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Bamboo Shoot Preservation for Enhancing its BusinessPotential and Local Economy: A ReviewLalit M. Bal a , Poonam Singhal a , Santosh Satya a , S. N. Naik a & Abhijit Kar ba Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Hauz Khas,New Delhi, Indiab Division of Post Harvest Technology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India

Accepted author version posted online: 27 Jul 2011. Version of record first published: 14 Jun2012

To cite this article: Lalit M. Bal, Poonam Singhal, Santosh Satya, S. N. Naik & Abhijit Kar (2012): Bamboo Shoot Preservationfor Enhancing its Business Potential and Local Economy: A Review, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 52:9,804-814

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Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 52:804–814 (2012)Copyright C©© Taylor and Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1040-8398 / 1549-7852 onlineDOI: 10.1080/10408398.2010.511321

Bamboo Shoot Preservationfor Enhancing its Business Potentialand Local Economy: A Review

LALIT M. BAL,1 POONAM SINGHAL,1 SANTOSH SATYA,1 S. N. NAIK,1

and ABHIJIT KAR2

1Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India2Division of Post Harvest Technology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India

Bamboo shoot as food has been used in traditional ways by the tribal community the world over. For enhancing its businesspotential, research on various aspects of bamboo shoot as food is being carried out in Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, and Asiancountries and several products are available in the market. Bamboo shoots are used as a delicacy in human food, are agood source of dietary fiber, low in fat and calories. The research studies included in this review paper focus on post-harvestpreservation of bamboo shoot. In view of the seasonal availability of bamboo shoot, the post-harvest preservation systemfor handling cynogenic toxicity in raw shoot while keeping nutrients intact and enhancement of shelf life of the value addedproducts assume great significance for the business potential of this natural product. A yardstick of assessing the “Shelflife-Quality Matrix” developed in this review paper would give a new perspective of quality control in case of preservationof bamboo shoot. Also, knowledge gaps identified in this paper would give impetus to new academic and R&D activities, inturn generating an innovative job profile in the food industry as well as rural entrepreneurship.

Keywords Bamboo shoot, preservation, cyanogenic toxicity, business potential

INTRODUCTION

In terms of taxonomy, bamboo is considered a giant grassof the subfamily Bambusoideae of Poaceae family. For variousreasons, this grass has fascinated people; it has been called a“miracle plant” or an “ordinary plant with extraordinary quali-ties.” From an “orphan crop,” bamboo is now emerging as oneof the most important Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs)in the world. The natural distribution of bamboo encompassesmainly the tropical, subtropical, and mild temperature zones ofthe world, with the tropical belt having the maximum number(320 species) of bamboo species. More than 1,250 species be-longing to 75 genera are being reported worldwide, to whichIndia has contributed more than 125 species belonging to 23genera (Sharma, 1980; Varmah and Bahadur, 1980; Biswas,1994). India is the third-largest country in the world, that is,next to China (300 species) and Japan (237 species) as far asdiversity of bamboo species is concerned. India is also one ofthe leading bamboo producing countries of the world, second

Address correspondence to L.M. Bal, Centre for Rural Development andTechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016,India. E-mail: lalit.bal@gmail.com

to China which produces 32.3 million tons/year (Pathak, 1989),covering an area of around 10.03 million ha, which accounts for12.8% of the total forest area in the country.

Most of the bamboos need a warm climate, abundant mois-ture, and productive soil, though some do grow in reasonablycold weather (below −20◦C) (Wang and Shen, 1987). Accord-ing to Grosser and Liese (1971), bamboos grow particularlywell in the tropics and subtropics, but some taxa also thrive inthe temperate climate of Japan, China, Chile, and the UnitedStates. Lee et al. (1994) stated that the smaller bamboo speciesare mostly found in high elevations or temperate latitudes, andthe larger ones are abundant in the tropical and subtropicalareas. As bamboo is quite adaptable to different climatic con-ditions, therefore, some bamboo species from one country havebeen introduced in other countries. The most popular and valu-able bamboo species in Asia, Phyllostachys pubescences or theMoso bamboo, has been grown successfully in South Carolinaand some other Southeastern states of the United States for morethan 50 years (Lee et al., 1997). Bamboos are also adaptable tovarious types of habitat.

Bamboo has a long history of being used for multiple pur-poses by tribal communities. It has served and continues to serveas construction material, fiber, food, material for agricultural

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tools, utensils, and musical instruments, as well as ornamentalplants. Bamboo shoot is a young, tender stalk emerging fromnodes of the (pseudo-) rhizome of the bamboo plants. The ed-ible part consists of meristematic tissue with regions of rapidcell division and differentiation, which is enveloped in protec-tive, non-edible leaf sheaths (Kleinhenz et al., 2000). They areused frequently in Asian cuisine. Commercially canned bambooshoot is common, but fresh, locally grown shoot has far betterflavor and texture and may increase the share of fresh shootsin future business. The presence of high quality vitamins, car-bohydrates, proteins, and minerals in bamboo shoot and theireasy availability to the common man may help in solving thenutritional deficiency of the rural poor (Tripathi, 1998). In thenortheast, and in some other parts of the country, bamboo shootis used as a traditional cuisine—fresh, dried, and pickled. Allthis indicates the vast potential of bamboo shoot as a food re-source.

In the present paper various preservation and packagingmethods of this non-forest produce have been compiled anddiscussed. Future R&D areas in relation to the above aspects forenhancing the business potential of bamboo shoot and qualitycontrol have been identified.

BAMBOO SHOOT PRESERVATION

Preservation of food and agro-products as well as value ad-dition are the key incentives for examining the appropriatenessof the post-harvest processing methods required for commer-cial activities. Since fresh bamboo shoot is an active organicmass performing metabolic activities, the external factors liketemperature, humidity, microorganisms, and storage conditionsexert influence on its shelf life. Water is necessary to keep bam-boo shoot physiologically active and fresh. If it looses water,it looses the fresh outlook and the quality deteriorates. Waterlosses resulting in enhanced enzyme activity and saccharinecontent make bamboo shoot prone to hydrolysis, thus becomingsusceptible to infection and rotting. A low temperature storagecondition is therefore required to inhibit water transpiration andmicrobial activity. Thus, the water content, the temperature, thehumidity, and the enzymatic activity are all interrelated factorsresponsible for shoot respiration and have to be taken into ac-count for developing a shoot storage system in the food industry.

General Features and Mechanism

Fruits and vegetables remain physiologically active for alimited period after harvesting. Their quality deteriorates due toenvironmental conditions, physical damage, action of enzymes,growth, and multiplication of microorganisms, etc. The prin-ciples of preservation are basically derived from knowing theconditions favorable for the action, growth, and multiplicationof these spoilage agents (micro-organisms). Therefore, a suit-

able preservation system would strive towards: (a) preventionor delay of microbial decomposition through sterile handling,filtration, drying, freezing, or heating; (b) prevention or delayof self-decomposition of the product, for example, by blanch-ing, use of anti-oxidants, etc., and (c) prevent damage causedby poor handling, insects, etc. Considering that enzymes andmicroorganisms are the main spoilage agents, the main princi-ples of preservation methods would focus on temperature andhumidity control, moisture extraction, etc.

Respiration, which is the primary metabolism, can affect theshelf life of harvested fruits and vegetables, as well as qualityand nutritional changes during storage. Continuous respirationafter harvest of fruits and vegetables may result in quality dete-rioration and nutrient reduction. Most fruits and vegetables havehigh moisture content (65–96%), so they easily lose weight dueto transpiration of water during storage, which may even af-fect their commercial value. Generation of ethylene (a ripeningagent) during maturation of post-harvest fruits and vegetablescan accelerate their aging, and may affect their pharmaceuticalcharacteristics. All these factors result in a decline in the quality,nutrition, and safety of post-harvest fruits and vegetables (Wuand Zhang, 2001).

Generally speaking, an effective storage system can be de-veloped with low temperature and high humidity, or low oxygenand high carbon dioxide, or low ethylene and asepsis, which arebeneficial for fruit and vegetable preservation (Wu and Zhang,2001; Li and Cheng, 2001; Li, 2003). Low temperature and highhumidity inhibit the enzyme activity responsible for respirationand the growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. Itcan also prevent water loss. Low oxygen and high carbon diox-ide prevent fruits and vegetables from maturing by inhibitingrespiration, while low ethylene and asepsis decrease the rate ofmaturation and the spoilage by microorganisms.

Parameters Influencing Preservation and Quality of BambooShoot

Temperature and Humidity

Low temperature inhibits growth and high temperature de-stroys the spoilage agents and inactivates enzymes. Hua (1987)emphasized the requirement of low temperature and properpackaging to reduce transpiration of bamboo shoot. Liu (1992)attributed the loss of quality of bamboo shoot due to the highrespiration rate (>4.08 mmol CO2 kg−1h−1) at elevated stor-age temperature (20◦C). As early as 1931 Oshima describeddiscoloration as a major cause of quality loss in shoots.

Chen et al. (1989) studied the post-harvest handling and stor-age of bamboo shoots (Bambusa oldhamii Munro). After harvestof bamboo shoot, the fiber content increased quickly from thecut end towards the tip. The fiber content could be lowered bykeeping it under high humidity or low temperature conditionsor both. A rapid increase of phenylalanine ammonialyse (PAL)and Peroxide (PO) activity (both are responsible for enzymaticbrowning) was also found in the harvested bamboo shoot, while

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no significant change in polyphenol oxidase (PPO) was ob-served. The enhanced PAL activity was closely correlated withthe increase of crude fiber and lignin.

Moisture Content in Bamboo Shoot and Enzymatic Activity

Water is an important constituent of food which affects foodsafety, stability, quality, and physical properties. Kozukue et al.(1999) carried out an in depth investigation on the changes inglucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), shikimic aciddehydrogenase (SADH), PAL, tyrosine ammonialyase (TAL),and PPO activities in relation to the browning of bamboo shootsduring storage at 20◦C. Determination of G6PDH, SADH, andPPO activities in the three sections of bamboo shoots revealedthat G6PDH and SADH were the highest in the apical sectionand the least in the basal section. However, PAL activity ofbamboo shoots was the highest in the basal and the least in theapical sections. Also, G6PDH activity was the highest among thethree enzymes, while PPO maintained nearly the same activityin the three sections. After 2 days in storage, G6PDH and SADHactivities of bamboo shoots increased to about 1.3 and 1.7 timesthat of the initial day, respectively; then it decreased over 9 daysas browning increased. Meanwhile the PPO activity increasedslightly after 2 days, and then decreased. TAL activity in allsections was quite low as compared to PAL activity but theyexhibited the same trends. Both PAL and TAL activities in thebasal section of bamboo shoots decreased after 2 days, and thenthey increased rapidly after 9 days.

Wang (2002) studied the aging physiology of postharvestbamboo shoots. PAL and PO activities and cellulose and lignincontents in freshly harvested bamboo shoot of phyllostachyspubescens and P. prominens were determined. These were foundto decrease progressively from base to tip. However, the activi-ties of PAL and PO and cellulose and lignin contents increasedsubstantially when bamboo shoot was kept at 25◦C for 4 days.Also, the course of lignification was moved forward from shootbase to tip which resulted in loss of edibility.

Lu and Xu (2004) investigated the physiological and bio-chemical changes of fresh-cut bamboo shoot (Phyllostachysheterocycla var pubescens) during cold storage at 4◦C. Therespiration rate increased after mechanical stress due to cutting,but decreased gradually during storage. The investigation ofphysiological and biochemical changes in apical, middle, andbasal sections of bamboo shoots revealed that wounding fromminimal processing induced a high respiration rate, increasedPAL, PPO activity (except in base), and contents of Malondi-aldehyde (MDA) and phenolic compounds, but decreased totalsugar, reducing sugar, lignin, and cellulose contents. Duringthe later stage of storage, the respiration rate decreased grad-ually, while the total sugar and reducing sugar accumulated.PPO activity and phenolic content declined. The MDA contentincreased sharply after processing and remained at high levelduring storage.

Xu et al. (2004) studied changes of cell wall componentsin relation to softening and lignifying characteristics of fresh-

cut bamboo shoots (Phyllostachys heterocycla var. pubescens)during cold storage at −50◦C. Increased activity of PAL wasrelated to a rise in lignin content in the basal section but not inthe middle and apical sections. PAL activity was also associ-ated with an increase in phenolic content in the middle section,but not in the basal and apical sections. The softening processoccurred mainly in the apical section, while lignification tookplace primarily in the basal section. In the middle section, bothsoftening and lignification also occurred but to a lesser extent.

Recently, Wu et al. (2008) studied cellulose, lignin contents,and POD, PAL activities of excised bamboo shoots of Phyl-lostachys edulis. The result showed that in excised bambooshoots from tip to base, the contents of cellulose and lignin in-creased gradually, while the activities of POD and PAL on thetip of the shoot was more than that of the base. Along with pro-longed storage time, the cellulose and lignin contents increasedrapidly. At the same time POD and PAL activities increased sig-nificantly with the storage time. Bamboo shoots stored at 4◦Ccould decrease the activities of POD and PAL as well as thecellulose and lignin contents significantly. The influence of lowtemperature on cellulose content was higher than that on lignin.

Overall, from the above discussion it is inferred that lowtemperature (up to -50◦C) is one of the critical factors for storageof bamboo shoot which effectively restrain the enzymatic andchemical reactions in bamboo shoot, and thereby maintains thefreshness.

Traditional Knowledge System for Bamboo ShootPreservation/Storage

Information on indigenous knowledge of the ethnic peoplein North-East India on bamboo shoot preservation is sparse.Tamang and Tamang (2009) attempted to dig out the traditionalknowledge of biopreservation of bamboo shoots in NortheastIndia. Lactic acid fermentation is the main mechanism involvedin the biopreservation process by lowering the pH and increas-ing the acidity of products. In Western Orissa, sliced bambooshoots (Kardi) are pounded in a mortar and pestle and then sundried; a process known as Handua. This dehydrated productis stored in plastic/mud/glass/aluminum container for one yearand consumed throughout the year by adding in curries (Balet al., 2009). So, these are simple techniques to store this per-ishable vegetable in the absence of cold-storage or refrigerator,in a country where a majority of the rural people cannot affordcanned or frozen foods.

Advances in Bamboo Shoot Preservation and Storage

Hydrocooling

Cheng (2006) pointed out that the strong physiologicalchanges of harvested bamboo shoots often lead to browning andlignification of the produce, as well as subsequent rapid deteri-oration. As a result, the commercial value is adversely affected.

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Figure 1 Diagram of vacuum cooling system (Source: Cheng, 2006)

Vacuum cooling combined with hydrocooling and vacuum dry-ing processes could increase the cooling speed, and prolong thepreservation period of bamboo shoots in low-temperature stor-age. Compared to hydrocooling, other systems like forced-aircooling, and hydrocooling combined with forced-air cooling,the vacuum cooling combined with hydrocooling and vacuumdrying process for bamboo shoots have the advantages of alower number of bacteria, higher stability, longer preservationperiod, and better appearance. The disadvantages include higherequipment cost and decreased sugar content during the preser-vation period. Moreover, bamboo shoot and other food itemsfrom bamboo shoot can be preserved for some months usingthe vacuum sealing technology. The vacuum cooling system isshown in Fig. 1.

MAP System

Storage of bamboo shoots in modified atmosphere packaging(MAP) has been attempted by three research groups, namely,Kong et al. (2003), Lu and Kong (2004), and Shen et al. (2006).The MAP conditions were 0.04 mm thick LDPE bag, 2% O2, 5%CO2, and 93% N2 and it was concluded that MAP is an excel-lent condition for storage of bamboo shoots. Kong et al. (2003)studied peeled bamboo shoots (Phyllostachys praecox) and Luand Kong (2004) investigated the browning and lignification ofpeeled bamboo shoots (Phyllostachys praecox f. prevelnalis) at10◦C. The malondialdehyde (MDA) content of bamboo shootsunder MAP with low O2 level was lower than that in the con-trol during early storage, and also POD and PAL activities weresignificantly inhibited. The browning of bamboo shoots under

MAP with low O2 was eventually significantly prevented and thecellulose and lignin contents were substantially decreased. Thebrowning of bamboo shoots was probably caused by increasedPOD and PAL activities, which account for the lignification ofbamboo shoots. Recently, Shen et al. (2006) studied the storageof fresh bamboo shoots (Phyllostachys praecox) in LDPE bags(0.04 mm) under open storage (control) vis-a-vis packaged byLDPE bags (0.04 mm) with a MAP at 10◦C, 92% RH. Thebamboo shoots of control treatment were not edible at the endof the storage due to severe browning, while the shoots of MAPtreatment browned slightly and remained edible. MAP treat-ment inhibited the formation of MDA and lowered the activityof POD and PAL, which attributed to preventing the brown-ing and lignification. MAP could not inhibit the formation ofpolyphenol and PPO activity, but the low O2 concentration andthe low activity of POD and PAL prevented the enzymatic re-action and preserved the original color of bamboo shoots. MAPtreatment could also significantly inhibit the lignification of thebamboo shoots by preventing the formation of cellulose andlignin contents. It has been reported (Wang, 2002) that if thecontents (dry basis) of cellulose and the lignification of bambooshoots are more than 46.64% and 15.63%, respectively, it pre-serves its edible characteristics. In this study, the changes of thebrowning index, the cellulose, and the lignin contents impliedthat MAP was very effective in preventing the browning andlignification of the bamboo shoots. MAP treatment preventedthe bamboo shoots from being damaged or senescence by theinhibition of the activity of POD, PAL and the accumulation ofMDA. Though MAP treatment increased the activity of PPO,the low O2 level in the LDPE packaging inhibited the enzymaticreaction effectively.

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Table 1 Influence of packaging material on total weight loss (%) of bambooshoots (B. oldhamii) stored at 1◦C after different storage periods

Storage period

Packaging material 10 days 28 days

Control (open storage) 7.67 26.96Macro-perforated LDPE bag 1.80 9.80Micro-perforated LDPE bag 0.22 4.97LDPE film 0.37 5.58LDPE bag 0.09 4.17Heat-sealed PVC film 1.59 5.96

Source: Kleinhenz and Midmore (2002)

Hybrid System

Based upon detailed experimentation, Kleinhenz and Mid-more (2002) concluded that the visual quality of shoots storedat 8◦C declined after 6 days of storage, while in those storedat 1◦C such a change in quality was not notable even after onemonth of storage. The optimum packaging was recommendedat 1◦C with semi-permeable materials (micro-perforated LPDEbag or LPDE film) in which the shelf life could be extendedbeyond 28 days. Considering all measured quality parameters,that is, weight loss, discoloration, fungal infection, and conden-sation, the shelf life of bamboo shoots was not more than 7 daysat storage temperatures above 8◦C. Practices to control theseparameters include packaging and cooling. Generally, there aretwo parameters of “cooling” which affects the shelf-life of hor-ticultural commodities, that is, the optimal storage temperatureand as to how quick the temperature of the produce is reduced tothat of the storage temperature. Kleinhenz and Midmore (2002)studied the weight loss of bamboo shoot packaged/stored underdifferent conditions. Weight loss was least at 1◦C and higherat 25◦C, with the weight loss of packaging materials being theleast by heat sealed PVC film or LDPE bags as shown in Table 1.Shoot respiration was, as expected, greater at 20◦C than at 2◦C,accounting for 34 and 18% total weight loss of shoots stored inLDPE film at these temperatures, respectively. However, only4–6% of total weight loss was observed under open-stored con-ditions.

Browning and lignification of bamboo shoots occurs whenthese are stored at ambient temperature and sold unpackaged.The bamboo shoots usually lignified in 2–3 days at ambient tem-perature and become inedible (Luo et al., 2002; Wang, 2002;Zhang et al., 2000). Good techniques for bamboo shoot process-ing and preservation are the selection and grading of bambooshoots; 10–20% salt solution; cooking thoroughly; rationallypreparing preservative solution; aseptic operation; storage atlow temperature; and keeping away from light. It is interestingto note that refining and washing had no significant effects on theloss of protein, cellulose, and phosphorus, while a slight effecton fat, the total sugar, and a significant effect on amino acid wasfound. Also, salt boiling, adding the appropriate amount of citricacid, blocking the air invasive, and low-light storage of shootscan extend the shelf life of bamboo shoot (ZhiMin, 2003).

Recently, Luo et al. (2007, 2008a; 2008b; 2008c) carried outan in-depth investigation on the preservation of bamboo shoot.The physiological and biochemical changes of post-harvestbamboo shoot by using 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) andethylene during storage at 20◦C and 2◦C for a duration ranging12–30 days were investigated. The commercial use of 1-MCPalleviates bamboo shoot lignification and chilling injury whichare physiological disorders due to ethylene. Low temperature(2◦C) preservation is an effective method for delaying lignifica-tion of bamboo shoot. Heat treatment at 40◦C or 45◦C for 5 minreduced the respiratory rate and ethylene production, inhibitedthe activities of PAL, PPO, and POD, and maintained a higherlevel of L (lightness) and lower level of browning index (BI) forthe storage of lightly processed bamboo shoots.

Chang and Yen (2008) studied suitable methods for pre-cooling, packaging, and storage of bamboo shoots exported bysea freight. Hydro-cooling, forced-air cooling, packed amountof shoot, and use of an ethylene scrubber in polyethylene (PE)bags, as well as different storage conditions were studied. Waterloss, soluble solids content, ascorbic acid content, firmness, andcolor change of the cut surface were evaluated. Hydro-coolingproducts cooled faster than forced-air cooling, but caused higherlosses of soluble solids and ascorbic acid than the latter method.Bamboo shoots were packed in a PE bag (0.06 mm thickness)with a modified atmosphere, and this helped in retaining thesoluble solids and ascorbic acid contents, as well as in mini-mizing the change in color of the cut surface after 16 days oftransportation. Packs containing eight pieces of bamboo shoothad lower quality than packs containing five pieces. In packswith eight shoots anaerobic respiration occurred and off-odordeveloped.

Packaging Material

Kleinhenz et al. (2000) studied the storage of fresh bamboo(Bambusa oldhamii Munro) shoots in the open (control) or pack-aged using a range of materials such as low-density polyethylene(LDPE) film (10.5 mm thick); macro-perforated LDPE bags(45 mm thick, 8.94% area perforated); micro-perforated LDPEbags (35 mm thick, 0.01% area perforated); LDPE bags (45 mmthick); heat-sealed, food grade polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film(90 mm thick) at different temperatures (1, 2, 8, 11, 20, 25◦C) todetermine their shelf life under various storage conditions. Shelflife could be extended by primarily reducing storage tempera-ture and secondly packaging bamboo shoots. Under traditionalstorage at ambient temperature (20–25◦C) without packaginghigh transpirational weight loss limited the shelf life of bam-boo shoots to 1 day. When water loss was reduced to 2.2%of the initial fresh weight by enclosing shoots in LDPE film,the shelf life was extended to 6 days. Under these conditions,respiration (2.97 mmol CO2 kg−1h−1) accounted for a higherpercentage of total weight loss (35% after 6 days) and a temper-ature coefficient (Q10) of 2.3 for respiration between 20 and 2◦Cindicates the need to quickly cool bamboo shoots after harvestand reduce storage temperature. At temperature above 1–2◦C

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(i.e., 8◦C), discoloration and fungal growth were observed andthe shelf life of bamboo shoots could be extended to more than10 days. Microbial decay appeared to be the primary cause forthis deterioration in quality since bacterial, fungal, and coliformmicroorganisms were present on the external surface and the in-ternal tissues of shoots. At 1–2◦C, respiration (about 0.7 mmolCO2 kg−1h−1) was low and, therefore, transpiration accountedfor up to 94% of total weight loss. Shelf life at these low storagetemperatures was affected by weight loss and decline in visualpackaging quality. Weight loss from packaging was higher inmore permeable materials, for example, the shelf life of shoots inmacro-perforated LDPE bags (8.9% area perforated) was main-tained to 17 days. In contrast, the accumulation of the condensatein low-permeable materials (LDPE bags and heat-sealed PVCfilm) maintained shelf life to 21 and 14 days due to loss of visualpackaging quality. The most suitable packaging materials werethin, micro-perforated (45 mm, 0.01% perforation) LDPE bagsand non-perforated LDPE film (10.5 mm thick). This reducedthe total weight loss of bamboo shoots to about 5% after 28days, minimized condensation within packages, and extendedshelf life beyond 28 days.

Pongprasert et al. (2007) worked on alleviation of brown-ing and lignification in minimally processed sweet bamboo(Dendrocalamus asper) shoots by packaging systems suchas polyvinyl chloride (PVC)-wrapped foam trays and vac-uum polyethylene (PE) bags at 4◦C. Both packaging meth-ods reduced weight loss, lignification and browning symptoms,and preserved the quality of fresh-cut bamboo shoots, com-pared to unwrapped controls. Vacuum packaging was foundto be most effective in the reduction of weight loss, res-piration rate, activities of PPO and POD, as well as leastbrowning and lignification. However, PVC wrapping is recom-mended for general use because it is easy to procure and lesscostly.

Use of Fungicides

Wang and He (1989) reported that the addition of a fungicideto bamboo shoots packaged in polyethylene film extended theirshelf life to 62 days at 0◦C as shoots are largely affected byfungal species. There were very similar results reported by Liao(1989) pointing out to the effect of microbial action during postharvest storage of fresh bamboo shoots.

The above discussion clearly indicates that in selecting anappropriate preservation technology, it is important to considerthe quality and shelf life of the product together. So there isa need for designing a suitable system based on integration ofthe selected packaging material (micro-perforated LDPE bagsor film), MAP (2% O2, 5% CO2, N2 93%), and optimum tem-perature for the preservation of bamboo shoot. The challengelies in translating this system for rural entrepreneurship. Basedon the available research studies on these aspects, a yardstick ofassessing the “Shelf life-Quality Matrix” for bamboo shoot hasbeen developed (Table 2).

Developing a Yardstick for Evaluation of “Shelf life-QualityMatrix” for Bamboo Shoot

Most of the food and agro-products of biological origin areperishable. So, it is important to increase the shelf life withoutdegrading their quality attributes. Thus, a great deal of emphasisis being given to preservation technologies. However, very littlework is available on bamboo shoot preservation. Hence, inorder to visualize the scope of future R&D work a comparativestudy of various bamboo shoot preservation methods along withtheir quality and shelf life has been attempted and a yardstickof assessing the “Shelf life-Quality Matrix” has been developed(Table 2).

PRESERVED/STORED BAMBOO SHOOT: QUALITYAND SAFETY ASPECT

Effect of Storage Period on Nutritive Value of Bamboo Shoot

With a few exceptions, the nutrient levels and/or theirbioavailability in food are generally reduced after harvest-ing/under storage. The rate of these losses is usually attenuatedby reducing the temperature of storage. Initial heat processingto the point of enzyme inactivation, or to the point of microbialsterilization, “stabilizes” the food so that it does not “spoil” butat the same time causes a greater initial reduction in certain nutri-ents, and a more gradual reduction with extended storage. Initialheat processing and mechanical treatments may also release nu-trients so that they become more available, but once released,they are also subject to losses unless stored at low temperatures.

Ascorbic acid is undoubtedly the most sensitive to loss andchanges to a less active form as a result of time and temperaturein storage. In many instances changes in ascorbic acid reflectgeneral changes in quality. Thiamine is the other vitamin whichis frequently affected adversely by time and temperature of stor-age. The A vitamins appear to be lost readily in leafy vegetables,but remain relatively unchanged in other foods. There is littleeffect on the mineral content of foods, but bioavailability, par-ticularly of iron, may be influenced during prolonged storage.Substantial losses in carbohydrates may be encountered as aresult of respiratory activity in extended storage at relativelyhigh temperatures. Protein content is rarely affected, but proteinavailability is readily reduced even in low moisture foods unlessthey are protected from oxygen and stored at low temperatures(Kramer, 1977). Surprisingly in case of bamboo shoot no studyon the effect of the storage period on nutritive value of bam-boo shoot is found in the literature indicating a huge scope ofresearch in this area of non-timber forest produce.

Toxic Content in Bamboo Shoot and its Status on Storage

The potential toxic compound in bamboo shoot is cyanogenicglycosides, that is, Taxiphyllin, which are amino acid-derived

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BAMBOO SHOOT PRESERVATION 811

plant constituents and can be defined chemically as glycosidesof α-hydroxynitriles and belong to the secondary metabolites ofplants. They are composed of a α-hydroxynitrile type aglyconeand a sugar moiety (mostly D-glucose) (Vetter, 1999). Cyanohy-dric acid is released from the cyanogenic glycosides when freshplant material is macerated as in chewing, which allows theenzymes and the cyanogenic glycosides to come together, re-leasing cyanohydric acid (HCN) and a ketone or aldehyde (Satyaet al., 2010). The second step can also be catalyzed by the hy-droxynitrilelyase, which is widespread in cyanogenic plants. Inthe intact plant, the enzyme and the cyanogenic glycosides re-main separated, but if the plant tissue is damaged, both are putin contact and HCN is released (Francisco and Pinotti, 2000).

Hydrogen cyanide after oral administration is readily ab-sorbed (it is also readily absorbed after inhalation and throughthe skin and eyes) and is rapidly distributed in the blood.The concentration of cyanide is higher in erythrocytes than inplasma. The cyanide level in human tissues in fatal cases ofHCN poisoning has been reported (Environmental ProtectionAgency, 1990). The lethal dose of cyanogenic glycosides hasbeen reported as 0.5–3 mg/kg body weight (Cheeke and Schull,1985). So, approximately 50–60 mg of free cyanide from bam-boo shoot constitutes a lethal dose for an adult man.

The cyanide content of bamboo shoots of different speciesreported by various authors are compiled and presented in Ta-ble 3. The cyanide content is reported to decrease substantiallyfollowing harvesting. Bamboo shoots contain up to 0.16% totalcyanide in the tip reducing to 0.01% in the base (Haque andBradbury, 2002). The toxic content varies with different parts,geographical and climatic conditions, soil conditions, and alsowith the method choosen for analysis. Recently, Haorongbamet al. (2009) reported the variation of toxic content due to agingin fresh shoots of four species of edible bamboos (Bambusabalcooa, B. bambos, B. tulda, and Dendrocalamus giganteus) atthree different stages of growth. Also, homogentisic acid is re-sponsible for the disagreeable pungent taste of shoot (Bhargavaet al., 1996). Satya et al. (2009) have reported cyanide contentin 4 Indian bamboo species, namely D. strictus, B. tulda, B.vulgaris, and B. balcoa. Raw bamboo shoots of B. vulgaris andD. strictus contained higher cynogenic glucoside content of 200and 386 mg/Kg fresh wt. Dendrocalamus latiflours Munro con-tains 10580 mg HCN/ Kg fresh wt which is the highest of thevalues reported in Table 3 (Chang and Hwang, 1990). Chu andLuo (1981) also reported cyanide content in the juice of sourbamboo shoot.

Initial Processing of Bamboo Shoot for MinimizingCyanogenic Toxicity

Methods of removing HCN from bamboo shoot include pro-cessing (boiling, canning, soaking, and fermentation) beforeconsumption. Boiling bamboo shoot in an open vessel for 3–4hours can reduce the toxicity by 97% (Ferreira et al., 1995).Cyanide content has been reported to reduce with prolonged

fermentation by lowering the pH through microbial activity(Bhardwaj et al., 2005). Surprisingly, literature is silent on theeffect of preservation and storage on the toxic content in bam-boo shoot. Recently, Satya et al. (2009) reported that substantialreduction up to 82.7% in toxic content of b. balcoa and B. tuldastored at −18◦C for 2 months. The significant reduction in thetoxic content may be due to degradation of the toxic compoundtaxiphyllin into HCN (Hosel, 1981; Moller and Seigler, 1999).

BUSINESS POTENTIAL OF BAMBOO SHOOT

With bamboo shoots becoming more popular in western cul-ture, shoot harvesting is not only a source of food, but wouldbe an economic activity as well. In view of growing scientificinterest in bamboo shoots for food, pharmaceuticals, etc., it canbecome a good source for rural entrepreneurship.

Use of bamboo shoots of a number of species is a well-knownfeature of Chinese and other Asian cuisine, generally exportedto the United States in canned form (e.g., in the early 1990s,30,000 t/year supply of bamboo shoot). Exports from Taiwanare worth Rs. 250 crore annually, and those from Thailand Rs.150 crore, with much of this going to meet Japanese demand(Scurlock et al., 2000). In Kanchanaburi, Thailand, 35 to 75 kgbamboo shoot is harvested per person per day. At the roadsideprice of 2–3.5 Rs./kg, one could earn as much as Rs. 55, 245 inone season (Thammincha et al., 1990). In Lin’an county, in theZhejiang Province of China, the annual fresh shoot productionincreased from 7,280 tons in 1982 to 135,250 tons in 2002, theannual fresh shoot production value increased from Rs. 13.14million to Rs. 1968.3 million. The local industry developmentstarted from zero to 47 bamboo shoot processing enterprises,the processed bamboo shoot products amount to 114,000 tonsper year. From these products, 32,180 tons are exported to inter-national markets, with an export value of Rs. 900 million. Theannual per capita income of local farmers increased from lessthan Rs. 4,800 to Rs. 30,600 (Zhu, 2003).

Bamboo shoot and its products have been used as food inChina, Japan, Thailand, Australia, and New Zealand. Some ofthe food products from bamboo shoot commercially availablein these countries are Bamboo Shoot Pickle, Bamboo ShootSweet Soup, Bamboo Shoot Masala Curry (Kadi), BambooShoot Soup, Bamboo Shoot Russian Salad, Bamboo ShootPulav, Bamboo Shoot Palak, Bamboo Shoot Manchurian, Bam-boo Shoot Keema, Bamboo Shoot Kadi, Bamboo Shoot Halwa,Bamboo Shoot Fry, Bamboo Shoot Chutney, Bamboo ShootBajji. Canned Bamboo Shoots, Bamboo Shoot Candies, Bam-boo Shoot Sweet Pickles, Fermented Bamboo Shoots, BambooShoot Powder, Bamboo Shoot Juice, Steamed Bamboo ShootRolls, Bamboo Beer, etc. Bamboo shoots are also used for thepreparation of many edible products viz., candy, chutney, curry,vinegar, lime, and oil pickles. (Tripathi, 1998)

In India, according to an estimate by the National Mission onBamboo Application (NMBA) and Trade Development underthe Planning Commission of India, the Indian bamboo shoots

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812 L.M. BAL ET AL.

Table 3 Comparative study on cyanide content in bamboo shoot of different species

Sl. No. Species Cyanoglucosides CN, mg/Kg References

1 Bambusa vulgaris 131–200 NRFBT (2008)3000–8000 Nahrstedt (1993)

2 Bambusa arundinacea 1010 Haque and Bradbury (2002)551.05 Chandra et al. (2004)

3000–8000 Towill et al. (1978)3 Bambusa tulda 100 Bhatt et at. (2005)

77∗ Satya et al. (2009b)4 Bambusa balcoa 67∗ Satya et al. (2009b)

200 Bhatt et at. (2005)5 Bambusa nutans 200 Bhatt et at. (2005)6 Dendrocalamus strictus 353–386 NRFBT (2008)7 Dendrocalamus giganteus 100 Bhatt et at. (2005)

894 Ferreira et al. (1995)3780–6900 Chang and Hwang (1990)

8 Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro 900–1000 Schwarzmaier (1977)9 Dendrocalamus hamiltonii 100 Bhatt et at. (2005)10 Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees et Arnott 900–1000 Schwarzmaier (1977)11 Dendrocalamus hookerii 200 Bhatt et at. (2005)12 Dendrocalamus longispathus 200 Bhatt et at. (2005)13 Dendrocalamus sikkimensis 100 Bhatt et at. (2005)14 Dendrocalamus latiflours Munro 8300–10580 Chang and Hwang (1990)15 Bambusa edulis Odash Keng 5560–7860 Chang and Hwang (1990)16 Bambusa oldhamii Munro 4100–7000 Chang and Hwang (1990)17 Melocanna baccifera 100 Bhatt et at. (2005)18 Phyllostachys bambusoides 100 Bhatt et at. (2005)19 Teinostachyum wightii 200 Bhatt et at. (2005)20 Species not mentioned 1000 Anonnymous (2004)21 Species not mentioned 110–1600 Haque and Bradbury (2002)22 Species not mentioned 500–3000 Tripathi, 199823 Species not mentioned 1000 Ferreira et al. (1990)24 Species not mentioned 119 Park et al. (2002)25 Species not mentioned 8000 JECFA (1993); Jones (1998); Nartey (1980);

Poulton (1983); WHO (1993)

∗Bamboo shoot stored at −18 ◦C for 2 months

industry has a potential to grow at an exponential rate of 25%per annum and is expected to garner a market worth Rs. 3330million. The major shoot processing units in India that producevalue added products from shoots are Natural Hill Food Prod-ucts, Aizawl, Mizoram (vacuum processing of bamboo shoot),Luit Valley Food Processing, Jorhat (vacuum processing andCanning of bamboo shoot), and Nagaland Foods, Dimapur (can-ning and pickling of bamboo shoot). Also, small entrepreneurs indifferent bamboo regions (Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, Orissa, etc.)are also coming up for commercial production of selected shootproducts. A large potential market exists for bamboo shoots inJapan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Thailand. Worldwide com-mercial bamboo shoot utilization is reported to be 20 milliontons per annum. More than half of this amount is harvested andutilized by poor people in rural areas. China alone exports bam-boo shoots worth over Rs. 1,000 million annually. The worldtrade in bamboo shoots was 3,400 crore in 2002 which in vol-ume terms is 3,00,000 tons. The total revenues from bambooand its products were estimated in the 1980s at Rs. 225 billion(NMBA, 2009).

Considering the bamboo shoot quality and safety aspect to-gether, suitable processing and preservation methods integrat-

ing indigenous knowledge system and modern scientific inputs,needs to be developed. It is hoped that, it would add a newdimension to business activity, especially from a natural autar-kic economy to a market-orientated industry in the developingcountries.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

The above discussion reveals that bamboo shoot has tremen-dous export potential which remains unexplored so far. Thecurrent research on this “modern engineering material” is veryfascinating leading to the emergence of new avenues of bambooutilization including food and pharmaceutical potential. Thoughbamboo shoot is low in fat and calories it is rich in variousnutrients and edible fibers. Therefore, the potential of ediblebamboos in supplementing the nutrients in the diet of even elitepeople has attracted the attention of researchers. Analysis ofpublished literature revealed a number of advanced methods forpreservation and increasing the shelf life of bamboo shoot butclarity on quality criteria was found lacking. Hence based on

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BAMBOO SHOOT PRESERVATION 813

literature, a yardstick of assessing the “Shelf life-Quality Ma-trix” has been developed in this review paper. It is interestingto note that inspite of the fact that bamboo shoot has been anintegral part of the diet of the tribal community, scientific vali-dation of traditional processing methods in terms of food qualityand safety has not been attempted. The integration of traditionalprocesses after scientific validation would go a long way indeveloping a suitable improved system for storage and preser-vation of this perishable commodity for rural entrepreneurship.Also, processing techniques for taking care of the food safetyaspect would enhance the export potential of this wonderfulproduct.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Financial support through a Bamboo Project sponsored bythe Ministry of Rural Development (Government of India), NewDelhi is gratefully acknowledged. One of the authors (L. M. Bal)thanks CSIR (Government of India), New Delhi for support interms of fellowship. Also, “vision” obtained through interactionwith tribal people helped in understanding the significance ofthe traditional knowledge system.

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