Early Human Impact on

Megamolluscs

Edited by

Andrzej Antczak Roberto Cipriani

BAR International Series 1865 2008

This title published by Archaeopress Publishers of British Archaeological Reports Gordon House 276 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7ED England bar@archaeopress.com www.archaeopress.com BAR S1865 Early Human Impact on Megamolluscs © the individual authors 2008 ISBN 978 1 4073 0348 2 Printed in England by Alden HenDi, Oxfordshire All BAR titles are available from: Hadrian Books Ltd 122 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7BP England bar@hadrianbooks.co.uk The current BAR catalogue with details of all titles in print, prices and means of payment is available free from Hadrian Books or may be downloaded from www.archaeopress.com

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Archaeomalacological Research in India with Special Reference to Early Historic Exploitation of the Sacred Conch Shell

(Turbinella pyrum) in Western Deccan

ARATI DESHPANDE-MUKHERJEE1 Abstract In India, molluscan shells and shell artefacts are frequently reported from archaeological sites dating from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Medieval period. The overall shell evidence reveals the large-scale utilisation of molluscs over a greater geographical area. A brief appraisal of molluscan studies shows the limited nature of this research carried out so far in Indian archaeology; its potential in the reconstruction of palaeoenvironment, palaeoclimate, seasonality, and other related aspects, has remained unexplored. However, in recent years shell studies carried out in India has helped to gain an insight into some of these aspects. One important area of study has been that of the large marine gastropod or the sacred conch shell (Turbinella pyrum), as it was one of the most commonly exploited species in the past. Therefore, this paper focuses on the use of this particular shell during the Early Historic period in the Western Deccan region. Turbinella pyrum shell objects and its fragmented parts are found associated with many Early Historic sites dated between ca. 300 B.C. and A.D. 400. Bangles and beads made from this shell are the most commonly reported shell objects at sites such as Ter, Paithan, Navdatoli, Prakashe, Nasik, Kamrej, Bhokardan, Nevasa, Brahmapuri, and Pune. A recent study on shell artefacts from some of these sites has revealed various aspects of their procurement, manufacturing technology, trade and nature of use. A reconstruction of the shell working process at Nevasa and Pune has revealed the existence of ancient shell working sites in the Western Deccan. Further, it has been found that this particular craft tradition continued into the later Historic period. By this time, considerable socio-religious significance was attached to the shell, due to which, it was considered sacred in ancient Hindu rituals, as well as depicted in Hindu iconography. However, a gradual decline in its use has been observed towards the end of the Historic period. Key words: Archaeomalacology in India, Sacred Conch Shell, Turbinella pyrum, Western Deccan Introduction1 In India, molluscan shells and objects made from them are frequently found at archaeological sites dating from the Palaeolithic to the Medieval periods. However, their study is still a relatively new sub-branch of archaeozoology. A brief appraisal of the molluscan studies carried out in the Indian context so far shows that, in spite of the rich shell data available, research has been limited, and is still in its developmental stage. Initially, studies were mostly confined to shell taxonomical identification. Archaeological shells were often used in radiocarbon dating for establishing chronology of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites. Some contribution to shellmidden research provided studies carried out in the Andaman Islands by Cipriani (1966) and Cooper (1990). So far, little attempts have been made to explore the potential of molluscs in the reconstruction of past subsistence, palaeoclimate, seasonality, chronology, etc. The application of scientific techniques in shell analysis has also been negligible. However, in recent years with suitable developments taking place in the discipline one subject has remained the focus of attention for a long time. It concerns the large marine gastropod Turbinella pyrum and its 1 Department of Archaeology, Deccan College, Yerawada, Pune 411006, India (arati_d_m@hotmail.com)

utilization in ancient India. This species is commonly referred to as the sacred Indian conch shell, ‘Chank’ or ‘Sankh’ (Figure 1). It shows maximum representation in the Indian archaeological record as compared to the wide spectrum of molluscs recovered (Deshpande 1995). Objects made from it are commonly to referred to as ‘Chank objects’ or ‘conch shell objects’ in many of the excavation reports. These were for the first time discovered and identified in the nineteenth century by Robert Bruce Foote during his explorations in parts of Gujarat region and South India (Foote 1916). Since then excavations of many Harappan, Chalcolithic, Iron Age, and Historic sites have yielded evidence for this shell. The T. pyrum shell is frequently depicted in stone sculptures and paintings of the Historic period. Besides archaeological evidence, references to it are available in many of the ancient literary texts like the Sangam literature, traveller’s accounts, Buddhist literature, and modern fisheries reports. The antiquity of T. pyrum use in India can be traced far back as the third millennium B.C. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, studies by Hornell (1913, 1914, 1942), Kenoyer (1983), Deshpande (1995, 1998, 2006), and Athiyaman (2000) have contributed towards its knowledge. Of these, studies associated with the Harappan Civilisation have received greater attention. The use of ethnographic observations

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Figure 1. The sacred Indian conch shell Turbinella pyrum.

Figure 2. Map of some Early Historic sites in the Western Deccan.

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on the present-day shell industry in Bengal has further helped to gain an insight into the ancient shell working tradition in India. As most of the studies regarding T. pyrum have focused on its use during the Harappan civilization in the northwestern part of India, its contribution in peninsular India has remained fairly unknown. In this region, particularly in the Deccan, the earliest evidence for marine molluscs is available from the Upper Palaeolithic site of Patne, where a shell of Oliva sp. was reported (Sali 1980). It is later, towards the end of the second millennium B.C., during the Chalcolithic period, that their appreciable use is visible (Deshpande-Mukherjee 2005a). However, compared to this period, use of T. pyrum shells became more common during the Early Historic and Historic periods. Due to its marine origin, presence of chank objects in areas far from the coast is both intriguing and significant. Hence, an attempt has been made in this paper to understand the nature of procurement, manufacture, distribution and significance of T. pyrum shell artefacts during the Early Historic period. As it is difficult to cover the entire Deccan region in this paper, a part of it, namely the Western Deccan, has been considered. Early Historic Settlements in the Western Deccan The Deccan region, which constitutes a part of Peninsular India, is one of the world’s oldest landmasses roughly extending from the River Narmada in the north to the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin in the south. Of this, the Western Deccan forms a plateau sloping gradually to the east with the longitude 76° E. taken as the eastern boundary. This region covers a major part of the Maharashtra State (Figure 2). To its west, it is separated from the Arabian Sea by the Western Ghats or the Sahayadris, and the narrow coastal belt, the Konkan coast. The entire plateau is traversed by major eastward flowing rivers like the Godavari, Bhima and Krishna, excepting Narmada and Tapi, which flow into the Arabian Sea. The basic volcanic rock basalt is the main rock type and has resulted from the basaltic lava flows that had spread over the region during the tertiary period. This basaltic terrain is capped by the black cotton soil (Deshpande 1948). A semiarid climate with low rainfall in the mainland plateau contrast with the high rainfall areas of the Konkan coast. As compared to the coastal areas, the fertile river valleys of the Tapi Godavari, Bhima, and Krishna have yielded ample evidence for human habitation since Palaeolithic times. The Chalcolithic cultures dated roughly between 2000 and 1000 B.C. were the first settled communities to introduce agriculture in this area. These are identified at sites like Navdatoli, Nasik, Nevasa, Chandoli, Daimabad, and Inamgaon (Dhavalikar 1988). With the decline of the Chalcolithic cultures around 1000 B.C. sites remained deserted until the emergence of the Early Historic cultures around 3rd to 2nd century B.C. Here unlike the Southern or Eastern Deccan hardly any evidence for the

iron-using Megalithic/Iron Age cultures prior to the emergence of the Early Historic culture is visible (Parasher-Sen 2000). Information about the Early Historic period in the Western Deccan is available from the discovery of many rock-cut caves, archaeological sites, inscriptions, coins, travellers’ accounts, literary sources, Buddhist and Jaina texts. Numerous sites have been found of which a large number are from the Rahuri Taluka in the Ahmadnagar district of Maharashtra (Ray 1986). Sites occur in varied ecological settings ranging from river valleys, mountain passes and the coast. Some important excavated sites are Prakash (Thapar 1967), Maheshwar (Sankalia et al. 1958), Nasik (Sankalia and Deo 1955), Nevasa (Sankalia et al. 1960), Paithan (Syed Yusuf 1939), Bhokardan (Deo and Gupte 1974), Brahmapuri (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952), Ter (Chapekar 1969) and Vadgaon-Madhavpur (Sundara 1981) (Figure 2). At most sites, except for Paithan, Prakash and Sopara, the habitation starts with the Mauryan period around 4th century B.C. (Dhavalikar 1999). The Mauryan influence from the north is indicated though the presence of Asokan edicts, inscriptions and Northern Black Polished Wares (NBP) scattered throughout the Deccan. These settlements are identified with the Satavahana dynasty. The Satavahanas are considered as well organised polity that not only brought about political unification, but as well as gave an impetus to cultural renaissance in the Deccan (Deo 1975). These rulers also referred to as the ‘Andhras’, have remained controversial regarding their origins and chronology. Today the widely accepted “short chronology” developed by Ray (1986 following Dehejia 1972) date this dynasty from the beginning of the first century B.C. to the end of the second century A.D. (Sinopoli 2001). During this period with Paithan as their capital, the Satavahanas gradually expanded their domain from Gujarat and Malwa to Vidarbha in the east and down south as far as the Godavari. Maximum rule was under Gautamiputra Satakrani (ca. A.D. 106-130), after which they expanded further into Eastern and Southern Deccan. A decline set in around 3rd century A.D., wherein many of the settlements in the Western Deccan were deserted and again occupied during the Medieval period between 16th to 18th century A.D. The Early Historic sites are characterized by permanent structures of baked bricks with stone foundation and roofed with interlocking tiles. In ceramics, the red polished ware is common and represented by a variety of utilitarian shapes. Occurrence of large quantities of beads made from semiprecious stones and glass, bead moulds, copper mirrors, objects of glass and ivory, indicate the different types of craft activities carried out. Legged querns and cylindrical pestles are other common artefacts. An important aspect of the Satavahanas was their terracotta made from Kaolin using a double mould, which was a technique of Roman origin.

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Table 1. Shell remains from Some Early Historic sites and their associated cultural material.

Site Chronology Shell finds Associated finds Reference

Maheshwar Periods IV, V, VI Early Historic (400 B.C. to A.D. 500)

Bangles, beads, rings and cut shells

Black and red ware, NBPW wares, monochrome glass bangles, sealing, etc.

Sankalia et al. 1958

Prakash Period III Early Historic (middle of sixth century B.C. to end of sixth century A.D.)

Sawn conch shells, plain and decorated bangles

Black and red ware, copper, iron, lead objects, beads, glass bangles, querns, etc.

Thapar 1967

Kamrej Early Historic Bangles, rings, shell waste and marine shells.

Punch marked coins, glass and stone beads, terracotta tiles, copper coins, etc.

Gupta et al. 2004

Bhokardan

Period 1a Pre-Satavahana (ca. 2nd to 3rd century B.C.) Period 1b Satavahana (ca. 1st century B.C. to 2nd/3rd century A.D.)

Bangles, beads, columellar objects and shell waste

Punch marked coins, black and red ware, amphora, terracotta objects, sealing, bullae, rotary quern, etc.

Deo and Gupte 1974

Nasik Period II (5th century B.C. to 1st century A.D.) Period III (A.D. 50 to 200)

Few bangles, beads and marine shells

NBPW ware, glass beads, iron objects, querns, bone points, etc.

Sankalia and Deo 1955

Nevasa Period IV Early Historic ca. 150 B.C. to 50 B.C., Period V Indo Roman - 50 B.C. to A.D. 200

Bangles, beads, rings, shell waste and marine shells

Punch marked coins, Black and Red wares, terracotta, etc.

Sankalia et al. 1960

Paithan Early Historic Bangles and shell waste

Punch marked coins, Black and Red wares, terracotta, etc.

Syed Yusuf 1939

Brahmapuri Early Historic Bangles and beads Glass beads, roman wares, coins, Kaolin figurines, etc.

Sankalia and Dikshit 1952

Ter Period I Early Satavahana (200 B.C. – 1st century A.D.), Period II Indo-roman (3rd century A.D.)

Bangles, beads, shell rings, columellar objects and marine shells

Terracotta, Kaolin figurines, shell amulet, coins, lamps of foreign origins, etc.

Chapekar 1969

Pune Early Historic

Finished and unfinished bangles, shell waste, marine and freshwater shells

Ceramics, animal bones, terracotta figurines, glass bangles, etc.

Shinde et al. 2003

This period also witnessed the expansion of Buddhism and the construction of Buddhist monastic centres in this region. As many as 800 rock cut caves were created along with monasteries and stupas (Ray 1987). Of these, cave sites of Kanheri, Nasik, Junnar, Ajanta, Karle, Pitakkora and Karad are important for their inscriptional and architectural data. In the pre-Satavahana phase, Buddhism along with the patronage of the Mauryas had led to the development of extensive regional and long-distance trade networks in the peninsula, linking west and east coast. The period, between 1st and 3rd century A.D., also witnessed trade with the Roman Empire as is evident from the finds of amphorae, clay bullae and Roman artefacts at Nasik, Paithan and Ter (Dhavalikar 1999). Thus under the Satavahanas, regional as well as long distance trade on both land and sea flourished (Ray 1985). It is here that the Western Deccan played an important role in forming a link between northern India and the peninsula, due to which a similarity in the material culture of both these regions is observed as compared to the south. An increase in commercial activity along with demand for a wide range of products resulted in the prolific development of various craft industries. One craft activity, which needs to be reconstructed, is the shellworking carried out during this period. The Shell Evidence Although a large number of Early Historic sites are reported in the Western Deccan only a few are excavated and have yielded appreciable amount of shell material

(Margabandhu 1985). For this study published excavation reports, excavated shell remains, museum and personal collections were consulted. Around 500 shell artefacts and T. pyrum shell debitage from the following sites were examined (Figure 2; Table 1). It is through the study of these materials that a broad picture of Early Historic shell working could be constructed. At the northern limit of the Western Deccan, is situated Maheshwar on the banks of river Narmada in Nimar district of Madhya Pradesh. It is identified with Mahismati mentioned in the Buddhist texts and was on the ancient trade route from Ujjain to Paithan. This was therefore a place of both religious and commercial importance in the historic period. Excavations have revealed a long cultural sequence beginning from the prehistoric to the medieval period. Here, the Early Historic period starts around 400 B.C. and has yielded shell bangles and cut shells (Sankalia et al. 1958). To its south lies the coastal site of Kamrej, at the mouth of the river Tapi in district Surat, Gujarat. Recent excavations have yielded both shell objects and shell waste (Gupta et al. 2004; Deshpande-Mukherjee 2004). At Prakash, located at the confluence of Tapi and Gomai rivers in the Nandurbar district of Maharashtra, excavations yielded a continuous cultural sequence from the Chalcolithic onwards (Thapar 1967). Use of plain shell bangles is visible from the Chalcolithic period onwards. However in the Period III, which is Early Historic, intricately

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decorated shell bangles (n = 116) make an appearance. Shell waste is also reported but quantity is unknown. Further south, in the Godavari valley, four important sites are located, Nasik which lies close to the source of the river Godavari near Trimbak in the Sahyadaris or the Western Ghats was first inhabited during the Chalcolithic period. The Early Historical phase dated from the 5th

century B.C. to 3rd century A.D. has evidence for use of baked bricks, roman wares, terracotta figurines, stone bead making, and assorted marine shells. However, very few shell objects are reported (Sankalia and Deo 1955; Ray and Rajagopalaiengar 1955). Rock cut caves in the vicinity of Nasik have yielded important inscriptional evidence. Bhokardan, referred to as ‘Bhogavardhana’ in ancient literature, is situated in the Godavari basin on the right bank of river Kelna. Excavations have given evidence for Satavahana occupation. The house construction was of bricks laid in a clay mortar over a pebble foundation. A wide variety of ceramics comprising red polished ware and shards inscribed with Brahmi symbols were found. Presence of large quantities of beads, moulds and stone fragments indicate a flourishing bead industry. Manufacture of ivory and terracotta objects was also carried out. The shell evidence comprises a variety of shell objects (bangles n = 662, beads = 113), a few isolated shells and shell waste (Deo and Gupte 1974). All these strongly indicate the commercial importance of the settlement during the Satavahana period. Paithan also referred to as Prathisthan, is situated on the same river in Ahmadnagar district of Maharashtra. This has been identified as the capital of the Satavahana Dynasty and is spread over a large area. Although no systematic excavations have been carried out, a large amount of artefacts like coins, bangles, beads, terracotta, and ceramics are frequently exposed due to postdepositional disturbance. Of these, shell bangles and T. pyrum fragments are commonly found as surface finds (personal observation). Excavations carried out briefly in 1937 have yielded shell objects and shell waste along with terracotta figurines, moulds, and beads of various materials (Syed Yusuf 1939). Close to Paithan is Nevasa, referred to as ‘Nidhivasa’ in ancient times; it is situated on the right bank of river Pravara, a tributary of Godavari in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra. Excavations at the extensive mound called as Ladmod has yielded traces of human habitation from the Palaeolithic to the Medieval period. The Early Historic level IV dated to the first half of the second century B.C. coincides with the Satavahana rule (Sankalia et al. 1960). Here, marine shells, bangles (n = 518), beads (n = 113), rings and shell waste were recovered in considerable numbers in Period V, which is the Indo-Roman phase of the Early Historical period (Sankalia et al. 1960; Ray 1960). In the interior of Maharashtra, Ter, situated on the river Terna in the Osmanabad district has been identified with

the ancient settlement of ‘Tagara’ by Fleet (1901). Excavations show that the site was occupied thrice from the 3rd century B.C. to 3rd century A.D. Considerable quantities of shell objects like bangles (n = 221), beads and shells were recovered along with other artefacts (Chapekar 1969). Evidence for dyeing cloth in the form of vats has been unearthed during excavations, which suggests the possibility of Ter as a textile-manufacturing centre (IAR 1968-1969). Excavation of a wooden palisade probably indicates that Ter was one of the thirty fortified towns of the Satavahanas (IAR 1974-1975). The excavations at Brahmapuri, situated on the right bank of the Panchganga river in the Kolhapur district of Maharashtra, have revealed a few shell bangles along with other artefacts. This was also identified as one of the trading centres in Satavahana times (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952). In recent times, small-scale excavations and salvage operations carried out at Kasbapet in the modern city of Pune, Pune district of Maharashtra has also revealed evidence for Satavahana occupation. An important discovery made was the recovery of marine shells, shell bangles and T. pyrum shell wastes (Shinde et al. 2002-03; Balkawade personal communication). The following categories of shell finds were studied during the course of this investigation: 1) Shell bangles made from T. pyrum shells are the most commonly reported finds as compared to other objects. Fragmented bangles occur at almost all the Early Historic sites in the Deccan. These objects range from plain to decorated ones. Their width also varies from broad to narrow (5 to 20 mm). In transverse section, the bangles are squarish, plano-convex, oblong, channelled or elliptical. Unlike the protohistoric period, bangles in this period are intricately carved and are reported from Prakash, Navdatoli, Nevasa, Bhokardan and Ter. The commonly observed designs on the bangle surface include series of slanting lines, incised lines, chevrons, diamonds, rope or twine lines and floral patterns and the circular or heart shaped knob in relief (Figure 8). The latter is visible at Nasik, Nevasa, Maheshwar and Prakash. Channelled bangles with a broad groove or channel in which gold was inlayed are observed at Maheshwar, Prakash, Paithan, Nevasa and Bhokardan. In certain fragments copper/iron riveting is visible at sites like Maheshwar, Nasik and Prakash. Bangles were perforated with thin sharp drills and then were riveted. The riveting of bangles was probably either to reuse fragmented bangles or to give a decorative effect. 2) Shell beads constituted one of the important objects produced along with beads of semi-precious stones and glass. Beads were made from both isolated marine shells and T. pyrum shells. The former comprising complete shells of Oliva sp., Moneta moneta and Cypraea arabica were perforated and used. A limited use of these was

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Table 2. List of marine molluscs reported from Early Historic sites in the Western Deccan.

Marine species Family Sites

1. Ornamentaria annulus annulus Cypraeidae Nasik and Nevasa 2. Gratiadusta palida palida Cypraeidae Nevasa and Nasik 3. Monetaria moneta moneta Cypraeidae Nevasa 4. Cypraea arabica Cypraeidae Bhokardan, Ter and Kamrej 5. Engina (engina) mendicaria Buccinidae Nevasa 6. Cantharus spiralis Buccinidae Nevasa 7. Cantharus undosus Buccinidae Nasik 8. Oliva sp. Olividae Nasik 9. Oliva nebulosa Olividae Nevasa, Ter 10. Oliva ispidula Olividae Nasik 11. Oliva subulata Olividae Nasik 12. Nerita sp. Neritidae Kamrej, Pune 12. Nerita chamaeolon Neritidae Nevasa and Nasik 13. Neritina (dostia) crepidularia Neritidae Nevasa and Nasik 14. Conus sp. Conidae Nasik 15. Telescopium telescopium Potamidae Nasik 16. Murex sp. Muricidae Nasik 17. Anadara sp. Arcidae Nevasa and Pune 18.Crassostrea sp. Osteridae Nevasa

observed at Bhokardan, Maheshwar, Nevasa, Ter and Nasik. T. pyrum beads are found at almost all the sites and commonly reported shapes are barrel, circular, short cylinder, flat barrel, disc and animal motifs. Presence of tortoise shaped amulets at Ter, Bhokardan and Nevasa is significant. At Nevasa, many types of shell beads were produced of which the toggle beads dated to the second to first century B.C. are considered a rare occurrence. These are the earliest types reported from the Historical period and have also been found at sites outside the Deccan such as Ahichchhatra and Arikamedu (Sankalia et al. 1960). 3) Plain shell rings made from T. pyrum shell with their width ranging from 3 to 5 mm are reported from Nevasa, Maheshwar, Kamrej and Bhokardan. 4) Miscellaneous shell objects as compared to bangles and beads are few. It is observed that different types of objects were made using the central columella of T. pyrum. At Nevasa, a few such objects are reported. These include 1) a simple cylindrical piece, 2) a hollow octagonal object bearing incised grooves as decorations at both the ends, which are truncated, 3) two handles of which one is a finished product, 4) an object having a perforation tapering inwards which has been identified by the excavators as a whistle (Sankalia et al. 1960). Besides these, a pulley shaped ear ornament was reported which was also found at Maheshwar, Nasik and Somnath. At Bhokardan, the columella was made into a hollow fish like object. This has been identified as an antimony holder and has parallels at Rairh in Rajasthan (Deo and Gupte 1974). Stoppers made from columellae were also found at this site. One stopper has a bird motif at the top with its neck upraised perched on a round base decorated with crisscross designs (Deo and Gupte 1974).

Other finds are small-carved shell fragments that had probably served as inlay pieces. From Ter, two objects are reported: one is a stopper and the other a flat squarish object having four petals with an attempted perforation at the centre (Chapekar 1969). Three beautifully carved T. pyrum columellae are present in the museum at Ter; one has a human figure painted on it. Also present are complete T. pyrum shells with their apex perforated (personal observation). Although all these are isolated findings yet their presence indicates the production of such objects as well. Besides these finished objects, T. pyrum shell waste comprising sawn portions from the apex, spire, main whorl, columella and base, are recorded at Maheshwar, Nevasa, Bhokardan, Kamrej, Paithan, Ter, and Pune. Both marine and freshwater shells are reported as isolated finds. The latter comprising freshwater bivalves Lamellidens sp. and Parreysia sp. and gastropod Bellamya sp., are found at many of the sites. These molluscs were probably used as food and as a source of lime due to their easy availability from the nearby rivers and streams (Deshpande-Mukherjee 2005b). A few marine shells were found at Kamrej, Nevasa, Nasik, Ter, and Bhokardan (Table 2). Here, eighteen molluscan species of marine estuarine origin were recorded. These are characteristic of inter-tidal mudflats and rocky areas along the West Coast; the most probable source area for their procurement might have been the north Konkan coast. In case of these shells very limited shell working is seen. Certain shells like Nerita sp. were accidentally introduced and do not indicate any human activity. The shells of Oliva sp. Cypraea sp., and Moneta

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Figure. 3. Assorted marine shells: Top row left to right Oliva sp. (n = 2), Nerita sp. and Cypraea sp., bottom row left to right Crassostrea sp. and Anadara sp. (n = 2).

Figure 4. Shell fragments from the main whorl. moneta are mostly complete and perforated at the apex, serving as simple beads, pendants or as currency (Figure 3). The latter are quite common at Buddhist period sites in Northern India. Similar species were reported from some of the Chalcolithic sites in this region like Inamgaon (Francis and Badam 1988), Chandoli (Shah 1965), and Daimabad (Sali 1986). Presence of these shells in both Chalcolithic and Early Historical levels suggests a common procurement source as well as continuity in their use. One important aspect of the study was to find out how marine shell remains came to be in the Western Deccan region whether they were imported or were produced locally? Since the T. pyrum shell has a restricted

occurrence along the Indian coast two probable sources are proposed: 1) procurement from outside the Deccan region through trade contacts, and 2) localised production of shell objects. 1) Procurement from outside the Deccan through trade contacts Both shells and finished objects made from them were probably brought from Coastal Gujarat and the North Konkan coast. In Gujarat, the Gulf of Kachchh with its shallow coral reef areas and to a certain extent the Gulf of Khambat are the chief source areas for T. pyrum (Pota and Patel 1991). Hence due to its proximity to this source, the Gujarat region was actively engaged in large-

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Figure 5. Sawn perforated apex of T. pyrum shell.

Figure 6. Sawn basal portion of T. pyrum shell.

scale shell working since the third millennium B.C. (Deshpande-Mukherjee 1998). Since then, the presence of a regular chank fishery on a commercial scale had favoured the continuity of shell working into the later cultural periods. This is observed at many of the Early Historic and Historic sites in Gujarat like Nagara (Shah 1968), Amreli (Rao 1966), Somnath (Nanavati et al. 1971) and, recently, at Hathab (Pramanik 2004). The adjoining north Konkan coast with its broad mud flats, where T. pyrum shells are not found, was an ideal source for procuring other smaller marine gastropod shells. It is through trade contacts with both these regions, as early as the second millennium B.C., that marine shells and objects came to be present at some of the Chalcolithic sites in the Western Deccan (Deshpande-Mukherjee 2005a). Hence, a similar situation might have continued in the Early Historic period as well where a similarity in

the type of objects present at both these regions is observed. Besides the Gujarat region, another probable source area (although very far) that should not be ruled out, is the Southeastern coast or the Tamil Nadu coast. Along this coast in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, beds of T. pyrum shells occur in the deeper waters where they have to be collected by diving (Nayar and Mahadevan 1974). At the time of Mauryan expansion into peninsular India, the Kautilya’s Arthashastra mentions a southern source for obtaining shells (Shamashastry 1967). Both literary and archaeological evidence indicates that this particular coast was actively engaged in chank and pearl fisheries at the beginning of the Christian era. The Sangam texts and Greek accounts attest to this activity. The latter have

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Figure 7. Sawn rough circlets.

Figure 8. Finished decorated shell bangles.

provided detailed information on the shell fisheries that were carried out in Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay (Chelliah 1985). This indicates the awareness of this source area in the early part of the first millennium B.C. Further, the presence of numerous Iron Age/Early Historic sites located along this coast, as well as inland in Tamil Nadu, have yielded rich evidence for shell working (Ramchandran 1980). In modern times, T. pyrum shells procured from Tuticorin are considered of superior quality, hence are highly preferred for the shell bangle industry in West Bengal. (Deshpande 1995). Since many of the sites like Prakash, Paithan and Ter were located on the important trade routes connecting both the west and the southeastern coast, procurement of finished shell objects and shells from these above mentioned regions could have been possible. Application of oxygen isotope analysis on T. pyrum shells from Nevasa indicated shell procurement from both sources, although a majority of the samples pointed to a southern source (Smith 1996). 2) Localised production of shell objects within the Deccan During the Early Historic period, a growing demand for shell objects might have initiated shell working within the Deccan region. For this regular procurement of complete T. pyrum shells from either the Gujarat or the South eastern coast could have resulted in the establishment of shell working centres. Evidence for this aspect is strongly evident from the presence of appreciable quantities of T. pyrum shell debitage at some of the sites like Nevasa and Bhokardan. The Early Historic Shell Industry A broad reconstruction of the manufacturing process and the shell technology involved in the production of various shell objects was attempted. A homogeneity is observed in the artefact types and shell debitage found at all these sites. The major part of the study was carried out on the

shell waste from Nevasa, as it was present in considerable amounts and from stratigraphic contexts. The T. pyrum shell waste comprised sawn portions from the apex, spire, semicircular fragments, and parts of main whorl, sawn columella, lip fragments, small chips, and rough circlets. A comparison of these with shell waste observed in the shell cutting workshops in present-day Bengal showed close similarity between both. From this it was inferred that the Early Historic shell waste had primarily resulted from the manufacture of bangles. Here, application of the observations made on the present-day shell industry at Bishnupur in West Bengal has helped in reconstructing the various stages of Early Historic shell bangle manufacture (Deshpande 1995; Deshpande-Mukherjee 2006). The chief raw material used was T. pyrum. It has a large white shell with an inflated body whorl and an internal thick columella covered with ridges. Its shell surface is smooth and lacks ornamentation due to which it formed an ideal raw material in shell working. The variety of T. pyrum having an acute spire was found to be used (Figure 1). Good quality shells ranging from 90 to 200 mm in length were used. However, at Nevasa, use of smaller shells is also observed. Care was taken to avoid shells damaged by worm holes, borings of the Cliona sp. sponge or weathering. After initial sorting and sizing of the shells, shell fragments covering the aperture area were removed for shell preparation (Figure 4). A circular perforation (15-20 mm wide) was made with a sharp pointed object just below the tip of the apex (Figure 5). Through this perforation the septa, by which the main whorl is attached to the central columella, was broken. Following this, the shell was sawn diagonal to the main shell axis. One saw cut was made diagonally from the beginning of the main shell whorl to the apex in the spire portion. Another diagonal saw cut was made from the base of the main

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Figure 9. Trimming of T. pyrum columella.

Figure 10. Beads manufactured from T. pyrum columella.

whorl to the area above the aperture. By doing so, the spire and basal portion of the shell with the central columella attached were separated from the main shell whorl (Figure 6). From the resulting main shell whorl, rough circlets of required widths were sawn (Figure 7). Fifty years ago in Bengal, prior to the use of electric cutting machines, a semicircular iron saw called as ‘Sankher karat’ with a bidenticulate edge was used in shell cutting (Hornell 1913; Deshpande 1995, 2006). Use of a similar bronze/copper saw has been postulated for the Harappan period (Kenoyer 1983). By the Early Historic period with the advancement of iron technology, iron saws were probably employed in shell cutting. From the nature of the shell waste, it is seen that the shell cutting methods were similar to those used in present day West Bengal. Ethnographic studies show that from a single shell of between 90 to 200 mm in length, five to eight circlets can be cut (Deshpande 1995; Deshpande-Mukherjee 2006). At Nevasa and Pune broken circlets occur showing their unfinished condition (Figure 7). Also present are very thin slices of circlets, which were accidentally produced at the time of shell cutting. Both narrow to wide bangles were produced according to the demand. The resulting circlets were further engraved with decorations and polished into finished bangles (Figure 8). Presence of intricately carved bangles indicates the high degree of craftsmanship involved. Additionally, well-polished plain bangles were also produced. After extraction of circlets, the resulting shell waste like columella and semi-circular fragments were not discarded. Like their modern counterparts, the Early Historic shell workers had made maximum use of the shells. Hence, the shell debitage was further used to

produce various other objects. The central columella was specifically selected for making beads and other objects. It was separated from its base by sawing. The grooves on its sides were removed. This is visible at Nevasa, where outer chipped parts of the grooves of the columella are present (Figure 9). Its surface was made smooth and various types of beads were produced (Figure 10). In the case of objects like stoppers and handles, slightly larger columellae were used. From the other shell fragments, rings, small beads, discs, buttons and inlays, were made. Thus, the shell industry besides bangle production had also produced a variety of secondary objects. Although shell working is evident at some of the sites, identification of activity areas associated with this craft was not possible due to the lack of systematic surveys and limited nature of the excavations. As most sites were excavated quite some time ago very little efforts were made then for the identification and plotting of craft activity areas during excavations. It is in recent years that at some of the Harappan sites like Nageshwar (Bhan 1992), and Kuntasi (Deshpande 1995) shell-working areas could be identified. Further, since exact quantification of the shell finds (mainly the shell waste) was not done by the excavators, it is difficult to estimate the intensity of shell working at various sites as well as intersite variability. Some of the sites like Prakash, Bhokardan, Paithan, Nevasa and Ter, based purely on their shell evidence, are tentatively identified as major shell working centres in the Deccan. Some of these had also functioned as important craft centres for other industries like ivory carving and bead making. Hence, shell working too might have constituted an important craft activity. For this period, inscriptions give evidence for the patronage given to various arts and crafts which

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could have also helped the shell industry to flourish. Here, the presence of local trade networks had favoured the trade of shell artefacts within the Deccan region (Smith 2002). On the West Coast, Bharuch, Sopara, Kalyan and Chaul were important ports connected with settlements in the Deccan through the various passes over the Western Ghats. The route from Paithan going north past Maheshwar and Ujjain into the middle Ganga valley formed an important trade route. While similarly another route went southwards past Ter, Kondapur and other sites in Andhra Pradesh, finally reaching the east coast (Ray 1986). So far, very little is known about the craftsmen involved in shell working. The textual and inscriptional sources can be studied to obtain information about this aspect. Today in West Bengal, shell working is carried out by a particular caste the ‘Sankharis’, who are engaged in this profession since the Historic period. By this period, social stratification by birth and occupation was quite common in most parts of India; hence, a specific group of people might have been involved in this occupation. Like other craft industries of that time, the Early Historic shell workers were also organised into guilds and had resided at some of the major craft centres like Paithan and Bhokaradan. Due to the great demand for shell products, the shell craftsmen may have enjoyed significant social status in the society resulting in the establishment of a long shell working tradition in the Deccan region. Shell objects were used for different purposes ranging from adornment, domestic, and ritualistic to a purely symbolic one. It is difficult to determine if their use was restricted to a certain strata of the society. Most frequent use was in personal adornment with shell bangles and beads serving as commonly used ornaments. Further, depiction of both male and female human figures wearing bangles on arms and wrist in various cave sculptures indicates no gender restriction. Children were also one of the frequent users of objects like bangles. At Nevasa, judging from the diameter size, some of the bangles were meant for children (Sankalia et al. 1960). Besides adornment, their use was also made for domestic and social purposes, for example, as stoppers, handles, trumpets, inlays, and gamesmen. During the Early Historic period, complete shells of T. pyrum came to occupy a special position in both ancient Hindu and Buddhist religion and philosophy. Apart from a utilitarian role, some symbolism was attached to the white shell (Smith 2001). The Buddhist literature Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa mentions the right whorled chank to be auspicious and valuable (Deo 2000). Buddhism to a certain extent had helped in promoting the use of shell objects as seen at Early Historic sites from Northern India. This aspect was not only restricted to this region but is visible in the Deccan as well. Use of certain beads like the tortoise shell amulet may have been for a specific purpose like religious charms. The socio-religious importance of T. pyrum is further visible in the occurrence of terracotta replicas of conch shell that are

reported from Early Historic sites in northern India, such as Sanghol (IAR 1985-1986), Piprahwa and Ganwaria (IAR 1976-1977). Around this time, its use as a trumpet in religious ceremonies and other rituals in southern India is mentioned in the Sangam text (Chelliah 1985). In the following centuries its frequent depictions are seen in religious art and Hindu iconography. In Vaishnavite iconography T. pyrum is commonly depicted as a trumpet or votive object, an attribute of lord Vishnu, signifying creation (Taddei 1993). Conclusion The Early Historic period in the Western Deccan had witnessed a widespread use of T. pyrum shells and objects made out of it. Due to its long-distance procurement, considerable economic importance was attached to this shell. A multifaceted role was played by it ranging from a utilitarian to ritualistic and a symbolic one. A regular demand for chank objects resulted in the establishment of shell industries within the region. Production was for both local and external use. Uniformity in the type of objects produced is visible throughout the entire Deccan. This suggests that a fairly standardized shell technology had been employed in the shell industry. Through long-distance, regional and local trade networks, shell products were traded and procured. Continuity in their use, even after the Early Historic period, resulted in a long shell working tradition that continued as late as the medieval times in this region. Following this, however, a major decline is observed and shell working becomes negligible. Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain this decline, ranging from cultural to biological. A preference for glass objects is one of the many reasons. It is quite likely that availability of T. pyrum shells was affected as a consequence of centuries of continuous exploitation, thereby, restricting its availability and use. The above discussed study has indirectly indicated how the chank shell resources were subjected to large-scale exploitation during the Early Historic period. Today T. pyrum fisheries are still carried out on the southeastern coast under strict government control. Whereas in the Gulf of Kachchh this fishery has been completely banned although illegal collection still continues. So far, no attempts have been made to study the effects of continued human exploitation on these molluscs’ natural populations. Hence, more detailed research concerning this particular aspect is required in the near future. Acknowledgements I wish to thank the organisers Drs. Andrzej Antczak and Roberto Cipriani for inviting me to participate in the EHIM workshop held at Isla de Margarita in September 2005. Sincere acknowledgements are deeply owed to Deccan College, Pune for providing the necessary laboratory and library facilities, access to excavated shell material and funding to carry out this research. Thanks are expressed to Drs. P. K. Thomas and Sushma Deo for their constant support and help in the research. Here the

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