Aviation - TEAMS Bharathiar University Cochin Ernakulam ...

School of Distance EducationBharathiar University, Coimbatore - 641 046

Aviation

BBAAirline & Airport Management

(Annual Pattern)IInd Year

Paper No. 6

Author: P S Senguttuvan

Copyright © 2014, Bharathiar UniversityAll Rights Reserved

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SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATIONBharathiar UniversityCoimbatore-641046

Page No.

UNIT I

Lesson 1 The Evolution of Aviation 7

Lesson 2 Aviation Industry in India 21

Lesson 3 Aircraft Manufacturers 41

UNIT II

Lesson 4 World Airlines and Airports 59

Lesson 5 World Aviation Bodies 79

UNIT III

Lesson 6 Airport Layout and Security 99

Lesson 7 Airport Managerial Operations 118

UNIT IV

Lesson 8 Airport Services 143

Lesson 9 Airport Handling 163

UNIT V

Lesson 10 Crisis Management at Airport 187

Model Question Paper 203

CONTENTS

AVIATION

SYLLABUS

UNIT I

History of Aviation: The Evolution of Aviation – Growth Drivers – Issues and Challenges – Global AviationIndustry – Aviation Industry in India – An Overview – Aircraft Types and Structures – Aircraft Manufacturers

UNIT II

World Airlines and Airports, World Aviation Bodies: Airports – Civil , Military – Training – Domestic/International – Passenger/Cargo Terminals – World Airlines – World’s Major Airports – IATA/ICAO – NationalAviation Authorities & Role of State and Central Governments – Airports Authority of India

UNIT III

General Subjects: Layout of an Airport & Ground Handling – Airport & Aircraft Security – ManagerialOperations – Airline Catering & Various Bodies Handling of Unaccompanied minors and DisabledPassengers – Handling of Stretcher Passengers and Human Remains – Handling of CIP,VIP &VVIP-Co-ordination of Supporting Agencies/Departments

UNIT IV

Airport Handling: Airport Services – Standard Operations – Ramp Services & Airside Safety – FreightWarehouse Management Airline Terminal Management – Flight Information Counter/Reservation andTicketing – Check In/Issue of Boarding pass – Customs and Immigration formalities – Co-rdination-SecurityClearance – Baggage

UNIT V

Crisis Management at Airports: Various Crisis at Airport – SOP for Bomb Threat – Mitigating Hijack CrisisSituation – Response to Acts of Unlawful Interference – Developing Plans

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The Evolution of Aviation

UNIT 1

UNIT I

6 Aviation

7

The Evolution of AviationLESSON

1 THE EVOLUTION OF AVIATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Aims and Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Growth Drivers

1.2.1 Economic Factors

1.2.2 Political Factors

1.2.3 Government Initiatives

1.3 Issues and Challenges

1.4 Global Aviation Industry

1.4.1 Aviation’s Global Economic Profile

1.5 Let us Sum up

1.6 Lesson End Activity

1.7 Keywords

1.8 Questions for Discussion

1.9 Suggested Readings

1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

Discuss the growth drivers of aviation industry

Discuss the issues and challenges of aviation sector

Explain global aviation industry

1.1 INTRODUCTION The aviation history dates back to over 2,000 years from the earlier time of kites and gliders power-driven, heavier-than-air, ultrasonic, and hypersonic flight.

Kites were the first airborne man-made object. During the period of 200 BC, it was noticed in china, when a general flew a kite over enemy territory so as to determine the length of tunnel needed to enter the enemy territory. Later, gasses like hydrogen were discovered that led to the invention of hydrogen balloons. Moreover physicists came up with various theories in mechanics during 17th and 19th centuries, particularly Newton's laws of motion and fluid dynamics that formed the basis of modern aerodynamics. During the first half of the 19th century tethered balloons filled with hot air were used in various mid-century wars, particularly the American Civil War, where balloons provided observation in the course of the Battle of Petersburg.

8 Aviation

The term aviation, noun of action from stem of Latin avis "bird" was coined in 1863 by French aviation pioneer Guillaume Joseph Gabriel de La Landelle (1812-1886) in "Aviation ou Navigation aérienne".

1.2 GROWTH DRIVERS The factors that contributed towards the growth of aviation can be broadly classified as:

1. Economic factors, and

2. Political factors.

1.2.1 Economic Factors Advent of low cost airlines.

Average growth in gross domestic product of around 8.9% during the last five years.

Corporate showing increasing preference for private jets and air charter services.

Emergence of service sector.

Expectation of disposable income to increase at an average of 8.5% p.a. till 2015.

Increase in inbound and outbound tourists and medical tourism.

Liberalization and economic reforms undertaken by the government.

Over 300 million strong middle class.

Rapid expansion of industries in consonance with economic reforms.

The organized retail boom that would require the need for timely delivery thus contributing to the growth in the air cargo segment.

1.2.2 Political Factors Approval to acquire new aircrafts.

Approval to private operators to operate on international sectors.

City side development of non-metro airports.

Emphasis on development through public-private-partnership mode.

Encouraging private investments in airport and airlines infrastructure.

Helpful FDI norms.

Liberal bilateral service agreements.

Modernization and setting up new airports throughout country.

Open sky policy.

Policy of license to new scheduled operators.

Providing international airport status to major tier I and tier II cities.

Entry of low cost carriers, higher house hold incomes, increased cargo movement, increased FDI inflows, strong economic growth, strong business growth and supporting government policies surging tourist inflow, are the main drivers for the development of aviation sector in India. For growth drivers refer the table below:

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The Evolution of AviationTable 1.1: Passenger/Cargo Forecast till 2016-17

Year Aircraft Movements (in 000) Passenger (in million) Cargo (in 000 tones)

International Domestic International Domestic International Domestic

2005-06 Base year

190.89 647.4 22.36 50.98 920.15 483.8

Growth rate (%)

13.2 14.7 15.9 19.9 12.1 10.1

2006-07 216.14 737.94 25.85 60.91 1028.66 531.64

2007-08 243.91 843.1 29.85 72.87 1151.05 584.61

2008-09 275.58 965.54 34.53 87.31 1289.26 643.31

2009-10 311.74 1108.39 40.01 104.75 1445.5 708.39

2010-11 353.09 1275.38 46.45 125.84 1622.33 780.6

2011-12 400.45 1470.99 54.04 151.36 1822.69 860.78

Growth rate (%)

10.5 9.8 16.2 13.3 12.8 8.4

2012-13 441.58 1653.63 61.04 175.64 1998.45 931.91

2013-14 487.36 1862.08 69.05 203.99 2192.47 1009.47

2014-15 538.38 2100.35 78.23 237.13 2406.81 1094.07

2015-16 595.29 2373.13 88.78 275.9 2643.73 1186.39

2016-17 658.89 2685.9 100.93 321.28 2905.79 1287.18

Source: Airport Authority of India

1.2.3 Government Initiatives The Government of India is extremely committed for the advancement of the aviation industry in Indian. The government of India has initiated various regulatory reforms and numerous policy measures so as to promote participation of private sectors by way of investment. Also GOI has allowed forty-nine per cent foreign direct investments by foreign airlines in the sector. The Government has also given permission on the biggest deal of US$ 900 million-Jet-Etihad FDI in Indian aviation sector. Although certain changes in the deal were asked by the Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB), Etihad will be eligible for 24% ownership stake in Jet for US$ 379 million once the changes in the deal is approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs. Moreover the aviation ministry has also allowed Jet Airways to go for code-sharing with five airlines — American Airlines, Garuda of Indonesia, Malaysian, Kenya Airways and Vietnam Airlines. This will facilitate Jet expand its footprint all over the world and to become the biggest Indian carrier in terms of network. A code-share allows two or more airlines share the same flight. Passengers will buy ticket from one airline and take a flight operated by another airline, thereby allowing partners to increase their reach across the global sky. Additionally, 17 new airports have been proposed for construction during the 12th Five Year Plan by Mr KC Venugopal, Minister of State for Civil Aviation. The Indian Government has also been visionary in terms of the talent requirement for the prospering aviation industry in future. Also, the bill to establish the aviation university is proposed to the Lok Sabha Secretariat so as to address the dearth of trained, supervisory and effective workforces in aviation. The university will offer and endorse education in aviation, instruction, training, research and development work with focus on emerging trends in aviation management, policies and procedures in aviation, aviation science and engineering, transportation of dangerous goods and other related fields, as per the proposal. The Indian Government has estimated the

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total outlay of project to be approximately ` 202 crore (US$ 31.92 million) for the institution until 2019.

1.3 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES The issues and challenges faced by the aviation sector are addressed as under:

Reduction in profitability of airlines:

In spite of the 20-25% year-on-year growth in terms of passenger/cargo volumes, it has been noticed that the airlines have reported losses over the past three years.

The new policy of Ground Handling:

Only three agencies are allowed to take up ground handling services at the six major metro airports as per the new Ground Handling policy, which came into force from January 2009. These three agencies will also be indulged in handling passenger baggage and cargo that is carried in the belly-hold of passenger aircraft and express cargo.

This new policy of ground handling was opposed by airline operators in addition to the cargo carriers.

High prices of Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF):

Fuel prices forms the significant portion of operational cost of airlines. Increase in prices will automatically effect not only the profitability but will also influence other supporting services of the aviation industry.

High airport charges:

The airport (aeronautical) charges imposed by the Indian airports are the second highest amongst the Asian and Gulf countries, after Hong Kong. The airports/aeronautical charges include:

Landing, Housing and Packing Charges

Route Navigation Facility Charges (RNFC)

Terminal Navigation Landing Charges

User Development Fees (in case of private airports)

X-ray Baggage Charges

The figure given below shows the combined airport charges imposed by Indian airports vis-a-vis some of its international peers.

Source: IATA Airport and Air Navigation Charges Manual

Figure 1.1: Airports Charges (Landing Charges, Route Navigation Facility Charges and Terminal Navigation Landing Charges) Levied in Various Countries

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The Evolution of Aviation Lack of technical manpower:

Shortage of manpower is the significant problem faced by the Civil Aviation Sector particularly in the technical domain.

Likewise, with increase in the number of flights and new airports the demand for Aircraft Maintenance Engineers and Air Traffic Controllers will also increase. The requirement for the technical manpower appears negligible as compared to the population of more than one.

Safety and security:

After the 1999 Kandahar hijacking the CISF (Central Industrial Security Force), a paramilitary organisation is in charge of airport security under the Bureau of Civil Aviation Security regulation framework and instructions. Central Industrial Security Force formed an Airport Security Group, which is committed to protect Indian airports. Each and every airport has now been given an Airport Security Unit, a highly trained unit so as to mitigate unlawful interference with civil aviation. Also each airport has a separate security department in addition to the Central Industrial Security Force.

There is a need to revise and improve the Indian aviation safety and security measures because of the high power serial bombings witnessed across various parts of the country in the past few months, so as to alleviate against any severe measures planned by any form of terrorism against Indian aviation sector Land acquisition:

Huge land areas are needed due to the recent initiatives taken by the government for building greenfield, merchant, cargo and low cost airports and modernization of existing domestic and international airports.

Shutting of old airports:

The Government is on the verge of finalisation of the model concession agreement for public-private partnership concessionaire. It will be vital for the government to incorporate suitable provisions enabling a smooth land acquisition process devoid of damage of any concerned stakeholders. The government should acquire land in advance before the contract is awarded to the concessionaire.

Check Your Progress 1

Fill in the blanks:

1. The first form of man-made flying objects was ……………………

2. The …………………… cost of an airline significantly depends on the fuel prices.

1.4 GLOBAL AVIATION INDUSTRY Global aviation industry caters to virtually every corner of the world, and has been an essential part of the creation of a world economy. The airline industry is a main economic factor, both in terms of its own operations and its influences on related industries for instance tourism and aircraft manufacturing. Few other industries make the amount and greatness of attention given to airlines, not only among its participants but also from the policy makers of the government, the media, and almost anyone who has a story about specific air travel experience.

During much of worldwide development, the global airline industry carried on with major innovations in terms of technological development for instance introduction of jet airplanes for commercial use in the 1950s, followed by the development of wide-

12 Aviation

body “jumbo jets” in the 1970s. During the similar period, airlines were heavily regulated all over the world, creating an environment in which government policy and technological advances took preference over competition and profitability. During the period of economic deregulation of airlines in the US in 1978 that questions of operating profitability, cost efficiency and competitive behaviour have become the central issues faced by airline management.

At present, the global airline industry account for over two thousand airlines operating more than twenty thousand aircraft, rendering service to over thirty seven hundred airports. In the year 2006, the world’s airlines flew nearly twenty eight million scheduled flight departures and carried over two billion passengers. The world air travel growth has averaged almost five per cent per year over the past thirty years, with significant yearly disparities because of the varying economic conditions and differences in economic growth in diverse regions of the world. In general, the annual growth in air travel has been about twice the annual growth in gross domestic product. Even with relatively traditional expectations of economic growth over the next ten to fifteen years, a continued four to five per cent annual growth in global air travel will tend to a doubling of total air travel during this period.

The economic significance of the airline industry and, consecutively, its consequences for aircraft manufacturers, makes the volatility of airline profits and their dependence on good economic conditions a severe apprehension for both industries. Since airline deregulation this concern has grown intensely, as even profits and/or government assistance were the rule rather than the exception for most international airlines proceeding to the 1980s. Over the past 15 years the total net profits of world airlines have shown remarkable volatility. Four consecutive years of losses amounting to approximately over $22 billion from 1990 to 1993 were reported because of the Gulf War and following economic recession, it resumed to record profitability in the late 1990s, with total net profits in excess of twenty five billion dollars being reported by world airlines from 1995 to 1999. Even more dramatic was the industry’s plunge into record operating losses and a financial crisis between 2000 and 2005, with cumulative net losses of $40 billion.

Global Airport Market Overview

Customer-Focused Approach – Result in Diversification of Airport Revenue Sources: The air transport industry, one of the world’s fastest growing industries, is assuming greater importance in the economic and social development of countries worldwide. The growing diversification of airports’ revenue sources is an indicator of an embryonic amalgamation of airports into the economies in which they operate. Accordingly, airports are becoming striking business centres, which aid in boosting urban economic growth; the trend is ensuing in enhanced focus on customer-driven profiles and the quality of airport facilities. In recent times, airport traffic in big hubs has exhibited a noticeable increase. Accordingly, a remarkable level of consolidation of air traffic away from secondary hubs and towards big ones has emerged and an anticipated consolidation of the hub system is expected to drastically transform the distribution of air traffic among airports.

Airports across the world are seeking to limit their reliance on aeronautical revenues to generate resources to meet rising infrastructure demands. As a result, the market is witnessing greater focus on commercial revenues from “retailing, advertisements, ground transport and property development to generate profits”. The importance of non-aeronautical revenues is a superior gauge to measure the new model of business-oriented airport operators entering into the industry and developing a significant value added in providing customer service. Hence, multiple commercial opportunities are being used to exploit the airports business and are viewed as more than air service providers.

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The Evolution of Aviation Long-term Success - Development of Core Airport Operations: “Success in the

global and competitive airport industry will require marketing and new business development skills beyond those that currently exist,” remarks by the Airport Economic Analysts. Thus, airport operators will need to demonstrate key competencies in core airport operations such as technical operations, facility management and safety as well as the management of traditional airport activities such as airport planning. Future development of the airline industry will be determined by an enhanced commercial approach, urgent intensification of capital expenditure and deregulation of the value chain.

The deregulation of the industry will further segregate this value chain, creating opportunities for new operators to make a foray into the industry, thereby fostering efficiency gains as a result of intensifying competition. Moreover, airport operators would do well to enhance process efficiency by reducing airport costs and the charges levied on airlines. Further, the strategic location of airports, their size as well as the catchment areas are crucial factors that will assist in attracting investments, and contributing to passenger growth.

Emergence of Airports as Attractive Business Centres – New Business Approach: Airports are flattering profitable business enterprises based on the mounting revenues generated by non-aeronautical activities, in particular, Retailing, Car parking and Catering. This trend is expected to create opportunities for airport management firms and other companies keen on intensifying their businesses in the catchment areas of airports. Currently, due to the demand from air carriers for the reduction of charges and the aversion of governments to offer subsidies, airports can no longer rely exclusively on aeronautical revenues to generate the resources needed for infrastructural improvements. Therefore, to overcome this trend, airport professionals are looking to boost the commercial revenues from retailers, advertisements, ground transport and property development which offer a huge increase in the infrastructural investments and even to directly generate profits (Frost & Sullivan).

The growing diversification of airports’ revenue sources reflects their stronger integration with the economies in which they operate. Airports have turn out to be attractive business centres and are sustaining economic growth in the areas where they are located. “The importance of non-aeronautical revenues is a good indicator of the new model of business-oriented airport operators entering the industry and the growing importance being given to the customer service”. As a result, ‘airports are now increasingly seen not only as air-service providers but also as potential providers of multiple commercial opportunities such as shopping and entertainment’. However, airport operators who are eager to succeed in the marketplace will have to demonstrate competencies in core airport operations, such as technical operations, facility management or safety, besides the management of traditional airport activities such as airport planning. Ultimately, the challenge would help in building an organization to achieve better economic returns. Success in a globalized and highly competitive airport industry would require marketing and new business development skills beyond those that currently exist in the industry.

1.4.1 Aviation’s Global Economic Profile Aviation is an important portion of the increasingly globalized world economy, aiding the growth of tourism and international investment, international trade, and connecting people across landmasses.

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Direct Impacts

The aviation industry itself is a major direct contributor in terms of occupation and fiscal activity, in airline and airport operations, air traffic management, aircraft maintenance, head offices and undertakings directly aiding air passengers, for instance check-in, handling of baggage, on-site retail and catering services. Direct impacts also take account of the activities of aerospace manufacturers selling aircraft and components to airlines and related businesses.

Each year approximately over 2.6 billion passengers are carried by world’s airlines and forty eight million tonnes of freight. Rendering these services produces 8.4 million direct jobs within the air transport industry and adds $539 billion to global Gross domestic product. Compared with the Gross domestic product contribution of other sectors, the global air transport industry is larger than the pharmaceuticals ($445 billion), the textiles ($236 billion) or the automotive industries ($484 billion) and around half as big as the global chemicals ($977 billion) and food and beverage ($1,162 billion) sectors. In fact, if air transport were a country, its Gross domestic product would rank it nineteenth in the world, roughly equal to that of Switzerland or Poland.

Of the 8.4 million jobs directly generated by the air transport industry:

0.5 million are employed by airport operators, in airport management, maintenance and security.

0.8 million people work in the civil aerospace sector, involved in the manufacture of aircraft systems, frames and engines.

2.2 million jobs for airlines or handling agents, including flight crew, check-in staff and maintenance crew.

4.9 million people have other jobs on-site at airports — for example, in retail outlets, restaurants, hotels and government border agencies.

Air transport also has significant ‘multiplier’ effects, which mean that its whole contribution to global employment and Gross domestic product is much larger than its direct impact alone.

Indirect Impacts

The indirect impact includes:

Employment and activities of suppliers to the air transport industry — for instance, aviation fuel suppliers; construction companies that build airport facilities; manufacturers of goods sold in airport retail outlets; suppliers of sub-components used in aircraft; and a wide variety of activities in the business services sector for example information technology, call centres and accountancy.

Over 9.3 million indirect jobs world-wide are backed by purchase of goods and services by companies in the air transport industry. These indirect jobs contributed approximately six hundred and eighteen billion dollars to global gross domestic product in 2010.

Induced Impacts It takes account of:

The spending of those directly or indirectly employed in the air transport sector supports jobs in industries such as retail outlets, companies producing consumer goods and a range of service industries (such as banks and restaurants).

Globally, approximately 4.4 million induced jobs world-wide are backed through employees in the air transport industry using their income to purchase goods and services for their own consumption.

15

The Evolution of Aviation In the year 2010 the induced contribution to world Gross domestic product is

estimated at $ 288 billion.

Wider Catalytic (spin-off) Benefits

Transportation by air is the most far-reaching economic contribution is by means of its contribution to the performance of other industries and as an enabler of their growth. These ‘catalytic’ or ‘spin-off’ gains of aviation affect industries across the whole spectrum of economic activity.

Transportation by air is crucial for tourism, which is a most important engine of economic growth across the globe, especially in growing economies.

Transportation by air eases world trade; aiding countries participate in the global market by increasing access to international markets and allowing globalization of production.

Transportation by air helps in increasing productivity; improve business operation and efficiency, by encouraging investment and innovation; and allowing companies to attract high-quality employees due to better country’s connectivity and reach.

Air Transport Stimulates Tourism

It directly contributed $1.8 trillion to world Gross domestic product in 2011 and supported over 99 million direct jobs world-wide — 3.4% of total employment.

By 2021, the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) anticipates direct employment in the tourism industry to be more than one hundred twenty million people globally.

Aviation plays a central role in supporting tourism. Over fifty-one per cent of international tourists now travel by air. Tourism is especially significant in many developing countries, where it is a fundamental part of economic development strategies. For example, in Africa, the jobs of an estimated 2.5 million people directly employed in tourism are supported by overseas visitors coming by air, constituting thirty-four per cent of all tourism jobs in Africa.

The contribution of air transport to tourism employment and Gross Domestic Product:

Direct: 14.4 million direct jobs in tourism globally are projected to be backed by the outlay of foreign visitors arriving by air. This take account of jobs in industries for example hotels, visitor attractions, restaurants, local transport and car rental, but it does not consist of air transport industry jobs.

Indirect: A further 13.2 million indirect jobs in industries supplying the tourism industry are reinforced by visitors arriving by air.

Induced: These direct and indirect tourism jobs backed by air transport generate a further 6.9 million jobs in other parts of the economy, by employees spending their earnings on other goods and services.

Air transport supports 34.5 million jobs within tourism, adding around $762 billion a year to world Gross domestic product.

Contribution to World Trade

The aviation industry encourages global economic growth and development by way of international trade. According to the predictions, it is believed that world’s economies will become more dependent on international trade over the next decade. Global trade is projected to nearly double, growing at more than twice the rate of global gross domestic product growth, with China, India and other emerging markets leading the way.

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Air freight is fast and reliable over great distances as compared to other modes of transportation. Though, these benefits come at a cost. Accordingly, air freight is customarily used to transport goods that are light, compact, consumable and have a high unit value.

Nowadays, air transport is the main constituent of many industries’ global supply chain, used primarily for the transfer of time sensitive goods. Rapid delivery is especially significant to businesses whose customers are running efficient production processes or who need urgent delivery of spare parts for machinery and equipment. High-value, lightweight and sensitive electrical components are transported by air from manufacturing facilities all over the world to be assembled.

Exporters of perishable products for instance food and flowers (can only reach export markets by air, rendering secure employment and economic growth to regions that gain from such trade. For example, it is projected that 1.5 million livelihoods in Africa depend upon such exports to the United Kingdom market alone.

These fundamental features of air freight are most seeming in the data on the modes of transport used in global trade. While accounting to a lesser extent than 0.5% of the tonnage of world trade, air freight makes up over a third of the value of international trade.

Passenger Air Services’ Role in International Trade

For international trade development passenger air services are also important. While technologies for example video conferencing can be very helpful, many companies still consider that face-to-face meetings are important for developing client relationships and making new business tie-ups. A recent survey of over twenty two business people found that 87% rate face-to-face meetings as necessary factor for ‘sealing the deal,’ and approximately all (95%) agreed that such meetings are important for building and ensuring long-term relationships. Approximately fifty two per cent people said that restrictions on the numbers of flights they take for work would hurt their business.

As per some other survey it is estimated by corporate executives that 28% of existing business would be lost without in-person meetings. Additionally, they estimate that roughly 40% of potential customers are converted to new customers with an in-person meeting compared to 16% without.

Paying Our Way

Unlike other modes of transportation the aviation transport industry pays a huge bulk of its own cost of infrastructure comprising of airport terminals, runways and air traffic control, instead being financed through taxation and public investment or subsidies like road and railways. Furthermore, companies in the air transport industry make significant tax payments to national treasuries. Aviation infrastructure costs are funded through passengers and airlines charges and airport commercial revenue. In 2008 user charges, which totalled $64.1 billion, are in general included in the price of the airline ticket.

To recover the costs of providing facilities and services for civil aviation user charges are designed and applied u. User charges include:

the costs of providing airports and air navigation services, including appropriate amounts for cost of capital and depreciation of assets,

costs of maintenance, operation, management and administration.

in some cases, airport user charges are offset by airport commercial revenues that result from the provision of airport facilities.

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The Evolution of AviationIn 2010, globally airports spent around twenty-six billion dollars on capital expenditure including new infrastructure, improving existing facilities to increase efficiency, building new capacity to meet demand growth, and building energy-efficient terminals.

In contrast, while road users pay fuel duties and vehicle excise taxes, most governments invest in new highways and in road maintenance. While some countries have different approaches, user charges are typically not applied except in the form of a toll charge on some highways.

In many parts of the world, rail services are also heavily subsidized by local, regional or national governments. Between 2007 and 2009 in Europe, state aid for rail services totalled to almost $58 billion a year, compared to $440 million for aviation (funds used in most cases for commercially unviable services to remote communities). The cost of rail infrastructure is also state funded. For example, the latest high speed rail line in the United Kingdom is anticipated to cost taxpayers some $50 billion when fully completed.

Air Transport: A Stimulus for Greater Productivity

Perhaps, the major economic advantage of better connectivity emanates through its influence on the long-term performance of the wider economy by improving the overall level of productiveness. A rise in productivity in firms outside the aviation sector comes through two main channels:

1. through the effects on domestic firms of increased access to foreign markets and increased foreign competition in the home market; and

2. through the freer movement of investment capital and workers between countries.

Improved connectivity: opens up new markets and encourages exports while simultaneously gains

competition and choice in the home market from foreign-based producers, promoting firms to specialize in areas where they have a comparative advantage;

can drive down costs and prices for firms that have a relative advantage for example innovative services and products , profiting domestic consumers in the process;

opens domestic markets to foreign competitors, which can also be an significant driver for falling unit production costs, either by forcing domestic firms to adopt best international practices in production and management methods or by encouraging innovation;

can benefit domestic customers through competition by decreasing the mark-up over cost that firms charge their customers, particularly where domestic firms have so far liked some shelter from competition.

Economic performance can also be increased by improved connectivity by enabling firms to invest outside their parent country, which is known as Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Foreign direct investment essentially means some movement of staff: either for servicing and meeting customers, technical know-how or management oversight. Passenger traffic and trade can also be increased by way of improved connectivity which in turn, can lead to a more favourable atmosphere for foreign firms to operate in greater links to the outside world often drive a more favourable global business environment. In a survey of 625 businesses in five countries, respondents considered the absence of good air transport links to be one of the major determining factors in not making an investment. On average, 18% of firms reported that the lack of good air transport links had affected their past investment decisions. Of the investments that were affected, 59% were made in other locations with better air services, 18% went

18 Aviation

ahead anyway, but with significantly higher costs, while in 23% of cases no investment was made.

Measuring the Impact on Productivity

According to various studies and research, it is proved that improvement in connectivity affects the long term impact on the gross domestic product of the country. This is not straightforward. Given that the supply-side benefits of connectivity come through encouraging international trade and inward investment, any impact is likely to manifest itself progressively over time. This prolonged adjustment makes it very stimulating to unravel the impact that improved connectivity has had on long-term growth from the many other factors that affect an economy’s performance. This issue is reflected, however, in the wide range of estimates that studies have reached for connectivity’s impact on long-term growth.

Based on a conservative estimate, a 10% improvement in global connectivity (relative to gross domestic product) would see a 0.07% per annum increase in long-run gross domestic product. Given the increase in global connectivity due to air transport over the last couple of decades Oxford Economics figure this impact to be worth over $200 billion to global gross domestic product.

There is a strong positive relationship between higher connectivity to the global network as per the analysis — as a proportion of gross domestic product — and labour productivity. Growing and transitional economies typically have low connectivity relative to their gross domestic product and also relatively low labour productivity.

Innovation

Aviation industry is a technology-advanced industry deeply involved in the creation of high-specification products which drives development & D in a number of areas. The innovations and research in the aviation industry leads to more efficient aircraft technology and operational practices — with associated environmental benefits — but also helps build research capacity at universities and skills across society. The advantages of R&D by the aerospace industry to society are projected to be much higher than in manufacturing as a whole — every hundred million dollars of investment into research ultimately produces additional seventy million dollar in gross domestic product y-a-y.

Leaders from aviation industry express concern regarding the future threat of a lack of science, technology, engineering and mathematics graduates entering the labour pool. This is motivating resources to be engrossed on encouraging the next generation of engineers.

Research conducted for the Aerospace Industries Association (AIA) proposes that aerospace contributes almost $100 billion in export sales to the United States’ economy and every dollar invested in aerospace yields an extra $1.50 to $3 in economic activity. The influence that aerospace has on the rest of the USA’s high-tech economy is also considerable.

This explains why organizations like Aerospace Industries Association actively highlight initiatives to recruit and retain high quality workers, both to create new aerospace-centric jobs and as maintain the current levels of activity.


Fill in the blanks:

1. Passenger air services are also vital for international ………………… development.

2. Today, air transport is a vital component of many industries’ global supply chain, used primarily for the transfer of ………………… sensitive goods.

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The Evolution of Aviation1.5 LET US SUM UP Aviation services are vital to the economic and social development of any economy. They are a symbol of wealth and a generator of business in the surrounding region and help the economy to expand business, leisure, technology, recreational and trade. There is a determination for having the several types of commercial planes, with their characteristics reflecting their particular use in the regional, national and international markets. An airport is an inter-modal transfer facility between ground and air transportation. One of the most significant functions of an airport is to render the processing facilities for passengers, baggage and freight, servicing facility for aircraft and entry and exit for the clearance of international aircraft, passenger, baggage and freight.

The world airline industry has always been an essential part of the world economy as it is a main economic force for transportation, manufacture, technology and many other sectors in modern society, therefore it contributes a huge profit to global economy growth.

1.6 LESSON END ACTIVITY Prepare a project on the evolution of aviation and the major issues and challenges faced by the industry nowadays.

1.7 KEYWORDS Aviation: It relates to design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft, especially heavier-than-air aircraft.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): It is a direct investment into production or business in a country by an individual or company of another country, either by buying a company in the target country or by expanding operations of an existing business in that country.

Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF): It is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines.

Aerospace Industries Association (AIA): It is an American trade association representing manufacturers and suppliers of civil, military, and business aircraft, helicopters, UAVs, space systems, aircraft engines, missiles, material, and related components, equipment, services, and information technology in the United States.

1.8 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. What are the factors contributing to the air traffic growth? 2. Discuss government initiatives towards development of aviation sector. 3. What are the issues and challenges faced by the aviation industry in India? 4. How air transport stimulates tourism? 5. What is the role of passenger air services in international trade?

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1

1. Kites

2. operational

Contd…

20 Aviation

CYP 2

1. Trade

2. Time

1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS Senguttuvan. P S (2006). Fundamentals of Air Transport Management, Excel Books, New Delhi.

Senguttuvan. P S (2007). Principles of Airport Economics, Excel Books, New Delhi.

21

Aviation Industry in IndiaLESSON

2 AVIATION INDUSTRY IN INDIA

CONTENTS


2.1 Introduction

2.2 Indian Aviation

2.2.1 Size of the Industry

2.2.2 Modernization of Airports

2.3 Aircraft Types and Structures

2.3.1 Major Structural Stresses

2.4 Flight Control Surfaces

2.4.1 Primary Flight Control Surfaces

2.4.2 Secondary or Auxiliary Control Surfaces

2.5 Let us Sum up


2.7 Keywords




Explain Indian aviation industry

Discuss aircraft types and structures

Describe flight control surfaces

2.1 INTRODUCTION The Aviation industry of Indian is one of the quickest developing airline industries across the globe. Historically in December 1912 Indian Aviation Industry started with its first local air route between Karachi and Delhi. This airline was opened by the Indian Air Services in association with Imperial airways of the United Kingdom as an extension of London-Karachi flight. After three years Tata Sons Ltd., started a regular airmail service between Karachi and Madras without any assistance from the Indian government.

Nine air transport companies started carrying both air cargo and passengers in the Indian Territory during the period of independence. In 1948, Air India International a joint sector company of the Indian Government and Air India was to promote and support Indian Aviation Industry. In 1953 Indian Airlines (IA) brought the domestic

22 Aviation

civil aviation sector under the horizon of Indian Government as part of nationalization. Later till the mid 1990's Indian aviation industry was dominated by government-owned airlines. In the year 1990, when the government adopted the Open-sky policy and other liberalization policies the Indian Aviation industry experienced a speedy and dramatic revolution.

Several private airlines entered the aviation business during the year 2000 in line and many more were about to enter into the arena. Today, Indian aviation industry is dominated by private airlines and low-cost carriers for instance GoAir, Deccan Airlines, and Spice Jet, and so on. And the enormous Indian air travel industry - Indian Airlines, slowly lost its market share to these private airlines.

2.2 INDIAN AVIATION The Aviation industry of Indian is one of the quickest developing airline industries in the world with more than 75% share of private airlines in the entire domestic aviation market. With 18% CAGR (compound annual growth rate) and four hundred fifty-four airports and runways in place in the country, of which sixteen are labelled as international airports.

According to the latest figures released by the Ministry of Civil Aviation, the AAI (Airports Authority of India) seems set to accrue better margins in 2009-10, due to upsurge in traffic movement and growth in revenues by almost US$ 21.4 million in 2009. The credit for this upsurge goes to Delhi International Airport Limited (DIAL) and Mumbai International Airport Limited (MIAL) because of increase in share of revenue by these two airports. As per the report by the Ministry of Civil Aviation, passengers carried by Indian domestic airlines from January-February 2010 stood at 8,056,000 as against 6,761,000 in comparison to the period of 2009 − a growth of 19.2%.

According to the annual Airport Service Quality (ASQ) passenger survey, Currently Hyderabad International Airport has been ranked amongst the world's top five together with airports at Seoul, Singapore, Hong Kong and Beijing. Hyderabad International Airport is managed by a public-private joint venture comprising of the GMR Group, Malaysia Airports Holdings Berhad and both the State Government of Andhra Pradesh and the AAI (Airports Authority of India).

The main categories in which the Indian aviation sector can be broadly classified are:

1. Scheduled air transport service consisting of domestic and international airlines.

2. Non-scheduled air transport service consisting of air taxi operators and charter operators.

3. Air cargo service that takes care of air transportation of cargo and mail.

Scheduled air transport service: It is an air transport service that is operated as per the printed timetable and fly between two or more places. It takes account of:

1. Domestic airlines, which provide scheduled flights within India and to select international destinations. Some of the domestic airlines in the aviation industry in India are Air Deccan, Spice Jet, Kingfisher Airline and IndiGo.

2. International airlines operate from scheduled international air services to and from India.

Non-scheduled air transport service: In this type of service the operator is not allowed to issue tickets to passengers and publish the timetable as it dose not operate on scheduled basis but may be on charter basis and/or non-scheduled basis.

Air cargo services: This type of service takes care of transportation of cargo and mail by air. It may or may not be on scheduled or non-scheduled basis. This type of service

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Aviation Industry in Indiafunctions within India. In case of operation abroad, an operator has to take specific permission from Directorate General of Civil Aviation proving his capacity for carrying such an operation.

2.2.1 Size of the Industry The AAI (Airport Authority of India) comprise a total of 127 airports in the country, which consist of 13 international airports, 7 custom airports, 80 domestic airports and 28 civil enclaves. Currently there are about 450 airports and 1091 registered aircrafts in India.

Top Leading Companies

The Indian aviation industry can be broadly classified into three types of players:

Public players: It includes Air India, Indian Airlines and Alliance Air.

Private players: It include Jet Airways, Air Sahara, Paramount airways, Go Air Airlines, Kingfisher Airlines, Spice Jet, Air Deccan and many more.

Start up players: It includes Omega Air, Magic Air, Premier Star Air and MDLR Airlines. Basically these are those players that are planning to enter the aviation market.

Employment Opportunities

Currently India Aviation Industry has need of nearly 7,500-8,000 pilots and an equal number or more air cabin crew. Heavy pay packages are awaiting pilots with a Commercial Pilot License (CPL). An amateur pilot can begin his career with a salary of ` 2.5-3 lakh a month with a commercial airline. With the rapid increase in the number of airlines, pilots are in great demand.

Aviation sector provides the following types of opportunities:

Air cargo pilot

Air traffic controller

Cabin crew

Cabin safety instructor

Cabin services instructor

Cargo officers

Commercial pilot

Co-pilot

Expert cabin crew

Ground staff

Guest service agent

In-flight base managers

In-flight managers

Licensed aircraft maintenance engineering

Maintenance controllers

Quality control manager

Training instructor

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Latest Developments Jet has become the first Indian airline to place an order of fuel-efficient 737 Max

aircraft with the plane-maker Boeing. Boeing and Jet have recently inked a purchase agreement wherein Jet has agreed to buy 50 such planes at a cost of around US$ 5 billion. The agreement is still under negotiation (for discounts). The service of 737-Max is expected to commence by 2017.

India's first ever aviation university, the Rajiv Gandhi National Aviation University at Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh, will start imparting training to aspiring pilots, aircraft engineers and cabin crew in September 2014. The educational entity is a Government organisation that has been developed to acknowledge the industry's chronic talent shortage. The university will induct 1, 000 students by 2018 and eventually, all flying schools in India will get affiliated to this university.

The Government of Haryana plans to establish a cargo airport in the state by taking up Public Private Partnership (PPP) mode for the green-field project at Meham in Rohtak. The Haryana State Industrial and Infrastructure Development Corporation (HSIIDC) will be the equity partner for bearing the cost of land acquisition for the project.

In August 2013, India's first Indigenous Aircraft Carrier (IAC), being developed at the Cochin Shipyard, has been launched. It is expected that the 40, 000 tonne-warship machinery will be operational by 2018. It is done with major fittings and underwater work. Now the superstructure, the upper decks and out-fittings are to be worked upon.

2.2.2 Modernization of Airports Airports Authority of India (AAI) manages the development and modernization of all 35 non-metro airports in the country simultaneously and work is due to be completed by the year end of 2010. Wholly owned subsidiaries of AAI are being created for betterment of these airports. According to the AAI there are work orders for terminal buildings at 13 airports, and for airside development, including runway, taxiway, apron, fire station, control tower and isolation bay, at 19 airports.

Policy on Merchant Airports Indian Aviation Industry will allow 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the development of airport infrastructure, the Government is fast moving towards finalizing a policy on merchant airports. Under this new concept, merchant airports will be built entirely by private parties with their own resources, without any government funding.

Growth in MRO Segment Indian Aviation with the advent of low-cost airlines and ever-increasing passenger traffic there is a fleet expansion. There is an Initiation of the whole new business avenue for global aircraft companies in Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO). This MRO facility provides major and minor maintenance, refurbishment and repairs of aircraft. The giant players like Boeing and Airbus have announced their plans for MRO facilities in India.

Foreign Equity Participation in Air Transport Services Recently the Government in India has approved the Domestic Air Transport Policy which provides for foreign equity participation up to 49% and also investment by Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) up to 100% in the domestic air transport services. As the government plans to fix a higher foreign direct investment (FDI) ceiling for five sub-sectors of the industry in days to come the flow of foreign investment into aviation is likely to get smoother.

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Aviation Industry in India2.3 AIRCRAFT TYPES AND STRUCTURES A device used for, or is meant to be used for flight in the air is known as aircraft. The various categories of aircraft includes (Figure 2.1):

airplane,

rotorcraft,

glider, and

lighter-than-air vehicles.

Each of these categories can be further bifurcated according to their individual features for instance airships and balloons. Both are lighter-than-air aircraft but have distinguishing features and are operated in a different way.

Fixed-wing aircraft is the most common aircraft. As the name entails, the wings on this type of aircraft are attached to the fuselage and are not meant to move independently in a fashion that results in the creation of lift. One, two, or three sets of wings have all been successfully utilised. (Figure 2.2) Rotary-wing aircraft for example helicopters are also widespread.

Figure 2.1: Examples of Different Categories of Aircraft, Clockwise from top left:

Lighter-than-air, Glider, Rotorcraft and Airplane

The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft comprises of five principal units: 1. the fuselage, 2. wings, 3. stabilizers, 4. flight control surfaces, and 5. landing gear. (Figure 2.3) Helicopter airframes consist of the fuselage, main rotor and related gearbox, tail rotor (on helicopters with a single main rotor), and the landing gear. A wide variety of materials are used for the construction of airframe structural components. Wood was basically used for the construction of earlier aircrafts along with steel tubing and aluminium. Moulded composite materials were used many newly certified aircraft such as carbon fibre. Structural members of an aircraft’s fuselage include stringers, longerons, ribs, bulkheads, and more. Wing spar forms the basic structural member in a wing. TA wide variety of materials can also be used for the making the skin of aircraft, ranging from impregnated fabric to plywood, aluminium, or composites. There are many components that support airframe function below the skin and attached to the structural fuselage. The whole airframe and its components are joined by rivets, bolts, screws, and other fasteners. Welding, glues, and special bonding procedures are also applied.

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Figure 2.2: A Monoplane (top), Biplane (middle), and Tri-wing Aircraft (bottom)

2.3.1 Major Structural Stresses Structural members of Aircraft are made to hold a load or to withstand stress. In planning an aircraft structure, every square inch of wing and fuselage, spar, every rib, and even each metal fitting ought to be taken into account in relation to the physical features of the material of which an aircraft is made. Each part of the aircraft should be designed to withstand the load to be enforced upon it.

Figure 2.3: Principal Airframe Units

Stress analysis is the term used for the determination of such loads. Though planning the design is not the function of the aircraft technician, it is, however, vital that the technician recognize and appreciate the stresses involved in order to avoid changes in the original design through improper repairs.

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Aviation Industry in IndiaThe terms “stress” and “strain” often used interchangeably, are not the same thing. Stress is caused due to the external load of external force. It is a material’s internal resistance or counterforce that opposes distortion, whereas strain is the level of distortion of a material. When a force or load is applied on a material, that material is distorted, irrespective of how robust the material is or how light the load is.

There are five major stresses (Figure 2.4) to which all aircraft are subjected:

Bending

Compression

Shear

Tension

Torsion

Tension is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull something apart. (Figure 2.4A) The aircraft is pulled forward by the engine, but air resistance tries to hold it back resulting in tension, which stretches the aircraft. The material’s tensile strength is valued in Pounds Per Square inch (PSI) and is calculated by:

load (in pounds) required to pull the material apart cross-sectional area (in square inches)

The stress that resists a crushing force is Known as Compression. (Figure 2.4B) The material’s compressive strength is also measured in PSI. Compression is the stress that tends to shorten or squeeze aircraft parts.

The stress that produces twisting is known as torsion. (Figure 2.4C) While moving the aircraft forward, the engine also tends to twist it to one side, but other aircraft components hold it on course. As a result, torsion is created. The material’s torsion strength is its resistance to twisting or torque. The stress that resists the force tending to cause one layer of a material to slide over an adjacent layer is known as shear. (Figure 2.4D) Two riveted plates in tension subject the rivets to a shearing force. Typically, the shearing strength of a material is either equal to or less than its tensile or compressive strength. The parts of the aircraft are often subject to a shearing force particularly screws, bolts, and rivets. The combination of compression and tension is known as bending stress. The rod in Figure 2.4E has been compressed on the inside of the bend and stretched on the outside of the bend.

Figure 2.4: The Five Stresses that may act on an Aircraft and its Parts

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A single member of the structure may be exposed to multiple stresses. In a number of cases, the structural members are designed to carry end loads rather than side loads. They are designed to be exposed to tension or compression rather than bending.

The principal requirement in certain structures is the resistance or strength to the external loads enforced during operation. Though, there are many other features besides designing to control the 5 major stresses that engineers should account for. For instance, cowling, fairings, and similar parts may not be subject to significant loads requiring a high degree of strength. However, these parts must have streamlined shapes to meet the requirements of aerodynamic, for example directing airflow or reducing drag or.

Fixed-Wing Aircraft

1. Fuselage: The main body or structure of fixed – wing aircraft is the fuselage. It offers space for various equipment, passengers, accessories, controls, cargo and so forth. The fuselage houses the power plant in single-engine aircraft plant while in multiengine aircraft, the engines may be either in the fuselage, attached to the fuselage, or suspended from the wing structure. There are two general types of fuselage construction: truss and monocoque.

(a) Truss Type: A truss is a rigid framework made up of members, like bars, struts and beams, to protest distortion by applied force or loads.

The truss-framed fuselage is usually covered with fabric.

The truss-type fuselage frame is generally constructed of steel tubing welded together in such a manner that all members of the truss can carry both compression loads and tension (Figure 2.5). In some aircraft, principally the light, single engine models, truss fuselage frames may be constructed of aluminium alloy and may be riveted or bolted into one piece, with cross-bracing achieved by using solid rods or tubes.

Figure 2.5: A Truss-type Fuselage. A Warren Truss uses Mostly Diagonal Bracing

(b) Monocoque Type: The monocoque (single shell) fuselage depends basically on the strength of the skin or covering to carry the primary loads. The design may be divided into two classes:

Monocoque: Various portions of the same fuselage may belong to either of the two classes, but most modern aircraft are well thought-out to be of semi-monocoque type construction.

29

Aviation Industry in India

Figure 2.6: An Airframe using Monocoque Construction

Formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads are used in true monocoque construction to give shape to the fuselage as shown in Figure 2.6.

Semi-monocoque Type:

A modern semi-monocoque was developed to overcome the load/strength problem of monocoque construction.

In addition to frame assemblies, bulkheads, and formers that were used in the monocoque design, in semi-monocoque the skin is reinforced by longitudinal members called longerons. Longerons generally extend across a number of frame members and help the skin support primary bending loads. Longerons are typically made of aluminium alloy either of a single piece or a built-up construction.

Semi-monocoque fuselage also uses stringers. These longitudinal members are usually more numerous and lighter in weight as compared to longerons. They come in a variety of shapes and are generally made from single piece aluminium alloy extrusions or formed aluminium. Stringers have some rigidity but are primarily used for giving shape and for attachment of the skin. Longerons and Stringers collectively prevent tension and compression from bending the fuselage. (Figure 2.7)

Figure 2.7: The Most Common Airframe Construction is Semi-monocoque

30 Aviation

Pressurisation

Many aircraft are pressurised. This means that after take-off air is pumped into the cabin and a difference in pressure between the air inside and outside the cabin is established. This difference in pressure is maintained and regulated. Thus in this way enough oxygen is made available for passengers to breathe normally and move around the cabin without making use of any special equipment at high altitudes.

Significant stress is built up by the pressurisation on the fuselage structure and adds to the complexity of design. Besides withstanding the difference in pressure between the air inside the cabin and the air outside the cabin, cycling from unpressurised to pressurised, and back again, each flight causes metal fatigue. Nearly all pressurised aircraft are semi-monocoque in design so as to deal with such impacts and the other stresses of flight. Pressurised fuselage structures undergo extensive periodic inspections to make sure that any damage is discovered and repaired. Repeated weakness or failure in an area of structure may need that section of the fuselage be redesigned or modified.

Wings

Wing Configurations: Wings are airfoils that, when moved rapidly through the air, create lift. Wings are built in many shapes and sizes. Wing design can differ to furnish certain necessary flight features. The shape of the wings is influenced by the control at various operating speeds, balance, the amount of lift generated and stability. Both the trailing edge and the leading edge of the wing may be curved or straight, or one edge may be straight and the other edge may be curved. One or both edges may be tapered for the reason that the wing is narrower at the tip than at the root where it joins the fuselage. The wing tip may be pointed, rounded or in square shape. The Figure 2.8 shows a number of typical wing leading and trailing edge shapes.

The wings of an aircraft can be attached to the fuselage at the top, mid-fuselage, or at the bottom. They may extend perpendicular to the horizontal plain of the fuselage or can angle up or down slightly. This angle is called as the wing dihedral. The dihedral angle affects the lateral stability of the aircraft. A number of common wing attach points and dihedral angle are shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.8: Various Wing Design Shapes yield Different Performance

31

Aviation Industry in IndiaWing Structure: The structure of the wing is designed in such a way so as to lift it into the air. There are number of factors on which the design of any general aircraft depends upon. Some of these factors are as under:

size,

weight,

use of the aircraft,

desired speed in flight and at landing, and

desired rate of climb.

The wings of aircraft are designated left and right, corresponding to the left and right sides of the operator when seated in the cockpit.

Often wings are of full cantilever design. This means they are built so that no external bracing is needed. Figure 2.10 shows samples of wings using external bracing, also known as semi-cantilever wings. The figure also shows the cantilever wings built with no external bracing. They are supported internally by structural members assisted by the skin of the aircraft. Wing support cables and struts are usually made from steel. Numerous struts and their attach fittings have fairings to decrease drag. Short, nearly vertical supports called jury struts are found on struts that attach to the wings a great distance from the fuselage. This serves to subdue strut movement and oscillation caused by the air flowing around the strut in flight.

Figure 2.9: Wing Attach Points and Wing Dihedrals

The most common material used for the construction of wings is aluminium. Wood covered with fabric can also be used. In the rarer case an alloy of magnesium was also used in the construction of wings. Furthermore, modern aircraft are now more inclined to use stronger and lighter materials all over the airframe and in the construction of wing. Wings made completely of carbon fibre or other composite materials exist, in addition to wings made of a combination of materials for maximum strength to weight performance.

Figure 2.10: Externally Braced Wings, also called Semi-cantilever Wings, have Wires or Struts to Support the Wing. Full Cantilever Wings have no

External Bracing and are Supported Internally

32 Aviation

Pars and stringers running span wise and ribs and formers or bulkheads running chord wise are used in the internal structures of most wings. The principle structural members of a wing are spars. Spars support all distributed loads, along with concentrated weights for instance landing gear, the fuselage, and engines. The skin, which is attached to the wing structure, carries part of the loads levied during flight. It also transfers the stresses to the wing ribs. The ribs, in turn, transfer the loads to the wing spars. (Figure 2.11)

Generally, there are three fundamental designs on which wing construction is based upon:

1. Monospar: The monospar wing includes only one main span wise or longitudinal member in its construction. The required shape or contour to the airfoil is provided by the ribs or bulkhead supply. Although the strict monospar wing is not common, this type of design modified by the addition of false spars or light shear webs along the trailing edge for support of control surfaces is sometimes used.

2. Multispar: The multispar wing takes into account more than one main longitudinal member in its construction. Ribs or bulkheads are often included to give shape to the wing contour.

3. Box Beam: The box beam type of wing construction (Figure 2.12) uses two main longitudinal members with connecting bulkheads to furnish additional strength and to give contour to the wing. A corrugated sheet may be placed between the bulkheads and the smooth outer skin so that the wing can better carry tension and compression loads. In some cases, heavy longitudinal stiffeners are substituted for the corrugated sheets. A combination of corrugated sheets on the upper surface of the wing and stiffeners on the lower surface is sometimes used. Air transport category aircraft often utilize box beam wing construction.

Various manufacturers can adopt modifications to these fundamental wing designs.

Figure 2.11: Wing Structure Nomenclature

Figure 2.12: Box Beam Construction

Wing Spars: As discussed earlier, spars are the fundamental structural members of the wing. They correspond to the longerons of the fuselage. Spars run parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft, from the fuselage toward the tip of the wing, and are generally attached to the fuselage by a truss, plain beams or wing fittings.

33

Aviation Industry in IndiaAt present, there are number of manufactured aircraft that have wing spars made of solid extruded aluminium or aluminium extrusions rapt together to form the spar. The increased use of composites and the combining of materials should make airmen vigilant for wings spars made from a variety of materials.

Wing Ribs: Ribs are the structural crosspieces that combine with spars and stringers to make up the structure of the wing. They generally extend from the wing leading edge to the rear spar or to the trailing edge of the wing. The ribs give the wing its curved shape and transmit the load from the skin and stringers to the spars. Likewise ribs are also used in stabilizers, rudders, elevators and ailerons.

Wood or metal is used to manufacture wing ribs. Aircraft with wood wing spars may have wood or metal ribs while most aircraft with metal spars have metal ribs. Wood ribs are commonly manufactured from spruce. The 3 most common types of wooden ribs are the plywood web, the lightened plywood web, and the truss types. Among these three, the truss type is the most efficient for the reason that it is strong and lightweight, on the other hand it is also very complex to construct.

Wing Skin: Often, to carry part of the flight and ground loads in combination with the spars and ribs the skin on a wing is designed. This is known as a stressed-skin design. The all-metal, full cantilever wing section illustrated in Figure 2.13 shows the structure of one such design. The lack of extra internal or external bracing entails that the skin shares some of the load. Notice the skin become rigid to support with this function.

Figure 2.13: The Skin is an Integral Load Carrying Part of a Stressed Skin Design

The stressed-skin aircraft is often used to carry fuel inside the wing. A special fuel resistant sealant enabling fuel to be stored directly inside the structure is used to seal the joints of the wings. This is known as wet wing design. In turn, a fuel-carrying bladder or tank can be fitted inside a wing. The Figure 2.14 given below shows a wing section with a box beam structural design such as one that might be found in a transport category aircraft. This structure escalates the strength while decreasing weight. Proper sealing of the structure allows fuel to be stored in the box sections of the wing.

Figure 2.14: Fuel is Often Carried in the Wings

A wide variety of materials for example fabric, wood, or aluminium are used to make the wing skin of an aircraft.

Nacelles: Nacelles also sometimes referred as “pods” are streamlined enclosures that are basically used to house the engine and its components. They usually present a

34 Aviation

round or elliptical profile to the wind thus reducing aerodynamic drag. On most single-engine aircraft, the engine and nacelle are at the forward end of the fuselage. On multiengine aircraft, engine nacelles are built into the wings or attached to the fuselage at the empennage (tail section). Occasionally, a multiengine aircraft is designed with a nacelle in line with the fuselage aft of the passenger compartment. Irrespective of its location, a nacelle encompasses the engine and accessories, structural members, engine mounts, a firewall, and skin and cowling on the exterior to fare the nacelle to the wind. There are number of aircraft having nacelles that are designed to house the landing gear when retracted. Retracting the gear to decrease wind resistance is standard procedure on high-performance/high-speed aircraft. The wheel well is the area where the landing gear is attached and stowed when retracted. Wheel wells can be located in the wings and/or fuselage when not part of the nacelle. An engine nacelle incorporating the landing gear with the wheel well extending into the wing root is shown in Figure 2.15.

Figure 2.15: Wheel Wells in a Wing Engine Nacelle with Gear Coming Down (Inset)

The structure of a nacelle typically is made up of structural members similar to those of the fuselage. Lengthwise members, such as longerons and stringers, together with horizontal/vertical members, for instance rings, formers, and bulkheads, to give the nacelle its shape and structural integrity. A firewall is incorporated to isolate the engine compartment from the rest of the aircraft. This is fundamentally a stainless steel or titanium bulkhead that comprises a fire in the confines of the nacelle rather than letting it spread all through the airframe.

Empennage: The tail section of the aircraft is known as empennage. The design of empennage generally comprises tail cone, fixed aerodynamic surfaces or stabilizers, and movable aerodynamic surfaces. The tail cone serves to close and streamline the aft end of most fuselages. The cone is made up of structural members like those of the fuselage; though, cones are usually of lighter construction as they receive less stress in comparison to the fuselage.

Figure 2.16: Components of a Typical Empennage

35

Aviation Industry in IndiaThe other components of the typical empennage are of heavier construction than the tail cone. These members consist of fixed surfaces that help stabilise the aircraft and movable surfaces that help to direct an aircraft during flight. The horizontal stabilizer and vertical stabilizer are the fixed surfaces. The movable surfaces are generally a rudder situated at the aft edge of the vertical stabilizer and an elevator located at the aft edge the horizontal stabilizer.


State whether the following statements are true or false:

1. The stress that produces twisting is known as rudder.

2. The tail section of the aircraft is known as empennage.

2.4 FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES The directional control of a fixed-wing aircraft takes place around the lateral, longitudinal, and vertical axes by means of flight control surfaces designed to create movement about lateral, longitudinal, and vertical axes. These control devices are hinged or movable surfaces through which the attitude of an aircraft is controlled during take-off, flight, and landing. Flight control surface is usually divided into two major groups:

1. Primary or main flight control surfaces, and

2. Secondary or auxiliary control surfaces.

2.4.1 Primary Flight Control Surfaces The primary flight control surfaces on a fixed-wing aircraft consist of:

Ailerons: These are attached to the trailing edge of both wings and when moved, rotate the aircraft around the longitudinal axis.

Elevators: This is attached to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer. When it is moved, it alters aircraft pitch, which is the attitude about the horizontal or lateral axis.

The rudder: It is hinged to the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer. When the rudder changes position, the aircraft rotates about the vertical axis (yaw).

The primary flight controls of a light aircraft and the movement they create relative to the three axes of flight is shown in Figure 2.17.

The construction of primary control surfaces is generally similar to one another and differs only in methods of attachment, shape and sixe. On aluminium light aircraft, their structure is often similar to an all-metal wing. This is suitable for the reason that the primary control surfaces are simply smaller aerodynamic devices. They are typically made from an aluminium alloy structure built around a single spar member or torque tube to which ribs are fitted and a skin is attached. The lightweight ribs are, in many cases, stamped out from flat aluminium sheet stock. Holes in the ribs lighten the assembly. Rivets are used to attach an aluminium skin.

36 Aviation

Figure 2.17: Flight Control Surfaces move the Aircraft Around the Three Axes of Flight

Ailerons

The primary control surfaces that move the aircraft along the longitudinal axis is known as ailerons. To put it differently, movement of the ailerons in flight tends the aircraft to roll. Ailerons are normally located on the outboard trailing edge of each of the wings. They are built into the wing and are calculated as part of the wing’s surface area. Figure 2.18 shows aileron locations on various wing tip designs.

Figure 2.18: Aileron Location on Various Wings

Ailerons are controlled by a side-to-side motion of the control stick in the cockpit or a rotation of the control yoke. When the aileron on one wing deflects down, the aileron on the opposite wing deflects upward. This amplifies the movement of the aircraft around the longitudinal axis. On the wing on which the aileron trailing edge moves downward, camber is increased and lift is increased. On the other hand, on the other

37

Aviation Industry in Indiawing, the raised aileron decreases lift (Figure 2.19). The result is a sensitive response to the control input to roll the aircraft.

Figure 2.19: Differential Aileron Control Movement. When One Aileron is Moved

Down, the Aileron on the Opposite Wing is Deflected Upward

Upon the request of the pilot’s for aileron movement and roll are transmitted from the cockpit to the actual control surface in different ways depending on the aircraft. A system of control cables and pulleys, hydraulics, push-pull tubes, electric, or a combination of these can be engaged.

Elevator

The primary flight control surface that moves the aircraft around the horizontal or lateral axis is known as elevator. Elevator causes the nose of the aircraft to pitch up or down. It is attached to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer and typically spans most or all of its width. Elevator is controlled in the cockpit by pushing or pulling the control yoke forward or aft. A system of control cables and pulleys or push pull tubes is used by light aircraft in order to transfer cockpit inputs to the movement of the elevator. Large aircraft and High performance aircraft normally employ more complex systems. Hydraulic power is particularly used to move the elevator on these aircraft. On aircraft equipped with fly-by-wire controls, an arrangement of electrical and hydraulic power is used.

Rudder

The primary control surface that causes an aircraft to yaw or move about the vertical axis is known as rudder. The directional control is provided by the rudder, it also points the nose of the aircraft in the desired direction. Most aircraft have a single rudder connected to the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer. It is controlled by a pair of foot-operated rudder pedals in the cockpit. When the right pedal is pushed forward, it deflects the rudder to the right which moves the nose of the aircraft to the right. The left pedal is set up to simultaneously move aft and when the left pedal is pushed forward, the nose of the aircraft moves to the left.

As with the other primary flight controls, the transfer of the movement of the cockpit controls to the rudder differs with the intricacy of the aircraft. Many aircraft include the directional movement of the nose or tail wheel into the rudder control system for ground operation. This permits the operator to steer the aircraft with the rudder pedals during taxi when the airspeed is not high enough for the control surfaces to be effective. Some large aircraft have a split rudder arrangement. This is actually two

38 Aviation

rudders, one above the other. At low speeds, both rudders deflect in the same direction when the pedals are pushed. At higher speeds, one of the rudders becomes inoperative as the deflection of a single rudder is aerodynamically sufficient to manoeuvre the aircraft.

2.4.2 Secondary or Auxiliary Control Surfaces Table 2.1: Secondary or Auxiliary Control Surfaces and Respective

Locations for Larger Aircraft

Secondary/Auxiliary Flight Control Surfaces

Name Location Function

Flaps Inboard trailing edge of wings Extends the camber of the wing for greater lift and slower flight.

Allows control at low speeds for short field take-offs and landings.

Trim tabs Trailing edge of primary flight control surfaces

Reduces the force needed to move a primary control surface.

Balance tabs Trailing edge of primary flight control surfaces

Reduces the force needed to move a primary control surface.

Anti-balance tabs Trailing edge of primary flight control surfaces

Increases feel and effectiveness of primary control surface.

Servo tabs Trailing edge of primary flight control surfaces

Assists or provides the force for moving a primary flight control.

Spoilers Upper and/or trailing edge of wing

Decreases (spoils) lift. Can augment aileron function.

Slats Mid to outboard leading edge of wing

Extends the camber of the wing for greater lift and slower flight.


Slots Outer leading edge of wing

forward of ailerons

Directs air over upper surface of wing during high angle of attack.

Lowers stall speed and provides control during slow flight.

Leading edge flap Inboard leading edge of wing Extends the camber of the wing for greater lift and slower flight.



Fill in the blanks:

1. The primary flight control surface that moves the aircraft around the horizontal or lateral axis is known as ………………………...

2. The ………………………... section of the aircraft is known as empennage.

2.5 LET US SUM UP The Aviation industry of Indian is one of the quickest developing airline industries across the globe with more than 75% share of private airlines in the entire domestic aviation market.

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Aviation Industry in IndiaThe AAI (Airport Authority of India) comprise a total of 127 airports in the country, which consist of 13 international airports, 7 custom airports, 80 domestic airports and 28 civil enclaves. A device used for, or is meant to be used for; flight in the air is known as aircraft. The various categories of aircraft include airplane, rotorcraft, glider, lighter-than-air vehicles.

2.6 LESSON END ACTIVITY Prepare a project report on the Aircraft types and structures. (Give figures wherever necessary to support the text).

2.7 KEYWORDS Bending Stress: It is a combination of compression and tension.

Compression: The stress that resists a crushing force is known as compression.

Shear: It is the stress that resists the force tending to cause one layer of a material to slide over an adjacent layer.

Stress: It is a material’s internal resistance, or counterforce, that opposes distortion.

Tension: It is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull something apart.

Rudder: It is the primary control surface that causes an aircraft to yaw or move about the vertical axis.

Elevator: It is the primary flight control surface that moves the aircraft around the horizontal or lateral axis.

Ailerons: They are the primary flight control surfaces that move the aircraft about the longitudinal axis.

2.8 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Explain in brief about the Indian Aviation industry. 2. What are the main categories in which the Indian aviation sector can be broadly

classified? Discuss each in brief. 3. What are the latest developments in Indian aviation industry? 4. What are the various categories of aircraft? Discuss. 5. Describe the general types of fuselage construction. 6. Explain wing structure. 7. Write a brief note on flight control surfaces.


CYP 1

1. False

2. True

CYP 2

1. elevator

2. tail

40 Aviation 2.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Jaroslav J. Hajek, Jim W. Hall, David K. Hein, (2011), Common Airport Pavement Maintenance Practices, Transportation Research Board Antonín Kazda, Robert E. Caves, (2007), Airport Design and Operation, Emerald Group Publishing Knippenberger, Ute, (2010), Airports in Cities and Regions: Research and Practise; 1st International Colloquium on Airports and Spatial Development, Karlsruhe, KIT Scientific Publishing

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Aircraft ManufacturersLESSON

3 AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURERS

CONTENTS


3.1 Introduction

3.2 Airbus Industries

3.2.1 Civilian Products

3.2.2 Competition with Boeing

3.3 New Generation Aircraft – A380

3.3.1 Know About the Airbus A380

3.4 The Boeing Company

3.4.1 Boeing is Organized into Four Business Units

3.4.2 Boeing Technology

3.5 Airline Market Projection – Airbus Industries and the Boeing Company

3.6 Let us Sum up


3.8 Keywords




Explain airbus Industries

Describe new generation aircraft

Discuss about the Boeing company

Identify the airlines market projections

3.1 INTRODUCTION Boeing, Airbus, Cessna, Grumman, Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, Rakwell, Northrop, Polikarpov, Strearman, Fokker, Illusion are the few aircraft manufacturers producing the aircraft for commercial as well as for general aviation purposes. Among these few aircraft manufacturing companies, the common known aircraft producers are Airbus, Boeing, Lockheed and McDonnell Douglas. This lesson deals with two bravura aircraft manufacturers (Airbus and Boeing), who supply aircraft globally to the airlines and leasing companies for the benefit of the economic and social communities.

42 Aviation 3.2 AIRBUS INDUSTRIES

Airbus S.A.S., known as simply Airbus, based in Toulouse, France is the world’s largest commercial aircraft manufacturer. It was incorporated in 2001 under French law as a simplified joint stock company or “S.A.S.” (Société par Actions Simplifiée). Airbus is formerly known as Airbus Industries and is commonly named Airbus. Airbus is jointly held by European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS) (80.0%) and BAE System (20.0%), Europe’s two largest military suppliers and manufacturers. Airbus employs around 52,000 people in several European countries. Final assembling of aircraft is carried out in Toulouse, France and Hamburg and Germany, although construction occurs at a number of plants across Europe. The main competitor of Airbus is Boeing.

Airbus Industries began as a consortium of European aviation firms to compete with American companies such as Boeing and McDonnell Douglas. In the 1960s, European aircraft manufacturers competed with each other as much as the American giants. In the mid-1960s, tentative negotiations commenced regarding a European collaborative approach. In September 1967, the British, French and German governments signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to start development of the 300-seat Airbus A 300. This was the second major joint aircraft programme in Europe, following the Concorde, for which no ongoing consortium was devised. An earlier announcement had been made in July 1967 but this had been complicated by the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC). The British government refused to back its proposed competitor, a development of the BAC 1-11 and instead supported the Airbus aircraft. In December 1968, the French and British partner companies, Sud Aviation and Hawker Siddeley proposed a revised configuration, the 250-seat Airbus A250. Renamed the A300B, the aircraft would not require new engines, reducing development costs. In 1969 the British government shocked its partners by withdrawing from the project. Given the participation by Hawker Siddeley up to that point, France and Germany were reluctant to take over their wing design. Thus the British company was allowed to continue as a major subcontractor.

Airbus Industry was formally set up in 1970 following an agreement between Aerospatiale (France) and Deutsche Aerospace (Germany) CASA, (joined by CASA of Spain in 1971). Each company would deliver its sections as fully equipped, ready to fly items. The name “Airbus” was taken from a non-proprietary term used by the airline industry in the 1960s to refer to a commercial aircraft of a certain size and range, for this term was acceptable to the French linguistically. In 1972, the A300 made its maiden flight and the first production model, the A300B2 entered service in 1974. Initially, the success of the consortium was poor but by 1979 there were 81 aircraft in service. It was the launch of the A320 in 1981 that guaranteed Airbus as a major player in the aircraft market - the aircraft had over 400 orders before it first flew, compared to 15 for the A300 in 1972. It was a fairly loose alliance but that changed in 2000 when DASA, Aerospatiale and CASA merged to form EADS and in 2001 when BAE and EADS formed the Airbus Integrated Company to coincide with the development of the new Airbus A380, which will seat 555 passengers and be the world’s largest commercial passenger jet when it enters service in 2006. On 26 April 2005, the A380 successfully completed its maiden flight in Toulouse, France. The flight lasted almost four hours, the plane taking off from Toulouse Blagnat Airport at 08:29 UTC (10:29 a.m. local time), going west towards the Atlantic Ocean, turning around above the ocean, flying above the Pyrenees mountains and landing at Toulouse Blagnac Airport at 12:23 UTC (2:23 p.m. local time).

3.2.1 Civilian Products The Airbus product line started with the A300, the world’s first twin-aisle, twin-engined aircraft. A shorter variant of the A300 is known as the A310. Building on its

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Aircraft Manufacturerssuccess, Airbus launched the A320 with its innovative fly-by-wire control system. The A320 was a great commercial success. The A318 and A319 are shorter derivatives with some of the latter under construction for the corporate biz-jet market. A stretched version is known as the A321 and is proving competitive with later models of the Boeing 737. The longer range products, the twin-jet A330 and the four-jet A340, have efficient wings, enhanced by winglets. The Airbus A340-500 has an operating range of 16,700 kilometers (9000 nautical miles), the second longest range of any commercial jet after the Boeing 777-200LR (range of 17,446 km or 9420 nautical miles). These are competing strongly with the equivalent Boeing products and may partly explain the cessation of airliner production at Lockheed in 1983 and the take-over of McDonnell Douglas by the surviving US builder of long-distance airliners, Boeing in 1996-1997. The company is particularly proud of its use of fly-by-wire technologies and the common cockpit and systems in use throughout the aircraft family, which make it much easier to train crew.

3.2.2 Competition with Boeing In 2003, for the first time in its 33-year history, Airbus delivered more jet-powered airliners than Boeing. Boeing states that the Boeing 777 has outsold its Airbus counterparts, which include the A340 family as well as the A330-300. The smaller A330-200 competes with the 767, outselling its Boeing counterpart, but it is speculated that the introduction of the 787 may improve Boeing’s market share in this segment. The A380 is anticipated to further reduce sales of the Boeing 747, gaining Airbus a share of the market in very large aircraft.

Currently there are around 3,800 Airbus aircraft in service, with Airbus winning more than 50 per cent of aircraft orders in recent years. But Airbus products are still outnumbered 6 to 1 by in-service Boeings (there are over 4,000 Boeing 737s alone in service, for example). This however is indicative of historical success - Airbus made a late entry into the modern jet airliner market (1972 vs. 1958 for Boeing). Airbus won a greater share of orders and delivered more aircraft in 2003 and 2004. At the aircraft show in Le Bourget in June 2005, Airbus outperformed Boeing in aeroplane sales. Airbus has contracted for the sale of 280 airliners with a contract price of 34 billion dollars, whereas Boeing received orders for 146 aero planes priced in total with 15 billion dollars.

North America is an important region to Airbus in terms of both aircraft sales and suppliers. 2,000 of the total of approximately 5,300 Airbus jetliners sold by Airbus around the world, representing every aircraft in its product line from the 107-seat A318 to the 565-passenger A380, are ordered by North American customers. US contractors supporting an estimated 120,000 jobs earned estimated $5.5 billion (2003) worth of business. For example, the A380 has 51% American content in terms of work share value.

3.3 NEW GENERATION AIRCRAFT – A380 Airbus A380 Superjumbo Twin-deck, Twin-aisle Airliner, Europe Airbus has announced the development of an all-new design Super jumbo, the A380, which is the world’s first twin-deck, twin-aisle airliner. Advantages of the A380 include lower fuel burn per seat and lower operating costs per seat. The 555-seat A380-800, with a non-stop range of 8,000 nautical miles, was launched in December 2000. The aircraft entered production in January 2002. Final assembly of the first airframe started in May 2004. First flight (with the Rolls-Royce engines) took place from Blagnac Airport, Toulouse, in April 2005 and first deliveries are scheduled for Singapore Airlines in the second half of 2006 and Qantas in April 2007. First flight with the General Electric/Pratt & Whitney Engine Alliance GP7200 is scheduled for November 2005.

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14 Airline Customers including Singapore Airlines (launch customer with an order for ten aircraft), Lufthansa (15), Emirates (43), Air France (10), Qantas (12), Malaysia Airlines (6), Virgin Atlantic (6), International Lease Finance (10), Qatar Airways (2), Federal Express (10), Korean Air (5), Thai Airways (6), Ethiad Airways (4), China Southern Airlines (5) and UPS (10), have announced firm orders for 154 A380 airliners. 27 of these are for the cargo version.

Flight Deck

The A380 is a member of the Airbus Flight Operational Commonality family with similar flight decks and operating procedures in the A320, A330 and A340 aircraft, providing easy crew transition training, cross crew qualification and mixed fleet flying.

Construction

In order to minimize the unladen weight, the Airbus 380 structures incorporate a range of new materials as used on the A318 and A340 families of aircraft. Carbon fibre reinforced plastic is used for the central box of the wings, the horizontal stabilizers (which are the same size as the Airbus A310 wing), for the fin and the rear fuselage section and also for ceiling beams. A new material, Glare that is highly resistant to fatigue is used in the construction of the panels for the upper fuselage. The aluminium and fiberglass layers of Glare do not allow propagation of cracks; it is much lighter than conventional materials and represents a weight saving of about 500kg in the construction. Impact resistant thermoplastics are used on the wing leading edge. The aircraft has 16 wing spoilers supplied by Patria of Finland. The A380 incorporates two rather than three Eaton Corporation hydraulic systems with an increased hydraulic pressure of 5000lb/in² instead of a standard 3,000in2.

Upper and Lower Decks

The A380 has twin-aisle cabins on the upper and lower decks; with 49% more floor space for 35% higher seating capacity. A three-class layout provides 555 seats. A typical upper deck layout provides 96 business and 103 economy class seats. The main deck provides 22 first class seats and 334 economy class seats. Two stairwells link the passenger decks. A lifting system between passenger decks provides access for passengers with limited mobility. There is also a cargo hoist linking the two passenger decks. The size of the A380 makes possible a number of configurations and passenger facilities.

There are eight full size doors on both sides of the aircraft. On either side, there are two doors on the main deck and one door on the upper deck forward of the wing that can be used simultaneously for embarking or disembarking passengers. For speedy baggage transfer, two hold loading belts, one at the forward end and one at the rear end under the fuselage can be used simultaneously.

Engines

The aircraft is equipped with four 70,000lb thrust engines, either with the Rolls-Royce Trent 900 or the General Electric/Pratt & Whitney Engine Alliance GP7200. The take-off length is 2,900m at maximum weight at sea level, ISA +15° conditions and the initial cruise altitude is 35,000ft. The aircraft complies with the noise emission limits of ICAO (Chapter 3, Schedule 16) for over fly, approach and side-on manoeuvres and stricter regulations of London’s Heathrow airport concerning take-off and landing. This enables aircraft operations at night. There are ten fuel tanks with a combined capacity of 131,000l of fuel. Refuelling can be carried out in 40mins.

Landing Gear

The 22 wheels Goodrich landing gear consists of two under-wing struts, each with four wheels, two central under-fuselage struts each with six wheels and a twin nose

45

Aircraft Manufacturerswheel. Each landing gear supports about 167 tons. Messier-Dowty supplies the nose landing gear with 350bar hydraulic pressure and Messier-Bugatti the braking and steering systems. The aircraft can complete a 180° turn within a width of 56.5m, which is within the 60m-width dimension of standard runways.

Performance

Maximum operating speed is Mach 0.89 and the range is 15,000km or 8000 nautical miles with the maximum number of passengers. The turnaround time at the airport terminal, including passenger disembarking, cleaning, restocking and embarking the passengers for the next flight is a minimum of 90 minutes.

Freighter Version

The A380 is the first major commercial airliner program with a freighter version being co-developed as part of the new aircraft launch. The A380-800F will transport 150tons of freight using standard, interlineable containers and pallets. The full payload range of the A380-800 F is 5,600 nautical miles. Launch customers are FedEx (10 aircraft) and Emirates (2) and first deliveries are scheduled for 2008.

Pictures of A380 (New Generation Aircraft – 2006)

Figure 3.1: A380 Parked at Airport

Figure 3.2: A380 Interior Bed

46 Aviation

Figure 3.3: A380 Aircraft Interior

Figure 3.4: A380 Staircase

3.3.1 Know About the Airbus A380 Why create wide body aircraft such as the A380? Air travel is expected to continue growing; the A380's ability to carry more passengers and freight and this will help to ease airport congestion by transporting more people and freight without additional aircraft movement. Is the A380 aircraft a welcome change for passengers? The new aircraft (A380) is a real transformation for the user communities (airlines, airports, passengers and airport retail traders). A380 will provide more comfort in every class; it offers 50 per cent more floor space and will typically carry 35 per cent more passengers. Some of the benefits will come as wider seats even for Economy class, some as more spacious aisles and galleys areas to stretch one's legs. Regardless of how airlines plan their seats and services, the design of the A380 cabin ensures low noise level throughout and up to 15 per cent more stowage space for carry-on luggage. In addition, the cabin will benefit from advanced lighting systems and new standards of in-flight entertainment, which will greatly enhance the overall travel experience. These advances in cabin comfort are particularly important for the long haul routes such as London-Singapore and Los Angeles-Sydney. How many passengers can the A380 accommodate? A380 is designed to carry 555 passengers in a typical seating configuration, including an Economy, a Business and a First class. However, most airlines have indicated that

47

Aircraft Manufacturersthey may have fewer seats than this. In any case, there will not be any sensation of being cramped, thanks to the width of the two separate wide body decks, as each will provide more space for everyone. Will the economy class also benefit from more space or will it be only for the business and first classes? The main deck of the A380 is wider than that of any commercial jetliner in operation today. Its extra floor space will benefit everyone aboard and will give airlines new opportunities to create innovative cabin arrangement for the greater comfort for all passengers. Regardless of how airlines arrange their seats and services, even the economy class will be wider. High capacity overhead bins and the latest generation of in-flight entertainment will also significantly enhance passenger comfort. Will it take longer to board and to retrieve luggage? The innovative cabin of the A380 includes a wide dual-lane staircase, which will allow you to board the aircraft in the same time as any other large aircraft, using two standard bridges. Many airports are planning direct passenger access to the upper deck of the aircraft. The use of longer or linked baggage belts and those carrousels will ensure that your baggage is delivered in times comparable to obtaining today. Passenger convenience for embarking and disembarking has been carefully considered early on in Airbus Industries' consultation with both the airports, which will accommodate the aircraft, and the airlines which will operate it. How far can this aircraft fly and how many airports are prepared for operation? The A380 is designed for long-haul travel and can fly up to 15,000km/8,000 nm non-stop. It will mostly fly on those routes which see the heaviest concentration of large aircraft flights today. Currently, 60 major airports around the world are ready for the A380, or are preparing to receive it. Are fares going to be more expensive on an A380? The A380's efficiency and advanced technology will yield 15-20 per cent lower seat mile costs for the airlines. Therefore, for the same level of comfort and service, on the same route and with the same airline, the ticket fares should be equivalent or possibly less expensive than on any other aircraft. What impact will a bigger aircraft have on the environment? The A380 will be an environmentally friendly aircraft, which will produce half as much noise on take-off as its nearest competitor and consume less than 3 litres of fuel per passenger over 100 km, a rate comparable to that of an economical family car. With its greater capacity and unprecedented environmental friendliness, the A380 provides the most economical and socially responsible solution to growing air traffic on key trunk routes. When will commercial operations begin, and by which airlines? Singapore Airlines will be the first airline in the world to introduce the A380 into commercial service, in 2006. The carrier has already launched a 'first to fly A380' logo, which − for maximum effect − has been placed between the aircraft's twin row of windows, one of the new aircraft's most recognizable features. Which airlines have so far announced firm orders and commitments for the operation of the A380? Till date, Airbus has received 154 orders and commitments from 15 customers. These are (in alphabetical order): Air France, China Southern Airlines, Emirates, Etihad Airways, Federal Express, International Lease Finance Corporation, Korean Air Lines, Lufthansa, Malaysia Airlines, Qantas Airways, Qatar Airways, Singapore Airlines, Thai Airways International, UPS and Virgin Atlantic Airways.

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Is the A380 the most technologically advanced aircraft to date? The A380 combines the very latest technologies for materials, systems and industrial processes. It meets the most stringent international certification requirements. The A380 is not only the most spacious civil jetliner ever built, it is also the most advanced, representing a unique technology platform from which all future commercial Airbus aircraft will evolve. Each new technology developed, tested and adopted for the A380 has been carefully studied to determine its effects over the lifetime of the aircraft, and has been selected for its proven reliability and long-term benefits.

Check Your Progress 1 Fill in the blanks: 1. ………………….. industries began as a consortium of European aviation

firms to compete with American companies such as Boeing and McDonnell Douglas.

2. The ………………….. efficiency and advanced technology will yield 15-20 per cent lower seat mile costs for the airlines.

3.4 THE BOEING COMPANY Boeing is the world’s leading aerospace company and the largest combined manufacturer of commercial jetliners and military aircraft. The company’s reach extends to customers in 145 countries. In terms of sales, Boeing is one of the largest U.S. exporters. Boeing has a long tradition of aerospace leadership and innovation. The company continues to expand its product line and services to meet emerging customer needs. The broad range of capabilities includes creating new, more efficient members of its commercial airplane family; integrating military platforms, defence systems and the war fighter through network-centric operations; creating advanced technology solutions; providing broadband connectivity on moving platforms including airplanes; and arranging innovative customer-financing solutions.

Headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, USA, Boeing employs approximately 151,000 employees in 48 American states and 67 countries, with major operations in the Puget Sound area of Washington State, southern California and St. Louis. Total company revenues for 2004 were $52.5 billion.

3.4.1 Boeing is Organized into Four Business Units Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Boeing Integrated Defence Systems, Boeing Capital Corporation and Connexion by Boeing (SM). Supporting these units is the Shared Services Group, which provides a broad range of services to Boeing worldwide, and Boeing Technology, which helps develop, acquire, apply and protect innovative technologies and processes.

Boeing Commercial Airplanes

Boeing has been the premier manufacturer of commercial jetliners for more than 40 years. With the merger of Boeing and McDonnell Douglas in 1997, Boeing’s legacy of leadership in commercial jets, joined with the lineage of Douglas airplanes, gives the company a combined 70-year heritage of leadership in commercial aviation. Today, the main commercial products are the 737, 747, 767 and 777 families of airplanes and the Boeing Business Jet. New product development efforts are focused on the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, a super-efficient airplane that is expected to be in service in 2008.

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Aircraft ManufacturersTotal Global Fleets

The company has nearly 12,000 commercial jetliners in service worldwide, which is roughly 75 per cent of the world fleet. Through Boeing Commercial Aviation Services, the company provides unsurpassed, round-the-clock technical support to help operators maintain their airplanes in peak operating condition, and Commercial Aviation Services, which offers a full range of world-class engineering, modification, logistics and information services to its global customer base, which includes the world’s passenger and cargo airlines, as well as maintenance, repair and overhaul facilities. Boeing also trains maintenance and flight crews in the 100-seat-and-above airliner market through Alteon, the world’s largest and most comprehensive provider of airline training.

Boeing Integrated Defence Systems

Being recognized as a commercial airplane producer, Boeing is also the world’s second-largest defence company. Boeing Integrated Defence Systems provides end-to-end services for large-scale systems that combine sophisticated communication networks with air-, land-, sea- and space-based platforms for global military, government and commercial customers. The company offers an extraordinary range of defence and space systems products and services. It designs, produces, modifies and supports fighters, bombers, transports, rotorcraft, aerial refuelers, missiles and munitions and is on the leading edge of military technology through its unmanned systems development efforts. Integrated Defence Systems also supports the U.S. government on several programs of national significance, including the Missile Defence Agency’s Ground-Based Midcourse Defence program, the National Reconnaissance Office’s Future Imagery Architecture, the Air Force’s Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle program and NASA’s International Space Station. The company has become the systems integrator for several new programs, including the U.S. Navy’s Multi-Mission Maritime Aircraft Program, the U.S. Army’s Future Combat Systems and Joint Tactical Radio Systems, the Family of Advanced Beyond Line-of-Sight Terminals for the Department of Defence, and the Explosive Detection Systems for the Department of Transportation.

Boeing Capital Corporation

Boeing Capital Corporation is a global provider of financing solutions. Working closely with Commercial Airplanes and Integrated Defence Systems, Boeing Capital Corporation arranges, structures and/or provides financing to facilitate the sale and delivery of Boeing commercial and military aircraft, satellites and launch vehicles. With a portfolio of approximately $10 billion, Boeing Capital Corporation combines Boeing’s financial strength and global reach, detailed knowledge of Boeing customers and equipment, and the expertise of a seasoned group of financial professionals.

Connexion by Boeing

Connexion by Boeing is a mobile information services provider revolutionizing the way people on the move communicate, inform and entertain themselves. It does so by providing high-speed, two-way Internet-based connectivity to aircraft in flight. Connexion by Boeing currently serves two important market segments: commercial aircraft operators and their passengers as well as executive aircraft, including operators of private and government executive jets. Using laptops or personal digital assistants (PDAs), passengers can use secure high-speed access to the Internet, personal and business e-mail accounts and company intranets. They will also be able to send and receive attachments and view entertainment − all at DSL-like speeds. The service also brings value to aircraft operators, enabling them to use Connexion by Boeing’s extraordinary bandwidth to obtain operational efficiencies, improve customer service and enhance security. Leading commercial airlines including Lufthansa German Airlines, Japan Airlines, Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS),

50 Aviation

ANA and Singapore Airlines are currently introducing the Connexion by Boeing service on major international routes. In addition, Korea Airlines and Asiana have announced plans to equip their long-range fleets with the service. The revolutionary service is also available to the executive services market in the United States, including operators of private and government aircraft. A service offering for the maritime market is also under consideration.

Shared Services Group

Shared Services Group allows business units to focus on profitable growth by providing the infrastructure services required to run their global operations. The group provides a broad range of services worldwide, including computing and network operations, e-business, facilities services, employee benefits and programs, security, transportation, and the purchase of all non-production goods and services. It also gives direction to safety, health and environmental planning and offers comprehensive travel services to Boeing employees and corporate customers through the Boeing Travel Management Company. In addition, Shared Services Group manages the sale and acquisition of all leased and owned property through the Boeing Realty Company. By integrating services, Shared Services Group delivers greater value, creates “lean” processes and operations, leverages buying power and simplifies access to services.

3.4.2 Boeing Technology Boeing Technology supports Boeing’s business units and growth strategy by providing the right people, technologies, processes and performance at the right time and in the right place across the company worldwide. This strategy is delivered in various ways by Boeing Technology’s primary organizational groups − Phantom Works, Intellectual Property Business, and Information Technology − its Chairman’s Innovation and Technical Excellence initiatives, and its leadership role in the Engineering, Operations, Quality, and Information Technology process councils. Through all its activities, Boeing Technology helps ensure the future success of Boeing by winning strategic new programs, providing innovative technology and process solutions, transforming Boeing into a global network-centric enterprise, enhancing and protecting the company’s intellectual capital, and fostering a culture of innovation.

Figure 3.5: The Boeing B747 Jumbo Airliner

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Aircraft Manufacturers3.5 AIRLINE MARKET PROJECTION – AIRBUS INDUSTRIES AND THE BOEING COMPANY Projection – (2000-2020) – Pre 11th September 2001 – Boeing Industries

The rapid fragmentation of air transportation will tend to increase demand for aircraft such as the Sonic Cruiser that are capable of flying long distances at high speed. The proportion of aircraft the same size or larger than the B747-400 will shrink, while the intermediate size aircraft required by fragmentation will be the fastest-growing segment. Boeing says the share of very large aircraft in the world fleet will decline from 7 per cent to 5 per cent. There will be a demand for 1,091 such aircraft in the next 20 years, and only 310 of this total will be aircraft larger than the 747-400, Boeing believes. In addition, almost all of this demand will be generated in the second decade of its forecast. The forecast predicts that the percentage of intermediate-sized planes in the market will increase from 19 per cent to 22 per cent for a total of 4,875, and the share of single-aisle and regional jets will decrease slightly from 74 per cent to 73 per cent.

The Europe-Asia market also has a high degree of potential for increased city pairs. Currently, only major European gateways are well linked to Asian cities, with many not offering daily service. Boeing believes that by 2020, more than 170 city pairs will be linked by nonstop service in the Europe-Asia market, including Geneva-Bangkok and Stockholm-Shanghai. Two-thirds of these city pairs will not have been in existence in 1998, according to Boeing.

In contrast, Airbus believes that the average size of the world aircraft fleet will rise dramatically, and that there will be a huge demand for super jumbos. In its 2000 market forecast, Airbus projects that the average aircraft size will increase from 179 seats currently to 191 in 2009 and 217 in 2019. At an International Air Transport Association event held in New York in April, Airbus Vice President for Market Forecasts Adam Brown highlighted the differences in data and philosophy between the Boeing and Airbus predictions for super jumbo demand. Airbus estimates that by 2009 there will be a demand for 360 aircraft capable of carrying more than 500 passengers, and that this demand will have risen to 1,235 aircraft 10 years later.

Airbus' views of future trends in air transportation diverge markedly from those proposed by Boeing. While admitting that route fragmentation will occur on long-range markets, Brown said it is “becoming more and more evident that there are limits to the extent to which the existing route network can continue to fragment.” Increasing globalization will lead to intensified competition, and coupled with increasing price-sensitivity of demand, this will drive airlines to continue to reduce fares to sustain demand and growth. “We’re convinced that the airlines will have no choice but to restructure their route networks so as to progressively replace point-to-point systems [with] lower-cost, lower-fare hub systems, exploiting the lower unit costs of large aircraft like the A380". Airbus has also stated that demand for super jumbos will be driven by increasing congestion at hub airports, which could be reduced through the introduction of larger aircraft. An example of this trend is contained in the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration’s recent demand management options for LaGuardia Airport. Some of these options would act as incentives for the use of large aircraft.

World Fleet Will Double in Next Two Decades (Boeing Company)

In its latest forecast, Boeing predicts that the world fleets will more than double by 2020, from 14,548 in 2000 to 32,954 in 2020. The increase will consist of 5,053 new jets to replace retired aircraft, and an additional 18,406 to fill increased capacity demand. The total market potential is 23,460 new aircraft, worth US$1.7 trillion using today’s dollar value. The market potential for aviation support services such as aircraft servicing, modification, and re-marketing, as well as crew training, and infrastructure

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services will increase to US$3.1 trillion. Boeing has previously announced that it intends to expand its emphasis on these areas.

According to the Boeing forecast, the mix of aircraft types most in demand varies by region. For example, North America will require the most aircraft deliveries over the next 20 years, driven by the large number of passengers and the need to replace an aging fleet. This region will require a larger proportion of regional jets compared to other regions, Boeing believes. In Europe, almost 80 per cent of deliveries will be single-aisle aircraft and regional jets, and Asia-Pacific nations will take delivery of the most 747- and-larger aircraft. Airlines will add 3,019 new or converted freighters to their fleets, the Boeing forecast says. The North America, Europe, and Asia-Pacific regions will require many larger wide body freighters, while the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America regions are likely to prefer medium wide bodies.

Boeing forecasts that world air traffic, measured in revenue passenger kilometres (RPK) will grow 4.8 per cent annually over the next 20 years. The Europe, South America, and Northeast Asia regions will have the largest growth of air traffic in excess of GDP. Europe is expected to “experience the continuing positive aspects of liberalization,” while South America will recover from present economic slowdowns and will increase air traffic through liberalization, international trade, and tourist development. The traffic projection for Northeast Asia is lower than in past forecasts to better reflect a slower pace of economic development in Japan. However, Japanese and Koreans currently travel less than their wealth would indicate, so future RPK rates will still be high.

Traffic in Southwest Asia and Africa is expected to grow faster than the world average as their economies and airline industries modernize. Because of its maturity, the North America market share of world traffic will decline from 25 per cent to 19 per cent over the next 20 years, Boeing forecasts. Less developed markets will grow faster: for example, the combined market share for the Asia-Pacific region will grow from 14 per cent to 19 per cent. The North Atlantic market will fall from 12 per cent overall market shares to 10 per cent, and the South Atlantic will remain steady at 4 per cent. Europe will maintain a 13 per cent market share. The Europe to Central America market is a mature, mostly leisure market, and will grow at 4.2 per cent annually through 2020. The Europe to South America market, however, has untapped potential and will grow at 5.8 per cent. Latin America, a small region with only 2 per cent market share, will increase share to 4 per cent because of a high 7.7 per cent growth rate fuelled by liberalization and increased world trade.

Short-haul markets will continue to dominate world departure figures, the Boeing forecast says, representing 96 per cent of total departures. Domestic travel in Europe and North America alone will constitute almost 40 per cent of additional available seat kilometres (ASK) and will absorb more than two-thirds of single-aisle aircraft deliveries over the next 20 years. A major share of added capacity will be caused by travel within, and to, the Asia-Pacific region. Markets serving this region will account for 90 per cent of large aircraft deliveries, according to Boeing.

Regional Jets Expected To Increase Dominance in U.S., Europe

Looking at the North American market specifically, Boeing predicts that air travel growth for the region’s airlines should average 3.5 per cent annually. Regional jets will play an increasingly a larger role in the North American market, and their capacity share − measured in ASK − will increase from 4 per cent to 12 per cent by 2020. The total North American fleet will increase to 11,757 by 2020, up considerably from the 2000 level of 6,642. Boeing estimates that 8,799 aircraft worth US$ 585.1 billion will be delivered by 2024. Of total North American deliveries, 20 per cent will be smaller regional jets, 64 per cent single-aisle aircraft, 13 per cent twin aisle, and 3 per cent 747-and-larger aircraft.

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Aircraft ManufacturersIn Europe, air travel is expected to grow at 4.5 per cent annually. This fast growth will be fuelled by continued market liberalization. The regional jet has an even more important role in Europe than in the U.S. By 2020, 78 per cent of the European airline fleets will be smaller regional jets and other single-aisle aircraft, Boeing predicts. Few scope clauses are as restrictive as in the U.S., and connecting hubs are generally less well developed in Europe. The regional jet’s role in Europe is more linked to hub bypass and point-to-point service strategies. The share of 747-and-larger aircraft will shrink from 7 per cent to 4 per cent in Europe over the next 20 years, and intermediate twin-aisle aircraft will increase their share from 17 to 18 per cent. In all, Boeing believes there will be 9,478 aircraft in the European fleet by 2020, up from 3,665 in 2000. In the next 20 years 6,985 aircraft will be delivered, worth US$456.0 billion. Of the total deliveries, 21 per cent will be smaller regional jets, 21 per cent will be other single-aisle aircraft, 59 per cent will be twin-aisle aircraft, and 3 per cent will be 747-and-larger aircraft.

Projection (2004-2024) – Post 11th September 2001– The Boeing Company

The long-term outlook for air travel is robust. The fundamentals of economic development, globalization and the need for people to travel will be strong in the coming decade. Economic growth drives air transportation demand and the average annual growth of GDP would be around 2.9 per cent per annum, which in turn will increase the growth of passenger traffic by 4.8 per cent and 6.2 per cent in cargo movements per annum. Liberalization will enable the airline industry to grow vibrantly in the coming years. Government will continue to increase access to the marketplace by removing restrictions on carriers in their own countries and permitting additional levels of service across the globe. Further, world trade and air travel are closely linked, hence, more open trade agreements, mobile labour force and global communication technologies such as satellites, the Internet and improved air services will stimulate world trade to grow. This in turn will lead to richer economies and even more need to travel by air for business and leisure.

In its latest forecast 2004, Boeing predicts that the world fleet will be doubled by 2024, from 16,778 in 2000 to 35,287 in 2024. The increase will consist of 5,053 new jets to replace retired aircraft, and an additional 18,406 to fill increased capacity demand. The total market potential is 25,694 (Passenger + Freighter) new aircraft, worth US$ 2.13 trillion using today’s dollar value. The market potential for aviation support services such as aircraft servicing, modification, and re-marketing, as well as crew training, and infrastructure services will increase to US$ 4.0 trillion approximately. The table below will indicate the Aircraft and Traffic Projection.

Table 3.1: The Boeing Company’s Projection – Traffic Growth and Aircraft Delivery (2004-2024)

Region wise - Traffic Growth in % Aircraft Delivery & Value in US $

Traffic Growth To & From

AFR ASP EUR MER LA NA Aircraft (No’s)

Cost (Billion)

Africa 6.1 6.3 5.0 6.0 8.8 8.2 425 34.2

Asia Pacific 6.3 6.0 5.4 6.1 8.8 6.0 7163 770.2

European 5.0 5.4 3.4 5.1 4.9 4.6 6695 527.4

Middle East Region

6.0 6.1 5.1 4.7 - 6.6 869 115.0

Latin America 8.8 8.8 4.9 - 7.2 5.1 1743 97.5

North America 8.2 6.0 4.6 6.6 5.1 3.5 8799 585.1

Total 25694 2129.4

Source: Boeing, Overview of Current Market Outlook, March 2005, www.boeing.org

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AFR – African Region

ASP – Asia Pacific Region

EUR – European Region

LAC – Latin America & Caribbean Region

MER – Middle East Region

NAR – North American Region


Fill in the blanks:

1. …………………. is the world’s leading aerospace company and the largest combined manufacturer of commercial jetliners and military aircraft.

2. …………………. allows business units to focus on profitable growth by providing the infrastructure services required to run their global operations.

3.6 LET US SUM UP Boeing, Airbus, Cessna, Grumman, Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, Rakwell, Northrop, Polikarpov, Strearman, Fokker, Illusion are the few aircraft manufacturers producing the aircraft for commercial as well as for general aviation purposes. Airbus S.A.S., known as simply Airbus, based in Toulouse, France is the world’s largest commercial aircraft manufacturer. Airbus Industries began as a consortium of European aviation firms to compete with American companies such as Boeing and McDonnell Douglas. Airbus Industries was formally set up in 1970 following an agreement between Aerospatiale (France) and Deutsche Aerospace (Germany) CASA, (joined by CASA of Spain in 1971).

3.7 LESSON END ACTIVITY Prepare a presentation on the leading aircraft manufacturers.

3.8 KEYWORDS Airbus: It is a leading aircraft manufacturer, with the most modern and comprehensive aircraft family. Boeing Company: It is a United States-based multinational corporation that designs, manufactures and sells fixed-wing aircraft, rotorcraft, rockets and satellites and provides leasing and product support services. Flight Deck: It is the surface from which its aircraft take off and land, essentially a miniature airfield at sea. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): It is the market value of all officially recognized final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time.

3.9 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Discuss about few of the leading aircraft manufacturers. 2. Write a brief note on Airbus Industries. 3. Discuss about the competition of Airbus with Boeing. 4. Explain new generation aircraft – A380. 5. Write a brief note on the Boeing Company. 6. Describe the four business units of the Boeing Company.

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Aircraft ManufacturersCheck Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1

1. Airbus

2. A380's

CYP 2

1. Boeing

2. Shared Services Group

3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS Senguttuvan. P S, (2006). Fundamentals of Air Transport Management, Excel Books, New Delhi.


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World Airlines and Airports

UNIT 1

UNIT II

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59

World Airlines and AirportsLESSON

4 WORLD AIRLINES AND AIRPORTS

CONTENTS


4.1 Introduction

4.2 Airports

4.2.1 History of Civil Aviation Industry

4.2.2 Aviation Technology Transformation (1930-2003)

4.3 Training

4.4 Passenger/Cargo Terminal

4.4.1 Passenger Requirements

4.4.2 Passenger Terminal

4.4.3 Cargo Terminal

4.5 World Airlines

4.5.1 Airline Companies

4.5.2 World's Largest Airlines

4.6 World’s Major Airports

4.6.1 2013 Statistics (Partial Year)

4.7 Let us Sum up


4.9 Keywords




Identify the types and history of airports

Discuss training at airports

Describe passenger/cargo terminals – domestic and international

Discuss about world airlines

Identify world’s major airports

60 Aviation 4.1 INTRODUCTION

Aviation services are essential for the social and economic development of the country. The importance of modern transportation for timely trade and development can be well accomplished by means of air transportation. The Aviation industry started in early 20th century as a means of modern mode of transportation. The aviation industry consists of manufacturing, airlines, airport operation, maintenance, air traffic control, metrological and pilots. The aviation industry means different things to different people. It is very difficult for you that what aviation industry exactly takes into account for, as for some people it is only the pilots who fly commercial airplanes while others think of airports and private planes. Thus, unless you are involved in the aviation industry, the many characteristics of aviation are not freely thought of.

4.2 AIRPORTS While aeronautics is the study of science of flights or aircraft (NASA definition), aviation is the science, business, or operations related to aircraft. In other words, ‘aviation’ or ‘air transport’ refers to the activities closely associated with mechanical flight, and the aircraft industry. ‘Aircraft’ includes fixed wing (airplane) and rotary wing (helicopter) types as well as lighter-than-aircraft flying objects such as balloons and airships (also known as dirigibles). Aviation can be broadly classified into three areas, namely:

Military Aviation: The first part of aviation is military aviation. Military aviation refers to aircraft flown by the armed forces. Aircraft have been a major weapon in many wars. The major air arms of the world’s military, have a variety of aircraft developed for both strategic and tactical purposes, such as, the supersonic fighter ‘strike’ aircraft. Some of these advanced aircraft have the capability of flying at three times the speed of sound and carrying missiles and radar-directed anti-aircraft artillery.

Commercial Aviation: The second part of aviation relates to aviation for commercial purposes. Commercial aviation began in Germany in 1910. Commercial aircraft provide public air transportation to approximately five hundred locations throughout the country, to every part of the globe. Commercial aircraft may also carry cargo and mail. Commercial aviation is the most common type of aviation.

General Aviation: The third part is referred to as general aviation. General aviation is all civil aeronautics with the exception of commercial air-transport operations. This includes sports flying, business flying, and crop-dusting. Around 80 per cent of all active civil aircraft are classed as general-aviation aircraft. These aircraft range from gliders, ultra-light and micro-light aircraft, and small two-seater, single engine trainers to plush business jet aircraft equipped with turbojet propulsion and extensive electronic installations. Although general aviation is frequently overlooked, it is a vital part of air traffic (“Pilot”, Grolier).

4.2.1 History of Civil Aviation Industry

Aviation – The Way it changed the World

To fly with the birds has been man’s dream since Neolithic times. Centuries of studies and experiments precede the first successful flight. Only until the beginning of the 20th century have we accomplished flight in a heavier-than-air craft. Throughout the past century of evolution, aviation has acquired a responsibility much greater then ever conceived. The utilization spectrum of aviation extends from air combat and high-altitude surveillance to more mundane functions like shipping mail and cargo.

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World Airlines and AirportsWith such versatility, aircraft have contributed to augmenting the fast paced lives we already live. Air transport has contributed to expansion of the global economy, leisure activities, and influenced governments and industries to diversify. The portrayal of aviation has impacted our society on three stages: socially, politically and economically. Leonardo da Vinci had begun drawing blueprints of a flying machine in the 15th century. At that time, human flight had never been contemplated, beyond a dream. Practicality worked against Leonardo; however, his thoughts were quite contemporary by today’s standards seeing how his drawings resemble those of modern aircraft. Just over a hundred years ago, the idea of human flight was thought absurd. Flying was something one only did while one was dreaming; but today; one can fly to any destination in the utmost comfort and safety, thanks to the airplane. The first flight took place on December 17, 1903, in Kill Devil Hills near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The inventors of ‘The Flyer’, the first heavier-than-air machine that actually flew under its power, were Wilbur and Orville Wright, the Wright brothers. Orville made the first successful flight. Although their “air machine” flew for only twelve seconds, the Wright brothers started a revolution that has greatly affected the entire world. “The time will come when gentlemen, when they are to go on a journey, will call for their wings as regularly as they call for their boots. Bishop Wilkens (Glaeser)”. With the success of the Wright brothers’ flight, powered flight has undergone renovations that have made everyday flight possible. As time went on, the design and mechanics of the plane greatly advanced, cockpits were built for the pilot and suggestions were made to make the plane a weapon, which became a reality with winged warfare in the First World War. Airplanes are used for a variety of things; travel is only one of many.

Following the fillip given by the Great War, air transportation developed rapidly in the 1920s and 1930s, not always for commercial reasons. Airlines were seen as a means of providing a national airmail service (US) and of establishing long haul air services to colonies and dependencies (UK and France). Airline companies were set up to oversee these national goals, a trend that continued in the post-colonial period of the 1950s to the 1970s, as many African, Asian and Caribbean nations created their own airline companies while reserving them for specific markets and for specific routes. In advanced economies, the national policies went in the same direction with national markets reserved to national carriers offering stable services, but at high prices. Air transport was then seen as a public service that should be regulated. Thus, the regulatory agencies of governments (e.g., the Civil Aeronautics Board for the United States) decided which routes were to be serviced, as well as the pricing.

In the 1970s, the outlook changed and air transport came to be increasingly seen as just another transport service. Market forces played a major role in fixing air transport prices, and the role of governments was limited to operational and safety regulations. In the United States, the Air Deregulation Act of 1978 put an end to fixed markets and opened the industry to competition. This liberalization process has spread into many other countries, although with important local distinctions. Many of the former private firms in the US and many former state-owned airlines that were greatly protected and subsidized went bankrupt or were absorbed by larger ones. Many new carriers have emerged, with several low-cost carriers such as Ryan Air and North-West Air in USA and now, Air Deccan in India having achieved industry leadership in this low-cost segment. A key outcome of airline deregulation has been the “Emergence of Hub and Spoke Networks” dominated by a single carrier. Internationally, air transport is still dominated by bilateral agreements between nations (Graham 1995).

The post-World War II period saw a momentous growth of air transportation, as it became the leading mode of international movements of passengers. Air transport has greatly contributed to cutting distances as it is perfectly tailored to carrying freight and passengers rapidly across continents and oceans. However, for safety reasons, the

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organization of air transport at the international level is strictly regulated. As such, for long haul passenger travel, no other modes compete with air transportation. In many cases, such as in North America, air transportation became a significant mode for domestic movements of passengers. As a result, airspace became progressively more used. They include two major components, one being land-based (take-offs and landings) and the other air-based, mainly composed of air corridors. These corridors can superimpose themselves to altitudes up to 22,500 feet. The geography of air transport is limited to the use of predetermined corridors. Air transport makes use of air space that theoretically gives it great freedom of route choice. Strategic and political factors influence route choice. For example, the flights of South African Airways were not allowed to over-fly many African nations during the apartheid period, and Cubana Airlines has been routinely prohibited from over-flying the US. By convention, an air space exclusively belongs to the country under it. Air transportation depends on agreements between nations and airline companies. The Chicago Convention of 1944 established the basic geopolitical guidelines of air operations, which became known as the Air Freedom Rights. The most substantial developments of air transportation came in the late 1960s and early 1970s where fast growth in traffic came with the convergence of three processes:

Technical improvements: Technology has significantly extended the range of aircraft that were now capable of crossing the Atlantic (this was first demonstrated by Charles Lindbergh’s solo flight that made him a national hero) without stopping at intermediate places, making trips of up to 18 hours duration. The introduction of the jet engine considerably reduced distances because of greater speeds and improved ranges. Transnational movements are favoured by the usage of polar crossings, which enables a considerable reduction of distances.

Rising affluence: The growth of air transport is highly correlated to income and economic output growth. As the population of developed countries became more affluent, a greater amount of disposable income became available for leisure. Remote destinations and intercontinental tourism (mainly between Europe and North America) experienced significant growth in popularity. International tourism and air transportation are thus mutually interdependent, which is characterized by significant elasticity.

Lower airfares: As a consequence of technical improvements, growing demands and competition, airfares have been reduced considerably, making air transportation affordable to the general public. This in turn triggered additional passengers and airfreight demands.

Globalization: Trade networks established by multinational corporations imply important movements of passengers and freight over the economic space. About 40% of the value of global manufactured exports is carried by air transportation (about 50% of the value of American overseas – non-NAFTA – exports).

A key structural factor in the development of air transport networks is the emergence of major hubs around which air traffic converges. This trend is mainly the result of decisions made by airline companies in the organization of their services.

Commercial Planes and their Importance

There is a purpose for having the several types of commercial planes, with their features reflecting their specific usage in the international, national and regional markets. The usage of a type of aircraft depends on what it will transport (passengers, freight or both), the amount of traffic, the capabilities of airports being serviced as well as of the implied distances. Although high capacity planes such as the Boeing 747 and 777, and the Airbus A380 are preferred for intercontinental distances, deregulation of the industry expanded the need for medium capacity planes, which now dominate domestic services. The following table reveals the evolution of

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World Airlines and Airportscommercial planes with their seating capacity, year of introduction and the speed of the aircraft.

Table 4.1: Types of Commercial Airplanes (1935-2005) and their Seating Capacity

Aircraft Type Year Speed/KM/Hr Seats

DC-3 1935 346 30

DC-7 1953 555 52

B-707-100 1958 897 110

B-727-100 1963 917 94

B-747-100 1970 907 385

DC-10 1971 908 260

A-300 1974 847 269

B-767-200 1982 954 216

B-747-400 1989 939 416

B-777-200 1995 905 305

A-340-500 2003 886 313

A-380 2005 930 555

Source: Boeing & Airbus Industries

Seating Capacity of Selected Aircrafts

Pre-1985 models were mainly characterized by high capacity, such as the 747 and the L1011. They were attempts to replace low capacity and low performance models. While the 747 and the DC10 were mainly built for intercontinental flights (the 747-100 was also used for short high capacity flights, mainly in Japan), the L1011 targeted continental services. Although Boeing continues to provide high capacity planes (747-400 and 777-300), main post-1985 models have a lower capacity but increased fuel efficiency. This fits in well with the requirements of regional hub-and-spoke networks that have emerged since deregulation (1978), where smaller capacities and high frequencies are the norm.

Figure 4.1: Range of Different Modern Commercial Jet Planes

The ranges of three major categories of jet planes are presented here:

Regional: The Airbus A320, with a range of 3,700 km, was designed to service destinations within a continent. From New York, most of North America can be reached. This range can be applied to the European continent, South America, East Asia and Africa. This type of aircraft is also used for high demand regional services needing several flights a day, enabling improved quality of service.

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International: The Boeing 777-100, with a range of 7,400 km, can link one continent to another. From New York, it is possible to reach Western Europe and most of South America.

Intercontinental: The Boeing 747-400, with a range of 11,400 km, can reach from New York any destination around the world except Australia, South and Southeast Asia. Japan is within range.

4.2.2 Aviation Technology Transformation (1930-2003) The Boeing 700’s are capable of handling many tasks in the commercial and military world. With the introduction of the 707 in the late fifties to the most recent 777 in the early nineties, the 700’s have dominated the commercial world for five decades. They are a line of aircraft which are capable of handling many roles, from basic civilian transport to various military needs. They are the people movers of the 20th century. With a large carrying capacity combined with the speed and range of a jet aircraft, they have moved more people over longer distances than what was once thought possible. Boeing has truly produced some of the greatest aircraft in history.

The various duties that the 700’s perform are quite extraordinary. It all started in the fifties. There was a growing demand for a commercial airliner that could move a greater number of people farther and faster. The age of the jet engine had yet to reach the civilian transportation. There was still a fear of the jet because of lack of reliability, but with technological advancements, the jet engine now became more reliable than even the piston engine. The need for a jet engine-powered plane was growing. Airlines still were looking for a plane that could cross the Atlantic Ocean without a refuelling stop. The Lockheed Super constellations, a piston-powered plane, were able to cross the Atlantic Ocean without stopping on the eastbound leg, but they had to stop in Gander, Newfoundland to refuel on the westbound leg. The airlines desired a plane that could easily travel the Atlantic without a stop. The piston engine just wasn’t going to do it; the jet engine was the answer. Boeing realized this and moved to design a jet-powered plane. At first, Boeing was looking to modify existing aircraft with jet engines to perform the tasks. They quickly realized that they needed a whole new aircraft… and thus was born the Boeing 707. The first Boeing 707 was delivered to Pan American airlines in May of 1958 (Bauer, 218). Sales started out slow; in fact, the 707 almost died many times in its first couple years of existence. It wasn’t until Boeing modified the 707 by increasing the overall length, the wingspan, and adding more powerful engines did the 707 confirm its place in as a commercial transporter. With the new modifications, the 707 became a very capable aircraft, and crossing the Atlantic Ocean became a routine affair. With the introduction of the 707, transatlantic travel doubled in two years (Bauer, 195). Airlines’ profitability soared due to the new capabilities the 707 presented. The 707 began a new era in civil aviation and dramatically improved the way people are flown. The 707 being the first major jet airliner saw many applications and variations in its lifetime. There were thirteen variations of the 707; they varied in capacity, range, and speed (Wright, 49). Each variation was designed to meet specific needs of an individual airline. Some 707’s could carry a larger capacity of passengers over a shorter distance, whereas another variant could carry fewer passengers over a longer distance. With all of these variations, the 707 left little room for the Douglas DC-8, which was once though to be a major threat to Boeing. The 707 could meet any need of an airline; this is one reason that made the 707 such a versatile aircraft and why it dominated the market. The 707 also saw plenty of action in uniform. Its most useful application came in the way of the KC-135 Stratotanker. It was modified to perform in-flight refuelling task for the United States Air Force. The 707 now saw as healthy a lifespan ahead of it, as the KC-135 — of the 735 units built in the early sixties, 550 still remain in service today (www.Boeing.com).

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World Airlines and AirportsThe 707 also had the very privileged role of presidential transport. As Air Force One, it started its career in 1962 and served seven Presidents. It was only to be replaced by one of its bigger brothers, the Boeing 747. Another of one of its more interesting applications was that of the “Vomet Come” a modified KC-135 to make large in-flight arcs to provide a weightless environment to train NASA astronauts. Altogether, the 707 and its derivatives saw many varied and interesting applications. With the 707 fulfilling the needs for a long-range jetliner, there was a demand by the airline industry for a short to medium-range jet. A jet that was designed for short-range use would provide savings over a long-range jet and faster travel times that were presently completed by prop driven planes. Boeing went to the drawing boards and came out with the 727. When the 727 finally soared into the skies, it came up with better performance that what was originally planned. “As throughout Boeing’s history, its strong, patient, intense engineering efforts had once more been the key” (Bauer, 226). The 727 filled the need for a short to medium-range aircraft better than any other airplane. It showed in the sales: the 727 became at the time the highest selling Boeing aircraft, but that title would not remain with it very long. The Boeing 737 became the best selling commercial jetliner in the world. To date, it has sold 3,158 units and there are still more on order (www.Boeing.com). Its primary role is short to medium-range passenger transport. The 737s were meant to gradually phase out the 727 and did so quite well; it became known as the “Little Giant.” The 737 also proved to be a very rugged aircraft, with an optional kit add-on to the landing gear that it made it possible for it to land on improvised runways like a grass field or a gravel runway. The 737s also were far superior in their ability to take off from high altitude, short runways. These abilities made the 737 very versatile; it could link many areas that were unable maintain a modern airport that would have a paved runway (Bauer, 250). One key feature of the 737, which made it the success it was, was the decision to make the plane seat six abreast. Douglas was the main competition in the beginning with a plane that had five seats abreast. Even with Douglas’s advantage in speed and range, it could never match the seat-per-mile cost the 737 gave. A single decision, which meant about a 17-inch increase of diameter over the Douglas DC-9, meant the success of the 737 and the failure of the DC-9.

The rugged 737 has several military applications as well. Its most widely used application is as a training aid for both pilots and navigators. Pilots use the USAF designated T-43 737s as a flight trainer for large cargo and transport aircraft. The 737 is a large – but not too large – aircraft, and provides the perfect stepping stone for pilots into the huge birds that are present in today’s Air Force. It also provides navigational training. Its wider design offers plenty of room for the trainees and their instructors. One T-43 has about 19 stations for its students (Minton, 31). The T-43 provides a very accommodating learning environment for the flight students. The largest and most infamous member of the family is the Boeing 747, the “Jumbo Jet”. This is an aircraft that has changed commercial airliners forever. With its sheer size, it put itself in a class of its own. The 747 offer a lower seat-per-mile cost and a more efficient way for transportation than any other aircraft. It can move more people and cargo farther and faster. “The 707 brought jet transportation to people. The 747 brought jet transportation to the everyday people” (Norris and Wagner, 26). 747s have become the backbone of many airlines, in that they handle more people and cargo than any of their other planes. 747 is not only a highly efficient people mover, it has also brought about a great improvement in cargo transportation. Some modified 747s have a large upward swinging door at the nose of the plane, for greater or ease in loading large cargo items. Boeing also offered the option of a side panel door for loading. This was mainly used in the “Combi” 747; they were 747s that could transport people and cargo at the same time. The 747s also serve several roles in the Military. Most notable is in the application of presidential transportation as Air Force One. The 747 replaced the 707 as Air Force One. With the increase in room and luxury, the President hasn’t had a better ride since.

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The 747 also found itself the solution to a rather large problem, that is, of the transportation of the Space Shuttle. There really is no other way to transport the large orbiter than strapping it onto the top of a 747. NASA bought an ex-American Airline 747 in 1977 and has been using it ever since (Gilchrist, 61). By the late seventies, the 727 and 737 were showing their age. Boeing was unable to sell newly modified versions of the two aircraft and they soon realized that a whole new aircraft was needed. The new aircraft did not come in the form of a single plane but in two completely different airplanes that would pick up the slack in the short to medium range jet planes. These planes would be the 757 and the 767. They would prove to be very qualified successors to the 727 and the 737, proving themselves in both the commercial and military world. In fact, the 767 came up with better performance than what was originally planned. “Getting it into service, getting it under our original cost estimates and one day early—I don’t know how you can improve on that. And that’s due to the great team at Boeing” (Bauer, 320). The short to medium-range jet had been modernized with increases in performance of its capacity, speed, and fuel consumption. The military had their eye on the 767. It was wide-bodied aircraft similar in dimensions to the 737 and the wider body is what the military saw as most appealing. One of the primary functions the 767 serves is in the AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System) program. It is a 767 modified with a large circular disc on the top. The disc is composed of radars and antennas, and its purpose is to target and track targets from a long range. This information is then communicated to fighters on stand-by. The body of the plane has a crew and a large amount of computer equipment used in the process of determining targets. Boeing has some more plans for the 767, seeing in it a very capable candidate for a tanker/transport variant that would provide in-flight refuelling and transportation duties (www.Boeing.com).

The last in the family is the 777, which was introduced, in the early nineties. It is a completely new generation aircraft with complete integration of computers. The 777 has two main variants; presently, they are the 777-200 and the 777-300. The main difference is length and capacity. The 300 is about 33 feet longer and can hold about 70 more passengers than the 200. Both will work to satisfy the different needs of an airline. A newer version is in the works. It is the 777-400, planned to have even greater capacity that what is now present. The 777 should gradually replace the 747 as the large capacity long-range jet (www.Boeing.com). The 777 is the plane of the future and will have many service roles in the commercial world. The line of the Boeing 700 aircraft is undeniably a very versatile line of aircraft. From the beginning, they have dominated commercial jet sales… and for good reason. Boeing has always made their aircraft with the utmost quality and attention to detail. Boeing will test and test again until they get it right, and it shows in their products. The 700’s can accommodate any commercial and military need placed on them. They have made long distant air travel a comfort and a pleasure to many. It is hard to imagine what life would be like without Boeing. It is very safe to say that commercial airline travel would simply not be at the same calibre we find it today.

4.3 TRAINING Airport Authority of India has a number of training establishments, namely.

NIAMAR in Delhi, CATC in Allahabad, Fire Training Centres at Delhi, Kolkata for in-house training of its engineers, and Air Traffic Controllers, Rescue & Fire Fighting personnel and so forth.

NIAMAR & CATC are members of ICAO TRAINER programme under which they share Standard Training Packages (STP) from a central pool for imparting training on

67

World Airlines and Airportsvarious subjects. Both CATC & NIAMAR have also contributed a number of STPs to the Central pool under ICAO TRAINER programme. Foreign students have also been participating in the training programme being conducted by these institutions.


Fill in the blanks:

1. The ………………… are capable of handling many tasks in the commercial and military world.

2. ………………… aircraft provide public air transportation to approximately five hundred locations throughout the country, to every part of the globe.

4.4 PASSENGER/CARGO TERMINAL The passenger terminal layout and design are described on the basis of the following factors:

4.4.1 Passenger Requirements As passenger’s throughout at airports increases, the passenger terminal becomes a more important element of the airport, attaining a dominant status in the largest facilities. The passenger terminal may amount to less than 10 per cent of the total investment in a small airport, but at large airports terminals often account for more than 70 per cent of infrastructural investment. The design that is ultimately adopted depends principally on the passenger volumes to be served and the type of passenger involved.

Passengers are frequently classified as business or leisure, scheduled or charter, originating or destined, and transfer or transit. Business travellers tend to pay significantly higher fares, and airlines usually wish to provide a high quality of service in order to attract such traffic. The passenger terminal at Heathrow Airport near London, for example, was designed to a very high standard of space and decor to attract just this type of passenger. Scheduled and charter passengers, meanwhile, tend to have very different needs in the terminal, especially at check-in and in the provision of ground transportation. Palma Airport, on the Spanish island of Majorca, has a landside that is designed to accommodate large numbers of charter tourists arriving and departing the airport by bus.

Some airports have a very high percentage of passengers who are either transiting the airport (i.e., continuing on the same flight) or transferring to another flight. At Hartsfield Atlanta International Airport in Georgia and at Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport, for example, two-thirds of all passengers transfer to other flights and have no wish to visit the cities where the airports are sited. These passengers have special needs but usually only on the airside of the terminal. There is no need to provide parking or ground transportation to the city for such passengers; they will, however, need transit lounges and other areas such as transit check-in desks.

Airports that receive a large number of transferring and transiting passengers are referred to as hubbing airports. At a hub, aircraft arrive in waves, and passengers transfer between aircraft during the periods when these waves are on the ground. By using a “hub-and-spoke” network, airlines are able to increase the load factors on aircraft and to provide more frequent departures for passengers—at the cost, however, of inconvenient interchange at the hub.

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4.4.2 Passenger Terminal The passenger building is obviously the main point of attention to the travelling public. It is the design of the terminal building which more than often determines the airport managements’ efficiency and capability in the eyes of the public.

The passenger building is the major connection between airport access and the aircraft. The purpose of the passenger building is to

1. Interface with the passenger mode of aircraft access

2. Process departing and arriving passengers

3. Convey the passenger to and from the aircraft

These three components could be discussed as access interface, processing and flight interface respectively. What are the considerations which influence the design of the passenger terminal? Airport Management and airlines agree that the most important person in the terminal building is the passenger, whether in transit, departing or arriving.

Experience in the use of airport building has made certain overall requirements and planning principles which should be considered. These are:

1. Building should be functional, simple in design and structure, economical to main and capable of expansion without major structural changes. It is better to build in progressive stages to that all airport operations many continue to grow architectural design while the buildings are in use. This is a very important consideration. It is well known tat in recent years in the oil producing countries, terminal building have been built as architectural monuments at enormous cost. What is accepted, no doubt, is the need to have outstanding architectural design, which blends harmoniously both the natural/traditional architectural design and contemporary architecture more suited to passenger services.

2. There should be a clear cut functional separation between the airline and other concerned operational facilities and those elements are directly related thereto. It is important maintain a functional separation between the two major types of facilities in an airport i.e. those for aviation activities and those for non-aviation activities, and facilities for the general public.

3. Public services/facilities should be closely related to the airport passenger handling area and should be readily accessible to each of its parts.

In large airports with decentralized terminals public services may also have to be decentralized in order to:

1. Reduce the average distance a passenger must walk to reach such services;

2. Make more services available to passengers;

3. Reduce the time interval required to reach and use such services; and

4. The travel distance between ground transportation and aircraft should be kept at minimum distance. The size of the ultimate development of the airport, particularly within the administrative and terminal building area will determine whether the general plan is to be centralized or decentralized.

The components of the passenger-handling-together with the specific physical facilities corresponding to them may be seen in Figure 4.2.

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World Airlines and Airports

Figure 4.2: Components of the Passenger Handling System

The facilities that a passenger required are provision of sufficient space in the building for restaurants, snack bars, shopping arcade, toilet, adequate space for expeditious facilitation of arriving and departing by international flight through immigration and customs.

Passenger Terminal Concepts What should be the concept of a passenger terminal? There has been a considerable debate on it. Two concepts of terminal designs have been developed, namely centralized and decentralized terminal. While deciding which of the concepts will suit a particular airport, the economics and suitability of the terminal in terms of the total area, manpower utilization and the convenience available to the passenger and airlines have to be examined.

Centralized Terminal: In a centralized terminal concept, one single interface building, situated between landside and airside serves all aircrafts respective of their size and number. All diversified functions of a terminal are controller in one area. Expansion of facilities necessitated with the growth of traffic can be incorporated easily without duplicating them. The separate expansion of apron and terminal areas is possible in this concept without much inconvenience. The centralized concept has a major drawback in its ever increasing walking distances for the passengers between the aircraft and the terminal building. However this defect has been overcome in a centralized type of terminal like Dulles International Airport, Washington, which has no fingers or satellites, but only a terminal building and large remote parking apron. Passengers are transported between the two points in special vehicle known as ‘mobile lounges.’ This type of terminal concept has been adopted in the new Montreal International Airport at Mirabelle, and the Jeddah Airport in Saudi Arabia.

Decentralised Terminal: In a decentralized concept, the functional requirement of a fewer number of aircraft; say 4 to 6, at a time are handled in one common facility. When the number of aircraft increases, a series of modules are developed to meet the requirements. This development of modules, instead of one large single terminal is known as the decentralized concept. The decentralized or modular concept permits better provision of passenger convenience. It manages to keep walking distances short and size of the facilities to ‘human scale’. However the public conveniences in the decentralized concept require a certain degree of duplication in staffing and inventory, I order to permit freedom to passengers to shop where and when the wish. The airport authorities in such cases

70 Aviation

have to take a policy decision on the extent to which they desire to cater to public conveniences. This is an important factor of terminal designing that the airport terminal manager must decide. The development of finger type terminal and satellite terminal are variations of the centralized and decentralized concepts. The most recent examples of decentralized terminal are at Dallas/Fortworth in Texas (USA); Charles de Gaulle in Paris (France) and the fabulous Atlanta in USA. Built at a cost of US Dollar 500 million and built at located in an Area of 3750 acres, the newly opened Atlanta Airport pushed the outer limits of technology and ranks at the very top of the new generation airports. The design for the complex was refined for over more than a decade to fulfil two basic requirements—to provide the most convenience and pleasant accommodation for its passengers three quarters of whom change planes in Atlanta and to create the most efficient operating conditions for all the airlines. The four boarding concourses which are separated by the main terminal concourses are connected by a superb, automatic rapid transit system that takes passenger between the terminal and the farthest concourse in less than five minutes.

4.4.3 Cargo Terminal Celebi Delhi Cargo Terminal Management India Pvt. Ltd. Is responsible for the management of cargo terminal and take care of all operations related to cargo terminal. In year 2007 an award for organized and excellent handling of cargo operations was given to the airport. It is situated at a distance of about 1 kilometre from the main terminal T3.

Terminal 3 – Domestic and International

Terminal 3, an integrated future terminal and a state of art, which was opened in 2010 is the eighth largest passenger terminal and twenty-fourth largest building in the world and. It is spread over an area of 540,000 m2 (5,800,000 sq ft), with a capacity to handle thirty-six million passengers every year.

The new Terminal 3 is a two-tier building that occupies an area of thirty acres (twelve ha), with the top being a departures area and the bottom floor being the arrivals area. The features of this terminal comprise of 240 check-in counters, 78 aerobridges at 65 contact stands, 54 parking bays, 96 immigration counters, 15 X-ray screening areas, for less waiting times, duty-free shops, and many more. The terminal when completed will be used by over 90% of passengers. This new terminal had been completed in time for the 2010 Commonwealth Games, which were held in Delhi, and will be connected to Delhi by an eight-lane motorway (National Highway 8), and the Delhi Mass Rapid Transit System. An official inauguration of terminal was done on 3 July 2010, and there were 9 flights to test the operational preparation of the new terminal and its proficiencies in terms of ground handling. During the late July 2010, all international airlines shifted their operations to the new terminal, and by mid November all full service domestic carriers shifted their operations to the new terminal. The arrivals are equipped with 18 baggage carousels.

T3 has India's first automated parking management & guidance system in a multi level car park, which comprises seven levels and a capacity of 6300 cars.

Terminal 3 will form the first phase of the airport expansion in which a 'U' shaped building will be developed in a modular manner. Terminal 3 was used by all full service domestic and international carriers from the year 2010 while low cost operations were carried from Terminal 1. The low cost carriers will also move to the new terminal complex at later stages.

The much awaited go ahead for the domestic airlines to start operations from the new T3 terminal has been given. After passing many hurdles and from 11 November 2010 Air India which is also the national carrier started its domestic operations from the

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World Airlines and Airportsnew T3 terminal. On 14 November 2010, Kingfisher Airlines and Jet Airways moved their domestic operations to the new terminal. Terminal 1D is now used exclusively by low cost carrier airlines including GoAir.

4.5 WORLD AIRLINES Airlines have become an integral part of an economy. It is a key catalyst for economic growth and development, which has profound influences on the quality of life of population around the world. It amalgamates the global economy in order to promote the international exchange of people, products, investments and thoughts. In reality, civil aviation industry has facilitated the less developed, and developing economies to enter in the mainstream of global commerce by linking worldwide communities like manufacturing and cultural centres and further more it acts as a forefront in the development and use of advanced technologies. Airline plays a vital role in the operation of air services globally. It provides services towards the movements of travelling passenger and goods.

Air transport comprises of aircraft manufacturers, leasing companies, government authorities, airports, air traffic control and passengers/goods. Each system has its own functions in contributing towards air transport operations. Let us briefly oversee the "Air Transport System" in the following Figure 4.3:

Figure 4.3: Airlines Operation

4.5.1 Airline Companies Since 1950s, the industry accredited exceptional growth with short periods of stagnation and rationalization. It has become a powerful factor of generating more than $700 billion in added value and creating more than 21 million jobs globally. Air transport has benefited from several technical improvements and commercial advantages. Remarkable progresses have marked the field of aeronautics. Planes can now carry above 500 passengers or 100 tons of cargo. Moreover, despite high costs, there is a multiplication of flights with a view to increasing demand. This in turn spawns new traffic problems. These problems involve the construction of new, modern airports often located at considerable distance from the city they serve. Airline companies are a highly capital intensive segment of transport services. However, unlike maritime transportation, air transportation is also labour intensive, with limited room to lessen those labour requirements. For instance, a new 747-400 mainly used for high volume and long distance travel can cost about 200 million dollars, depending on the configuration, and a new 737-800 used for regional flights costs about 60 million dollars. In 2006, the largest commercial aircraft, the Airbus A380, is expected to enter into service with a seating capacity of 555, and have a range of over

72 Aviation

14,500 kms. The major key aspect of the development of aircraft is to lower the cost of air travel and increase its accessibility to a wider set of consumers. Technological developments not only impacted speed, but also range and capacity of aircraft. The major outbreak was strengthening of business to customer links through the "Internet" (ICAO, 2003).

Regulation and Privatization in Air Transport Sector

International air transportation sector is a highly complex industry, since it is under the international regulation of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the international routes capacity and tariffs are pegged as regards prices and is highly regulated. This section reviews the regulation and liberalization of air transport industry in the domestic context, which has been an important driver of change in the international sphere. The various approaches adopted to governing the industry at the international level, are also explored.

4.5.2 World's Largest Airlines Different airlines can claim the title of world’s largest airlines at the same time, as there are number of ways in which world’s largest airlines can be defined. For instance Delta Air Lines, since its merger with Northwest Airlines in 2009 has carried more scheduled passengers every year than any other airline. On the other hand, United Airlines flies more passenger-kilometres every year and serves more destinations than Delta. FedEx Express is the largest cargo airline, both in fleet size and freight tonne-kilometres flown.

By Scheduled Passengers Carried (Millions)

Rank Airline 2012 2011 2010 2009

1 Delta Air Lines 164.6 163.8 162.6 161.1

2 United Airlines 140.4 141.8 145.6 144.3

3 Southwest Airlines 134.0 127.6 106.2 101.3

4 American Airlines 107.8 107.2 105.2 104.5

5 China Southern Airlines 86.5 80.7 76.5 66.3

6 US Airways 82.5 80.6 79.6 78.0

7 Ryanair 79.3 75.8 72.1 66.5

8 Lufthansa 74.7 65.5 58.9 55.6

9 China Eastern Airlines 73.1 68.7 64.9 44.0

10 Air China 72.4 69.7 60.0 41.3

Notes: Based on individual companies' published figures.

By Scheduled Passenger-Kilometres Flown (Millions)

Rank Airline 2012 2011 2010 2009

1 United Airlines 330,696 334,989 338,833 327,479

2 Delta Air Lines 310,562 310,228 310,875 304,074

3 American Airlines 219,869 219,492 216,132 209,321

4 Southwest Airlines 165,561 157,044 125,604 119,826

5 Emirates 160,446 146,134 126,273 101,762

6 Lufthansa 149,780 141,055 129,668 122,991

Contd…

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World Airlines and Airports7 Air France 137,606 135,129 127,763 128,326

8 China Southern Airlines 135,535 122,344 111,328 93,002

9 Air China 129,773 123,489 105,695 75,474

10 British Airways 126,436 117,348 106,082 114,346

Notes: Based on individual companies' published figures.

By Scheduled Freight Tonne-Kilometres Flown (Millions)

Rank Airline 2012

1 FedEx Express 16,108

2 UPS Airlines 10,416

3 Emirates SkyCargo 9,319

4 Cathay Pacific Cargo 8,433

5 Korean Air Cargo 8,144

6 Lufthansa Cargo 7,175

7 Singapore Airlines Cargo 6,694

8 British Airways World Cargo 4,732

9 China Airlines Cargo 4,538

10 EVA Air Cargo 4,470

Notes: Based on figures published by the International Air Transport Association.

By Fleet Size

Rank Airline Fleet size

1 Delta Air Lines 1,280

2 United Airlines 1,264

3 American Airlines 873

4 Southwest Airlines 683

5 US Airways 621

6 China Southern Airlines 423

7 Lufthansa 401

8 Air France 381

9 Air Canada 354

10 China Eastern Airlines 352

Notes: Includes passenger aircraft only – Includes figures for main airlines' regional carrier(s), excludes other subsidiaries.

Cargo Airlines

Rank Airline Fleet size

1 FedEx Express 634

2 DHL 250

3 UPS Airlines 234

4 TNT Express 33

5 Korean Air Cargo 26

Contd…

74 Aviation

6 Cathay Pacific Cargo 23

7 China Airlines Cargo 21

8 Cargolux 20

9 China Postal Airlines 18

10 Lufthansa Cargo 18

By Number of Destinations

Rank Airline Destinations

1 United Airlines 373

2 Delta Air Lines 330

3 American Airlines 277

4 Turkish Airlines 240

5 China Eastern Airlines 211

6 Lufthansa 199

7 Air France 194

8 US Airways 193

9 China Southern Airlines 193

10 British Airways 191

4.6 WORLD’S MAJOR AIRPORTS A per the data from ACI (Airports Council International) the world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are measured by total passengers. Total passengers can be calculated as:

passengers enplaned + passengers deplaned + direct-transit passengers

Every year since 2000 Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the world's busiest airport; including all airports combined, London has the world's busiest city airport system by passenger count.

For reliability, the Airports Council International annual figures are at all times used for the purpose of presentation and ranking, despite figures given by airport authorities or operators dose not match.

4.6.1 2013 Statistics (Partial Year) Airports Council International's year-to-date figures (January–August) are as follows:

Rank Airport Location Code (IATA/ICA)

Total Passengers

Rank Change

% Change

1. Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport

Atlanta, Georgia,

United States

ATL/KATL 63,579,546 1.3%

2. Beijing Capital International Airport

Chaoyang, Beijing, China

PEK/ZBAA 55,919,431 2.3%

Contd...

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World Airlines and Airports3. London

Heathrow Airport

Hillingdon, London, United Kingdom

LHR/EGLL 48,312,082 3.5%

4. Los Angeles International Airport

Los Angeles, California, United States

LAX/KLAX 45,075,895 2 4.3%

5. Tokyo International Airport

Ōta, Tokyo, Japan HND/RJTT 44,835,435 1 2.7%

6. O'Hare International Airport

Chicago, Illinois, United States

ORD/KORD 44,538,012 1 1.7%

7. Dubai International Airport

Garhoud, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

DXB/OMDB 43,971,839 3 16.4%

8. Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport

Roissy-en France, Tremblay-en-France, Mitry-Mory, Île-de-France, France

CDG/LFPG 41,711,256 1 0.1%

9. Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport

Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas, United States

DFW/ KDFW

40,931,724 1 3.9%

10. Hong Kong International Airport

Chek Lap Kok, Hong Kong, China

HKG/VHHH 39,735,000 2 5.8%

11. Soekarno-Hatta International Airport

Cengkareng, Tangerang, Banten, Indonesia

CGK/WIII 39,582,018 2 4.5%

12. Frankfurt Airport

Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany

FRA/EDDF 38,663,262 1 0.3%

13. Singapore Changi Airport

Changi, East Region, Singapore

SIN/WSSS 35,457,356 2 5.4%

14. Amsterdam Schiphol Airport

Haarlemmermee, North Holland, Netherlands

AMS/EHAM 35,357,644 2 3.0%

15. Denver International Airport

Denver, Colorado,

United States

DEN/KDEN 35,183,343 2 1.7%

16. Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport

Huadu, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China

CAN/ZGGG 34,907,598 2 9.3%

17. Suvarnabhumi Airport

Bang Phli, Samut Prakan, Thailand

BKK/VTBS 34,373,606 3 5.7%

Contd...

76 Aviation 18. John F.

Kennedy International Airport

Queens, New York City, New York, United States

JFK/KJFK 33,977,120 1 1.2%

19. Atatürk International Airport

Istanbul, Turkey IST/LTBA 33,946,064 1 15.9%

20. Shanghai Pudong International Airport

Pudong, Shanghai, China

PVG/ZSPD 31,570,365 1 4.1%

21. Kuala Lumpur International Airport

Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia

KUL/ WMKK

30,423,601 6 17.2%

22. San Francisco International Airport

San Mateo County, California, United States

SFO/KSFO 29,970,381 0.5%

23. Charlotte Douglas International Airport

Charlotte, North Carolina, United States

CLT/KCLT 29,147,707 1 5.3%

24. McCarran International Airport

Las Vegas, Nevada, United States

LAS/KLAS 28,037,211 1 0.1%

25. Seoul Incheon International Airport

Incheon, Republic of Korea

ICN/RKSI 27,934,142 4 7.1%

26. Miami International Airport

Miami-Dade County, Florida, United States

MIA/KMIA 27,638,826 2 2.0%

27. Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport

Phoenix, Arizona,United States

PHX/KPHX 27,336,752 2 0.3%

28. George Bush Intercontinental Airport

Houston, Texas, United States

IAH/KIAH 27,004,392 2 1.0%

29. Madrid Barajas Airport

Madrid, Spain MAD/ LEMD

26,581,831 10 14.3%

30. Munich Airport

Munich, Bavaria, Germany

MUC/ EDDM

25,770,962 0.7%


Fill in the blanks:

1. International Airport in ……………………….. has been the world's busiest airport every year since 2000.

Contd…

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World Airlines and Airports2. ……………………….. is a key catalyst for economic growth and

development, which has profound influences on the quality of life of population around the world.

4.7 LET US SUM UP Aviation services are vital to the economic and social development of any economy. Aviation industry is a modern mode of transport, which started during the early 20th century. A description of aviation industry includes manufacturing, airlines, airport operation, maintenance, air traffic control, metrological and pilots.

The first part of aviation is military aviation. Military aviation refers to aircraft flown by the armed forces. The second part of aviation relates to aviation for commercial purposes. Commercial aviation began in Germany in 1910.The third part is referred to as general aviation. General aviation is all civil aeronautics with the exception of commercial air-transport operations.

The passenger terminal becomes a more important element of the airport. The design that is ultimately adopted depends principally on the passenger volumes to be served and the type of passenger involved. The passenger building is the major connection between airport access and the aircraft. Two concepts of terminal designs have been developed, namely centralized and decentralized terminal. The Cargo Terminal is managed by Celebi Delhi Cargo Terminal Management India Pvt. Ltd. and handles all cargo operations. The airport received an award in 2007 for its excellent and organized cargo handling system.

Airline is a key catalyst for economic growth and development, which has profound influences on the quality of life of population around the world. The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are measured by total passengers (data from Airports Council International (ACI)), defined as passengers enplaned plus passengers deplaned plus direct-transit passengers.

4.8 LESSON END ACTIVITY Conduct a research on the recent developments in the area of passenger terminals at both domestic and international airports.

4.9 KEYWORDS Aviation’ or ‘Air Transport’: It refers to the activities closely associated with mechanical flight, and the aircraft industry.

Military Aviation: It refers to aircraft flown by the armed forces. Aircraft have been a major weapon in many wars.

Commercial Aircraft: It provides public air transportation to approximately five hundred locations throughout the country, to every part of the globe.

General Aviation: It is all civil aeronautics with the exception of commercial air-transport operations. This includes sports flying, business flying, and crop-dusting.

Centralized Terminal: In centralized terminal concept, one single interface building, situated between landside and airside serves all aircrafts respective of their size and number.

Decentralized Concept: In a decentralized concept, the functional requirement of a fewer number of aircraft; say 4 to 6, at a time are handled in one common facility.

78 Aviation 4.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. “Aviation can be broadly classified into three areas”. Discuss each of these areas in brief.

2. Write a brief summary on the history of civil aviation industry.

3. What do you mean by passenger Terminal?

4. Explain cargo terminal.


CYP 1

1. Boeing 700’s

2. Commercial

CYP 2

1. Atlanta

2. Airlines

4.11 SUGGESTED READINGS Jaroslav J. Hajek, Jim W. Hall, David K. Hein, (2011), Common Airport Pavement Maintenance Practices, Transportation Research Board.

Manuel Ayres (Jr.), (2007), Safety Management Systems for Airports: Guidebook, Transportation Research Board.

Antonín Kazda, Robert E. Caves, (2007), Airport Design and Operation, Emerald Group Publishing.

Knippenberger, Ute, (2010), Airports in Cities and Regions: Research and Practise; 1st International Colloquium on Airports and Spatial Development, Karlsruhe, KIT Scientific Publishing.

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World Aviation BodiesLESSON

5 WORLD AVIATION BODIES

CONTENTS


5.1 Introduction

5.2 International Air Transport Association (IATA)

5.2.1 Aims of IATA

5.3 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

5.3.1 ICAO’s Objectives

5.3.2 ICAO’s Strategic Planning

5.4 National Aviation Authorities

5.4.1 Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA, India)

5.5 Role of the Central and State Governments

5.5.1 Civil-Military Cooperation

5.5.2 Human Resource Development

5.5.3 Environmental Issues

5.5.4 Regulatory Mechanisms

5.5.5 User and Community Participation

5.5.6 Legal Framework

5.6 Airport Authority of India

5.6.1 History

5.7 Let us Sum up


5.9 Keywords




Explain International Air Transport Association Describe International Civil Aviation Organisation Discuss National Aviation Authorities Explain Airport Authority of India


In this lesson you will learn about the International Air Transport Association was founded in Havana, Cuba, in April 1945. You will also study about the international civil aviation organization and national aviation authorities with emphasis on the role of central and state government. Further in this lesson you will learn about Airport Authority of India which Aviation is responsible for creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation infrastructure in India.

5.2 INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION (IATA) The International Air Transport Association is the prime vehicle for inter-airline cooperation in promoting safe, reliable, secure and economical air services - for the benefit of the world’s consumers. The international scheduled air transport industry is now more than 100 times larger than it was in 1945. Few industries can match the dynamism of that growth, which would have been much less spectacular without the standards, practices and procedures developed within IATA. At its founding, IATA had 57 Members from 31 nations, mostly in Europe and North America. Today, it has over 270 Members from more than 140 nations in every part of the globe. The modern IATA is the successor to the International Air Traffic Association founded in The Hague in 1919 − the year of the world’s first international scheduled services.

International air transport is one of the most dynamic and fastest-changing industries in the world. It needs a responsive, forward-looking and universal trade association, operating at the highest professional standards. IATA is that association. IATA brings together approximately 265 airlines, including the world’s largest. Flights by these airlines comprise 94 per cent of all international scheduled air traffic. Since these airlines face a rapidly changing world, they must cooperate in order to offer a seamless service of the highest possible standard to passengers and cargo shippers. Much of that cooperation is expressed through IATA, whose mission is to “represent, lead and serve the airline industry”.

Continual efforts by IATA ensure that people, freight and mail can move around the vast global airline network as easily as if they were on a single airline in a single country. In addition, IATA helps to ensure that Members’ aircraft can operate safely, securely, efficiently and economically under clearly defined and understood rules. For consumers, IATA simplifies the travel and shipping process. By helping to control airline costs, IATA contributes to cheaper tickets and shipping costs. Thanks to airline cooperation through IATA, individual passengers can make one telephone call to reserve a ticket, pay in one currency and then use the ticket on several airlines in several countries – or even return it for cash refund.

IATA is also a collective link between third parties and the airlines. Passenger and cargo agents are able to make representations to the industry through IATA and derive the benefit of neutrally applied agency service standards and levels of professional skill. Equipment manufacturers and third-party service providers are able to join in the airline meetings, which define the way air transport goes about its business. IATA allows airlines to operate more efficiently. It offers joint means – beyond the resources of any single company – of exploiting opportunities, reducing costs and solving problems. Airlines knit their individual networks into a worldwide system through IATA, despite differences in language, currencies, laws and national customs.

IATA is a useful means for governments to work with airlines and draw on their experience and expertise. Working standards within the aviation industry are developed within IATA. In fostering safe and efficient air transport, IATA serves the stated policies of most of the world’s governments.

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World Aviation Bodies5.2.1 Aims of IATA

To promote safe, regular and economical air transport for the benefit of the peoples of the world, to foster air commerce, and to study the problems connected therewith.

To provide means for collaboration among the air transport enterprises engaged directly or indirectly in international air transport service.

To cooperate with the newly created International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO - the specialized United Nations agency for civil aviation) and other international organizations.

The most important tasks of IATA during its earliest days were technical, because safety and reliability are fundamental to airline operations. These require the highest standards in air navigation, airport infrastructure and flight operations. The IATA airlines provided vital input to the work of ICAO, as that organization drafted its Standards and commended Practices. By 1949, the drafting process was largely complete and reflected in “Annexes” to the Chicago convention, the treaty which still governs the conduct of international civil aviation. In those early days, ICAO coordinated regional air navigation and support for airports and operational aids in countries, which could not themselves, afford such services. IATA provided airline input to ICAO and to sessions of the International Telecommunications Union on wavelength allocation.

The standardization of documentation and procedures for the smooth functioning of the world air transport network also required a sound legal basis. IATA helped to interlock international conventions, developed through ICAO, with US air transport law, which had developed in isolation prior to World War Two. The Association made a vital input to the development of Conditions of Carriage, the contract between the customer and the transporting airline. One early item on the legal agenda was revision and modernization of the Warsaw Convention - originally signed in 1929 - on airline liability for passenger injury or death and cargo damage or loss. This work continues once they were operating within a sound technical and legal framework. Airlines’ next requirements were for answers to questions such as: who can fly where? What prices are to be charged? How is the money from multi-airline journeys - that is, interlining - to be divided up, and how do airlines settle their accounts?

The Chicago Conference of 1944, which gave birth to the Chicago Convention tried to achieve a multilateral answer to the first two questions, but failed to do so. The questions of who flies, and where, were resolved on a bilateral basis. The benchmark Bermuda Agreement of 1946 between the US and the UK was the first of almost 4,000 bilateral air transport agreements so far signed and registered with ICAO. In the early days, governments insisted on the right to oversee the prices charged by international airlines, but could not in practical terms, develop those prices for themselves. IATA was delegated to hold Traffic Conferences for this purpose, with all fares and rates subject to final government approval. The aim was twofold: ensuring that fares and rates would not involve cut-throat competition, while ensuring that they could be set as low as possible, in the interests of consumers.

A coherent pattern of fares and rates pattern was established, avoiding inconsistencies between tariffs affecting neighbouring countries - and thereby avoiding traffic diversion. The predictability of fares and rates in this pattern also enabled airlines to accept each other’s tickets on multi-sector journeys and thus gave birth to interlining. Today, 50 million international air passengers a year pay for their ticket in one place, in one currency, but complete their journey using at least two, and sometimes five or more, airlines from different countries using different currencies. The first worldwide Traffic Conference was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1947. It reached unanimous agreement on nearly 400 resolutions covering all aspects of air travel. Fare

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construction rules for multi-sector trips, revenue allocation - pro-rating - rules, baggage allowances, ticket and air waybill design and agency appointment procedures were typical details agreed at this pioneering meeting.

Today, that pioneering work is reflected in the currently applicable IATA Resolutions dealing with these and many other subjects. Notable examples are:

Multilateral Interline Traffic Agreements: These are the basis for the airlines’ interline network. About 300 airlines have signed and accepted each other’s tickets and air waybills − and thus their passenger and cargo traffic − on a reciprocal basis.

Passenger and Cargo Services Conference Resolutions: These prescribe a variety of standard formats and technical specifications for tickets and air way bills.

Passenger and Cargo Agency Agreements and Sales Agency Rules: These govern the relationships between IATA Member airlines and their accredited agents with regard to passenger and cargo.

Debt Settlement between airlines, largely arising from interlining, takes place through the Clearing House, which began operations in January 1947. During its first year, 17 airlines cleared (US) $26 million. By 1994, the Clearing House had 380 participants including non-airlines. The total cleared was (US) $22.8 billion. Typically, almost 90 per cent of debts between participants are offset and there is no need for cash transfers.

IATA’s Two-Tier Systems

Between the late 1940s and the early 1970s, it could be said that flight was transformed from “a scientific phenomenon to a public utility at the disposal of the entire world.” At the same time, the popularization of civil aviation led to growing demands that the “public utility” view of the industry on the part of governments be modified to encompass greater competition and wider access to markets. These demands were fuelled by competition for leisure travellers provided by charter companies and the challenge of stimulating demand to fill the new wide-bodied aircraft. Potential demand for air travel had extended well beyond the original client base of bureaucrats, businessmen and the well to do. New travel products and greatly increased price flexibility were needed. As a result, the old basis for conducting IATA Traffic Conferences needed modification.

At the same time, the US Government, which had first given IATA Traffic Conferences immunity from national anti-trust law in 1946, began its own review of air transport regulation, which, although domestic in scope, was bound to have international repercussions. The international dimension of the US review resulted in a “Show Cause Order”. Hearings took place in 1979, at which IATA was called upon to show cause why should anti-trust immunity not be removed from its Tariff Coordination activities? The outcome mainly affected North Atlantic passenger fares which, for some years, were subject to special rules under an inter-governmental Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between t he US and ECAC states. The present position is that all Tariff Coordination activities continue to be protected. Eventually, IATA was re-organized on a two-tier basis in October 1979. The tiers comprised:

Trade Association: (Technical, legal, financial, traffic services and most agency matters)

Tariff Coordination: (Passenger fares, cargo rates, and related conditions and charges)

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World Aviation BodiesGrowth and Development

Taking account of its present size and average annual world growth rates in the range of 5-6 per cent − typically, twice the rate of general economic growth − air transport has a dynamism undiminished from its pioneering days. IATA’s role in it remains central. The market for air transport has changed beyond recognition during the history of the modern IATA. The industry continues to change and IATA is adapting to meet the new needs. However, one thing has not changed − the necessity to provide service. IATA helps the airlines to achieve this objective as they meet the new demands of the 21st century. In large measure, the airlines have created a modern, interdependent world over the past 50 years. IATA is working to ensure that the world’s most exciting industry meets its greatest possible potential.

5.3 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO) The outcome of the studies begun by the US, and the succeeding consultations between the Major Allies, was that the US government extended an invitation to 55 States to attend an International Civil Aviation Conference in Chicago in November 1944, at the end of which a Convention on International Civil Aviation was signed by 32 States to set up the permanent International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as a means to secure international cooperation for a highest possible degree of uniformity in regulations and standards, procedures and organization regarding civil aviation matters. At the same time the International Services Transit Agreement and the International Air Transport Agreement were signed.

The most important work accomplished in the technical field by the Chicago Conference was that it laid the foundation for a set of rules and regulations regarding air navigation safety and paved the way for the application of a common air navigation system throughout the world. ICAO was firmly established in 1947, and it was realized that the work of the Secretariat, especially in the technical field, would have to cover two major activities:

1. those which covered generally applicable rules and regulations concerning training and licensing of aeronautical personnel both in the air, and

2. on the ground, communication systems and procedures, rules for the air and air traffic control systems and practices, airworthiness requirements for aircraft engaged in international air navigation as well as their registration and identification, aeronautical meteorology and maps and charts.

For obvious reasons, these aspects required uniformity on a worldwide scale if truly international air navigation was to become a possibility. Activities in these fields had therefore to be handled by a central agency, i.e., ICAO headquarters, if local deviations or separate developments were to be avoided. The 96 articles of the Chicago Convention establish the privileges and restrictions of all contracting states and provide for the adoption of “International Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) regulating international air transport.

The main aim and objectives of ICAO, as contained in Article 44 of the Chicago Convention are to develop the principles and techniques of international air navigation and to foster the planning and development of international air transport so as to:

Insure the safe orderly growth of international civil aviation throughout the world.

Encourage the arts of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purpose.

Encourage the development of airways, airports and air navigation facilities for international civil aviation.

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To meet the needs of the peoples of the world for safe, regular, efficient and economical air transport.

Prevent economic waste caused by unreasonable competition.

Insure that the rights of contracting states are fully respected and that every contracting state has fair opportunity to operate international airlines.

Avoid discrimination between contracting states.

Promote safety of flight in international air navigation.

To promote generally the development of all aspects of international civil aeronautics.

At present, there are 189 countries that are the members of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), as on September 2005.

5.3.1 ICAO’s Objectives Standardization: ICAO’s principal activities are standardization, the

establishment of International Standards, Recommended Practices and Procedures (SRPP) covering the technical fields of aviation: licensing of personnel, rules of the air, aeronautical meteorology, aeronautical charts, units of measurement, operation of aircraft, nationality and registration marks, airworthiness, aeronautical telecommunications, air traffic services, search and rescue, aircraft accident investigation, aerodromes, aeronautical information services, aircraft noise and engine emissions, security and the safe transport of dangerous goods. After a Standard is adopted, it is put into effect by each ICAO Contracting State in its own territories. As aviation technology continues to develop rapidly, the Standards are kept under constant review and amended as necessary.

Communication Navigational Surveillance/Air Traffic Management: ICAO’s most recent significant achievements have been the development of a satellite-based system concept to meet the future communications, navigation and surveillance/air traffic management (CNS/ATM) needs of civil aviation. CNS/ATM, formerly known as the future air navigation systems (FANS) concept, is essentially the application of today’s high technologies in satellites and computers, data links and advanced flight deck avionics, to cope with tomorrow’s growing operational needs. It produces economies, efficiencies and greater safety. This will be its further impact as an integrated global system, with consequential changes to the way air traffic services are organized and operated. The CNS/ATM systems concept has received the endorsement of ICAO Member States, and is now in its implementation phase. This major task includes the development of standards, recommended practices and guidance material, which will be applied well into the 21st century.

Regional Planning: Aviation tribulations are on a worldwide scale with various specialized/professionalized subjects on a regional basis. ICAO recognizes nine geographical regions, for planning the provision of air navigation facilities and services required on the ground by aircraft flying in these regions. In each of the regions, keeping in mind the objective of producing a seamless global air traffic management system, careful planning is necessary to produce the network of air navigation facilities and services upon which the aero planes depend the aerodromes, the meteorological and communications stations, the navigation aids, the air traffic control units, the search and rescue bases, the thousands of facilities to be established and operated and the services to be rendered.. The plan, which emerges from a regional meeting, is so designed that, when the States concerned implement it, it will lead to an integrated, efficient system for the entire region and contribute toward the global system. When States require assistance in this regard, ICAO’s help is available through seven regional offices, each one

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World Aviation Bodiesaccredited to a group of Contracting States. These offices have as their main function, the duty of encouraging, assisting, expediting and following up the implementation of the Air Navigation Plans and maintaining them up to date. In addition, regional planning and implementation groups have been established in ICAO regions to assist the regional offices in keeping the regional plans up-to-date and in fostering their implementation.

Facilitation: ICAO has tried to persuade its Contracting States to reduce red tape, and International Standards on facilitation. In addition to reducing procedural formalities, ICAO’s efforts are also aimed at providing adequate airport terminal buildings for passengers and their baggage as well as for air cargo, with all related facilities and services. The obstacles placed by customs, immigration, public health and other formalities on the free and unimpeded passage of passengers and cargo across international boundaries have been a particularly serious impediment to air travel.

Economics: International Civil Aviation requires international air transport services to be established on the basis of equality of opportunity and operated soundly and economically. In fact, ICAO’s basic objective is the development of safe, regular, efficient and economical air transport. To assist States in planning their air transport services, ICAO collects and publishes comprehensive world aviation statistical data, and undertakes extensive economic studies in line with Resolutions of the ICAO Assembly and Recommendations of worldwide conferences. ICAO also produces manuals for the guidance of States in such areas as statistics, air traffic forecasting, airport and air navigation facility tariffs, the economic regulation of air transport and the establishment of airfares and rates.

Technical Cooperation for Development: ICAO pays special attention to promoting civil aviation in developing countries. An important instrument in this work has been the United Nations Development Programme. So far, most of the Organization’s work in this area has been directed toward the development of the ground services required for civil aviation and, in particular, toward aerodromes, air traffic control, communications and meteorological services; in the past few years, and with the advent of larger and more complex aircraft, requests for assistance in the more sophisticated fields of aviation, including airports operations, have been increasing in number. In response to the alarming incidents in recent years of acts of unlawful interference against aircraft and airports, ICAO also provides assistance to States in order to improve their aviation security facilities and procedures.

Law: ICAO has more than one hundred and eighty nine Contracting States. There are many legal philosophies and different systems of jurisprudence. Therefore to unify this, the development of a code of international air law is mandatory. It is a function of ICAO to facilitate the adoption of international air law instruments and to promote their general acceptance. So far, many international air law instruments have been adopted under the Organization’s auspices involving such varied subjects as the international recognition of property rights in aircraft, damage done by aircraft to third parties on the surface, the liability of the air carrier to its passengers, crimes committed on board aircraft, the marking of plastic explosives for detection and unlawful interference with civil aviation.

5.3.2 ICAO’s Strategic Planning Today, international civil aviation industry faces major challenges, and therefore, there is a need for ICAO to adapt framework of the Convention to rapidly changing scenarios based on the following aims in strategic planning of the industry:

Globalization and Trans nationalization of markets and operations.

Emergence of regional and sub-regional trading and regulatory blocks.

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Commercialization of government service providers.

Diversification of fiscal measures to respond to budgetary needs.

Liberalization of Economic regulation.

Potential Evasion of safety regulation.

Blurring of sectoral boundaries and responsibilities of related authorities.

ICAO Annexes

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) laid out standard regulation towards the safety and security of Airport, Airlines, Air Traffic Control, Security, Safety, Facilitation and Environmental issues. These standards are laid out in the 18 Annexes and each annexe would describe the functions and standard norms of particular providing services.

ICAO ANNEXES

ANNEX 1 Personnel Licensing

ANNEX 2 Rules of the Air

ANNEX 3 Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation

ANNEX 4 Aeronautical Charts

ANNEX 5 Units of Measurement to be used in Air and Ground Operations

ANNEX 6 Operation of Aircraft

ANNEX 7 Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks

ANNEX 8 Airworthiness of Aircraft

ANNEX 9 Facilitation

ANNEX 10 Aeronautical Telecommunication

ANNEX 11 Air Traffic Services

ANNEX 12 Search and Rescue

ANNEX 13 Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation

ANNEX 14 Aerodromes

ANNEX 15 Aeronautical Information Services

ANNEX 16 Environmental Protection

ANNEX 17 Security - Safeguarding International Civil Aviation against Acts of Unlawful Interferences

ANNEX 18 The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air



1. The main aim and objectives of ICAO, as contained in Article 44 of the Chicago Convention are to develop the principles and techniques of international air navigation and to foster the planning and development of international air transport.

2. International Civil Aviation requires international air transport services to be established on the basis of equality of opportunity and operated soundly and economically.

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World Aviation Bodies5.4 NATIONAL AVIATION AUTHORITIES A National Aviation Authority (NAA) is a government statutory authority in each country that oversees the approval and regulation of civil aviation.

Role: Due to the inherent dangers in the use of flight vehicles, NAA's typically regulate the following critical aspects of aircraft airworthiness and their operation:

Design of aircraft, engines, airborne equipment and ground-based equipment affecting flight safety.

Conditions of manufacture and test of aircraft and equipment.

Maintenance of aircraft and equipment.

Operation of aircraft and equipment.

Licensing of pilots and maintenance engineers.

Licensing of airports and navigational aids.

Standards for air traffic control.

Depending on the legal system of the parent country, the NAA will derive its power from an act of Parliament (such as the Civil or Federal Aviation Act), and is then empowered to make regulations within the bounds of the act. This allows technical aspects of airworthiness to be dealt with by subject matter experts and not politicians.

The NAA may also be involved in the investigation of aircraft accidents, although in many cases this is left to a separate body (such as the Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB) in Australia or the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) in the USA), to allow independent review of regulatory oversight.

The NAA will regulate the control of air traffic but a separate agency will generally carry out air traffic control functions.

History: The independent development of NAAs has resulted in differing regulations in country to country. This has required aircraft manufacturers in the past to develop differing models for specific NAA requirements (such as the BAe Jetstream 31), and difficulty for airlines to travel into foreign jurisdictions. In an effort to resolve these issues, the Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention) was signed in 1944. This then led to the establishment by the United Nations of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in 1947 which now oversees member states and works to implement regulatory changes to ensure best practice regulations are adopted.

Major national aviation authorities 1. Agência Nacional de Aviação Civil (ANAC, Brazil) 2. Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA, Australia) 3. Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC, People's Republic of China) 4. Civil Aviation Authority (Greece) (ΥΠΑ, Greece) 5. Civil Aviation Department (CAD, Hong Kong) 6. Civil Aviation Authority of Pakistan (CAA, Pakistan) 7. Civil Aviation Authority (CAA, UK) 8. Civil Aviation Authority (CAA, NZ) 9. Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore (CAAS, Singapore) 10. Direccion General de Aeronautica Civil (DGAC, Mexico)

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11. Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA, India) 12. Directorate General of Civil Aviation of Turkey (SHGM, Turkey) 13. Direction Générale de l'Aviation Civile (DGAC, France) 14. Ente Nazionale per l'Aviazione Civile (ENAC, Italy) 15. European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA, is not actually an NAA but plays part

of the role within its member states of the EU) 16. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA, USA) 17. Iran Civil Aviation Organization (CAO, Islamic Republic of Iran) 18. Instituto Nacional da Aviação Civil (INAVIC, Angola) 19. Instituto Nacional de Aviação Civil (INAC, Portugal) 20. National Transportation Safety Committee (NTSC, Indonesia) 21. Luftfahrt-Bundesamt (LBA, Germany) 22. Transport Canada (TC, Canada)

5.4.1 Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA, India) The Directorate General of Civil Aviation is the prime regulatory organization in India, in the field of Civil Aviation. It is accountable for regulation of air transport services to/from/within India and for formulation and enforcement of civil air transport regulations, air safety and airworthiness standards. It is also co-ordinates all regulatory functions with the International Civil Aviation Organization. The Directorate General of Civil Aviation is headed by the Director General of Civil Aviation whose headquarters are in New Delhi. The DGCA has the following Directorates under his supervision:

Directorate of Regulations and Information

Directorate of Air Transport

Directorate of Airworthiness

Directorate of Air Safety

Directorate of Training and Licensing

Directorate of Aerodrome Standards

Directorate of Flying Training

Directorate of Flight Inspection

Directorate of Research and Development

Directorate of Administration

Functions of DGCA

The Directorate General of Civil Aviation is responsible for

Laying down rules and regulations for implementation of ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices

Regulation of air transport services to/from/within India;

Registration of civil aircraft in India;

Formulation of standards of airworthiness for civil aircraft registered in India and grant of Certificate of Airworthiness to such aircraft;

Licensing of pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers and flight engineers;

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World Aviation Bodies Licensing of aerodromes in India;

Carrying out Investigations into air accidents and incidents;

Implementation of bilateral air services agreements with foreign countries;

Rendering advice on matters pertaining to air transport;

Processing of aviation registration;

Supervision of the training activities of the Flying/Gliding Clubs in India;

Development of light aircraft, gliders and winches; and

Certification of aircraft

Air Service Agreements − (Bilateral Agreements)

DGCA is entrusted with the duty of keeping track records of bilateral agreements between the countries. As on 2004-2005, more than 100 bilateral agreements were made by the country with various countries, in respect of trade by means of air transport.

Air Transport Services (International Scheduled Services)

As on 31st December 2004, approximately 60 foreign airlines were operating scheduled air services to/through India, excluding Air India, Indian Airlines, Jet Airways and Air Sahara (including 64 national carriers). In addition, 27 foreign airlines were operating scheduled services, overflying Indian Territory. The operation of tourist charters under the Tourist Charter Guidelines continued during the year. As on 31st October 2000, 38 companies were holding Non-Scheduled Operator's Permit.

Domestic Scheduled Operators

In addition to Air India, Indian Airlines and Alliance Air, the following private operators had the permission to operate domestic scheduled air transport services: - Jet Airways, Air Sahara, Air Deccan (2004), Spice Jet (2005), Kingfisher Airlines (2005), Paramount Airlines (2005) and Blue Dart (Freighter).

Airworthiness

Registration of aircraft as on 31st January 2001: there were 1064 aircraft (including micro light aircraft, gliders and balloons) on the Indian Civil Register, of which 26 were registered during the year 2000-2001. Out of this, 628 aircraft held current Certificates of Airworthiness:

Licensing of Aircraft Maintenance Engineers is another responsibility of the DGCA. A total of 5175 Aircraft Maintenance Engineers (AME) Licenses including Basic Aircraft Maintenance Engineers Certificates (BAMEC) and 282 Flight Engineers (FE) certificates have been issued so far, of which 319 AME Licenses have been issued during the year 2000-2001. Approval of firms: so far, a total of 544 firms, including 71 foreign firms, have been approved for manufacture, maintenance, testing, storage, etc., of aircraft, aircraft components/equipment.

5.5 ROLE OF THE CENTRAL AND STATE GOVERNMENTS 1. The role and functions of the Central Government as contained in the various

statutes and the preceding sections extend to the following matters;

(a) Investment in airport infrastructure.

(b) Clearance of Greenfield airport projects.

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(c) Airspace management, safety and security of airports.

(d) Bilateral air services agreements, including those involving international cooperation for modernization and upgradation of airports.

(e) Licensing of airports and ATC personnel.

(f) Environmental aspects and removal of obstructions around airports.

(g) Approval of aeronautical charges.

2. The Ministry of Civil Aviation will try to facilitate the speedy clearance of projects from different Ministries.

3. The State Governments will deal with the following aspects:

(a) Acquisition of private land and allotment of government land.

(b) Supply of water and power, and provision of sanitation and sewage services.

(c) Provision of surface access through multi-modal linkages.

(d) Prevention of environmental pollution.

(e) Maintenance of law and order.

(f) Protection of airports from encroachments and vandalism.

4. In case Government land is allotted by a State Government for an airport owned by a private party, it may be made available at the same rate as is charged from other industrial ventures in the State.

5. Government will ensure that legislative and administrative mechanisms for speedy acquisition of land are devised.

6. The Ministry of Civil Aviation will liaise with the State Governments in order to ensure provision of all these essential services and basic facilities. The State Civil Aviation Secretaries will act as coordinating officers for single-point liaison with all the State-level departments and authorities.

5.5.1 Civil-Military Cooperation 1. There are numerous areas of interaction between the civilian departments and the

defence authorities. Action is required as under to sort out the various issues:

(a) In order to meet the expanding requirements of civil air traffic there is an urgent need to widen the existing air corridors, provide them unidirectional air corridors, to provide smooth flow of air traffic and thus enhance air safety.

(b) We have to optimize the utilization of restricted air space, by networking of radar and data systems, which should be acquired on the basis of mutual compatibility.

(c) Additional land is to be provided at civilian enclaves in military airports. Revenue from aeronautical charges at these airports deserves to be shared with the AAI, in order to compensate it for the capital investment it has made.

(d) Additional slots should be made available for civilian flights at military airports.

2. In order to ensure civil-military cooperation, coordination committee at the level of respective Ministries as well as at operational level will be energized.

5.5.2 Human Resource Development 1. Airport management, air safety, airport security, navigation and communication

and fire prevention are critical areas of human resource development, especially in

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World Aviation Bodiesthe context of privatization of these functions. Stress needs to be laid on developing an overall environment of courteous behaviour by all associated with airport operations besides inculcating safety and security as a habit. It is thus of utmost importance that private institutions are set up for training of airport managers, air traffic controllers, navigation and communication engineers, airport security and fire-fighting personnel and they are licensed by the Government. Appropriate syllabi and course contents should be laid down and there should be legal provision for licensing of these personnel.

2. Simultaneously, the training facilities in the public sector have to be upgraded and refurbished so as to cater to the growing demands for trained personnel as also to counter the phenomenon of technological obsolescence.

3. The National Institute of Aviation Management and Research should be strengthened so as to act as the lead institution for human resource development. It should develop academic linkages with ICAO, IIT, IIMs and Universities. Chairs on Civil Aviation research will be created in the institutions of learning.

4. In certain areas of human resources, there may be need for introduction of innovative systems of deployment like the flexible complementing scheme prevalent in the scientific community, so that the benefits of specialization are not frittered away at the time of promotion.

5. Contingency and back-up plans will be drawn up to meet emergencies arising out of industrial unrest among airport staff.

6. Airport management needs expertise in diverse fields and cannot survive except by sub-contracting of specialized activities to a host of private organizations. Legal hurdles to engagement of contract labour or contractual agencies will have to be dismantled through legislative intervention.

5.5.3 Environmental Issues 1. The operation of airports has to be in full accord with the provisions relating to

prevention of air, water and noise pollution. All effluents would require to be treated before these are allowed to leave the airports. There will be close liaison with state governments and municipal authorities to maintain cleanliness and remove encroachments in airports and surrounding areas, so as to obviate the menace of bird hits. Large scale plantations and other eco-friendly activities like construction of golf courses would be encouraged around airports, both for environmental purposes as also to provide relaxation to transit passengers. Such environmental issues would need close interaction with regional planning bodies.

2. The airports would be set up after the requisite environmental clearances and a time-frame of 90 days would be prescribed by Ministry of Environment and Forests for completing the processing of applications for such clearances.

3. Improved connectivity between airports and adjacent population centres should form an integral part of each airport infrastructure development projects and not be left to evolve by itself.

5.5.4 Regulatory Mechanisms 1. In the context of a multiplicity of operators (including private areas) and the

possibility of oligopolistic practices, there is a need for an appellate authority which could look into grievances with regard to fixation of tariff rates, allotment of slots, working of air traffic controllers, allocation of space in the airports etc. To this end, Government will create a fair and independent Airport Regulatory Board, comprising representatives of the Ministry of Civil Aviation, DGCA, airport and airline operators, etc. This grievance redressal mechanism would help in speedy and effective resolution of disputes among the various stakeholders.

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2. There will also be a legislation for conversion of the DGCA into a Civil Aviation Authority with full powers of regulation overall aspects of the aviation industry.

5.5.5 User and Community Participation 1. An airport is a living entity and it should co-exist with all members of the

community, especially the users of its various facilities.

2. The Airport Advisory Committees should be more broad-based and meet frequently so as to serve as an effective means for grievance redressal to achieve better facilitation for airport users.

3. Special representation should be given to associations of passengers and cargo handling agents.

5.5.6 Legal Framework 1. All changes necessitated by this policy in the existing Acts, Rules, Regulations

and other provisions should be carried out expeditiously, so as to facilitate its implementation.

2. Presently property tax is being levied on the properties of AAI, thus putting a further strain on the viability of the airports. This anomaly needs to be rectified, because airport land is owned by the Central Government and AAI is only a trustee.

5.6 AIRPORT AUTHORITY OF INDIA The responsibility of creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation infrastructure in India lies with the Airports Authority of India (AAI) under the Ministry of Civil Aviation. The Airports Authority of India renders ATM (Air traffic management) services over Indian airspace and adjoining oceanic areas. AAI also manages a total of 125 Airports, together with eleven International Airports, eight Customs Airports, eighty-one Domestic Airports and twenty-five civil enclaves at Military Airfields. The Airports Authority of India also has ground installations at all airports and 25 other locations to safeguard safety of aircraft operations. AAI covers all major air-routes over Indian landmass by means of twenty-nine Radar installations at 11 locations along with eighty-nine VOR/DVOR installations co-located with Distance Measuring Equipment (DME). Fifty-two runways are furnished with ILS (Instrument landing system) installations with Night Landing Facilities at most of these airports and Automatic Message Switching System at fifteen Airports.

India was the first country to use ADSS (Automatic Dependence Surveillance System) technology in the South East Asian region thereby changing Air Traffic Control over oceanic areas employing satellite mode of communication. This was made possible by Airports Authority of India implementation of ADSS (Automatic Dependence Surveillance System), by means of indigenous technology, at Kolkata and Chennai Air Traffic Control Centres. Performance Based Navigation (PBN) techniques have already been carried out at Mumbai, Delhi and Ahmedabad Airports and are probably to be implemented at other Airports in a phased manner. In technological collaboration with the ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization), Airports Authority of India is implementing the GAGAN project, in which satellite based system, will be used for navigation. The GPS will send the navigation signals that will be used to get the navigational requirement of aircraft. In February 2008, the 1st phase of technology demonstration system was completed. Airports Authority of India has 4 training establishments namely, The Civil Aviation Training College (CATC) at Allahabad, National Institute of Aviation Management and Research (NIAMAR) at Delhi and Fire Training Centres (FTC) at Delhi and

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World Aviation BodiesKolkata. An Aerodrome Visual Simulator (AVS) has been supplied at Civil Aviation Training College and non-radar procedural ATC simulator equipment is being supplied to Civil Aviation Training College Allahabad and Hyderabad Airport. Airports Authority of India has a dedicated Flight Inspection Unit (FIU) with a fleet of 3 aircraft fitted with flight inspection system to inspect Instrument Landing Systems up to Cat-III, VORs, DMEs, NDBs, VGSI (PAPI, VASI) and RADAR (ASR/MSSR). Along with in-house flight calibration of its navigational aids, AAI undertakes flight calibration of navigational aids for the Indian Coast Guard, Indian Navy, Indian Air Force, and other private airfields in the country. Airports Authority of India has entered into Joint Ventures at Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bangalore and Nagpur Airports to upgrade these airports.

5.6.1 History On 1st April 1995, the Airports Authority of India (AAI) came into being and was constituted by an Act of Parliament by merging International Airports Authority of India and erstwhile National Airports Authority. The merger brought into existence a single Organization entrusted with the responsibility of creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation infrastructure both on the ground and air space in the country.

Functions Construction, Modification and Management of passenger terminals. Control and Management of the Indian airspace extending beyond the territorial

limits of the country, as accepted by ICAO. Design, Development, Operation and Maintenance of international and domestic

airports and civil enclaves. Development and Management of cargo terminals at international and domestic

airports. Expansion and strengthening of operation area, viz. Runways, Aprons, Taxiway

etc. Provision of Communication and Navigation aids, viz. ILS, DVOR, DME, Radar

etc. Provision of passenger facilities and information system at the passenger

terminals at airports. Provision of visual aids.

Passenger Facilities Construction, modification and management of passenger terminals, development

and management of cargo terminals, development and maintenance of apron infrastructure including runways, parallel taxiways, apron etc.,

Provision of Communication, Navigation and Surveillance which includes provision of DVOR/DME, ILS, ATC radars, visual aids, etc., facility of air traffic services, establishment of passenger facilities and related amenities at its terminals thus safeguarding aircraft operations, passenger and cargo in the country.

Air Navigation Services In order to modernize Air Traffic Control (ATC) infrastructure for seamless navigation across state and regional boundaries, Airport Authority of India is upgrading to satellite based Communication, Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) and Air Traffic Management. A number of co-operation agreements and memoranda of

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co-operation have been signed with the US Trade and Development Agency, Federal Aviation Administration, Air Services Australia, European Union, and the French Government Co-operative Projects and Studies started to gain from their experience. Through these activities more and more executives of AAI are being exposed to the latest technology, modern practices and procedures being adopted to improve the overall performance of Airports and Air Navigation Services. Some of the major initiatives in this direction are as follows:

Introduction of Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) in Indian air space to boost capacity and cut down congestion in the air;

Implementation of GPS and Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) together with with ISRO which when put to operation would be one of the four such systems in the world.

Airport Authority of India is a full member of the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation (CANSO).

IT Implementation A bulk of information can be obtained from the website of Airport Authority of India including information related to scheduled domestic and international flight and many other information of interest to the public in general and passengers in particular.

Revenue

The maximum amount of revenue of Airport Authority of India comes from landing/parking fees and fees collected by rendering CNS & ATC services to aircraft over the Indian airspace.

Only sixteen of the hindered and twenty six airfields operated by the Airport Authority of India are profitable while the other airports incur heavy losses owing to underutilization and poor management.

Privatisation of Airports

The Airport Authority of India and the Ministry of Civil Aviation was involved in a struggle over the issue of privatization of its two utmost profitable airports at Delhi and Mumbai. During the year 2006 the Government of India handed over these two airports to private companies for the purpose of modernisation under revenue sharing agreement to the GMR Group and GVK group respectively. The Nagpur Airport was transferred to the Maharashtra State owned MADC.

In addition to these, a number of greenfield airports are being operated by Private groups, specifically, Bengaluru International Airport, Rajiv Gandhi International Airport at Hyderabad, Kazi Nazrul Islam Airport at Durgapur in West Bengal and Cochin International Airport.

International Projects

The Airport Authority of India has been involved in a number of consultancy projects with Afghanistan, Nauru, Maldives, Yemen, Algeria, and Libya. The AAI also renders trained personnel for operation, maintenance and management of airports in these countries.

Check Your Progress 2 Fill in the blanks: 1. The ……………………… is the prime regulatory organization in India, in

the field of Civil Aviation. 2. ……………………… is a government statutory authority in each country

that oversees the approval and regulation of civil aviation.

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World Aviation Bodies5.7 LET US SUM UP The International Air Transport Association is the prime vehicle for inter-airline cooperation in promoting safe, reliable, secure and economical air services − for the benefit of the world’s consumers. Today, it has over 270 Members from more than 140 nations in every part of the globe. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a means to secure international cooperation for a highest possible degree of uniformity in regulations and standards, procedures and organization regarding civil aviation matters. The main aim and objectives of ICAO, as contained in Article 44 of the Chicago Convention are to develop the principles and techniques of international air navigation and to foster the planning and development of international air transport. A national aviation authority (NAA) is a government statutory authority in each country that oversees the approval and regulation of civil aviation. The Directorate General of Civil Aviation is the prime regulatory organization in India, in the field of Civil Aviation. It is accountable for regulation of air transport services to/from/within India and for formulation and enforcement of civil air transport regulations, air safety and airworthiness standards. The responsible of creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation infrastructure in India lies with the Airports Authority of India (AAI) under the Ministry of Civil Aviation. On 1st April 1995, the Airports Authority of India (AAI) came into being and was constituted by an Act of Parliament by merging International Airports Authority of India and erstwhile National Airports Authority.

5.8 LESSON END ACTIVITY Prepare a project on the recent initiatives and actions taken by the aviation authority of India and other international bodies for the development of aviation Industry globally.

5.9 KEYWORDS Airports Authority of India (AAI): Under the Ministry of Civil Aviation is responsible for creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation infrastructure in India.

Directorate General of Civil Aviation: It is the prime regulatory organization in India, in the field of Civil Aviation. It is accountable for regulation of air transport services to/from/within India and for formulation and enforcement of civil air transport regulations, air safety and airworthiness standards.

National Aviation Authority (NAA): It is a government statutory authority in each country that oversees the approval and regulation of civil aviation.

International Air Transport Association: It was founded in Havana, Cuba, in April 1945. It is the prime vehicle for inter-airline cooperation in promoting safe, reliable, secure and economical air services - for the benefit of the world’s consumers.

5.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. What were the aims behind the formation of IATA?

2. Discuss IATA’s two-tier systems.

3. Describe the formation of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).

4. Discuss ICAO’s Strategic Planning.

5. Write a brief note on National Aviation Authorities.

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6. Discuss the role and functions of Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA, India).


CYP 1

1. True

2. True

CYP 2

1. Directorate General of Civil Aviation

2. National Aviation Authority (NAA)

5.11 SUGGESTED READINGS Senguttuvan. P S (2006). Fundamentals of Air Transport Management, Excel Books, New Delhi.

Jaroslav J. Hajek, Jim W. Hall, David K. Hein, (2011), Common Airport Pavement Maintenance Practices, Transportation Research Board

Manuel Ayres (Jr.), (2007), Safety Management Systems for Airports: Guidebook, Transportation Research Board

Antonín Kazda, Robert E. Caves, (2007), Airport Design and Operation, Emerald Group Publishing

Knippenberger, Ute, (2010), Airports in Cities and Regions: Research and Practise; 1st International Colloquium on Airports and Spatial Development, Karlsruhe, KIT Scientific Publishing


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Airport Layout and Security

UNIT 1

UNIT III

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99

Airport Layout and SecurityLESSON

6 AIRPORT LAYOUT AND SECURITY

CONTENTS


6.1 Introduction

6.2 Layout of an Airport

6.2.1 Airside Areas

6.3 Ground Handling

6.3.1 Ramp Service

6.3.2 Passenger Service

6.4 Airport and Aircraft Security

6.4.1 Airport Security in India

6.4.2 Indian Airport Security Check and Regulations

6.4.3 Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BACS)

6.5 Let us Sum up


6.7 Keywords




Discuss the layout of an airport

Describe airport ground handling

Explain airport and aircraft security

6.1 INTRODUCTION Aerodrome or airport is defined as a defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations and equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure and surface movement of aircraft.

Airport is a wide term, used in a broad manner. Normally, what a passenger feels that the airport consists of only the terminal building where he purchases his air ticket, boards and disembarks the plane. In fact the terminal building is just one part of the airport, and in totality it includes a lot many other features, some of them extremely important, such as runways, taxiways, apron, air traffic control, apron (With Parking Stands), Hangar, Radio Navigational aids, Communication facilities etc.

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Figure 6.1 depicts a typical airport plan showing air side and city side areas.

Figure 6.1: Airport Layout

Normally the airport is divided into two basic parts, 'city side' and 'air side'. 'City side' is what a travelling passenger is well familiar with and includes airport terminal building, ticket counters, airline and other offices, waiting halls, security lounges, customs, immigration, outside car park, cargo building, outside roads etc. The 'air side' consists of the areas of the airport used mainly for aircraft operation purposes like runways, taxiways, apron, radio navigational aids, landing aids etc. In addition, Airport support elements include air traffic control tower, Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) facilities, airport administration facilities, fuel storage, City maintenance facilities, Medical Centre, Catering and utility systems etc.

6.2.1 Airside Areas To start with we can discuss these items one by one in brief:

Runway: Runway (RWY) is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome used for landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways on an established aerodrome may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both), and for small aerodromes it could also be a natural surface (grass, dirt, or gravel).

Orientation and Dimensions: The runways are named according to their Magnetic Bearings (the direction it is "pointing towards") with reference to North rounded to nearest 100. The runway number is the whole number nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centre line of the runway, measured clockwise from the magnetic north. As two 'ends of the runway' point out in two different directions (Each separated by 1800), thus each runway has two names separated by 1800. For example the Runways at Delhi (IGI Airport) are 11/29, 10/28 and 09/27 and Runways at Mumbai are 09/27 and 14/32.

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Airport Layout and Security

Figure 6.2: Airside Areas

Each digit of runway name is pronounced separately for clarity in radio communications. Thus, Runway Three Six would be aligned in roughly a 360 degrees direction (i.e. magnetic north), Runway Nine would be used for a runway with a 94 degree-alignment (i.e. close to magnetic east), and Runway One Seven for 168 degrees. Thus, Runway One Zero (100°) becomes Runway Two Eight (280°) when used in the opposite direction and Runway One Eight (180°) becomes Runway Three Six (360°). For runways less than 100° include the leading "zero", e.g. Runway Zero Two or Runway Zero One Left.

If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways), each runway is identified by appending Left, Centre and Right to the Runway number, for example, at Kolkata Airport, the Runways One Nine Left (19L), Zero One Right (01R), and One Nine Right (19R). Runway Zero One Left (01L).

From left to right – A pair of parallel runways 35L/17R & 35R/17L.

For aircraft it is advantageous to perform take-offs and landings into the wind to reduce take off roll and reduce the ground speed needed to attain flying speed. Larger airports usually may have more than one runway in different directions, so that one can be selected that is most nearly aligned with the wind. Airports with one runway are often constructed to be aligned with the prevailing wind.

Runway dimensions vary from as small as 800 ft (244 m) long and 25 ft (8 m) wide in smaller general aviation airports, to 18,000 ft (5,486 m) long and 250 ft (76 m) wide at large international airports built to accommodate large passenger jets. In India major passenger airports are having runways with length 4500 ft to less than 13000 ft. Runway dimensions can be measured in feet or in meters depending on your location in the world.

Runways can be further categorized into the following types:

Non-instrument Runway: A runway intended for the operation of aircraft using visual approach procedures.

Instrument Runway: One of the following types of runways intended for the operation of aircraft using instrument approach procedures:

1. Non-precision approach runway. An instrument runway served by visual aids and a non-visual aid providing at least directional guidance adequate for a straight-in approach.

2. Precision approach runway, category I. An instrument runway served by ILS and/or MLS and visual aids intended for operations with a decision height not

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lower than 60 m (200 ft) and either a visibility not less than 800 m or a runway visual range not less than 550 m.

3. Precision approach runway, category II. An instrument runway served by ILS and/or MLS and visual aids intended for operations with a decision height lower than 60 m (200 ft) but not lower than 30 m (100 ft) and a runway visual range not less than 350 m.

4. Precision approach runway, category III. An instrument runway served by ILS and/or MLS to and along the surface of the runway; (a) intended for operations with a decision height lower than 30 m (100 ft), or no

decision height and a runway visual range not less than 200 m. (b) intended for operations with a decision height lower than 15 m (50 ft), or no

decision height and a runway visual range less than 200 m but not less than 50 m.

(c) intended for operations with no decision height and no runway visual range limitations.

Declared Distances

Let us discuss the declared distances:

Take-off Run Available (TORA): The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off.

Take-off Distance Available (TODA): The length of the take off run available plus the length of the clearway, where provided (the clearway length allowed must lie within the aerodrome or airport boundary).

Accelerate Stop Distance Available (ASDA): The length of the take off run available plus the length of the stopway, where provided.

Landing Distance Available (LDA): The length of runway which is declared available and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing.

Threshold of a Runway

Threshold of a runway can be discussed in the following manner:

1. The Runway Strip is the cleared, grassy area around the paved runway. It is kept free from any obstacles that might impede flight or ground roll of aircraft, although the grass is not always necessarily in good condition. The grass is often marked with white cones or gables.

2. The Runway is the entire paved surface, which typically features threshold markings, numbers, centre lines, and overrun areas at both ends.

3. Stopways (depicted in Figure 6.3) also known as overrun areas are also constructed at the end of runways as emergency space to slowly stop planes that overrun the runway on a landing gone wrong, or to slowly stop a plane on an aborted takeoff or a takeoff gone wrong. Stopways are often not as strong as the main paved surface of the runway and are marked with yellow chevrons. Planes are not allowed to taxi, takeoff or land on stopways, except in an emergency.

Source: www.wikipedia.org

Figure 6.3: Stopway

4. Threshold: The beginning of that portion of the runway usable for landing.

5. Displaced threshold means that a threshold not located at the extremity of a runway. Displaced threshold is the point at the end of the runway. In major

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Airport Layout and Securityairports, it is usually marked with white paint arrows that lead up to the displaced threshold (see Figure 6.4). Smaller runways may not have markings to indicate the displaced threshold.

Source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/content/img/McGrawHill/Aviation/f0217-03.gif

Figure 6.4: Threshold and Displaced Threshold

A displaced threshold may be used for taxiing and take off but not for landing, because obstacles just before the runway, runway strength, or noise restrictions may make the area unsuitable for landings.

Runway Markings and Lightings: The centre line is shown with white broken lines. The runway markings are shown in Figure 6.5.

Ilustration A

Ilustration B

35 m

RunwayCentre line

TaxiwayCentre line

CLOSED RUNWAY MARKING CLOSED TAXIWAY MARKING

14.5 m

36.5

m

1.8 m

1.5 m

9 m

Figure 6.5: Runway Markings

Taxiway: A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps, hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or concrete, although smaller airports sometimes use gravel or grass. At most airports, taxiways are designated by letters such as Taxiway 'A', Taxiway 'C',

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Taxiway 'B-4' etc. Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways in order to allow aircraft to leave the runway at higher speeds. This allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another to land in a shorter space of time.

Taxiway markings are shown by yellow continuous lines.

(a) Double yellow lines mark the boundary between areas under jurisdiction of ATC and the parking areas.

(b) A single solid yellow line marks the taxiway centre line.

(c) Two parallel dashed yellow lines followed by two parallel solid yellow lines indicate a hold line. A hold line marks the intersection of a taxiway and a runway. Taxi-holding position lines are marked across the width of a taxiway. These markings should not be crossed to enter into the runway until a clearance is received from the tower.

Rotating Beacons: Pilots identify airports at night by looking for rotating beacons. Civil airport beacons flash alternating white and green lights. Military airports flash two white lights followed by a green light. Seaplane landing areas and lighted heliports use different sequences. If the rotating beacon is turned on during the day, it usually indicates that IFR conditions prevail, but this isn't always the case.

Apron: The airport apron is a defined area, on a land aerodrome, intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading or unloading and boarding of passengers, mail or cargo, fuelling, parking or maintenance. The use of the apron may be controlled by the apron control service. The apron is designated by the ICAO as not being part of the manoeuvring area, but a part of the movement area. All vehicles, aircraft and people using the apron are referred to as apron traffic. In fact, the pre-flight activities are done in Ramps; and areas for parking & maintenance are called aprons. However, normally the words "Apron" and "Ramp" are used interchangeably. Passenger gates are the main feature of a terminal ramp. 'Aircraft stand' is a designated area on an apron intended to be used for parking an aircraft also known as "Parking Bay" or "Gate". Aircraft stands are named as "Stand Nos" 1, 2, 3, ...,31,..,45, etc.

Apron Floodlighting: Apron floodlighting is provided on an apron, on a de-icing/anti-icing facility and on a designated isolated aircraft parking position intended to be used at night.

Apron floodlights should be located so as to provide adequate illumination on all apron service areas, with a minimum of glare to pilots of aircraft in flight and on the ground, aerodrome and apron controllers, and personnel on the apron. The arrangement and aiming of floodlights should be such that an aircraft stand receives light from two or more directions to minimize shadows.

Terminal Building: An airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between ground transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from aircraft. Within the terminal building, passengers purchase tickets, transfer their luggage, and go through security. Smaller airports have one terminal while larger airports may have several terminals. Some larger airports have one terminal that is connected to multiple concourses via walkways, Aerobridges (Also called skybridges), or underground tunnels etc.

105

Airport Layout and SecurityMost airport terminals are built in a plain style. However, some, such as Baghdad International Airport, are monumental in stature, while others are considered architectural masterpieces, such as Terminal 1 at Charles de Gaulle airport near Paris or Terminal 5 at New York's JFK Airport. A few are designed to reflect the culture of a particular area. For example, in India, Jodhpur Airport terminal looks like a Rajashthani Fort, while the terminal at Dimapur (Nagaland Airport) looks like a Naga House.

Airport Terminal Designs: Mostly airport terminals open directly onto the tarmac and passengers are able to proceed to the aircraft either by walking or by taking a bus to their aircraft. However, on some large airports, aircraft may be parked to remote aprons or on remotely located bays, where Passengers can be taken by a surface transport. Now modern airports have many "Aerobridges" to join directly into the aircraft.

Control Tower: A control tower, or more specifically an air traffic control tower (ATC Tower), is the name of the air traffic control unit responsible for movements around an airport, and is also the name of the building from which the unit operates.

Airport Control tower is generally a high rise structure above other buildings at an airport to give air traffic controllers a view of aircraft moving on the ground and in the air around the airport. Control tower structures usually have glass (Or transparent) windows to give an all round view.

Figure 6.6: Control Tower

Control Towers typically contain the following:

(a) Radios for communication with aircraft, linked to controllers' headsets or to microphones and speakers;

(b) A telephone system that connects dedicated voice lines and public telephone lines via quick-dial systems to controllers' headsets, allowing them to talk to other controllers and outside parties;

(c) A strip board allowing Flight Progress Strips to be used (however in some towers these have been replaced by a computerised system);

(d) A 'very pistol' for exhibiting light signals to the aircraft in the event of a radio communication failure;

(e) Wind and pressure gauges;

(f) Various other, optional equipment.

In addition modern control towers may also include the following:

(a) An Aerodrome Traffic Monitor with a small radar display.

(b) A Surface Movement Radar displaying aircraft and vehicles on the airport to assist controllers at night and in poor visibility.

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(c) Computerised meteorological information or a met observer, flight data and briefing systems.

Hangar: A hangar is an enclosed tall and massive structure designed to hold aircraft in protective storage, for the purpose of maintenance, repair, overhaul, inspection, storage and other purposes.

Figure 6.7: Hangar

Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (VASIS) and Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI).

Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (VASIS): This is an airport lighting facility which provides visual gliding guidance to aircraft during approach and landing, by radiating a pattern of high intensity red and white focused light beams which indicate to the pilot that he/she is above, on, or below the glide path.

These lights may be visible from up to eight kilometres during the day and up to 32 kilometres or more at night. Figure 6.8 depicts an airport layout that shows various aerodrome facilities.

Figure 6.8: Airport Layout Showing Various Aerodrome Facilities

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI): PAPI uses the same basic principle as a VASI, but the white and red lights are arranged in a single row. It is a light system positioned beside the runway that consists of two, three, or four boxes of lights that

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Airport Layout and Securityprovide a visual indication to the pilot on the glide path for the associated runway. These lights radiate a high intensity red or white beam to indicate whether the pilot is above or below the required approach path to the runway.

The PAPI is usually located on the left side of the runway and has an effective visual range of 5 NM (8 kms) during the day and 20 NM (32 kms) at night similar to VASIS.

Each light box of lights of PAPI is equipped with an optical apparatus that splits light output into two segments, red and white. Depending on the angle of approach, the lights will appear either red or white to the pilot. Ideally the total of lights will change from white to half red, moving in succession from right to left side. The pilot will have reached the normal glidepath (usually around 3 degrees) when there is an even split in red and white lights. If an aircraft is beneath the glidepath, red lights will outnumber white; if an aircraft is above the glidepath, more white lights are visible.

Nowadays, mostly PAPIs are used in place of VASIS.



1. Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (VASIS): This is an airport lighting facility which provides visual gliding guidance to aircraft during approach and landing.

2. A runway is an enclosed tall and massive structure designed to hold aircraft in protective storage.

6.3 GROUND HANDLING There are number of airlines that provide ground handling services to airports, handling agents or even to another airline. As per the IATA (International Air Transport Association), conservative estimates suggest airlines outsource more than fifty per cent of the ground handling that takes place at the world's airports. A number of services of an airliner between the time it arrives at a terminal gate and the time it departs on its next flight are dealt by ground handling. Speed, efficiency, and accuracy are vital in ground handling services so as to minimise the turnaround time. A turnover time is the time in the course of which the aircraft must remain parked at the gate.

Figure 6.9: A Ground-handling Tug Pulls a British Airways

Boeing 747-400 at London Heathrow Airport, England

Those airlines that have fewer resources and non-frequent services at specific locations often render ground handling or aircraft maintenance when called upon by other airlines, as it is a short-term inexpensive alternate for setting up its own ground handling or maintenance capabilities.

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Airlines can participate in an industry-standard Mutual Assistance Ground Service Agreement (MAGSA). The Mutual Assistance Ground Service Agreement is published by the Air Transport Association and is used by airlines to know prices for support and maintenance to aircraft at so-called Mutual Assistance Ground Service Agreement Rates, which are updated every year based on changes in the U.S. Producer Price Index. Airlines can choose to contract for ground handling services under the terms of a Standard Ground Handling Agreement published in airport handling manual of the International Air Transport Association . Airlines also have an alternative to go for ground handling services under non-standard terms.

A number of ground services are not directly concerned to the actual flying of the aircraft, and in its place encompass other tasks. The main categories of ground handling services are as under.

Cabin Service: Cabin services safeguard passenger comfort. The main service involved in cabin service is cabin cleaning. They take account of as activities such as cleaning the passenger cabin and replenishment of on-board consumables or washable items such as pillows, soaps, blankets and tissues.

Catering: Catering take account of the unloading of idle food and drink from the aircraft, and the loading of fresh food and drink for crew and passengers. Trolleys are used for the delivery of Airline meals. Empty or trash-filled trolleys from the previous flight are replaced with fresh ones. Meals are prepared generally on the ground with the purpose of minimising the amount of preparation required in the air.

While there are many airlines that have their own catering, others have either owned catering companies in the past and divested themselves of the companies, or have outsourced their catering to third-party companies. Airline catering sources include the following companies:

Airline Services and Logistics PLC(EPZE)

American Airlines

Atlas Catering (Royal Air Maroc's catering service)

Cara Operations

Cathay Pacific's Cathay Pacific Catering Services

Chelsea Food Services

Gate Gourmet

KLM's KLM Catering in Stages

LSG Sky Chefs

Q Catering

Servair

Thai Airways's Thai Catering Services

United Airlines

6.3.1 Ramp Service This consists of services on the ramp or apron, such as:

Air cargo handling, usually by means of cargo dollies, and cargo loaders Air conditioning (more common for smaller aircraft) Airstart units (for starting engines) Catering trucks

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Airport Layout and Security Deicing Gate checked luggage, often handled on the tarmac as passengers disembark Ground power (so that engines need not be running to provide aircraft power on

the ground) Guiding the aircraft into and out of the parking position (by way of aircraft

marshalling), Hydraulic mules (units that provide hydraulic power to an aircraft externally) Lavatory drainage Luggage handling, usually by means of beltloaders and baggage carts Passenger stairs (used instead of an aerobridge or airstairs, some budget airlines

use both to improve turnaround speed) Refueling, which may be done with a refuelling tanker truck or refuelling pumper Towing with pushback tractors Water cartage (to refill fresh water tanks) Wheelchair lifts, if required

6.3.2 Passenger Service This comprises services inside the airport terminal such as:

Providing check-in counter services for the passengers departing on the customer airlines.

Providing Gate arrival and departure services. The agents are required to meet a flight on arrival as well as provide departure services including boarding passengers and closing the flight.

Staffing the transfer counters, customer service counters and airline lounges.

Field Operation Service

This service dispatches the aircraft, maintains communication with the rest of the airline operation at the airport and with Air Traffic Control.

6.4 AIRPORT AND AIRCRAFT SECURITY One of the most significant issues facing airports in the early twenty-first century is that of airport security. Most users of commercial service airports are subjected to security infrastructure, policies, and procedures within the airport terminal area. Airport security is not limited to the terminal area, however. Airport security concerns all areas and all users of the airport. Airport security procedures are designed to deter, prevent, and respond to criminal acts that may affect the safety and security of the travelling public. Criminal activity includes the hijacking of aircraft, known as air piracy, damaging or destroying aircraft with explosives, and other acts of terrorism, defined as the systematic use of terror or unpredictable violence against governments, publics, or individuals to attain a political objective. Criminal activity also includes acts of assault, theft, and vandalism against passengers and their property, aircraft, and all airport facilities.

6.4.1 Airport Security in India The objective of airport security will be to safeguard the passengers, crew, ground personnel, the general public and the airport infrastructure against unlawful acts as per ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices laid down in Annexure-17 to the Chicago Convention. The level of security will be calibrated by the BCAS according

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to the threat perception at any point of time. Security will have to be cost-effective when compared to internationally accepted norms. New staffing patterns, different from the normal police stations, will have to be innovated for airports. There will be greater accent on modern technology and mechanization, so as to reduce the need for manpower and increase the effectiveness of the force deployed.

Airport security will be looked after by specialized police agencies, state police and airport security organizations, depending on the internal security conditions prevalent in a particular area. BCAS will continue to coordinate the working of the various agencies to ensure that all security norms are followed by them. Govt. recognizes the urgent need to develop an airport security organization, in order to have a quietly efficient, specialized, commercially conscious, passenger-friendly force, at the international airports to begin with. Private security agencies will also be allowed at certain airports, if the threat assessment so permits.

There will be constant training of security personnel posted at airports in order to improve their effectiveness and passenger-friendliness. The present training centre at BCAS Headquarters will be upgraded and strengthened for this purpose.

6.4.2 Indian Airport Security Check and Regulations Airport security checks are essential for the safety of both the passengers and the country. Documents like the passengers' passport, ticket, visa, etc. are checked at the boarding counter prior to the passenger boarding the aircraft. If these are found genuine a boarding card is issued to the passenger.

The next step is the immigration check where the biographical data and the passport is screened and details fed into the computer which automatically matches the details with the criminal databank to see if there is any illegal doings connected with the passenger. These completed the passenger is allowed to enter the aircraft.

Regulations for Luggage and Safety Measures

During the first leg of the journey passengers are advised not to buy duty free liquor since these will get confiscated at the Brussels airport. Hence it is better to purchase duty free items after the Brussels check in.

The security rules and regulations maintain that:

Passengers should not agree to carry packets or baggage of unknown people.

If carrying explosive substances or arms one should declare these at the check in counters as concealing them is an offence.

The hand luggage should be small and not contain dry cells or battery cells which would be removed while checking and the airport will not be able to return them to the passenger.

Explosives like compressed gases, fireworks, hand guns, blank cartridges, pistol caps, acids and alkalis or any apparatus containing mercury should not be carried in your baggage.

Liquids that is highly flammable such as fire or cigarette lighters, paints and thinners, matches, oxidizing material, radioactive material, peroxides or bleaching powders should be avoided.

Insecticides and poisonous weed killers or live viruses are strictly prohibited.

Valuable articles like jewels, money, precious metals should not be carried in the baggage.

Sprays and perfumes should be packed according to the cargo regulations and carried in the baggage.

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Airport Layout and Security Use of cell phone on board the Indian aircraft is prohibited.

For medical use small oxygen cylinders can be carried and for passengers who require small carbon dioxide gas cylinders to operate mechanical limbs are allowed with prior permission.

6.4.3 Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS) The Bureau of Civil Aviation Security was initially set up as a Cell in the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) in January 1978 on the recommendation of the Pande Committee constituted in the wake of the hijacking of the Indian Airlines flight on 10th September, 1976. The role of the Cell was to coordinate, monitor, inspect and train personnel in Civil Aviation Security matters. The BCAS was reorganized into an independent department on 1st April, 1987 under the Ministry of Civil Aviation as a sequel to the Kanishka Tragedy in June 1985. The main responsibility of BCAS are lay down standards and measures in respect of security of civil flights at International and domestic airports in India.

Organisation

BCAS is the regulatory authority for civil aviation security in India. It is headed by an officer of the rank of Director General of Police and is designated as Commissioner of Security (Civil Aviation).

Commissioner of Security (CA) is the appropriate authority for implementation of Annexure 17 to Chicago convention of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).

Commissioner of security (CA) is responsible for the development, implementation and maintenance of the National Civil Aviation Security Programme.

BCAS Hqrs is located at "A" Wing, I-III floor, Janpath Bhavan, Janpath, New Delhi-110001. It has got four Regional Offices located at International airports i.e. Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. The Regional Office is headed by an officer of the rank of Deputy Commissioner of Security (CA).

Functions

Laying down Aviation Security Standards in accordance with Annex 17 to Chicago Convention of ICAO for airport operators, airlines operators, and their security agencies responsible for implementing AVSEC measures.

Monitoring the implementation of security rules and regulations and carrying out survey of security needs.

Ensure that the persons implementing security controls are appropriately trained and possess all competencies required to perform their duties.

Planning and coordination of Aviation security matters.

Conducting Surprise/Dummy checks to test professional efficiency and alertness of security staff.

Mock exercise to test efficacy of Contingency Plans and operational preparedness of the various agencies.

Passenger Screening

The processing of passengers and baggage for the purpose of ensuring the security of the civil aviation system has undergone a virtual overhaul following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001. As of 2003, passenger and baggage security screening is managed and operated by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA). Even though the TSA has ultimate authority of the facilities

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and procedures that comprise the security screening processes, airport managers and planners should be keenly aware of the security screening process, because the process has presented the most significant impacts on airport terminal planning and operations in recent years. As of 2003, policies surrounding passenger and baggage security screening remained in a high state of flux. Despite this, certain fundamentals of the passenger and baggage screening process remain.

Security at Commercial Service Airports

Passenger screening facilities include an automated screening process, conducted by a magnetometer that attempts to screen for weapons potentially carried on by a passenger that are metallic in content. As a passenger walks through a magnetometer, the presence of metal on the passenger is detected. If a sufficient amount of metal is detected, based on the sensitivity setting on the magnetometer, an alarm is triggered. Passengers who trigger the magnetometer are then subject to a manual search by a TSA screener. Manual searches range from a further check of metal on the passenger's person with the use of a hand-held wand, to a manual pat down, to the inspection of the passenger's shoes.

Carry-on baggage screening facilities are located at security screening stations to examine the contents of passengers' carry-on baggage for prohibited items such as firearms, sharp objects that may be used as weapons, or plastic or chemical-based trace explosives. All carry-on baggage is first inspected through the use of an x-ray machine. Bags selected because of suspicions as a result of the x-ray examination, or selected on a random basis, are further inspected through the use of Explosive Trace Detection (ETD) equipment and/or by manual search. In addition, personal electronic items such as laptop computers or cellular phones are frequently inspected by being turned on and briefly operated to check for authenticity.

Prior to September 11, 2001, passenger and carry-on baggage screening fell under the responsibility of the commercial air carriers whose aircraft provided passenger service at any given airport, as dictated by FAR Part 108-Aircraft Operator Security, Air Carriers and Commercial Operators. Under this regulation, air carriers typically subcontracted security responsibilities to private firms. Studies of these firms conducted through 2001 revealed a work environment characterized by low, almost minimum, wages, high turnover rates of 100 to 400 per cent annually, low levels of training, and low performance quality, illustrated by independent audits which illustrated the ability to bring prohibited items, such as firearms and other weapons, through checkpoints. Since November 2002, passenger screening at all commercial service airports has been performed by the TSA-employed screener workforce (with the exception of five airports, located in San Francisco, CA; Kansas City, MO; Rochester, NY; Jackson Hole, WY; and Tupelo, MS; operating under a pilot program to evaluate new private contracted screener workforces) under 49 CFR Part 1544. The TSA workforce is provided higher wages than their pre- September 11 private force counterparts, receives higher levels of training, including 44 hours of classroom and 60 hours of on-the-job training, and by some measures, exhibits higher performance quality. TSA passenger screening procedures have called for more scrutiny, including a wider range of prohibited items, more thorough hand searches, removal of passenger shoes for inspection, and identification checks.

Controlled Access

A variety of measures are used around airports to prevent, or more appropriately, control the movement of persons and vehicles to and from security-sensitive areas of the airport property. At most commercial service airports, controlled access through doors that provide access to the AOA, secure areas, sterile areas, and other areas within the SIDA, as well as many employee-only restricted areas, is enforced by the use of control systems. These systems range from simple key locks to smart-access

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Airport Layout and Securitytechnologies, such as keypad entry systems requiring proper pass code. In many cases, pass codes are calibrated with a person's SIDA badge, requiring both a presentation of the person's badge and proper pass code entry to gain access.

One weakness associated with door entry to security-sensitive areas, regardless of their access control measures, is the ability to allow unauthorized persons to enter through the door after an authorized person has opened the door. This situation is known as piggybacking, and is almost always a violation of security policies. In some instances, revolving turnstiles with a one-rotation limit per access, rather than typical door systems have been used to restrict the number of persons achieving access through these areas.

Biometrics

Advanced identification verification technologies, including those that employ biometrics are continuously being developed to enhance access control at airports. Biometrics refers to technologies that measure and analyse human body characteristics such as fingerprints, eye retinas and irises, voice patterns, facial patterns, and hand measurements, especially for identification authentication purposes. Biometric devices typically consist of a reader or scanning device, software that converts the scanned information into digital form, and a database that stores the biometric data for comparison. For the most part, biometric technologies have initially been found to be most applicable when controlling the access of those with SIDA badges at the airport.

Controlling the access of the general public using biometrics proves more difficult, because previously recorded data are required to authenticate the identification of the person. If anything, however, biometrics provides another technology to prevent unauthorized access to security-sensitive areas.

Perimeter Security

An important part of an airport's security plan is its strategy for protecting the areas that serve as the border between secured and unsecured areas of the airport, known as the airport perimeter. Four of the most common methods for securing the airport's perimeter are perimeter fencing, controlled access gates, area lighting, and patrolling of the secured area. Perimeter fencing is one of the most common methods of creating a barrier in otherwise easily accessible areas of an airport's secured area boundary. Fencing can vary in design, height, and type, depending on local security.

Aircraft Security

The primary purpose of improving security at airports is to safeguard the intentional misuse of aircraft for terrorist purposes. The primary way of improving security at aircraft is by proper securing of aircraft. Various methods ought to be used by pilots for securing their aircraft to make it quite difficult for an unauthorized person to gain admission to it.

Some primary ways of securing an aircraft take account of:

Commercially available options for auxiliary locks include locks for propellers, throttle, and tie-downs.

Make sure that aircraft ignition keys are not stored inside the aircraft.

Make sure that door locks are consistently regularly used to prevent avoid unauthorized access admission or tampering with the aircraft.

Storing the aircraft in a hangar, if available, and locking hangar doors.

Using an auxiliary lock to further protect aircraft from unauthorized use.

Using keyed ignitions where appropriate.

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Hangars

The most prominent way of safeguarding aircraft is by way of its storage in hangars TSA recognises that hangar space at many airports is not sufficient. Nevertheless, all efforts ought to be made to utilise hangars wherever available and make sure that all hangar/personnel doors are secured when unattended.

For emergency purpose hangars should be properly marked and numbered. These areas are also a good place to install security and informational signs. Hangar locks that have keys that are easily obtained or duplicated should not be used. Hangar locks should be rekeyed with every new tenant. Proper lighting around hangar areas should be installed. As an additional security measure alarm and interruption detection systems might also help in the security of hangars.

Locks Irrespective of its quality or cost a lock is simply a delaying device and not a complete bar to entry. The decision of where to install locks is as important as the decision of making choice of lock. Such factors to consider may include:

How many people will need to use the lock? How often will codes, keys, or locks need to be changed for persons needing

access? For example, new hangar tenants, those with tie down agreements needing ramp access, etc.?

How secure should the area be made? Is the area monitored? Is the object to be locked indoors or outdoors? Will use of a lock interfere with fire code egress requirements? Would a certain type of lock hinder access in high traffic areas?

Lighting Protective lighting furnishes a means of continuing a degree of protection from any illegal activity, theft or vandalism at night. An emergency power source should also be used with the security lighting systems if available. The local situation and the areas to be protected are the factors on which the requirements for protective lighting of airports depend upon. A careful analysis of security lighting requirements should be based on the need for good visibility and the following criteria:

employee recognition and badge identification, vehicle access, detection of intruders, and deterrent to illegal entry.

Normally maintaining protective lightening at airports is not much expensive, and when properly installed, may furnish airport personnel with additional protection from surprise by a determined invader. Though, when developing any security lighting plan care ought to be taken to make sure that lighting ensures interfere with aircraft operations. Consider installing outdoor area lighting to help increase the security of fuel storage areas, aircraft parking and hangar areas, airport access points; and other appropriate areas.

Signs

The use of signs offers a deterrent by warning of facility boundaries as well as informing about the results for violation. The signs should be located in such a way

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Airport Layout and Securitythat an individual when standing at one sign, the observer should be able to see the next sign in both directions. While signs for security purposes must be designed to draw attention, moreover for the purpose of uniformity and style it should also be coordinated with other airport when possible. Contrasting colours, durable materials, and reflective material should be used in the construction of signs. Wherever possible, concise language should be used.

Wording may include – but is not limited to – warnings against trespassing, unauthorized use of aircraft and tampering with aircraft, and reporting of suspicious activity. Signage should include phone numbers of the nearest responding law enforcement agency, 9-1-1, or TSA’s 1-866-GA-SECUR, whichever is appropriate.

Many locations with access control or Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) equipment may warrant signage for directional, legal, or law enforcement purposes (e.g. “Alarm will sound if opened”, “Authorized personnel only”, “Notice: All activities in this area are being monitored and recorded”, etc.).

Identification System Identifying system of airport employees or authorized tenant access to various areas of the airport are often used by number of airports. Presently, there are many systems on the market that may fulfil this. They can range from a simple laminated identification card that takes account of a photograph of an individual to a sophisticated swipe card with various biometric data. With any identification system, measures have to be developed that comprise of safeguarding control and accountability of the media. Below are number of elements that can be part of an identification system:

A (UIN) unique identification number A clear expiration date Airport name An image of full-face image Employer Full name of an individual. The individual’s full name The scope of the individual access and movement privileges (e.g. colour coding)

A vehicle identification system may be developed. Vehicle identification system can provide assistance to airport personnel and law enforcement in identifying authorized vehicles. Decals, stickers, and hand tags can be used for the purpose of vehicle identification. Decals should be non-transferable; that is, they should not be capable of being removed without destroying their integrity. These systems should also be used to point admission authorisation where appropriate, for instance by numbering or color-coding. Issuing authorities must also attempt to make current stickers/decals easily distinguished from expired ones. Furthermore, any decal application form must contain owner contact information that could be used in case of an emergency.

Airport Planning Any project undertaken at airport should include security planning. Pre-planning and continuous monitoring are the most cost effective way of introducing security measures into any facility or operation. Selecting, constructing, or modifying a facility without taking into account the security implications can result in costly modifications and delays. Airport operators must regard addressing future security needs for instance access controls and lighting enhancements when planning new hangars or terminal buildings. Security measure should be included and addressed in airport facility and land leases, airport rules and regulations, and the Minimum Standards document. Moreover, airport construction projects can affect airfield security. Construction personnel and vehicle access during projects should also be considered.

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Fill in the blanks:

1. Planning for ……………………………. should be an integral part of any project undertaken at an airport.

2. The use of ……………………………. provides a deterrent by warning of facility boundaries as well notifying of the consequences for violation.

6.5 LET US SUM UP Airport is a wide term, used in a broad manner. Normally the airport is divided into two basic parts, 'city side' and 'air side'. 'City side' is what a travelling passenger is well familiar with and includes airport terminal building, ticket counters, airline and other offices, waiting halls, security lounges, customs, immigration, outside car park, cargo building, outside roads etc. The 'air side' consists of the areas of the airport used mainly for aircraft operation purposes like runways, taxiways, apron, radio navigational aids, landing aids etc.

Many airlines subcontract ground handling to airports, handling agents or even to another airline. Ground handling addresses the many service requirements of an airliner between the time it arrives at a terminal gate and the time it departs on its next flight. Speed, efficiency, and accuracy are important in ground handling services in order to minimize the turnaround time.

One of the most significant issues facing airports in the early twenty-first century is that of airport security. Airport security concerns all areas and all users of the airport. Airport security procedures are designed to deter, prevent, and respond to criminal acts that may affect the safety and security of the travelling public.

6.6 LESSON END ACTIVITY Prepare a brief note on the safety and security system at Various Indian airports.

6.7 KEYWORDS Final Approach: The flight path of an aircraft which is inbound to the airport on an approved final instrument approach course, beginning at the final approach fix or point and extending to the airport or the point where circling for landing or missed approach is executed.

Final Approach Areas: Areas of defined dimensions protected for aircraft executing instrument approaches.

Global Positioning System (GPS): A satellite-based navigation system that will enhance user-preferred routing, reduce separation standards, and increase access to airports under instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) through more precision approaches.

Ground Access Systems: Existing and planned highway and mass transit systems in the area of the airport.

6.8 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. What do you mean by 'city side' and 'air side' area of an airport?

2. Write a detailed note on Runway.

3. What do you mean by terminal building? Discuss.

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Airport Layout and Security4. Explain airport ground handling.

5. What are the major categories of ground handling services?

6. What are the regulations concerning luggage and safety measures in Indian airport?

7. Describe Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BACS).


CYP 1

1. True

2. False

CYP 2

1. Security

2. signs

6.9 SUGGESTED READINGS Senguttuvan. P S, (2006). Fundamentals of Air Transport Management, Excel Books, New Delhi.






118 Aviation LESSON

7 AIRPORT MANAGERIAL OPERATIONS

CONTENTS


7.1 Introduction

7.2 Airline Catering

7.2.1 Role of Food Onboard

7.2.2 Flight Catering System

7.3 Handling of Various Bodies

7.3.1 Handling of Unaccompanied Minor

7.3.2 Handling of Disabled Passengers

7.3.3 Carrying of Human Remains

7.3.4 Handling of CIP, VIP and VVIP

7.4 Coordination of Supporting Agencies/Departments

7.5 Let us Sum up


7.7 Keywords




Define airline catering

Explain the handling of various bodies at airport

Discuss the handling of CIP, VIP and VVIP

Describe the coordination of supporting agencies/departments

7.1 INTRODUCTION The flight catering industry is a very large, global activity. The total market size is estimated to be around 12 billion euros. More than 1 billion passengers are served each year. It is probably one of the most complex operational systems in the world. For instance, a large-scale flight catering production unit may employ over 800 staff to produce as many as 25,000 meals per day during peak periods.

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Airport Managerial Operations7.2 AIRLINE CATERING Large international airlines may have more than 1,000 takeoffs and landings every day. A single, long-haul Boeing 747 has over 40,000 items loaded on to it before it flies. All together these items weigh 6 metric tonnes and occupy a space of 60 cubic metres. These items range from meals to toilet bags, from duty-free goods to first aid boxes, from newspapers to headsets. Food items must be fresh and items for personal passenger use must be clean and serviceable. These facts and others like them make flight catering unlike any other sector of the catering industry. While the way food is served on trays to airline passengers bears some resemblance to service styles in restaurants or cafeterias, the way food is prepared and cooked increasingly resembles a food manufacturing plant. Certainly the hot kitchen in a typical production kitchen is often no more than 10% of the total floor area. The rest of the space is used for bonded stores, tray and trolley assembly, and flight wash-up. And almost certainly there are far more loaders and drivers employed than chefs. The way food and equipment is stored resembles a freight warehouse, and the way meals and equipment are transported and supplied has a close affinity to military-style logistics and distribution systems. When the very large numbers and variety of items which must be loaded for passenger service during a flight are considered, together with the need for them to be loaded at widespread locations, the logistics complexity is obvious. It is therefore not surprising that the President of KLM Catering once said that “Flight catering is 70 per cent logistics and 30 per cent cooking.”

7.2.1 Role of Food Onboard The importance of food and onboard service varies from airlines to airlines. There are some airlines that consider food service as a marketing tool. A number of airlines advertise their product by making food the central point. But food as a marketing tool has only a restricted impact. Surveys over a number of years recommend that passengers seems to be more interested about safety, scheduling/ticketing issues, on-time performance, the physical surroundings of the aircraft's for example seat and leg comfort, and gate check-in and boarding. This means that though food is important, it is doubtful to be the deciding for the passenger for making choice of their airline. The quality of meat in airlines is perceived to be low by consumers and the media. This may be due to a number of factors which affect passengers’ appetite and behaviour whilst flying. Sensory abilities for instance smell, sight, and taste are affected by the relatively low humidity and air pressure experienced at altitude. This affects taste buds which may function as much as thirty per cent below par and mucous membranes in the nose which blunts the sense of smell. Airline food is often more highly seasoned for these reasons. Similarly, at such a high altitude not all wines hold their subtle aroma and bouquet and this has to be considered when wine lists are chosen by the airlines and caterers. Moreover, as passenger movement and exercise is limited at such high altitude, the meals provided must to be easily digestible. Additionally, the effects of alcohol are more quickly observed in a pressurised cabin and on dehydrated passengers.

Major Stakeholders The in-flight catering industry comprises five major players:

The airlines, or their various representatives; The providers, in this case specialised flight caterers; The suppliers, either to the providers or direct to the airlines; Those using the airline's services, that is the fare-paying passengers and Distributors.

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Figure 7.1: Major Stakeholders in Flight Catering

Role of the passenger: A feature of the airline industry is the huge diversity of customers. Prior to the 1960s, air travel was exclusive – only the very rich or government employees would fly long haul. The development of jet aircraft and charter airlines lead to mass air travel. Then in the 1990s, the business model was redesigned by the operators of so called low cost or budget airlines.

Role of airlines: Airlines are accountable for the design of onboard service. This is affected by the time of flight, length of flight, point of embarkation and disembarkation, nationality or ethnicity of passengers, seat class (economy, business or first), budget allowed by the airline, price of food, seasonality of food, cost of labour to make a food item, time required to serve the food, number of flight attendants available to serve food, time needed to consume food, ability of meal to be consumed in a small place on a plane, the time and effort needed to clear an item, the needs and desires of the passengers, odours that may enter the cabin, the capacity of meal to be rethermalised and the capacity of the meal to withstand low humidity and pressures. Given this long list of variables it is not astonishing that the nature of onboard service differs extensively from flight to flight and airline to airline.

Role of caterers: Caterers have two main roles: to prepare items not bought in directly from suppliers to a state ready for loading on board and to assemble trays and trolleys. Flight kitchens are at all times located near to major airports and are typically used to 'manufacture' consumable food items. There are two main reasons why menu items may be made outside of airport-based flight kitchens: the cost of space and the cost of labour. Airport space is at a premium so often it is not reasonable for a flight kitchen to produce all of the meals required for every seat class. Such as, some flight kitchens or caterers may make their first-class, and in some cases business-class, meals from scratch at the flight kitchen and subcontract all other meal production.

The caterer is often in an unusual and at times difficult, position. Although they are a customer of the supplier, the products used may not be of their choosing but may have been determined by the airline. When the products used are those purchased directly by the airline, caterers only charge for a handling and storage fee of the product but not the cost of the product. Such as, all liquor products for tax purpose must be purchased by the airlines, either through a prepaid arrangement with the distributor or through an arrangement whereby the charges are directly invoiced to the airline. However, the caterer is often accountable for keeping and accounting for any such products and these products are generally delivered directly to the caterer’s bonded store. The challenge for caterers is that the products are the property of the individual airlines served by the caterer. Products belonging to one airline cannot be used for another, even if the two airlines use identical products.

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Airport Managerial Operations Role of suppliers: Suppliers may supply the inflight industry in two main ways.

Firstly, based on the scheduled menus, the supplier receives direct orders from the airlines, even if they deliver their goods to flight kitchens operated by the contracted caterers. Airlines buy direct from suppliers for the reason that they want to have continuousness of supply in all their stations, since they negotiate a discount, or because they want to preserve a particular brand image. Secondly, the supplier may supply the caterer directly, with products that meet the contract specification.

Likewise suppliers have two approaches to manufacturing their products. Some supply airlines or their caterers with their standard products, while others make and supply specialist products specially designed for the in-flight kitchen. In the first instance, the manufacture of these products is likely to take place in a factory or plant producing many other products. The products for in-flight service may be to some extent modified for that market. For instance, spirits manufacturers need to bottle their spirits in miniatures rather than 40 oz bottles. In the second case, the manufacturer concentrates on simply producing a cycle of food items, often supplying their sole business and therefore they can produce large amounts of these items to be sold to the flight kitchen, as a method of outsourcing. These food manufacturers can make these items in volume at a lower cost than the flight kitchen can. The cost of labour to mass produce meals is obviously cheaper a good distance away from large cities where airports must exist. Traditionally it was mainly frozen meals, or ‘pop-outs’ as they are called in the USA, that were outsourced in this way. Nowadays all kinds of specialist food items may be outsourced, for instance canapés, ethnic meals, vegetarian items, patisserie, and so on.

Role of distributors: Distributors are characteristically global logistics companies, specialising in moving goods around the world, often in containers. They furnish two main services for airlines or caterers. They can distribute materials and meals from vendor/suppliers to both the caterers and the airlines and they can track the numbers, volumes, and brands of the products they distribute. Using a specialised distributor or logistics company allows the airline and caterer to better manage the flow of materials from aircraft to flight kitchen and back again. This applies to both short-term food items and to longer term recyclable items, including equipment.

7.2.2 Flight Catering System The flight catering system is shown in Figure 7.2. This model signifies only a framework of the process flow inflight catering as such operations have various alternative configurations. Flight catering starts with an understanding of the number of passengers and their needs; such information is available from both market research and actual passenger behaviour. On the basis of this, airlines, sometimes in consultation with caterers and suppliers, develop their product and service specifications. Such specifications regulate exactly what food, drink and equipment items are to be carried on each route for each class of passenger. In reaction to forecasts of passenger numbers on any given flight, the production unit follows a series of complex steps to produce trayed meals and non-food items ready for transportation to the aircraft.

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Figure 7.2: Flight Catering System

Transportation is usually carried out by using specialist high-loader trucks that allow trolleys to be rolled on and off aircraft. Once loaded, trolleys and other items are required to be stowed on board to make sure the microbial safety of cooked items and the security and safety of the crew, passengers and aircraft. At the designated time during the flight, the cabin crew then carry out the service of meals, snacks and other items. Upon arrival at its destination, each aircraft is then stripped of all the equipment and trolleys, which are returned to the production units for cleaning and re-use. In achieving this, it is essential to recognize the impact of flying on the physiology of the passenger, to manage a complex supply chain, safeguard the safety and quality of the product, utilize increasingly sophisticated information and communication technologies, and involve in on-going research and development.

Usually there have been 3 elementary differences in this system. In North America, the basic model was for airlines to take accountability for determining strategy, galley planning and sourcing, designing or selecting offers, items and components. The airlines then contracted out to caterers—storage, inventory control, preparation, assembly, loading/unloading, recycling and waste disposal. Caterers then purchased from suppliers the raw materials, components and items they needed with the aim of meeting their contractual obligations with the airline.

However this model applies only to the supply of fresh items viz. meals. There was a different model for the supply of retail items, for instance soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, and duty free good. In this case, airlines tended to negotiate directly with suppliers; whereas the elements of preparation, packaging and tray assembly were avoidable as these items came in ready for sale. This retail flight catering supply chain is used not only in North America but also in Europe.

However, the fresh supply chain in Europe was configured differently to North America, as airlines did not have caterers to whom they could outsource. Therefore, the third variation was backwardly integrated airlines i.e. they owned and operated

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Airport Managerial Operationstheir own flight kitchens. later, European airlines have decided to dispose of their kitchens, but two – Lufthansa and Swissair – established their catering divisions so that they grew into LSG Skychef and Gate Gourmet, now the two largest flight caterers in the world.

Even though there have been many advances in the supply chain from the 1990s onwards, these three basic models continue to the present day. The larger and growing airlines in the Asia and Middle East have been likely to adopt the European model; while the European airlines have inclined to divest themselves of their flight catering operations and have adopted the North American model. Both in-house and outsourced catering will continue to be adopted in the future, even though increasingly this is only likely to be applied to first and business class offers.

This analysis also describes how it is possible for airlines to switch away from complimentary meal service to so-called ‘buy on board’. In principle, buy on board is grounded on the notion that the food items turn out to be a retail product. Therefore, the retail supply chain can be adopted for this purpose. Low cost airlines, as part of their business model, adopted the retail approach to the flight catering supply chain from the very beginning.



1. Transportation is usually carried out by using specialist high-loader trucks that enable trolleys to be rolled on and off aircraft.

2. Flight catering starts with an understanding of the number of passengers and their needs.

7.3 HANDLING OF VARIOUS BODIES

7.3.1 Handling of Unaccompanied Minor For sectors within India: A child between the ages of 5 years through 12 years

travelling alone or with one or more guests who have not yet completed 18 years is considered an Unaccompanied Minor (UM) for travel within India where the entire travel is on Jet Airways.

For international sectors: A child between the ages of 6 years through 12 years travelling alone or travelling with one or more guests who have not yet completed 18 years is considered an Unaccompanied Minor (UM) for international travel where the entire travel is on Jet Airways.

Jet Airways will accept unaccompanied minors with an itinerary involving connecting flights on other airlines subject to the acceptance policies of all the other airlines participating in the journey.

When an unaccompanied minor is entrusted to us for travel, no effort is spared in providing special attention to him or her. This should give confidence to parents/ guardians regarding our ability to look after their children whilst travelling with us.

The child is escorted to the aircraft and handed over to the Inflight Executive (IFE). On arrival at the destination the arrival staff will receive the UM from the IFE.

We ensure that an unaccompanied minor is never left alone at any point of time, as we are responsible for the child whilst with us. Unaccompanied Minors are seated near the galley so that crew can keep an eye on them.

At the destination, the Unaccompanied Minor is handed over only to the person stated in the UM form. If necessary, proof of identity may be requested.

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Formalities/Procedures for the UMNR Travel − Travel within India

The detailed information of the UMNR has to be given at the time of reservation.

Child discount is not applicable to the UMNR.

You will have to fill up the UMNR form at the origin. This form is available at Jet Airways reservation and ticketing counter.

The child is handed over to our ground staff at the origin.

The child is escorted by our ground staff and handed over to the In-Flight Executive.

The cabin crew will take care of the child through the flight and ensure that the child is seated near the crew galley.

On arrival at destination the crew hands over the child to the ground staff.

The ground staff escort the child and will hand over the child only to the person whose name is mentioned in the UMNR form.

Formalities/Procedures for the UMNR Travel − International Travel

Child discount is not applicable to the UMNR.

We will not accept an UNMR when there is an overnight stay involved. However, in the event of diversion of a flight to another station, a female staff will stay in the hotel until the departure of the flight.

If a UMNR has an onward connecting flight on Jet Airways or any other airline, and an overnight stay is involved, a person must be nominated by the parents/guardians to collect the child on arrival at the point of transfer and remain with the child until he/she has been handed over to the staff of the onward connecting flight. If, the parents/guardians are unable to nominate such a person, we cannot accept the UNMR for travel.

If the onward connecting flight is on Jet Airways but departs from another airport in the same city, or another terminal, we will transfer the UNMR provided the connecting time is 4 hours or less.

If the onward connecting flight is on another airline, departing from the same terminal or another terminal which can be easily accessed without exiting the terminal building, we will transfer the UMNR to the connecting carrier provided the connecting time is 4 hours or less.

If the onward connecting flight is on another airline and departs from another airport in the same city or another terminal that cannot be accessed without exiting the terminal building, a person must be nominated by the parents/ guardians to collect the UNMR at the transfer point and further deliver him/her to the onward carrier.

7.3.2 Handling of Disabled Passengers Air transportation today has been made easier than ever. The Government policies on ‘Open Sky’ allowed the growth of airlines and also non-scheduled operators in the country. The new ideas of Low Cost and Low Frill concept have also brought the common man with average income group to travel by air.

Whereas persons with disabilities and persons with reduced mobility like everyone else are increasingly given the possibility to travel by air, there lies a need to standardize the conditions for travel of such persons so as to facilitate their acceptance and handling of their carriage by the airlines and other operators.

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Airport Managerial OperationsCAR (Civil Aviation Requirements) establishes regulations for the protection of and provision of assistance to disabled persons and persons with reduced mobility traveling by air in order to protect them against any form of discrimination and to ensure that they receive all possible assistance with due respect and dignity.

For the purpose of this CAR, the Incapacitated Persons or Persons with Disability/ Reduced Mobility are considered the same.

CAR is issued under the provisions of Rule 133 A of the Aircraft Rules, 1937 for information, guidance and compliance by the concerned agencies.

All operators engaged in scheduled and non-scheduled air transport services both domestic and international, engaged in carriage of passengers, and shall comply with the requirements of this CAR.

Requirements

No airline shall refuse to carry persons with disability or persons with reduced mobility and their assistive aids/devices, escorts and guide dogs including their presence in the cabin, provided such persons or their representatives, at the time of booking and/or check-in for travel, inform the airlines of their requirement. The airlines shall incorporate appropriate provisions in the online form for booking tickets so that all the required facilities are made available to the passengers with disabilities at the time of check-in.

The airline shall formulate a detailed procedure for carriage of disabled persons or persons with reduced mobility and publish the same on their website.

Airlines should develop emergency evacuation procedures and training of their staff for handling persons with disabilities and include the same in their safety manuals. The training programme shall include detailed procedures of handling, evacuation and develop awareness towards disabled passengers, persons with medical conditions, elderly persons, infants, pregnant women etc.

All airlines and airport management shall run program for their staff engaged in passenger handling e.g. cabin crew/commercial staff including floor walkers and counter staff etc. for sensitization and developing awareness for assisting passengers with disabilities. The training program shall be conducted at the time of initial training and a refresher shall be conducted every 3 years on the subject. Only such persons who have current course shall be assigned to handling disabled persons. The training program should inter alia, include assisting disabled persons in filling up travel documents as may be required while providing assistance in flight.

No airline shall refuse to engage in interline transactions for carriage of disabled persons or persons with reduced mobility or to commence/continue interline transportation of such persons.

Note: This requirement does not require airlines to create interline agreements solely for this purpose.

Many persons with disabilities do not require constant assistance for their activities. Therefore, if the passenger declares independence in feeding, communication with reasonable accommodation, toileting and personal needs, the airlines shall not insist for the presence of an escort.

No airline shall refuse to carry persons traveling in a stretcher or incubator when they are accompanied by an escort who will be responsible for them and their needs of embarking, disembarking, during flight, and during emergency evacuation. The required number of seats for such travel must be reserved in advance at applicable fares.

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All airlines shall provide necessary assistance to persons with disabilities/ impairment who wish to travel alone without an escort.

Persons with disabilities not holding any certificate shall also be provided necessary assistance as well as the aids such as wheel chairs, ambulifts, etc. In such cases during ticketing/check-in the individuals’ degree of disability and his need for assistance may be confirmed. Airlines shall not refuse carriage in such cases.

Airport operator shall display International symbol of Disability within the visible proximity of the main entrance of the arrival/departure terminal, informing that they may contact the concerned airline operator for special assistance. Special assistance to be provided by Airport operator/security agencies to the visually impaired in locating concerned airline operator counter/office. Airport operator shall provide dedicated reserved parking space, toilets with independent entrance with proper signage and barrier free access to all areas in the terminal building.

Once a passenger has bought a ticket for travel, it is obligatory on part of the airline that he reaches the aircraft from the departure lounge, and at the end of the journey from the aircraft to the arrival lounge exit, without incurring any further expenditure.

Sufficient directional signage should be placed inside the airport regarding the availability of assistance for disabled person or person with reduced mobility. Airlines shall not limit the number or types of incapacitated passengers on their flights other than for specific reason for orderly evacuation from the aircraft exits and due to physical limitations such as size of the aircraft.

Airlines shall provide assistance to meet the particular needs of the persons with disabilities and persons with reduced mobility, from the departing airport terminal to the destination airport terminal.

Persons with disabilities and persons with reduced mobility have equal choice of seat allocation as others, subject to safety requirements and physical limitations of the aircraft - like seats near the emergency exits and seats with more leg-room.

Medical Clearance

No Medical clearance or special forms shall be insisted from persons with disabilities or persons with reduced mobility who only require special assistance at the airport for assistance in embarking/disembarking and a reasonable accommodation in flight, who otherwise do not require any additional assistance.

A medical clearance by the airline may be required only when the airline has received information that the passenger.

suffers from any disease, which is believed to be actively contagious and communicable;

who, because of certain diseases, or incapacitation may have or develop an adverse physical condition which could have an adverse effect during flight and on safety and emergency evacuation procedures;

would require medical attention and/or special equipment to maintain their health during the flights;

there exists a possibility of medical condition aggravated during or because of the flight.

Note: Persons with specific disabilities should plan to have all required forms for assistance ready in advance, to avoid flight delays. Forms and information will be made available on each airline’s website.

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Airport Managerial Operations Any passenger having any of the conditions mentioned in 5.2 (a) through 5.2 (d)

be subjected to prior clearance for air travel by the medical departments/advisors of the carrying airlines. In case the passenger has a connecting flight with another airline, this medical clearance should be accepted at the first point of check-in and the information transmitted by the first Airlines to the connecting airlines so that the passenger is not required to furnish the same again and again.

Before refusing carriage of any such passengers, the airlines shall refer to their medical departments/advisors for advise/clarification in accordance with a procedure, which shall be documented by the airlines. For such clearance the airline may seek the necessary medical information from the passenger(s) concerned or their representatives. Any forms for such information to be provided to the passengers by the airline staff will be made available on the airline’s website.

The airline shall enter for each person with disabilities or person with reduced mobility or incapacitated passenger the information sheet requiring special assistance.

Note 1: The airline shall establish a procedure for expeditious clearance by their medical departments, where required, to avoid delays causing inconvenience to passengers. Airlines shall provide necessary forms and procedures on their websites and through their call centres/agencies to make the process simple. The passengers should pre-clear themselves with the airline in advance.

Note 2: The airline shall ensure that at time of check-in airline staff is alerted and shall verify that all needs required by such passenger in advance in the relevant forms have been made available.

Note 3: The procedures involving medical clearances shall be documented and published in each airline’s websites.

Availability of Wheelchairs and/or Other Assistive Devices

All assistive aids shall be provided without any extra cost to the passengers.

1. Wheelchairs:

(a) Airlines shall ensure that at all stations, for boarding/disembarking purposes, before departure, during intermediate stops and on arrival wheel chairs are available without any extra charge and that advance arrangements made with other concerned agencies like Airport Management where necessary to ensure that movement of persons with disabilities and persons with reduced mobility within the airport is not restricted.

(b) Passengers who intend to check-in with their own wheelchair shall be given the option of using a station/airport wheelchair. If the passengers prefer to use their own wheelchair within the airport, they shall be permitted to use it up to the aircraft, whereupon it may be stowed at an appropriate place in the aircraft. At the time of disembarking, the passenger’s wheel chair should be returned to him to enable him to transfer himself from the aisle seat directly into his own wheel chair.

2. Stretchers: Upon advance request, and with a charge for such material as may be levied, the airlines shall make stretchers and associated equipment, e.g. blankets, pillows, sheets, nursing materials and privacy curtains, available for passengers who cannot use the standard airline seat in a sitting or reclining position for the class of service desired.

Ambulifts at airport: Every airport operator shall make appropriate provision including ambulifts to enable disabled passengers or passengers with reduced

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mobility to embark/disembark the aircraft without inconvenience. Such provision may be made in coordination with airline operators, if required.

3. Other Assistive Devices:

(a) Airlines shall ensure availability of low floor accessible buses at the airports to enable easy boarding and alighting by passengers.

(b) To board/disembark the disabled persons, immobile or incapacitated passengers not traveling on stretchers, airlines shall have available narrow aisle chairs (wheelchair-type devices), without armrests, preferably foldable type that can be moved about in the passenger cabin, before 31.7.2009.

(c) Airport Management Authorities shall provide ramps at least at the main entrance/exit to the terminal building for easy access.

(d) Upon request the airlines shall endeavour to have available on board a special wheel chair capable of carrying a handicapped passenger to enable them to use lavatory facilities, or as a boarding/disembarkation vehicle where these are not available.

Boarding, Seating and Briefing

1. Boarding: (a) The presence of all categories of incapacitated passengers and persons with

disabilities or reduced mobility with their escorts and any special arrangements made for them while on board, shall always be referred to the captain/senior cabin crew member.

(b) Incapacitated passengers and persons with disabilities or reduced mobility and their escorts shall be offered pre-boarding facilities.

(c) If passengers for any reason have to be offloaded, the highest possible priority for transportation shall be given to persons with disability or persons with reduced mobility, and to their escorts.

(d) The checked-in baggage of the persons with disability or with reduced mobility should be given ’Priority Tags’ to ensure early identification and assistance by the airline ground staff.

2. Seating:

(a) Incapacitated passengers and persons with disabilities or reduced mobility including blind shall not be restricted to any particular cabin or seating areas, except when it is done for safety of passengers and avoid interference with evacuations or due to physical limitations of the aircraft.

(b) Airlines shall have to maintain procedures for carriage of Guide/Service Dogs if required in cabin for the assistance of persons with disabilities or persons with reduced mobility.

3. Briefing:

(a) Before take off, persons with certain types of disabilities or persons with reduced mobility, incapacitated passengers and their escorts may be individually briefed on emergency procedures, cabin layout and specialized equipment supplied by the airline. The responsibility for such special briefing shall rests with airline’s senior cabin crew on the flight.

(b) Blind passengers may be briefed verbally, and Braille brochures where available may back up such briefing. Instructions in large print may be made available for persons with low vision.

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Airport Managerial Operations4. In-transit off-loading:

When overnight accommodation is offered such as when disabled persons are offloaded or when airlines are forced to have an overnight halt, airlines must endeavour to ensure that wheel chair users are allocated accommodation that is suitable to their needs.

5. Loading of special equipment of persons with disabilities or reduced mobility:

Special equipment required by incapacitated passengers and persons with disabilities or reduced mobility in connection with their trip, if not carried in the passenger cabin, shall be loaded in the baggage holds where it is easily accessible for timely return to the passenger at the time of disembarkations.

All such items must be properly identified and tagged, must always travel with the passenger, and shall be loaded in such a way as to be readily and immediately available at transfer and destination points.

Note: Passengers with assistive aids and devices may be allowed to take the same as a hand baggage as these devices are delicate and prone to breakage.

6. Transit stations:

Incapacitated passengers and persons with disabilities or reduced mobility requiring special assistance or protection from disturbance, and their escorts, shall be permitted to stay on board during transit stops, if they so desire, subject to the observance of applicable safety and security norms.

7. Disembarkation at point of transfer and/or destination:

(a) Upon request, the airline shall make arrangements for assisting persons with disabilities or persons with reduced mobility and incapacitated passengers in baggage delivery and getting out of the airport, even when they are accompanied by an escort. The checked in baggage with ‘Priority Tags’ should be kept in a safe place by the ground staff till the passenger arrives.

(b) Wheelchairs and other assistive devices checked-in shall, within the shortest possible time, be delivered as close as possible to the door of the aircraft.

8. Transmission of Information/Down line notice:

The airline checking in the incapacitated passenger and persons with disabilities or reduced mobility (or any person delegated by such airline) shall be responsible for advising its ground staff at transit stations and at the airport of disembarkation about the presence of incapacitated passengers and the location of wheelchairs and assistive devices on board and about the need to arrange for special assistance.

9. Provision of Ambulances:

(a) The Aerodrome operator shall provide ambulance facility for the passenger on arrival and departure at/from the airport, to such passengers on stretchers, upon advance request by the passengers or their representative or by the airline.

(b) Incapacitated passengers arriving at the airport in hospital/outside ambulance may be given an option of either taking the ambulance up to the aircraft boarding point or use the airport ambulance for going to the aircraft. In the former case the airport management shall provide escort to direct the ambulance driver through designated areas for vehicle driving.

10. Assistance on the Plane:

(a) All airlines should assist a passenger with disability or reduced mobility to get to the toilet and to provide essential safety information.

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(b) Airlines shall provide accommodation for passenger with disability or reduced mobility which may require extra leg space without any extra charge.

(c) Airline should ensure proper storage and handling of mobility equipment or any such assistive devices used by the persons with disability or reduced mobility. In case of lost or damage to such equipment the airlines shall be liable for provide suitable compensation.

(d) Airlines should provide necessary procedure for emergency evacuation in respect of person with disability or reduced mobility in the form of passenger briefing card or individualized verbal briefing.

(e) All information required by the airlines to facilitate carriage of the disable person or person with reduced mobility must be gathered by the airline during the online booking process or through the call centres. Airlines shall obtain all the information about the specific requirements of the persons with disabilities at the time of ticketing. Once the ticket is confirmed no further enquires shall be made.

(f) The following information should help the airline to make arrangements:

(i) the nature and level of special assistance required when embarking, disembarking and in-flight assistance required;

(ii) mobility equipment and disability aids that need to be carried by the airline either in cabin and/or aircraft hold;

(iii) whether the passenger will be accompanied with an escort.

Note: The above is not an exhaustive list and during online booking, the airlines should gather all such information without requiring the passenger to provide additional information later.

11. Complaint Procedure:

(a) A disabled person or person with reduced mobility who considers that this regulation has been infringed may bring the matter to the attention of the managing body of airlines, airport or other concerned authorities, as the case may be.

(b) The managing body of the airlines and the airport shall ensure speedy and proper redressal of these complaints.

Case Study: Air India − Persons with Disabilities or Persons with Reduced Mobility

hen Incapacitated Passengers travel, every effort is made to make their journey comfortable and all necessary arrangements are made in advance, in order to facilitate them. Incapacitated Passengers shall

be defined as those with a physical disability or a neurological disorder or with a medical condition, who require individual attention or assistance on emplaning/deplaning, during the flight and during ground handling, which is normally not extended to other passengers. This requirement will be apparent from special requests made by the passenger or by their family or by a medical authority at the time of making a booking. Categories

Irrespective of their physical or medical condition, Incapacitated Passengers are categorized into various groups. These groups are identified in airline messages by AIRIMP Codes, such as:

WCHR Wheelchair-R for ramp (passenger can ascend/descend steps and walk to the seat)

W

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Airport Managerial Operations WCHS Wheelchair-S for steps (passenger unable to ascend/descend steps

but able to walk to the seat)

WCHC Wheelchair-C for cabin seat (passenger completely immobile)

STCR Stretcher passenger

BLND Blind passenger (specify if accompanied by seeing-eye dog)

DEAF Deaf passenger

MEDA Medical Case (Medical clearance required)

OXYG Needing oxygen during flight

LEGL Left Leg-in cast

LEGR Right leg-in cast

LEGB Both Legs in cast

Limitations

In keeping with the requirement of air safety, the carriage of wheelchair passengers is restricted on our flights. The objective of this restriction is primarily, the safety of all passengers in the unlikely event of an emergency evacuation.

Air-India may refuse to carry passengers under the following conditions:

When the physical or medical condition of a passenger poses a threat to the safety of other passengers and their property, the aircraft or the crew.

Passenger who refuses or does not submit himself to the specific conditions of carriage of Air-India.

When persons travelling in a stretcher or incubator, persons with severe immobility impairment, persons with severe hearing or vision impairment, unless accompanied by an escort, who will be responsible for them and their needs on emplaning, deplaning, during the flight and during emergency evacuation.

Person who may be a source of infection and in the case of certain diseases discomfort to other passengers.

Charges for Wheelchairs

Requests generally received for wheelchair assistance are from the following categories of passengers:

Non-ambulatory i.e. passengers totally dependent on wheelchairs

Ambulatory i.e. passengers who can walk with assistance

Aged passengers

In order not to violate the civil rights of passengers with disabilities, for a barrier free environment, no charges will be levied for the use of wheelchairs at all airports for passengers travelling in any class.

Mobility Assistance at the Airport and In-flight

If you need mobility assistance to help you through the airport, please request it once you have made your booking, so that the service can be provided. If you already have a booking with Air India, you can request mobility assistance through the Booking Office from where you have done your booking/ticketing.

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Facilitation In order to facilitate passengers requiring wheelchair assistance at the airport, Air India ensures that: Wheelchair requests are adequately recorded and confirmed in the SSR element for each segment of the Air-India and interline journey. At the time of check-in, the appropriate inputs are made in the system to ensure that same is reflected for the information and action by cabin crew. For easy identification, all disabled passengers are provided with wheelchair badges. Disabled passengers are boarded first and deplaned last in order not to interfere with movement of other passengers. Disabled passengers are conveniently seated close to the toilet and on the aisle. The Commander and the Cabin Crew are fully briefed on all such cases including their medical history, if any, to enable the Cabin Crew to provide every type of assistance on-board. After departure, messages are sent to all en-route stations and destination to assist passengers in transit and on arrival. On arrival, passengers are assisted in deplaning and an escort provided up to the baggage hall or the connecting carrier in the event of an onward connection. Passengers on wheelchairs are provided with special stickers affixed on their boarding cards for easy identification.

Medical Clearance Not Required Medical clearance or special forms are not required for Incapacitated Passengers, who only require special assistance at the airport or at the time of embarking or disembarking. For those passengers, who are permanently or chronically incapacitated and do not need medical clearance but may only require assistance, in order to facilitate their travel, the Medical Department of any carrier may issue a Frequent Travellers’ Medical Card (FREMEC). When such cards issued by the medical authority of any Carrier are presented within the validity, they may be accepted for travel as a medical clearance.

Medical Clearance Required The following passengers will be subject to clearance from the Air India Medical Services Department and the Medical Department/Advisors of all other interline carriers involved in the transportation of the passenger. Airlines can deny transportation to the following passengers:

Needing medical clearance unless they meet the requirements of the carrier/s involved in the transportation.

Any disease which is believed to be contagious and communicable. Certain diseases or incapacitation which could develop into an unusual behaviour or physical condition which may have adverse effect on the welfare and comfort of other passengers.

Could be a potential hazard to the safety of the flight (including the possibility of a diversion and unscheduled landing)

Could require medical attention and special equipment to maintain their health during the flight,

Might have a medical condition which could be aggravated during the flight.

For such Incapacitated Passengers requiring Medical Assistance, an information sheet must be filled-up containing all information on the medical assistance required by the passenger, at the time of booking (agents office or an airline office). Where it is determined that a medical clearance is required, the passenger must take a MEDIF Form, which is required to be completed by their

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Airport Managerial Operationsattending doctor. The completed form must be forwarded to the Air India Medical Services Department for necessary clearance. On receipt of clearance to travel from the Medical Department and that of the other participating carriers, the booking may be effected and the PNR completed.

Passengers, who require continuous supply of oxygen, are not booked on the long haul non-stop flights, due to limited uplift of oxygen for the complete duration of the flight.

Availability of wheelchairs and other Assistive Devices Air India ensures that:

Sufficient wheelchairs are available for boarding/disembarking passengers. Passengers travelling with their own wheelchair or assistive devices may carry the same in the passenger cabin, on request, subject to availability of space. Alternatively, the wheelchair or assistive devices should be loaded in the baggage hold where it is easily accessible for timely return to the passenger. Passengers, who intend to check-in their own wheelchair, are given the option of using the airline/airport wheelchair. If the passenger wishes to use his own wheelchair at the airport he may be permitted to do so, up to the aircraft door. The wheelchair duly tagged, must then be sent for loading in the hold. Narrow wheelchair-type devices without arm rests are available in the passenger cabin for assistance on-board.

Stretcher Cases – Handling of Stretcher Passenger

A request for a stretcher must be made in advance and shall be strictly subject to space availability. Where Interline travel on other airlines is involved, advance arrangements with the carrier is necessary regarding confirmation on special meals, medicines, oxygen, ambulance and other requirements. Only one stretcher is accepted per flight in Economy class. No stretcher is carried in First and Executive class. Stretcher cases are accepted only after clearance from the Medical Services Dept. and confirmation of the quantity of oxygen to be carried will be determined by the Chief Medical Officer.

The MEDIF Forms are required to be filled-in for clearance, and may be obtained from any Air India Offices.

The MEDIF Form is an IATA approved document and lists the minimum information to be provided to the airline, for carriage of invalid passengers. We are free to ask for additional information or clarifications, if required for carriage of such passengers. The MEDIF Form is to be completely filled up by the passenger or his authorized representative, in case the passenger is unable to do so. While the part of information caters to travel details and the services requested for in-flight or intermediate sessions, an important aspect of MEDIF is to be filled up by the physician in charge of the invalid passenger and provides information about the clinical condition of the passenger. It is mandatory to complete the MEDIF including the treating physician’s certification and the undertaking/passenger declaration at the end of the MEDIF. Importantly the passenger/representative must sign the MEDIF requesting for air travel. MEDIF Forms need to be filled up every time an invalid passenger travels by commercial airlines and clearance is valid for a particular flight and date.

The MEDIF Form duly completed must be forwarded to The Medical Officer, Medical Services Department, Old Airport, Kalina, Santa Cruz (East), Mumbai – 400 029. FAX No.: 2615 7174 (at least minimum 3 days in advance for stretcher cases and minimum 24 hours for wheelchair cases requiring medical clearance).

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Categories of Passengers requiring MEDIF

Broadly, any passenger who needs special assistance/facilitation by the airline due to health grounds should request the airline reservations to provide information and the necessary form that i.e. MEDIF to travel as a medical case. A passenger with the following medical/health condition will need to fill-in a MEDIF Form.

Passenger who needs a stretcher or incubator on-board the aircraft

Passenger whose medical condition requires additional oxygen supply on-board as recommended by his treating physician

Passenger who requires extra space to accommodate leg elevation

Passenger who requires the use of medical equipment on-board the aircraft

Ideally, MEDIF should be forwarded by the invalid passenger/his representative based on the passenger’s latest medical status, on the recommendation of the treating physician, not later than 14 days prior to the date of commencement of travel. Invalid passengers with a permanent disability which are fully established and unlikely to progress in the future need not fill-up the MEDIF every time they undertake air travel on Air-India. They can request the Medical Services Department, Mumbai, for issuance of a FREMEC Card (Frequent Travellers’ Medical Card) which is issued free of charge.

The FREMEC Card has a specified period of validity, depending on the disability.

Mentally Retarded Passengers

Acceptance of Mentally Retarded Passengers.

Mentally retarded passengers are not accepted without a suitable attendant.

The trained attendant must carry the treating physician’s certificate along with a prescription for an injectable sedative medicine, which may be required to be administered by the attendant, prior to commencement of travel or as may be required en-route.

The attendant must be briefed that no Cabin Crew will be specially assigned to look after the mentally retarded passenger.

Acceptance of Passengers with Impaired Vision/Seeing-Eye Dog

A dog trained to lead the blind, which accompanies the passenger with impaired vision will not be carried unless proper permits are obtained for entry into the country or territory of destination and countries of transit, where such permits are required.

All permits are required to be presented at the time of reservation.

The dog must be properly harnessed and muzzled.

The dog may be carried in the passenger cabin or in the hold depending upon the individual country’s regulations as well as size of the dog.

The dog shall not be permitted to occupy a seat.

The dog will be carried free of charge in addition to the normal free baggage allowance.

If any country or territory on the route prohibits the entry of dogs, carriage will be refused.

All formalities required by the government authorities at the destination/ transit stations are complied with.

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Airport Managerial OperationsQuestion:

What other facilities can be provided for persons with disabilities? Source: http://www.airindia.com/disability-assistance.htm

7.3.3 Carrying of Human Remains Transporting human remains is a duty that demands respect, sensitivity and careful attention to detail. Transportation of human remains is accorded top priority and utmost care is taken for carriage of the same. Airport Health Organisation under Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India has notified that for obtaining public health clearance of dead bodies and cremated remains transported by international airlines at Indian airports, as per the Aircraft (Public Health) Rules, 1954, the following needs to be observed: 1. The consignee as well as the air transport service shall give to the Health Officer

of the airport of arrival advance intimation of at least 48 hours, of the importation of the dead body or human remains or ashes of the cremated bodies.

2. There should be a proper death certificate issued by a Medical Officer in English or translated into English in respect of the dead body. As per international health regulations of WHO, Death Certificate should be in English or French only. The translation of death certificate sometimes causes undue delay and frustration among the attendants.

3. The death certificate showing cause of death as pending or mentioned as cause of death to be ascertained after postmortem or cause of death unknown or as natural death shall render the Death Certificate as invalid and the dead body/human remain shall not be granted NOC by Health Officer of the airport.

4. Embalming Certificate should be enclosed. 5. The NOC should be obtained from Indian Embassy/Consulate of the country from

where body is transported. 6. As per the Provisions of The Aircraft (Public Health) Rules, 1954 Part IV Rule

No.41 no person shall bring into India any dead-body or human remains of persons who may have died of yellow fever, plague, anthrax, glanders or any other diseases as may be notified by the Government of India for this purpose, provided that nothing in this rule shall apply to properly cremated ashes of dead bodies or human remains.

Required documents:

1. Completed "Misc. Services" application form with one passport size photo affixed in the box.

2. Passport and a photocopy of pages containing personal particulars (first three and last two pages) of the deceased.

Passport will be cancelled and returned. Keep it safely.

3. Death Certificate in original and a photocopy.

4. Embalming Certificate (in original and a photocopy) stating that the body has been embalmed in accordance with the rules and regulations of international shipping and that the body has been placed in a hermetically sealed container with zinc liner and wooden outer container.

5. Certificate from the Department of Health stating that the deceased did not have any communicable/contagious diseases.

6. Burial/Transit Permit.

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7. A copy of the flight schedule (confirmed or proposed) for transportation of the mortal remains.

8. Fee $1 and $3 for ICWF.

9. Fee can be paid by cashier’s check or money order. Cash payment is accepted at the counter of the Consulate.

10. Personal checks, Debit cards and Credit cards are not accepted.

11. If application is being sent by post mail:

(a) Either add an additional $20/- to the fee for return mail.

(b) Or enclose stamped/prepaid return envelope with the application.

7.3.4 Handling of CIP, VIP and VVIP AAI has been entrusted with the responsibility of handling VVIPs and providing entitled VIPs with reserved lounge facilities besides extending due courtesy and attendance by responsible staff/hostess.

Due to Security reasons the Dignitaries entitled to take their vehicle up to the Aircraft and Dignitaries exempted from Pre- Embarkation Security. VIP commitments, being a sensitive matter, need to be handled meticulously, under a well-defined drill and with effective co-ordination. Following actions are required to be taken at various airports for handling VVIPs/VIPs, CIPs.

Documentation

On receipt of any message regarding VVIP/VIP movement , the airport Terminal Manager is required to carefully scrutinize the message/tour programme/itinerary of the VVIP/VIP and apprise the airport Director/airport-in-Charge or the officer who is authorized by airport Director/or airport –in-Charge in this behalf. He will also promptly enter the same in the VIP register to facilitate preparation of the shift-wise Daily-VIP-proforma. While making necessary entries, he should ensure that specific lounge reserved be mentioned. Any special handling requirements are also to be specifically mentioned. This will form important items of mutual briefing while conducting handing over/taking over of shift duties.

Daily VIP Proforma

The day shift Duty Airport Terminal Manager shall every day fill up the daily VIP proforma enlisting all VVIP/VIP movements from 1000 hrs of that day to 1000 hrs of the following day (24 hours cycle) and forward copy to all concerned. This proforma shall cover all relevant and necessary information for handling the movements of the VVIP/VIP including any special handling requirements.

VVIP/VIP – Team Briefing

1. Sr. Airport Terminal Manager/Airport Terminal Manager on shift duties shall apprise themselves of all VVIP/VIP movements likely to take place in their shift. They shall brief all concerned well in advance of the respective VIP movements. Any spill-over should be briefed properly to the next incoming shift officer.

2. All VVIP/VIP movements or other sensitive movements should be tied up by Sr. Airport Terminal Manager/Airport Terminal Manager with Airport Director/ Airport-in-Charge or with an officer authorized by Airport Director or Airport-in-Charge in this behalf.

3. It should also be ensured that during VVIP/VIP sensitive movements, the Sr. Manager Engg. (E)/(C) and Sr. Manager (Electronics) are kept apprised to

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Airport Managerial Operationsensure that all requirements pertaining to their departments are kept in proper operational status and desired shape.

4. In the event of VVIP/VIP, Minister of Civil Aviation and other sensitive movements, the Sr. Airport Terminal Manager/Airport Terminal Manager shall besides keeping the Airport Director/Airport-in-Charge or an officer authorized by Airport Director on this behalf and other related departments heads informed. He shall also keep close liaison with office/residence of representatives of VVIP/ VIP to ensure smooth handling of the movement.

Responsibility of Airport Director/Airport in-Charge

The overall responsibility of VVIP/VIP handling shall rest with the concerned Airport Director/Airport-in-Charge to ensure smooth and efficient handling besides co-coordinating with all concerned agencies/departments. Sr. Airport Terminal Manager shall be responsible for ensuring smooth handling of VIPs during his shift and shall be assisted by the Airport Terminal Manager on shift. Special care should be taken by the officer concerned to ensure that the correct ETA & ETD and revisions thereto are obtained from ATC. Such information should be passed on to the officials attending the VIP well in time & necessary assistance should be provided at all times.

VVIP/VIP Follow-up Report

Sr. Airport Terminal Manager shall submit VVIP/VIP handling follow-up report to Airport Director/Airport-in-Charge wherein he shall enlist any lapses during the movements and shall also suggest remedial measures required to be taken to prevent any shortcoming for handling future VVIP/VIP movements. Any lapses or suggestions in respect of VIP/VIP movements shall be communicated by Sr. Airport Terminal Manager/Airport Terminal Manager to Airport Director/Airport-in-Charge immediately.

7.4 COORDINATION OF SUPPORTING AGENCIES/ DEPARTMENTS International cooperation has presumed enormous importance in today’s world. Over the years number of organisations has evolved in tourism sector. These organisations gave strength to tourism by joining together and putting efforts to develop and promote tourism. These organisations are also responsible for enhancing cooperation’s among its members to support each other in tourism developmental activities.

Presently different organisations are functioning in the field of travel and tourism. Some of these organisations contribute towards development and promotion of global tourism. In any field of activity international cooperation has assumed vital importance. The cooperation leads stable government worldwide for negotiation in activities mutually beneficial to all of them. The growth development of any discipline depends on manner in which it associates itself with those pursuing similar discipline. The international organisations or world bodies provide platform where exchange of ideas and topics of mutual interest are discussed and solutions arrived at. Participants from various disciplines meet together and discuss areas of mutual interest. New ideas and information develop that help in growth and promotion of a discipline.

The international organisation played key role in strengthening tourism by combined efforts effort and so there role is critically important. The expanding international character of modern tourism and developing effect of international agencies in different field are imitated in growth and development of international cooperation and organization in tourism. Organisers are providers of tourist services come together at various forums at international level to discuss common problems and arrive at

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some conclusions. International union of official travel organisations (IUOTO) is main instrument for promotion of tourism. Different tourism organisation are:

1. International Union of Official Travel Organisation (IUOTO)

2. World Tourism Organisation (WTO)

3. Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA)

4. International Air Transport Association (IATA)

5. International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)

Check Your Progress 2 Fill in the blanks: 1. …………………… has been entrusted with the responsibility of handling

VVIPs & providing entitled VIPs with reserved lounge facilities besides extending due courtesy and attendance by responsible staff/ hostess.

2. Persons with specific …………………… should plan to have all required forms for assistance ready in advance, to avoid flight delays.

7.5 LET US SUM UP In this lesson you have studied about the flight catering industry which is a very large, global activity. The total market size is estimated to be around 12 billion euros. The in-flight catering industry consists of five major players: the airlines, or their various representatives; the providers, in this case specialised flight caterers; the suppliers, either to the providers or direct to the airlines; those using the airline's services, that is the fare-paying passengers and distributors. Flight catering starts with an understanding of the number of passengers and their needs; such information is available from both market research and actual passenger behaviour. On the basis of this, airlines, sometimes in consultation with caterers and suppliers, develop their product and service specifications. Such specifications determine exactly what food, drink and equipment items are to be carried on each route for each class of passenger. Further in this lesson you have studied about the procedure for handling various bodies including unaccompanied minors, disabled passengers, handling of stretcher passenger and human remains. In addition to this you have also studied about how to handling of VIP, VVI/CIP is done at airport and the coordination between supporting agencies and departments.

7.6 LESSON END ACTIVITY Prepare a presentation on the procedure for carrying unaccompanied minors and disabled passengers.

7.7 KEYWORDS Airline: An organization providing a regular public service of air transportation on one or more routes.

Very Important Person or VIP: VIP is a person who is accorded special privileges due to his or her status or importance.

Airline meal or in-flight meal: Airline meal is a meal served to passengers on board a commercial airliner. These meals are prepared by airline catering services.

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Airport Managerial Operations7.8 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Discuss the role of food and onboard.

2. What are the major stakeholders involved in flight catering business?

3. Explain Flight Catering System.

4. Discuss the procedure of handling of Unaccompanied Minor.

5. Describe procedure for handling of disabled passengers and carrying of human remains.

6. How are handling of CIP, VIP and VVIP done at airports?


CYP 1

1. True

2. True

CYP 2

1. AAI

2. Disabilities

7.9 SUGGESTED READINGS Senguttuvan. P S (2006). Fundamentals of Air Transport Management, Excel Books, New Delhi. Jaroslav J. Hajek, Jim W. Hall, David K. Hein, (2011), Common Airport Pavement Maintenance Practices, Transportation Research Board Manuel Ayres (Jr.), (2007), Safety Management Systems for Airports: Guidebook, Transportation Research Board Antonín Kazda, Robert E. Caves, (2007), Airport Design and Operation, Emerald Group Publishing Senguttuvan. P S (2007). Principles of Airport Economics, Excel Books, New Delhi.

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UNIT 1

UNIT IV

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Airport ServicesLESSON

8 AIRPORT SERVICES

CONTENTS


8.1 Introduction

8.2 Standard Operations − Ramp and Airside Safety

8.2.1 Airside Vehicle Operation

8.3 Freight Warehouse Management

8.3.1 Air Cargo Growth Forecast

8.3.2 Vertical Integration and the Role of Integrators

8.3.3 Main Air Cargo Markets

8.4 Airline Terminal Management

8.4.1 Historical Development of Airport Terminals

8.4.2 Components of the Airport Terminal

8.5 Let us Sum up


8.7 Keywords




Discuss the standard operations

Explain freight warehouse management

Describe airline terminal management

8.1 INTRODUCTION Airside is believed to be the most dangerous place to work. There are numerous activities including refuelling tankers, specialist vehicles, aircraft and many more that can cause serious hazards for the unguarded, untrained or unworried. Prior to going to airside, proper training ought to be given to all the staff by their employers so as to safeguard them.

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SAFETY The most important aspect of airport operations involve:

Ground Handling and

Ramp Safety.

At the time of aircraft arrival and departure, safe and efficient ground handling calls for coordinate accountabilities amongst qualified individuals. Where an airline decides to render services through ground handling service providers, it must lay down accountability of its own workers for execution, monitoring and verification of critical points of those functions.

The ramp area (Apron) is normally designed for the aircraft, and not for the vehicles that service and/or operate in the vicinity of the aircraft. In contrast, the ramp area sees a diverse collection of high placed activities that comprise aircraft, vehicles and personnel working in close vicinity to one another. This may take account of activities for instance:

Aircraft ground handling like taxiing, towing, chocking, parking, mooring etc.

Aircraft servicing-catering, cleaning, food service

Baggage and cargo handling

Ground power supply

Refuelling

Routine checks and maintenance

Personnel engaged in activities mentioned above are exposed to numerous of the occupational hazards for example, strains from baggage handling, cuts from protruding aircraft parts slips, trips, falls, electrical hazards, exposure to hazardous materials like aircraft fuel, hydraulic fluids, hot oil, high pressure air, aircraft noise from engines and so on. For that reason appropriate provisions are to be taken for security purpose.

8.2.1 Airside Vehicle Operation Several incidents happen concerning crash of vehicle with aircraft or with another vehicle. Separate vehicular lanes are drawn at airports that are busy for movement of the vehicles. Likewise yellow lines are drawn and no vehicle is allowed to cross this line. While working on the operational area and while in close proximity to an aircraft, it is mandatory for all vehicles to move with slow speed. Besides watching for moving aircraft, care ought to be taken so that Vehicles do not get too close to a parked aircraft, in order to avoid collision with the aircraft, as well as to prevent problem of jet blast or prop wash. There have been a number of cases where vehicles have been overturned by jet blast.

When driving near navigational aids, the vehicles are to stay out of the protected areas around them to avoid interfering with their signals.

At "controlled" airports whenever the Control tower is operating, the vehicles must get permission from the controller to be on the runway or taxiways, their associated safety areas, or any other part of the movement area by radio or with advanced coordination with ATC.

Night Driving or Bad Weather Driving

Extra precautions have to be taken by vehicle drivers for driving at night or in bad weather. They should be driven with slow speed and with care. Under winter

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Foreign Object Damage (FOD)

Foreign Object Damage occurs as a result of ingestion of loose objects by aircraft engines, or owing to hitting of such material with the aircraft. Trash or rocks sucked into a jet engine can shred parts of the engine in seconds. A rock caught by a propeller can damage the propeller, as well as become a deadly projectile. It should be ensured that a covered container is used for all trash that will not be blown away. Correspondingly all loose pieces of metal, bolts, nails, pebbles, rocks or trash near aircraft movement areas have to be picked up and removed. Furthermore anything that could cause foreign object damage or puncture tires must be picked up and tracking mud and rocks onto the pavement surfaces must be avoided.

Aviation Fuel Handling

Fuel handling is an important safety issue not only to fuel handlers but also to other airport personnel, passengers, and to the operations of the aircraft. Failure to bind to safe operating procedures in the course of refuelling of the aircraft, or transporting the fuel from one location to other, may result into major disasters.

A few vulnerable areas with reference to the fuel handling are health hazards to refuellers, hazards from spill fuel contaminations, explosions and fires due to fuel and so on. Therefore stringent provisions are to be taken by the official concerned so as to avoid such incidents. Stringent precautions are required while using ignition system such as starting of vehicles and even radio transmitter as aircraft fuel is highly flammable, as it may create fire.

De-icing

The problem of de-icing occurs mostly at European or US airports, and at places where temperature goes normally below freezing point.

There may be a case of serious problems for aircraft on account of the presence of ice and snow on the control surfaces, airfoil and sensor surfaces, and thus the same has to be removed before the takeoff of the aircraft, by the spray of de-icing fluid. The fluid must also be used with great care, as failure may lead to damage of sensitive aircraft controls such as pitot and static sensors, angle of attack sensors, engines and so forth. It is also dangerous for the health of personnel



1. The problem of de-icing occurs at places where temperature goes normally below melting point.

2. Fuel handling is an important safety issue only to fuel handlers.

8.3 FREIGHT WAREHOUSE MANAGEMENT Cargo (or freight) is goods or produce transported, generally for commercial gain, by ship, aircraft, train, van or truck. In addition to people, airports are accountable for moving in large volumes of cargo round the clock. Cargo airlines often have their own on-site and adjacent infrastructure to rapidly transfer parcels between ground and air modes of transportation.

Cargo airlines (or airfreight carriers) are airlines dedicated to the transport of cargo. Some cargo airlines are divisions or subsidiaries of larger passenger airlines. Aircrafts

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were first used for carrying mail as cargo in 1911. Eventually manufacturers started designing aircrafts for other types of freight as well.

There are many commercial aircrafts suitable for carrying cargo such as the Boeing 747 and the bigger An-124, which was purposely built for easy conversion into a cargo aircraft. Such large aircraft employ quick-loading containers known as Unit Load Devices (ULDs), much like containerized cargo ships. The ULDs are located in front section of the aircraft. Most nations own and utilize large numbers of cargo aircraft such as the C-17 Globemaster III for airlift logistic needs.

8.3.1 Air Cargo Growth Forecast The air cargo traffic is rebounding. The growth of the market is expected by 6.5% per year as yields stabilize.

Figure 8.1: World Air Cargo Traffic Expected to Triple by 2013

Europe-Asia and North Atlantic have experienced the recent positive growth.

There are several positive factors underlie this 6.5% baseline projection of the future expansions in air cargo markets:

Predictions of 3.3% yearly world GDP growth through 2013

Long term prices of the fuel are expected to remain low.

The stabilization of the yield.

The further expansion of express networks and airline logistic services, which includes both growth and airline revenues.

World Forecast Detail

The world air freight will grow more rapidly than mail, with 6.6% average annually growth through 2013. The mails RTKs will display the steady growth with an average of 4% annually.

The international market growth will continue to outpace U.S. domestic increases, exceeding 80% of total RTKs by the year 2013. The share of the non-U.S. airlines of the world RTKs will increase from 67% in 1993 to 71% by the year 2013. There is a highest air freight market growth occur on Asian and Latin American routes. These markets accounts for 60% of the world freight market by 2013.

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Figure 8.2: Forces and Constraints for Air Cargo Growth

The fastest and the most expensive way used for the transportation of goods is air freight. Because of this reason air freight is particularly used for the transportation of goods that are highly – valued and perishable or that needs fast delivery. During the year 2011 the global amount of world air cargo traffic was 202 billion RTKs (Revenue Ton Kilometres). To compare, in the same year containership cargo traffic was figured at 10.5 trillion RTKs. During 2012 these volumes have stabilised and tend to move evenly with the world economic growth. Air cargo traffic is strongly connected with the globa; gross domestic product and is often seen as a good indicator for the world economy. Shippers, forwarders and carriers are the 3 prominent players in the supply of air cargo on the export side. While in case of import, the consignees and the destination forwarders also play a significant role in the supply chain. Let us know about shipper, carriers and forwarders.

Shippers are companies or individuals who want to use air freight to transport their products.

Carriers or airlines are the asset holders, who over cargo capacity on their planes. Forwarders are intermediaries between the shipper and the carrier. They negotiate

prices with a carrier and provide transportation service to and from the airport. Additionally, all the paperwork and customs involved in shipping goods are taken care by them. The role of the forwarders can be compared with the role of a tour-operator involved in holiday business.

Figure 8.3: Cargo Supply Chain

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8.3.2 Vertical Integration and the Role of Integrators In case of passenger airlines, customers have the option to book through any of the following modes:

A tour operator or another intermediary: In this way of booking customers can compare prices of one airline with that of another.

Book directly at the carrier: In this process other parties are unable to make additional profits, which entails that booking directly at the carrier is a cheaper option.

In air cargo industry, all shipments are booked by forwarders. It hardly ever happens that a shipper directly speaks to the carrier. Therefore, there is no transparency in air cargo rates. It is very difficult to achieve the market equilibrium because shippers only know what they have to pay to the forwarder, and forwarders have their rates at the carrier, but they are unaware of the prices charged by their competitors. A special case in the cargo market is the integrators. These are forwarding companies which have their own flight network, which they use for mail and package services. DHL Express, FedEx and UPS are the most famous integrators. Their efficiency is much higher for the reason that they own the whole supply chain, so no time and money is lost because of shipment handovers or additional paperwork. The integrators are gaining market share as the size of the shipments they accept increase.

8.3.3 Main Air Cargo Markets The air cargo industry is a global business where shipments are sent across the. There are many large trade flows from producing countries to their export destinations. Flows from Europe and North-America to Asia and vice versa generally cover the largest amount of global air cargo traffic.

There are number of airlines that use a certain hub in their home country. Large airlines have their own trucking network within a continent which they use for moving shipments to their main hub, where shipments are loaded on the plane for intercontinental transfers. Trucking is a much economical and less polluting way of transporting goods. For this reason the market for air cargo within Europe is very small, only 0.8% of the world FTKs. The domestic United States air freight market is somewhat larger, but the main commodity on these fights is mail and express goods, transported by integrators like FedEx or UPS.

Typical Air Cargo Products

As discussed above, air freight is the most costly way of transport of products, and hence it is generally used for specific types of products which need fast delivery.

Products which are often transported by air freight are:

Goods with a short economic lifecycle (radioactive material, newspapers).

High-tech goods;

High-value goods (gold, banknotes);

Live animals;

Perishable goods (fruits, vegetables, fresh fish, flowers);

Pharmaceuticals; and

Spare parts (to prevent production line stops in factories).

There are two reasons for the transportation of high valued goods by air:

1. Safety: Fast delivery means less risk of problems with the shipment. When a shipment is on sea for a few weeks, there are more chances to theft or piracy.

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Airport Services2. For high valued goods, the transport costs relative to the product's value is

negligible.

Perishables goods/products such as flowers, vegetables, flowers etc., are required to be transported as quickly as possible, also for instance newspapers because such products have a short economic lifecycle: as they lose their value after one or few days. Some frozen pharmaceuticals that are required to be cooled in the course of transportation. For these shipments, dry ice is used which is placed in an insulated container.

Another common air freight shipment is spare parts. Spare parts are very costly when factories have line-stops: which means that the staff cannot work and production processes often have a long start-up time. Thus, spare parts are required to be transported as quickly as possible. Another example is of Aircraft engines. It is expensive when a plane is out of service for a long time.

In addition to the above types there are number of goods which are shipped using air freight. Some of these need extra care, but there is also a large market for general shipments, which are collectively booked as a large consolidation by a forwarding company. This way the forwarder is able to obtain cheap capacity because of scale benefits, and the carrier is ensured of a large amount of capacity utilisation.

8.4 AIRLINE TERMINAL MANAGEMENT The airport terminal area, comprised of passenger and cargo terminal buildings, aircraft parking, loading, unloading, and service areas such as passenger service facilities, automobile parking, and public transit stations, is a vital component to the airport system. The primary goal of an airport is to provide passengers and cargo access to air transportation, and thus the terminal area achieves the goal of the airport by providing the vital link between the airside of the airport and the landside. The terminal area provides the facilities, procedures, and processes to efficiently move crew, passengers, and cargo onto, and off of, commercial and general aviation aircraft. The term terminal is in fact somewhat of a misnomer. Terminal implies ending. Although aircraft itineraries begin and end at an airport's terminal area, the itineraries of passengers and baggage do not. It is vitally important to understand that the airport terminal is not an end point, but an area of transfer along the way.

8.4.1 Historical Development of Airport Terminals Just as there were no runways or other airfield facilities during the very earliest days of aviation, there certainly were no terminals, at least the way they are recognized today. The first facilities that could be remotely considered airport terminal areas evolved in the early 1920s with the introduction of airmail service. Airmail operations required small depots in order to load and unload mail, fuel aircraft, and perform any required maintenance. Little in the way of formal passenger or cargo processing was required, and hence, airport terminal facilities were little more than single-room structures with the most basic of infrastructure.

The introduction of commercial passenger air service in the late 1920s resulted in the need to develop certain basic passenger processing policies. The earliest passenger processing strategies evolved from the major intercity transportation mode of the day, the railroads. Tickets and boarding passes were issued for passengers, and similar to policies set for rail transport, cargo rates were also charged, typically by the weight of the cargo being transported. (Sometimes passengers were weighed as well, primarily to ensure that the aircraft did not exceed its maximum takeoff weight!). The facilities required for performing basic ticketing and weighing functions, as well as for aircraft boarding and alighting the relatively few passengers and little cargo that used civil air transportation could be, and were often, incorporated into one-room facilities, strikingly similar to the facilities that served the railroads.

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Unit Terminal Concepts

These first terminals were the earliest centralized facilities, centralized meaning that all passenger processing facilities at the airport are housed in one building. These first centralized facilities became known as the earliest simple unit terminals, because they contained all required passenger processing facilities for a given air carrier in a single-unit building. In addition to passenger processing facilities, the airport's administrative offices, and even air traffic control facilities, were located within the unit terminal building became known as the combined unit terminal. In larger metropolitan areas, separate buildings were constructed for each airline, each building behaving as its own unit terminal. This terminal area configuration became known as the multiple-unit terminal concept. Even though the multiple-unit terminal area consisted of separate facilities for each airline, it is still considered an individual centralized facility because all passenger and cargo processing required for any given passenger or piece of cargo to board any given flight still exists in one facility. The early centralized terminals, including the simple-unit, combined-unit, and multiple-unit terminals, employed the gate arrival concept. The gate arrival concept is a centralized layout that is aimed at reducing the overall size of terminal areas by bringing automobile parking as close as possible to aircraft parking. The simple-unit terminal represents the most fundamental type of gate arrival facility, consisting of a single common waiting and ticketing area with exits onto a small aircraft parking apron. Even today, the gate arrival concept is adaptable to airports with low airline activity and is particularly applicable to general aviation operations whether a smaller general aviation terminal is located separately from a larger terminal for commercial air carriers or is the operational centre for an airport used exclusively for general aviation.

Where the terminal serves airline operations, close-in parking is usually available for three to six commercial aircraft. Where the simple-unit terminal serves general aviation only, the facility is within convenient walking distance of aircraft parking areas and adjacent to an aircraft service apron. The simple-unit terminal facility normally consists of a single-level structure where access to aircraft is afforded by a walk across the aircraft parking apron.

Linear Terminal Concepts

As airports expanded to meet the growing needs of the public, as well as the growing wingspans of aircraft, simple-unit terminals expanded outward in a rectangular or linear manner, with the goal of maintaining short distances between the vehicle curb and aircraft parking that existed with unit terminals. Within linear terminals, ticket counters serving individual airlines were introduced and loading bridges were deployed at aircraft gates to allow passengers to board aircraft without having to be outside on the apron, thereby improving convenience and safety for passengers. In some instances airports were extended in a curvilinear fashion, allowing even more aircraft to park "nose-in" to the terminal building while maintaining short walking distances from the airport entrance to the aircraft gate. In many respects, the linear and curvilinear terminal concepts are mere extensions of the simple-unit terminal concept. More sophisticated linear terminals, particularly those that serve high volumes of passengers, often feature two level structures where enplaning passengers are processed on one level and deplaning passengers on the other level. Passenger walking distances from the "curb to the gate" are typically short, on the order of 100 feet. The linear configuration also lends itself to the development of automobile parking that is close to the terminal building, and provides extended curb frontage for loading and unloading of ground transportation vehicles.

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Source: FAA

Figure 8.4: Terminal Design Concepts

One of the main disadvantages of linear terminals becomes evident as the length of the terminal building increases. Walking distances between facilities, particularly distantly separated gates, become excessive for the passenger whose itinerary requires a change in aircraft at the airport. Prior to airline deregulation the percentage of these transfer passengers was insignificant. After 1978, however, this percentage increased dramatically and the issue of long walking distances between gates became a major issue, particularly at the hub airports.

Pier Finger Terminals

The pier finger terminal concept evolved in the 1950s when gate concourses were added to simple unit terminal buildings. Concourses, known as piers or fingers, offered the opportunity to maximize the number of aircraft parking spaces with fewer infrastructures. Aircraft parking was assigned to both sides of a pier extending from the original unit terminal structure. The pier finger terminal is the first of what are known as decentralized facilities, with some of the required processing performed in common-use main terminal areas, and other processes performed in and around individual concourses.

Many airports today have pier finger terminals in use. Since the earliest pier finger designs, very sophisticated and often convoluted forms of the concept have been developed with the addition of hold rooms at gates, loading bridges, and vertical separation of enplaning and deplaning passengers in the main-unit terminal area.

As pier finger terminals expanded, concourse lengths at many terminal buildings became excessive, averaging 400 feet or more from the main terminal to the concourse end. In addition, as terminals expanded by adding additional piers, distances between gates and other facilities became not only excessive in distance, but also confusing in direction. Moreover, often the main-unit terminal facility and corridors connecting the individual fingers were not expanded along with the construction of additional concourses, leading to passenger crowding in these areas.

Another of the disadvantages of pier finger terminals is that expansion of terminals by adding or lengthening concourses may significantly reduce the amount of apron space for aircraft parking and movement. Also, the addition of concourses to the terminal

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tends to put constraints on the mobility of aircraft, particularly those that are parked closer to the main terminal building.

Pier Satellite and Remote Satellite Terminals

Similar to pier finger terminals, pier satellite terminals formed as concourses extended from main-unit terminal buildings with aircraft parked at the end of the concourse around a round atrium or satellite area. Satellite gates are usually served by a common passenger holding area. Satellite terminal concepts, developed in the 1960s and 1970s, took advantage of the ability to create either underground corridors or Automated Passenger Movement Systems (APMs) to connect main terminal buildings with concourses. Such terminals are said to be built on the remote satellite concept.

The main advantage of the remote satellite concept is that one or more satellite facilities may be constructed and expanded when necessary while providing sufficient space for aircraft taxi operations between the main terminal building and satellites. In addition, although distances from the main terminal to a satellite may be quite large, APMs or other people-mover systems such as moving walkways or shuttle buses are provided to reduce walking distances.

Source: Figure courtesy Seattle – Tacoma International Airport

Figure 8.5: Terminal Configuration at Seattle – Tacoma International Airport, One of the First Airports to Employ APMs to Reach Remote Satellite Terminals

Another of the advantages of the satellite concept is that it lends itself to a relatively compact central terminal with common areas for processing passengers, because aircraft with large wingspans, which for all intents and purposes dictate the size of terminal gate areas and thus concourses and satellite, are parked at remote satellites rather than at the central facility. As with the pier finger concept, the expansion of pier satellite and remote satellite concept terminals tend to result in terminal facilities that not only have large distances between key points within the terminal, but also often become confusing for passengers in their attempts to find their way to their respective gates, baggage claim areas, or other desired facilities.

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Mobile Lounge or Transporter Concept In 1962 the opening of Dulles International Airport west of Washington D.C., designed as the first airport specifically for the new jet aircraft of the day, introduced the mobile lounge or transporter concept of airport terminals. Sometimes known also as the remote aircraft parking concept, the Washington Dulles terminal area attempted to maximize the number of aircraft that may be parked and maximize the number of passengers that may be processed, with minimal concourse infrastructure. In this concept, aircraft are parked at remote parking locations away from the main-unit terminal building. To travel between aircraft and the terminal building, passengers would board transporters, known as mobile lounges that would roam the airfield

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among ground vehicles and taxiing aircraft. With the mobile lounge concept, walking distances were held to a minimum because the main, relatively compact, terminal building contains common passenger processing facilities, with automobile curbs and parking located in close proximity to the terminal building entrances. Theoretically, expansion to accommodate additional aircraft is facilitated by the fact that there is no need to physically expand concourses, piers, or satellites, just merely add additional mobile lounges, if necessary. Despite its theoretical advantages, the mobile lounge concept did not on the whole win approval from passengers. Mobile lounge boarding areas in the main terminal often became excessively congested as passengers with carry-on baggage would crowd the area, often arriving early so as not to miss their assigned mobile lounge boarding time. Moreover, the relatively small mobile lounges offered far less room for passengers than the aircraft from or to which they are transitioning, especially in comparison to large "wide-body" aircraft introduced in the late 1960s, leaving passengers crowded and often uncomfortable while on the mobile lounge. In addition, mobile lounges require constant maintenance, which over time becomes an excessive cost element of operations. In the mid-1990s Dulles in effect abandoned the mobile lounge concept by constructing satellite or midfield concourses on the airfield. Today (as of 2003) the remaining mobile lounges at Dulles still in service, act as transporters merely between the main terminal building and the satellite concourses rather than directly to aircraft. Current plans at Dulles call for construction of an underground transporter between the main terminal and the remote concourses and removing the mobile lounges from the terminal area entirely. In the United States, no other airports have relied entirely on the mobile lounge concept for their terminal areas, with the exception of providing shuttle bus services to aircraft that must be parked in remote parking spots because of lack of available gate space at the terminal building or concourses. In other countries, particularly in the Middle East, the mobile lounge concept has been met with higher levels of success.

Hybrid Terminal Geometries With the volatile changes in the amount and behaviour of civil aviation activity, with increasing numbers of large aircraft (with high seating capacities and large wingspans), volumes of passengers, and changes in route structures, particularly after airline deregulation, airport management has had to expand and modify terminal areas to accommodate almost constantly changing environments. As a result, many airport terminal geometries expanded in an ad hoc manner, leading to hybrid terminal geometries incorporating features of two or more of the basic configurations (Figure 8.7).

Source: Figure courtesy United Airlines

Figure 8.7: Chicago O’Hare International Airport Combining Unit, Linear, Pier and Satellite Terminal Concepts

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Airport ServicesIn addition, for airports that accommodate an airline's hub, airport terminal planning became necessary to accommodate up to 100 or more aircraft at one time and efficiently handle record volumes of passengers, particularly those passengers transferring between aircraft. It's no coincidence that during past years public sentiment for the planning and management of many airport terminals in the United States was declining. Issues including congestion, long walking distances, confusing directions, as well as limited amenities and passenger services became popular issues of criticism. As a result, airport planners began to redevelop terminal area designs, focusing on strategic planning and design of terminals that can accommodate requirements of accessing ground vehicles, passengers, and aircraft, with sufficient flexibility to adapt to ever-changing levels of growth and system behaviour.

Airside–Landside Concept

The most significant terminal area concept to emerge involved a more physical separation between facilities that handle passengers and ground vehicles and those that deal primarily with aircraft handling.

The airside–landside concept emerged with the opening of the Tampa International Airport and has proliferated throughout the United States at airports such as Pittsburgh International Airport and Orlando International Airport. The airside–landside concept relies heavily on automated pedestrian movement systems to quickly and efficiently shuttle passengers to and from two separate facilities. In the landside facility, all passenger and baggage processing can be performed without being physically close to an aircraft. In addition, sufficient ancillary facilities, such as concessions, atriums, and the like, are located in landside facilities to provide amenities to facilitate a pleasurable experience for the passenger. Airside facilities, which have been built in various shapes and sizes, from X shapes to long concourses, focus on the efficient servicing of aircraft, including fuelling, loading, and unloading. Separating each of the two processes allows greater flexibility in adapting to changes in either environment, whether it is new aircraft or changes in passenger processing policies.

Off-airport Terminals

In the 1980s the airside-landside concept formed the basis for a series of experimental concepts known as off-airport terminals. With the notion that certain passenger processes, such as ticketing and baggage check-in, and certainly automobile parking, did not need to be within any proximity of aircraft, such processes weren't necessarily required to be performed on airport property. As a result, facilities located miles away from the airport itself were introduced whereby passengers could park their personal vehicles, check themselves and their baggage in for their flights, and then take a shuttle bus to the airport. With the use of these off-airport terminals, passengers would avoid the often significantly more crowded passenger processing facilities at the main terminal. Also the passenger would not be required to find parking at the often more crowded and expensive parking facilities at the main terminal.

Off-airport terminals serving the San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles, and Las Vegas were met with positive response, with increased passenger convenience being the prime characteristic of the systems. Because of increased security measures following the attacks of September 11, 2001, however, off-airport terminals have had to discontinue any passenger or baggage check-in processes, and are now primarily used merely as off-airport parking facilities. However, the off-airport terminal concept set the precedent for implementing the idea of passenger processing at sites away from the main airport terminal, setting the stage for the potential future of airport terminal planning.

Present-day Airport Terminals

With over 650 million passengers travelling annually, each with different agendas, itineraries, needs, and desires, airport terminals have become complex systems in their

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own rights, incorporating both necessary passenger and baggage processing services as well as a full spectrum of customer service, retail shopping, food and beverage, and other facilities to make the passengers' transition between the airside and landside components of the airport system as pleasant as possible.

It is clear that no single airport terminal configuration is best for all airports. The airfield, schedules of airlines, types of aircraft, volumes of passengers, and local considerations, such as local architecture, aesthetics, and civic pride, dictate different choices from airport to airport and from one time to another. The airport terminal planner has the dubious task of anticipating conditions up to 10 years in the future in an environment that seems to change by the day. To ensure that present-day airport terminal plans will be effective in the future, the airport planner must rely on the fundamental requirements of airport terminals and behaviours of passengers, and also must plan with the idea of flexibility in mind, such as considering facilities that can be expanded modularly or can provide the opportunity for relatively low-cost, simple modifications that future circumstances might demand.

For airport management, airport terminal areas, when properly planned and managed, have provided significant sources of revenue from airline leases to retail concessions. Airport terminals have also become a sense of pride for communities in general, as they are typically the first impression that visitors get of their destination city and the last experience they get before leaving. Several airport terminals today appear more to be shopping malls than passenger processing facilities, and other airport terminals are fully equipped with hotels and conference centres. These facilities have actually encouraged visitors to use the facilities at the airport without ever intending to board an aircraft.

The size and shape of airport terminal configurations has both an uncertain yet exciting future. New security regulations imposed by the Transportation Security Administration have established the need to expand airport security facilities, whereas advances in information technologies have suggested the ability to reduce the size of other passenger processing facilities such as staffed ticket counters. No matter how policies, regulations, technologies, and behaviours change, however, the basic function of the airport terminal area, that of efficiently linking passengers and cargo to the airside and landside components of the civil aviation system, should always be understood by airport managers and planners alike.

8.4.2 Components of the Airport Terminal The airport terminal area is in the unique position of accommodating the needs of both aircraft and the passengers that board them. As such, the component systems of the airport terminal area may be thought of as falling into two primary categories: the apron and gate system, which is planned and managed according to the characteristics of aircraft, and the passenger and baggage handling systems, which are planned and managed to accommodate the needs of passengers and their baggage in their transition to or from the aircraft.

Apron and Gate System

The apron and gates are the locations at which aircraft park to allow the loading and unloading of passengers and cargo, as well as for aircraft servicing and pre-flight preparation prior to entering the airfield and airspace.

The size of aircraft, particularly their lengths and wingspans, is perhaps the single greatest determinant of the area required for individual gates and apron parking spaces. In fact, the grand size of airport terminals is a direct result of large numbers of gates designed to accommodate aircraft of wingspans reaching 200 feet in length. The size of any given aircraft parking area is also determined by the orientation in which the aircraft will park, known as the aircraft parking type. Aircraft may be positioned at

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Airport Servicesvarious angles with respect to the terminal building, may be attached to loading bridges or Jetways, or may be freestanding and adjoined with air stairs for passenger boarding and deplaning. Some aircraft parking types require aircraft to be manoeuvred either in or out of their parking spaces by the use of aircraft tugs, whereas other parking types allow the movement of aircraft in and out under their own power. The five major aircraft parking types are nose-in parking, angled nose-in, angled nose-out, parallel parking, and remote parking.

Figure 8.8: Aircraft Parking Positions

Nose-in Parking: Most large jet aircraft at commercial service airports park nose-in to gates at the terminal and connect directly to the terminal building by loading bridges. Aircraft are able to enter nose-in parking spaces under their own power, and tend to be pushed out by an aircraft tug and oriented so that they may move forward on the apron without coming into contact with any other structures. The primary advantage to nose-in parking is that it requires less physical space for aircraft than any other aircraft parking type. The majority of commercial service airports, particularly those with large volumes of jet aircraft operations, have primarily nose-in parking. With nose-in parking, only the front-entry door on the aircraft is used for boarding, because the rear doors are typically too far from the terminal building to extend a loading bridge. This has some, but not an entirely significant, impact on the efficiency of passenger boarding and deplaning.

Figure 8.9: Nose-in Parking

Angled Nose-in Parking brings aircraft as close to the terminal building as possible while maintaining enough manoeuvring room so that aircraft may exit the parking space under its own power.

Angled Nose-in Parking is typically used by smaller aircraft, such as turboprops or small regional jets. Air stairs are typically used to board and deplane passengers, removing the necessity for loading bridges. Angled nose-in parking requires slightly more parking area over nose-in parking for aircraft of similar size. However, because smaller aircraft tend to use angled nose-in parking, the difference in sizes of the two parking areas is not significantly different.

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Angled Nose-out Parking brings aircraft slightly farther from the terminal building than nose-in and angled nose-in parking, because the blast from jets or large propellers has the potential of causing damage to terminal buildings if too close to the facility. Angled nose-out parking is typically used by larger general aviation aircraft and at facilities with relatively low levels of activity.

Parallel Parking is said to be the easiest to achieve from an aircraft manoeuvring standpoint, although each space tends to require the largest amount of physical space for a given size of aircraft. In this configuration, both front and aft doors of the aircraft on a given side may be used for passenger boarding by loading bridges. Typically, however, parallel parking is employed only by smaller general aviation aircraft with relatively large amounts of parking space near the terminal building. In addition, cargo aircraft may parallel park at their respective cargo terminals to facilitate the loading and unloading of their respective loads.

Remote Parking may be employed when there is limited parking area available at the terminal building itself or when aircraft parked may be stationed there overnight or for longer durations. Remote parking areas are typically comprised of a series of rows of parking spaces, sized to accommodate varying sizes of aircraft. Smaller commercial and general aviation aircraft may be boarded and deplaned from the remote parking areas with the use of shuttle buses or vans. Larger commercial aircraft are typically taxied to a close-in parking space prior to passenger loading.

Most airports have more than one aircraft parking type to accommodate the various types of aircraft that serve the different terminal geometries and air carrier or general aviation activities. Furthermore, airports with a high number of based aircraft or air carrier aircraft that remain overnight (RON) at the airport, must take into consideration higher volumes of remote parking that is flexible to accommodate aircraft of various shapes and sizes. Taxilanes are found on airport aprons to direct aircraft taxiing between airfield taxiways and aircraft parking areas on the apron. Taxilanes exist as single-lane taxiways, where there exists sufficient room for one aircraft, and dual-lane taxiways, with sufficient room for two aircraft taxiing in opposite directions to move simultaneously. Dual-lane taxilanes are typically found at the busiest of airports serving larger aircraft.

Aircraft Gate Management

One of the most important and sometimes most challenging aspects of planning and managing the apron concerns the number of aircraft parking areas, or gates, that are required for efficient operations. The number of commercial aircraft gates required at an airport, for example, over any given operating day is dependent on a series of factors, including: the number and type of aircraft scheduled to use a gate, each aircraft's scheduled turnaround time (also known as gate occupancy time), and the type of gate usage agreement that each air carrier has with the airport. The number and type of each aircraft scheduled to use a gate is of course vital to the planning of gate facilities. For each type of aircraft that uses the airport, there should be at least one aircraft parking area that can accommodate the aircraft.

For smaller airports that are frequented by larger aircraft on a sporadic basis, a remote parking facility with sufficient space may be appropriate, whereas aircraft that operate more often should be considered for their size when constructing permanent gate facilities. At many airports, gates for larger aircraft are planned for the ends of linear terminals or satellite configurations, where aircraft wingspans are accommodated with minimal sacrifice of space for additional aircraft, and gates for smaller aircraft tend to be located nearer the centre of the terminal.

The turnaround time of each aircraft directly affects the number of aircraft that can use a gate over the course of a day. Turnaround times of aircraft vary widely, based in part on the size of aircraft, the itinerary of the aircraft, the number of passengers, the

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Airport Servicesvolume of cargo to be loaded and unloaded, and the schedules of the air carrier. Turnaround times of smaller commercial service aircraft flying relatively short routes, carrying less than 50 passengers, for a regional airline, for example, may be as low as 15 minutes, whereas wide-body aircraft flying on international routes may require 3 or more hours turnaround time. As such, a gate serving small regional air carrier aircraft gates may serve 30 or more aircraft in an operating day, and gates serving international flights may accommodate only two or three aircraft per day. The gate usage agreement that each air carrier has with airport management also plays a significant role in the total number of required gates at the airport terminal. The three most common types of gate usage agreements are exclusive-use, shared-use, and preferential-use agreements.

As the name implies, under an exclusive-use agreement, an air carrier retains sole authority to use a particular gate or set of gates at an airport terminal. This agreement gives the air carrier flexibility when adjusting flight schedules, assuring the carrier that gates will always be available when needed. Operationally, however, this type of agreement leads to inefficiencies in overall gate use, because when the air carrier is not currently using its gates, the gate sits idle, despite the fact that another air carrier may desire a gate parking space at that time. Air carriers signing exclusive-use agreements, usually do so for a premium, and for a relatively long contract period, and thus are identified typically as signatory carriers at the airport. Signatory carriers tend to have the majority of operations at the airport, thus warranting exclusive-use agreements. Under shared-use agreements, air carriers and other aircraft schedule use of gates in coordination with airport management and other air carriers serving the airport. Thus individual gates may be shared by multiple air carriers. Shared-use agreements are usually arranged by air carriers that have relatively few operations scheduled at the airport. For example, international air carriers tend to arrange shared-use agreements with United States airports, because they each have perhaps only a few operations per day at any given airport. For air carriers that have many operations at an airport, shared-use agreements reduce the flexibility in schedule planning. From an airport management perspective, however, shared-use agreements are operationally efficient, maximizing the number of aircraft that may use gates over the course of a schedule day.

Preferential-use agreements are hybrids of the exclusive-use and shared-use agreements. Under a preferential-use agreement, one air carrier has preferential use of the gate. However, should that air carrier not be using the gate during some period of the day, other air carriers subscribing to the agreement may use the gate, as long as its use does not interfere with upcoming operations from the preferential carrier. Preferential-use agreements are typically signed by one carrier that has moderate levels of service at the airport, and one or more carriers or charter aircraft that have relatively few operations. From an operational perspective, the overall number of aircraft utilizing gates under shared-use agreements depends primarily on the number of operations served by, as well as the typical turnaround time of, the preferential carrier. The greater number of operations and greater turnaround time of, the preferential carrier tends to lead to fewer numbers of aircraft using the gates over the course of an operating day.

Gantt Charts

The management and planning of gate utilization at airport terminals can be a challenging venture, particularly when high volumes of operations occur during busy or peak periods. One tool used to assist with the scheduling and management of gate operations is a variation of a graphical scheduling management tool developed by Henry Gantt in 1917. A Gantt chart (or ramp chart) is a graphical representation of the utilization of aircraft gates over a given period of time.

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On the basis of each aircraft's operating schedule and scheduled turnaround time, and on the basis of each gate's gate-usage agreement, aircraft are allocated gate space, represented by rows on the Gantt chart, during their projected gate utilization periods, represented by columns on the chart. From plotting each aircraft's operation on the Gantt chart, terminal planners and gate managers can visually identify inefficiencies in gate utilization and potential conflicts, particularly during irregular operations, such as when an aircraft must stay at the gate past its scheduled push back time because of unforeseen circumstances, or when an aircraft arrives early to the airport.

Figure 8.10 represents a Gantt chart example for a given set of flight schedules, with gates 1 and 2 operating under shared-use agreements and gate 3 operating under an exclusive-use agreement.

Figure 8.10: Sample Gantt Gate Utilization Chart

Figure 8.11: Loading Bridges are Part of the Flight Interface


Fill in the blanks:

1. …………………….-use agreements are hybrids of the exclusive-use and shared-use agreements.

2. The ……………………. time of each aircraft directly affects the number of aircraft that can use a gate over the course of a day.

8.5 LET US SUM UP Airside is acknowledged as a dangerous place to work. Ground Handling and Ramp Safety are the most important aspects of airport operations. A number of incidents take place involving collision of vehicle with aircraft or with another vehicle. Extra precautions have to be taken by vehicle drivers for driving at night or in bad weather. FOD or Foreign Object Damage is caused due to ingestion of loose objects by aircraft engines, or due to hitting of such material with the aircraft. Fuel handling is an important safety issue not only to fuel handlers but also to other airport personnel, passengers, and to the operations of the aircraft.

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Airport ServicesCargo airlines (or airfreight carriers) are airlines dedicated to the transport of cargo. Products which are often transported by air freight are: perishable goods (fruits, vegetables, fresh fish, flowers), high-value goods (gold, banknotes); high-tech goods; pharmaceuticals; spare parts (to prevent production line stops in factories); live animals; goods with a short economic lifecycle (radioactive material, newspapers). The airport terminal area, comprised of passenger and cargo terminal buildings, aircraft parking, loading, unloading, and service areas such as passenger service facilities, automobile parking, and public transit stations, is a vital component to the airport system.

8.6 LESSON END ACTIVITY Prepare a project on the various services offered by Indian airports.

8.7 KEYWORDS Ramp Area: It is usually the area where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded, refuelled or boarded.

Airside Area: Airside areas include all areas accessible to aircraft, including runways, taxiways and ramps.

De-icing: To make or keep free of ice.

Runway Incursion: Any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft vehicle or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.

Gantt chart (or ramp chart): It is a graphical representation of the utilization of aircraft gates over a given period of time.

Apron and gates: These are the locations at which aircraft park to allow the loading and unloading of passengers and cargo, as well as for aircraft servicing and pre-flight preparation prior to entering the airfield and airspace.

8.8 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. What do you mean by ramp area? Discuss the activities involved in ramp areas.

2. What do you mean by airside vehicle operation?

3. Explain freight warehouse management.

4. What are the typical air cargo products?

5. Write a brief note on the historical development of airport terminals.

6. What are the components of the airport terminal?


CYP 1

1. False

2. False

CYP 2

1. Preferential

2. Turnaround

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Airport HandlingLESSON

9 AIRPORT HANDLING

CONTENTS


9.1 Introduction

9.2 Flight Information Counter/Reservation

9.3 Ticketing − Check-in/Issue of Boarding Pass

9.3.1 Boarding Pass

9.4 Custom Formalities

9.4.1 Role of Air Cargo Complexes (ACC)

9.5 Immigration Formalities

9.5.1 Instructions for Foreigners

9.5.2 Immigration Process

9.5.3 Registered Foreigners Formalities

9.5.4 PIO (Person of Indian Origin) Card

9.5.5 Health Regulations

9.5.6 Co-ordination of Supporting Agencies/Departments

9.6 Security Clearance − Baggage

9.6.1 Security Screening of Checked Baggage

9.7 Let us Sum up


9.9 Keywords




Discuss flight information counter/reservation

Describe the ticketing process and issues related to check-in and boarding pass

Explain immigration and custom formalities

Discuss security clearance of baggage


In this lesson you will study about the flight information counter, ticketing – check-in issues and boarding pass. Further you will study about immigration and custom formalities at airports and security clearance of baggage.

9.2 FLIGHT INFORMATION COUNTER/RESERVATION Flight information counter or reservation is the place at the airports from where the passengers can collect information about the arrival and departure related information of various airlines and the related fares. Also passengers can make reservation for both ways at these counters by making choice according to their convenient date and timing. We will discuss the entire process of ticketing and how check-in is done at airports in the subsequent sections.

9.3 TICKETING − CHECK-IN/ISSUE OF BOARDING PASS The ticketing process has come a long way since the early days of passenger processing at airport terminals, although some characteristics dating back to the original ticketing policies, including the term ticketing, remain. Traditional ticket counters are facilities staffed by air carrier personnel. As with gates, ticket counters may be configured for exclusive use or common use. Exclusive-use ticket counters are typically configured with information systems, computers, and other equipment specific to one air carrier. The number of positions at the ticket counter is typically determined by the airline on the basis of the estimated number of departing passengers over the course of the operating day, particularly at busy, or peak, times. Most scheduled air carriers with consistent volumes of scheduled operations, tend to have exclusive-use ticketing facilities at commercial service airports. Common-use ticket counters are typically configured for use by multiple air carriers. Many common-use ticketing facilities are equipped with Common Use Terminal Equipment (CUTE), a computer-based system that can accommodate the operating systems of any air carrier that shares the ticketing facility. A growing number of airport terminals serving air carriers that have infrequent service to the airport, charter carriers, and international carriers have implemented common-use ticketing facilities, which provide the ability to serve more air carriers and passengers with less physical ticket counter space than their exclusive-use counterparts. The traditional processing that occurs at an airline ticket counter includes the purchasing of airline tickets for trips either on the day of purchase or for future travel, the assignment of seats, and the issuance of boarding passes. For passengers checking in baggage, the ticket counter has traditionally served as the location where bags would be checked and entered into the baggage handling system. For the first 60 years of commercial aviation, much of the functions performed at the ticket counter were done manually. In recent years, the implementation of computer technology, information sharing, and automation have allowed much of the traditional processes to be distributed among other locations, many of which are not located at the airport terminal itself. The purchasing of airline tickets through travel agents, over the telephone, and increasingly through the Internet comprises the vast majority of airline ticketing transactions. Furthermore, the ability to acquire seating assignments, and in some cases boarding passes, through automated systems renders the airport terminal's ticketing process an unnecessary part of many departing passengers' travels through the terminal. Most recently, the introduction of automated kiosks by many air carriers, located near traditional ticket counters, perform many of the essential services of the traditional

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Airport Handlingticket counter, at least for those passengers travelling on electronic tickets. In addition, some airports have employed Common Use Self-Service (CUSS) kiosks, which offer check-in for multiple air carriers.

Figure 9.1: CUTE (Common Use Terminal Equipment)

with Variable LED and CRT Signage

Despite the vast changes in technology and policies over time, the traditional ticket counter may never become obsolete. During periods of irregularity, such as when flights are delayed or cancelled, or when passengers need special assistance with their itineraries, the ticket counter often becomes the first location that passengers go to in order to find an airline representative for assistance. Ticketing has from time to time shared a portion of the passenger and baggage security screening processes at the airport. During past time, bombing of Pan Am 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, initial passenger screening was performed by air carrier ticket agents by asking questions of each passenger checking in baggage. Those questions were:

1. "Did you pack your own baggage?"

2. "Have your bags been with you at all times since you packed them?"

The purpose of these questions was to prevent the stowage of explosives in checked baggage; on the philosophy that no passenger would willingly board an aircraft with explosives set to destroy the aircraft in his or her baggage. In 2002, the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) discontinued this process.

Figure 9.2: Common Use Self-service (CUSS) Kiosk

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In 2003, ticketing facilities began performing first phases of security screening by directing all checked-in baggage to explosive detection screening stations. In addition, experimental TSA policies at some airports, which require all passengers to be in possession of a boarding pass prior to entering the passenger security screening processing area, have put new burdens on ticketing areas to issue boarding passes to passengers who, before the policy was implemented, would not receive their boarding passes until reaching their gates, beyond security checkpoints.

Service counters that are located at commercial airports handling commercial air travel are used for the purpose of airport check-in. The check-in process is normally handled by an airline itself or an agent involved in handling on behalf of an airline. Passengers are required to handover their baggage that they do not wish or are not permitted to carry on to the aircraft's cabin and receive a boarding pass before they can go on to board their aircraft.

When a passenger arrives at the airport, check – in is the first process, for the reason that airline regulations need passengers to check in by particular time frame prior to the departure of a flight. Generally, the time frame required for check-in range from quarter-hour to four hours depending on the destination and airline. The passenger ask for special accommodations during this process of check – in, These special accommodations include inquire about flight or destination information, seating preferences, accumulate frequent flyer program miles, make changes to reservations, or pay for upgrades.

However, the main function of the airline check-in is to go in the aircraft's cargo hold and issue of boarding passes.

Check-in procedures and options vary from airline to airline with some airlines taking into account certain restrictions while other airlines have in place, and rarely the same airline at two separate airports may not have similar check-in procedures. Such differences are usually not well-known by the average passenger and sometimes lead to service interruptions when one carrier refuses to stand by the procedure that another carrier generally would be willing to do.

In-town check-in service is a service extended by some cities such as Abu Dhabi, Delhi, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Seoul, Stockholm, Taipei, Vienna and where passengers may check in luggage in designated places inside the city but outside the airport. This cuts down check-in time and queuing at the airport.

Passenger Identity Registration: During the time of check-in, one of the Agent's main responsibilities is to check for valid documents. Valid documents take account of tickets, invitation letters, passports, visas, etc. depending on the type of visit, the arrival and destination of the trip. A number of airlines, though, do not require this for domestic and intra-EU flights, allowing passengers to travel without their ID checked at any point unless they are checking-in baggage.

In countries like the United States, which has special requirements, passengers have to furnish information such as their name, address and contact details of places where they live, from which they are taking the flight and in which they intend to stay once in the United States. This information, known as Advance Passenger Information, is now usually collected online with or after the flight booking.

Baggage registration: Baggage is handed over by the passengers during the time of check – in, which is checked by the security at airport and sealed. Any extra luggage that is above the weight limit or luggage that are not allowed to be carried by the passenger himself to the aircraft cabin is usually handed over to the agent at the time of check-in. The baggage allowance, if any, is prescribed by the airline and anything in excess will warrant additional surcharges. These baggage

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Airport Handlingrestrictions depend upon the class the passenger is traveling, for instance Economy Class, First Class, Executive Class, etc.

Seating registration: Generally at the time of check-in, a choice of selecting the seats is offered. The Agent might ask if a window or aisle seat is wanted.

Online check-in: Online check-in is the process in which passengers confirm their presence on a flight by the use of the Internet and normally print their own boarding passes. Based on the carrier and the specific flight, passengers may also enter details for example options of meal they would like to have, and baggage quantities and select their choice of seating.

This service is generally promoted by the airlines to passengers as being easier and faster for the reason that it decreases the time a passenger would usually spend at an airport check-in counter. Certain airlines, on the other hand, would still need passengers to go on to a check-in counter at the airport, irrespective of preferred check-in method, for document verification for example, to travel to countries where a visa is compulsory or to make sure the credit card used at purchase matches the identity of the person who made the purchase. If passengers want to continue the check-in process at the airport after carrying out an online check-in, a special lane is usually offered to them to decrease wait times. Additionally, online check-in for a flight is often available earlier than its in-person counterpart.

Alaska Airlines was the first to offer online check-in. in September 2009 the system was first offered on a limited basis, and was available to the general public on selected flights the subsequent month. Later then, a growing number of airlines have introduced the system.

Mobile check-in: During the late 2000s, checking in was made possible by making use of a passenger's mobile phone or PDA. A GPRS or 3G-capable smartphone or an internet-capable PDA is essential, and the check-in characteristic may gain access by keying in a website on the mobile phone's browser or by downloading a particular application. The process is then similar to that which one would expect when checking in using a personal computer.

At the end of the mobile check-in process, a number of airlines send a mobile boarding pass to a passenger's mobile device, which can be scanned at the airport in the course of security checks and boarding. Though, others send an electronic confirmation with a barcode that can be presented to the staff at check-in or scanned at the kiosks to continue the check-in process viz., to have boarding passes issued).

Change of reservations: There are circumstances where a passenger needs to change his travel plan; such situations are taken care of by the check-in counter. This may encompass changing itinerary, upgrading class of travel, changing to an earlier or later flight, however such changes are subject to the conditions of the tickets issued.

Premium check-in and lounge access: In case a passenger is having a first or business class ticket or shows a certain frequent flyer program membership card (usually the higher-level tiers), or any other arrangements with the carrier, admission to the premium check-in area and/or the lounge may be extended.

Premium check-in areas differ among airlines and airports. The main airport in which an airline hub is located normally offers a more thorough and exclusive premium check-in experience, normally inside a separate check-in lounge. For example, Air New Zealand's Auckland International premium check-in lounge offers a dedicated customs clearance counter and direct shortcut admission to the security checkpoints. Airlines operating in minor airports normally offer an

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exclusive and separate premium check-in queue lane, often combined for its first, business, and/or premium economy passengers.

9.3.1 Boarding Pass A document provided by an airline to the passenger at the time of check in is known as boarding pass. It is a document that authorizes a passenger to board the airplane for a particular flight. As a minimum, it identifies the passenger, the flight number, and the date and scheduled time for departure. In some cases, flyers can check in online and print the boarding passes themselves.

Usually a passenger with an electronic ticket will only need a boarding pass. In case a passenger carries a paper airline ticket, that ticket may be required to be attached to the boarding pass for him or her to board the aircraft. The paper boarding pass, or portions, are sometimes collected and counted for cross-check of passenger counts by gate agents, but more commonly are scanned by means of barcode or magnetic stripe. The standards for bar codes and magnetic stripes on boarding passes are published by IATA. The Bar Code Standard (BCBP) defines the 2D bar code printed on paper boarding passes or sent to mobile phones for electronic boarding passes. The magnetic stripe standard (ATB2) expired in 2010. For "connecting flights" there will be a boarding pass needed for each new flight (distinguished by a different flight number) regardless of whether a different aircraft is boarded.

Mobile Boarding Passes

Many airlines have started issuing electronic boarding passes, whereby the passenger checks in either online or on a mobile device, and the boarding pass is then sent to the mobile device as a SMS or e-mail. Upon completing an online reservation, client can tick a box offering for a mobile boarding pass. Most carriers offer two ways to get it: have one sent to mobile device by way of e-mail or text message when check in online, or use an airline application to check in and the boarding pass will appear within the application.

The mobile pass is furnished with the same bar code that a standard paper boarding pass would be, and it is completely machine readable. The gate attendant simply scans the code displayed on the phone.

Airlines on Board

In 2007 Continental Airlines (now United) was the first started testing Mobile boarding passes. Now most of the major carriers offer mobile boarding passes at many airports.

Airlines that issue electronic boarding passes include Air India, United Airlines, Air Asia (The first airline to introduce SMS boarding passes), Singapore Airlines, Air Canada, WestJet (the first in North America to do so), Cathay Pacific Airways, Delta Air Lines, JetBlue Airways, American Airlines, Alaska Airlines, Lufthansa, Scandinavian Airlines, Jetstar Airways, Iberia, US Airways, KLM (selected destinations only), Aer Lingus, and Qantas (domestic market).

Benefits

Ecological: It is also much more environmentally friendly than constantly using up paper for boarding passes.

Practical: Travellers don’t do not always have access to a printer, so choosing a mobile boarding pass eliminates eradicates the hassle difficulty of stopping at a kiosk at the airport.

Safe: The Transportation Security Administration, the federal agency that oversees security for airports, appreciates the electronic boarding passes, because

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Airport Handlingthe two-dimensional bar codes are harder to forge than the one-dimensional bar codes that are used today on many tickets printed online.

Drawbacks

In case of mobile boarding the risk of low battery or dead battery is involved or there are any problems reading the electronic-boarding pass. Mobile boarding pass can also be a challenge in case you are traveling with multiple people in one reservation because not all airline apps handle multiple mobile boarding passes. A number of airlines, like Alaska Airlines, do allow you to switch between multiple boarding passes within their apps.

9.4 CUSTOM FORMALITIES Customs procedures and the functioning of Air Cargo Complexes.

In accordance with international practice, all goods imported into the country or exported out of the country by air or other routes are governed by the provisions of the Customs Act, 1962 and other laws related to entry/exit from the country. Customs administration ensures that the import and export of goods are in compliance with the Customs Act and other laws in force.

Accordingly, customs procedures are intended to provide definite, predictable methods by which the goods can enter the country and get cleared on payment of applicable import duties, fulfilling the requirements of the law of the land.

To regulate and to exercise effective control over import and export activities, goods are allowed for import/export at notified places under section 7 of the Customs Act, 1962. Custodians are appointed under section 45 of the Customs Act, 1962 for safe storage of goods till they are cleared for home consumption or warehoused. Clearance of goods involves classification, assessment, examination and payment of Customs duty on imported cargo on the basis of Bill of Entry presented by the importer or his authorized agent. The Central Board of Excise and Customs (CBEC) has prescribed the procedures which are implemented by field formations. These are updated and modified according to need, the demands of trade and to improve the efficiency of the system.

9.4.1 Role of Air Cargo Complexes (ACC) ACC is a place where cargo is aggregated/segregated and export/import of cargo takes place. With the growing volume of international trade, the need for expeditious clearance of goods within the minimum possible time has been gaining importance.

This is more so for goods required 'just in time' for processing or use by industry and in the case of express cargo/courier industry.

Further, for optimal utilization of existing infrastructure, space and equipment, goods that are landed at ACC need to be evacuated straight away without any loss of time. Hence there is a need for efficient clearance procedures from all concerned agencies.

Present Procedure for Customs Clearance of Imported Goods at Air Cargo Complexes

In respect of the cargo stored at the ACC, the importers or their agents have to file the Bill of Entry at the Air Cargo Unit of the Customs Administration. In respect of transhipment cargo the Airlines would likewise file the transhipment applications in the Cargo Unit of the Customs. In case any cargo covered by a Bill of Entry requires examination, necessary instructions for examination are given in the form of an examination order and the packages are delivered on that basis by the custodian for examination. The packages are examined in the presence of the importers or their representatives as well as the representative of the AAI. All the examined packages

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are sealed with the Customs seal and delivered back to the custodian through the importer or his agents in case they are not cleared immediately. Arrangements for presenting the packages to the custodian for examination and delivery are made by the importer.

The delivery of the imported cargo is effected by the custodian on verification of the out of charge order given on the Bill of Entry by the Customs. The custodian of the Ground Handling Agency may require a gate pass for delivery of the imported cargo. Gate pass is countersigned by the same Customs Officer giving out the charge order.

In the case of Cargo directly delivered, the IFO signs the gate pass after verifying and noting the number of the Kutcha Bill of Entry and endorsing it on the gate pass. The duplicate bill of entry received by the custodian after delivery of the cargo and sent to the Cargo Unit of the Customs is matched with the original (except in the case of Kutcha B's/E by the Cargo Unit which is processed and regularised by the Air Cargo Unit).

Cargos like plants, human body, life saving drugs, radio active materials, etc. that need immediate attention/storage/disposal are permitted to be cleared under Kutcha Bill of Entry system. The importer (with necessary supporting documents) files a Kutcha Bill of Entry well in advance to the Assistant/Deputy Commissioner (AC/DC) for permission for direct delivery of the goods. The importer also gives advance intimation to the custodian.

AAI regarding the arrival of such goods and the importer has to be present at the time of receipt of the cargo in the Air Cargo Complex. The IFO after verifying the prior permission granted by Assistant/Deputy Commissioner (AC/DC) will pass an order for direct delivery against Kutcha Bill of Entry. Notwithstanding direct delivery, the custodian, accounts for such goods in his warehouse, registers and also notes the disposal particulars.

Present Procedure for Clearance of Export Goods at Air Cargo Complexes (ACC)

Exporter files a Shipping Bill which is assessed by Customs and the goods are also subject to examination by Customs before LEO (Let Export Order) is given. This document can be filed with Customs up to 15 days before the goods are actually exported. To encourage exports, the Government has introduced various export promotion schemes i.e. Drawback, DEEC, DFRC, DEPB, EPCG, etc. and the exporter can choose to avail any of them. However, certain schemes cast an export obligation on the exporter for which he is required to execute Bond and Bank Guarantee for a specific period.

The Airlines ensure that only such cargo for which 'Let Export' has been given by Customs are taken into their storage area. The Airlines also ensure that cargo that has not been examined is not mixed with the cargo already examined and cleared. The Freight Officer monitors the Airlines' compliance with these requirements.

Both Imports and Exports are governed by the Customs Act, 1962 and the EXIM Policy and are subject to prohibitions and restrictions imposed under various other Acts e.g. CITES, NDPS Act, Arms Act, Antiques Act, Drugs & Cosmetics Act, Chemical Weapons Convention Act, etc.

9.5 IMMIGRATION FORMALITIES The Bureau of Immigration (BOI) is responsible for immigration services at major International Airports in India and the foreigners' registration process in five major cities.

The field officers in charge of immigration and registration activities at Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Amritsar are called Foreigners Regional Registration Officers

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Airport Handling(FRROs). The designation for the equivalent in Chennai (Madras) is Chief Immigration Officer (CHIO). Apart from the FRROs/CHIOs who handle the immigration/registration functions in the above-mentioned five cities, the concerned SPs (Superintendents of Police) function as Foreigners Registration Officers (FROs) in the other districts in different States in the country.

9.5.1 Instructions for Foreigners 1. Foreign Nationals desirous of coming into India are required to possess valid

passport of their country and a valid Indian Visa.

2. There is no provision of 'Visa on Arrival' in India and no fee is charged for immigration facilities at the airports. Foreign passengers should ensure that they are in possession of a valid Indian Visa before they start their journey to India except nationals of Nepal and Bhutan who do not require visa to enter India and nationals of Maldives who do not require visa for entry into India for a period up to 90 days (a separate Visa regime exists for diplomatic/official passport holders).

3. However, there is a provision of granting TLF (Temporary Landing Facility)/TLP (Temporary Landing Permit) to allow entry of foreigners arriving in emergency situations like death/serious illness in the family, without an Indian Visa on cash payment of US$40 (Indian Rupee equivalent of ` 1935/-, kindly confirm current rates as applicable). This facility can also be extended to transiting foreigners having confirmed onward journey tickets within 72 hours. Apart from this, foreign tourists in groups of four or more arriving by Air or Sea, sponsored by recognized Indian Travel Agencies and with a pre-drawn itinerary can be granted collective landing permit for a specified period of time on the written request of the Travel Agencies to the Immigration officer giving full personal and passport details of the group members and undertaking to conduct the group as per the itinerary and an assurance that no individual would be allowed to drop out from the group at any place.

4. The above mentioned provisions of TLF/TLP, however, are not available to the nationals of Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Somalia, Nigeria, Ethiopia and Algeria.

9.5.2 Immigration Process 1. Immigration check is done for all passengers, Indians or foreigners, both at the

time of arrival and departure. The passports are duly stamped at arrival as well as departure. Passengers should be careful to see that their passports are duly stamped before leaving the immigration counter.

2. All passengers, Foreigners as well as Indians, coming to India or departing from India are required to fill-up D (Disembarkation) Card and E (Embarkation) Cards on arrival and departure respectively. The following information is required to be provided by the passengers in these cards:

(a) Name and Sex

(b) Date of Birth, Place of Birth, Nationality

(c) Passport details viz. number, place and dates of issue/expiry

(d) Visa details viz. number, place and dates of issue/expiry (for arriving foreigners only)

(e) Address in India

(f) Flight number and date of arrival/departure

(g) Occupation

(h) Purpose of visit to/from India

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Registration for Foreigners 1. Foreigners entering India on a Student, Employment, Research or Missionary

Visa which is valid for more than 180 days, are required to register with the Foreigners Registration Officer under whose jurisdiction they propose to stay. This should be done within 14 days of arrival in India, irrespective of their actual period of stay.

2. Foreigners, visiting India on any other category of long term VISA which is valid for more than 180 days, are not required to register themselves if their actual stay does not exceed 180 days on each visit. If such a foreigner intends to stay in India for more than 180 days during a particular visit, he/she should get registered within 180 days of arrival in India.

3. The following categories of foreign nationals are exempt from registration: (a) Those visiting India on any short term VISA i.e. valid for 180 days or less, (b) Children below 16 years of age (any type of VISA)

4. Pakistan nationals are required to register within 24 hours of their arrival in India. Afghanistan nationals are required to register within 7 days of their arrival in India.

5. There is no fee charged for registration. However, US$ 30 (Rupees equivalent to ` 1395/-, please check current rates as applicable) is charged for over-stay and/or late registration, if overstay is condoned by the competent authority.

6. Registration facilities are not provided at the airport. Registration is done in the offices of FRRO/CHIO or the Superintendents of Police/districts.

Documents for Registration Registration form 4 photographs Proof of residential address in India Photocopy of main pages of passport i.e. those containing the photograph,

personal particulars, Indian Visa and latest arrival stamp in India. Note: HIV test for Visa holders of more than one-year duration was required earlier at the time of registration. This requirement is now dispensed with, according to MHA circular No. 319 vide No. 25022/149/2002-F I dated 22.11.2002.

Following additional documents are also required in case of:

Student Visa: Bona fide certificate from School/College by authorized signatory of the Institute mentioning the course being undertaken.

Business Visa:

Business related papers showing the authenticity of the business.

Copy of the approval from Government of India in case of joint venture or collaboration (in duplicate).

Copy of permission from the RBI (Reserve Bank of India) in case of business/joint venture, etc.

Journalist Visa: Accreditation certificate from the Press Information Bureau with the approval of MEA (Ministry of External Affairs)

Employment Visa:

Letter of terms and conditions from the employer.

Copy of contract with concerned Indian company.

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Airport Handling Covering/request letter from the company.

Undertaking from the Indian company on the following lines:

Undertaking

We take full responsibility for the activities and conduct of Mr./Mrs. __________________ national of _______________ during his/her stay in India. If anything adverse comes to notice during this period, we undertake to repatriate him/her on our cost.

Date: Signature of competent authority

Seal:

9.5.3 Registered Foreigners Formalities 1. A registered foreigner is issued a registration booklet containing his latest

photograph, details of residence etc. An endorsement is made in the passport also regarding registration. The foreigner is required to intimate any permanent change in his address to the Registration Authorities. A foreigner is also required to inform the registration officer if he proposes to be absent from his registered address for a continuous period of 8 weeks or more. Similarly, a foreigner, who stays for a period of more than 8 weeks at any place other than the district of his registered address, shall inform the Registration Officer of that district of his presence.

2. Registration formalities for foreigners are guided by the Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939 and Registration of Foreigners Rules, 1992.

Foreigners Staying at Hotels

Foreigners, visiting India on Tourist Visa and not staying continuously for more than six months in India, are not required to register themselves. However, all foreigners including even tourists and others who are not required to register, are required to fill up a form called Form-C (Rule-14, Registration of Foreigners Rules, 1992) at the time of their stay in any hotel (which includes any boarding-house, club, dak bungalow, rest house, paying guest house, sarai and other premises of like nature). It is the responsibility of the hotel owner to get this form filled up by the foreigner.

Visa Extension/Conversion

The powers of Visa conversions and visa extensions to foreigners present in India, vests with the Ministry of Home Affairs. For this purpose the foreigners can approach the Foreigners Division, MHA, Lok Nayak Bhawan, Khan Market, New Delhi between 10 AM to 12 AM on all working days (Monday to Friday). The change of visa status from one category to another category is normally not allowed. It can be considered by MHA only in extraordinary circumstances. For this purpose, the foreigner should normally come in person to the office. In exceptional cases and where allowed, a duly authenticated representative may be sent. Foreigners not residing in Delhi may approach the FRRO/CHIO/FRO concerned who would forward their case in MHA for approval. Applications for extensions/conversions should be made well in advance.

For the convenience of the foreigners, however, the FRROs/CHIO/FROs are empowered to make extensions/conversions for certain types of Visas without referring the same to MHA. The details of such powers vested with FRROs, etc. are:

In case of foreigners of Indian origin/foreigner married to Indian citizen/foreigner staying in India for more than 20 years, extension can be given on entry Visa by FRROs for a period of 5 years.

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FRRO can extend the VISA for three months in case of Employment & Business VISAs and forward the case for further extension up to 1 year, to MHA. After obtaining approval from MHA, FRRO can extend that VISA for further four years on year-to-year basis.

FRRO can convert visa and grant extension of stay to foreign students studying up to 12th standard, whose parents are of Indian origin or whose parents are Indian nationals on year-to-year basis. Same facility is also available for children of foreigners residing in India on long-term basis (studying up to 12th Standard) on valid visas such as Employment, Business, Research, Entry Student etc.

FRRO can grant 15 days extension of stay on all types of visas on production of confirmed ticket for departure.

For student VISA holders: FRRO can extend the Student Visa for duration of the course or for a maximum period of 5 years, whichever is less, to bonafide students coming to India to join well-known institutions subject to fulfilment of conditions prescribed. The visa fee for a student for the duration of the course or for a maximum period of 5 years, whichever is less, is US$ 75, but it remains a one time fee for duration of the course and all extensions within this duration are given free of cost. An additional fee of US$ 75 has to be charged for change in course/subsequent course. FRRO may allow change in Institution/course (on payment of fee) provided the new institution and course are also fully recognized/approved and are full-time proper courses. In case of PG Courses, fee has to be charged (except ICCR Scholars and students of gratis countries) for extension of visa on the basis of bonafide certificates.

For Research VISA holders: FRRO can extend the VISA on the accreditation of the Ministry of Human Resource Development till the completion of Research work.

In case of Bangladeshi Nationals: FRRO can extend the short term single journey Visa in case of non-tourists up to a maximum of 3 months on medical grounds.

For journalist VISA holder: FRRO can extend the VISA on the accreditation of Min. of external Affairs

FRRO can condone overstay only up to 3 months, after charging overstay fees of US $ 40 equivalent. Cases of overstay exceeding 3 months are decided by MHA.

FRRO can convert the category of the visa from Tourism to Entry visa in case of foreigners of Indian origin and grant extension up to 5 years with multiple entry facility. For other foreign nationals, only MHA is empowered to convert the category of the visa.

Visa Fees

1. ` 1860/- (US$ 40) All kinds of visa other than transit and student visas valid up to to 6 months (multiple entry)

2. ` 3025/- (US$ 65) All kinds of visa other than transit and student visas valid for over 6 months and up to 1 year (multiple entry)

3. ` 6050/- (US$ 130) All kinds of visa other than transit and student visas valid for over 1 year and up to 5 years (multiple entry)

4. ` 470/- (US$10) Transit visa (valid for 15 days-single/double entry)

5. ` 3490/- (US$ 75) Student visa (valid for the duration of the course or for a period of five years, whichever is less-multiple entry)

6. ` 1395/- (US$ 30) Overstay or Late Registration Charges

7. ` 1860/- (US$ 40) Service Charges in case of Russians (No Visa fees)

8. ` 135/- VISA fee for single entry for Sri Lankans

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Airport Handling9. ` 270/- VISA fee for double entry for Sri Lankans

10. ` 405/- VISA fee for multiple entry for Sri Lankans

11. ` 390/- VISA fee for Japanese

12. ` 300/- Service Charges for Romanian nationals (No Visa fees)

The newly introduced visa fee charges for Hungarian nationals are:

1. 38 US $ Transit-Single Entry

2. 65 US $ Transit-Double Entry

3. 150 US $ Transit-Multiple Entry

4. 40 US $ Visa valid up to 6 months (Single Entry)

5. 75 US $ Visa valid up to 6 months (Double entry)

6. 180 US $ Visa valid up to 6 months (Multiple entry)

7. 65 US $ Visa valid up to 1 year (Single entry)

8. 180 Us $ Visa valid up to 1 year (Multiple entry)

9. 180 US $ Visa valid more than a year

10. ` 700/- Express service (Same day service)

Documents Required for Extension of Visa

Extension Form

One photograph

Following additional documents are also required in case of:

1. Employment Visa:

(a) Request letter from the company

(b) Copy of contract with the company

(c) Company registration with whom he/she is working

(d) Undertaking on the following lines:

Undertaking

We take full responsibility for the activities and conduct of Mr./Mrs. …………………… national of …………………… during his/her stay in India. If anything adverse comes to notice during this period, we undertake to repatriate him/her on our cost.

Date:

Seal: Signature of competent authority

2. Business Visa: Business related documents including request on letterhead of the company, etc. with whom he/she is doing business.

3. Journalist Visa: Approval letter from MEA.

4. X Visa:

(a) Proof of Indian origin

(b) Request from company that his/her VISA may be extended co-terminus to his/her spouse (the spouse being on Employment Visa)

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5. Student Visa: Bonafide certificate from school/college by the authorized signatory of the institute mentioning the course being undertaken.

9.5.4 PIO (Person of Indian Origin) Card PIO card scheme, 1999 has been revised. The new PIO Card Scheme, 2002, is in operation since 15th September, 2002. According to the revised scheme, the PIO Card is valid for 15 years and a fee of ` 15,000/- charged for issue of the same. In the case of minor, i.e. below 18 years of age, the fee is ` 7,500/- for 15 years validity card.

Authority to which application is to be made:

1. An application for issue of a PIO Card shall be made to an Indian Mission in the country where the applicant is ordinarily resident.

2. Applicants already in India on Long Term Visa (more than one year) shall make the application for issue of a PIO Card to the following authorities:

(a) Those residing in:

(i) Delhi - Foreigners Regional Registration Officer,

(ii) Level-II, East Block-VIII, Sector-I, R.K. Puram,

(iii) New Delhi-110066

(b) Mumbai - Foreigners Regional Registration Officer,

(i) 3rd Floor, Special Branch Building,

(ii) Badruddin Tayabji Lane,

(iii) Behind St. Xaviers College,

(iv) Mumbai-400001

(c) Kolkata - Foreigners Regional Registration Officer,

(i) 237, Acharya Jagdish Chandra Bose Road,

(ii) Kolkata-700020

(d) Amritsar - Foreigners Regional Registration Officer,

(i) 123-D, Ranjeet Avenue,

(ii) Amritsar-143001

(e) Chennai - Chief Immigration Officer, Bureau of Immigration,

(i) Shastri Bhavan, 26, Haddows Road,

(ii) Chennai-600006

3. Those residing in areas other than (A) above:

Joint Secretary (Foreigners), Ministry of Home Affairs, Ist floor, Lok Nayak Bhavan, Khan Market, New Delhi - 110003.

Possession of a PIO card, entitles a foreigner to enter or leave India without the requirements of any other VISA. Registration, however, is required with the concerned FRRO/CHIO/FRO office for a PIO card holder also if he stays in India for more than six months continuously like foreigners on any other types of long-term vis Nationals of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Bhutan, Nepal and China are ineligible for grant of PIO card. Iranian nationals of Indian Origin can be granted PIO card after MHA approval.

Benefits Available to a PIO Card Holder A PIO Card holder does not require a separate visa to visit India. The PIO Card holders will not require "Student Visa" for undertaking studies in India and similarly

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Airport Handlingno "Employment Visa" will be required for taking up employment in India. However, they will be required to fulfil other pre-requisite conditions and other formalities in connection with their studies/employment as prescribed by concerned authorities from time to time. Separate counters for immigration are provided to PIO Card holders at International airports in India. Parity with Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) in respect of facilities available to the latter in economic, financial and educational fields. All facilities in the matter of acquisition, holding, transfer and disposal of immovable properties in India except in matters relating to the acquisition of agricultural/ plantation properties. Facilities like those available to children of NRIs for getting admission to educational institutions in India including Medical Colleges, Engineering Colleges, Institutes of Technology, Institutes of Management, etc. under the general categories. Facilities available under the various housing schemes of LIC, State Governments and other Government agencies.

Instructions for Indians Indian nationals travelling abroad require a valid Indian passport and travel authority for the destination country. The travel authority is normally in the form of Visa, which is obtained prior to the journey, except in case of countries where "Visa on Arrival" is available. Even for re-entry into the country, an Indian national is required to be in possession of a valid Indian passport or travel document issued by Govt. of India. Immigration check is conducted for all passengers, Indians or foreigners, both at the time of arrival and departure. The passports are duly stamped at arrival as well as departure. Passengers should be careful to see that their passports are duly stamped before leaving the immigration counter. All passengers, Foreigners as well as Indians, coming to India or departing from India are required to fill-up D (Disembarkation) Card and E (Embarkation) Cards at arrival and departure respectively. The following information is required to be provided by the passengers in these cards:

Name and Sex Date of birth, Place of Birth, Nationality Passport details viz. number, place and dates of issue/expiry. Visa details viz. number, place and dates of issue/expiry (for arriving foreigners

only) Address in India Flight number and date of arrival/departure Occupation Purpose of visit to/from India

For some categories of Indians going to specific countries, there is a requirement of obtaining "Emigration Clearance". It is a requirement of Ministry of Labour, Govt. of India. For further details see the topic ECNR/ECR/POE. ECNR/ECR/POE

ECNR (Emigration Check Not Required) ECR (Emigration Check Required) POE (Protector of Emigrants)

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As per the Emigration Act, 1983, certain categories of Indian passport holders require to obtain "Emigration Clearance" from the office of Protector of Emigrants (POE) for going to certain countries. As per Emigration Act, "emigration" means going out of India of any Indian citizen with a view to taking up employment in a foreign country. All Indian passports are divided into two categories as follows:

Passports with endorsement: "Emigration Check Required (ECR)" Passports with endorsement: "Emigration Check Not Required (ECNR)"

The Indian passport holders who have the stamp of ECR, are required to get emigration clearance from Protector of Emigrants if going out to any country except Pakistan, Bangladesh, European countries (excluding CIS countries), all countries of North America, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, Singapore, South Korea and South Africa. Indian passport holders, who have the stamp of ECNR, do not require to take any emigration clearance from POE for going to any country.

Categories of Indians entitled for ECNR Category

Indians applying for passport are required to specify the desired category i.e. ECR or ECNR in the application form itself. The following Indians are entitled for ECNR stamp:

Persons going abroad in managerial capacity in Hotels/Restaurants, Tea-Houses or other places of Public resort etc. possessing specialized Degrees in these fields.

All Gazetted Government servants.

All Income-Tax payers (including Agricultural Income-Tax Payers) in their individual capacity. Proof of assessment to Income-Tax and actual payment of Income-Tax for last three years is required and not merely payment of advance tax. However in most cases as an assessment order is not issued separately by the Income Tax Department., Income Tax Return stamped by Income Tax authority is accepted.

All professional Degree holders, such as Doctors holding M.B.B.S. Degree in Ayurveda or Homoeopathy, accredited Journalists, Engineers, Chartered Accountants, Cost Accountants, Lecturers, Teachers, Scientists, Advocates, etc.

Spouses and dependent children up to the age of 24 years of category of persons listed from (2) to (4).

All persons who have been staying abroad for more than three years (the period of the three years could be either at a stretch or broken), and spouses and children up to the age of 24 years of such persons.

Seamen who are in possession of CDC or Sea Cadets. Deck Cadets:

1. who have passed final examination of three years B.Sc. Nautical Sciences courses at T. S. Chanakya, Mumbai; and

2. who have undergone three months Pre-Sea training at any of the Government approved Training Institutes such as T. S. Chanakya, T. S. Rehman, T. S. Jawahar, MTI (SCI) and NIPM, Chennai, after production of identity cards issued by the Shipping Master, Mumbai/Calcutta/Chennai.

All holders of Diplomatic/Official Passports.

Dependent children of parents whose passports are classified as ECNR in the case of such children ECNR classification to be restricted until they attain 24 years of age.

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Airport HandlingPersons holding Permanent Immigration Visa, such as the Visas of UK, USA and Australia.

Persons holding Graduate or higher Degrees. (If final certificate not available, provisional certificate plus marksheet to be attached). Persons holding 3 years Diploma equivalent to degree from recognized Institution like polytechnics. Nurses possessing qualifications recognized under the Indian Nursing Council Act, 1947.

All persons above the age of 60 years.

No emigration clearance is required for persons possessing certificates of vocational training from Government/Government recognized institutions.

If the passport of a person has been wrongly categorized as ECR, while he was entitled for ECNR category, he will have to get it rectified from the issuing Regional Passport Office (RPO) only before he undertakes a journey to the countries for which emigration clearance is required. The immigration officers at Airports are empowered to grant exemption only in emergency cases.

The POE offices in India are situated at the following places:

Jaisalmer House,

Canteen Block, Man Singh Road,

New Delhi.

Tel No. 011-2338 2472

Building "E" Khira Nagar,

S.V. Road,

Santacruz (West)

Mumbai-400 054

Tel No. 022-2614 7393

Room No. 116 A Wing,

3rd MSO Building, DF Block,

Salt Lake, Kolkata-700 064

Tel No. 033-2334 3407

Tamil Nadu Housing Board Complex,

Ashok Nagar,

Chennai-600 083

Tel No. 044-2489 1337

8th Floor, Chandra Vihar Complex,

Opp. Exhibition Ground, M.J. Road,

Hyderabad.

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Suganth, 24/846 (I),

Thycaud,

Trivandrum-695 014

Tel No. 0471-2324835

Kendriya Sadan,

5th Block, Ground Floor,

Sector-9-A,

Chandigarh

Tel No. 0172-2741790

9.5.5 Health Regulations

1. For entry into India:

Any person, Foreigner or Indian, (excluding infants below six months) arriving by air or sea without a vaccination certificate of yellow fever will be kept in quarantine isolation for a period up to 6 days if:

(a) He arrives in India within 6 days of departure from an infected area.

(b) He/she has come on a ship which has started from or transited at any port in a yellow fever affected country within 30 days of its arrival in India, provided such ship has not been disinfected in accordance with the procedure laid down by WHO.

2. For leaving India: There is no health check requirement by Indian Government on passengers leaving India.

Persons leaving for a yellow fever infected area are advised in their own interest to be in possession of valid yellow fever vaccination certificates before they leave the country. The Government of Guyana requires that all persons including diplomats travelling to that country from India to possess valid yellow fever and cholera inoculation certificates before they leave India.

An administrative Arrangement for the health control of sea, air and land traffic exists between the Government of India and the Government of Bangladesh. It implies that if any aircraft or ship or land traffic from a third country arrives first at any airport or port or border check post in either of the agreement countries and then directly (without touching any other third country enroute) reaches the second country of the agreement, all health checks will be completed in the country of first arrival and the travellers will be exempted from any further health check on arrival in the second country.

Persons exempted from production of vaccination certificate

The under mentioned persons are exempted from production of yellow fever vaccination certificate:

3. Infants below the age of six months. 4. Crew and passengers of an aircraft transiting through an airport located in yellow

fever infected area provided the Health Officer is satisfied that such persons remained within the airport premises during the period of stay.

Countries regarded as yellow fever infected.

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Airport HandlingThe following countries are regarded as yellow fever endemic: Africa: Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire), Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast (Cote D'Ivoire), Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan (South of 15° N), Togo, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia.

America: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela, Panama. A Yellow fever vaccination certificate is valid only if it conforms to the model. The validity period of international certificate of vaccination or re-vaccination against yellow fever is 10 years, beginning 10 days after vaccination. Foreign nationals residing or who have passed through the Yellow fever endemic countries during the preceding six days, are granted visas only after the production of vaccination certificate of Yellow Fever. After checking the vaccination certificate an entry read as "Valid Yellow fever Vaccination Certificate Checked" is made in the passport of the foreigner.

9.5.6 Co-ordination of Supporting Agencies/Departments As per the guidelines of the IATA Coordination can be explained as follows:

There are currently 155 fully coordinated level-3 airports in the world. These are airports where the demand for runway and gate access exceeds the capacity of the airport, resulting in the need for slots to be allocated to airlines through the slot coordination process. Level-2 airports have slot controls in place only at peak times.

Europe has 98 fully coordinated level-3 airports. Greece alone has 23. By contrast, the United States has two level-3 and four level-2 international airports. Asia-Pacific still has 45 level-3 airports. The remaining level-3 airports are in the Middle East, South Africa, and Canada.

IATA has developed industry standards for the scheduling process, detailed in the IATA Worldwide Scheduling Guidelines (WSG). The existing system of allocating slots at coordinated airports is based on the principle of grandfather (historic) rights coupled with the 80/20 rule. Beyond that, airlines can swap and exchange slots between themselves in a secondary trading process.

If any new slots become available at coordinated airports, they go into a slot pool—half of which must be made available to ‘new entrant’ carriers currently operating less than two pairs of slots per day).

Schedules are planned in six-monthly seasons. Schedules for the following season are fixed at the twice-annual IATA scheduling conferences. Most allocations are sorted out before the conferences start.

The conferences are, however, vitally important, allowing airlines and slot coordinators to meet face-to-face to review their portfolios, fine-tune schedules that could not be agreed in detail, and swap slots with other airlines.


State whether the following statements are true or false: 1. Immigration check is conducted for all passengers, Indians or foreigners,

only at the time of departure. 2. A PIO Card holder does not require a separate visa to visit India.

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Baggage handling services include a number of activities involving the collection, sorting and distribution of baggage. An efficient flow of baggage through the terminal is an important element in the passenger handling system. Departing passengers normally check their baggage at one of a number of sites including curbside check-in and at the ticket counter in the terminal building. The bags are then sent to a central sorting area, where they are sorted according to flights and sent to the appropriate gate to be loaded aboard the departing aircraft. Arriving baggage is unloaded from the aircraft and sent to the central sorting area. Sorted bags are sent to a transferring flight, to the baggage claim areas, or to storage for later pickup. At most airports, baggage handling is the responsibility of the individual air carriers. Some airports operate a consolidated baggage service, either with airport personnel or on a contract basis. One of the simplest and most widely applied methods to expedite baggage handling is curbside check-in. This separates baggage handling from other ticket counter and gate activities, thereby disencumbering those locations and allowing baggage to be consolidated and moved to aircraft more directly. Another method is replacement of the baggage claim carousel with loop conveyor belts that allow passengers greater access to their luggage without increasing the size of the claim area.

Sorting baggage, moving it to and from the apron, and aircraft loading and unloading are time-critical and labour-intensive operations. Technologies to improve this process include high-speed conveyors to transport baggage between the terminal and the flight line, often used in conjunction with pallets or containers that can be put on and taken off aircraft with labour-saving equipment. Computerized baggage-sorting equipment, capable of distributing bags with machine-readable tags, has been installed at some airports.

9.6.1 Security Screening of Checked Baggage All baggage checked in by passengers boarding commercial air carrier aircraft must be screened for explosives and other prohibited items upon check-in at the airport terminal.

Baggage Claim

For passengers who checked baggage at the airport prior to departure, facilities for claiming their baggage must exist at the airport as well. Baggage claim facilities are typically located in an area conveniently positioned near facilities that accommodate ground transportation from the airport, including parking lots, shuttle vans, taxi cabs, and rental car counters. Baggage is typically presented to arriving passengers in the baggage claim area by use of a baggage claim carousel, configured in such a way as to provide sufficient carousel frontage to accommodate all passengers desiring access to their baggage, while minimizing the total amount of space required for the claim area.

Carousels are typically shared between air carriers in a given terminal. This is feasible because limited infrastructure is required specifically for one particular carrier in these areas. Typically, however, each air carrier will have its own administrative area, primarily to handle cases of lost, unclaimed, or damaged baggage.


Fill in the blanks:

1. An efficient flow of baggage through the terminal is an important element in the …………………. handling system.

2. All baggage checked in by passengers boarding commercial air carrier aircraft must be …………………. for explosives and other prohibited items upon check-in at the airport terminal.

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Airport Handling9.7 LET US SUM UP Flight information counter or reservation is the place at the airports from where the passengers can collect information about the arrival and departure related information of various airlines and the related fares. The ticketing process has come a long way since the early days of passenger processing at airport terminals. Airport check-in uses service counters found at commercial airports handling commercial air travel. Passengers usually hand over any baggage that they do not wish or are not allowed to carry on to the aircraft's cabin and receive a boarding pass before they can proceed to board their aircraft. A boarding pass is a document provided by an airline during check-in, giving a passenger permission to board the airplane for a particular flight. In accordance with international practice, all goods imported into the country or exported out of the country by air or other routes are governed by the provisions of the Customs Act, 1962 and other laws related to entry/exit from the country. Customs procedures are intended to provide definite, predictable methods by which the goods can enter the country and get cleared on payment of applicable import duties, fulfilling the requirements of the law of the land. The Bureau of Immigration (BOI) is responsible for immigration services at major International Airports in India and the foreigners' registration process in five major cities. Baggage handling services include a number of activities involving the collection, sorting and distribution of baggage. All baggage checked in by passengers boarding commercial air carrier aircraft must be screened for explosives and other prohibited items upon check-in at the airport terminal. For passengers who checked baggage at the airport prior to departure, facilities for claiming their baggage must exist at the airport as well.

9.8 LESSON END ACTIVITY Prepare a presentation on general immigration procedure at airports.

9.9 KEYWORDS Common Use Terminal Equipment (CUTE): It is a computer-based system that can accommodate the operating systems of any air carrier that shares the ticketing facility. Online check-in: It is the process in which passengers confirm their presence on a flight via the Internet and typically print their own boarding passes. Boarding pass: It is a document provided by an airline during check-in, giving a passenger permission to board the airplane for a particular flight. ACC: It is a place where cargo is aggregated/segregated and export/import of cargo takes place. Bureau of Immigration (BOI): It is responsible for immigration services at major International Airports in India and the foreigners' registration process in five major cities.

9.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Explain the process of airport check-in.

2. How is online check-in is done?

3. What do you mean by boarding pass? Discuss it relevance.

4. Describe customs procedures and the functioning of air cargo complexes.

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5. What is the present procedure for customs clearance of imported goods at air cargo complexes?

6. Describe domestic/foreign immigration process.

7. What are the benefits available to PIO (Person of Indian Origin) card?

8. Describe security clearance of baggage.


CYP 1

1. False

2. True

CYP 2

1. Passenger

2. Screened

9.11 SUGGESTED READINGS Antonín Kazda, Robert E. Caves, (2007), Airport Design and Operation, Emerald Group Publishing.

Jaroslav J. Hajek, Jim W. Hall, David K. Hein, (2011), Common Airport Pavement Maintenance Practices, Transportation Research Board.

Knippenberger, Ute, (2010), Airports in Cities and Regions: Research and Practise; 1st International Colloquium on Airports and Spatial Development, Karlsruhe, KIT Scientific Publishing.

Manuel Ayres (Jr.), (2007), Safety Management Systems for Airports: Guidebook, Transportation Research Board.

Senguttuvan. P S (2007), Principles of Airport Economics, Excel Books, New Delhi.

Senguttuvan. P S, (2006). Fundamentals of Air Transport Management, Excel Books, New Delhi.

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Crisis Management at Airport

UNIT V

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Crisis Management at AirportLESSON

10 CRISIS MANAGEMENT AT AIRPORT

CONTENTS


10.1 Introduction

10.2 Various Crises at Airports

10.3 Bomb Threat Standard Operating Procedures

10.4 Mitigating the Hijack Crisis

10.5 Response of Acts of Unlawful Interference

10.5.1 General Principles

10.5.2 Management of Response to Acts of Unlawful Interference

10.6 Developing Plans

10.6.1 Aircraft Accidents

10.6.2 Managing the Crisis

10.7 Let us Sum up


10.9 Keywords




Understand the various crisis at airports

Explain the procedure of the SOP for bomb threat

Describe the mitigating hijack crisis situation

10.1 INTRODUCTION Crisis management is the practice by the help of which an organization handle the major event that threatens to harm the organization, its stakeholders, or the common people. Crisis management originated as a study for the large scale industrial and environmental disasters since 1980s. We may say that crisis consist of the following: 1. A short decision time, 2. A threat to the organization, 3. The element of surprise, and

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Venette argues that "crisis is a method of alteration where the old system can no longer be retained." Therefore the fourth important quality is the requirement for change. If change is not required, the occasion could more precisely be termed as a failure or incident. As compared to risk management, that comprises estimating potential pressures and defining the best ways to avoid those fears, crisis management includes dealing with fears before, during, and after they had occurred. It is a discipline enclosed by the wider context of management comprising skills and methods obligatory to recognize, assess, understand, and manage a serious situation, particularly from the instant it has occurred to the point that recovery processes started. Crisis management consists of different aspects including;

Communication that occurs within the response phase of emergency-management scenarios.

Crisis-management methods of a business or an organization are called a crisis-management plan.

Establishing metrics to define what scenarios constitute a crisis and should consequently trigger the necessary response mechanisms.

Methods used to respond to both the reality and perception of crises. Crisis management is sometimes referred to as incident management; even though several industry specialists such as Peter Power argue that the term "crisis management" is more perfect. A crisis mindset needs the skills to think of the worst-case scenario while all together suggesting various solutions. Trial and error is a recognized discipline, as the first line of defence may not work. It is essential to maintain a list of possible plans and to be all the time on alert. Organizations and persons should always be ready with a fast reaction plan to emergencies which would need analysis, drills and exercises. The reliability and status of organizations is deeply affected by the observation of their responses at time of crisis situations. The organization and communication helps in responding to a crisis in a timely manner makes a challenge in the businesses. There must be open and reliable communication all through the hierarchy to contribute to an effective communication process. The related terms emergency management and business-continuity management emphasis respectively on the rapid but short lived "first aid" type of answer and the longer-term recovery and restoration phases. Crisis is also an aspect of risk controlling, though it is perhaps incorrect to comment that crisis management represents a let down of risk management, since it will never be possible to totally mitigate the chances of disasters' occurring.

10.2 VARIOUS CRISES AT AIRPORTS During the crisis management practice, it is significant to find out the types of crises in that diverse crises impose the use of various crisis management tactics. Potential crises are massive, but crises can be grouped. Lerbinger categorized eight types of crises:

Confrontation Malevolence Natural disaster Organizational Misdeeds Rumors Technological crises

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Crisis Management at Airport Terrorist attacks/man-made disasters Workplace Violence

Airport Managers only consider accidents on or nearby to their own airport whereas Airline Managers are not that much lucky approximately half of the incidents and accidents occur at a distant place from their home airport. Nevertheless an airline have an accident away from an airport where few of its own staff are stationed, airport and other local staff is required to take on further responsibilities unless and until the airline staff arrive.

The accidents should be avoided and yet plan must be ready for them might be established by means of the comprehensive simulation of an mishap with senior management staff making the Crisis Management Team and having to reply to the varied range of difficulties reaping up resulting to the 'accident'. A Crisis Management simulation of an 'away' accident is described.

Airport and Airline Safety Managers are well known about the fact that there is a fine difference between having an incident and having a major accident. They are also very well aware of the benefits of having well managed Emergency Procedures to decrease the effects that can be either it is social or financial. Senior managers, despite new requirements originating from the USA, may be less likely to appreciate the wide variety of problems that they may have to face in the aftermath of a major accident and may thus be reluctant to give safety the backing necessary if we are to maintain, let alone improve, the air transport industry's existing excellent safety record during the coming decade.

By chance accidents are infrequent but this leads to the unfortunate fact that very rare managers have had the chance of acquiring the necessary knowledge to deal with the kind of emergency likely to grow in the come around of an accident. There is a strong requirement for various important people to be aware with everything concerned with what it is fervently hoped will never happen. This can occur by means of the wide training of all who are nominated to be involved if and when an accident or other such event does occur.

There are various areas which are quite important, including:

Establishing good communications;

Finding out what has occurred and where;

Checking that those on board, whether fatalities, casualties or unhurt survivors, are being or soon will be looked after appropriately;

Similarly that next-of-kin and other 'meeters and greeters' will be looked after and kept informed;

Establishing good relations with the media, it being vitally important that the airline is seen by the media to be doing all that it can to help those involved.

While airport staff will also be concerned with all these topics they may be more directly involved in matters of direct concern to the airport, including establishing the state of the airport, will it be closed to other traffic and if so for how long? Fire covers status, organizing accommodation for next-of-kin, etc. the media.

The airport and the airlines should working together, although the airport is not likely to go out of business, as the airline, its profits could be cut permanently if airlines and passengers perceive it to be in any way responsible.

Numerous diverse range of problems arise after the damage of an aircraft, regarding the emergency response, engineering, operations, legal matters and others, if anyone not dealt with efficiently could undesirably affect the capitals of the airport and/or the airline.

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It is very essential that it should be recognized that different parties will have different priorities yet the airline is the chief or perhaps the single source of information important to other parties. One problem clear to the airline is that it must not only keep up its plans while being one aircraft short but may also have to carry a large number of people to the accidental place - or as close as is possible to it since the accident may have occurred far from an airport or, if on it, the airport may still be closed. Also if they can be got there - where will they stay? Similarly the airport need to deal with extra passengers and other people of the public than normal because of flight delays but have to do so with less space and fewer staff since some large rooms or areas may have to have been allocated to the various groups associated with the accident. The airline will request to continue its jobs with the least disruption, if required by diverting flights and passengers to other airports. The airports do not have this choice but also request to restart usual processes as soon as possible. Holiday locations, mainly islands have a tendency to be filled at peak times of year. If an airplane lands with a fresh load of tourists and then crashes on or shortly after take-off, closing the airport, pressure upon housing may be stressed beyond its limit. If the accident happened on US territory or if US citizens are involved, then the requirements of the National Transportation Safety Board's (NTSB's) Federal Family Assistance Plan will need to be met, putting an even greater strain on resources. Furthermore if it is believed by the media to be a significant accident then the media will be there in force and the media is renowned for fixing its lodging needs very well. Legal action may be started against the airline, airport or both even before the dust has settled at the accident site and even if this does not occur there is still the need to copy any documents that might become pertinent to the accident before the originals are seized by investigation or judicial authorities. Such matters and many more are all part of crisis management and therefore a part of Air Transport Management that may affect the whole industry and its future.

10.3 BOMB THREAT STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES The main objective of these Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) is to take care of the life of the travellers, inhabitants, staff and the residence when any bomb threat broke out, maintain principles of care, and address safety apprehensions.

Approve that your staff drill consist of how to take delivered packages and phone protocols for getting calls as well as making calls to specialists. Train staff to pay responsiveness to your property and your community for doubtful persons, vehicles, or packages. Keep in mind that the bombs today can resembles anything; the only common feature is that they will explode.

In the event of a bomb warning to the residence, clearing may be necessary until fire or police personnel give an all clear. Show them you’re SOPs. It is useful to practice this procedure.

Take all bomb threats seriously.

Be aware of potential areas of your property that could be vulnerable to attack, including stairwells, boiler rooms, and dumpsters. Combustible materials should be properly disposed of or secured.

Bombs being delivered by car or left in a car are a reality. Parking should be restricted if possible. Employee cars should be parked closest to the building; visitor parking should be farther away.

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Crisis Management at Airport Call 911 while the caller is on the line and ask for specific instructions. . Identify

yourself and give them the name and address of your residence. Follow the instructions from 911 operators. Use the accompanying Bomb Threat sheet (here, use the actual name of the document) to help emergency responders decide how you should handle the threat. Follow their in If they tell you to start evacuating, follow these procedures.

Decide what other parts of your emergency operations plan to activate because of this threat.

Evacuate to your pre-determined location away from the residence.

Follow your residence's evacuation procedures.

Grab staff "Go-Kits" if you have to evacuate. Make sure they include your residence's emergency operations plan, care plans, Administration Manual, critical medications and face sheets for all residents, if there is time.

Have policies in place for notifying residents' emergency contacts, local support agencies, transportation providers. Create a scripted message if you have more than one call to make. Talk with your emergency manager to determine what to do if they find a bomb. You may be out of your building for hours.

If your residence receives a bomb threat, it could be part of a bigger, community-wide event such as a terrorist threat. Check with local emergency managers to understand the community-wide plan for such events. Instead of evacuating, local emergency personnel may tell you to shelter-in place.

Inform staff. Stop all activities, including using electrical devices, such as phones, cell phones, or turning on or off lights. These activities may activate a bomb.

Note: If anything looks suspicious in your evacuation area, choose another location.

The Emergency Alert System may broadcast community emergency information on the NOAA weather radio or via TV stations during terrorist attacks. Make sure your residence has one, as well as fresh batteries. To hear local newscasts, you might also consider a wind-up, solar powered or battery operated radio.

These procedures should include several copies of the floor plan of the building to make searching easier for emergency personnel.

10.4 MITIGATING THE HIJACK CRISIS Hijackings have turn out to be a terrifyingly everyday offense in South Africa as many people are victimized by this every year than the other countries of the rest of the world. Emergency services are so occupied with the work that is why it is the responsibility of the people to be cautious against the hijacking. A hijacking can take place anywhere and at any particular but by taking little preventive measure you can make sure that you are a little safer from a probable hijacks.

In advance you can sufficiently protect yourself by the hijacking. So it is important to understand how hijackers work. Emergency services have recognized a series of common techniques that are being used by the hijackers to achieve their intended goals. Most hijackings:

Take place in quiet parking areas where you can be easily followed.

Take place in the driveways of homes while the driver is waiting for the gate to open or close.

Take place when a car is stationary along the side of the road – for example when people are talking on their cell phone.

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Take place while you are loading or unloading passengers or goods and the vehicle is idling.

These are the most common ways to hijack a vehicle but there are many ways that you should take care of to avoid the circumstance of hijacking at your place.

When you come in your driveway emergency services offer some comprehensive advice to sidestep a hijacking situation. You should be alert and attentive all time and always check your driveway and the area for any doubtful persons that may be waiting. Your doubts should be stir up if you see people meeting and sitting in a parked car for a long time or unfamiliar people walking or sitting in the region that do not appear to belong them. If you want to leave the vehicle to open the gate, turn off the ignition, leave the keys in the ignition and don’t forget to close the door and only when the children are sitting in the car you should remove the keys from the ignition.

A large number of hijackings take place at night so make sure that there is sufficient light all over the place like driveway and the area near the gate of your home. Emergency services also advise to make a call ahead to let someone know that you are about to reach so they can open the gate for you or at least act as an extra pair of eyes for any suspicious persons.

When the vehicle is parked at some other place, make sure that the surroundings are safe for your vehicle. Regularly check your mirrors to make sure that you are not being followed by anyone and observe your surroundings to take note of any places that there is no any auspicious person who can harm you. It should also be kept in mind that never sleep in a parked car unless you have any reliable person with you and make sure that the surrounding is safe. Take not of security guards and other people so you are able to go for help if required.



1. Natural Disaster is not a type of Crisis.

2. Having knowledge about the surrounding cannot help in avoiding hijacking.

3. Management should be kept away from the crisis.

4. Media create nuisance during crisis.

10.5 RESPONSE OF ACTS OF UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE

Source: http://www.icao.int/Security/SFP/Pages/Acts.aspx

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Crisis Management at AirportThe reporting of acts of unlawful interference with civil aviation provides ICAO with data that is serious in estimating and analysing security instances and styles. Contracting States are grateful by legal instruments to the Chicago Convention to report to ICAO as soon as possible after a happening has been decided. Through analysis of such occurrences, experts are able to develop effective measures that form the basis of an aviation security programme.

10.5.1 General Principles

Applicability

The delivery of this Portion would be applied by the concerned specialists to the prevalent pressures of acts of unlawful interference against civil aviation to which each airbase or airport within Bangladesh is exposed.

The Chairman must make sure that processes planned to defend against acts of unlawful interference are applied to native operations to the level practicable, based upon a safety risk valuation carried out by the pertinent national authorities.

Objectives

The main aim is the safety of passengers, crew, ground personnel and the general public in all matters related to safeguarding against acts of unlawful interference with civil aviation.

The Chairman shall improve and implement regulations, practices and procedures to defend civil aviation against acts of unlawful interference taking into account the safety, regularity and efficiency of flights.

The Chairman shall make sure that such regulations, practices and processes safeguard the safety of commuters, crew, ground personnel and the general public in all matters related to the protection against acts of unlawful interference with civil aviation; and are capable of responding quickly to come across any increased security hazard.

The Chairman should at any time arrange for the safety controls and events to cause slightest of intervention with, or interruption to the activities of, civil aviation provided the efficiency of these controls and procedures is not compromised.

The Chairman should make sure for the proper protection of aviation security information.

Cooperation and Coordination

The Chairman must make sure that requests from other Contracting States for further security measures in respect of a specific flight by operators of such other States are met, as far as possible.

The Chairman shall cooperate with other States in the development and exchange of information concerning national civil aviation security programmes, training programmes and quality control programmes, as required.

The Chairman should establish and implement certain methods to share with other Contracting States danger information that relates to the aviation safety interests of those States, to the level possible.

The Chairman shall establish and implement appropriate safeguard and management processes for safety information shared by other Contracting States, or safety information that affects the security interests of other Contracting States, in order to ensure that inappropriate use or disclosure of such information is avoided.

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The Chairman should share, as appropriate, and consistent with the sovereignty of Bangladesh, the results of the audit carried out by ICAO and the corrective actions taken if requested by another State.

The Chairman should include in each of its bilateral agreements on air transport a clause related to aviation security, taking into account the model clause developed by ICAO.

The Chairman should make available to other Contracting States on request a written version of the appropriate parts of its national civil aviation security programme.

State shall give consideration to alternative measures of the other State that are equivalent to those requested.

Organization

1. National organization and appropriate authority:

(a) The Chairman shall establish and implement a written national civil aviation security programme to protect civil aviation procedures against acts of unlawful interference, through regulations, practices and procedures which take into account the safety, regularity and efficiency of flights.

(b) The Chairman shall be accountable for the growth, implementation and preservation of the national civil aviation safety programme.

(c) The Chairman shall keep in persistent analysis the level of threat to civil aviation within the territory for e.g. Bangladesh, and establish and implement policies and procedures to regulate pertinent elements of nationwide civil aviation security programme accordingly, based upon a security risk valuation carried out by the pertinent national authorities.

(d) The Chairman shall describe and assign farm duties and organize events between the departments, agencies and other organizations of the Government, airport and aircraft operators and other entities concerned with or accountable for the implementation of several features of the national civil aviation security programme.

(e) The Chairman shall, on the direction of the Government, start a national aviation security board to be called the Civil Aviation Security Committee for the determination of coordinating security activities between the departmental, agencies and other organizations of the Government, airport and aircraft operators and other bodies concerned with or accountable for the enactment of several features of the national civil aviation security programme.

(f) The Chairman shall ensure the development and implementation of a national training programme for personnel of all entities involved with or accountable for the implementation of different features of the national civil aviation security programme. This drill programme shall be planned to make sure the efficiency of the national civil aviation security programme.

(g) The coaches and the training programmes should encounter values as defined by the Chairman.

(h) The Chairman shall assemble for the assisting resources and services required by the aviation security services to be offered at each airport serving civil aviation.

(i) The Chairman shall make offered to the airport and aircraft operators operating in the territory like Bangladesh and other objects concerned, a written form of the suitable parts of its national civil aviation security

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Crisis Management at Airportprogramme and/or relevant information or rules allowing them to come across the necessities of the national civil aviation security programme.

2. Airport Operations:

(a) The Chairman shall entail each airport serving civil aviation to start, implement and preserve a written airport security programme suitable to meet the necessities of the national civil aviation security programme.

(b) The Chairman shall confirm that a power at each airport aiding civil aviation is accountable for bring together the implementation of security controls.

(c) The Chairman shall confirm that an airport security board at each airport serving civil aviation is recognized to assist the authority declared under sub-rule.

Of this rule in its role of coordinating the implementation of security controls and procedures as specified in the airport security programme.

(a) The Chairman shall make sure that commercial air transport workers providing provision like in Bangladesh have established, implemented and preserved a written operator security programme that meets the necessities of the national civil aviation security programme in Bangladesh and shall be satisfactory to or accepted by the Chairman.

(b) The Chairman should make sure that every person conducting general aviation.

(c) Operations, including corporate aviation operations, using aircraft with a supreme take-off mass greater than 5700 kg, has established, implemented and maintained a written operator security programme that meets the requirements of the national civil aviation security programme of Bangladesh.

(d) The Chairman should make sure that each entity accompanying aerial work processes has recognized, implemented and sustained a written operator security programme that encounters the necessities of the national civil aviation security programme of Bangladesh. The programme shall contain operations features specific to the type of operations conducted.

3. Quality control:

(a) The Chairman shall make sure that the individuals implementing safety controls are subjected to contextual checks and selection procedures.

(b) The Chairman shall make sure that the persons implementing security controls keep all capabilities essential to accomplish their duties and are suitably trained according to the necessities of the national civil aviation security programme and that suitable records are kept up to date. Pertinent standards of presentation shall be recognized and initial and periodic valuations shall be bring together to uphold those standards.

(c) The Chairman shall make sure that the individuals carrying out transmission procedures are qualified according to the necessities of the national civil aviation security programme to make sure that performance standards are constantly and consistently achieved.

(d) The Chairman shall improve, implement and uphold a national civil aviation security feature control programme to regulate compliance with and authenticate the efficacy of its national civil aviation security programme.

4. Preventive security measures:

(a) General: The Chairman shall create procedures to avoid weapons, explosives or any other hazardous devices, articles or substances, which may be used to

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obligate an act of illegal interference, the carriage or bearing of which is not approved, from being presented, by any means whatever, on board an aircraft engaged in civil aviation.

(b) Measures relating to access control:

(i) The Chairman shall make sure that the access to airside regions at airports serving civil aviation is controlled so as to avoid unauthorized record.

(ii) The Chairman must make sure that security controlled areas are recognized at each airport portion civil aviation based upon a security risk assessment carried out by the relevant national authorities.

(iii) The Chairman shall make sure that identification systems are recognized in respect of individuals and vehicles so as to prevent illegal access to airside spaces and security restricted areas. Identity shall be confirmed at designated checkpoints before access is allowed to airside areas and security restricted areas.

(c) Measures relating to aircraft:

(i) The Chairman must ensure that aircraft security checks of creating aircraft involved in commercial air transport actions are done or an aircraft security search is carried out. The purpose of whether it is an aircraft security check or an examination that is suitable shall be constructed upon a security risk valuation carried out by the significant national authorities.

(ii) The Chairman must confirm that the measures are taken to ensure that passengers of commercial flights disembarking from the aircraft at any time do not leave items on board the aircraft.

(iii) Commercial air carriage operators shall take methods as suitable to ensure that during flight unapproved persons are prohibited from arriving the flight crew compartment.

10.5.2 Management of Response to Acts of Unlawful Interference

Prevention

The Competent Authority in coordination with suitable national authorities shall, when reliable information come into picture that an aircraft might get subjected to an act of unlawful interference, safeguard the aircraft if it is still on the ground and provide as much earlier notice as possible of the coming of such aircraft to related airports and air traffic services if the aircraft by that time has proceeded.

The Competent Authority in coordination with suitable national authorities and concerned Airport Operator shall make sure that the aircraft is examined for hidden arms, explosives or other hazardous devices, articles or elements, when there is trustworthy information exists that an aircraft might get subject to an act of unlawful interference. Prior notification of the search should be provided to the Aircraft Operator concerned.

Airport Operators have to make all arrangements required to do the investigation, render safe and/or dispose of, if necessary, suspected dangerous devices or other potential threats at airports.

The Competent Authority in coordination with appropriate national authorities and Airport Operators need to make sure that emergency plans are developed. Airport Operators shall confirm that resources are made available to protect civil aviation, against acts of unlawful interference. The emergency plans shall be verified on a regular basis in a systematic manner.

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Crisis Management at AirportAirport Operators in coordination with appropriate national authorities must arrange for placement of authorized and trained personnel to help in allocating the suspected, or actual, cases of unlawful interference with civil aviation.

Response

Airport Operators in coordination with suitable national authorities must make sure about the safety of the troop of an aircraft, who are exposed to an act of unlawful interference, while on the ground, until their journey can be continued.

The Competent Authority in coordination with the concerned Airport Operator who is responsible for providing air traffic service that is subjected to the act of unlawful interference, shall bring together all relevant information on the flight of that particular aircraft and pass on that information to Air Traffic Services units concerned, comprising those at the airport of known or supposed destination, so that timely and proper safeguarding act may be reserved on the way and at the aircraft’s known, likely or possible destination. Management of Response to Act of Unlawful Interference Car Part VII Aviation Security Regulation 5-215 July 2013.

The Competent Authority in coordination with the concerned Airport Operator shall deliver help to an aircraft put in danger to an act of unlawful capture, containing the facility of course-plotting aids, air traffic services and authorization to land as may be needed by the situations.

The Competent Authority in coordination with suitable national establishments and concerned Airport Operator shall take actions, as it may find attainable, to confirm that an aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful capture which has landed in the area of the United Arab Emirates is imprisoned on the ground unless its leaving is required by the superseding duty to safeguard human life.

When an aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful interference has landed in the territory of the United Arab Emirates, the Competent Authority in coordination with appropriate national authorities shall notify by the most expeditious means the State of registry of the aircraft and the State of the operator of the aircraft about the landing. Subsequently, all other relevant information, when available, shall be expeditiously transmitted to:

1. Each State whose citizens are known to be on board the aircraft;

2. Each State whose citizens suffered fatalities or injuries;

3. Each State whose citizens were detained as hostages;

4. The International Civil Aviation Organization; and

5. The two above mentioned States.

Exchange of Information and Reporting

The Competent Authority shall deliver International Civil Aviation Organisation with all relevant figures regarding the safety features of an act of illegal interference which has happened, as soon as possible, after the act is resolved.

10.6 DEVELOPING PLANS A major emergency have variety of forms, not only an aircraft accident but perhaps an aircraft hijack, an aircraft trapped in a war zone, the contamination of aircraft catering, a bomb explosion in the airport or in an airline sales office or any other major event associated with the airline or airport. Unfortunately not all airlines can cope properly, some will muddle through, and others may go out of business. Others again may face the world and be seen to be giving every possible assistance to the survivors, to the

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next-of-kin and to the investigators; such airlines may come through relatively unscathed. As the actual accidents are unusual it is obligatory for the staff of the airport and airline to take part in systematic full scale disaster movements, employed with all the emergency facilities. Airports must run such trainings to preserve their authorizations but all parties can learn a great deal if they are properly run. Such trainings are tremendously valuable but they are almost unavoidably limited to a 'home' airport and, however important, are an exclusive way to acquire the basic programs, many of which may be learned initially just as effectively from small scale and relatively inexpensive 'table-top' simulations. The vital fact is that around a half of an international airline's mishaps are likely to be at distant place. Thus a table-top simulation may be the only way to become involved in and appreciate the additional problems surrounding 50% of its accidents, those in a foreign country, somewhere that the airline has only a handful of staff or perhaps where it does not operate and thus has no staff at all.

10.6.1 Aircraft Accidents The effects of a major accident are broadly categorises into several distinct yet overlapping stages.

If hazardous problems came into picture prior to landing, the Emergency Services at the projected destination and the airline itself can be notified and emergency procedures brought into action in advance the accident, if any, occurred. If there is no such warning then inevitably action starts only after the accident has occurred, in which case the location of the accident site may or may not be known immediately. Thus there may still be a period of uncertainty before any real action takes place.

As soon as the accidental site is known the Emergency Services take control of the safeguarding of life taking total priority. The Fire and Rescue Services will ordinarily be in control of the wreckage and the Police of everything else, allowing triage and drive to hospitals and elsewhere to take place smoothly. All at once the airline will take care for the information both for its own use and should be given to others and will work to offer housing for the uninjured, the 'meeters and greeters', relatives who have been waiting at the airport or who arrive soon, and for the media as well.

Once the accidental site is cleared of people and the debris is secure the Emergency Services soon stand down and the accidents investigators take control of the site. Even though the examination of site may only take a small number of days, allowing the wreckage to be moved and the site is organized again, the whole investigation often take months, even a year or more to complete and will study happenings that led up to the accident, the impact itself and any fire that followed, and the actions of the airline and Emergency Services since these may have affected the continued survival of those on board.

The airport's and the airline's participation may start beforehand the emergency is declared and remain until after the investigation report is issued. It may commence with the initial problem of an aircraft, with the crew notifying Air Traffic Control who will prepare airport and airline ground staff; remain in equivalent to the work of the Emergency Services through the initial stages after the accident; and continue both with the supply of information relating to passengers and crew and with that concerning the aircraft, its maintenance, its cargo and everything else is required by the accidents investigators. Nevertheless as the principal joins between those on the aircraft and their next-of-kin the involvement may continue for several years, as counselling of staff.

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Crisis Management at AirportThe crisis management simulation define later is primarily proposed to cover the first two or three days after an accident but it also points to issues that are likely to arise at some substantial time in the upcoming.

Emergency Procedures While it is clear that the airline's emergency actions are important, in certain cases the effectiveness of an airport's emergency techniques may also significantly affect the result, for improved or for of poorer quality.

10.6.2 Managing the Crisis This Forbes Group disaster response plan is a specification of how to respond after a disastrous event. It is planned to help system of government to think through what they should do. There are three parts of crisis management:

Preparedness Reaction Response

Preparedness consists of safety of physical and knowledgeable resources. Response comprises communications and restoration. Reaction contains the demonstrative toll of a disaster.

Every association should have thorough emergency response and communications strategies. In developing these plans, it is useful to make circumstances of possible disastrous events to permit staff and leaders to define how to deal with them before the fact. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has a comprehensive guide to help organizations prepare for emergencies. It is available at the FEMA website.

The Forbes Group: The Forbes Group is a 20-year-old tactical management counselling organization headquartered in Fairfax, VA. The mission of the organization is to help various other organizations to create their preferred future by thinking, planning and acting strategically.

Seven-Step Crisis Management Formula

Define the scope of the crisis:

Local, regional or national.

Organizational areas involved.

What have others done in similar situations?

Establish unified response:

Designate one authorized spokesperson and one alternate; tell staff and members who they are, where they are and how they can be reached day or night.

Designate one person authorized to clear statements to the media and the public; responsible for getting clearances from lawyers, public safety officials, etc. make arrangements in advance.

Develop and maintain a unified position and supporting messages.

Keep messages simple, clear and consistent.

Tailor messages to audiences.

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Create a central information service:

Set up an adequately staffed and equipped media headquarters away from the crisis site; know how to arrange for additional phone lines.

Staff and volunteers should refer all crisis questions to the central source.

Arrange for the receptionist and voice mail to refer calls to the crisis centre.

Have emergency numbers (police, fire, public safety, medical) available.

Request stakeholder cooperation.

To avoid inconsistencies in media responses, have all requests funnelled through information central.

Act promptly:

Actions being taken by organization, stakeholders.

Arrange for a news conference for the designated spokesperson as soon as facts are known.

Console the stricken, reassure the affected, offer help.

Different crises have different focuses.

Disasters/industrial accidents/environmental problems affect local communities first.

Extent of problem, damages, injuries.

Gather facts calmly.

Immediately make a simple statement indicating awareness of the situation, action being taken and willingness to inform media and public of details when they are known.

Keep stakeholders informed of developments (staff, leaders, association members, government officials.

Make spokesperson available for interviews.

Notify media and cooperate with reporters.

Openly and honestly provide as much detail as possible.

Product recalls/consumer boycotts affect customers, stakeholder sales forces, suppliers, distributors.

Staff, leaders, stakeholders, government officials, media.

Takeovers, mergers, acquisitions affect financial markets and media.

Target communications to those affected by the crisis and who can effect action.

Use facts to squelch rumours.

Work with hospitals/public safety organizations to designate spokespersons.

Establish media response policy:

Arrange for photographer/videographer to document important developments for media, lawyers, insurance companies, organizational records.

Do not stonewall or deny that there is a crisis.

Have media monitoring plan.

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Crisis Management at Airport If appropriate and acceptable to public safety officials, arrange for access to

disaster area.

Keep media away from families until approved by appropriate person.

Keep records of all replies (media, reporter name, date, time, respondent, summary of response, follow up requests).

Limit statements to the immediate problem.

Provide no information about victims until families have been notified.

Schedule regular briefings to relay data, correct misconceptions and maintain positive media relations.

Stick to the facts.

Treat all media equally; no exclusives.

Document everything:

Keep thorough and accurate records of everything - planning sessions, crisis management team meetings, reports and all public conferences; tape thoughts and reasons for making decisions because these will give a solid basis for quotes; document decision making and protect from blame fixing.

Conduct a post-crisis review:

Appoint a crisis evaluation team to assess handling of the crisis and recommend changes in crisis procedures. Evaluation team members should be different from crisis management team members.

Questions to ask - Did the crisis plan work? Where did it break down? What should be added? What was unnecessary and obsolete? Who should be on the next crisis management team?


Fill in the blanks:

1. ………………… and ……………… are the types of natural crisis.

2. SOP stands for ………………………

10.7 LET US SUM UP A detailed simulation of the events that may follow an airline accident can help prepare both airport and airline staff for such an unlikely eventuality. Having experienced the problems rather than having merely read about them staff are in a better position to review and possibly change their emergency procedures and to improve their colleague's appreciation of the problems that they may have to face.

10.8 LESSON END ACTIVITY Go to any airport and observe the preparation to handle any crisis.

10.9 KEYWORDS SOP: Standard Operating Procedure

Aviation: Aviation is the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft, especially heavier-than-air aircraft.

202 Aviation 10.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Briefly describe the different types of the crisis.

2. Explain standard operating procedure of Bomb blast.

3. How one can avoid the hijacks?


CYP 1

1. False

2. False

3. False

4. True

CYP 2

1. Cyclone, Floods

2. Standard Operating Procedure

10.11 SUGGESTED READINGS Aviation Maintenance Management- HArryA. Kinnison- McGraw Hill

Risk Management and error reduction in Aviation Maintenance- Manoj

S. Patankar and James C. Taylor- AShgate Publishing Ltd.

Model Question Paper

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MODEL QUESTION PAPER BBA (Annual Pattern)

Second Year

Sub: Aviation

Time: 3 hours Total Marks: 100

Direction: There are total eight questions, each carrying 20 marks. You have to attempt any five questions.

1. Explain the growth drivers of the aviation industry and the initiatives taken by the government for the development of aviation sector in India.

2. Describe with the help of diagram the principle units of airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft.

3. Discuss the competition between the Airbus industries and the Boeing company.

4. Write a brief note on passenger and cargo terminal.

5. What were the objective behind the formation of IATA and ICAO?

6. Describe in detail giving necessary figures the layout of an airport.

7. What do you mean by flight catering system? Discuss in detail. Also briefly discuss ways of handling unaccompanied passengers at airports.

8. What are the components of Airport terminal? Discuss in detail.

International Business

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