Appendix: Some Fundamental Principles and Calculations

Appendix: Some Fundamental Principlesand Calculations

Introduction

This appendix provides some very basic principles of chemistry and some informa-tion on calculating concentration of substances in solution. Much more detailedinformation is available in a general inorganic chemistry textbook.

Elements, Atoms, Molecules, and Compounds

Elements are the basic substances of which more complex substances are composed.Anything that has mass (or weight) and occupies space is matter made up ofchemical elements such as silicon, aluminum, iron, oxygen, sulfur, copper, etc.Substances more complex than atoms of a single element consist of molecules. Amolecule is the smallest entity of a substance that has all the properties of thatsubstance.

Elements are classified broadly as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. Metals have ametallic luster, are malleable (but often hard), and can conduct electricity and heat.Some examples are iron, zinc, copper, silver, and gold. Nonmetals lack metallicluster, they are not malleable (but tend to be brittle), some are gases, and they doconduct heat and electricity. Metalloids have one or more properties of both metalsand nonmetals. Because metalloids can both insulate and conduct heat and electric-ity, they are known as semiconductors. The best examples of metalloids are boronand silicon, but there are several others.

There also are less inclusive groupings of elements than metals, nonmetals, andmetalloids. Alkali metals such as sodium and potassium are highly reactive and havean ionic valence of +1. Alkaline earth metals include calcium, magnesium, and otherelements that are moderately reactive and have an ionic valence of +2. Halogensillustrated by chlorine and iodine are highly reactive nonmetals, and they have anionic valence of �1. This group is unique in that its members can exist in solid,liquid, and gaseous form at temperatures and pressures found on the earth’s surface.Because of their toxicity, halogens often are used as disinfectants. Noble gases suchas helium, argon, and neon are unreactive except under very special conditions. In allthere are 18 groups and subgroups of elements. Most elements are included in the

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groups referred to as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transitional metals,halogens, noble gases, and chalcogens (oxygen family). The elements are groupedbased on similar properties and reactions. However, in reality, each element has oneor more unique properties and reactions.

The most fundamental entity in chemistry and the smallest unit of an element isthe atom. An atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by at least one electron.Electrons revolve around the nucleus in one or more orbitals or shells (Fig. A.1).The nucleus is made up of one or more protons, and with the sole exception ofhydrogen, one or more neutrons. The protons and neutrons do not necessarily occurin the nucleus in equal numbers. For example, the oxygen nucleus has eight protonsand neutrons, sodium has 11 protons and 12 neutrons, potassium has 19 protons and20 neutrons, copper has 29 electrons and 34 neutrons, and silver has 47 electrons and61 neutrons.

Protons are positively charged and assigned a charge value of +1 each, electronspossess a negative charge and are assigned a charge value of �1 each, and neutronsare charge neutral. In their normal state, atoms have equal numbers of protons andelectrons resulting in them being charge neutral.

Atoms are classified according to the numbers of protons. All atoms with thesame number of protons are considered to be the same element. For example, oxygenatoms always have eight protons while chlorine atoms always have 17 protons. Theatomic number of an element is the same as the number of protons, e.g., the atomicnumber of oxygen is 8 while that of chlorine is 17. There are over 100 elements eachwith an atomic number assigned to it according to the number of protons in itsnucleus.

Some atoms of the same element may have one to several neutrons more than doother atoms of the particular element, e.g., carbon atoms may have 6, 7, or 8 neutronsbut only 6 protons. These different varieties of the same element are known asisotopes. Moreover, all atoms of the same element may not have the same number ofelectrons.

When uncharged atoms come close together, one or more electrons may be lostfrom one atom and gained by the other. This phenomenon results in an imbalance

Fig. A.1 The structure ofoxygen, hydrogen, andsodium atoms.

412 Appendix: Some Fundamental Principles and Calculations

between electrons and protons in each of the two interacting atoms that imposes anegative charge on the one that gained the electron(s) and a positive charge on theone that lost the electron(s). The charge on the atom is equal to the number ofelectrons gained or lost (�1 or + 1 charge per electron). Charged atoms are calledions, but the normal atom is uncharged. In the periodic table of chemical elements,an element is assumed uncharged and to have equal numbers of protons andelectrons.

The mass of atoms results almost entirely from their neutrons and protons. Themasses of the two entities are almost identical; 1.6726 � 10�24 g for one proton and1.6749 � 10�24 g for one neutron. Thus, their atomic masses usually are consideredunity in determining relative atomic masses of elements. An electron has a mass of9.1� 10�28 g—nearly 2000 times less than the masses of protons and neutrons. Themass of electrons is omitted in atomic mass calculations for elements. The atomicmass of elements increases as the atomic number increases, because the number ofprotons and neutrons in the nucleus increases with greater atomic number. Theatomic mass of a given element differs among its isotopes because some isotopeshave more neutrons than others, while all isotopes of an element have the samenumber of protons. The loss or gain of electrons by atoms forming ions is notconsidered to affect atomic mass.

Because of the different natural isotopes of atoms of a particular element, theatomic mass typically listed in the periodic table for elements does not equal to thesum of the masses of the protons and neutrons contained in atoms of these elements.This results because the atomic masses typically reported for elements represent theaverage atomic masses of their isotopes. For example, copper typically has29 protons and 34 neutrons, and the atomic mass of the most common isotopewould be 63 based on addition of neutrons and protons. However, the atomic massreported in the periodic table of copper is 63.546. The additional mass results fromthe effects of averaging the atomic masses of the copper isotopes. Atomic masses ofsome common elements are provided (Table A.1).

The atomic mass is very important in stoichiometric relationships in reactions ofatoms and molecules. The relative molecular mass (or weight) of a molecule is thesum of the atomic masses of the atoms contained in the molecule. Thus, whensodium atoms (relative atomic mass of 22.99) react with chlorine atoms (relativeatomic mass of 35.45) to form sodium chloride, the reaction will always be in theproportion of 22.99 sodium to 35.45 chlorine, and the molecular mass of sodium willbe the sum of the atomic masses of sodium and chloride or 58.44. Atomic andmolecular masses may be reported in any unit of mass (or weight), but the mostcommon is the gram. The mass or weight of atoms (Table A.1) often is referred to asthe gram atomic mass (or weight) and the molecular mass of molecules usually isreferred to as the gram molecular weight.

Each element is assigned a symbol, e.g., H for hydrogen, O for oxygen, N fornitrogen, S for sulfur, C for carbon, and Ca for calcium. But, because of the largenumber of elements, it was not possible to have symbols suggestive of the Englishname for all elements. For example, sodium is Na, tin is Sn, iron is Fe, and gold isAu. The symbols must be memorized or found in reference material. The periodic

Appendix: Some Fundamental Principles and Calculations 413

table of the elements is a convenient listing of the elements in a way that elementswith similar chemical properties are grouped together. The periodic table ispresented in various formats, but most presentations include, at minimum, eachelement’s symbol, atomic number, and relative atomic mass and indicate the groupof elements to which it belongs.

The maximum number of electrons that can occur in a shell of an atom usually is2n2 where n is the number of the shell starting at the shell nearest the nucleus, i.e.,two electrons in the first shell, eight in the second shell, etc. Elements with a largeatomic number have several shells and some shells may not contain the maximumnumber of electrons. Chemical reactions among atoms involve only the electrons inthe outermost shell of atoms.

The laws of thermodynamics dictate that substances spontaneously changetowards their most stable states possible under existing conditions. To be stable,an atom needs two electrons in the inner shell, and at least eight electrons in itsoutermost shell. Chemical combinations (reactions) occur so that atoms gain or loseelectrons to attain stable outer shells.

Nonmetals tend to have outer shells nearly full of electrons. For example, chlorinehas seven electrons in its outer shell. If it gains one electron, it will have a stable

Table A.1 Selected atomic weights

Element Symbol Atomic weight Element Symbol Atomic weight

Aluminum Al 26.9815 Magnesium Mg 24.305

Antimony Sb 121.76 Manganese Mn 54.905

Arsenic As 74.9216 Mercury Hg 200.59

Barium Ba 137.327 Molybdenum Mo 95.94

Beryllium Be 9.0122 Nickel Ni 58.6934

Bismuth Bi 208.9804 Nitrogen N 14.0067

Boron B 10.811 Oxygen O 15.9994

Bromine Br 79.904 Phosphorus P 30.9738

Cadmium Cd 112.411 Platinum Pt 195.078

Calcium Ca 40.078 Potassium K 39.0983

Carbon C 12.0107 Selenium Se 78.96

Chlorine Cl 35.453 Silicon Si 28.0855

Chromium Cr 51.996 Silver Ag 107.8682

Cobalt Co 58.9332 Sodium Na 22.9897

Copper Cu 63.546 Strontium Sr 87.62

Fluorine F 18.9984 Sulfur S 32.065

Gold Au 196.9665 Thallium Tl 204.3833

Helium He 4.0026 Tin Sn 118.71

Hydrogen H 1.0079 Tungsten W 183.84

Iodine I 126.9045 Uranium U 238.0289

Iron Fe 55.845 Vanadium V 50.9415

Lead Pb 207.19 Zinc Zn 65.39

Lithium Li 6.941


outer shell, but the acquisition of this electron will give the chlorine atom a charge of�1. Gaining the electron causes a loss of energy and the chlorine ion is more stablethan the free atom. Nonmetals tend to capture electrons. The source of electrons fornonmetals is metals which tend to have only a few electrons in their outer shells.Sodium is a metal with one electron in its outer shell. It can lose the single electronand attain a charge of +1and lose energy to become more stable.

If sodium and chlorine are brought together, each sodium atom will give up anelectron to each chlorine atom (Fig. A.2). The chlorine atoms will now have fewerprotons than electrons and acquire a negative charge while the opposite will be trueof sodium atoms. Because opposite charges attract, sodium ions and chlorine ionswill combine because of the attraction of unlike charges forming sodium chloride orcommon salt (Fig. A.2). Bonds between sodium and chlorine in sodium chloride arecalled ionic bonds. The number of electrons lost or gained by an atom or the charge itacquires when it becomes an ion is the valence.

Some elements like carbon are unable to gain or lose electrons to attain stableouter shells. These elements may share electrons with other atoms. For example,carbon atoms have four electrons in their outer shells and can share electrons withfour hydrogen atoms as shown in Fig. A.3. This provides stable outer shells for both

Fig. A.2 Transfer of electronfrom a sodium atom to achlorine atom to form an ionicbond in sodium chloride


the carbon and hydrogen atoms. The resulting compound (CH4) is methane. Thechemical bond that connects each hydrogen to carbon in methane is known as acovalent bond.

When two or more elementary substances bond together, the resulting substanceis called a compound. A compound has a characteristic composition and uniqueproperties that set it aside from all other compounds. The Law of DefiniteProportions holds that all samples of a given compound substance contain thesame elements in the same proportions by weight. The smallest part of a substancewith all of the properties of that substance is a molecule. A molecule may becomposed of a single element as in the case of an elemental substance such asoxygen, sulfur, or iron or it may be composed of two or more elements as in aceticacid (CH3COOH) which contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The gram molec-ular weight or gram atomic mass of a substance contains as many molecules as thereare oxygen atoms in 15.9994 g of oxygen. This quantity is Avogadro’s number ofmolecules (6.02 � 1023), and it is known as a mole.

Elements are represented by symbols, but to represent molecules, the elementalsymbols are given numerical subscripts to represent their proportions. Such anotation is called a formula. For example, molecular oxygen and nitrogen have theformulas O2 and N2, respectively. Sodium chloride is NaCl and sodium carbonate isNa2CO3. The molecular weights of molecules can be determined by summing theatomic weights of all of the constituent elements. If an element has a subscript, itsatomic weight must be summed the number of times indicated by the subscript. Onemolecular weight of a substance in grams is a gram molecular weight or a mole asillustrated in Ex. A.1. The percentage of an element in a compound is determined bydividing the weight of the element by the formula weight of the compound andmultiplying by 100 (Ex. A.2).

Fig. A.3 Covalent bondingof hydrogen and carbon atomsto form methane


Ex. A.1 The molecular weights of O2 and CaCO3 will be calculated from theirformulas.

Solution:

O2: The atomic weight of O is 15.9994 (Table A.1), but it usually is rounded to16, thus 16 � 2 ¼ 32 g/mole.

CaCO3: The atomic weights of Ca, C, and O are 40.08, 12.01, and 16, respectively(Table A.1), thus 40.08 + 12.01 + 3(16) ¼ 100.09 g/mole.

The percentage composition of substances can be estimated from their formulasbecause of the Law of Definite Proportions.

Ex. A.2 The percentage Cu in CuSO4�5H2O will be calculated.Solution:From Table A.1, the atomic weights of Cu, S, O, and H are 63.55, 32.06, 16.00

and 1.01, respectively. Thus, the molecular weight of CuSO4�5H2O is63.55 + 32.06 + 9(16) + 10(1.01) ¼ 249.7 g. The percentage Cu is

Cu

CuSO4 � 5H2O� 100 or

63:55249:71

� 100 ¼ 25:4%:

Some compounds dissociate into ions in water, e.g. sodium nitrate (NaNO3)dissociates into Na+ and NO3

�. The ionic weight of a complex ion such as nitrateis calculated in the same manner as for the molecular weight of a compound. Ofcourse, the weight of Na+ is the same as the atomic weight of sodium.

Definition of a Solution

A solution consists of a solvent and a solute. A solvent is defined as the medium inwhich another substance—the solute—dissolves. In an aqueous sodium chlorinesolution, water is the solvent and sodium chloride is the solute. Miscibility refers to asolute and solvent mixing in all proportions to form a homogenous mixture orsolution. A true solution is by definition a homogenous mixture of two or morecomponents that cannot be separated into their individual ionic or molecularcomponents. Most solutes are only partially miscible in water. If a soluble compoundsuch as sodium chloride is mixed with water in progressively increasing amounts,the concentration of the solute will reach a constant level. Such a solution is said tobe saturated, and the amount of the sodium chloride held in solution is the solubilityof sodium chloride in water at the particular temperature. Any more sodium chlorideadded to the saturated solution will settle to the bottom without dissolving.

Solubilities of chemical compounds often are reported as grams of solute in100 mL of solution. Chemists generally consider substances that will dissolve to


the extent of 0.1 g/100 mL in water as soluble. A general list of classes of solublecompounds follows:

• nitrates• bromides, chlorides, and iodides—except those of lead, silver, and mercury• sulfates—except those of calcium, strontium, lead, and barium• carbonates and phosphates of sodium, potassium, and ammonium• sulfides of alkali and alkaline earth metals and ammonium.

Much of this book is devoted to a discussion of factors controlling concentrationsof dissolved matter in natural waters. This dissolved matter in water includesinorganic ions and compounds, organic compounds, and atmospheric gases, andmuch of water quality depends upon the concentrations of solutes in water.

Methods of Expressing Solute Strength

The solubility of a solute in a saturated solution or its concentration in an unsaturatedsolution may be expressed in several ways—the most common of which will bedescribed.

Molarity

In a molar solution, the solute strength is expressed in moles of solute per liter, e.g., a1 molar (1 M) solution contains 1 mole of solute in 1 L of solution. In other words, a1 M solution of NaCl consists of 1 mole (58.44 g NaCl) in 1 liter. Note: this is not thesame as putting 1 mole of NaCl in 1 L of solvent. It is 1 mole of NaCl contained in1 L of solution. The NaCl is dissolved in the solvent and the solution diluted to 1 lwith additional solvent. Calculations for a molar solution are shown in Ex. A.3.

Ex. A.3 How much Na2CO3 must be dissolved and diluted to 1 L to give a 0.25 Msolution?

Solution:The molecular weight of Na2CO3 is.2 Na ¼ 22.99 g/mol � 2 ¼ 45.98 g1 C ¼ 12.01 g/mol � 1 ¼ 12.01 g

3O ¼ 16 g/mol � 3 ¼ 48:0g105:99g

105:99 g=mole� 0:25 mol=L ¼ 26:5 g=L:

Thus, 26.5 g Na2CO3 diluted to 1 L in distilled water gives 0.25 M Na2CO3.


Molality

Not to be confused with a 1 molar solution, a 1 molal solution contains 1 molecularweight of a solute in 1 kg of solvent. The unit of molality is moles of solute perkilogram of solvent, and it is abbreviated as m or m.

Ex. A.4 The preparation of a 0.3 m KCl solution is illustrated.Solution:The molecular weight of KCl is.K ¼ 39.1 g/molCl ¼ 35.45 g/molKCl ¼ 74.55 g/mol

74:55 g=mol� 0:3 mol=kg ¼ 22:36 g KCl=kg solvent:

Thus, to make the 0.3 m KCl solution weigh 22.36 kg KCl and dissolve it in 1 kg ofdistilled water (or other solvent).

Formality

There also is a formal concentration which is calculated as the number of moles of asubstance in a liter of solution. The formal solution is denoted by the symbol F andrepresents the formula weights of solute per liter of solution. The formal solution isseldom used in water quality.

Normality

Because reactions occur on an equivalent weight basis, it is often more convenient toexpress concentration in equivalents per liter instead of moles per liter. A solutioncontaining 1 gram equivalent weight of solute per liter is a 1 normal (1 N) solution.In cases where the equivalent weight and formula weight of a compound are equal, a1 M solution and a 1 N solution have identical concentrations of solute. This is thecase with HCl and NaCl, but with H2SO4 or Na2SO4, a 1 M solution would be a 2 Nsolution.

The following rules may be used to compute equivalent weights of mostreactants: (1) the equivalent weight of acids and bases equal their molecular (for-mula) weights divided by their number of reactive hydrogen or hydroxyl ions; (2) theequivalent weights of salts equal their molecular weights divided by the product ofthe number and valence of either cation component (positively charged ion) or anioncomponent (negatively charged ion); (3) the equivalent weights of oxidizing andreducing agents may be determined by dividing their molecular weights by thenumber of electrons transferred per molecular weight in oxidation-reductionreactions.


Oxidation-reduction reactions usually are more troublesome to students thanother types of reactions. An example of an oxidation reduction reaction is providedbelow in which manganese sulfate reacts with molecular oxygen:

2MnSO4 þ 4NaOH þ O2 ! 2MnO2 þ 2Na2SO4 þ 2H2O ðA:1ÞManganese in MnSO4 has a valence of +2 and sulfate has a valence of �2. Inmanganese dioxide the valance of manganese is +4 (notice each of the two oxygenshave a valence of �2 making a total valence of �4 for oxygen). Manganese wasoxidized, because its valence increased. Molecular oxygen with valence of 0 wasreduced to a valence of �2 in manganese dioxide. Each molecule of manganesesulfate (the reducing agent) lost two electrons which were gained by oxygen (theoxidizing agent). The equivalent weight of magnesium sulfate in this reaction is itsformula weight divided by two.

Additional examples illustrating calculations of equivalent weights andnormalities of acids, bases, and salts are provided in Exs. A.5, A.6, and A.7.

Ex. A.5 What is the equivalent weight of sodium carbonate when it reacts withhydrochloric acid?

Solution:The reaction is: Na2CO3 + 2HCl ¼ 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O.One sodium carbonate molecule reacts with two hydrochloric acid molecules.

Thus, the equivalent weight of sodium carbonate is

Na2CO3

2¼ 106

2¼ 53 g:

Ex. A.6 What are the equivalent weights of sulfuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid(HNO3), and aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH)3]?

Solution:

(i) Sulfuric acid has two available hydrogen ions

H2SO4 ! 2Hþ þ SO2�4 :

Thus, the equivalent weight is

H2SO4

2¼ 98

2¼ 49 g:

(ii) Nitric acid has one available hydrogen ion

HNO3 ! Hþ þ NO�3 :

The equivalent weight is


HNO3

1¼ 63

1¼ 63 g:

(iii) Aluminum hydroxide has three available hydroxide ions

Al OHð Þ3 ¼ Al3þ þ 3OH�:

The equivalent weight is

Al OHð Þ33

¼ 77:983

¼ 25:99 g:

Ex. A.7 How much Na2CO3 must be dissolved and diluted to 1 L to give a 0.05 Nsolution?

Solution:

Na2CO3 ! 2Naþ þ CO2�3 :

The formula weight must be divided by 2 because 2Naþ ¼ 2, or because CO2�3

¼ �2:The sign difference (2Na+¼ +2 andCO2�3 ¼ -2) with respect to valence) does

not matter in calculating equivalent weight.

106 g Na2CO3=mole

2¼ 53 g=equiv:

53 g=equiv: � 0:05 equiv:=L ¼ 2:65 g=L:

In expressing solute strength for dilute solutions, it is convenient to usemilligrams instead of grams. Thus, we have millimoles (mmol), millimolar (mM),millimoles/L (mmol/L that is the same as mM), milliequivalents (meq), andmilliequivalents/liter (meq/L). A 0.001 M solution is a 1 mM solution.

Weight per Unit Volume

In water quality, concentrations often are expressed in weight of a substance per liter.The usual procedure is to report milligrams of a substance per liter (Ex. A.8).

Ex. A.8 What is the concentration of K in a solution that is 0.1 N with respect toKNO3?

Solution:

KNO3 ¼ 101:1 g=equiv:


101:1 g=equiv: � 0:1 equiv:=L ¼ 10:11g=L:

The amount of K in 10.11 g of KNO3 is

39:1101:1

� 10:11 g=L ¼ 3:9 g=L:

3:9 g=L� 1; 000 mg=g ¼ 3; 900 mg=L:

The unit, milligrams per liter, is equivalent to the unit, parts per million (ppm) asshown in Ex. A.9; it is common in water quality to use parts per million (ppm)interchangeably with milligrams per liter.

Ex. A.9 It will be demonstrated that 1 mg/L ¼ 1 ppm for aqueous solutions.Solution:

1 mg

1 L¼ 1 mg

1 kg¼ 1 mg

1; 000 g¼ 1 mg

1; 000; 000 mg¼ 1 ppm:

It also is common in water quality to express concentration of minor constituentsin micrograms per liter (μg/L); and, of course, 1 μg/L ¼ 0.001 mg/L. To convertmilligrams per liter to micrograms per liter, simply move the decimal place to theright three places, e.g., 0.05 mg/L¼ 50 μg/L, and vice versa. Sometimes microgramsper liter will be expressed as parts per billion (ppb). The rationale for this is easilyseen if the calculation in Ex. A.9 is begun with 1 μg/L and we get 1 μg/1,000,000,000 μg.

It also is convenient to express the strength of more concentrated solutions inparts per thousand or ppt (Ex. A.10). One part per thousand is equal to 1 g/L becausethere are 1000 g in 1 L. It also is equal to 1000 mg/L. An alternative way ofindicating concentration in parts per thousand is the symbol ‰.

Ex. A.10 Express the concentration of sodium chloride in a 0.1 M solution as partsper thousand and milligrams per liter.

Solution:

0:1 M � 58:45 g NaCl=mole ¼ 5:845 g=L:

The salinity is 5.845 ppt that is equal to 5845 mg/L.

It is easy to convert water quality data in milligrams per liter to molar or normalconcentrations (Ex. A.11).


Ex. A.11 Molarity and normality of 100 mg/L calcium will be calculated.Solution:

(i)100 mg=L

40:08 mg Ca=mmol¼ 2:495 mmol=L or 0:0025 M:

(ii) Calcium is divalent, so

100 mg=L

20:04 mg=meq¼ 4:99 meq=L or 0:005 N:

Concentrations of solutions often are in milligrams per liter with no regard formolarity of normality as shown in Ex. A.12.

Ex. A.12 How much magnesium sulfate (MgSO4�7H2O) must be dissolved andmade to 1000 mL final volume and to provide a magnesium concentration of100 mg/L?

Solution:

x 100 mg=LMgSO4 ∙ 7H2O ¼ Mg

mw ¼ 246:31 g mw ¼ 24:31 g

rearranging,

x ¼ 24; 63124:31

¼ 1; 013:2 mg=L of MgSO4 � 7H2O:

Weight Relationships in Reactions

Stoichiometry is the area of chemistry that considers weight relationships amongreactants and products in chemical reactions. The equations for reactions allowweights of reactants and products to be calculated. The reaction of sodium hydroxideto neutralize hydrochloric acid is NaOH + HCl ¼ NaCl + H2O. Each mole of HClrequires 1 mol of NaOH for neutralization. Thus 40.00 g NaOH reacts with 36.46 gof HCl to yield 58.44 g NaCl and 18.02 g H2O. The weight on each side of theequation remains the same before and after a reaction that goes to completion (therewere 76.46 g of reactants and 76.46 g of products in this instance). Calculationsusually are more complex than for hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide asillustrated in Ex. A.13.


Ex. A.13 The amount of calcium carbonate necessary to neutralize the acidity for100 kg of aluminum chloride will be calculated.

Solution:Al(Cl)3 dissolves releasing Al3+

Al Clð Þ3 ¼ Al3þ þ 3Cl�

Al3+ hydrolyzes producing hydrogen ion (H+) which is a source of acidity:

Al3þ þ 3H2O ¼ Al OHð Þ3 # þ3Hþ:

Hydrogen ion is neutralized by calcium carbonate (CaCO3):

3Hþ þ 1:5 CaCO3 ¼ 1:5 Ca2þ þ 1:5 CO2 þ 1:5 H2O:

Weight of Al in 100 kg of AlCl3 is

100 kg XAlCl3 ¼ Al3þ

133:34 g=mol 26:98 g=at:wt:þ 3Cl�

Al3+ ¼ 20.23 kg Al3+.Weight of CaCO3 needed to neutralize the acidity is.Al3+ ¼ 3H+; therefore, Al3+ ¼ 1.5 CaCO3.

20:23 kg XAl3þ ¼ 1:5 CaCO3

26:98 g=at:wt: 150 g

X ¼ 112.5 kg CaCO3.

Two more examples will be provided.

Ex. A.14 The amount of carbon dioxide required to produce 100 kg organic matterin photosynthesis will be determined.

Solution:The photosynthesis equation is

6CO2 þ 6H2O ¼ C6H12O6 þ 6O2:

The relationship of CO2 to carbon in organic matter is CO2 ¼ CH2O.and

X 100 kgCO2 ¼ CH2O44 g=mol 30 g=mol

CO2 ¼ 146.7 kg.


Ex. A.15 The amount of molecular oxygen necessary to oxidize 5 kg of elementalsulfur to sulfuric acid will be computed.

Solution:The reaction is:

Sþ 1:5O2 þ H2O ¼ H2SO4:

The relationship of elemental sulfur to molecular oxygen is S ¼ 1.5 O2:

5 kg XS ¼ 1:5O2

32 48

O2 ¼ 7.5 kg.Note: In this particular instance, the amount of oxygen required is 1.5 times the

amount of sulfur oxidized. This was the result of the coincidence that the molecularweight of O2 is the same as the atomic weight of S.

Some Shortcuts

Some important water quality variables are radicals such as nitrate, nitrite, ammonia,ammonium, phosphate, sulfate, etc. Sometimes, the concentration will be given asthe concentration of the radical, and other times, it will be given as the concentrationof the element of interest that is contained in the radical. For example, the concen-tration of ammonia may be given as 1 mg NH3/L or it may be given as 1 mg NH3-N/L. It is possible to convert back and forth between the two methods of presentingconcentration. In the case of NH3-N, use of the factor N/NH3 (14/17 or 0.824): 1 mgNH3/L � 14/17 ¼ 0.82 mg NH3-N/L. It follows that 1 mg NH3-N/L �14/17 ¼ 1.21 mg NH3/L. Similar reasoning may be used to convert between

Table A.2 Factor tomultiply by concentrationof an ionic radical and CO2

to obtain the elementalequivalent

Conversion Factor

NH3 to NH3-N 0.824

NH4+ to NH4

+-N 0.778

NO3� to NO3

�-N 0.226

NO2� to NO2

�-N 0.304

PO43� to PO4

3�-P 0.326

HPO42� to HPO4

2�-P 0.323

H2PO4� to H2PO4

�-P 0.320

SO42� to SO4

2�-S 0.333

H2S to H2S-S 0.941

CO2 to CO2-C 0.273

The concentrations in elemental form can be converted to the ionconcentration by dividing by the factor, e.g., 0.226 mg/L NO3

� N �0.226 ¼ 1 mg/L NO3

�.


NO3� and NO3-N, NO2

� and NO2�-N, SO4

2� and SO42�-S, etc. Some conversion

factors are given in Table A.2.It also is useful to note that the dimensions for molarity and normality are moles

per liter and equivalents per liter, respectively. Thus, multiplying molarity ornormality by volume in liters gives moles and equivalents, respectively. The samelogic applies for multiplying millimoles or milliequivalents per milliliter by volumein milliliters.

In some calculations, the quantity of a dissolved substance in a particular volumemay be sought. It is helpful to remember that 1 mg/L is the same as 1 g/m3, becausethere are 1000 L in a cubic meter. Likewise, 1 μg/L is the same as 1 mg/m3 for thesame reason.


Index

AAbeliovich, A., 255Absolute salinity, 87Absorption coefficient, 31Absorption spectrum, 31Accornero, M., 364Acidic deposition

aragonite and calcite, 225fossil fuels, 225hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide, 224smoke and haze, 225sulfur and nitrogen gases, 224

Acidification, 382Acidity, 270, 280, 281, 289

acid-sulfate soil and sediment, 220–224concept

fulvic acid, 217, 218hydrogen ion concentration and pH, 216mineral acids, 217tannic acid, 219titratable acids, 216

deposition, 224–225effects, 227–228measurement, 226–227mitigation, 228–229

Acid mine drainage, 223Acid rain, 227, 324, 332Acid sulfate soil

acid drainage, 223anaerobic microbial respiration, 220Desulfovibrio, 223jarosite, 222metal and iron sulfides, 220pyrite oxidation, 222Thiobacillus, 223

Activity coefficient, 77, 79, 80Adams, F., 81Adams, G., 285Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 292

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 237, 292Aerobic respiration

acetyl CoA, 238ATP synthesis, 238carbohydrate metabolism, 237glycolysis and citric acid cycle, 238oxygen stoichiometry, 239–240RQ, 239

Air temperature, 34Alabama Stream Classification System, 401Albedo, 16, 17Alexander, L.T., 221Alkalinity, 178

carbon dioxide, 201, 202description, 202pH, 199–201

Alum (aluminum sulfate), 131Aluminum (Al), 361–364Aluminum and iron phosphate, 296, 299Aluminum hydroxide, 346Aluminum sulfate, 320American Society of Testing Materials

(ASTM), 113, 114Ammonia, 269–276, 279, 281, 284, 286, 287Ammonia-ammonium equilibrium, 282

283, 285Ammonia diffusion, 285, 286Ammonia hydrolysis, 282Ammonia toxicity, 287, 288Ammonium, 269, 272–274, 279, 282, 283Amphoteric substance, 339, 363Amphoterism, 345Anaerobic respiration

ethanol production, 241fermentation, 241glucose to lactic acid, 241lactic acid production, 241methane production, 242nitrate, 242

# Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020C. E. Boyd, Water Quality, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23335-8

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Anderson, R.A., 356Anion-cation balance, 95, 96Antimony (Sb), 364Application factor, 397Aquaculture, ixAquatic ecosystems, 38, 380Aquatic macrophytes, 293Aquifers, 45, 54, 55Arnon, D.I., 357Arrhenius, S., 37Arsenic (As), 360, 361Atmospheric circulation, 49–51Atmospheric fixation, 272Atmospheric gases, 136–138Atmospheric motion, 50Atmospheric nitrogen fixation, 270, 271, 273Atmospheric pressure, 5–7, 11, 13, 14, 136–138Avogadro’s number, 125, 416

BBacteria

abundance, 244aerobic respiration (see Aerobic respiration)anaerobic respiration (see Anaerobic

respiration)growth, 235–239growth effects, 243, 244physiology, 235

Bagarinao, T., 332Baralkiewicz, D., 356Barium (Ba), 365Barometric pressure (BP), 136, 138, 139, 145Beckett, R., 218Beer-Lambert law, 31Beryllium (Be), 365Besser, J.M., 355, 364Best management practices (BMPs), 400, 405Bicarbonate alkalinity, 187Bioaccumulation, 391Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 386, 387

ammonia nitrogen, 387natural waters, 387nitrification, 387, 389organic matter, 385photosynthetic oxygen production, 385phytoplankton respiration, 386stream reaeration, 387wastewater, 385

Bioconcentration, 391Biocriteria, 404Biodiversity, 315Biological fixation, 273

Biological oxygen demand (BOD), 318Biological pollution, 389Biotic ligand model (BLM), 371Bismuth (Bi), 366Blue-green algae, 248Boehmite, 361Bohr model, 22Boiler scale, 209, 210Bollenbach, W.M. Jr., 390Borda, M.J., 221Boron (B), 358Bottled water, 115, 116Boyd, C.E., 49, 81, 219, 228, 229, 253, 255,

261, 263, 302, 332, 341, 358, 389Bromine (Br), 366Brønsted theory, 344Brownian movement, 123Buffering, 194, 196–199Bunsen coefficients, 141, 142Butcher, R.W., 318

CCadmium (Cd), 355Calcite, 189Calcium carbonate, 184Calcium carbonate saturation

Langelier Saturation Index, 212, 213precipitation/scaling, 212

Calcium fluoride (CaF2), 358Calcium hardness

eriochrome black T, 209murexide indicator, 209

Calcium phosphate, 291–293, 300, 307Caldeira, K., 225Calomel electrode, 172, 174Capillary action, 9–11Capillary fringe, 11Carbon and oxygen cycle, 261–263Carbon availability, 202Carbon dioxide (CO2), 181–183Carbonic acid, 181, 182Carbonic anhydrase, 193Cation-anion balance, 94–96Celsius scale, 22, 23Chalcopyrite, 352Chalker, J.M., 368Chandra, A.P., 221Chelated metal, 347Chelating agents, 347Chemical equilibrium

hydrochloric acid, 69K values, 69

428 Index

molar activities, 69pH buffering, 69principles, 65reaction quotient, 69saturated solution, 68thermodynamics

endergonic, 71endothermic reaction, 70enthalpy, 69, 70entropy, 70exergonic, 71exothermic reaction, 69K value, 72, 73non-equilibrium conditions, 72, 73reactants, 69standard Gibbs free energy, 70

Chemical weathering, 66Chlorination

chlorine residuals, 264chlorine species, 264coliform organisms, 263fecal coliforms, 263human pathogens, 263hypochlorous acid, 265infections, 263trihalomethanes, 265

Chowdhury, U.K., 361Chromium (Cr), 356, 357Clay, J., 389Clean Water Act, 399, 400, 406C/N ratio, 276, 277Cobalt (Co), 356Cogley, J.G., 17Coldwater species, 38Coliform organisms, 263Colligative properties, 108Colony-forming units (CFU), 244Colt, J., 137, 141, 142Common ion effect, 67, 76Common salinity, 87Compensation depth, 259Compressibility of water, 12Concentration limits, 403, 405Conductivity, 16Confined aquifers, 54, 55Conley, D.J., 320Copper (Cu), 352–354Copper sulfate, 320Coriolis force, 50Corrosion, 117, 175, 176Ćosović, B., 356Coulomb’s law, 15Covalent bond, 2, 416

Cowardin, L.M., 397Cowling, E.B., 227Criterion continuous concentration (CCC),

371, 395Criterion maximum concentration (CMC),

371, 395Crout, D.H.G., 219Cultural eutrophication, 312Cyanide (CN), 366, 367Cyanobacteria, 248

DDahl, T.E., 398Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures, 139Debye-Hückel equation, 77–80Deforestation, 384Deionizer, 113Delta P (ΔP), 150, 151de Melo, B.A., 228Denitrification, 280–282, 286, 289Density, 8, 9, 12, 13, 18Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 292Deposition, 6Desalination, 115, 117Desulfovibrio, 328Deverel, S.J., 336Dielectric constant, 14, 15Diffuse reflection, 17Dihydrogen monoxide, 1Dihydrogen oxide, 1Discharge permits, 399Dissolutions, 65–67, 74Dissolved organic matter, 105–107Dissolved oxygen

aerobic organisms, 135aerobic respiration, 136atmospheric gases and pressure,

136–138biologic and geologic factors, 136concentrations, 156gases, 136partial pressure, 138, 140warmwater fish, 161

Dodds, W.K., 318Dolomite, 189Drainage network, 56Drinking water, viiiDrinking water standards, 391Durum, W.H., 357, 365, 369Dynamic viscosity, 12Dystrophic water body, 219, 229Dystrophy, 311

Index 429

EEarth’s water

freshwater, 42hydrosphere, 42precipitation, 43runoff, 43water cycling, 42water footprint, 43water shortages, 44

Eaton, A.D., 186, 207, 209, 216, 226,385, 393

Economic development, 402Effluent standards, 400, 404Einstein’s equation, 25Eisely, L., 2Electrical conductivity (EC), 90, 91Electrical neutrality, 94Electricity, 89Electromagnetic radiation, 25Electromagnetic spectrum, 27, 30Electron shell, 2Electrostatic interactions, 77–80Elements

alkaline earth metals, 411atomic mass, 413atoms, 412classification, 411formula, 416ions, 413isotopes, 413metalloids, 411molecules, 411noble gases, 411nonmetals, 411, 414nucleus, 412protons, 412sodium and chlorine, 415symbol, 413

Elser, J.J., 252Endothermic reactions, 37Energy, 22, 25, 46Enthalpy, 6, 69, 70Entropy, 23, 24, 70Epilimnion, 35, 36Equilibria, 192–194Equilibrium constant, 68, 69, 72–74, 81,

82, 164Equilibrium Law, 68Equivalent conductances (λ), 91, 92Equivalent ionic conductance, 91Eriochrome black T, 207, 209Erosion, 129

factors, 383

gully, 383land surface disruption, 384raindrop, 383sedimentation, 384sheet, 383soil, 383turbidity, 384USLE, 383

Esdaile, J.L., 368Essumang, D.K., 356Estuaries, 36, 62Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA),

207, 208Etowah River, 99Eutrophication, 291, 293

anthropogenic activities, 313aquatic ecosystems, 315biological communities, 314climate change, 318, 319control, 319–321definition, 312diversity, 315ecologically-sensitive species, 313ecological system, 316lakes, 316–318nitrogen and phosphorus, 313, 315, 321physical and chemical environment, 313phytoplankton species diversity, 314runoff, 312sedimentation, 312stream, 318unpolluted water bodies, 315variables, 313water bodies, 312water pollution, 321water usage, 319

Eutrophy, 311, 313Evaporation, 48, 60

dissolved salt concentrations, 47energy, 44, 46measurement, 47–49molecules, 46phytoplankton, 47relative humidity, 46, 47saturation vapor pressure, 47VPD, 46wind velocity, 47

Evaporation pan, 48, 49Evapotranspiration, 43, 45Everall, N.C., 227Exothermic reactions, 37Extinction coefficient, 126

430 Index

FFanning, D.S., 221Faraday constant, 168Feely, R.A., 225Fermentation, 241, 242Ferredoxins, 324Feuchtmayr, H., 318Filella, M., 366Firth, J., 361Flegal, A.R., 369Fleming, J.F., 221Flocculation, 131Fluoride (F), 358, 359Food web, 292, 316, 317Formality, 419Formazin attenuation units (FAU), 127Frattini, P., 369Frear, C.L., 190Free energy of reaction, 70, 72Freshwater, 42Freshwater aquatic ecosystems, 407Fries, L., 357Fulvic acids, 218, 219

GGaillardet, J., 336Gallagher, L.M., 406Gary, J.E., 368Gas bubble trauma, 151, 270, 289Gas solubility

Bunsen’s absorption coefficients, 141Henry’s law, 140STP, 142temperatures and salinities, 142

Gas solubility tablesBP, 145, 146dissolved oxygen concentrations, 147hydrostatic pressure, 146universal gas law equation, 147

Gas transferair-water interface, 152, 153dissolved oxygen concentrations, 152, 153gas-liquid contact system, 153molecular diameters, 153oxygen deficit/surplus, 152SOTR, 154, 155WRR, 155

Gebbie, P., 212, 213Geissman, T.A., 219Gensemer, R.W., 364George, C., 264Gerson, A.R., 221

Gibbs free energy, 70, 71, 164, 168, 336Gibbsite, 298, 361, 363Gibbs, J.W., 70Gibbs standard-state free energy, 70Gilbert, J.A., 358Global atmospheric circulation, 50Global energy budget, 28Global warming, 30, 318Goldberg, E.D., 341Goldman, C.R., 336Goldmining, 368Gopakumar, G., 332Gosselink, J.G., 397Gram atomic mass, 413Gram molecular weight, 413Gray, J.S., 332Green and purple sulfur bacteria, 328Greenhouse effect, 30Greenhouse gases, 30Gross, A., 281, 285Groundwater, 45, 54, 55, 97Groundwater pollution, 389, 390Gully erosion, 383Guo, T., 340Gypsum, 66, 325

HHaber-Bosch process, 273Haffty, J., 357, 365, 369Haines, T.A., 224, 227Halogens, 411Hamilton, S.J., 360Han, Y., 229Hardness and biological productivity, 210Hardness categories

calcium and magnesium hardness, 209carbonate and noncarbonate hardness, 209

Hargreaves, J.A., 287Hasler, A.D., 228Hasselbalch, K.A., 196Hayes, D., 324Heat, 23Hem, J.D., 200, 324, 336, 351, 356, 359,

360, 362, 369Hemoglobin, 159, 160, 350Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, 196, 198, 199Henry’s law, 140Hoekstra, A.Y., 43Holland, A., 227Hoorman, J.J., 276Howarth, R.S., 371Howe, P., 369

Index 431

Humankind, 43Human population, 380Humic acids, 218, 219Humic substances, 106, 125, 181

fulvic acid, 217humic acid, 219mineral acids, 227organic polymers, 218toxic effect, 227toxicity, 228

Hutchinson, G.E., 84Hydrogen (H2), 164Hydrogen bonds, 4–6, 9, 10, 22Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), 329, 330Hydrologic cycle, 41, 44, 45, 62Hydrologic equation, 60Hydrolysis, 345, 346Hydrolysis of carbonate, 193, 194Hydrometers, 87, 88Hydronium ion (H3O

+), 178Hydrosphere, 42Hydrostatic pressure (HP), 146, 150–152Hydroxide alkalinity, 187Hydroxyapatite, 300Hyenstrand, P., 336, 350Hygroscopic coefficient, 53Hypolimnion, 35, 36, 173

IIce, 6, 8Ice cover, 36Ideal gas law, 147, 169Imhoff cone, 128, 129Immobilization of nitrogen, 276Industrial fixation, 273Industrial revolution, 380Inorganic phosphorus, 293, 294, 296, 302Intergovernmental Oceanographic

Commission (IOC), 87International Desalination Association, 115International Society of Soil Science (ISSS), 121International Standards Organization

(ISO), 113, 114International System of Units (SI units), 5, 90International Union of Pure and Applied

Chemistry (IUPAC), 1Iodine (I2), 359Ion activities

divalent, 79monovalent, 79

Ion hydration, 15Ionic strength, 77–79, 81

Ion pairs, 80, 81, 341, 342, 344, 348Iron (Fe), 350–352Iron pyrite, 331Islam, R., 276Isotopes, 412Izbicki, J.A., 357

JJackson turbidimeter unit (JTU), 126Jaszczak, E., 367Jenkins, D., 185, 264Jimenez, M.C.S., 265Johnson, D.S., 228Johnston, J., 190Jones, D.A., 366Jones, J.B. Jr., 349Jumpertz, R., 240

KKarbowska, B., 369Kaushal, S.S., 319Kautz, R.S., 318Kellerman, K.F., 353Kelvin scale, 23Khan, T., 357King, D.J., 253Kirchhoff’s law, 30Klavins, M., 220Knudsen equation, 87Knudsen, M., 86Kochkodan, V., 358Kociolek, J.P., 311Kopp, J.F., 354, 355, 358, 361, 365, 367Korečková-Sysalová, J., 365Krebs cycle, 237Kristensen, E., 243Kroner, R.C., 354, 355, 357, 358, 365, 367Kucuk, S., 287Kutler, B., 354Kuttyamma, V.J., 332

LLakes, 58Lane, T.W., 355Langelier Saturation Index, 212Langelier, W.F., 212, 213Lantin-Olaguer, I., 332Latent cancer fatalities (LCF), 392Latent heat, 6, 7Law of Definite Proportions, 416, 417

432 Index

Law of mass action, 68, 164Lawrence, J., 219Laws of thermodynamics, 2, 22, 23, 69, 70, 414LC50 tests, 288, 289Lead (Pb), 367Le Chatelier’s principle, 68, 74Lee, J.G., 355Lees, D.R., 227Leib, K.J., 355, 364Lethal concentration 50 (LC50), 393,

394, 396, 397Lewis acid and base theory, 344Lewis acid-base reaction, 344Liebig’s law, 251Ligands, 347Light and dark reactions, 249Light-dark bottle technique, 257Light penetration in water, 30–32, 124Lignins, 124Lignosulfonic acid, 219Li, M., 228Lime-soda ash process, 210, 211Lindemann, M.D., 356Livingstone, D.A., 98, 200, 357, 358, 367, 370Load limits, 403, 405Longwave radiation, 29Lowest observed effect concentration

(LOEC), 394Luther III, G.W., 221Luxury consumption, 304Lysimeters, 49

MMacrophytes, 303, 305Magazinovic, R.S., 366Magnesium hardness, 209Manganese (Mn), 352Martell, A.E., 347, 362Massaut, L., 398Mass balance, 61Masuda, K., 302Maunder Minimum in astronomy, 27Maximum allowable toxicant concentrations

(MATC), 372, 394, 397Maxwell, J., 46Maxwell’s demon concept, 46McBride, M.B., 336, 341McCarty, P.L., 210McNevin, A.A., 263, 332, 341Mean sea level (MSL), 136Mekonnen, M.M., 43Meniscus, 9, 10

Mercury (Hg), 367, 368Mesotrophy, 311Metalimnion, 35Metalloids, 411Methane production, 242Methyl mercury, 368Microbial decomposition, 292Microbial growth efficiency (MGE), 276Micronutrients, 336

arsenic, 360, 361boron, 358cadmium, 355chromium, 356, 357cobalt, 356copper, 352–354fluoride, 358, 359iodine, 359iron, 350–352manganese, 352molybdenum, 356nickel, 357selenium, 360and trace elements, 343vanadium, 357zinc, 354, 355

Microorganismsbacteria (see Bacteria)phytoplankton (see Phytoplankton)

Miller, L.A., 406Miller, W.E., 252Mineralization of nitrogen, 276, 277Miscibility, 417Mitsch, W.J., 397Molality, 419Molarity, 418, 426Molecular oxygen, 136, 162Molybdenum (Mo), 356Monocalcium phosphate, 299, 300Moore, G.T., 353Morel, F.M.M., 355Moser River, 99Moyle, J.B., 210Muller, S., 318Murexide indicator, 209Mu, Y., 371

NNadis, S., 336, 350Nassar, L.J., 228National Pollutant Discharge Elimination

System (NPDES), 399Natural ecosystems, 380

Index 433

Natural softening of groundwater, 104Natural waters, 65, 81

coastal and ocean water, 104, 105dissolved organic matter, 105–107inland waters

aquifers, 103carbon dioxide, 97geological and climatic zones, 98groundwater, 97, 103hydrogen ion concentration, 99ionic constituents, 98, 99limestone, 98, 99mineral precipitation, 102minerals, 97physiographic regions, 103pond waters, 102runoff, 97silica concentration, 98streams, 97

rainwater, 96, 97Nephelometer, 127Nephelometer turbidity units (NTU), 127Nephelometry, 127Nernst equation, 169, 170, 180Nesbitt, H.W., 221Nickel (Ni), 357Ning, L., 354, 355, 357, 361, 367, 368Nitrate reduction in plants, 274Nitrification, 270, 278–280, 382Nitrite toxicity, 288Nitrobacter, 279Nitrogen, 270, 286, 287Nitrogen compounds, 289Nitrogen cycle, 271Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 289Nitrogen fixation, 271, 273, 286Nitrosomonas, 279Nonessential trace elements

aluminum, 361–364antimony, 364barium, 365beryllium, 365bismuth, 366bromine, 366cyanide, 366, 367lead, 367mercury, 367, 368silver, 368, 369strontium, 369thallium, 369tin, 369uranium, 370

Non-photosynthetic microorganisms, 21

No observed effect concentration (NOEC), 394Normality, 419, 420, 426Novak, J.T., 253Nutrient pollution, 381Nutrients

alkalinity and phytoplanktonproductivity, 253

growth and metabolism, 235inorganic, 243multiple limiting, 251phytoplankton growth, 252single limiting, 251turbidity and discoloration, 248

OOcean currents, 50Oceans, 42, 62Ocean water, 104Ohm’s law, 89Oligotrophy, 311, 313Organic phosphorus, 301–303Orr, J.C., 225Orthophosphoric acid, 294Osmoregulation, 112Osmotic pressure, 110–112Oxidation-reduction (redox) potential

aquatic ecology, 176cell voltage and free-energy change,

168–171corrosion, 175, 176electron transfer, 163half-cell reactions, 165hydrogen, 164iodine, 164measurable electrical current, 164measurement, 172–174oxidizing agent, 164standard hydrogen electrode, 165–168

Oxygen consumption, 160Oxygen potential, 173, 174Oxygen solubilities, 145Oxygen tension, 149, 150, 152, 159Oxyhemoglobin, 159Oysters, viii

PPagenkopf, G.K., 347Pais, I., 349Palmer, C.A., 358Partial pressure, 139, 140, 149, 152Pecos River, 99

434 Index

Penman equation, 49Percentage saturation, 149, 150pH

acidity/basicity, 177alkalinity, 178averaging, 180calculations, 179, 180concept, 178, 179natural waters, 181on fish, 201rainwater, 182, 183

Phenolphthalein alkalinity (PA), 187Phosphate fertilizers, 293, 307Phosphorus

analysis issues, 302brain food, 292concentrations in water, 302, 303ecosystems, 308environment, 293, 294fertilized fish ponds, 307natural and agricultural ecosystems, 291nitrogen, 308organic, 301organic matter, 292orthophosphate, 308orthophosphoric acid, 294–296pH, 295, 301phospholipids, 292phytic acid, 292plant uptake, 303, 304protein synthesis, 292qualitative model, 294sediment reactions, 296, 298–301valence states, 292water and sediment, 304, 305, 307

Phosphorus removal, 320, 321Photic zone, 124Photosynthesis, 249, 250Photosynthesis and respiration rates,

measurement, 257–259Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), 125Photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), 125Phytic acid, 292Phytoplankton

abundancechlorophyll a determination, 254Secchi disk visibility, 254

biochemical assimilation, 250biology, 247–248harmful algae, 260, 261photosynthesis, 249

Phytoplankton die-offs, 255, 256Piezometric levels, 55

Pinsino, A., 352Polarization, 15Pollutants, 381Pollution, viii, ixPollution control

effluent discharge permits, 399effluent limitations, 400water bodies, 400, 402

Polyphosphate, 296Ponds, 58Pore water, 294, 299, 301, 305, 306Potential acid-sulfate (PAS), 221Potential evapotranspiration (PET), 49Practical salinity, 87Practical salinity units (psu), 87Precipitation, 45, 49

adiabatic lapse rate, 51air rising, 51hail, 52hygroscopic particles, 52measurement, 52rules, 52water droplets/ice particles, 52

Probable no effect concentrations (PNEC), 372Proton-proton chain, 24, 25Puntoriero, M.L., 359Pure water, ix

QQ10 equation, 38

RRaindrop erosion, 383Rainfall, 42, 45, 52, 55, 56, 58, 60Rain gauges, 48, 53Rainwater, ix, 41, 96, 97Raoult, F., 108Raoult’s law, 108Rathbun, R.E., 228Redfield, A.C., 252, 308Redfield ratio, 252, 308Reference salinity, 87Reflectivity, 17Refractive index, 18, 19, 87Refractometer, 87, 88Relative humidity (RH), 46, 47Republican River, 99Reservoirs, 58Resistivity, 90Respiration

absorption, 157

Index 435

Respiration (cont.)air movement, 158aquatic ecosystems, 162aquatic environments, 157aquatic organisms, 159carbon dioxide, 160, 161chemoautotrophic microorganisms, 160metalloproteins, 159oxygen, 160terrestrial ecosystems, 158warmwater fish, 161weight/volume concentration, 158

Respiratory quotient (RQ), 239Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 292Rickard, D., 221Roberson, C.E., 362Runoff, 43, 44, 49, 56, 60Ryan, D., 341

SSalinity, 9, 10, 13, 86–88, 112Salinometers, 88Salt effect, 67Saturometer, 151Saunders, G.W., 194Sawyer, C.N., 210Schindler, D.W., 320Schippers, A., 221Schmidt, R., 10Schneider, B., 10Schroeder, E.D., 264, 402Schroeder, G.L., 155Seawater, 84, 104Secchi disk, 126, 129Sedimentation, 122, 384Sediment phosphorus, 293, 302, 303, 305, 308Sediment redox, 172, 173Sediment respiration

aerobic respiration, 245aquatic ecosystems, 245decomposition, 246oxidation, 245zonation, 246, 247

Seepage, 60Seker, S., 354Selenium (Se), 360Semiconductors, 411Sheet erosion, 383Shelford’s law, 251Shellfish poisoning, 261, 267Shilo, M., 255Shinozuka, T., 218

Shiraishi, K., 370Shortwave radiation, 29Siepak, J., 356Silicate, 97Silicate clays, 300Silicic acid, 99Sillén, J.G., 347, 362Silver (Ag), 368, 369Six, J., 276Sling psychrometer, 46Smith, D.D., 383Smith, D.J., 228Smith, S.J., 225, 325Snell’s law, 18Snoeyink, V.L., 185, 264Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), 111, 113Sodium stearate, 208Soil erosion, 383Soil loss, 384Soil water, 53, 54Soil-water system, 349Solar constant, 26–28Solar radiation, 32, 39, 47

deuterium nucleus, 24electromagnetic waves, 25nuclear fusion, 24photons, 25proton-proton chain, 25shortwave and longwave, 27sunspots, 27wavelength, 26

Solubilityendothermic reactions, 67exothermic reactions, 67inorganic/organic compounds, 66ion effect, 67low redox potential, 68pH, 67products, 74, 75rules, 67soluble compounds, 418substances, 67temperature, 67

Solubility product (Ksp), 336Soluble reactive phosphorus, 302, 303Solutes, 65Solvent, 65, 417Sorensen, D.L., 221Sørensen, S.P.L., 179Spears, J.W., 357Specular reflection, 16, 17Spotte, S., 285Sprague, J.B., 371

436 Index

Standard electrode potential, 166, 167,172, 175

Standard oxygen transfer rate (SOTR), 154Standard temperature and pressure (STP), 136Steelink, C., 217Stefan-Boltzmann law, 26Stoermer, E.F., 311Stoichiometry, 423Stoke’s law equation, 121, 123Stream re-aeration, 156Streams

channel precipitation, 56classification system, 400dendritic pattern, 56discharge, 56ephemeral, 56first-order, 56hydrograph, 56, 57intermittent, 56order, 56perennial, 56second-order, 56sediment deposition, 57subsurface storm drainage, 56watershed characteristics, 57

Stream temperature, 34Strontium (Sr), 369Sublimation, 6Sulfate, 324Sulfide oxidation, 324Sulfur, 221–224

amino acids, 324concentrations, 331cycle, 325, 326effects, 332fuels and volcanic eruptions, 324geochemistry, 323oxidation states, 324transformations

oxidations, 327, 328plant uptake and mineralization,

326, 327reductions, 328, 329

valence states, 326Sulfur dioxide, 224, 225Sunspots, 27Surface tension, 9, 10Suspended particles

colloids, 123color, 124settling characteristics, 121–123sources, 120

Suspended solids, 119

TTannic acid, 219, 220Tannins, 124Taras, M.J., 186Tchobanoglous, G., 264, 402Temperature, 21, 23, 38Terminal settling velocity, 121, 122, 129Thallium (Tl), 369Thermal destratification, 8Thermal stratification, 8, 34–36, 313Thermal stress, 21Thermocline, 35Thièbaut, G., 318Thiobacillus, 327Thoenen, T., 370Thompson, W., 24Thornthwaite equation, 49Tin (Sn), 369Total alkalinity (TA), 94, 187, 195

bicarbonate and carbonate, 184, 185carbon dioxide, 184definition, 184expression, 185measurement, 185–187pH, 199, 200sources

calcite, 191calcium and bicarbonate, 190calcium carbonate, 188, 191calcium silicate, 192carbon dioxide, 190, 191limestone, 187, 188, 191mass action, 189organic matter, 191weathering of feldspars, 192

Total ammonia nitrogen (TAN), 389Total body burden (TBB), 391Total dissolved fixed solids (TDFS), 106Total dissolved solids (TDS)

alkalinity and hardness, 94analysis, 86aquatic ecosystems, 116atmosphere, 84bottled water, 115, 116degree of mineralization, 84desalination, 115end of pipe discharges, 116estuaries, 116evaporation, 85freezing and boiling points, 108, 109freshwaters, 84geological formations, 84inorganic particles, 84

Index 437

Total dissolved solids (TDS) (cont.)ion exchange, 113, 115laxative effect, 117organic compounds, 85osmotic pressure, 110–112salinity, 86–88seawater, 84specific conductance

EC, 90, 91electricity, 89electrostatic interactions, 92ions, 91resistivities, 90salinity, 93SI units, 90surface waters, 92

vapor pressure, 108Total dissolved volatile solids (TDVS), 106Total fixed suspended solids (TFSS), 128Total gas pressure (TGP), 139, 150Total hardness

biological productivity, 210boiler scale, 209, 210calcium carbonate saturation, 212–213calcium hardness, 209concentrations, 208definition, 206EDTA, 207, 208eriochrome black T, 209limestone/calcium silicate, 206magnesium carbonate, 213magnesium hardness, 209permanent/noncarbonate hardness, 210problems, 208, 209soap precipitation, 205soap-wasting property, 213sodium stearate, 208sources, 206temporary/carbonate hardness, 210water softening, 210–211

Total maximum daily loads (TMDLs), 404Total suspended solids (TSS), 127, 128Total volatile suspended solids (TVSS),

127, 128Toxic algae, 261Toxicity tests, 391, 393, 394, 397, 404

aquatic organisms, 392aquatic toxicology, 392LC50, 393, 397MATC, 394, 397threshold concentrations, 392

Trace elementsanaerobic bacteria, 340

carbon dioxide, 340complex ions, 344, 345copper sulfate, 341description, 336drinking water, 374ferric hydroxide, 340freshwater systems, 341health effects, 371ion pairs, 341, 342, 344, 348ion principle, 336metal ion hydrolysis, 345, 346metals, 339mineral nutrients, 349organic complexes/chelates, 347pH, 338redox potential, 340seawater, 342solubility, 336temperatures, 338toxicity, 371

Trace metals, 341, 342, 345, 355, 371Trace nutrients, 336Transparency, 16–18Transpiration, 47Tranvik, L.J., 336, 350Trenberth, K.E., 29Triethanolamine (HTEA), 347Triple point, 7Trisodium phosphate, 293Trophosphere, 28Tropic status of lakes, 266Tropical species, 38Troposphere, 136Tucker, C.S., 253, 261, 332Turbidity, 120

chemical coagulant, 131, 132color, 132measurement, 126, 127Secchi disk, 129settleable solids, 128settling basin, 129–131suspended solids, 127, 128suspended solids removal, 129

Turekian, K.K., 3412-Chloro-6-(trichloromethyl) pyridine

(TCMP), 387Tyndall effect, 123Tyndall, J., 123

UUltraeutrophy, 313Ultraoligotrophy, 313

438 Index

Ultra trace elements, 336Unit annual risk (UAR), 392Unit lifetime risk (ULR), 392United Nations Educational, Scientific

and Cultural Organization(UNESCO), 87

United States Department of Agriculture(USDA), 121

United States Pharmacopeia (USP), 113, 114Universal gas law, 147, 148, 169Universal soil loss equation (USLE), 383Uranium (U), 370U. S. Environmental Protection Agency

(USEPA), 395, 399US National Oceanographic and Atmospheric

Administration, 263Uthus, E.O., 360

VVanadium (V), 357van der Graaf, A.A., 279van der Waals interactions, 3, 4van der Waals, J., 3van Hoff’s law, 243van Niekerk, H., 92van’t Hoff equation, 37van’t Hoff factor, 109van’t Hoff, J., 37Vapor pressure, 7Vapor pressure deficit (VPD), 46Vesilind, P.A., 387, 398Viscosity, 11, 12Visible light, 125Vrede, T., 336, 350

WWalley, W.W., 358Warmwater species, 38Water

agricultural crops, viiavailability, viiibacteria, viibiochemical reactions, viidissolution, erosion and deposition, viiearly human settlements, viimicroorganisms, viiorganisms, viitransportation, viii

Water bodies, viii, 400Waterborne diseases, ix, 389Water budgets, 49, 60

Water cycle, 45Water distillation unit, 114Water footprint, 43Water measurements

mass balance, 61runoff, 58seepage, 60volumes of standing water bodies, 59water budgets, 60

Water moleculeadhesive forces, 9capillary action, 9–11cohesive forces, 9, 10compressibility, 12conductivity, 16density, 8, 9dielectric constant, 14, 15dissolved ions, 16elasticity, 12electric field, 15meniscus, 10pressure, 13, 14refraction of light, 19refractive index, 18, 19SI unit, 10structure

covalent bonds, 2electrons, 2electrostatic charges, 3hydrogen and oxygen atoms, 2, 3hydrogen bonding, 4laws of thermodynamics, 2repulsions and attractions, 3

surface tension, 10surfactants, 10temperature, 5–10, 12thermal characteristics and phases, 5–7thermal properties, 6transparency, 16, 18vapor pressure, 7viscosity, 11, 12

Water pollution, 44acidification, 382bioconcentration, 381biological, 389BOD (see Biological oxygen demand

(BOD))erosion, 383, 384fossil fuels, 381groundwater, 389, 390heated effluents, 382nonpoint sources, 381nutrient pollution, 381

Index 439

Water pollution (cont.)organic wastes, 381pharmaceuticals, 382point sources, 381, 383runoff, 381salinization, 382sediment, 381toxic chemicals/substances, 382toxicity, 381toxins and human risk assessment, 390–392turbidity, 381

Water pressure, 11, 13, 14, 54Water quality

acidic and saline waters, ixaquatic ecosystems, ixcontaminants, ixecological services, xecological systems, viiiguidelines, 402minerals, viiipathogens and chlorination, 263–265phytoplankton

Anabaena variabilis, 255die-offs, 255, 256nutrients, 256oxygen concentration, 256, 257photosynthesis, 254thermal destratification or overturns, 256

phytotoxic substances, viiiprinciples, xsalty water, viiisensory perception and observations, viii

Water quality standards, viii, ixbiological, 404concentration based standards, 402delta based standards, 403discharge permits, 406drinking water, 406guidelines, 408local based standards, 403TMDLs, 404toxic chemical, 404waste treatment and BMPs, 405

Water quantityhuman affairs, 398prescriptive rights, 399

riparian doctrine, 399Water softening

lime-soda ash process and zeoliteprocess, 210, 211

magnesium hydroxide, 211Water supply

groundwater, 43infrastructure, 44weather rainfall patterns, 43

Water surface, 14Water table, 54Water temperature, 34, 39

heat content, 32ice cover, 36statification, 36temperate zone change, 33thermal stratification, 34–36water quality, 36–38

Water vapor, 4, 6, 7Watts, P., 369Wavelength, 25, 26, 29–31Weight per unit volume, 421, 422Weight relationships, 423Weiler, R.R., 285Wein’s law, 26Welch, H.E., 155Wentz, D.A., 368Wessel, G., 357Wetland destruction, 397, 398Wetlands, 58Wetzel, R.G., 266Wheatstone bridge circuit, 89, 90Whitening of water bodies, 194Wickett, M.E., 225Wind re-aeration rate (WRR), 155Wischeier, W.H., 383Wisniak, J., 366Withlacoochee River, 99World Health Organization (WHO), 359, 371World Meteorological Organization, 47

ZZeolite process, 210, 211Zinc (Zn), 354, 355Zingg, A.W., 383

440 Index

Appendix: Some Fundamental Principles and Calculations

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