Blood Tax: Violence and the Vampirized Body in Impuesto a la Carne

Blood Tax: Violence and the Vampirized Body in Impuesto a lacarne

Dianna Niebylski

Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies, Volume 15, 2011, pp.107-121 (Article)

Published by University of ArizonaDOI: 10.1353/hcs.2011.0449

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Lapatriaseríe(concarcajadasominosas)antenuestrasheridashistóricasquenocesandesangrarylanaciónnovaareconocer

nuncalamagnituddelasinfeccionesquesedeslizanporlosmetalesdelascamas.

(Impuesto a la carne186)

Lahistorianosinfligióunapuñaladaporlaespalda.(9)

L Ike all of dIamela eltIt’s novels, impuesto a la carne(2010)bearstheauthor’ssignatureoftheabjectbodyasthesiteonwhichhistoryismercilessly

inscribedand,simultaneously,astheorganisminwhichthecellsofresistance,impervioustodisciplineandpunishment,are metastasized.Written during Chile’s preparations foritsBicentennialCelebrationofSeptember2010,thenovelpresentsitselfasthepartialandadmittedlydisjointedrecordof a two-hundred-year-oldwomanwhowishes todisclosethephantasmagoricmemoriesofhermother’sandherownmedicalordealontheeveoftheirdemise.1Asshehasdoneinherbest-knownnovels,theauthorturnstoallegory,hyperboleandhyper-realismasthevehiclesforherbitterdenunciationofChile’s(orLatinAmerica’s)failuretoprotectanddefenditsexploitedandbeleagueredunderclass.YetEltitalsoturnsthisnovel intoa recordof themarginalorexcludedbodyinpain.Allegorically,thenovel’shospitalsagaand/orbitter

DiannaNiebylskiisProfessorofLatinAmericanandCom-parative Literature at theUniversityofIllinois-Chica-go. She has two forthcom-ing edited volumes: Sergio Chejfec. Trayectorias de una escritura, (IILI, 2012) and Latin America and Latino Icons: Models and Theories of Cultural Iconicity, (co-ed-itedwithPatrickO’Connor;VanderbiltUP,2013).HerpublishedworkincludesthebooksHumoring Resistance: Laughter and the Excessive Body in Latin American Women’s Fiction (2004), Rosario Ferré: Maldito amor y otros cuentos (2005)andThe Poem on the Edge of the Word: Mallarmé, Rilke, Vallejo (1999).Sheisworkingonamanuscriptonimagesofglobalizationandbiopolitics in contemporaryLatin American literatureandfilm.

Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural StudiesVolume15,2011

Blood Tax: Violence and the Vampirized Body in Impuesto a la carne

108 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

farce,“gestahospitalaria”(9),canbereadas the story of a nation that, viewing itsracially-marked underprivileged classes aschronically illandregrettablymalformed,dictatesforthemalifeofstringentsupervi-sion,degradation andevenmutilation,allinthenameofpublichealthandrehabilita-tion.2Asthejournaloftheabusesheapedonanillandagedwoman’sbody,thenovelstagesthegrislyandMachiavellianmedicalinterventionstowhichundervaluedbodiesareincreasinglyvulnerableinanerawhereglobalmarketsandnewtechnologiesviewvitalfluids(especiallyblood)andvitalor-gans(kidneys,corneas)asquantifiablymorevaluablethanthedisenfranchisedorganismsfrom which they are harvested.3Betweenthese two frames—one allegorical, oneliteral or hyper-literal—Eltit’s elaboratelyconstructednarrativeetchesoutitsopposi-tiontothediscriminatorypracticesinherentinthestructuresandoperationsofnationalandpost-nationalpower.4Asannouncedinthenovel’stitle, it isonthebodiesoftheunderprivileged, the marginalized or thesociallyundesirablethatthesediscrimina-torypracticestaketheirmostbrutaltoll.

AsisalwaysthecasewithEltit’snovels,Impuesto a la carneisimpossibletosumma-rizewithanydegreeofprecision.Thefrag-mentsortracesthatmakeupthenovelarethemselvesthe“chronicle”ofaninhumanorsubhumanjourney,“nuestrorecorrido[hu-mano]”(9),narratedbythedaughter-halfatwo-hundredyearoldmotheranddaughterpair.5Asthedaughter’sgruesomeaccountdetailsthecountlessmedicalinterventionsinflictedontheirworse-for-wearbodies,itbecomes clear that mother and daughterarealternativelyinneedofmedicalcarefortheirsurvivalandrightfullyindignantoverthe way in which indifferent, hurried, ortyrannicalmedicalpersonnelexposethem

toendlessbloodtests,surgeries,anddrugswithoutregardtotheirgrowingphysicalormentalpain.Theneglectwithwhichdoctorstreatthemother’shemorrhageduringlaborrendersthembothchronicallypredisposedtoquestiondoctors’orders,andtheycredittheiranarchicstrainforthesuspiciousvigi-lancethathasallowedthemtooutwitnursesandoutlivefriendsandrelatives.6Ironically,their longevity, or their bodily resistance,eventuallymakesthemreluctantexhibitsofthehospital’ssuccess.Asthehospitalreadiesitselftocelebrateamajoranniversary,theworse-for-wear bi-centenary mother anddaughteraretobeoneoftheindispensableexhibits.

This is anovelbyDiamelaEltit, soonewouldnotexpectthenarrator’s“relatoocrónica,o...apuntes”(31)toendwitha celebratory show of anarchic resistanceoraconciliatorystanceonthestateofthenation’spublichealth—anditdoesn’t.Forthelong-sufferingwomen—andsupposedlyforthehospital’sotherpoor,unwantedbod-ies—thefinalprognosisisnothingshortofmacabre.PlacedintheCatch-22positionofhavingtotradetheirvitalorgansforthemedicalservicestheyneedtokeeptheirbod-iesalive,thewomensoonfindthemselvesincreasingly vulnerable to the hospital’sdemandsontheirbloodandvitalorgans.Toward theend, seriouslyweakenedbyaseriesofsurgeriesperformedbyphysiciansintentondrawingattentionawayfromthehospital’sotherproblems,theyrealizethattheir chronically anarchic temperamentmight surviveonlyasa footnote in somehistorian’s record: “Nos operaron paradilatarodiluiroevadirlamagnituddelosproblemas”(147).7Asthehospitalperson-nel or nation looks for ways of profitingfromitsill,infirm,orageingbodiesbyturn-ingthemintoprofitablebloodandpossibly

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transplantableorgans,thewomen’sanarchistimpulse appears to giveway to silenceorhallucination.Throughoutthischronicleofgrotesque,sometimesGothic,medicalmuti-lations,thenarratorreferencesrecognizableifveiledhintstothenation’sbeginningsasa colonized territory, its tyrannical imprintasapostcolonialnationanditsunredeemedpresentasaneoliberalStateinthegripsofadehumanizingglobaleconomy.8

Whether one approaches the novelas an allegory of anation’s betrayal of itspoorest and more vulnerable, or as a hy-pertrophiedillustrationofagrowingglobalcultureofmedicalization,pathologization,andorgantrafficking,thenarrativeanchorsitself securely on the deeply-held convic-tionthatall-pervasivebut often undetectable abuses against themarginalized sectors ofthenationalbodyare inseparable fromtheoperationsofmodernandpostmodernpowerstructures.9While thesumofphysicalandmental abuses inflictedby these inequitiesonthebodiesoftheunderprivilegedknowspracticallynolimit,takensinglyanddevoidofthedaughter’sangrycommentary,mostoftheclinicalepisodesrecountedbythenarratorcouldbeseenasyetonemoredayinthelifeofthedisease-prone,generallymalnourished,underprivilegedbodies thatfill thewaitingroomofpublichospitals(andothersocialandlegalinstitutions),whetherinLatinAmericaorintheinnercitiesofwealthiernations.10

MaskedMechanismsofStateViolence

Forthelatterhalfofthe20thcentury,sociolo-gistsandpoliticaltheoristshavearguedthatsocioeconomic inequalities, class, race andethnicdiscriminationareparticularlyinsidi-ousashiddenformsofsociopoliticalviolence.Theterm“structuralviolence”iscreditedto

JohnGaltung,whoconsideredthatthesocio-economicandpoliticalstructuresthat“lowertheactualdegreetowhichsomeoneisabletomeettheirneedsbelowthatwhichwouldotherwisebepossible”(58)werethemselvesaformofviolenceperpetratedbygovernmentandsocialinstitutionsagainstportionsofthepopulation.Withvariations,theconceptitselfhasbeenwidelyusedfordecadestoexplainthehigh incidenceofurbananddomesticcrime amongunderprivileged sectors.Re-interpretedfromaperspectivethatmergedChristian ethics andMarxist ideology, theconcernwithcombattingstructuralviolencebecameoneofthefundamentalgoalsofwhatbecameknownasPhilosophyofLiberationinthe1970s;italsoinformedFranzFanon’sjustificationof colonized group and theirneedtoresorttoviolentuprisingsinordertoescape thevicious circularityof the systemthatabusedthem.Manyofthesociologistsandsocialcriticsworkingwithpoorerurbanpopulations had already noted the hope-lesscircularitythatattachestotheeffectsofstructuralviolence.Asthedisenfranchisedareafflictedbytheproblemsresultingfromtheirinadequateandunsustainableconditionsinwhich they live, they turn,oftenviolently,against eachother, and against the societyaroundthem,inshame,frustration,orfear.Inturn,governmentsandlawenforcementarequicktotreatthemostvisiblesymptomsofthisproblem(violentcrime,drugaddition,homelessness)whilecontinuingtoignorethestructuralcausesdirectlyresponsiblefortheseoutbursts.

Althoughtheinfluenceshecitescomealmost exclusively from 19th -and 20th

-century philosophy, Slavoj Žižek’s 2008Violenceclearlyborrowsfromthesociologi-calconceptualizationofstructuralviolence.Consideringtheproblemofviolenceintheglobalcontextofcorporatecapitalism,Žižekloudlydenouncesthehypocrisyofapolitical


and law enforcement culture that reducesthedramaof violence to scenes of crime,waror terrorism—while refusing to admittheextenttowhichthosesameinstitutionsareimplicatedincreatingtheconditionsthatcontributeto,orplainlycause,theseviolentexplosions.Byfillingglobalnews channelsand newspapers only with the most vis-ible, recognizable and spectacular formsofviolence,themediatooisimplicatedintheefforttoobstruct,obscureordeflectattentionawayfromthe“contoursofthebackgroundwhichgeneratesuchoutbursts”(1).Žižek’sfirebrand-styleargumentisnotwithoutsomeirritatinglogicalinconsistenciesandtroublingexcesses,yetViolencemakesapersuasivecasethatbydrawingattentiontoparticulareventsor expressionsof visible, agent-perpetratedviolence, onboth a small and large scale,corporatepower,political institutions andtheglobalconglomerateofthenewsmediaconsistently and effectivelydrawattentionawayfromthesystemicinequalitiesthatcreatethesocialandpoliticalinstabilitythatmakeupthebackgroundfromwhichcrime,war,orterrorismemerge.11Žižekleaveslittleroomforanyone—oranysystem—livingoractingwithin thepresentgeopolitical structure toescape theviciouscycleofwhat forhimisplainlyacapitalistconspiracy.

Class,Race,andNationalPathologiesofSociallyUndesirableBodies

Asíledijoamimamá:Bajas/feas/seriadas,selodijo...elmédicolediagnosticóyprofetizóqueporunaseriedecondicionesíbamosacon-tagiarnosdetodooaenfermarnosdetodooamorirnosdecasitodo.(25)

Rostros de niñas como era yo enesetiempo,haceya¿cuánto?¿dos-cientosaños?,unasniñasquenolegustabannadaalcirujanoperoalasquedebíadedicartodasusabiduríamédicapararepararyrehaceryre-componerelaurafacialasugustoyarbitrio.(22)

Nosdicen:Negrascuriches.12

Clasificadasensusarchivosasí:curi-ches,curiches,curiches,nombradascomo curiches por esos hombresque . . .quenosdesdeña[n]ynosmargina[n]...(33)

Told frombirth theyarecongenitallyde-fectivebodies,pronetomultiplemaladies,mother and daughter are put on a rigidschedule of medical visits, lab tests andsurgicalinterventions.Beginningwiththemother’s labor, moreover, every hospital’svisit becomes an excuse for the medicalpersonneltoverballyorphysicallyhumiliatemother and daughter.13 Abhorrent to thedoctors(andsomeofthenurses)whotendtothem,thewomenbecometheperennialvictims of a public-health system that isobligatedtotreatthembutisalwaysreluc-tanttodoso.Manyofthenovel’sepisodesshowthemedicalpersonneldenyingneededmedicalattentiontothemotheranddaugh-ter.Themothernearlyhemorrhagestodeathwhilegivingbirth;elsewherethedaughtermustbegforpainkillersforhermother;thedaughternearlydieswhilewaitingforadoc-torwhowillnotprescribeaneededX-ray.Conversely,whentheydoreceivemedicalattention, not only are they subjected tothebarrageof verbal insultsnoted earlierbut they suspect that theyarebeingusedasexperimentalsubjects—asdocilebodieson which to test new procedures or newmedicaldrugs.

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In Eltit’s novels, women’s bodiesbecome the Bakhtinian “dialogic space”forinscribingandreflectingondiscoursesof discrimination and marginalization.In Impuesto a la carne, the two women’sbodies become the dialogic space for il-lustratingthepathologizationof raceandclass.AsElaineScarryarguesinThe Body in Pain. The Making and Unmaking of the World, pathologizedbodies are visiblypunished, humiliated, reformed, or mis-treatedinordertoreinforcethelegitimacyofstructuresofpowerandprivilege.Astheepigraphsatthebeginningofthissectionofmyessayillustrate,thewomen’sdarkerrace immediately denotes their class andviceversa,andthesemarkingsareseenasbothcongenitalandchronictothemedicalauthorities,whoholdthepoweroflifeanddeathoverthem.Mostinneedof(health)services, the frequently ill mother-and-daughterpairaremadetofeelshameaswellaspainatthesystem’sabhorrenceoftheirindigenous or mixed heritage. Instead ofprovidingadequatecare,thehospitalturnsthetwowomenintobodiesbitterlyresent-fuloftheirowndependenceonthosewhofindthemrepellent.Whenthenarratorisbornwithwhatissurelyacleft-palate,thepediatricsurgeon’sreactionuponseeingthe“monstrosity”oftheinfant’sfacereflectsthedominant culture’s general contempt to-wardstheraciallyandclass-markedbody.14

Theauthor’sinspireduseofthecleft-palateasametaphorforthechronicmarkofraceandclassquicklybringstomindcur-rentmedical adsadvertising internationalmedical organizations (such as “doctors-without-borders”) working to treat birthdefectsamongtheworld’spoorerchildren.Thesurgeonwhooperatesonthenewbornisproudofhiswork,havingpracticed,byhis own admission, on hundreds of such

monstrous faces. Lest one be inclined tothinkthesurgeon’sefforts tocosmeticallyalterthemarkofanundesirableclassmark-ingispartofthehospital-nation’sagendatocorrect,rehabilitateorimprovethelotoftheoffspringofthedisadvantaged,thenarratorinsistsonnotingthatthesurgeon’sinterestinoperatingonher(aswellasonthoselikeher)isbasedonprofessionalvanityratherthan on a humanitarian impulse. In thenovel,thecleftpalateservestoemphasizethedegreetowhichracialandclassmarkingsarehereditaryorcongenitalandthereforeindelible.Moreover,giventherepeatedde-rogatoryjudgmentstowhichtheirdoctorssubjectthem,itisevidentthatnoamountof surgery is likely to correct the defectentirely.Thechild remainsanother “ugly,short,cookie-cutter”versionofhermother,justashermotherisanotherdarkerbodyintheendlessseries(“seriadas”)ofinfirm,ailingbodiesthatfillthe“hospital-nation-country.”Allegorically,thesurgeon’seffortsinthenovelareakintotheconvenientwayin which politicians everywhere publiclyannounce“cosmetic”changesinthepoorestneighborhoodsortheinnercityinexchangeforsecuringthesupportofthosewhomatterpoliticallyonlyatelectiontime.Willingtotakewhatlittleisgiventothemwhentheirhealthisatstake,motheranddaughter—liketheurbanpoor—areneitherfoolednorsatisfiedbytheoftenhumiliatinghandouts.

Intheir2004studyofraceandclass,ChileaneconomistsJavierNúñezandRo-bertoGutiérrezstudiedtheeffectsofclasson theactualandprojectedearningsofagroupofuniversitygraduateswithidenti-calpost-secondarytrainingandcredentials.Theyfoundamplestatisticalevidencethatthoseprofessionalswhodidnotbelongtothe Chilean upper classes earned (or ex-pectedtoearn)50%lessthanthosewhosesurnameswereproofoftheirclassstanding.


Although Núñez and Gutiérrez claimedclass standing to be based solely on thefamilysurnamesorthefamily’ssocialstand-ing and not on racial profiling—a pointEltitandotherLatinAmericansociologistswould adamantly contest—they foundthat there was a direct and demonstrableconnectionbetweeneconomicsuccessandclassprovenance.

Eltit’s novel explicitly incorporatestheseclassmarkings,allegorizingtheper-vasivenessofraceandclassdiscriminationthroughoutthenation’shistoryinthenovel.Theverbalorsymbolicviolencetowhichthecharactersareexposedistreatedsardonicallybythenarrator,yetthereisnomistakingthepermanentpsychicwoundsthatresultfrombeingtherepeatedvictimofverbaldegrada-tion.15Astheembodimentoftheperenni-ally underpaid, underfed, under-servicedworkingclasses,motheranddaughterarelikelytobethefirstbodiesexposedtonewdrugs and new medical procedures. Theyarealsothefirsttobeblamedforspread-ingdisease;andtheimplicationthattheirdarkerbodiesaretheproductofpoorhealthhabits is implicit in thedoctors’ repeatedinsistence on the women’s repulsiveness.Readallegorically,theendlesscontrolsandmedicalinterventionstowhichthewomenaresubjectednodoubtsignalmiddleandupper-classfearsofnewepidemicsbroughtaboutbynewpatternsofurban,nationaland global migration—especially whenthosemigratingbodiesbelongtotheneedi-est,poorestsectorsofsociety.

Inanessayentitled“Alcoholismo,her-enciaydegeneracióneneldiscursomédicoChileno: 1870-1930,” Marcos Fernándeznotesthattheprevalentmedicalopinioninlate19th-andearly20th-centuryChilewasthattherewasanundeniableconnectionbe-tweenalcoholismandheredity.AsFernán-

dezpointedlynotes,however,allofthecasestudiesavailabletosustainthismedicalas-sumptionwerecollectedfromworking-classvictimsofalcoholism.Chileandoctorswerehardly unique in equating race and classwithdeleteriousmedicalconditionsorsocialillnesses.Writingabouttheconnectionbe-tweenmedicalizationandclassfromaMarx-istperspectiveandonaglobalscale,publicpolicy scholarVicente Navarro reaches arelatedconclusionregardingclassandthemedicalizationofalcoholismanddrugad-diction.16AccordingtoNavarro,sincethe1970sthemoreprogressivestatisticaltrack-ingandmedicalizationofsuchsocialprob-lemshaveservedtolegitimizeratherthandeflectexistingclassdiscrimination.Alongwithothersociologistsandanthropologistswhohavestudiedgovernmentandhealthofficials’effortstodealwithsocialillnessesinindigentpopulations,Navarrocomestotheconclusionthatbytreatingtheseproblemsasindividualorhereditaryillnesses,govern-mentandhealthorganizationsdeflectatten-tionawayfromthesocioeconomicrealitiesofunemployment,poorhousing,andthedisproportionatedistributionof resourcesthatgenerallycontributetotheseproblemsin the first place.17 Although alcoholism,drug addiction and homelessness are notconditionsdeemedviolentinthemeselves,FernándezandNavarro’sfindingsareclearillustrationofŽižek’s distinctionbetweenthe visible symptom and the underlyingsystemiccause.

In thenarrator’s chronicle-saga, Im-puesto la carne showsusahospital-nationthatmustdevoteatleastlimitedresourcestotreatingthevisiblesymptomsofillnessofitsneediestpatients.Afterall,theseneediestofbodiesaregenerallytheoneswithhighincidencesofhigh-bloodpressure,malnu-trition,diabetes,alcoholism,anddomesticabuse:“(Laenfermedadyasehabíahecho

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historiaennosotras)”(39),notesthenarra-tor,parentheticallyindicatingwhatshouldbeobvioustoanyonewhohasbeenfollow-ingherchronicle.Later,shewrites,“[n]osévivirsinexperimentarelcastigodelapatria,delanaciónodelpaís”(80).Readingthisadmissioninthevoiceofsomeonesotrau-matizedbyhertreatment(ormaltreatment),oneexpectshertosaythatneitherdoessheknowhowtodiewithoutfeelinghernation’spunitiverejectionofhermuch-abusedbody.Thedaughter’srealizationthatshedoesnotknowhowtolivewithoutfeelinghercoun-try’s punitive judgment inscribed on herbodybringsechoesofKafka’snightmarish“ThePenalColony,”butalsoofDeCerteau’sinsistence,inThe Practice of Everyday Life,that institutions, especially political andlegalones,willalwaysfindwaystoinscribetheirlawsontheirsubjects’bodies.“Thereisnolawthatisnotinscribedonbodies,”writesDeCerteau,addingthatpenaljusticecannotfunctionwithoutthetorturedbody,orthefearofthetorturedbody(139).

The more the women’s problemsare pathologized, the more mother anddaughter turn against those who inflictdiscomfortorpainonthem.Inturn,theirnon-compliantorblatantlyangryattitudeturns them into undesirable patients andhenceintobodieslikelytobeignored,dis-missedormisdiagnosed.Thenarratornotesrepeatedlytheintenselyalienatingeffectofsuchatreatment:“Desdequenacimosmimadreyyofuimosmaltratadasporlosmedi-cosysusfans.Elaislamientoseintalócomolacondiciónmáscomúnomásnormalennuestras vidas” (10). I propose there is acloselinkbetweenthepersistentisolationthey are made to feel and their anarchistleanings. Psychiatrist and former directorof a hospital for the criminally insane,JamesGilligancombineshisknowledgeofpsychoanalysiswithsocialsciencetheories

ofstructuralviolencetoexplaintheindif-ferenceviolentcriminalsfeelnotonlytothefateofothersaswellaswellasthemselves.Inhis1996Violence.Our Deadly Epidemic and Its Causes,Gilliganreliesonhisownstudiesoftheviolentcriminalshemetandtreatedtoarguethatatthebottomofthecriminalmind’s or criminal personality’s indiffer-encetointerpersonalrelationsisthedeepsenseofisolationandrejectiontheyweremade to feel fromavery early age.Theangerthatfillsthenarrator’schronicleofmistreatmentsandhermother’slitanyofangryinsultsaresurelytheresultoftherejectionandisolationtowhichtheyweresubjectedfrombirth.Asametaphorforthe disruptive but generally ineffectivedisruptionsofsociety’smarginalized,themotheranddaughter’s“anarchictempera-ment”(“ímpetuanarquista”)istheconse-quenceofthediscriminatoryandabusivepracticesinflictedonthembythosewhowereresponsiblefortheirsurvival.

SellingtheBodyPolitic;orQuarteringtheBody,OneOrganataTime

Caminamos con distintos gradosdeseguridadantelasangre,lamíay la de mi madre, nuestra sangrequesevaavenderenlatrastiendadeunMercadodesconocidoperoseguramente devaluado y transi-torio.(65)

Nolosé,noestoysegura,perosíescompletamenteverídicoqueen-tendíconunaclaridadiluminadaqueesemédicoibaaponerprecioamisórganos.Loharíaunavezqueyohubieseingresadoalcautiverioque me ofrecía y más adelantecomercializaría mis retinas en el


Mercadomanejadoporel cuerpomédicoysusenfermeras...enton-ces recordéquetenía todavíamispoderosospulmonesymepreguntédespués en cuánto iban a traficarmis ovarios, en poco, pensé, losovariosvalenunamiseria.(101)

Eltit’s 2002 Mano de obra explored thedarksideofglobalcapitalismbyfocusingonthecorporatetakeoveroflocally-ownedsupermarkets and its devastating effectson the localworking-classpopulation. InImpuesto a la carnetheauthorzeroesinonamorefrighteningthoughnolessexpansiveglobaltrade:thebloodandorgantrade.Themulti-billion dollar industry commonlyknown as the “red market” often blursthe lines between legal medical practices,shockinglycriminalsuppliersandnaïveordesperate victims. As advances in scienceincreasethedemandsforhumantissueandfluids—blood,kidneys,lungs,ovaries,cor-neas,etc.—lawenforcementauthoritiesfindthemselvesmakingonlyminimalinroadsintheireffortstocrackthecriminalelement.Alargepartoftheproblem,manyargue,liesinthedifficultyofdistinguishingtheethicalfromthemerelyunethicalandcriminalusesoftheorgantrade.Viewingorgantraffickingfromtheviewpointofthosetooill,toopoor,ortoooldtohaveanysayaboutthefateoftheirorganswhilealiveordead,Eltit’snovelshowsnoambivalenceonthisaccount.Inthenovel’shospital,themedicalpersonnelintentonbribingtheneediest,ailing,andagingbodiestogiveupthefewremaininghealthyorganstheypossessappearasnoth-ingifnotcriminal.18

As general clues in the novel markthe transitionbetween thepostdictatorialnationandtheglobalneoliberalstate,thenarrator begins to speak more frequentlyof the hospital’s or the state’s increasing

dependenceontheirbloodandtheirdoc-tors’growinginterestintheirorgans.Thegreedinessof thephysicians,asevidencedin the passages cited at the beginning ofthis section, momentarily inspires themothertoconvinceotherpatientstostartabloodmarketoftheirown(a“mutualdesangre”),andthedaughter(orthemother)fantasizes about a communal market fororgans,butbythetimethewomenenvi-sion these oppositional practices they arealreadytooweakbyrecentsurgeriestotakesuchextrememeasures.19Inanyevent,themeasureswouldinvolvethesupportoflo-calcommunes:“soloenlascomunasradicalaúnicaposibilidaddeponerenmarchalaprimeragranmutualdelcuerpoy...lagranmutualdelasangre”(82).Theimplicationisthatintheeraofpost-nationalcorporatecapitalismthesecommunesareathingofthepast.Newglobalconfigurationsrequirenewusesforthesociallyundesirablebodiesbysellingthempiecebypiece.

Theallegoryisnotdifficulttodecode.As the hospital goes, so goes the nation-state:asdoctorsselltheirpatients’bloodorbodies,piecebypiece, sodogovernmentofficials in this post-national era sell thecountry’s natural resources to the highestbidder,evenifsellingthoseresourcesmeanscompromisingthefuturehealthofthena-tion.Againsttheoften-toldexemplarystoryof Chile’s remarkable economic success,Eltit’snovelexposestheheavypricepaidbyChile’s disadvantagedpopulations for thecountry’sneoliberalagenda—anagendafirstunveiledduring thePinochet regime andadopted by subsequent post-dictatorshipgovernments without major alterations.20Echoingtheauthor’sownstatementsonthesubjectinmanyrecent(andnotsorecent)interviews,thenovelcarriestoitsfinalcon-sequencesthehospital-nation’sagendafor

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dismemberingitsnation’sbodyorsellingitsnationalpatrimony.Inanot-so-veiledreference to Chile’s recent governments’willingnesstosellthenation’s“body”(itsminesandminerals)toforeigninvestors,thenovelconflatesthebodiesofthewomenwiththebodyofanationinthegripsofanirreversibleandshockinglyunequalglobaltrade; the narrator is as sure that theirbloodwillbe“devalued”assheisthatitisbeingmarketed.AcursoryreviewofrecentnationaltradepoliciesrevealsthatChile’seagerness to do business with Asia, andChinainparticular(likethatofotherLatinAmericannations),hasbeenmuchpubli-cized,andgenerallyfavorablysobyamediaeagertoshareintheprofits.21Thehospitalsaga,whichisalsoagrotesqueandbitterfarce(“gestahospitalaria”)revealstheextenttowhichthenation-state,ortheres-publica,is being reorganized tofit theneeds andflowsoftransnationalcapital.Neitherthepatientsnorthedoctorscanbecertainofhowthenetworkworksorwherethepowerstarts and stops. Unlike prior nationallycontainedformsofviolenceandcontrol,thisnewmedical-economic-technologicalconglomerate escapes present paradigmsforunderstanding its scopeortheextentof its operations. As a metaphor for thecountry’s neoliberal agenda for guidingprivatizationandforeigninvestments,thehospital’sexpansivetradeinpatient’sbloodandorgans is inkeepingwiththerestofthenovel’svirulentcritiqueoftheChileannationinallitsincarnations.Inthisread-ing, the nation’s vampirism feeds on thebloodofitsmarginalbodies,whileglobalcapitalismcannibalizesthedestitutebodiesofnationsthatarethemselvesthevictimsofamechanisminwhichtheycannothopetocompetefromapositionofstrength.

Returningtoareadingofthenovelasthenarrator’shyper-realifhyperbolicrecord

ofcorporalpain,however,Eltit’snovelisin-tentonrevealingtheauthor’spreoccupationwiththefateofinfirm,ailing,ageingbod-iesinaworldwherenations(andnotonlydeveloping nations) find themselves lessandlessable,orlessandlessinterested,inaddressingthedeepstructuralorsystemicinequalitiesthatcontributetothephysicalandmentalailmentsofitsunderprivilegedsectors. The cuts, lab tests, controls andmultiple surgeries to which the bodiesof the mother-daughter duo are exposedthroughoutthenovelreachGothicpropor-tionsasimagesofvampirismandcannibal-ismfillnearlyeverychapterorsegmentofthenovel.Yettoday’smedicaltechnology,coupledwithashockinglyunequaldistri-butionofbasicresources,meansthatthenarrator’schronicleof theirvictimizationas objects of medical malpractice can beread as an exaggerated, but not improb-able,cautionarytaleaswellaspostmodernGothicallegory.

In this global, neo-Gothic scenariowhereneoliberaltradeisrampant,someofthemostinvisible,intimateoperationsofglobalizationarealsoitsmostsinister.Ifthemedicalinterventionstowhichthewomenareexposedthroughoutmuchofthenovelstillallowfora remnantof intimacyandprivacy, the hospital’s increasingly openinterestintheirbloodandorgansdoesawaywithanysuchniceties.

Writingspecificallyaboutorgantraf-ficking,Nancy-ScheperHughesandotherscholarsofthemushroomingglobalorgantrade have noted the degree to which itillustratesthewaysinwhichglobalizationimpliesare-conceptualizationofthebodyand bodily functions in order to addressnew biopolitical desires and possibilities.“Globalmarketcapitalism, togetherwithadvanced medical and biotechnologies,”notes Scheper-Hughes, “has incited new


tastesanddesiresfortheskin,bones,blood,organs, tissues,marrow, and reproductiveandgeneticmaterialofothers”(64).AlongwithScheper-Hughes,ScottCarneyarguesinThe Red Market: On the Trail of the World’s Organ Brokers, Bone Thieves, Blood Farmers, and Child Traffickers, that even the mostreputable medical establishments cannotguarantee the legality of the entire organtransplantprocess;norcanthemostvulner-ablebeprotectedfrombecomingwillingly(butdesperate)orunwillingdonors.

Within the frameworkof thismoreliteral readingof thenovel, Impuesto a la carne illustrates the author’s explicit con-cernsaboutthefutureofhumanbodiesinour age of DNA experimentation, quickorgan transplants and the unscrupulousglobaltradeseagerandabletofindanyor-ganandtransportittoanydestination,anytime.Eltit’snovelleavesthedetailsofthecomplicitiesand intensities thatsurroundthefarmingofsubalternbodiesforbloodandhealthyorgansdiffuse,butthereislittledoubtthatthisnewusefortheorgansofunderprivilegedbodiespoints toan intri-cate,increasinglypost-nationalanddisturb-inglyanonymouscorporatenetworkwhosepredatoryeffectsonunderclass,undervaluedbodiesreachesepidemicproportions.22

TheGlobalDemiseofthe(National)AnarchicBody

Estamos operadas, rotas, mal cosi-dasyapesarde los indescriptiblesdolores que nos estallan, aun enmediodenuestroestadoterminalocatastrófico podríamos, sí, podría-mosempezarlacomunadelcuerpoyponerenmarchalaprimerasedeanarquista para contener la sangredelpaísodelanación.DelaPatria.(186)

Ya es tarde para nosotras. El terri-toriopusoenmarchaunoperativopara decretar la demolición y laexpatriación de nuestros cuerpos.Minas,Minerales.Nuestroshuesos. . . serán molidos en la infernalmáquinachancadora.Elpolvocobredelúltimoestadiodenuestroshuesosterminaráfertilizandoelsubsuelodeunremotocementeriochino.(187)

Eltit’s impressive knowledge of Chileanlabor history has a way of cropping upin her more recent novels.23 As a prefaceto her interview with the author, MaríaTeresaCárdenas remindsus that the titleofEltit’smostrecentnovelrecallsthemas-sivefamousmeatriotsof1905.FornearlyaweekinOctoberofthatyear,crowdsattimesnumberingasmanyas40,000disaf-fected working and middle class bodiesdemonstratedinfrontofthePalaciodelaMoneda,Chile’spresidentialpalace,voicingtheiroppositiontotheartificiallyinflatedpriceofmeat.24Acenturylater,asthenovel’shospital/nation-stateprepares to celebrateits“festejosnacionalesopatrióticos”(147),the much-taxed bodies of the medicated,mutilated,barelyfunctionalbodiesofthetwo-hundredyearoldwomenareshownasevidenceofthehospital’sorthenation’ssuc-cessfulpractices—thewomenhavemanagedtosurvive,afterall.Insteadofthehungrybutactive,vocalbodiesprotestingtheState’sunjusteconomicpoliciesintheSantiagoof1905, the bi-centenarian women, and inprotestoftheage-oldabusesheapeduponthembyspecialistsandgeneralpractitionerswhose professional code was, at the veryleast,todonoharm,motheranddaughterprepare to withstand the humiliation oftheirpublicexhibitioninnear-totalsilence.The irony—and the criticism—are bitterindeed.

DiannaNiebylski 117

Isthereadertointerpretthewomen’ssilenceduringthehospital’scelebrationasagestureofresignationonthepartoftheauthor?Isthewomen’svowofsilencebeforethe impending celebrations a recognitionof the futility of further vocal oppositioninthefaceofnewparadigmsofpowerandcontrol—onesthatstandoutsidetheknownnationalparametersofhegemoniccontrol,ontheonehand,andorganizedorsponta-neousresistance,ontheother?Onlypagesaftermotheranddaughterchideeachotherfortheirutopian—andsubversive—fantasiesof a “bloodmutual” or “anorganbank,”their anarchic impulse and their counter-hegemonichopeofacommunaloppositionofillandabusedcomestoanend.Itisasthoughnoanarchicgestureorundergroundcollectivecanwithstandthe forceandthespeed of global markets and technologiesdesignedtosilenceanyandalloppositionbydismemberingtheorganismsofrevoltbeforethoseorganismshavehadachancetocollectthemselvesorputtheirstrategiesinplace.

Influenced by Kristeva’s notions ofthe potential subversiveness of the abjectbody, Eltit’s earlier novels generally stageabaroque,strident,somaticpoeticsofthescreaming, bleeding, expletive-deletingbody.Mano de obra,thefirstoftheauthor’snovels to openly recognize and allegorizethe shifting power paradigm (one wherethe postcolonial worldview shifts to themore diffuse hegemony of post-nationalor corporate structures), already reflects apessimismunabatedby thehope that theabjectbodymightregainitscollectivepower.This pessimism, or profound skepticism,isevenmorepronouncedinImpuesto a la carne.Inwhatissupposedlyherfinalentryornotation,thenarratorpredictsthat, farfromremainingemblemsofresistance,theirbodies—possiblydevoidofthefewhealthyorgans they have left—are to be nothing

but“copperydustfertilizingthesubsoilofadistantChinesecemetery”(187).Intheirbrutalend,thedaughterforeseestheirfinaldismemberment from thenation thathasisolatedandalienatedthem.

Asintheendingofthe2002Mano de obra,thedarkmoodthataccompaniestheendingofthe2010Impuesto a la carneisarealistic recognitionof aworld that spellstheendofasustainablefutureforsomany.Whatmakesthislatestnovelmoredisturb-ing is its graphic record of the predatoryeffectsofrunawayglobalcapitalismonthemillionsofbodieswhosharethenarrator’sandhermother’shistoryofmarginalization.Atthebeginningofthe21stcentury,Chile’s“impuestoalacarne”isataximposedonhumanratherthancattlefleshanditspellsliteral, notmetaphorical, dismembermentandmutilation.25

Notes1Askedwhetherhernovelwasadirectreac-

tion or critique of Chile’s Bicentennial, Eltitresponded:

“piensoquecadalibroquesepub-liqueenestasfechasestárelacionado,asumanerayenalgúnpunto,conel Bicentenario. Dará cuenta delestadodelaescriturachilena.Conesonoquierodecirqueestoslibrosseanestudiadosopensadosoleídos‘bicentenariamente,’sinoquesencil-lamentemantienenunacorrelación,no lineal, acaso desviada con sutiempo.” (Interview with RobertoCareagaC.)

In another interview with Hernán Arias, theauthor explained that forher, the conventionof the bicentennial celebration allowed her avantagepointfromwhichtosee

cuáles cuerpos constituyen los pa-sivos sobre los que ‘la patria’ y ‘lahistoria’ constituyen sus ‘activos,’peroclaro,esos‘activos’siempreles


hanpertenecidoalaselitesquehanmanejadolashebrasdelaposterga-ciónydeunasiempreinsuficienteyambiguabeneficiencia.

InaroundtablediscussiononthesubjectoftheBicentennialinChileandMexicocelebratedinMineríaonFebruary22,2010,Eltitstatedthatthetwo-hundredyearanniversarywasalsoatimetoreflectonthosegroupsthatthenationhadleftbehind(Eltit,Escritores22feb.2010).

2Thegenericconfusionorambiguity sug-gestedbythephrase“gestahospitalaria”ischar-acteristicoftheauthor’swork,butinthiscaseitmightbeaparticularlygoodstartingplacetoconsiderthegenerichybridityofthisnovel.

3Alternatively,asIdiscusslater,thenovel’spreoccupationwiththe“redmarket,”acommontermfororgantrafficking,canbereadasanal-legoryoftheneoliberalnation’sprivatizationofitsnaturalresources.

4Inalongerversionofthispaper,IengageIdelberAvelar’sinspiredargumentforthepreva-lenceofallegoryinpostdictatorialnarrativeandcontrastitwithGarcíaCanclini’ssuggestionthatnewmetaphorsareneededtounderstandglobalparadigms. In my reading, García Canclini’sexamples, mostly taken from installation art,arecloserto“performances”ortemporaryritualsthantonarratives.AsInoteinthisessay,giventhe ritualistic, repetitive, hyperbolicnature ofthenarrator’schronicle,Iproposethatthenovelstraddlesboththeseframes,orreadings,inordertomarkthetransitionfrompostdictatorial topostnationalneoliberalism.

5Inthenovel,motheranddaughterappeartoinhabitasinglebody,asiftheyweredeformedconjoinedtwins.Askedaboutthesignificanceofthemother-daughterprotagonistsshortlyafterthenovel’spublication,theauthornotedherre-currentfascinationwiththispairingbutinsistedthatonthisoccasionshewasnotinterestedintreating the relationship fromapsychologicalperspective but rather from a biological andsociologicalone(seeinterviewswithMatildeSán-chezandPatricioZunini).InherinterviewwithPatricioZunini,Eltitremarkedthatthemother-daughterpairingis,economicallyandculturally,themostvulnerableofallsocialpairings:“lapareja

másdébil de la cultura.”As such, thewomencouldbeseenasemblematicreferenceforothersociallyvulnerableandhistoricallydisadvantagedgroups:“penséqueesasdosmujerespodíanhacerresonanciaconotrasvulnerabilidades.”

6ItispossibletoreadthemountingdeathsoftheirfriendsandrelativesaspartofPinochet’spoliticalpurges.

7“Quieroprepararmicuerpoparaconvertirloenuna crónicaurgente y desesperada.Dejaréabiertaszonasparainterpretación”(129).

8Thenarratorinsiststhatsheisneithermadnorstupidenoughtounlockthecompartmentsofherrecollectionofhistoricalcrises:

Voya renunciar a esclarecer lahis-toriadenuestrorelegamientoen loqueha sido lapatriao lanaciónoelterritoriooelhospital,porquenosoytontaniretardadayyaconozcoelecomásvisceraldelcastigoquemeocasionarían...siabrolacompuertaenlaquesostengolosdetallesdecadaunadelascrisis.(38)

There are few specific references to historicalwatershedsinthenovel,yettheabusessufferedat thehandsofpowerful authorities, from thefoundingdoctor—el“médicofundador”—tothe“general”practitioner, to the absenteehospitaldirector; all signal criticalmoments inChile’shistory.Nevertheless,whenaskedifsheintendedtotell“thehistoryofChile”throughthisnovel,Eltit remarked that thiswouldhavebeen tooambitiousaproject.

9Theterms“medicalization”andpatholo-gization” enter the public discourse and areincreasinglyusedindebatesregardingmedicalpractices in the 1970s. According to sociolo-gistsandmedicalethicistsIvanIllichandPeterConrad,newmedicaltechnologiesandculturalchangesinthepracticeofmedicineaccountfortheincreasingpresenceofmedicalpractitionersin everyday life and an expansion of medicalauthority in governmental discourses. Eltit’snovel also reveals a general concern with theintrusivepresenceofthemedicalestablishmentonordinarylives:“Lacostumbredeensalzaryhastaglorificar las enfermedades (comopartedeunatareacientífica)marcóelclímaxdelamedicina”

DiannaNiebylski 119

(10).Rumorhasitthattheauthorwrotemuchofthisnovelwhilecaringforherailingmother.Askedwhetherpersonal experiences influencedherwritingofthenovel,Eltitwaselusiveaboutanydrawinganypersonalparallels,butconcreteabouther preoccupationwithmedicalization:“Quizáslomáselocuenteparamíhasidocómoelcuerpohaentradoenunafase,pordecirlodealguna manera, experimental. Las tecnologíasmédicas, farmocológicas, estéticas, sedejancaerparaproclamarsupoderysudominio.”

10AmoreextensivediscussionofEltit’snovelwillappearinmyupcomingbookontheimpactofglobalizationoncontemporaryLatinAmericanfic-tionandfilm.Inthisreading,Iexplorethenovel’spreocupationwithmedicalizationandtheorgantradethroughthelensofFoucaultianbiopolitics.

11WithotherreviewersandcriticsofŽižek’sViolence, Ifindhis classificationof violent acts(murder,war,terrorism)as“subjectiveviolence”problematic, as they obscure and confuse hisargument.To summarize, “subjective” violenceis violenceperpetratedbyanagent; “objective”violence isviolenceperpetratedby (impersonal)institutions.Žižek referencesEtienneBalibar’snotionof“ultra-subjective”and“ultra-objective,”supposedlyasashort-handjustificationfortheuseoftheseterms.“Systemic”and“symbolic”violencemakeuphiscategoryof“objective”violence.Inthis essay, Iuse the terms “structural violence”and“systemicviolence”ofteninterchangeableandwithoutquotationsbecausebothconceptshavebecomepartofthepublicdomain.

12InChile, “curiche” is aderogatory termusedtorefertothosewithAmerindianormulattofeatures.

13 “Recuerdo en cuántonos sentimosdes-preciadasyrelegadascuandosedesencadenóunaimpresionantemaníahospitalaria fundadaen lapasióndeacatarlossíntomasmásoprobiososdelasenfermedades”(10).

14OnthetopicofthepathologizationofraceandgenderinLatinAmericanandLatinoliterarytexts,seeViolence and the Body. Race, Gender and the State,ed.ArturoJ.Aldama.

15 Significantly—and accurately reflectingtherealityofthe“redmarket”—onlywhenthewomen’sbodiesarenolongerseenasindepen-

dentorganismsbutasacollectionofpotentiallysellable organs does the narrator stop notingtheir doctors’ derogatory references to classandrace.

16NavarrobasedhisfindingsonstudiesheconductedinunderprivilegedsectorsofBritainandtheU.S.,buthisargumenttranscendsgeo-graphicalborders.

17Alongsimilarlines,anthropologistArleneMathieuadvancedtheviewthatNewYorkCity’sinsistenceonequatinghomelessnesswithmentalillnessthroughoutthe1990sledtoade-politi-cizationofthehomelessproblem,takingsomeoftheresponsibilityforthehighincidenceofhomelessnessawayfromgovernmentandpub-lichousinginstitutionswhileatthesametimespreadingupper-classfearsthattherecouldbeahiddenviolentpsychoticormentallyillcriminalin every streetperson.Mathieu’sunpublishedstudyiscitedanddiscussedinBraving the Street: The Anthropology of Homelessness.

18 As several scholars of the trade in hu-manorganshavenoted,thevastmulti-nationaleconomythatsurroundstheredmarketisnearlyimpossibletopolice.TheWorldHealthOrgani-zationarguesthatatpresentnearlytenpercentof the world’s organ transplants originate ontheblackmarket.JournalistScottCarney,whospent several years studying the operations oftheillicittradeinIndia,concludesthatadvancesinscienceandthehugedifferencesinresourcesbetweenpayingbodiesandpoorbodiesleadevengovernmentsandmedicalpersonneltobelievethattheillicitendofthetrademightturnouttobeinevitable.

19As tempting as itmight be to imaginethatthebi-centenarywomenmightsurviveasaDeleuzianbodywithoutorgans,oralternatively,aspartofapost-nationalortransnationalghostarmythroughthebodiesofthosewhomtheirorgansmanagetokeepalive,thenovel’sendingsoundlypreemptseitherscenario.

20 For nearly a decade, national and in-ternational economic and news journals havepresentedChileasLatinAmerica’ssuccessstory.BasedonarecordoftriplingforeigninvestmentandadmirableGDPgrowth,thecountryhasbeentheenvyofotherdevelopingnationsand


themodelforthesuccessofneoliberalcapital-ism.FocusingonChile’scontinuedalarminggapbetweentherichandthepoor,Eltit’snovelseekstotellthedarksideofChile’sneoliberalsuccesses.

21Eltit’sknowledgeofChile’sforeignpolicyis,asusual,accurate.Eventhe“grindingequip-ment”(“lamáquinachancadora”)mentionedinthenovel’slastparagraphislikelytobeChinese,asmuchofthisequipmentisnowmanufacturedin Shanghai. In her interview with MatildeSánchezEltitmakesnosecretofherdisapprovalofChile’sprivatizationofnaturalresources:“Ynovendemoselcobre trabajadosino lamate-rial prima. . . . Nuestro principal compradores China.” On this point, it is interesting tonote that, according to a 2005 report to theU.S.CongresspreparedbyKerryDumbaugh,SpecialistinAsianAffairs,andMarkP.Sullivan,China’sprimaryinterestinLatinAmericawouldseemtobeaimedatgaining“greateraccesstoneededresources—suchasoil,copper,andiron,”agoalthatChinahopestoaccomplishthroughincreasedtradeandinvestment.InrecentyearstherehavebeenhundredsofarticlesinChileanandLatinAmericannewspaperstracingChina’sincreasedinvestmentsinLatinAmericannations.

22 A number of transnational films havefeaturedtheoperationsofthe“redmarket”inrecentyears.OneoftheearliestofthesefilmsisWalterSalles’Central do Brazil (Central Station,1998).To date the most accomplished filmictreatmentofthistopicisStephenFrears’2002Dirty, Pretty Things.

23Thehistoryofthekeyeventsandpublica-tionsrelatedtotheChileanlabormovementareverymuchinevidenceinMano de obra.

24TheartificiallyinflatedpriceofcattlewastheresultoftheChileangovernment’seffortstoprotectthedomesticbeefindustrybyissuingaspecialtariffonbeefimportedfromArgentina.As a result, only the privileged sectors of thepopulationcouldaffordbeef,abasicstapleofChileancooking.

25IammostgratefultoPatrickO’Connorand Paola Ehrmantraut for reading an earlierversionofthisessayandtoBenjaminFraserforhiseditorialcommentsandsuggestions.

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Blood Tax: Violence and the Vampirized Body in Impuesto a la Carne

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