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Avoiding an Andragogy of Poverty:

Holding In-service Educators Accountable

Abdelaziz Mohamed Tamoghzi

Published in P. Dougherty (Ed.), Education and the United Arab Emirates: Perspectives from Experience (Vol. 2). United Arab Emirates: HCT Press

Abstract Quality education depends upon quality teachers. However, blaming

the teachers for what ails education is not a solution. The teachers cannot perform to

their full potential unless they are updated professionally, personally and emotionally.

So, like any other professions, teacher education should be an integral part of

countries’ Human Resources Development (HRD) plans. Teachers, as adult learners

need a climate conducive to growth. Consequently, it is the responsibility of teachers’

educators, administrators and educational authorities to make sure their teachers are

learning and transferring their knowledge positively to new situations. Crucial to this

task is an understanding of the characteristics of the adult learners and knowledge of

adult learning theories (Andragogy as an example).

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“It is important to take into consideration the characteristics of the

adult learner, the context in which adult learning is occurring, and the

process through which we deliver education and training each time

we approach professional development.” (Lawler, 2003, P.17)

Introduction and background

The Education sector in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) has come a long

way since the founding of the federation in 1971. This is, particularly, epitomized by

the outstanding achievement in the 2010 United Nations Human Development Report.

This nascent country “has ranked as the first Arab country – and 32nd globally” (Gulf

News, 2010). This journey to excellence has been marked by severe criticism of the

quality of education and instruction delivery (Al-Banna, 1997; Syed, 2003; Abdulla &

Ridge, 2009; Ridge, 2011). At times, there has been even skepticism about developing

a qualified teaching workforce which Gardner (1995) describes as “a mission

improbable”.

This harsh criticism has touched every aspect of the educational system:

school infrastructure, budget, teacher demand and supply, teacher quality and quantity

and the curriculum, among others. In 2005, a newspaper article described education as

"deplorable [and] in need of improvement” (Gulf News, 2005). As a result, a radical

systemic modernization of the school and education system was initiated

(Macpherson et al., 2007) and the Emiratisation federal program was launched “to up-

skill the local population and get them into jobs via education” (Raven, 2001, pp. pp.

134-141).

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During these years one salient theme persisted: the teachers are unqualified to

deliver quality instruction and unless adequate measures are deployed, the UAE

Schools will continue “filling pails [instead of] lighting a fire” (Ridge, 2011). In the

same context, Ridge, who links the underperformance of boys in government schools

to the poor quality of male English teachers (Ridge, 2008, 2009), expresses the need

to include the large number of expatriate teachers in the reform because “they are an

integral part of the public system” and need to be “mentored and nurtured” to ensure

that the students have quality education. This discourse shifts the debate about

education reform, quality teachers and high-quality instruction delivery to a new

level: the teachers are part of the problem not the problem per se. it is a shift from the

instruction paradigm to the learning paradigm.

The task of getting qualified teachers and retaining the good ones is a

complicated process. There is a need to look at the problem from different

perspectives. Mentoring and nurturing teachers in the workplace open up an

opportunity to discuss the nature of the current in-service professional development

programs and the role of the designers and implementers practices in dealing with the

teachers as adult learners. It is also my contention that, while the responsibility lies

heavily on the teachers to keep up with the pace of reforms, it is also the

responsibility of the teacher’s educators and the school administrators to create a

learning community and an enthusiastic environment conducive to inquiry and growth

among the teachers.

Drawing on my long experience as a teacher, this paper attempts to focus on

adult education philosophy by proposing Knowles’ andragogical model as a

framework for designing and implementing quality professional development for

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teachers as adult learners and the role of the in-service advisers in the schools. I

believe that the advisers can play a substantial role in guiding the teachers to deliver

quality education if they adopt an intelligent practitioner’s attitude and think critically

about their practices when they plan professional development activities for the

teachers. They have to assume an active role in building and sustaining an

environment for teachers as adult learners. The teacher educators can take

professional development activities to dimensions where the teachers can learn and

transfer their learning to new situations.

HRD and professional development link

How does HRD relate to professional development?

Nadler (1977) who coined the term (Human resources development) identified three

components of HRD

1. training to improve performance in the workplace;

2. education to prepare individuals for prospected jobs; and

3. development to help individuals grow to meet organizational growth

Moreover, Maycunich (2000) notes that despite the various proposed definitions

of HRD (Nadler (1970, 1983, 1990), Craig (1976), Chalofsky & Lincoln (1983),

Chalofsky (1992) Nadler & Wiggs (1986), Swanson (1987, 1995), Rothwell and

Sredl (1992), Watkins (1989), they all identify learning, performance and change as

the three main areas of HRD.

In the same context, Wood & Thompson (1980, 1993) maintain that

professional development is a sub-set of adult learning therefore in designing teachers'

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in-service training the premises of adult learning should be considered (cited in

Gravani & John 2002)

Conners (1991) defines Professional development as the “sum of activities, both

formal and informal, carried out by the individual or system to promote staff growth

and renewal” (p. 53).

Translated into the school context, both HRD philosophical tenets and

professional development for teachers can constitute an ideal framework within which

teachers as adult learners can be nurtured and mentored. It is the responsibility of the

educational organization and the HRD professionals (advisers and head of faculties)

and school principals to make sure that learning occurs. It is also their duty to provide

meaningful learning opportunities for the teachers. In so doing, they make ends meet:

linking the needs of teachers and the needs of the schools and students.

In the same vein, if HRD is concerned, as it should be, with professional

learning in the workplace, professional development programs for teachers should

take into account what is known about adult learning and adult learning theories.

In my context, in the UAE, most teachers’ educators (advisers) working in the schools

do not acknowledge or are not aware of the principles and practices, research and

applications of adult learning theories. Indeed, it is often the educators’ lack of

knowledge about adult learning theories and the lack of an elaborated personal

philosophy about how they approach their mission that makes them passive agents

rather than agents of change. Due to the lack of rigorous research, this state of affairs

has been, so far, in the dark while the focus is kept on the teachers.

As a consequence, two major implications may be drawn. First, the educators

will continue feeding a culture of stagnation with an improbable change in the near

future. Second, as long as this situation persists the quality teaching workforce

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supplied by the local UAE universities will not be immune from the existing,

dominant schools’ culture.

Some features of the current problem

There is no doubt that professional development activities are the area in

which educators are needed to help teachers develop their skills and their knowledge.

However, contrary to those expectations the educators view their job as part of their

daily administrative chores.

There are several reasons for the current stagnation of teacher professional

development. The first is that educators resort to the traditional one size-fits-all

professional development methods without taking into consideration the life

experiences that the teachers bring to bear on the work environment.

A Second reason is that most of them have spent most of their life experiences

teaching in pre-adult schools; they are either hired or promoted to fill vacancies. More

often than not, educators resort to their old didactic teaching methods during the

professional development activities.

A third reason is that most of the professional development activities are

irrelevant to the teacher’s real work. Professional Development sessions are usually

planned by the educator without consulting the teachers. They are usually imposed on

the teaching staff devoid of any kind of differentiation.

A fourth reason, teachers almost always need to see the results of their efforts

and expect a constructive feedback on their progress so they can decide which areas to

improve. Unfortunately, most reports are kept confidential. They are usually shown at

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the end of the academic year. In the times of accountability and transparency and

data-driven decision making, information about a process is crucial.

A fifth reason, classroom observations are almost always judgmental and part

of the observer’s administrative chores. Teachers know as a fact that every year they

have to get ready for classroom visits, once per term, two to three times a year. Rarely

is there a pre-conference during which teacher and visitor agree on the visit’s

objectives.

On the one hand, class visits are judgmental because they always end with a report,

verbal or in writing, which points out to the teacher’s failure to do something and

recommends ‘fixes’ which, to the teacher’s bewilderment, are most often irrelevant.

Even worse in case some are recommendations relevant, they are not revisited again

to check whether or not the teacher has tried them to improve his skills.

On the other hand, they are part of administrative chores because the adviser is

interested in writing reports to his superiors as an evidence of his commitment to the

job. In any given classroom, an atmosphere of mistrust hangs in the air while the

teacher and the visitor are playing the hunter and the prey game.

The basis of future in-service professional development: a proposal

Louks-Horsley, et al (1987) maintain that effective professional development

programs must take into account that adults learn differently than young learners

which necessitates an understanding of adult learning theories. What follows is a look

at one adult learning theory, andragogy, the art and science of helping the adults learn

(Knowles, 1990).

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Regardless of the critiques “andragogy continues to be an important, and quite often

controversial topic in adult education environs” (Davenport, 1987, p.7). The

andragogy debate can offer another lens through which teacher’s educators can see

their learners. It can also raise awareness about the characteristics of the learner,

regardless of the age, race or gender. I think, what is important is not andragogy, per

se; rather, it is the considerable amount of discussion it has so far spawned.

Andragogy roots

Andragogy was formulated in Europe in 1833 by Alexander Kapp, a German

teacher. It was Eduard Lindeman who introduced the term to the USA in 1926.

Brookfiled (1984) gives Lindeman credit for Lindeman’s early contribution to

andragogy.

“He offered a conceptualization of practice which still guides many adult educators; he

outlined a critical theory of adult learning; he introduced the concept of andragogy into the

American literature; he argued constantly for the social relevance of adult education; he

identified what he regarded as the distinctive method of adult education; he defined what he

felt to be the proper curricular domain of adult education” (p.186)

For Lindeman adult learning is a

“cooperative venture in non-authoritarian, informal learning the chief purpose of which it to

discover the meaning of experience; […] a technique of learning for adults which makes

education coterminous with life, and hence elevates living itself to the level of an experiment”

(ibid, pp.187.188).

Malcolm Knowles worked under the supervision of Lindeman. In 1968, he proposed

a new label and a new technology. He defined (1988) the term andragogy “as the art

and science of helping adults learn, in contrast to pedagogy as the art and science of

teaching children” (p.43) he popularized the term through his work on the field of

adult education.

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Andragogy assumptions

At first, Knowles based his ‘andragogy’ on four assumptions about the characteristics

of the adult learner. After continuous refinement, two more were added.

Today, there are six core assumptions or principles of the current model of andragogy

as shown in the table below.

Knowles’ assumptions Explanation

The need to learn adults need to know why they have to learn something

Self-concept as they mature, adults become less dependent on

educators and more self-directed.

Prior experience:

As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir

of experience that becomes an increasing resource for

learning.

Readiness to learn Adults become ready to learn if they feel the need to

cope with certain situation.

A pragmatic orientation

Adult’s orientation to learn is life-centered. They

approach education because they need to learn

something new to achieve their full potential

The motivation to learn is

internal.

Adults are driven by intrinsic rather than motivation to

learn.

Adapted from Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2005).

Andragogy versus pedagogy

These assumptions are coupled with the contrast that Knowles drew between

andragogy, the art or science of helping the adults learn and pedagogy the art and

science of helping children learn. In contrast, "It is interesting to note that Lindeman

did not dichotomize adult versus youth education, but rather adult versus

'conventional' education" (Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 2005, p. 40).

Knowles emphasized that "The andragogical model is a process model, in contrast

to the content models employed by most traditional educators" (ibid, p. 115).

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Word formation

Knowles used the stems of the Greek words to develop the term andragogy in parallel

to pedagogy. Indeed, morphologically, pedagogy and andragogy share the same root -

gogy- a Greek word for ‘leading’. "Peda" translates as child, making pedagogy the art

and science of teaching children (Simpson & Weiner, 1989). Semantically, andragogy

get its meaning from –andra- meaning ‘adult’. Thus, andragogy literally means the art

and science of teaching adults (Forrest, 2006).

From pedagogy to andragogy

According to Knowles, the pedagogical model rests on the teacher full responsibility

to make all decisions about what will be learned, how it will be learned, when it will

be learned, and if it has been learned. This is why pedagogy is considered teacher-

centered. However, in andragogy, the instructor is only a helper, a mentor and a guide

who nurtures the students and helps them develop. For this reason, andragogy is

considered a learner-centered educational paradigm. The table below summarizes the

difference between andragogy and pedagogy

Knowles’

assumptions Andragogy Pedagogy

The need to

learn

adults need to know why they have to learn

something The learner is told what to learn.

Self-

concept

as they mature, adults become less dependent on

educators and more self-directed.

The learner is dependent on the

teacher. He has not developed yet

a concept about himself and what

he wants

Prior

experience:

As a person matures he accumulates a growing

reservoir of experience that becomes an

increasing resource for learning.

Life experiences enrich learning.

Given his age, the learner is less

experienced. The experience of

the instructor is more influential.

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Readiness

to learn

Adults become ready to learn if they feel the

need to cope with certain situation.

Students are guided from one

level to the other. They are told

what to do and how to do it to

ensure progress

A

pragmatic

orientation

Adult’s orientation to learn is life-centered. They

approach education because they need to learn

something new to achieve their full potential. It

is also life centered and situated in the real

world.

Due to the learner’s little

experience, learning is a process

of acquiring prescribed content.

The

motivation

to learn is

internal.

Adults are driven by intrinsic rather than

motivation to learn.

Most of the motivation here is

external. The learner is under

pressure of exams, competition

Adapted from Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2005).

Content versus process

The second part of Knowles’s andragogy is the “process model, in contrast to the

content models employed by most traditional educators” (Knowles, et al. 2005, p.

115). The andragogical process design is the foundation of the learning process.

Knowles designs eight steps for the learning experience which make up the process of

learning.

1. Learner preparation for the program.

This step is for introducing the programs purpose, objectives, time and place.

This time is convenient to raise questions pertinent to the course or activity.

2. Prepare an environment conducive to learning.

This includes giving attention to the physical and psychological climate,

attending to mutual respect collaboration and trust.

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3. Learners are involved in planning.

The facilitator involves the learners in planning. This enforces commitments

towards the learning process.

4. Learners’ needs assessment

In small groups, the learners share what they perceive their interests and

needs. A member will report the results of the discussion.

5. The learners formulate their objectives.

The learners work themselves the objectives of their learning.

6. Learners design their learning plans.

7. Assist the learners to carry out their learning plans

The role of the educator is that of a facilitator. He assists the learners until they

themselves achieve the objectives the set for the learning journey.

8. Involving learners in the evaluation of the learning outcomes.

Clearly, Knowles is focusing on the learning process. In other words, it is

oriented towards solving problems not finding products. He emphasizes that “adults

generally prefer a problem-solving orientation to learning, rather than subject-

centered learning” (Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 2005, p. 196).

Andragogy critiques

Knowles theory has instigated what is called the “andragogy Debate”. Many

critics provide evidence that Knowles failed to establish andragogy as a

comprehensive theory for teaching adults. Davenport (1993) asserts that Knowles

himself retreated by viewing andragogy more as an approach or method instead of a

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theory. Many researchers agree that adult education does not need andragogy to

survive.

Others, Sandlin (2005), question the assumptions of andragogy and focuses on

critiques from the feminist, critical and Afrocentric perspectives. The issues raised,

delve deeper into the concepts on which andragogy is premised and their implications.

From a critical perspective, andragogy fails to challenge the structural inequalities in

the society. According to the feminists, andragogy failed to deal with gender

inequalities. From an Afrocentric perspective, andragogy excluded non-white and

western voices. Davenport (1993) argues that the term andragogy possesses a public

relations value but as a theory it is built on unclear assumptions.

Whether it is a theory, a set of principles or assumptions, andragogy can play

an important role in adult education in the UAE, especially, teacher professional

development. First, it offers a worldview through which educators can approach their

work with teachers. It also can help them understand their adult learners better and

plan for programs that are anchored in the characteristics of the teachers as adult

learners and the settings in which they operate.

Changing the in-service professional development

The literature about adult education abounds with resources that can guide in-

service educators in their work with the teachers. Knowles’ andragogical model can

be a starting step with a perspective of using other theories or principles that are more

grounded in the literature and practice of adult education.

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Given the problems and Knowles andragogical model, I suggest some

principles that guide in-service educators in order to plan effective teacher

professional development. The first part concerns the educator himself.

Articulate a philosophy about teacher professional development

A statement of teaching and training philosophy can be used to stimulate

reflection on training. It has to be clearly articulated to reflect the goals and the beliefs

of the educator about his profession, and his adult learners. Merriam (1982) suggests

that

"philosophy contributes to professionalism. Having a philosophic orientation separates the

professional continuing educator from the paraprofessional in that professionals are aware of

what they are doing and why they are doing it. A philosophy offers goals, values, and attitudes

to strive for. It, thus, can be motivating, inspiring energizing to the practitioner" (pp. 90-91).

The components of a philosophy suggested by Chism (1997–98) can be used

to write a personal philosophy of education: Conceptualization of learning,

Conceptualization of teaching, Goals for (adult) learners, Implementation of the

philosophy and Personal growth plan.

Being serious and honest about one’s philosophy is a step forward to

consciously adopting a worldview that defines the boundaries of the profession. It

also helps clarifying the objectives.

Self reflection through journal writing

Self-assessment is an integral part of Knowles andragogical process design.

He introduces adult learners to notions of personal reflection through journal writing.

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Journal writing can help educators to record events, explore feelings, capture

experiences and evolving insights. (Boud, 2001).

Brookfield( 2005) asserts that self-reflection helps educators “to think

critically is mostly defined as the process of unearthing, and then researching, the

assumptions one is operating under, primarily by taking different perspectives on

familiar, taken-for-granted beliefs and behaviors. (p. viii).

Keeping a journal is essential to reflective practice. The journal makes implicit

theories explicit (Clark 1992, p. 79) and allows to critically review behaviors, beliefs

and dogmas. This process can later be used as a basis for personal development plans.

So, using a professional journal can serve in Holly’s terms a “a cyclical pattern of

reflection” (Holly, 1997: p. 8). First the educator reflects on experiences before or as

he writes; and then, reflects on the journal entries themselves at some later stage,

which may provide for further reflection and writing, and so on.

This is a meaning making journey which is based on questioning the implicit

theories, and uncovering aspects of cherished beliefs. In this respect, the journal

entries can serve as a shield against the “andragogy of poverty” and the routine that

haunts the school environment

Fighting the ‘andragogy of poverty’

Now, what is the source of the challenges facing education in the in the UAE?

Is it a ‘pedagogy of poverty’ or an ‘andragogy of poverty’?

In his article "Pedagogy of poverty versus good teaching", Haberman (1992)

exposes the teaching acts that are common in the classrooms. In comparison, an

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andragogy of poverty would look approximately the same. When juxtaposed, the table

below, the students and the teachers look the same.

The table, above, summarizes some of the similarities between what is

happening in the classrooms and what is happening the professional development

programs. Clearly, neither the teacher’s "pedagogy of poverty" nor the educator’s

“andragogy of poverty” is research based. Paradoxically, they have a theory which is

made of stratified beliefs and dogmas. In this view, it would seem unwise for teachers

and educators to question the validity of their practice.

The pedagogy of poverty and the andragogy of poverty juxtaposed

The pedagogy of poverty

(Haberman) Classroom teaching acts

The andragogy of poverty /

Professional development programmes

Giving information Handing out circulars

Asking questions handing out lesson/unit plans templates to be filled.

Giving directions checking lesson/unit plans for compliance giving

directives/ almost always orders

Making assignments observing lessons without constructive feedback

Monitoring seatwork Unplanned visits any time during the

lesson/day/week. Hit-squad visits.

Reviewing assignments no lesson pre-conference.

Giving tests There must be 2 or 3 RECOMMENDATIONS after

lesson observations

Reviewing tests Unplanned visits any time during the

lesson/day/week. Hit-squad visits.

giving grades. Giving classroom visit report

punishing noncompliance Reprimanding/ reporting to superior

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Conclusion

The literature shows that Human resources Development (HRD) and professional

development are inextricably linked. They aim at training, educating and developing

the workforce. Consequently, teacher professional development is the responsibility

of all educational stakeholders.

Also, the research shows that “traditional in-service-based, one-size-fits all staff

development for educators has failed” (Sparks, 1983; Joyce, Bennet, and Rolheiser-

Bennet, 1990; McBride, 1994; Marczley, 1996, as cited in Licklider, 1997).

Teachers’ educators are not using what is known about adult learners to help teachers

continue to learn and grow. Knowles andragogical model, the art and science of

helping the adults learn (Knowles, 1990) can play an important role in planning

effective teacher professional development. It can help educators understand their

adult learners to plan for program that are anchored in the characteristics of the

teachers and the settings in which they operate.

Knowles assumptions, though controversial, can guide the educators to deal with their

teachers. Also important is the andragogical process design which is the foundation

of the learning process. Both the assumptions and the process design allow the

educator to approach the process of teacher development by focusing on the teachers

needs rather than the program requirements.

The educator needs to reflect on his own practice using a journal in which he can

record his experiences. Making his beliefs and dogmas explicit will result in good

practice. Furthermore, the educator has to articulate his personal teaching and

training philosophy. In so doing, he sets a model for his teachers and creates an

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opportunity to stimulate reflection. The educators have the responsibility to mentor

and nurture the teacher s and help them perform to their full potential.

Since “educational improvement will only come about as teachers develop

professionally” (Holly, 1997: 20), educational leaders in my context should shape a

teacher education path for teachers by investing in school-based professional

development programs. If well-designed and tailored to students and teachers‟

learning needs, such programs will certainly lead to educational improvement

because they are closely linked to practice in specific school contexts.

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