita,

1997; Rozada, 2007).

In Spain, as in other European countries, the gap appeared first in infant and primary education. The

creation of teacher training institutions (Escuelas Normales) in 1838 can be taken as a milestone in the

development of a specific theory for that purpose (Anguita, 1997; Rozada, 2007). The integration of teacher

training in the university was a controversial subject, as teaching was considered to be a profession with little

prestige, not requiring a high level of specialisation, and training for teachers was considered to have its own

individual characteristics, not comparable to other forms of professional education (Anguita, 1997).

The dissemination of pedagogical and didactic knowledge in Spain was slow. In fact, it was possible to

find teachers without a degree well into the 20th century; but at the same time, whilst it did not reach all people,

a legitimised body of pedagogical knowledge was gradually being developed which was, in general, isolated

from the practice of education. A theoretical field of knowledge about education was slowly created, mainly by

people who were not involved in the practice of teaching in schools. In this way, the gap between theory and

practice started to appear in the first levels.

In secondary schooling, the fault appeared earlier, basically produced as a consequence of a change in the

traditional elitist education system to the technocratic education system for the masses, which took place

half-way through the last century. Secondary schools changed from having a very select student body to one

taken from the general population. This meant that the academic, disciplined-based knowledge of teachers

started to be inadequate for the new situation (Escudero, 2009; Rozada, 2007).

What is the current status and development? The educational situation has become gradually more

fragmented until it has reached its present status, whereby theory is generated mainly in the university, and

practice is developed in educational establishments, moving in parallel, with little communication between

them (Allen, 2009; Álvarez, 2013; Broekkamp & Hout-Wolters, 2007; Gimeno, 1998; Klein, 1992). Ideally,

universities and schools should be linked more closely, fostering the construction and dissemination of

pedagogic knowledge that is profound, comprehensive, and open to complexity, but this is not always the case

(Miretzky, 2007).

Theory and practice are most likely to come close, according to many researchers, in the initial period of

teacher training, since students approach the most relevant pedagogical ideas in the field and at the time they do

their teaching practices in schools, which allows them to grow both theoretically and practically (Allen, 2009;

M. Cheng, Tang, & A. Cheng, 2012; Korthagen, 2010). However, once this period has been completed, the


235

relationships between theory and practice depend, above all, on teachers and their work context, which is

particularly affected by the professional culture in the school. As shown by Klein (1992), the professional

socialisation of teachers into school cultures generally brings scant incentives for the cultivation of intellectual

issues by teachers, which allows the theory-practice gap to be maintained and consolidated further. In this

regard, Klein (1992) considered the main problem to be the desire of academics and practitioners to maintain

the status quo, which is more comfortable in education, requires little effort, and seems more secure than

change, as well as the lack of stimuli for change.

In view of the above, it is difficult to make valid proposals to relate theory and practice for all teachers.

Perhaps the first requirement that needs to be met is the desire on the part of teaching staff to bring both theory

and practice into a closer relationship. The second one could be efforts to be made for change: undertaking

permanent professional development, being self-critical about professional performance, and seeking to bring

ideas and practices closer (Álvarez, 2013). Bringing theory and practice closer is not easy for a teacher, but it is

certainly interesting to attempt to do so, as professional development is stimulated in the process.

In an attempt to shed light on the above issues, what follows recounts the contribution of José María

Rozada Martínez, one of the professionals who has worked on this subject in Spain from both sides, both

theoretical (as a lecturer at the University of Oviedo, Spain) and practical (as a primary school teacher at

Germán Fernández Ramos State School).

This researcher and teacher proposes that, to overcome the theory-practice dichotomy, it is necessary to

construct and recognise a “small pedagogy”, that is, a space half-way between academic theorisation and

teaching practice, fields that are currently rather far apart. In order to create these, he believes that a plane of

theory and a plane of practice must be recognised which attract each other, instead of repelling each other. He

proposes an intermediate theory and a practice between those previously formulated, which has been called

“second-order” (see Figure 1) (Rozada, 2007).

Figure 1. Relationship between theory and practice (Rozada, 2007).

Second-order theories, unlike university academic knowledge, permit dispersion, and therefore, forego

specialisation. The assumption is that different theoretical contributions serve to feed and clarify knowledge to

build the most complex professional thinking possible. These are committed to practice, where it is possible to

identify a set of general, albeit somewhat disperse, principles (Rozada, 2007).

Second-order practice differs from school teaching in that it involves acknowledging that practices can be

developed on the basis of approaches that go beyond common sense, thus, coming close to knowledge. In terms

of the author’s model, second-order practice is characterised by the reflection necessary to become aware of the

ordinary thinking that guides teaching practices, a critical distancing from didactic traditions coming from the


236

education establishment which shape the ways teachers do things in the classroom and in the centre. It is a

practice that does not negate the classroom with all its complexity, but it involves at least taking a certain level

of reflective distance (Rozada, 2007).

The relationship that a teacher can establish between the two second-order planes of theory and practice is

what Rozada called “small pedagogy”. It is a complex borderline territory, with many little-explored, two-way

paths. Using these avenues, teachers perform their work at the same time ensure their professional training and

create the conditions for self-emancipation.

Based on this approach, a piece of empirical research that explores the theory, practice, and their

interrelationships in the practice of this “particular” researcher and teacher has been carried out, examining the

four planes previously described. Before delving into the research, the methodological framework will be

described.

Methods

In the research presented here, in order to empirically investigate the theory-practice relationships, a single

case study was carried out by using an ethnographic methodology. Authors, such as Korthagen (2007), have

emphasised the claim that educational research on the relationship between theory and practice must be done

from an internal perspective. Others, such as Rockwell (2009), also argued that, from an ethnographic point of

view, one of the main problems is the relationship between the teacher’s knowledge and pedagogy.

Why a single case study? Because of the qualities that it presents. Stake (2005) stated that we study a case

when it holds a special interest for us. Rodríguez, Gil, and García (1996) proposed that a single-case design is

justified for three reasons:

1. Its critical nature, that is, the case allows us to confirm, change, modify, or broaden the knowledge

about the object of study;

2. Its extreme or unique nature, that is, its unrepeatable, distinctive character;

3. Its revealing character, which occurs when the researcher has the opportunity to observe and analyse a

phenomenon, situation, subject, or fact that was previously inaccessible to scientific investigation.

This case strictly complies with these requirements:

1. The case has a critical character, as the pedagogy developed by the teacher permits the confirmation,

modification, and broadening of the knowledge of the theory-practice relationships in teaching.

2. Both the teacher and the classroom have a unique, peculiar nature.

The teacher, who worked at the Education Faculty of the University of Oviedo, Spain (Facultad de

Ciencias de la Educación de la Universidad de Oviedo), developed a theoretical model about theory-practice

relationships and published almost a hundred articles on pedagogy. He has been recognised in various

academics spheres as an “authority”, and has been invited to participate in various national education forums.

In his daily practice, the teacher tried to establish links with the educational theory that he had read

throughout his professional career, acting as a researcher of his own practice in the classroom.

He was also involved in continuous training of teachers as an advisor in a teachers’ centre, which he

understood as a question of theory-practice relationships.

3. It reveals information about this phenomenon, which is still relatively unknown in education. Whilst

there are some studies on the subject of the theory-practice relationship, it is still little known in the education

science field.


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The research model used in this case study is that of school ethnography. In order to carry out

ethnographic research, the researcher has to become submerged in the study of a community’s culture and so

understand the behaviour of the subjects who are part of it, sharing their lives, and thus, obtaining rich,

first-hand knowledge (Rockwell, 2009). Ethnography applied to a school is called “school ethnography” and it

calls for the researcher to live with the education agents in their natural context and environment: classrooms

and centres. To collect data, the ethnographer employs qualitative data collection techniques, the most

important being participant observation, followed by interviews and discussion forums. To ensure the reliability

of the data, four basic strategies were used: data contextualisation, data saturation, negotiation of the progress

reports with those involved, and the triangulation of time, techniques, and informants.

This study attempted to answer the question: How does Rozada relate theory and practice in education?

The researcher attended the classes taught by this teacher (primary education, year 6) for a whole school year at

a state school and had direct contact with the education community of the school. This teacher has spent more

than 30 years studying theory-practice relationships, publishing and designing innovative ways of teaching, and

promoting conscious relationships between educational knowledge and school practice.

The ethnographic methodology took place in the observed classroom, but it also incorporated the school

community, with the aim of verifying the teacher’s theory-practice relationships and of understanding how they

were promoted. In this article, it is merely possible to show a small part of the data collected, due to their

density and to the actual purpose of the paper.

As the data to be analysed are qualitative in nature, two basic strategies were used:

1. Interpretation, which permitted the description of the context and the interactions occurred in the

teaching-learning process, and the creation of the links between theory and practice and the teacher’s

theoretical approaches;

2. Analysis of the content, which permitted the categorisation and systematic, in-depth understanding of

the discourse of the different members of the education community, in order to make valid inferences about the

data collected.

From Rozada’s four-plane model, two levels of analysis were established: (a) a separate review of the four

planes around his teaching work and the partial interrelationships produced between them; and (b) an inductive

and deductive review of the two intermediate planes, to assess the two-way paths identified in “small pedagogy”.

Results

Every teacher concerned about that teaching will have wondered at one time or another about the

theory-practice relationship, and the most committed ones will have tried to address the issue during their

teaching career. Rozada is one of those teachers, since he has made an effort throughout his life’s work in

education to link academic knowledge and classroom teaching, with passion and courage.

Rozada started teaching when he was 18 years old and worked as a teacher until he was in his sixties,

when he took early retirement. Throughout his life, he had also worked as a collaborating professor in the

Geography Department of Oviedo University (six years), as an advisor at a Teachers and Resources Centre (14

years), and as a teacher in the area of didactics and school organisation in the Education Department at Oviedo

University (16 years).

In his long career, he permanently dealt with the theory-practice gap, trying to establish a relationship

between education knowledge and school action. At least five aspects can highlighted as having been central in


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the process. These have been organised in such a way as to be closely related to the four-plane model

previously described, as created by him:

(a) The cultivation of academic training and reading (higher plane);

(b) A self-critical review of the professional and institutional traditions and cultures (lower plane);

(c) The creation of a personal second-order theory (upper-intermediate plane);

(d) The creation of a personal second-order practice (lower-intermediate plane);

(e) The construction of a small pedagogy (occupying the space between second-order theory and

second-order practice).

The bridging of the theory-practice gap is always a delicate question in which no simple recipes for

success exist; however, the ideas collected below are basic elements in the process for this particular teacher, as

they can also be for teachers who wish to use them. In the results section, this will be discussed further,

including ideas that are key to the process and how they were addressed in the case study.

Cultivating Academic Training and Reading

One of the possibilities that teachers have for starting a process of relating theory and practice is the

cultivation of academic training and reading as part of their professional development. This aspect is reflected

in the academic/university knowledge plane in the model. Academic training and reading enable teachers to

explore previously unknown educational areas, helping to shape their thinking and inform their practice (Day,

2005). It would be interesting for teachers to be become involved in an academic self-learning and personal

reading process. Only in this way can teachers outline and define their theoretical propositions. Gimeno (1998)

stated that common sense is transformed by coming into contact with formal knowledge. Formal knowledge

illustrates and helps to provide norms and principles, as well as to break professional routines.

For Rozada, the above is a crucial aspect, which has led him to be very concerned about his own training

in education, and to devise his own theory of pedagogy. When the researcher asked him about his academic

theory, he stated that it was shaped on the basis of:

1. All, or almost all, his reading, which has been referenced in the bibliography of his publications,

although he has read hundreds of books that were not referenced. The key areas on which he focused were

didactics of social sciences, general didactics, curriculum theory, theory-practice relationships, critical

pedagogy, constructivist psychology, action research, school organisation, amongst others;

2. Attending lectures, independent of their quality. His main subjects of interest were the degree of

institutionalisation of universities and the estrangement of the kind of education being discussed from the actual

practice and experience of classroom education. Rozada studied education and also holds a degree in geography

and history;

3. Attending various academic events: courses, Ph.D. viva voce examinations, examinations to obtain

teaching positions, conferences, congresses, etc..

Self-critical Review of School Traditions

Another central element for teachers is their professional practice, or their practical experience. It is

undeniable that there is a school practical reality, historically, socially, and institutionally constructed and

consolidated, built on very powerful traditions, which is difficult to question and can only be escaped by those

who are not engaged in teaching. This is closely related to the plane of “primary or secondary school practice”

in the “small pedagogy” model.


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This reality needs to be lived, but also questioned, subjecting it to self-criticism and initiating alternative

practices, in order to prevent it from only being fed by traditions. Teaching experience is, without doubt, a

fundamental component in the professional development process of teachers. When a new teacher starts in the

teaching profession, they often feel as if they are in a state of shock with their practice (Allen, 2009;

Orland-Barak & Yinon, 2007), as they do not know how to face the reality of day-to-day school life.

Rozada, as a teaching professional, took this issue seriously and developed a process of action research in

which he thoroughly reviewed his educational practices:

1. Making audio and video recordings of his classes, by analyzing them, he can understand better what

happened in his classes, self-critically questioning the least successful ways of doing things, firmly resolved to

change them, reflect on them, look for alternatives, and put them into practice;

2. Writing reflective diaries on his classes to become aware of the best aspects of his classes, as well as

those that needed improvement;

3. Introducing external observers into the classroom (student teachers and those on teaching practices,

work colleagues or researchers) to provide him with a complementary view to his own that would serve to

stimulate improvement.

Creating a Second-Order Theory

The third element that can be recognised in teachers is the creation of a second-order theory, namely, the

systematisation of their own pedagogical thinking—the conscious construction of their own way of thinking.

Teachers are reflective, rational subjects, who make decisions, judgements, etc., and whose thoughts guide and

orientate their conduct (Clandinin, 1995). The research into teachers’ thinking and personal practical knowledge

has been concerned with the reasoning processes that occur in the mind of teachers in the planning, development,

innovation, and evaluation processes of their professional activity. Their relevance to establish theory-practice

relationships has been highlighted to the extent that they enable a systematic review of teachers’ own thinking

processes.

In the case of Rozada, this was done by means of:

(a) Publications, including books, chapters in co-written books, and more than 80 articles published in

journals (all of them in Spanish);

(b) Unpublished documents, such as his teaching projects, where he synthesised his pedagogical principles,

and which were specifically conceived to develop a coherent practice-theory line of action;

(c) Oral discussions: university lectures, various courses, presentations, talks, etc..

Creating a Second-Order Practice

The fourth basic element for Rozada in the process of bridging the theory-practice gap is the creation of a

second-order practice, that is, a personal way of teaching, fed by reflective experience and individual

pedagogical thinking, taking distance from conventional ways of teaching.

There are many educational practices that a teacher can develop, but if teachers intend to be consistent

with their principles, innovation in both classrooms and centres is necessary. This should be real innovation, in

the sense that it should be based on ideas, rather than merely improvised or spontaneous.

Rozada created his own second-order practices by:

1. Developing his own teaching-learning methodology based on dialogue, converting day-to-day teaching

into an open forum in which students’ contributions were always welcome, and trying to make education a


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space in which to develop critical thinking;

2. Creating his own teaching programme for the Asturian culture area, called Manolo and Vanina, a set of

short-stories aimed at exploring traditional and current Asturian life; and using a values education programme,

The Adventure of Life (La Aventura de la Vida), which provides very useful material to work on the education

goals sought by the teacher;

3. Affirming community relations by coordinating the school Opening Project, the organisation and

development of the “family school”, the opening of the library during play-time, and the creation and

coordination of reading clubs outside school hours (one for students and one for adults, both families and

teachers).

Constructing a “Small Pedagogy”

Teachers should create a way of working based on didactic principles, connecting their theories and

second-order practice in a coherent line by bringing down their ideas (academic training and reading) to feed

their didactic principles and by raising their practices (self-critically reviewing their teaching experience), thus,

creating their own theory and practice that are permanently related to each other.

Throughout the four previous sections, a particular way of bridging the theory-practice gap by a teacher

has been reported, describing how he worked to overcome the gulf. An overall picture describing four ways of

facing the theory-practice gap has been provided, in line with Rozada’s theoretical model, which points to the

existence of a small pedagogy, a professional way of thinking and living teaching, helped by self-learning and

self-criticism, tirelessly seeking coherence between personal educational discourses and teaching practices.

It could be argued that this way of working is constructed in the space between the planes of second-order

theory and practice (which planes in turn are informed by processes of self-learning and self-criticism), and

between very different types of interactions (didactic principles, professional ideas, the teachers’ thinking,

innovative processes, etc.). Drawing on all the matters previously covered, Rozada constructed his small

pedagogy by reflecting on theory and practice and trying to bring them together in a coherent way, even by

collecting them all together in writing.

In this study, his first- and second- order theories and practices have been delved into, and a deductive and

inductive analysis has been carried out. This has revealed an extraordinary coherence between the desires and

the facts in the daily life of both the classroom and the centre, although not without difficulties that preclude the

identification of wishes and reality. Besides, the educational community of his primary education centre were

involved in the research. They showed great satisfaction with the theories and practices of their teacher and

reaffirmed the existence of a way of thinking and acting that is uncommon, highly advanced and very positive.

This is very interesting from the point of teaching quality, as it entails acknowledging that teachers have

primary responsibility for their own professional development.

Discussion

The discussion is organised around the same areas as the results. The relevance of this level of

theory-practice relationship will be argued, and the consequences of the absence of its permanent cultivation

will be discussed.

Cultivating Academic Training and Reading

The habit of academic training and reading, in any of their manifestations, places teachers at the doors of


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knowledge, and gives them the opportunity to improve their understanding of education (Korthagen, 2010;

Miretzky, 2007). It is not possible to relate theory and practice if one of the two is lacking. For teachers to

bridge the theory-practice gap and become true teaching professionals, they should carry out further study on

education and take steps towards the theoretical mastery of their field.

One of the most unfortunate consequences of not cultivating academic training is the general professional

alienation of teachers (Giroux, Freire, Arias, & McLaren, 1990). This means that teachers engage in teaching

without having a perfect grasp of the basic theories of their work. In their initial training, they superficially

studied some educational theories, but in such a way that they will have not consciously taken on board the

profound implications of their role as teachers in fighting the reproduction of the inequalities that the school

system perpetuates. Only a profound and ongoing process of academic training and reading by teachers can

contribute to overcoming this situation (Álvarez, 2013; Korthagen, 2007).

Self-critically Reviewing Scholastic Traditions

The relevance of reviewing one’s own practice has been highlighted by different authors for some time

now. Ancess, Barnett, and Allen (2007) considered that research into practice brought about insights into

school practices and education reform processes. Rathgen (2006) and Tripp and Rich (2012) defended the

relevance of analysing classroom recordings due to their potential for teachers and professionals. Authors

linked to action research have also advised of the usefulness of a teacher who is also a researcher into their own

practice, in order to overcome problematic situations where there is room for improvement, which need an

urgent, practical answer to a problem. They claimed that, in the process, teachers hone their professional

judgment, accept responsibility, and restore their dignity, thus, freeing themselves. The only requirement

needed to start this process is for teachers to truly want to improve their teaching and grow as professionals. A

pre-requirement for action research is a need being felt by practitioners to initiate change, innovate, and

improve (Korthagen, 2007).

A fundamental part of the construction process of the professional teacher resides, without a doubt, in

classroom experience. But teaching experience by itself is a very limited training tool that could cause some

problems, such as the fact that habits and routines may never be called into question. School practice is

all-absorbing and needs to be revised, so that it does not degenerate into a mere repetition of poorly

substantiated practices.

By definition, the pace of teaching is fast, and in teaching activities, it is necessary to make hundreds of

decisions every hour of every class, in such a way that the teacher does not have time to think deeply about

each action. This means that teachers need to find a space to examine and develop their own values as

expressed in day-to-day classroom work (Hennessy & Deaney, 2009; Rockwell, 2009). Unless time is

apportioned to the self-critical review of one’s own practice, it is not possible to bridge the theory-practice gap,

because many of the angles of the multi-faceted, daily classroom and school practices remain unknown.

Creating a Second-Order Theory

Authors, such as Clandinin (1995), have stated that the study of the teacher’s way of thinking is the ideal

method to establish links between knowledge and action. The writing and the dissemination of one’s ideas are,

without a doubt, important stimuli to systematise the teacher’s individual way of thinking. Again, attention

should be drawn to the uniqueness of the case explored, as it is uncommon to find such a teacher, at least in

Spain, given that the majority of primary school teachers do not read very much on pedagogy and do not


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maintain their own training at the forefront of their professional performance. Neither do they write or publish

about education on a regular basis, which in itself produces a vacuum in pedagogic thinking from the point of

view of the organisation of their own ideas. Scientific knowledge about education can give rise to

well-grounded school practices by constructing procedural principles, which implies a greater reflective role of

educators in their work (Postholm, 2008). Defining and redefining their own didactic principles in light of the

cultivation of academic training is a way of bridging the theory-practice gap available to any teacher who seeks

to do so.

This does not mean that they need to become compulsive consumers of didactic research. Basically, the

proposal is that there is a need for teachers to have a relationship with teaching theory, and rethink it; this can

be accomplished by trying to take ideas to help define a consistent framework of action in teaching, thus,

becoming endowed with patterns of thought and knowledge with which to organise and interpret their daily

action (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009).

Creating a Second-Order Practice

These questions imply a significant change with respect to the traditional ways of doing things in

classrooms and education centres. They involve working in an innovative way, with initiative and passion;

following guidelines based on the education sciences, both in everyday work in the classroom and outside of it;

and staying away from those practices that have become settled and are being reproduced in the day-to-day life

of the school. It is not the same to address the challenges of teaching practice with no theoretical input, merely

following the inertia of non-reflective practice, as to address them on the basis of elaborate theoretical

knowledge. Academic knowledge should inform and guide didactic action.

The lack of an innovative practice seated in scientific didactic ideas condemns the school experience to

routine and to the reproduction of stereotypical answers. The majority of teachers, after some years of work,

rapidly develop resistance to change and inertia, reproducing in this way an unenlightened school culture, based

on stereotypical responses, subjective beliefs, dominant ideology, and prejudices (Klein, 1992; Korthagen,

2010).

Conclusion

Despite the difficulties, it cannot be said that it is impossible to relate educational theory and practice. As

one investigates the overall subject, everything seems to suggest that relationships between knowledge and

action are possible, but are usually diffuse, complex, and complicated.

Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that teachers are at the centre of the relation between theory and practice in

education. The minds of teachers are engaged in organising their thinking, their academic knowledge, and their

actions, and in the process, it is feasible to build relationships between theory and practice.

Some conclusions can be made from the analysis of how Rozada faced the theory-practice gap, with

respect to how the teaching body in general can also do so, overcoming many of the limitations that the

theoretical exploration of the state of affairs has allowed us to show. They point to cultivating self-learning and

self-criticism, constructing professional beliefs, innovating, and committing to one’s coherence.

In many cases, teachers’ experience makes them more resistant, converting them into routine subjects who

may have many years of service in education, but basically may be repeating the same schemes learned at the

beginning of their professional career. They have integrated ways of doing that they believe work for them and


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have not constructed their own thinking as teaching professionals. In this way, the theory-practice gap becomes

something very problematic, to the extent that it is possible to speak of professional alienation.

Nowadays, a good part of the experienced teaching body reject their academic training and call themselves

“university-of-life, down-to-earth teachers”. There are more than a few cases of practising teachers who have

refused to read books on pedagogy once their initial training has finished, and this brings us to another problem,

namely, that when teachers in infant, primary, or secondary education have intellectual concerns, sooner or

later, they move to the university to cultivate this dimension, and the school loses someone who would surely

bring valuable observations and experiences. This is an unsolved problem that has important effects on the

future development of teachers (Day, 2005).

How can the theory-practice gap be bridged by teachers? In terms of this study, it can be said that by

cultivating academic training and reading, self-critically analysing the teaching experience, and creating

personal second-order theories and practices in such a way as to construct “small pedagogy”. And how is this

achieved? By studying, reflecting, and acting, all of which must take place together, something that demands

effort, passion, and courage.

Building a small pedagogy is a long process of building bridges between theory and practice, and it cannot

be achieved overnight (Hennessy & Deaney, 2009). However, it is certainly interesting to attempt to do so, as it

places the subject in a positive position with respect to learning, training, the definition of professional

principles, and innovation.

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to the workplace. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 647-654. Álvarez, C. (2013). Enseñanza y desarrollo profesional docente. Pensar y vivir la educación (Teaching and teacher professional

development. To think and to live the education). Madrid: La Muralla. Ancess, J., Barnett, E., & Allen, D. (2007). Using research to inform the practice of teachers, schools, and school reform

organizations. Theory Into Practice, 46(4), 325-333. Anguita, R. (1997). Algunas claves de la historia de la formación del profesorado en España para comprender el presente (Some

key of the history of teacher training in Spain to understand the present). Revista Interuniversitaria de Formación del Profesorado, 30, 97-109.

Broekkamp, H., & Hout-Wolters, B. (2007). The gap between educational research and practice: A literature review, symposium, and questionnaire. Educational Research and Evaluation, 13(3), 203-220.

Cheng, M., Tang, S., & Cheng, A. (2012). Practicalising theoretical knowledge in student teacher’s professional learning in initial teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28, 781-790.

Clandinin, J. (1995). Teacher’s professional knowledge. New York, N.Y.: Teachers College Press. Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. (2009). Inquiry as stance: Practitioner research for the next generation. New York, N.Y.:

Teachers College Press. Day, C. (2005). Developing teachers: The challenges of lifelong learning. London: Falmer Press. Escudero, J. M. (2009). La formación del profesorado de educación secundaria: Contenidos y aprendizajes docents (Teacher

training for secondary education: Content and teachers learning). Revista de Educación, 350, 79-103. Gimeno, J. (1998). Poderes inestables en educación (Unstable powers in education). Madrid: Morata. Giroux, H. A., Freire, P., Arias, I., & McLaren, P. (1990). Teachers as intellectuals toward a critical pedagogy of learning.

London: Bergin and Garvey. Hennessy, S., & Deaney, R. (2009). “Intermediate theory” building: Intergrating multiple teacher and researcher perspectives

through in-dept video análisis of pedagogic strategies. Teacher College Record, 111(7), 1753-1795. Klein, M. (1992). A perspective on the gap between curriculum theory and practice. Theory Into Practice, 31(1), 191-197. Korthagen, F. (2007). The gap between research and practice revisited. Educational Research and Evaluation, 13(3), 303-310.


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Miretzky, D. (2007). A view of research from practice: Voices of teachers. Theory Into practice, 46(4), 272-280. Orland-Barak, L., & Yinon, H. (2007). When theory meets practice: What student teachers learn from guided reflection on their

own classroom discourse. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 957-969. Postholm, M. B. (2008). Teachers developing practice: Reflection as key activity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24,

1771-1728. Rathgen, E. (2006). In the voice of teachers: The promise and challenger of participating in classroom-based research for

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History and culture in education processes). Buenos Aires: Paidós. Rodríguez, G., Gil, J., & García, E. (1996). Metodología de la investigación cualitativa (Qualitative research methodology).

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28, 728-739.


Development of the Double Layer Rubric for the Study on

the Implementation of School-based Assessment

Among Teachers

Mohd Sahandri Gani Bin Hamzah, Noorzeliana Idris

Sultan Idris Education University, Tanjong Malim, Malaysia

Saifuddin Kumar Abdullah

Ministry of Education, Putrajaya, Malaysia

Norazilawati Abdullah, Mazura Mastura Muhammad

Sultan Idris Education University, Tanjong Malim, Malaysia

The school-based assessment (SBA) is a holistic assessment which evaluates the cognitive, affective, and

psychomotor aspects in line with the goals of the Malaysian National Philosophy of Education (NPE) in the

national curriculum. The extent of achieving the goals of the NPE and national education depends on the teachers

as its implementers. Therefore, this study aims to identify the extent of the implementation of SBA within teachers

from the aspect of knowledge and skills, teachers’ planning, the implementation of assessment, item construction,

as well as teachers’ restraints in implementing SBA. Through the literature analyses related to the implementation

of SBA, it was found that many teachers did not know and were not skilled in assessing their students. This could

affect the reliability and the validity of the assessment. In the many studies that were observed, a majority of

teachers still refuse to accept the implementation of SBA. A detailed response is needed to gain the correct

information from the teachers. The use of rubrics in the instruments enables gaining more detailed information and

reports which are more profound could be presented. This study discusses the steps in constructing instruments in

the form of the double layer rubric to identify the extent of SBA implementation within teachers. The Instrument

Determination Table was developed to accommodate related elements until it produces items which are able to

measure a construct or sub-construct. After the validation process from five professionals, a pilot study was

conducted. The discussion focuses on the issues and the procedures on the methods in which the validity and

reliability of the instruments were built on through five professionals and the internal uniformity via the Cronbach’s

alpha. Therefore, the item analysis to determine the status of statements can be explained by the scores of each

rubric objectively and systematically. Undeniably, the uniqueness of an instrument does not only depend on the

Mohd Sahandri Gani Bin Hamzah, B.S., M.Ed., PhD., professor, Faculty of Education and Human Development, Sultan Idris

Education University. Noorzeliana Idris, B.Ed., M.A., Ph.D. candidate, Faculty of Education and Human Development, Sultan Idris Education

University. Saifuddin Kumar Abdullah, B.Ed., M.Ed., Ph.D. candidate, Department of Polytechnic, Ministry of Education. Norazilawati Abdullah, B.Ed., M.Ed., Ph.D., lecturer, Faculty of Education and Human Development, Sultan Idris Education

University. Mazura Mastura Muhammad, B.Ed., M.A., Ph.D., lecturer, Faculty of Languages and Communication, Sultan Idris Education

University.

DAVID PUBLISHING

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THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SCHOOL-BASED ASSESSMENT AMONG TEACHERS

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issues of validity and reliability, but also on the creativity of researchers as well as the method in which these

evidences can be integrated in the context of research design. What is certain here is that the uniqueness of an

instrument will be further highlighted if the study is able to produce findings that can bring impact towards the

progress of education. It is hoped that this rubric can be used more effectively in measuring what is needed to be

measured in the SBA implementation study within teachers.

Keywords: school-based assessment (SBA), double layer rubric, Instrument Determination Table

Introduction

According to the aims of the Malaysian National Philosophy of Education (NPE), the intended outcome of

the philosophy is an individual who is complete and equipped, not the one who just passes examimations.

Generally, it can be observed that Malaysian educational system encourages students to learn and memorise for

the sake of examination. Knowledge received in this way will not last and students may forget what they have

learnt right after the examinations. This means that success in examinations cannot provide a real illustration on

the success of mastering a curriculum (Omar, 2001; Azman, 1987).

The Malaysian Ministry of Education (MoE) is very concerned towards the claims that the national

education system has become too exam-oriented (MoE, 2012). Therefore, a cabinet meeting dated 17th

December, 2010, has agreed to the implementation of SBA as a part of the education transformation

programme. It concurs with the vision and aspiration stated in the early report of the Malaysian Educational

Development Plan 2013-2025, where the MoE had stressed on the concept of quality that is compulsory within

each student. The school-based assessment (SBA) is an assessment that is holistic and is able to assess the

cognitive (intellectual), affective (emotional and spiritual), and psychomotor (physical) aspects in accordance

with the NPE, the Primary School Standard Curriculum, and the Secondary School Standard Curriculum.

Nevertheless, the effectiveness of a reform in education relies on the factor of teachers who carry out the

assessment. Change will not exist if the teachers do not understand the need to change and ready to change the

paradigm. It is hoped that this form of assessment will produce human capital that are critical, creative,

innovative, competitive, and progressive as hoped by the nation (Malaysian Examinations Syndicate, 2012).

Based on this study, the construction of the research instruments is done using the double layer

rubric scale. This approach is able to provide a more detailed input which does not only cover the score

scale status, but also explains the levels according to the rubric scores. The strengths of using this instrument

for each item or statement do not lie only on the focus of the score mean status, but on the ability to further

determine the level of weak, medium, or strong with clearer descriptive explanation. The findings would also

be simpler to read on the report, facilitate solution finding, and note recommendations more quickly and

meaningfully.

Problem Statement

The observation and talk of teachers in schools lead to a realisation that teachers are feeling very worried

about the burden of tasks, like the burden of planning and designing as well as implementing assessment on

their students. This statement has been discussed in the findings of Tunstall’s (2001) study on teachers’ worries

related to SBA in assessment. This situation explains that assessing students can be difficult, especially for new

teachers who have just started their service in a school.


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It is generally known that SBA is a new epoch in the assessment system by the MoE of Malaysia that will

abolish central examinations, such as the Primary School Achievement Test (UPSR) and Lower Secondary

Assessment (PMR). Hence, teachers are given full responsibility in assessing their students according to the

standard assessment procedure on the students. Even though teachers have undergone courses organised by the

MoE, they still lack the confidence in assessing students. This situation is further exacerbated when teachers

have inadequate knowledge, skills, and materials to assist them in the assessment. This situation was brought

forth by Radin (2008), who said that teachers wish for a more professional training in assessment to gain the

knowledge and skills, so that SBA can be implemented more successfully. Teachers want to be equipped with

resources, such as the Performance Standards document, assessment manual, instrument examples, marking

schemes, and many more. Training and workshops are very important to increase the skills and confidence of

teachers to design the form and the implementation of SBA.

Overall, SBA plays a role in testing and evaluating the performance of students in all aspects, but there is

also limitation in terms of accuracy because the total number of students in classroom is still exceed than 40.

The assessment covers academic, co-curricular, and character performance throughout students’ experiences in

the teaching and learning process. Teachers who are given responsibility and play roles in carrying out SBA in

rigorous and systematic process need to follow all the necessary steps and procedures of assessment. However,

the lack of seriousness of the teachers in assessing will disrupt the whole assessment system. The quality of

assessment can be questioned by all if there is no monitoring system. If this happens, it could lead to unfairness,

non-transparency, and disuniformity in assessing students, even though fairness, transparency, and uniformity

are important elements in determining correct grades are given to students throughout their learning process.

This situation was discussed by Tan (2010), who highlights on the lack of monitoring system which will lead to

frivolousness of the teachers in assessing their students. Therefore, teachers need to be monitored using a valid

and suitable assessment standard.

The exam system has given emotional pressure to parents, teachers, and even the students themselves.

However, the exam system has actually restrained students’ creativity to present and show their performance as

well as their real abilities in learning. Teachers have also become less creative in their learning patterns when

they teach for exams. All this time, teachers are the ones who work hard in carrying out the teaching and

learning process, but external examiners are the ones who assess their students. SBA will return the right of

assessment to the teachers and teachers would have to change their teaching patterns by using many teaching

strategies, so that students would fully master learning. However, from the observation, teachers consider that

the varying teaching strategies would only waste time because assessments need to be done after teaching.

While teaching, teacher can access, and at the same time, they have to guide and report their performance

instantaneously. This view was denied by Tseko (2005), who mentioned that SBA is very important for

students, because assessment is conducted in the teaching and learning process, hence, allowing the students to

know their ability and performance. In other words, while teaching, teachers can access, and at the same time,

guide and report on their students’ performance instantaneously.

Nonetheless, after almost four years of implementing SBA in schools, teachers have started to complain

about the amount of burden that has to be shouldered and this has reached even the news. Many teachers agree

on the abolishment of SBA. This is further supported by an online study by the MoE to see the agreement of

teachers in implementing SBA, where almost 75% of the teachers agree on its discontinuation. This was further

proven by the support (more than 70,000 teachers) given on Facebook page created especially for the


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abolishment of SBA (https://www.facebook.com/KamiMahuSPPBSDimansuhkan). Furthermore, the MoE has

stopped the implementation temporarily in February, 2013, to re-study all the complaints being made on the

implementation of SBA, which was said to be in haste. The burdens of teachers were also discussed in a study

by Tan (2010). Among the burdens discussed are clerical work, marks input process, and the filing system that

limits teachers’ creativity in implementing SBA. Because SBA has been implemented in Malaysia since 2010,

a comprehensive study needs to be conducted to evaluate the procedures, planning and executing processes, as

well as the teachers’ restraints in the implemention.

The Implementation of SBA

Current assessments are based on the curriculum that only covers the ability of students in remembering

and memorising. Other skills are not applied, analysed, synthesised, and evaluated in an evaluation (Begum &

Farooqui, 2008). SBA was initially used as a new method in the educational system because of the increasing

awareness on the tests that are only based on the curriculum and teaching (Dikli, 2003).

The type of assessment also provides focus towards the development and performance of teachers where if

a student fails to complete the task given at certain times, the student still has the chance to show his/her skills

on other different times and situations. Since SBA was developed in the contexts from one time to another,

teachers have the chance to measure the strengths and weaknesses of stuents in many fields and situations (Law

& Eckes, 1995). Hence, teachers need to have adequate knowledge and skills before conducting assessment.

Consistent with Shapard (2000), teachers who make changes need to be given the knowledge and skills:

… Progressive educational required infinitely skilled teacher being able to ask the right questions at the right time, anticipate conceptual pitfalls, and have at the read repertoire of task that will help student take the next step requires deep knowledge of subject matter. Teachers will also need knowledge in learning to use assessment in a new way. (Shapard, 2000, p. 71)

Arranged planning before assessment is needed for teachers to ensure the fluidity of the assessment

process. James and Charles (1995) stated in their book, Management, that planning is defined as a guideline

designed to achieve the initial meaning of the founding. Meanwhile, planning helps the management of the

organisation to determine the direction of the organisation, and decide on issues related to the questions on

what, when, and how a plan is going to be executed and who will carry out the execution.

Namara (1998) added and explained that effective programme planning needs to be prepared consistent

with the missions and goals of the organisation through teamwork and structure while determining the keys to

success, recheck, and evaluate the planning for the programme. The opinion of Namara (1998) is consistent

with the opinion of the the Malaysian Examinations Syndicate (2013), who stated that detail planning needs to

be executed in groups between the Malaysian Examination Syndicate, state educational departments, and

appointed SBA executors. Therefore, in schools, all teachers’ planning needs to be robust before teaching, so

that assessments can be applied successfully.

Stoner and Wankel (1995) have given the view that “planning without executing is a wasted act”. After

planning, execution is needed. Seeing that assessment and instrument construction is a compulsory matter for

all teachers in executing SBA (Malaysian Examination Syndicate, 2012), teachers will need to plan first, so that

their execution is more orderly and systematic. However, it is believed that there are many restraints for

teachers throughout the implementation of SBA.


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In the context of this study, SBA teachers will provide response on their knowledge and skills, planning

and execution of assessment, and instrument construction, as well as the restraints faced by them throughout the

implementation of SBA.

The Development of Constructing a Double Layer Rubric Instrument

The analysis instrument for the implementation of SBA within teachers is based on previous literature and

studies. There are 28 items and 133 rubrics which are then categorised into five constructs consisting of:

(a) Teachers’ knowledge and skills;

(b) Teachers’ planning in executing the SBA;

(c) Execution of the SBA;

(d) SBA instrument construction;

(e) Teachers’ restraints in executing SBA.

In this study, the construction of the double layer instrument went through six levels. Firlty, the constructs

of SBA implementation by teachers are checked through literature analysis and documents from the MoE.

Secondly, to identify the accuracy of the constructs of SBA implementation within teachers, a structured interview

was planned. Two officers from the District Education Office and a school main trainer were interviewed to

update the items and rubrics constructed. The third step involved checks by five professionals in the field of

curriculum on the items and rubrics to as well as suggestions for improvement. The fourth step involved

rechecking of the items based on the comments and inputs gained from the group of professionals. The fifth

step involved the construction of the Instrument Determination Table consisting of planning and complete set

determination by considering the rubric scales and scores. Constructs and sub-constructs which were determined

were supported by literature whereas trait and item designs based on the subjects and predicates were controlled

by syllabus and the principles of measuring and assessment (see Table 1). The final step in item construction

involved item testing through pilot study to observe the readability, clarity, and accuracy of the items. By doing

these, the instructions and statements for any items that are not clear can be identified and then changed.

The final version of the instrument was successfully produced containing 28 items with 133 rubrics, and

each item contains five rubrics that represent certain evaluation scales, as shown in Table 2.

Table 1

Test Determination Table Construct Sub-construct Scale

B1a. Teachers’ knowledge and skills resources

Item: I acquire knowledge and skills about SBA during____. Rubric:

B1a1. Course registration at education department or district education department;

B1a2. Internal course; B1a3. In-service training; B1a4. Surfing exam board Website; B1a5. Discuss with collegues.

Likert scale: 1 2 3 4 5

0—No; 1—Yes.


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(Table 1 to be continued)

B1. Knowledge and skills

B1b. Teacher’s knowledge in implementing SBA

Item: I know how to do the following activities: Rubric: B1b1. Develop instruments; B1b2. Use instruments for assessing students; B1b3. Assess the evidence of students; B1b4. Explainthe assessment criteria to the students; B1b5. Adjust the instrument with the teaching method. Likert scale: 1 2 3 4 5

0—Do not know;1—Know some;2—Fully know.

B1c. Teachers’ skills in implementing SBA

Item: I am skilled to do the following: Rubric: B1c1. Develop instruments; B1c2. Use instruments for assessing students; B1c3. Assess the evidence of students; B1c4. Explain the assessment criteria to the students;

B1c5. Adjust the instrument with the teaching method.

Likert scale: 1 2 3 4 5

0—Unskilled; 1—Skilled atcertain part; 2—Fully skilled.

B1d. Teachers’ knowledge about the terms in SBA

Item: I understand the term of following assessment: Rubric: B1d1. Document Standard Performance; B1d2. Document Standard Curriculum; B1d3. Descriptor; B1d4. Bands; B1d5. Malaysian Educational Development Plan. Likert scale: 1 2 3 4 5

0—Do not understand; 1—Understand certain part; 2—Fully understand.

B2. Teachers’ planning

B2a. Teachers’ planning status; B2b. Planning before SBA assessment; B2c. Instrument construction planning; B2d. Planning before teaching.

0—No; 1—Sometimes; 2—Yes.

B3. Implementaion of the SBA assessment

B3a. Teachers’ status in implementing SBA; B3b. Things done throughout the assessment activities; B3c. Teachers’ practice in assessment; B3d. Things done by teachers for students who have not master the learning; B3e. Things done during assessment; B3f. Things done in the process of assessment; B3g. Method teachers use to manage students’ evidence; B3h. Ways teachers conduct scoring; B3i. Criteria during students assessment; B3j. Teachers’ assessment criteria; B3k. Teachers reporting criteria.



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(Table 1 to be continued)

B4. Instrument construction

B4a. Teachers’ status in instrument construction; B4b. Ways teachers prepare instruments; B4c. Ways teachers construct instruments; B4d. Instruments used by teachers; B4e. Other instruments used by teachers.


B5. Teachers’ restraints in implementing SBA

B5a. Teachers’ problems in implementing SBA; B5b. Types of problems faced by teachers; B5c. Teachers’ problems during implementing SBA; B5d. Teachers’ burden throughout implementing SBA.


Table 2

Rubric Score

Statements Rubric score

Do not know Not skilled Disagree No No No 0

Partially know Partially skilled Agree Sometimes Some parts Yes 1

Completely know Completely skilled Strongly agree Yes Yes Yes 2

No - - - - - 0

Yes - - - - - 1

Total rubric (5) 1 2 3 4 5 -

Total rubric (10) 0-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 -

Likert scale 1 2 3 4 5 -

The 5-point scale is counted by researchers resulting from respondents’ evaluation based on five rubrics.

Each rubric brings a score ranging from 0 to 2 (0 = “No”; 1 = “Sometimes”; and 2 = “Yes”). The total rubric

scores are 10 points. These scores will be transferred to the ordinal scale, as shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Respondents’ Evaluation Based on Five Rubrics Rubric score Ordinal scale

0-2 1

3-4 2

5-6 3

7-8 4

9-10 5

For the dichotomy scales, the total rubric scores are 5 points. These scores will be transferred to the

ordinal scales, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4

Measurement Scale

Rubric score Ordinal scale

0-1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

Instrument Validation

The instrument is validated for each item by five professionals who determine the suitability of the

evaluated construct. One of the principles used in ensuring validation of the instrument is by making certain


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that each item is agreed by the five professionals. The minimum percentage of agreement for each item

validated should not be less than 80%.

Pilot Study

A pilot study was conducted first to ensure that the reliability of instrument record an index of no less than

0.67 (Nunnally, 1982) for the newly constructed instruments. It is also to ensure the accuracy of the instrument.

The pilot study was carried out on 57 people consisting of primary and secondary school teachers. The pilot

study instrument was conducted via the interaction survey method. The teachers are grouped into two groups

and the researchers read and explain each item to ensure that all respondents have the same understanding of

the items. Nonetheless, the response for each item is not guided by the researchers.

Reliability

The validity of a test relies on the reliability of that test. Because of that, only the measuring tool that can

give consistent readings can help the tool to give a valid measurement. Reliability is related to the level of

consistency between two measurements for the same reason (Creswell, 2003). Reliability is also the level that

shows that the measurement is free from error and can then produce consistent results. Reliability refers to

internal stability and consistency of the instrument in measuring a concept (Creswell, 2003).

A popular and frequently used test in measuring the internal consistency of a concept is the Cronbach’s

alpha method (Cronbach, 1949; Norusis, 2005). The alpha coefficient value near to 1.00 shows that the items in

the scale are measuring the same things and have high reliability. According to Mohd (2005), a minimum value

of 0.6 is needed as a reliability index for the instruments to be used. Any value lower than that indicates that the

items are unacceptable. Alpha values of 0.6-0.8 are deemed acceptable and values more than 0.8 are deemed

good and have high reliability.

In this study, data analysis is conducted using the Statistic Package of Social Science (SPSS) Version 19

programme. The results of the reliability of the items processed are shown in Table 5.

Table 5

Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient

Input apects Total items Item correlation and total scores Cronbach’s alpha value

Knowledge and skills 4 0.776 0.887

Teachers’ planning 4 0.526 0.863

SBA construction execution 11 0.762 0.886

Instrument construction execution 5 0.667 0.887

Teachers’ restraints in executing SBA 4 0.564 0.885

Results

Table 5 summarises the reliability coefficients obtained from all the constructs of SBA implementation

within teachers. Based on Table 5, it was found that the Cronbach’s alpha value is in the range of 0.863-0.887;

it was also found that the number of items for each component does not give the same effects towards the

reliability index given, which is the dimension of SBA assessment implementation (N = 11), even though there

are more items compared to the dimensions regarding teachers’ restraints in implementing SBA (N = 4), but

produce almost similar alpha values. From the alpha value obtained, and through considering the segregation of

the respondents based on two stratas (primary and secondary schools) that exist, it can be concluded that the


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score variation obtained is high. In short, the reliability index values obtained were quite high because of the

variety of several responses of SBA implementation within teachers that functions on the involved strata in

featuring the respondents.

Item Analysis

Based on the SPSS analysis instruction in the descriptive part by following the steps and procedures that

started from the click on the analysis icon, and then select descriptive statistic and related items, the results are

shown in Table 6.

Based on Table 6, the numbers show the mean scores and standard deviations for the items of knowledge

and skills (M = 3.81; SD = 0.26), teachers’ planning (M = 4.15; SD = 0.53), SBA assessment execution (M =

3.16; SD = 0.67), instrument construction (M = 3.52; SD = 0.55), and teachers’ restraints in implementing SBA

(M = 3.72; SD = 0.75) from the 57 respondents processed. The interpretation towards the items shows that the

respondents have knowledge and skills as well as planning at a high level compared to implementation of SBA

assessment execution and instrument construction at an average level. The respondents also admitted that they

have high restraints in implementing SBA. This interpretation is referred towards the standard criteria shown in

Table 6.

Table 6 Mean Scores of Items and Classification Status

N M SD Status

Knowledge and skill 57 3.81 0.26 High

Teacher’s planning 57 4.15 0.53 High

SBA assessment execution 57 3.16 0.67 Average

Instrument construction 57 3.52 0.55 Average

Teachers’ restraints 57 3.72 0.75 High

The researcher has produced an implementation to classify the mean value of high, moderate, and low. All

three categories are shown in Table 7.

Table 7 Three Cateogies of Mean Score Interpretation

Score Interpretation

1.00-2.33 Low level

2.34-3.66 Moderate level

3.67-5.00 High level

Note. Source: Mohd Sahandri (2011).

Item Descriptive Analysis

An analysis on a few descriptive items according to the rubric used in summarising the mean scores as

well as strengths and weaknesses is shown in Table 8.

The statistics in the Table 8 show descriptive score for the implementation of SBA among teachers in two

constructs: (a) skills and knowledge of teachers; and (b) instrument construction.

For the construct skills and knowledge, the mean score (3.81) is at a high level. Item 1 of this construct is

knowledge resource and teachers’ skills, which shows that 91% of the teachers get their knowledge and skills


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from internal courses while 44% of them through the examination syndicate Website. However, for item 2,

teacher’s knowledge in implementing SBA, it shows that 93% of the teachers use the Performance Standards

document and only 16% of the teachers do not know how to assess the students.

In the construct of instrument construction, the mean score (3.52) is at a moderate level. For item 1 of this

construct, the ways of teachers in constructing the instruments show that 63% of the teachers know a part of

constructing an instrument and only 14% of them do not know how to construct their instruments. In item 2,

instruments used by teachers, 89% of the teachers use pencil and paper as assessment instruments and only 3%

of them use projects as assessment instruments.

Table 8 Item Descriptives Construct/variable Mean score Item Elaboration

Skills and knowledge 3.81 High

Knowledge resourse and teachers’ skills

91% of the teachers get their knowledge and skills from internal courses 44% of the teachers get the knowledge and skills by surfing the Examination Syndicate Website

Teacher’s knowledge in implementing SBA

93% of the teachers use the Performance Standards document

16% of the teachers do not know how to assess students

Instrument construction 3.52 Moderate

Ways teachers construct instruments

63% of the teachers know only a part of constructing an instrument 14% of the teachers have no idea whatsoever on constructing instruments

Instruments used by teachers

89% of the teachers use pencil and paper as assessment instruments

Only 3% of the teachers use projects as assessment instruments

The Potential of Instrument Use in SBA Implementation Within Teachers

Even though the instruments in this study possess high reliability, follow-up refinement needs to be done

to improve the items of SBA implementation in ensuring an effective instrument is used in this study. The

discussion focused on determining the validity and reliability of the instrument by gaining assistance from five

professionals and internal consistency of Cronbach’s alpha. Both these techniques are stable and consistent

alternatives in justifying the validity and reliability of the items produced. As stated, a few series of items

refinement need to be done through a few series of replication studies, especially in involving more respondents.

The use of double layer rubric instrument produced for this study can help to determine the extent of SBA

implementation among teachers and it also enables the research to compare the individual strengths and

weaknesses of the teachers (the respondents of the study) in implementing SBA. It cannot be denied that the

uniqueness of this form of instrument does not only rely on the issues of validity and reliability as discussed,

but also relies on the creativity of researchers to apply it in a study design.

By considering the procedures that were involved in the construction of items that were discussed, it is not

extreme to conclude that the information that will be generated from this instrument can give valuable

information, especially for the planners and policymakers for teachers in Malaysia. The potential of this

instrument does not only measure based on the level of implementation, but also the impacts and results that

will be obtained. It is hoped that this instrument of double layer rubrics will succeed in being produced and

proven of its validity and reliability which will also be then used widely, especially to identify the effectiveness

of implementing SBA within teachers.


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Conclusion

The implementation of SBA among teachers cannot be seen as trifles since it is a transformation in the

education that hopes success at the end of its implementation. Therefore, an analysis on the extent of its

implementation within teachers is needed, so that it could become a guideline to be improved from its

implementation from time to time. A quality instrument is needed to measure the effectiveness in SBA within

teachers, because the instrument for educational research is a mechanism that is able to measure what is

intended. In relation to this, an analysis on the findings can explain the content information of the instrument

items correctly. This means that the item status can explain and elaborate item statements.

Transformation in the construction of instrument items involved alogarithms based on the correct

principles and steps. All constructs and variables are planned based on the syllabus that supports the research

topic that is suggested. The Instrument Determination Table framework was developend by taking into account

the constructs, variables, and questioning methods to explain the items and the rubrics. All these elements are

driven and supported with relevant literature. Besides that, the process of validation and determining the

reliability is determined after the pilot study is carried out. The strengths of the results from the process of

constructing the items, where each construct, variable, or item is shown in mean scores, can be explained

qualitatively in the form of rubrics.

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Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education, Inc.. Cronbach, L. J. (1949). Essentials of psychological testing. New York, N.Y.: Harper & Brothers. Dikli, S. (2003). Assessment at a distance: Traditional vs. alternative assessments. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational

Technology, 2(3), 13-19. James, A. F. S., & Charles, W. (1995). Management (6th ed.). New Delhi: Prentice Hall. Law, B., & Eckes, M. (1995). Assessment and ESL. Manitoba, Canada: Peguis Publishers. Malaysian Examinations Syndicate. (2012). Panduan pengurusan pentaksiran berasaskan sekolah (Guidelines for SBA).

Putrajaya: Ministry of Education. Malaysian Examinations Syndicate. (2013). Buku informasi PBS (Information book on SBA). Putrajaya: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education (MoE). (2012). Malaysian educational development plan 2013-2025. Putrajaya: Ministry of Education. Mohd Sahandri, G. H. (2011). The effectiveness in embedding soft skills in poly-tech Mara colleges. Mohd Sahandri, G. H., Noor Shah, S., Husni Zaim, K. N., & Nur Nazurah, M. Y. (2013). Transformasi pembinaan instrument

kajianterhadap pengurusan pengajaran guru (Assessments of instrument construction management transformation of teaching). Proceeding of The 4th National Seminar of Public University Dean Council, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Mohd, M. K. (2005). Kaedah penyelidikan pendidikan (Education research methods). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Namara, C. M. (1998). Program evaluation: Some myth abaout program evaluation. Retrieved January 20, 2013, from

http://www.mapnp.org/library/evaluation/fnl.eval.htm Norusis, M. J. (2005). SPSS 13.0 guide to data analysis. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Nunnally, J. C. (1982). Psychometric theory. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill Inc.. Omar, R. (2002). Masalah-masalah dalam pelaksanaan pentaksiran kerja amali (PEKA) di sekolah-sekolahmenengah di daerah

Temerloh (Problems in implementing fieldwork in secondary schools in Temerloh) (M.Ed. thesis, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia).

Radin, M. S. Z. (2008). Penilaian program pentaksiran kerja kursus berasaskan sekolah teknologi kejuteraan SPM (Program evaluation of school-based coursework assessment) (Master’s thesis, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia).


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Shapard, L. A. (2000). The role of classroom assessment on teaching and learning. Los Angeles, C.A.: Centre of Research Evaluation Standard and student testing (CRESS), University of California.

Stoner, J. A. F., & Wankel, C. (1985). Management. London, U.K.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.. Tan, A. M. (2010). Pentaksiran berasaskan sekolah (PBS) di Malaysia: Kesediaan guru, isudan panduan pelaksanaan (SBA in

Malaysia: Teacher readiness, issues and guideline of implementation) (Ph.D. dissertation, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia). Tseko, G. N. (2005). A teacher with a vision and school assessment. Botswana: University of Botswana. Tunstall, P. (2001). Assessment discourse and contributions of social reality in infant classroom. Journal of Education Policy, 16,

215-213. West-Burnham, J. (2009). Rethinking educational leadership: From improvement to transformation. New York, N.Y.: Continuum

International Publishing Group.


The Status Quo Investigation of the Acculturation of the English

Teachers in High School in Western China

Long An-bao

Southwest University, Chongqing, China;

Guiyang No.14 High School, Guiyang, China

Li Sen

Southwest University, Chongqing, China

In order to solve the existing problem of “time-consuming with low efficiency” in English teaching, we suppose

that the real reason why we could not learn English well were the acculturation of English teachers. In order to

make clear the supposition of the acculturation of the English teachers in high school, we had made a sample

survey of questionnaires and interviews to the English teachers in western China. Based on the results from the

sample survey, we analyzed the data and discussed the information thoroughly. We found that many English

teachers in high school could not adapt to English acculturation, so they could not do well in English instruction.

The results also showed that the ability of English instruction for the English teachers in high school must be

developed further as soon as possible.

Keywords: investigation, English teachers, acculturation, western China

Introduction

According to English teaching in China, there exists the contradiction of “time-consuming with low

efficiency”, thus, we put forward the hypothesis of “the study of enhancing the acculturation for English

teachers in high school”. Based on the research results of acculturation published at home and abroad, we

carried out an investigation around the current acculturation of English teachers, and used it as a theoretical

logic. Viewed from the situation of the effectiveness of English teaching in China, the west and southwest are

the weak areas of English teaching. Starting from the pertinence and effectiveness of solving the problem, and

combining with the actual work, we chose Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, and Shaanxi provinces, Chongqing City,

and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region as the objects of investigation by mainly using questionnaires and

interviews with the teachers and students who were from different schools. In observing the classroom teaching,

we used the improved Flanders interaction analysis scale as the observation tool and evaluated the classroom

teaching given by the English teachers. Through the questionnaire surveys, field interviews, and classroom

observations, we regarded “acculturation” as the core in the study.

Methods

In order to fully understand the status quo of English acculturation of the teachers and students in high

* The annual basic scientific research for the special fund projects of “Central Universities”, Southwest University, 2014 (Project No.: SWU1409344).

Long An-bao, Ph.D. candidate, Faculty of Education, Southwest University; senior English teacher, Guiyang No.14 High School. Li Sen, Ph.D., professor, Faculty of Education, Southwest University.

DAVID PUBLISHING

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STATUS QUO INVESTIGATION OF THE ACCULTURATION OF THE ENGLISH TEACHERS

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school, we consulted some educational experts at universities, exchanged ideas with different school leaders,

and talked extensively with teachers and students for preparation, and we finally worked out the investigation

tools for this study. This set of research tools were made up of questionnaire for teachers, interviewing outlines

for teachers and students, and the improved Flanders interaction analysis scale for classroom teaching. The

“Questionnaire of the Status Quo Acculturation of English Teachers in High School” and the “Interview

Outlines With the High School Teachers and Students” were produced from the following resources: One came

from the first teaching line by talking and discussing repeatedly the relevant issues with the experienced

English teachers in high school, and the other from soliciting opinions from the first author’s doctoral tutor,

Prof. Li Sen and other experts. Connecting with our own practical teaching experience, we thought over and

designed the dimensions of the questionnaire. The other main reference was the “Basic Quality Investigation

Questionnaire for English Teachers in Primary and High School” compiled by Beijing Research Institute of

Central China Normal University and some other related English teaching questionnaires for teachers and

students.

Compilation of the Survey Tools

Questionnaire for English teachers. The questionnaire is divided into two parts. The first part is to

understand the basic situation of the English teachers, including gender, age, teacher qualifications (academic

degree), professional title, etc.. The second part is the main body of the questionnaire, including six dimensions

with 39 items as whole.

Interview outlines for English teachers and students. The interview objects are mainly the English

teachers as the leading and teaching subjects and the students as the active learning subjects in high school. In

order to make a better diagnosis of the acculturation in English teaching and ensure the authenticity of the

interview results, we randomly and personally interviewed some English teachers and students in high school

respectively.

Interviews with English teachers. The purpose of the interview is to deepen the questionnaire survey and

to further understand the situation of English teaching acculturation. The topics of the interview include “the

globalization of knowledge and understanding”, “concept of English teaching”, “English cultural awareness”,

“personal understanding of curriculum objectives between English curriculum knowledge and English culture”,

“the organizational form of teaching”, “classroom teaching and learning strategies”, “holding English teaching

and learning activities”, “teaching evaluation”, “developing and maintaining students’ interest in learning

English”, “the issue of time-consuming with low efficiency in English teaching and learning”, “teaching support

from the local government and educational institute”, “the reform of English teaching and evaluation system”,

“further education for teachers”, “the requirements of teachers in English teaching”, etc.. After sharing opinions

with the teachers and students, we had obtained a lot of individual feelings. We understood the practical

difficulties existing in English teaching, so we can make the research more reliable and effective.

Interviews with students. From the perspective of English learners, we asked the students to give their

English teachers some objective evaluation on acculturation to help us better understand the acculturation of

English teachers, including the English teaching concept, the level of commanding English culture, and the

English cultural infiltration in classroom teaching. The interviews also took place by the way of discussion with

the form of random sampling completely to avoid possible man-made interference and ensure the authenticity

of the interview results.


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Survey and Questionnaire Statistics

We chose the western region of China as the research sample and investigated the English teachers in high

school by delivering questionnaires and holding interviews, including both the English teachers in junior high

school at the stage of nine-year compulsory education and the English teachers in senior high school which is

non-compulsory education. We started our questionnaires and interviews from early April to the end of August,

2014. The questionnaires were distributed to 28 schools in Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, and Shaanxi provinces,

Chongqing City, and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region by random sampling. The questionnaires adopted

two forms of the scene questionnaires and the remote electronic questionnaires, and the form of paper-based

questionnaire was the main. Among them, in Guizhou Province, we selected eight schools (including three

private schools), and a total of 119 valid questionnaires were recovered from the eight schools; in Yunnan

Province, a total of 58 valid questionnaires were recovered from six schools; in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous

Region, a total of 49 valid questionnaires were recovered from four schools; and in Chongqing City, Sichuan

Province, and Shaanxi Province, a total of 57, 50, and 57 valid questionnaires were recovered from three

schools respectively. In short, a total number of 500 questionnaires were distributed, and 453 were collected

with a recovery rate of 90.60%, and the effective questionnaires were 390 with an effective rate of 78%. Professor

Pei Dina argued that:

If the recovery is only around 30%, the data are only for reference; if the recovery is more than 50%, we can adopt the suggestion; and if the recovery rate reached 70% to 75% or more than that, it can be used as the basis of research conclusion. (Pei, 2006, p. 176)

According to this viewpoint, the data obtained from the questionnaires of this study could be used as the

empirical evidence of the research conclusion.

The Objects of Investigation and the Basic Description

In this study, English teachers in high school in western China were chosen as the objects for

questionnaires and interviews by the random sampling method. We launched the statistics based on the 390

effective questionnaires, and found quite useful information that was relevant to the English teachers in high

school (see Table 1).

The male English teachers were in the proportion of 28.5%, while the female teachers accounted for

71.5%, and the visible advantage of the female English teachers could be found in the aspect of language. In the

educational background, 82.6% of the English teachers were holding a bachelor’s degree, only 12.8% of them

were holding a postgraduate degree. It is visible that the English teachers with a postgraduate degree are still

relatively lacking. With the development and prevalence of professional master degree of education, the

proportion of English teachers with a graduate degree will be increased gradually. A prominent hidden problem

was found in the survey that the allocation of English teacher resources was not balanced between urban and

rural areas. Most high-quality teachers are concentrated in city schools, while in the schools of counties or

towns, the number of English teachers is not enough and the quality is quite low. We found in the investigation

that English teachers holding a bachelor’s degree or above were almost all in the central or urban cities, and

4.60% of the English teachers with a college degree or below still worked in rural junior high schools. From the

view of age structure, the middle-aged English teachers were the majority with the proportion of 56.7%, and

this state was due to the system arrangement of Chinese personnel position establishment.


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Table 1

Basic Information of the Investigation Objects (N = 390)

Items N Percent (%)

Gender Male 111 28.50

Female 279 71.50

Educational background

Postgraduate 50 12.80

Undergraduate 322 82.60

Junior college education 16 4.10

Secondary normal school 2 0.50

Age of schooling

0-3 (Newly recruited) 54 13.80

4-6 (Growing period) 53 13.60

7-10 (Mature period) 62 15.90

11 and above (Creative period) 221 56.70

Professional rank

Senior rank 92 23.60

Intermediate 130 33.30

Elementary 144 36.90

No rank 24 6.20

Nationality Han nationality 295 75.40

Minority 96 24.60

Stage of teaching Junior high school 191 49.00

Senior high school 199 51.00

However, the reality of social life was full of competition. The differences between schools were amazing.

When the education of life was involved in the competition mechanism, high-quality resources of running

education, such as excellent teachers, backbone teachers, and teachers with senior rank, were involved in the

competition of industrial reconstruction. Talents or excellent English teachers were encouraged to flow into

high-quality secondary schools in large cities through various accesses according to the current policy of the

nation. So many excellent teachers were recruited to the model schools, and there appeared a phenomenon of

“Matthew effect” in the secondary education, that is, the schools with high quality originally had got better,

while the rural or township high schools naturally appeared the state of “lack of teachers”, and the English

classroom teaching in rural areas were turned into the training ground of the substitute teachers. In China, the

unbalanced distribution of basic educational resources, including excellent teachers, reproduced the unfairness

of sharing educational achievements for the students in the process of Reform and Opening-up Policy and the

construction of harmonious society. As a result, the growing inequality in education finally would produce the

imbalance of development in economy between areas, or social problems. In addition, viewed from the aspect

of the distribution of national teachers, the English teachers of Han nationality were the majority with the

proportion of 75.4%, while the minority English teachers were less and accounted for only 24.6%. In the west

region of China, the minority people are most concentrated in this area, and a large number of English teachers

who can also speak minority languages are needed. Therefore, the Chinese government should make more

powerful efforts and take corresponding measures to cultivate more minority English teachers with high quality

to serve the local education.

Different Attitudes on Occupational Career and Descriptions

The choice of occupation for English teachers relates to two challenging problems: One is whether they

really love the English teaching job that they are engaged in, the other is whether they have an active attitude of


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lifelong learning, creative thinking, and the concept of self-independent development, and whether they had the

growing experience of peer observation, learning exchange, cooperation, and common development. The

survey was finished in an anonymous way with high academic reference value (see Table 2).

Table 2

The Career Patterns of English Teachers (N = 390)

N Percentage (%)

Attitude on English teaching

Extremely enjoy 67 17.20

Enjoy 235 60.30

Commonly enjoy 77 19.70

Not enjoy 11 2.80

Number of students in the classroom

30 and below 12 3.10

31-44 50 12.80

45-54 141 36.20

55 and above 187 47.90

English teaching task

One class 32 8.20

Two classes 330 84.60

Three classes 19 4.90

Four classes and above 9 2.30

Participation/peer observation/learning exchange

Often listen to 178 45.50

Occasionally 212 54.50

Never 0 0.00

Found from the questionnaire survey, 77.5% of the in-service English teachers in high school enjoyed the

career of English teaching that they were engaged in, and those who extremely enjoyed their jobs were only

17.2%, showing that not all the English teachers enjoy English teaching. At the same time, 19.7% of them said

that English teaching was okay, holding an attitude of “way of living” to their careers; they did not have too

much passion in English teaching. A few of them (2.8%) expressed directly that they did not enjoy English

teaching, maybe in their opinion, the English teaching career was only a transitional tool of a breadwinner or a

temporary safe haven, they did not pay much attention to the professional development of English teaching,

maybe they were forced to do rather than willing to choose. The significance of their working was only to

obtain wages by teaching, and they will neither take the initiative efforts to study the work, nor spare enough

time to “reorganize teaching resources, understand student development, plan and promote education and

teaching, appropriately use teaching approaches … nor communicate with others actively and effectively” (Ye,

2013). In reality, English education for the development of students is really required to pursue by teachers with

patience and love. We must be able to accommodate the temporarily pauses or repeated faults of the students

with patience, like farmers treating the seedlings with confidence. The current attitude to the career of English

teacher is the premise of improving English teaching with high quality.

In China, there are many factors restricting the high school English teachers’ professional development,

and the most important factors are the large classroom teaching and heavy teaching tasks. According to the

survey, there is a great distance of the development of education in China between the west or southwest and

the east. The investment for hardware in basic education is limited, and the capacity of schools is not enough.

Many students have to crowd in large classrooms to listen to the teachers. In accordance with the universal

standard of Western developed countries, the small classroom teaching means that the amount of students in a


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classroom does not exceed the number of 30. But in China, only 3.1% of the total teaching classrooms meet this

standard, and all are concentrated in the capital or big cities. The majority of the teaching classrooms (97%)

greatly exceed the rated number of 30, and 47.9% of the school classrooms have more than 55 students. In the

high schools of the rural counties or towns, we can easily see the super-large classrooms with 70-130 students.

We found in the teaching investigation and observation that the students who seated at the back of the

classroom could hardly hear the teachers, so that the most valuable classroom teaching was cost in a

muddleheaded or superficial way. We can see from Table 2 that most of the teachers regularly bore the

teaching task with two classes, but in the remote and rural areas, an English teacher needed to take three or four

classes with the number of 55 students or above. Besides the heavy tasks of teaching, the professional

development of English teachers in high school was often influenced by the factors of the pressure of entering a

higher school and the students’ achievements, namely, the students’ scores of final examinations, average test

points, pass rates, and excellent rate of any formal assessments. In the survey, we also found that only 45.5% of

the English teachers enjoyed learning from others or exchanging teaching experience with their colleagues, or

observing their peers’ classroom teaching, and another 54.5% of the English teachers showed that they

occasionally observed other teachers’ classroom teaching or cooperated with their colleagues.

Analysis and Discussion

The questionnaire for English teachers was launched with six dimensions, i.e., “the professional

accomplishment”, “the cultural literacy”, “curriculum knowledge”, “the ability of cross-cultural

communication”, “the ability of English instruction”, and “the ability of scientific research”. In order to make

clear the current acculturation of English teachers in high school, four typical factors of these dimensions

would be particularly selected to analyze and discuss.

The Professional Accomplishment of English Teachers

A qualified English teacher must achieve some prerequisites of standard English pronunciation, solid

knowledge of English grammar, and being able to teach and sing English songs (see Table 3).

Table 3

The Professional Accomplishment of the English Teachers

Entirely accord with (%)

Accord with (%)

A little accord with (%)

Never accord with (%)

Total (%)

Standard English pronunciation

Junior high school 9.70 33.60 5.40 0.30 49.00

Senior high school 18.50 30.00 1.80 0.80 51.00

Total 28.20 63.60 7.20 1.00 100.00

Solid knowledge of English grammar



Total 15.60 61.50 19.50 3.30 100.00

Being able to teach and sing English songs



Total 10.00 54.90 32.10 3.10 100.00

As shown in Table 3, only 28.20% of the English teachers entirely accorded with standard English

pronunciation, with the proportion of 9.70% in junior high school and 18.50% in senior high school. It showed

that the present English teachers’ spoken English in high school was not so optimistic. At the same time, 7.2%


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of the English teachers in high school were still lacking qualified confidence, and 1% of them showed

inconformity.

In grammar teaching, English teachers should be skillful at syntactic structure, transformation of sentence

patterns, sentence analysis, method of word-building, sentence order, syntactic function of independent

components, etc.. Although English grammar is not specially emphasized in English teaching in high school

today, but it can never be ignored. Chomsky (1979) proposed the grammatical view of “the independence of

grammar”, he believed that:

The grammar of a language reflects the behavior of the people who speak the language, because the people who speak the language can speak and understand a number of infinite new sentences only according to his limited and accidental experience in his language. (pp. 6-9)

Chomsky also stressed two concepts of explaining the language behaviors, and he thought that language

expression needed to “accord with grammatical rules” and to “accord with the English grammar”, because the

knowledge of grammar for English learners looks like scaffolds in the construction site, and it is also the tool of

organizing the language. Viewed from Table 2, only 15.60% of the English teachers entirely accorded with the

requirement of solid knowledge of English grammar, 19.5% of them accorded a little with the grammar

teaching demand, and 3.3% of them were not in accordance with the opinion. These figures indicate a serious

problem of ignoring English grammar for some English teachers in high school.

As English teachers, the ability of singing English songs or singing songs in English for students is

regarded as a must for English teachers in high school. If we can sing English songs and instruct the students to

sing English songs, we can make the process of English teaching more active and even more effective. We can

greatly arouse the attention of the students and stimulate their enthusiasm of learning English through English

extracurricular activities or English arts festivals. Being able to sing English songs is a very useful skill for

English teachers, but on the contrary, most of the English teachers lack this kind of practical skill. We missed

many chances of making the classroom teaching interesting by singing English songs, because we were not

qualified enough. For example, when we introduce the industry of American films for the students in the

classrooms in senior high school, no matter how you explain it carefully or vividly in detail, nothing can take

the place of demonstrating a song impromptu, such as the theme song in the film Titanic, “My Heart Will Go

On”, which the students are quite familiar with, and we can even ask the students to follow. We are sure that

the students’ learning enthusiasm will be mobilized in an instant, the learning atmosphere in the dull classroom

will be greatly exaggerated, and the awareness of participating the dialogue activities and seeking for new

knowledge will be spontaneously formed. But, in the discovery, only 10.00% of the English teachers entirely

accorded with the ability, including 4.90% in junior high school and 5.10% in senior high school. Most of the

English teachers in high school lack the ability of singing English songs, and it is a great pity and loss for them.

In spoken English, only 23.10% of them said that they could speak English fluently, and 15.20% of them could

not communicate with others in English fluently.

The Cultural Literacy of English Teachers

The cultural literacy is one of the most important elements for English teachers in high school. When we

talked with the local American people or British people, we often could not understand them correctly.

Especially when we listened to the people from English-speaking countries, we often felt difficult in

understanding them even though we had learnt English for so many years, and we would often blame us stupid.


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Why would we meet such kind of situation? The reason lay in the two aspects: 1. The British and Americans

spoke faster; and 2. They used a lot of dialects and idioms in their conversation. Sometimes, the British and

Americans might use some slang languages in special fields in their daily life. In order to talk with the

English-speaking foreigners, it is quite necessary to master some English idioms and local expressions to meet

the cultural adaptability of studying abroad or social communications (see Table 4).

Table 4

The Cultural Literacy of English Teachers

Fully meet (%) Meet (%) A little meet (%) Never meet (%) Total (%)

Mastering a large number of English idioms



Total 3.80 47.90 44.10 4.10 100.00

Being able to answer the English cultural problems



Total 32.60 57.70 8.70 1.00 100.00

Familiar with the concept of curriculum culture



Total 20.30 58.70 20.50 0.50 100.00

Infiltration of English culture with consciousness



Total 42.80 47.40 9.00 0.80 100.00

Developing English etiquette education



Total 37.90 53.80 7.90 0.30 100.00

The survey revealed that only 3.80% of the English teachers in high school fully met the requirement of

mastering a large number of English idioms, with 0.50% in junior high school and 3.30% in senior high school;

44.10% of them felt it a little difficult; and 4.10% of them agreed that they never met the demand.

The objective of English teaching in high school is not only to teach the students enough knowledge of

English, but also to develop the students with necessary ability of English culture. In classroom teaching,

sometimes, the students will be interested in a certain kind of English culture, and they may put forward some

Anglo-American cultural issues, as well as historical culture, background knowledge of social life and festivals

in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, and many other topics in English-speaking countries. At

this time, English teachers should give the students satisfactory answers. According to the questionnaire, only

32.60% of the English teachers declared that they could fully meet the demand, 8.7% of the English teachers

felt difficult to meet the need, and 1% of the teachers agreed that they never met the requirement.

It is difficult to have the high quality of education without the ascension of the teachers’ life quality; it is difficult to have the spirit liberation of the students without the spirit liberation of the teachers; it is difficult to have the initiative development of the students without the initiative development of the teachers; and it is difficult to have the creative spirit of the students without the educational creation of the teachers. (Ye, Bai, Wang, & Tao, 2001, p. 3)

The cultural consciousness of the new curriculum objectives in China is of the key theory of pushing

forward the English instruction effectively in basic education. Two Chinese national documents, the English

Curriculum Standard for Nine-Year Compulsory Education revised by the Ministry of Education of China in

2011 and the English Curriculum Standard for Senior High School revised in 2013, put forward clearly the


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overall goal of the English curriculum for high school to highlight the idea of acculturation and strengthen the

teaching with English culture. The survey showed that only 20.30% of the English teachers declared that they

were very familiar with the idea of the curriculum culture, with 7.20% in junior high school and 13.10% in

senior high school; 21.00% of the English teachers said that they were not so sure that; and 0.5% of them were

not familiar with the content of the English curriculum standard.

According to second language acquisition, the term “acquisition” is used to “pick up a second language

through exposure” (Ellis, 1985, p. 6). We also need to emphasize the importance of the language environment

for learning a foreign language. English knowledge and English culture are inseparable. In order to achieve the

effectiveness of English teaching, we can do nothing without the infiltration of English culture in the process of

teaching. The results of the questionnaires obtained revealed that only 42.8% of the English teachers could fully

meet the requirement, with 18.50% in junior high school and 24.30% in senior high school; 9% of them felt

some difficult; and 0.8% of them said “Never meet”. Anyway, the data show that the vast majority (90.2%) of

the English teachers paid great attention to the infiltration of English culture consciousness, and only 0.80% of

them did not.

English etiquette education is also a part of content that can never be neglected in English instruction. We

should cultivate and enable the students to become gentlemen and the elegant international citizens with good

manners. Therefore, we should not only teach the students with necessary English knowledge, but also build

the students with full English cultural etiquette. We all know a famous Chinese saying of “Courtesy costs

nothing”. In our daily life, we all should act with etiquette at home and know some rules of diplomatic etiquette

abroad. Besides, we should let the students know something more about etiquette in Western countries and help

them succeed in communicating with foreign friends politely. We should also be familiar with the main

festivals in the West and tell the students how to celebrate the festivals friendly, such as Valentine’s Day, Apirl

Fool’s Day, Mother’s Day, Thanksgiving Day, and Christmas, etc.. The survey revealed that 91.7% of the

English teachers met the requirement, 37.90% of them fully met the requirement, and 8.00% of the English

teachers said that they did not focus so much on etiquette education or self-learning.

The Ability of Cross-Cultural Communication

With the awareness of “the global village” or “globalization” strengthened, we must cultivate the children

with cross-cultural education with the start from high school or even earlier. It is the main and most important

approach for the adolescents to accept cross-cultural education through English instruction (see Table 5).

According to the survey, 93.4% of the English teachers in high school were sure of developing with strong

sense of cross-cultural learning, among whom, 73.3% were quite sure of this concept. But, 6.2% of the English

teachers hold a neutral opinion, they chose “Not so sure”, and only 0.5% of them held a negative attitude.

Therefore, if the English teachers still lack the consciousness of “cross-cultural learning”, how is the

performance of intercultural learning of the students formed?

In China, English teaching is almost implemented in the Chinese-speaking environment. As an English

teacher, the idealest expectation of understanding the culture and customs in English-speaking countries is

having a precious opportunity to study abroad as visiting scholars, or to interview the local residents personally,

or to experience the life-like sense of “fieldwork”. The investigation showed that the English teachers in high

school could rarely be given an opportunity to study abroad, that is, only 0.5% of them had a 12-month

experience or above to study abroad, 4.6% of them went abroad to study for 6-11 months, 11% of them for five


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months or below, while 83.8% of the English teachers in high school had never been abroad. The cultural

phenomena and customs mentioned in the textbooks are the same strange for the English teachers as the

students.

Table 5

The Competence of Cross-Cultural Communication

Quite sure (%) Sure (%) Not so sure (%) Negative (%) Total (%)

Developing with strong sense of cross-cultural learning



Total 70.30 23.10 6.20 0.50 100.00

Understanding the English culture and customs



Total 7.20 54.60 37.40 0.80 100.00

Having the experience of studying or training abroad



Total 0.50

(12 months) 4.60

(6-11 months)11.00 (1-5 months)

83.80 100.00

Understanding the great English national events



Total 45.10 42.60 10.20 2.10 100.00

English culture is closely related to the process of development, the great characters, and the year significant

events in English-speaking countries. Each piece of historical events would promote further the process of

civilization and progress of society, or lead to the birth of a new culture. For example, when we read the

famous novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, a famous American writer, we cannot help

thinking of the abolitionist movement because of the stimuli risen by this novel in the United States (U.S.) in

the 1850s. When we read the speech of “I Have a Dream”, we will pay more attention to “non-violence” and

think of the heroic African-American leader Martin Luther King, who made a famous speech for African-American

civil rights and equality in Lincoln Memorial, Washington, on August 28, 1863. It was because of Martin’s

efforts that the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964 was obtained, and the apartheid policy that suppressed the black

for a long time since the founding of the U.S. was announced the end. The investigation showed that 87.7% of

the English teachers in high school were sure to the requirement of understanding the great English national

events, with 45.10% of the teachers feeling “Quite sure”; 10.3% of the English teachers said that they were

“Not sure”; and another 2.1% of the English teachers hold a negative attitude towards this factor.

The Ability of English Instruction

The upgraded quality of English instruction in high school depends on the teaching ability of English

teachers and the effective learning of students. The ability of English teachers is very important (see Table 6).

Our teaching objects are composed of different live individuals, and there exist differences among the

individual students. As English teachers, we must admit and respect the fact that there exist differences among

the students. We think that it is the biggest fair for the students to be respected and instructed respectively

because of their differences. The survey showed that 39.7% of the English teachers entirely accorded with the

factor of respecting the differences and using diversified teaching methods, 50.50% of them accorded with the

demand, 8.7% of them said “A little accord with”, and 1% of them said “Never accord with”. It indicates that

even in the background of the new curriculum, there are still some English teachers holding the backward


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teaching ideas with low development. As the late famous educator, Mr. Tao Xing-zhi said, “Lessons were

hidden in the books, the teachers were teaching the students with the old approaches and teaching the dead

books, and they were teaching the dead books until their death” (Fang, 2006). In order to develop the students

as a whole, we should study the differences of the individuals and spend more time talking with them, make

friends with them, understand them, treat them equally, encourage them to develop healthily, and help them

achieve their different goals successfully.

Table 6

Teaching Ability of the English Teachers

Entirely accord with (%)

Accord with(%)

A little accord with (%)

Never accord with (%)

Total (%)

Respecting the differences and using diversified teaching methods



Total 39.70 50.50 8.70 1.00 100.00 Paying attention to the combination of instruction and research, and promoting all sides harmoniously



Total 40.00 45.10 12.60 2.30 100.00

Making the presupposition and generation fit high in the classroom teaching



Total 14.60 66.40 17.70 1.30 100.00

Producing teaching ability of making courseware with strong cultural characteristics



Total 34.90 45.90 17.20 2.10 100.00

Ability of management in the classroom teaching



Total 56.70 34.60 6.20 2.60 100.00

Ability of diversified teaching evaluation methods



Total 35.40 55.60 7.40 1.50 100.00

As English teachers, “English teaching” and “doing scientific research” are coherent. English teaching will

be pushed by scientific research and scientific research will also be developed further through the experiments

of teaching practice in turn. Only when we are familiar with the knowledge needed to teach can we know what

to teach; only when we know our teaching objects can we know how to teach. Mr. Tao Xing-zhi said, “A

teacher’s responsibility is not teaching books, but instructing, instructing students to learn; teaching methods

must be based on the methods of learning” (Fang, 2006). As temporary research-style English teachers, we

should not only be good at teaching but also do well in scientific research, and try to find some real problems

existing in the process of English teaching and solve these problems effectively after analysis. We can see from

Table 6 that 85.1% of the English teachers met the requirement, and among whom, 40.00% (with 19.5% in

junior high school and 20.5% in senior high school) think that they fully met the demand. Besides, 12.6% of the

English teachers said that they were not so sure, and 2.3% of the English teachers think that they were

definitely poor at the combination of English teaching and doing scientific research.

Teaching presupposition and generation are closely coherent. They emphasize the relevant consistency of

making preparations, classroom teaching designs, teaching goal formulations, and possible results. In the

survey, 81% of the English teachers accorded with the requirement of making the presupposition and


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generation fit high, among whom, only 14.6% fully accorded with it, 17.7% of them said that they were not

sure, and 1.3% of them admitted that they did badly.

The new media has been widely used as supplement teaching aids in education. The multimedia

courseware has brought great advantages for English teachers, because it has played a positive role for

improving the classroom teaching efficiency. In the survey, 80.8% of the English teachers accorded with the

demand of producing teaching multimedia courseware with strong cultural characteristics, but among them,

only 34.9% showed “Entirely accord with”; they could make the practical multimedia courseware not only

reflect the combination of knowledge and culture, but also meet the appropriate need of teaching according to

the teaching and learning contents. But, 17.2% of the English teachers felt a little difficult in making

multimedia courseware, and 2.1% of them said that they could not do that.

In the process of classroom teaching, the ability of teaching management is very important. If the

classroom teaching is managed well, it will be quite effective for English teachers to implement the classroom

teaching, and the English teacher can successfully lead students to achieve good results. The investigation

showed that 91.3% of the English teachers accorded with the requirement of managing their classroom teaching

well, which indicated that most of the English teachers in high school were good at teaching management, 6.2%

of the English teachers said that they were not so good at that, and 2.6% of them said “Never accord with”. It

was not difficult to imagine what their classroom teaching looked like.

Teaching evaluation has played a very important role in education. It evaluates the teaching effects of the

teachers and the learning effects of the students. The forms of teaching evaluation can usually be divided into

the process evaluation and summative evaluation. The process evaluation emphasizes the teaching process, it

always advances forward with the teaching synchronously, and constantly summarize, reflect, revise, and

perfect the performance between the teachers’ teaching and students’ learning, while the summative assessment

emphasizes the teaching result, it usually happens as a kind of comprehensive evaluation at the end of a

teaching phase, for example, the mid-term examination, the term examination, the year-end examination, or the

National Higher Education Entrance Examination. The investigation showed that 35.4% of the English teachers

entirely accorded with the requirement of using diversified teaching evaluation methods, 55.6% of them

accorded with the requirement, 7.4% of them felt that they did not do well in this aspect, and 1.5% of them said

that they did not know how to do evaluation.

English teaching is an art, almost every English teacher has dedicated his/her whole life to pursue without

any change in order to achieve its perfection, and teaching is always a regretful art, even the most excellent

teachers can never make it impossible to let all the classroom teaching give out the same wonderful

performance. Jackson (2012) said, “Teaching is a process of promoting the dissemination of social culture”

(p. 152); it must have its broad space for growth. Teaching is also a task that can be done better. We will

certainly be able to find out some inspiration after we think it over patiently.

Conclusion

We found from the questionnaires and interviews that the quality of English teaching was not high, and the

acculturation of the English teachers was not broad, either. The main problems lay in the following five

aspects:

1. The different occupation identity of people reflected different kinds of state in working. Some teachers

regarded English teaching as a kind of lofty job to pursue, while some others just took English teaching as a


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living occupation;

2. The professional quality of the English teachers was low, which directly affected the quality of

classroom teaching;

3. The cultural literacy was a prerequisite for English teachers. If the teachers’ cultural literacy was not

high, it would seriously hurt the learning enthusiasm of the students;

4. Many English teachers in high school lack the passion of doing school-based teaching and research, so

their study of curriculum resources is not deep enough and there happened the invalid classroom teaching;

5. English teachers ignored the comparative culture, and their ability of cross-cultural communication is

very weak. Under the background of globalization, English teaching is difficult to success without intercultural

competence.

In short, the effective English teaching in China depends on the reform of educational system. The exam

culture has seriously restricted English education. The final purpose of learning English for most students is

just to pass all kinds of exams rather than learning English culture. This is the essential ill-root of English

teaching without high efficiency. We should reflect carefully the problems in English teaching in high school,

continue our research deeply, and take effective measures to make English classroom teaching as time-saving

with high efficiency.

References Chomsky, N. (1979). Syntactic structure. Beijing: China Science and Technology Press. Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. Fang, M. (2006). The famous selected papers written by Tao Xing-zhi (Teacher Edition). Beijing: Educational Science Publishing

House. Jackson, P. W. (2012). What is education? (C. L.Wu & L. M. Ma, Tans.). Hefei: Anhui People’s Publishing House. Pei, D. N. (2006). An introduction of research methods in education. Hefei: Anhui Education Press. Sun, R. X. (2013). The seven key points in school-based research. Chongqing: Southwest China Normal University Press. Ye, L. (2013). The difficult process of the contemporary Chinese teachers development—From the concept updated to the

formation of the new basic abilities (Symposium speech on Chinese-Canada teachers education, Southwest University, China).

Ye, L., Bai, Y. M., Wang, Z., & Tao, Z. Q. (2001). The role of teachers and the new exploration of teacher development. Beijing: Educational Science Publishing House.


Uncritical Receivers of Historical Myths: A Grim Picture From

Turkish High Schoolers

Muhammet Avaroğulları, Mehmet Alper Demir

Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Muğla, Turkey

The purpose of this study is to investigate to what degree students employ historical thinking skills they supposedly

learn to master in history or social studies courses. The study has been conducted in a school district in a southwestern

province of Turkey. A total of 93 high school students have taken part in the study. They were provided with

statements about historically untrue beliefs and asked to explain whether or not they made any effort to check their

accuracy. Whether or not they believe in the veracity of the statements and to what degree they have confidence in

history courses they take in the schools have also been investigated. The results indicate that the students do not

employ historical thinking skills outside the classroom. They do not check the authenticity of the information given

to them via alternative sources. The study also revealed that the students have little trust in history courses in the

schools. They believe that information in textbooks has omissions or is distorted. Kind of the school system found

to be influential on this manner. Major sources shaping their historical knowledge lie outside of the schools.

Keywords: high school students, historical evidence, historical myths, historical thinking, social studies

Introduction

History is one, perhaps the only one, subject that has given place in curricula since the beginning of

schooling. However, the reason for its being in curricula has not been fixed over the years. Husbands, Pendry,

and Kitson (2003), for example, portrayed the situation as struggle between two competing schools in Britain:

the great tradition and the alternative tradition. While the great tradition focuses on national history with a

passive view of learner who memorizes historical interpretations of teachers or more precisely of the authorities,

the alternative tradition focuses on different historical contexts with a view of learner who constructs the

knowledge himself/herself. While the former aims to transmit the cultural capital, the latter intends to cultivate

some skills that can be used in later life. Similar contrasts can be encountered almost in all countries. Stearns

(1998b), for instance, argued that in the past, history was used as a tool to distinguish educated people from

those who are not. This, he warned, may lead to memorization of facts without thinking about them much.

Memorization is not so valued in the instruction of history any more. Students are expected to learn and apply

specific ways of learning of history (Mandell, 2008). The mission of school history is to help students cope

with problems they may confront in the later life and to assist them to make informed decisions (Wineburg,

2010). In order to attain this purpose, present day school history aims at equipping students with some way of

thinking called historical thinking and special skills related to it.

Muhammet Avaroğulları, Ph.D., assistant professor, Department of Elementary Education, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University. Mehmet Alper Demir, M.Ed. candidate, Department of Elementary Education, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University.

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According to Seixas (2009), historical thinking is related to six secondary concepts. By the study of

history, “Students should be able to: establish historical significance, use primary source evidence, identify

continuity and change, analyze cause and consequence, take historical perspectives, and understand the ethical

dimension of history” (Seixas, 2009, p. 29). According to Mandell (2008), students should ask questions about

the past, gather sources and evaluate evidence in those sources, and draw conclusions supported by the

evidence. Additionally, they should be able to interpret their findings in terms of historical categories of

inquiry—cause and effect, change and continuity, and turning points—and (understanding the past) through

their or past people’s eyes. Wineburg (2010) argued that school history should introduce to the students

following skills: sourcing, contextualizing, close reading, using background knowledge, reading the silences,

and corroborating.

School history in Turkey is a part of social studies course till the 8th grade. There is a course called

Principles of Ataturk History of the Revolution in that grade, but courses named just “history” begin with the

9th grade. Due to centralized structure of Turkish education system, all the content and instruction to some

extent are determined by the Ministry of National Education (MNE). The history course curriculum issued by

the MNE (2007) projects that the courses encourage students to reflect, research, ask questions, and exchange

opinions. It expects that students are to acquire some basic skills among which are critical thinking skills and

research and inquiry skills. The curriculum also specifies some historical thinking skills as well. These skills

are listed as chronological thinking, historical comprehension, historical analysis and interpretation, analysis of

historical issues and decision-making, and research based on historical inquiry. It is quite clear that formation

of the list heavily affected by historical thinking standards developed by the National Center for History in the

schools at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) under the guidance of the National Council for

History Standards (UCLA, n.d.).

To what extent Turkish students gain the skills the ministry expects them to gain is unclear, thus, it needs

to be investigated. Do they really conduct research? Do they analyze historical issues before making a

decision? To what extent they employ, if any, historical thinking skills? These questions are the main reasons

we conduct this study. We hope that this study will shed light on where Turkish students are in terms of

historical thinking and acting like historians and help educational decision-makers regulate history education,

which is a difficult task.

Methodology

Research Design

This study is a survey research which is one of the quantitative research methods. According to Fraenkel,

Wallen, and Hyun (2012), survey is a method that enables gathering of information from a group of people for

the purpose of depicting some aspects or characteristics.

Participants and Sampling

This study has been conducted in a county in a southwestern province of Turkey. Participants of the study

have been selected by two-stage random sampling. For this end, four of the 20 high schools existing in the

county were selected randomly: (a) a social sciences high school; (b) a science high school; (c) a religious high

school; and (d) a private high school affiliated with religious congregation. After that, schools were visited and

all 12 graders were invited to participate. A total of 93 students volunteered to take part in the study.


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Data Collection

Data have been collected through a questionnaire developed by the researchers. Reliability score of the

research instrument is Cronbach’s alpha = 0.76. Items in the questionnaire consist of questions asked frequently

to the researchers by their students. There are 14 items in the questionnaire. Eleven of them are statements that

are believed as true although they are historically incorrect. The remaining three items are reserved for

understanding to what extent students have trust in history courses they take in schools. The statements are

provided in Table 1.

Table 1

The Statements Provided to the Students

Number Statement

1 Sheikh İbrahim Hakkı Effendi of Kemah has been taken out of his grave and hanged according to a verdict mad by the Independence Court.

2 There are some secret articles of Lausanne Treaty and according to them, Turkey has been banned from extracting some mines/gas reserves in Turkey.

3 Lausanne Treaty has been made only a period of 100 years.

4 The first and the second Inonu wars were never happened.

5 According to a treaty signed during the integration of Republic of Hatay into Republic of Turkey, a referendum will be hold in the year 2013 to decide whether or not participation will continue.

6 During the Gallipoli wars, a cloud descended from the sky over an Australian and New Zealand Army Corps(ANZAC) troop, took the soldiers inside, ascended again and disappeared.

7 Mustafa Kemal Pasha was assigned by the Last Ottoman Sultan Vahdettin to start and direct the Turkish Independence War. Thus, real credit for the victory belongs to Vahdettin.

8 A crescent and a star came close and reflected on blood of martyrs during a war, and this reflection has been accepted as Turkish flag.

9 Ottoman Flag consists of three crescents on a red or green background.

10 Current Turkish flag accepted and began to be used after the proclamation of the republic.

11 After the World War II, some islands in Aegean Sea wanted to be given to Turkey, but Turkish President Ismet Inonu refused this offer.

12 Do you believe that some historical events have not been given place in textbooks in order to shape student views in certain ways?

13 Do you believe that some historical events have been twisted in textbooks in order to shape student views in certain ways?

14 Who do you trust most in order to create your historical knowledge?

After each statement, the students were asked firstly whether they heard information in the statement.

Then, they were asked whether they believe the information true followed by if they checked the authenticity of

the information from various sources and if they did, what sources they were.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed via the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) program. Results were arranged

as frequencies and percentages. In order to find out whether or not statistically significant differences exist

among the high schools, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) has been implemented. The results have been

reported in Tables 2 and 3.

Results

Student responses with regard to incorrect historical statements are presented in Tables 2 and 3.


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Table 2

Student Responses With Regard to Statements 1-5 Statement 1 Statement 2 Statement 3 Statement 4 Statement 5

f % f % f % f % f %

Awareness Yes 13 14 58 62.4 45 48.4 25 26.9 25 26.9

No 80 86 35 37.6 48 51.6 68 73.1 68 73.1

Source of information

Internet 2 15.4 3 5.2 2 4.4 1 4.0 1 4

Friends - - 5 8.8 1 2.2 1 4.0 1 4

Books/magazines - - 5 8.6 4 8.9 5 20 1 4

Media - - 2 3.4 2 4.4 - - 1 4

Teacher - - - - 1 2.2 3 12 2 8

Scholars - - - - 1 2.2 1 4 - -

Family - - - - - - - - - -

No answer 11 85.6 43 74.1 34 75.6 14 56 19 76

Check with other sources

Yes 5 38.5 13 22.4 16 35.6 6 24 10 40

No 8 61.5 45 77.6 29 64.4 19 76 15 60

Checked sources

Magazines - - 1 7.7 1 6.3 - - - -

Internet - - - - - - - - - -

The Constitution - - - - 1 6.3 - - - -

No answer 5 100 12 92.3 14 87.5 6 100 10 100

Belief in veracity Yes 24 25.8 60 64.5 45 48.4 22 23.7 28 30.1

No 69 74.2 33 35.5 48 51.6 71 76.3 65 69.9

Table 3

Student Responses With Regard to Statements 6-11

Statement 6 Statement 7 Statement 8 Statement 9 Statement 10 Statement 11

f % f % f % f % f % f %

Awareness Yes 53 57 45 48.4 59 63.4 57 61.3 33 35.5 45 48.4

No 40 43 48 51.6 34 36.6 36 38.7 60 64.5 48 51.6

Source of information

Internet 3 5.7 1 2.2 2 3.4 1 1.8 - - - -

Friends 4 7.5 4 8.9 2 3.4 - - - - 1 2.2

Books/magazines 3 5.7 4 8.9 3 5.1 5 8.8 4 12.1 1 2.2

Media 1 1.9 1 2.2 - - - - - - - -

Teacher 2 3.8 2 4.4 3 5.1 1 1.8 2 6.1 1 2.2

Scholars - - 2 4.4 - - - - - - 1 2.2

Family - - - - - - 2 3.5 - - - -

No answer 40 75 31 68.9 49 83.1 48 84.2 27 81.8 41 91.1

Check with other sources

Yes 17 32.1 12 26.7 9 15.3 18 31.6 5 15.2 15 33.3

No 36 67.9 33 73.3 50 84.7 39 68.4 28 84.3 30 66.7

Checked sources

Magazines - - - - - - - - - - - -

Internet - - - - - - - - - - 1 -

The Constitution - - - - - - - - - - - -

No answer 17 100 12 100 9 100 18 100 5 100 14 93.3

Belief in veracity Yes 31 33.3 31 33.3 41 44.1 48 51.6 34 36.6 47 50.5

No 62 66.7 62 66.7 52 55.9 45 48.4 59 63.4 46 49.5


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The results demonstrate that the most common false belief is statement 8, followed by statement 2,

statement 9, and statement 6 respectively, which are heard by the majority of students. Then, the students were

asked about source of these information, but it seems that they could not recollect the source. Percentages of

students who were unable to remember where they got the information are as follows: 83.1% for statement 8;

74.1% for statement 2; 84.2% for statement 9; and 75% for statement 6. When they were asked whether they

checked the accuracy of the information from alternative sources, they generally responded negatively as seen

in Tables 2 and 3. Negative answers are 84.7% for statement 8; 77.6% for statement 2; 68.4% for statement 9;

and 67.9 % for statement 6. When students who claimed that they controlled authenticity of the information

from various sources were asked to specify the source they used, most of them were unable to manifest their

sources. Percentages regarding students who were unable to specify the sources they consulted are as follows:

100% for statements 8, 9, and 6, and 92% for statement 2. Although we have discussed only four most common

ones here, an examination of Tables 2 and 3 reveals that same interpretation is valid for the remaining

statements as well.

The last three of the statements were designed to determine how much students have trust in history

courses they take. Results regarding to this end are provided in Table 4.

Table 4

Student Responses Regarding Their Trust in History Courses They Take Valid f %

Statement 12

Yes 60 64.5

No 33 35.5

Total 93 100.0

Statement 13

Yes 57 61.3

No 36 38.7

Total 93 100.0

Statement 14

Textbook 3 3.2

Teacher 6 6.5

Internet 14 15.1

Family 4 4.3

TV 2 2.2

Political leaders 1 1.1

Someone who I trust 24 25.8

Other 9 9.7

No answer 30 32.3

Total 93 100.0

The results in Table 4 show that 64.5% of the students believe that some historical events were omitted

from textbooks and 61.3% of them believe that information in textbooks was distorted in order to direct

students think in some certain ways. One fourth of the students depend on someone they trust for shaping their

historical knowledge while students expressing trust for textbooks and teachers remained only 3.2% and 6.5%

respectively.

Whether or not differences originating from school types exist will not be reported here although we run

the tests and find out statistically significant differences. We do that for two reasons. Firstly, the general picture

we found so grim that we do not think it is appropriate to discuss details. Secondly, since the number of the


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participants is relatively small, we do not want to condemn or reward such big school system over a handful of

participants. However, we could not help reporting differences regarding statements 12 and 13 due to reasons

that will be discussed below. First, we will report whether or not statistically differences exist regarding school

types in Table 5.

Table 5

ANOVA Results Regarding Differences in Terms of School Type

Sum of squares Df Mean square F Sig.

Statement 12

Between groups 6.485 3 2.162

12.994 0.000* Within groups 14.805 89 0.166

Total 21.290 92 -

Statement 13

Between groups 5.830 3 1.943

10.653 0.000* Within groups 16.235 89 0.182

Total 22.065 92 -

Note. *p 0.05.

Since ANOVA results indicate a statistically significant difference, we run a post-hoc test to see where

exactly these differences occur. The results are provided in Table 6.

Table 6

Tukey Test Demonstrating Where the Differences Arise

Dependent variable School type School type Mean difference Std. error Sig.

Statement 12

Science

Social sciences -0.11111 0.15200 0.884

Religious vocational 0.43590* 0.16328 0.044*

Congregation 0.50667* 0.13111 0.001*

Social sciences

Science 0.11111 0.15200 0.884

Religious vocational 0.54701* 0.14845 0.002*

Congregation 0.61778* 0.11211 0.000*

Religious vocational

Science -0.43590* 0.16328 0.044*

Social sciences -0.54701* 0.14845 0.002*

Congregation 0.07077 0.12698 0.944

Congregation

Science -0.50667* 0.13111 0.001*

Social sciences -0.61778* 0.11211 0.000*

Religious vocational -0.07077 0.12698 0.944

Statement 13

Science

Social sciences -0.11111 0.15917 0.898

Religious vocational 0.28205 0.17098 0.357

Congregation 0.48667* 0.13729 0.003*

Social sciences

Science 0.11111 0.15917 0.898

Religious vocational 0.39316 0.15545 0.062*

Congregation 0.59778* 0.11740 0.000*

Religious vocational

Science -0.28205 0.17098 0.357

Social sciences -0.39316 0.15545 0.062*

Congregation 0.20462 0.13297 0.419

Congregation

Science -0.48667* 0.13729 0.003*

Social sciences -0.59778* 0.11740 0.000*

Religious vocational -0.20462 0.13297 0.419

Note. *p 0.05.


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Discussion

First, we will discuss results regarding two statements that exemplify remaining ones as well. According

to Tables 2 and 3, the most common untrue historical knowledge is the one about the creation of the Turkish

flag. Although the flag was accepted by Ottoman Sultan Selim III personally in late 18th century (Engin &

Vurgun, 2014), it is believed inaccurately that it is a reflection of a crescent and a star over blood of martyrs.

Out of 59 students who heard this statement, only nine of them checked the accuracy of information, and none

of them was able to recollect which sources they used for checking. More alarmingly, 44.1% of the students

believe that this statement is true. Believing in myths without researching might be a result of overemphasizing

national identity in school history courses (Low-Beer, 2003). Statement 6 originates from testimony of

Frederick Reichardt (Hayward, 2010), who was a New Zealander veteran of the World War I. Fifty-three

students had heard the claims and only 17 of them needed to check its accuracy. Similar to statement 2, none of

them remembers which sources they applied. Although the claim clearly contrasts with laws of nature and

accordingly with logic, 33.3% of the students believe that the statement is true. Although we discussed only

two of the findings here, an examination of Tables 2 and 3 will reveal that the same interpretation is valid for

remaining statements as well.

We infer that these findings indicate one sad truth that the students do not apply historical thinking skills

in real life situations, let alone historical matters they encounter. They demonstrate historical thinking skills in

controlled classroom environment under teacher supervision, but outside the classroom, they do not.

Seixas (2009) evaluated that evidence is a key aspect of learning about a matter under investigation.

Without evidence, it would be really difficult to learn what happened in the past. A similar view can be found

in the study of Voss (1998), which alleged that making evaluations based on evidence is an inherent part of

reasoning in history. Students’ examining different sources before making a judgment and learning how to

examine sources are indispensable parts of historical thinking (VanSledright, 2004). Barton and Levstik (2003)

argued that the basis for teaching history is education for citizenship, and effective citizens are those who

ground their views on evidence. Otherwise, they urged that students will not be able to distinguish a myth from

a justified evaluation and this will destroy foundations of democracy. The authors assert that students must

approach with suspicion to any extraordinary story they may be told. This exactly what does not happen in

Turkish history courses, it seems.

When it comes to the second part of the study, which aims to understand whether or not students have trust

in history courses they take in schools, approximately two thirds of the students believe that some historical

accounts are distorted or omitted from textbooks in order to make students think in a certain way. These findings

seem to contradict with Wineburg (1991a), who asserted that high school students find textbooks trustworthy,

or Paxton (1999), who argued that students see textbooks evidence of historical accounts. Wineburg (1991b)

stated that students are not skilled enough to read historical texts critically. Thus, they have no option but have

trust in textbooks. Could the results in this study interpreted as Turkish students read historical texts critically

which lead them not to have trust in textbooks? Just reading passages above makes us to answer this question

with a “No”. We believe that the answer lies in the structure of the participants. Most of them are students from

a high school related to an Islamic congregation plus students from religious vocational high schools. We

speculate with a great caution that students in these schools are more religious, they may identify secular state

with infidelity, and thus, they have less trust in textbooks approved by the MNE.


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Conclusion

Results of this study reveal one sad truth that there is something wrong with history education in Turkey

or at least the school district, where this study is conducted. History education does not honor its promise to

equip students with a special way of thinking that they can use in later life. Students seem not to convey the

skills they are taught in classrooms into real life. They do not control accuracy of the information given to them.

Most importantly, they tend to believe the information they have not checked. These are poles apart from

purposes of history education in K-12 schools. However, as a light of hope, Stearns (1998a) claimed that

exercises especially focused on to develop a certain skill are indeed useful to foster that skill. He calls for more

experimental research to develop models for developing certain historical skills. Perhaps this is what we still

need in classrooms. More focused and more rigorous work helps to achieve what we promise. Another

important finding is that students seem to be ideologically conditioned towards history. Differences between

religion intensive schools and other schools cause us think that way. If this is the case, what we need is clear:

more and effective historical thinking and a more transparent history in our classrooms.

References Barton, K. C., & Levstik, L. S. (2003). Why don’t more history teachers engage students in interpretation? Social Education,

67(6), 358-361. Engin, V., & Vurgun, A. (2014). 19. yüzyıldan 20. yüzyıla Osmanlıcılık—Türkçülükalgısı 19. yüzyıl başlarında modernleşme

çabası. Türkler, uzun bir serüvenden kısa notlar (Perception of Ottomanism—Turkism from 19th century to 20th century. Turks, brief notes from a long adventure) (pp. 177-215). İstanbul: Arvana.

Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in education. New York, N.Y.: McGraw Hill.

Hayward, J. (2010). Myths and legends of the first world war. Stroud, Gloucestershire: The History Press. Husbands, C., Pendry, A., & Kitson, A. (2003). Understanding history teaching. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Low-Beer, A. (2003). School history, national history and the issue of national identity. International Journal of History Teaching,

Learning and Research, 3(1), 1-9. Mandell, N. (2008). Thinking like a historian: A framework for teaching and learning. OAH Magazine of History, 22(2), 55-62. Ministry of National Education (MNE). (2007). History curriculum for secondary education (9th grades). Ankara: MEB.

Retrieved December 28, 2014, from http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/www/ogretim-programlari/icerik/72 Paxton, R. J. (1999). A deafening silence: History textbooks and the students who read them. Review of Educational Research,

69(3), 315. Seixas, P. (2009). A modest proposal for change in Canadian history education. Teaching History, 137, 26-30. Stearns, P. N. (1998a). Putting learning research to work: The next step in history teaching. Issues in Education, 4(2), 237. Stearns, P. N. (1998b). Why study history. American Historical Association. Retrieved December 23, 2014, from http://www.

historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/archives/why-study-history-(1998) University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA). (n.d). Introduction to standards in historical thinking. Retrieved December 28,

2014, from http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/historical-thinking-standards VanSledright, B. A. (2004). What does it mean to think historically… and how do you teach it? Social Education, 68(3), 230-233. Voss, J. F. (1998). Issues in the learning of history. Issues in Education, 4(2), 163. Wineburg, S. (1991a). On the reading of historical texts: Notes on the breach between school and academy. American Educational

Research Journal, 28(3), 495-519. Wineburg, S. (1991b). Historical problem solving: A study of the cognitive processes used in the evaluation of documentary and

pictorial evidence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(1), 73. Wineburg, S. (2010). Thinking like a historian. Teaching With Primary Sources Quarterly, 3(1), 2-4. Retrieved December 28,

2014, from http://www.loc.gov/teachers/tps/quarterly/historical_thinking/pdf/historical_thinking.pdf


On the Symbolic Significance of To Kill a Mockingbird*

Liu Xi, Zhang Li-li

Changchun University, Changchun, China

To Kill a Mockingbird is one of the favorite novels among the British teenagers. It tells the physical and the mental

growth of a little girl, in which she learns a lot of lessons from what she has experienced. The major event

involving the trial of the black young man who is actually innocent displays the main social problem—racial

prejudice in that age. The paper aims at analyzing the symbolic significance of the book. From the perspectives of

the characters, Gothic motifs and the mockingbird, the paper tries to reveal the evil side of the society and that of

the human nature.

Keywords: character, Gothic motifs, mockingbird, symbolic significance

Introduction

Harper Lee is an American writer, who earns her fame worldwide by the novel To Kill a Mockingbird,

which is widely prized by the critics and other novelists by its liveliest sense of life and the warmest humor.

To Kill a Mockingbird focuses on the story which occurs in the small town Maycomb that suffers the

severe Great Depression. Scout and Jem were brought up by their father Atticus, a middle-aged lawyer, for

their mother died in their childhood. During a summer vacation, they ventured to a mysterious house, where

there lived an eccentric person—Boo Radley, who was actually a victim of his father’s indifference. However,

they were scared of death by the large shadow of Boo’s brother and rushed home. Late at night, Atticus was

informed of the case in which the black young man Tom was accused of raping Mayella Ewell. Atticus

promised to defend for Tom. Tom was sentenced to death although Atticus showed Tom’s innocence by the

self-evident testimony. After the trial ended, life returned to quietness, but Bob Ewell, Mayella Ewell’s father,

vowed to retaliate for he felt that he was fooled by Atticus and Judge. Scout and Jem were attacked by Bob

Ewell on the late night of Halloween. At the dangerous moment, they were saved by Boo Radley, who became

a real human being rather than a freak in their mind. The major event involving the trial of the black young man

who was actually innocent displayed the main social problem—racial prejudice in that era.

To analyze the symbolic significance comprehensively, this paper aims to analyze the symbolic

significance of the book. From the perspectives of the characters, Gothic motifs, and the mockingbird, the paper

tries to reveal the evil side of the society and that of the human nature.

The Symbolic Significance Reflected by Characters

“Symbolism was a late 19th art movement of French, Russian, and Belgian origin in poetry and other arts.

* This paper is a part of the results of the research program “The Study of Counter-Elite Essentiality in American Post-modernism Novels” (2013, No.265) the authors have participated in.

Liu Xi, M.A., lecturer, School of Foreign Languages, Changchun University. Zhang Li-li, M.A., lecturer, School of Foreign Languages, Changchun University.

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In literature, the style had its beginnings with the publication Les Fleurs du mal by Charles Baudelaire”

(Conway, 2007, p. 16). It involves the nature of the things and expresses their own views or inner hidden

emotions through the specific images.

In To Kill a Mockingbird, the author Harper Lee uses memorable characters to explore civil rights and

racism in the segregated southern United States of the 1930s.

In the novel, Atticus represented morality and reason. As a character, Atticus was even-handed throughout

the story. He was one of the very few characters who never had to rethink his position on an issue.

His parenting style was quite unique in that he treated his children as adults, honestly answering any

question they had posed. He used all these instances as an opportunity to pass his values on to Scout and Jem.

For all of his mature treatment to Jem and Scout, he patiently recognized that they were children and that “They

would make childish mistakes and assumptions” (Harper, 1988, p. 125). Ironically, Atticus’s insecurity seemed

to be in the child-rearing department, and he often defended his ideas about raising children to those more

experienced and more traditional.

His stern but fair attitude towards Jem and Scout reached into the courtroom as well. “He politely proves

that Bob Ewell is a liar; he respectfully questions Mayella about her role in Tom’s crisis” (Harper, 1988, p. 29).

One of the things that his longtime friend Miss Maudie admired about him was that Atticus Finch was the same

in his house as he was on the public streets. The only time he seriously lectured his children was on the evils of

taking advantage of those less fortunate or less educated, a philosophy he carried into the animal world by his

refusal to hunt. And although most of the town readily pins the label “trash” on other people, Atticus reserved

the distinction for those people who unfairly exploited others.

Atticus believed in justice and the justice system. He did not like criminal law, yet he accepted the

appointment to Tom Robinson’s case. He knew before he began that he would lose this case, but that did not

stop him from giving Tom the strongest defense he possibly could. And, importantly, Atticus did not put so

much effort into Tom’s case, not because he was an African American, but because he was innocent. Atticus

felt that the justice system should be color blind, and he defended Tom as an innocent man, not a man of color.

Atticus was the adult character least infected by prejudice in the novel. He had no problem with his

children attending Calpurnia’s church, or with a black woman essentially raising his children. He admonished

Scout not to use racial slurs, and was careful to use the terms acceptable for his time and culture. He went to

Helen’s home to tell her of Tom’s death, which meant a white man spending time in the black community.

Other men in town would have sent a messenger and left it at that. His lack of prejudice did not apply only to

other races, however. He was unaffected by Mrs. Dubose’s caustic tongue, Miss Stephanie Crawford’s catty

gossip, and even Walter Cunningham’s thinly veiled threat on his life. He did not retaliate when Bob Ewell spat

in his face because he understood that he had hurt Ewell’s pride—the only real possession this man had. Atticus

accepted these people because he was an expert at climbing into other people’s skin and walking around in it.

From what discussed above, we know that Atticus was responsible and he believed in justice. He tried his

best to fight against racial prejudice. Therefore, the symbolic significance of Atticus was morality and reason.

The Symbolic Significance Reflected by Gothic Motifs

A Gothic novel is characterized by its story which happens in the past, in which the background is mostly

ruined, wild, and deserted. “The Gothic story often takes place in a certain gloomy castle furnished with

dungeons, subterranean passages, and sliding panels, in which the atmosphere is dark, mysterious, horrible and


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full of suspense” (Claudia, 1994, p. 106). It puts more emphasis on the motifs, such as terrible violence, incest,

haunted ghost, and supernatural events. Gothic novels produce incisive and wide-ranging influence on

American literature, which is adopted by many American writers. “The principal aim of the Gothic novels is to

evoke chilling terror by exploring horrible violence” (Ellis, 2000, p. 68). “Horrible violence can stimulate the

psychological organs, resulting in a strong shock effect” (Marie, 1998, p. 55). Therefore, it becomes the

important motif of the Gothic novel. Early Southern Gothic novels center on primarily performance-based

violence. In addition to the pursuit of excitement stimulated by horrible violence, the Southern Gothic novels

also express the dark side of the life and society.

In To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee successfully infiltrates the Gothic feature in the novel to highlight

the unique art charm of the work, which displays the author’s superb writing skills including the horrible

violence, the disfigured love, and the imprisonment.

In a broader sense, horrible violence invaded the town. Violence formed a feeling of thrilling violence

lying beneath the tranquil, peaceful, and stable surface of the small town, Maycomb. The lynching by the mob

can serve as a good example. Tom Robinson was threatened to be lynched by a mob composed of the poor

from the Old Sarum. In the Deep South, lynching has been prevailing for many years, even in the 1930s, it still

existed. In To Kill a Mockingbird, after Tom was put into prison and transferred into the Maycomb jail, he was

faced with the danger of lynching. Atticus ventured to protect Tom by guarding at the gate of the jail, different

from those who broke into Atticus’s house the previous night, the mob members were strangers, from the Old

Sarum to abduct and lynch Tom. Most of the people in the Old Sarum mod were poor white farmers. It was the

racism of the mob members that shrouded the humanity, worthiness, and essential goodness of them. “It was a

summer’s night, but the men were dressed, most of them in overalls and denim shirts buttoned up to the

collars” (Harper, 1988, p. 43). The violence by the mob showed that the racial discrimination was on a rampage

in the remote town, which influences the townsmen profoundly.

In To Kill a Mockingbird, the violence among the school kids gives the hint that one would never be

tamed or civilized without proper training, which highlighted the author’s perceptive about the moral and

intellectual education in one’s childhood. Because exploration of the novel’s larger moral questions takes place

within the perspective of children, the education of children is necessarily involved in the development of all of

the novel’s themes.

School violence used by the children could be seen from the cases of Scout and her classmates. Being a

young lady, Scout was often in overalls and exhibited violence by fighting with the other children with her fists.

Walter Cunningham was the first one that was bitten by Scout. Violence was also exhibited by the 1st grade

children. When the woman teacher was bullied by the boy from the Ewells, the student, Little Chuck warned

him when Burris Ewell turned back.

The domestic violence happened in all ranks of families. In the decent and poverty Ewells, violence was

reflected by Bob Ewell who was good for nothing but a drunken bully. In the eccentric Radley’s family,

violence occured in domestic circumstances. After confining to the house as a prisoner for many years, Boo

stabbed his dad in the leg with scissors for no direct reason. Even in the civilized and blessed family, Finch

family, there was a history connected with violence and madness. Cousin Joshua, who wrote a book with the

unlikely religious title “Meditations of Joshua St. Clair”, was locked up in the state mental institution, because

he attempted to shoot the president of the university, but finally the gun was blown up in his hand.


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In the Gothic tradition, violence constantly threatens to break out beneath the superficial tranquility.

Counterbalancing the horrible violence is the moral grandeur in the small town values, which are manifested in

the whole book.

“In the 19th century of American Gothic novels, disfigured love is the chief Gothic motif, which embodies

incest, intermarriage and deformed love” (Meyer, 2004, p. 79). In the Gothic novels, the personalities of the

characters are mainly eccentric and grotesque whose root is lack of love. They are distorted by the disfigured

love and become the sacrificial lambs. The author expresses her perspective of love by disposing the tragedies

made by disfigured love.

Disfigured love firstly contained incest which occurs between brother and sister, or father and daughter.

Actually, Mayella was raped by her father who committed incest. The distortion of Mayella by the disfigured

love forced her to dare break the societal code to make sexual attempting to the robotic black young man. The

Gothic subjects of sexual violence presented in Mayella Ewell’s actual rape by her father, her sexual attraction

to Tom, and her false accusation of rape by Tom.

The distortion of Mayella is a mirror to reflect the social and family circumstances. Mayella was at the

bottom of the white society, but it was superior to the black. At the same time, she suffered from her father’s

sexual violence now and then. “The affection by the distorted social ranks and family background is the cause

of the aberrant psychological states of Mayella” (Frank, 2004, p. 90). In a sense, the lack of a real father image

forced Mayella to move from incest to miscegenation. Tired of sexual violence from her father, Mayella

protected him by making attraction to Tom. To some degree, Mayella’s attraction to Tom was a more healthy

impulse to join with the outside world. Mayella’s false accusation of raping by the black young man was the

product of that society at that time.

The common Gothic motifs include violence, revenge, disfigured love, and insanity in general, horrible

violence, disfigured love, and imprisonment in To Kill a Mockingbird in particular. The major themes are

expressed clearly by using the Gothic motifs at all levels, which expresses themselves into the readers’ mind.

The Symbolic Significance Reflected by the Mockingbird

The title “To Kill a Mockingbird” has very little literal connection to the plot, but it carries a great deal of

symbolic weight in the book. In this story, because innocents are destroyed by evil, the “mockingbird” comes to

represent the idea of innocence. Thus, to kill a mockingbird is to destroy innocence.

As for the symbolic significance of the mockingbird, it represents the existence of social inequality.

Clearly, in Tom Robinson’s case, Lee’s characters to deal with racial prejudice are showed. Black people

occupied the lowest class level of Maycomb society as Maycomb’s white population of every class wasted no

time reinforcing their rigid class rules. The fact that Atticus realized that he had no chance to win his case

defending Tom because Tom was black offered the most explicit indicator of deep-rooted racism. Lee’s closing

argument in Chapter 20 clearly outlined Atticus’s views on racism. However, Lee also showed us prejudice as

it pertained to gender and social class.

Another symbolic significance of the mockingbird is the the coexistence of good and evil. The most

important theme of To Kill a Mockingbird is the book’s exploration of the moral nature of human beings, that is,

whether people are essentially good or essentially evil. The novel approaches this question by dramatizing

Scout and Jem’s transition from a perspective of childhood innocence, in which they assumed that people were


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good, because they had never seen evil, to a more adult perspective, in which they had confronted evil and must

incorporate it into their understanding of the world.

The moral voice of To Kill a Mockingbird is embodied by Atticus Finch, who is virtually unique in the

novel in that he experienced and understood evil without losing his faith in the human capacity for goodness.

The novel exposes the loss of innocence (and innocents) so frequently that reviewer R. A. Dave claims it

is inevitable that all the characters have faced or will face defeat, giving it elements of a classical tragedy

(Frank, 2004, p. 95). “In exploring how each character deals with his or her own personal defeat, Lee builds a

framework to judge whether the characters are heroes or fools” (Zhang, 2006, p. 109). She guides the reader in

such judgments, alternating between unabashed adoration and biting irony.

Besides the characters and Gothic motifs, the mockingbird also carries symbolic significance in the novel,

which not only reveals the author’s real attitudes towards the society, but also adds to the attraction of the book.

Conclusion

In To Kill a Mockingbird, the author skillfully uses the symbols to make the novel more artistically

charming. Different kinds of symbols contribute in the themes, making the book have more space to think and

represent abstract ideas or concepts. The use of symbols in To Kill a Mockingbird enhances the readability of

the novel, giving their works a special artistic charm and making it pass down among the enduring masterpieces.

The author deepens the themes, which is exploration of the moral nature of human beings, that is, whether

people are essentially good or essentially evil. The author reveals the evil society and the evil side of the human

nature from the aspects of the characters, Gothic motifs, and the mockingbird. The paper explains what the

symbols really represent so as to help readers understand the article in a new way.

References Claudia, D. J. (1994). To kill a mockingbird—Threatening boundaries. New York, N.Y.: Twayne Publishers. Conway, M. R. (2007, March 17). The elusive symbolist movement. International Herald Tribune, p.16. Ellis, M. (2000). The history of Gothic fiction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Frank, F. S. (2004). Guide to the Gothic III: An annotated bibliography of criticism, 1993-2003. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. Harper, L. (1988). To kill a mockingbird. New York, N.Y.: Grand Central Publishing. Hassan, I. (1961). Radical innocence: Studies in the contemporary American novel. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Marie, M. R. (1998). The handbook to Gothic literature. New York, N.Y.: New York University Press. Meyer, H. A. (2004). A glossary of literary terms. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Shaffer, D. R. (2005). Developmental psychology. Beijing: China Light Industry Press. Zhang, Z. Z. (2006). Selected readings in classical Western critical theory. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research

Press.

Can teachers bridge the theory-practice gap?

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