Annexure 7- Course Content TCPRC06.pdf

Government of India

Ministry of Textiles

Textiles Committee

Course Code: TC PRC 06

Jigger Machine Operator

Version: 03

Developed by: Resource Support Agency, Textiles Committee, Ministry of Textiles,

Government of India

Page No 0 RSA DOCUMENT

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

SI No Contents Page No.

1 Basic Textile Wet Processing Terms 1

2 Sequence of Operations In Wet Processing 9

3 Brief of All Wet Processing Stages 10

4 Brief Note On Jigger Machine 25

5 Details of Jigger Machine Part 29

6 Working of Jigger Dyeing Machine 34

7 Process Control Parameters In Jigger Dyeing Machine 45

8 Developments In Jigger Dyeing Machines 48

9 Fabric Defects In Jigger Dyeing 52

10 Instructions During Shift Change Over 58

11 Importance of Health & Safety 60

Chapter 1


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BASIC TEXTILE WET PROCESSING TERMS

Absorbency: The ability of one material to take up another material. In textiles, it is

the ability of fibre/fabric to take the water quickly.

Acidic: A term describing a material having a pH of less than 7.0 in water

Affinity: Chemical attraction; the tendency of two elements or substances to unite or

Combine together, such as fiber and dyestuff. Affinity is usually expressed in units of

joules (or calories) per mole.

After-treatment: Any treatment done after fabric production. In dyeing, it refers to

treating dyed material in ways to improve properties; in nonwovens, it refers to

finishing processes carried out after a web has been formed and bonded. Examples

are embossing, creping, softening, printing and dyeing.

Alkaline: A term used to describe a material having a pH greater than 7.0 in water.

Antichlor: A chemical, such as sodium thiosulfate, used to remove excess chlorine

after bleaching.

Azoic dyes: The dyes, produced by interaction of a diazotized amine (azoic diazo

component) and a coupling component (azoic coupling component).

Basic dyes: A class of positive-ion-carrying dyes known for their brilliant hues. Basic

dyes are composed of large-molecule that have a direct affinity for wool and silk and

can be applied to cotton with a mordant. These are also known as a cationic dyes.

Binder: The binder is a film forming substance made up of long chain

macromolecules which when applied to textile together with the pigment; produce a

three dimensionally linked network.

Auxiliaries: Chemicals used to facilitate and modify the pre-treatment, dyeing,

printing and finishing processes.

Bleaching: This is the process in which natural and added impurities in fabrics are

removed to obtain clear whites.


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Bleeding: Color rinsing out of a finished garment, yarn, or fiber. Bleeding can be

excess dye that was not fully rinsed out or dye that was not properly set on the fiber.

Indigo is an exception, see crocking.

Buffering Agent (Buffer): A chemical additive that helps stabilize the dyebath pH.

Carbonizing: A chemical process for eliminating cellulosic material from, synthetic

and wool or other animal fibers. The material is reacted with sulfuric acid or

hydrogen chloride gas followed by heating. When the material is dry, the carbonized

cellulose material is dust-like and can be removed.

Carrier: A product added to a dye-bath to promote the dyeing of hydrophobic fibers

and characterized by affinity for, and ability to swell, the fiber.

Caustic Soda: The common name for sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

Cheese: A cylindrical package of yarn wound on a flangeless tube.

Chrome dye: A mordant dye capable of forming a chelate complex with a chromium

ion.

Colorant: A colouring matter, a dye or pigment which can produce colour in a

substrate like fiber, yarn or fabric.

Coloration: A series of textile operation involved to impart color in textiles. It

embraces dyeing, printing, painting, spraying and preparatory treatment as well.

Colourfastness: Resistance to fading; i.e the property of a dye to retain its color

when the dyed (or printed) textile material is exposed to conditions or agents such as

light, perspiration, atmospheric gases, or washing that can remove or destroy the

color.

Color strength: A measure of the ability of a dye to impart color to other materials.

Color strength is evaluated by light absorption in the visible region of the spectrum.

Colorist: In textile coloration, a person experienced in developing color formulas,

evaluating samples for color and producing colored samples to meet standards.


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Compatibility: In textile dyeing, propensity of individual dye components in a

combination shade to exhaust at similar rates resulting in a buildup of shade that is

constant, or nearly constant, in hue throughout the dyeing process.

Density: The mass per unit volume

Cross dyeing: A process of dyeing textiles containing fibers having different dye

affinities to achieve a multicolored effect.

Depth of Shade: a percentage describing the amount of dye used proportional to

the dry fiber weight, or OWOG. To dye 100 grams of fiber to a 1% DOS, your dye

powder would weigh 1% of 100 grams, or 1 gram.

Desizing: The process removal of size materials from greige (gray) fabric to prepare

for dyeing.

Detergent: A detergent is a compound or a mixture of compounds, intended to

assist cleaning & acts mainly on the oily films that trap dirt particles.

Direct dyes: A class of dyestuffs that are applied directly to the substrate in a

neutral or slightly alkaline bath. They produce full shades on cotton and linen without

mordanting and can also be applied to rayon, silk and wool. Direct dyes give bright

shades but exhibit poor wash fastness.

Disperse dyes: A class of water-insoluble or slightly soluble dyes originally

introduced for dyeing cellulose acetate and usually applied from fine aqueous

suspensions. Disperse dyes are widely used for dyeing most of the manufactured

fibers.

Dyes/dyestuff: Substances that add color to textiles. They are incorporated into the

fiber by chemical reaction, absorption, or dispersion. Dyes may be divided into

natural and synthetic types. Natural dyes are extracted from root bark, flowers and

marine growth. Synthetic dyes are chemically compounded through many processes

from coal tar or other sources of hydrocarbon molecules. On basis of application it is

classified as Acid dye, Azoic dye, Basic dye, Direct dye, Disperse dye, Mordant dye,

Reactive dye, Sulphur dye, Vat dye etc. Fluorescent whitening agent is also a dye.


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Dye liquor: The liquid that contains the dye and other chemicals or auxiliaries

necessary for dyeing.

Effluent: Waste water released after pretreatment, dyeing & finishing of Textile.

Exhaustion: During wet processing, the ratio at any time between the amount of dye

or substance taken up by the substrate and the amount originally available.

Fast or Fastness: A fast color will not fade due to exposure to light or washing.

Fixation: The process of setting a dye after dyeing of printing, usually by steaming

or other heart treatment.

Florescent whitening agent (FWA): Colorant that absorbs near ultraviolet (UV)

radiation and re-emits visible (violet-blue) radiation. This causes a yellowish material

to which it has been applied to appear whiter.

Foam: Dispersion of gas in a liquid or solid. The gas bubbles may be any size. The

term covers a wide range of useful products such as insulating foam, cushions, etc.

It also describes the undesirable froth in polymer melts, dye baths, etc.

Foam Finishing: The application of one or more liquid chemicals finishes in the form

of a foam to a textile material with the advantage of low wet pick-up

Hard water: Water described as "hard" is high in dissolved minerals, specifically

calcium and magnesium. Hard water is not a health risk, but a nuisance because of

mineral buildup on fixtures and poor soap and/or detergent performance.

Heat setting: Heat-setting is a heat treatment by which shape retention, crease

resistance, resilience and elasticity are imparted to the fibres. It also brings changes

in strength, stretchability, softness, dyeability and sometimes on the color of the

material. All these changes are connected with the structural and chemical

modifications occurring in the fibre.

Hydrophilic: Having strong affinity for or the ability to absorb water.

Hydrophobic: Lacking affinity for or the ability to absorb water.


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Indigo: Originally a natural blue vat dye extracted from plants, especially the

indigofera tinctoria plant. Most indigo dyes today are synthetic. They are frequently

used on dungarees and denims.

Ingrain dye: A colorant, which is formed, in situ, in the substrate by the development

and coupling of one more intermediate compounds. The term was originally used for

colorants obtained from oxidation bases and by azoic techniques, but is now

reserved for other types of colorant formed in situ.

Inhibitor: A substance that retards or prevents a chemical or physical change. In

textiles, a chemical agent that is added to prevent fading, degradation, or other

undesirable effects.

Jet dyeing machine: A high-temperature piece dyeing machine that circulates the

dye liquor through a Venturi jet, thus imparting a driving force to move the fabric. The

fabric, in rope form, is sewn together to form a loop.

Kier boiling: Process of boiling cellulosic materials in alkaline liquors in a kier at or

above atmospheric pressure.

Leuco dye: A soluble, reduced form of a dye from which the original dye may be

regenerated by oxidation.

Liquor ratio: In wet processing the ratio of the weight of liquid used to the weight of

goods treated.

Metal-complex dye: A dye having a coordinated metal atom in its molecule. Unless

the term metal-complex dye is used in direct association with a particular application

class of dye, e.g. metal-complex disperse dye or metal-complex reactive dye, its use

is inexact and inadvisable.

Migration: Movement of an added substance (e.g. dye or alkali) from one area to

textiles to another. The term commonly used to express the movement of color from

the dyed area to the undyed area of cloth.

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Mordant: A chemical used in some textile fibers to provide affinity for dyes. Or a

substance, usually a metallic compound, applied to a substrate to form with a dye a

complex which is retained by the substrate more firmly than the dye itself.

Mordant dye: A dye that is fixed with a suitable mordant.

Natural Dyes: Dyes made from natural substances, usually from the bark, leaves,

roots, flowers, or wood of a plant. There are also insects, notably cochineal and lac,

that make dyes.

Optical Brightener: A colorless compounds that, when applied to fabric, absorbs

the ultraviolet radiation in light but emits radiation in the visible spectrum.

Pad: A machine for impregnating fabrics with chemicals. It consists essentially of a

trough followed by two or more pairs of squeeze rolls.

pH: Value indicating the acidity or alkalinity of a material. It is the negative logarithm

of the effective hydrogen ion concentration. A pH of 7.0 is neutral; less than 7.0 is

acidic; and more than 7.0 is basic.

Pick-up: % or weight added per unit weight of fabric.

Pigment: A substance consisting of small particles that is insoluble in the applied

medium & is used primarily for its coloring properties.

Pigment printing: In pigment printing insoluble pigments which have no affinity for

the fibres are fixed on the textiles with binding agent in the pattern required.

Preparation: In textile manufacturing, those processing operations performed on

greige fabric, colored fabric, textile yarns or fibers to ready them for dyeing, printing

or finishing. For example, typical greige cotton fabric preparation includes singeing,

desizing, scouring, bleaching and (optionally) mercerizing.

Reactive dye: A dye that, under suitable conditions, is capable of reacting

chemically with a substrate to form a covalent dye-substrate linkage.

Reduction clearing (RC): The removals of unabsorbed disperse dye from the

surface of polyester at the end of the dyeing or printing process by treatment in a


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sodium hydroxide/sodium hydrosulfite bath. A surface-active agent may be

employed in the process.

Retarder (Retardants): A chemical that, when added to the dyebath, decreases the

rate of dyeing but does not affect the final exhaustion.

Scouring: In textile processing, treatment of textile materials in aqueous or other

solutions to remove nature fats, waxes, proteins and other constituents as well as

dirt, oil and other impurities.

Shade: A common term loosely used to describe broadly a particular color or depth,

e.g. pale shade, 2% shade, mode shade, fashion shade.

Sizing: A generic term for compounds that are applied to warp yarn to bind the fiber

together and stiffen the yarn to provide abrasion resistance during weaving, Starch,

gelatin, oil, wax and manufactured polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol, polystyrene,

polyacrylic acid, and polyacetates are employed.

Soap: Soap is a metallic salt of saturated or unsaturated higher fatty acid.

Solubilized sulfur dye: A thiosulfuric acid derivative of a sulfur dye which during

dyeing is converted to the substantive alkali-soluble thiol form.

Solubilized vat dye: A water-soluble salt of the sulfuric ester of a leuco vat dye.

After application to the fiber the parent vat dye is regenerated by hydrolysis and

oxidation.

Solvent dye: A dye which is soluble in organic solvents, but not in water, and is

widely used in lacquers, inks, waxes, plastics, soaps, cosmetics, fuels and colored

smokes.

Solvent Dyeing: The use of solvents as dye bath media instead of water becomes

quite a popular concept, where solvent carries the dye molecules to the interior of

fibre & then recovered. Introduction of Hydrophobic fibres like cellulose acetate has

pronounced dyeing problem as no synthetic & natural dye at that time, are capable

of dye it.


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Souring: The term refers to the treatment of textile materials in dilute acid. Its

purpose is the neutralization of any alkali that is present.

Sulfur dye: A dye, containing sulfur both as an integral part of the chromophore and

in attached polysulfide chains, normally applied in the alkali-soluble reduced (leuco)

form from a sodium sulfide solution and subsequently oxidized to the insoluble form

in the fiber.

Surfactant: An agent, soluble or dispersible in a liquid, which decreases the surface

tension of the liquid contraction of “surface active agent”

Thickener: Thickener is a thick mass which impart stickiness & plasticity to the

printing paste so that it may be applied on the fabric surface without bleeding or

spreading & be capable of maintaining the design outline.

Uneven dyeing: A fabric dyeing that shows variations in shade resulting from

incorrect processing or dyeing methods or from use of faulty materials.

Vat dyes: A water-insoluble dye, usually containing keto groups, which is normally,

applied to the fiber from an alkaline aqueous solution of the reduced enol (Leuco)

form which is subsequently oxidized in the fiber to the insoluble form.

Wash fastness: A measure of resistance to fading by laundering. Different dye

types are measured at different temperatures. Wash Fast/Jacquard brand dyes are

rated at 105F°, while more wash fast dyes types like Lanaset/Sabraset are rated at

140F°.

Wet pick-up: In textile processing, the amount of liquid, and material carried by the

liquid, applied to a textile. Wet pick-up is usually determined as a percentage of

either the dry or conditioned weight of the textile prior to processing.

Wetting agent: It is a chemical substance that increases the spreading &

penetrating properties of a liquid by lowering its surface tension that is the tendency

of its molecules to adhere to each other.

Wet pick-up: The weight of liquor taken up by a given weight of the fabric after

impregnation, spraying, or coating element.


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Chapter 2

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS IN WET PROCESSING

Grey cloth ↓

Stitching and sewing ↓

Shearing and cropping ↓

Brushing ↓

Singeing ↓

Desizing ↓

Scouring ↓

Bleaching ↓

Souring ↓

Washing ↓

Drying ↓

Mercerizing ↓

Dyeing ↓

Printing ↓

Fixing or curing ↓

After treatment ↓

Finishing ↓

Inspection ↓

Packing


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Chapter 3

BRIEF OF ALL WET PROCESSING STAGES

3.1. Grey Fabric Inspection:

After manufacturing fabric it is inspected on an inspection table. It is the process to

remove neps, warp end breakage, weft end breakage, hole spot, etc.

3.2. Stitching:

Stitching is done to increase the length of the fabric for making suitable for

processing. It is done by plain sewing m/c.

3.3. Brushing:

To remove the dirt, dust, loose fibre & loose ends of the warp & weft threads is

known as brushing.

3.4. Shearing / Cropping:

The process by which the attached ends of the warp & weft thread are removed by

cutting by the knives or blades is called shearing. Shearing is done for cotton &

cropping for jute.

3.5. Singeing:

The process by which the protruding / projecting fibres are removed from the fabrics

by burning / heat to increase the smoothness of the fabric is called singeing. If

required both sides of fabric are singed.

3.5.1. Advantages of Singeing

Improved end use and wearing properties.

Clean Surface

Reduced fogginess

Reduced pilling

Reduced Soiling.


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Singeing usually involves passing/exposing one or both sides of a fabric over

a gas flame to burn off the protruding fibres. The temperature of the flame is quite

high, hence the fabric is passed over the flame at a high speed such that loose

protruding fibres are burnt off but the fabric itself remains undamaged. Heat or the

temperature is therefore a key parameter in singeing

Other methods of singeing include infra-red singeing and heat singeing for

thermoplastic fibres. Thermoplastic fibres are harder to singe because they melt

and form hard residues on the fabric surface

Un-singed Fabric Singed Fabric

3.5.2. Points of Control in Singeing:

The fabric must move rapidly through the flame to prevent the base fabric from being

heat damaged. Extremely hairy fabric may require multiple passes through the

burners to remove the hairs without damaging the fabric. All the gas burners must

produce a uniform flame. Clogged burners will leave a un-singed streak that will

become highly visible when the fabric is dyed. The singer must be provided with a

mechanism that either turns off the flame or mechanically displaces the burners

away from the fabric when the line speed is decreased for any reason. If not, the

fabric will scorch or burn in half. Fabrics containing thermoplastic fibres such as

polyester can form hard melt balls as the fibre melts and recedes away from the heat

source, These melt balls will cause the fabric to have a rough raspy hand. The fabric


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may require a subsequent processing step to remove the melt balls.

3.6. Desizing:

Desizing is the process of removal of size material applied on warp threads of a

fabric to facilitate the process of weaving. Size forms a stiff, hard and smooth coating

on warp yarns to enable them to withstand the cyclic tensions during weaving and

reduce breakage

There are three types of Desizing Methods namely, Rot steeping, Acid desizing and

enzymatic desizing. Enzymatic desizing is more popular and mostly practiced

desizing method because it is very safe and does not cause any damage to the

fabric. This is one of the important textile pre-treatment possesses to ge trouble free

dyeing.

3.7. Scouring:

Scouring is the next process after desizing in which the water insoluble impurities,

such as the natural fats and waxes as well as added impurities present in the fabric

are removed. Due to the removal of these impurities the absorbency of the fabric

increases to the greater extent, which results in efficient further processing.

There are two ways to carry out scouring: 1. Alkali Scouring. 2. Solvent Scouring.

Normally, alkali scouring is carried out and the alkali used is sodium hydroxide.

3.7.1. Objects of scouring:

To remove natural fat, wax and oil materials containing in the fabrics without

damaging the fibres.

To accelerate dye and chemical absorption of the fabrics.

To improve the handle of the goods.

To remove non-cellulosic substance in case of cotton.

3.7.2. Reactions occur during scouring:

Saponification of oils and fatty acids converted into soaps


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Pectin are converted into sodium salts of pectic acids.

Proteins are hydrolysed into soluble products

Mineral matters are dissolved into water

Unsaponifiable oils and waxes are emulsified.

Dust particles are removed and held in suspensions.

3.7.3. Scouring Processes:

Scouring is carried out by three methods

i. Batch scouring – Scouring on jigger, kier boiling, winch machine

ii. Semi-continuous scouring - Pad-batch, pad-steam process, J-box.

iii. Continuous Scouring – Pad-steam process

General recipe for scouring process:

Alkali (NaOH) 2 - 5 gm/l

Soda ash 2 - 5 gm/l

Wetting agent 1 gm/l

Sequestering agent 1 gm/l

Detergent 1 - 2 gm/l

Recently new method of scouring is invented, i.e. Bio-scouring. Bio-scouring with

pectinase enzymes have shown poise in replacing the traditional scouring treatment.

3.8. Bleaching:

The scouring process of cotton removes waxes and other majority of impurities

leaving behind the natural colouring matter. Bleaching completes the purification of

fibre by ensuring the complete decolourisation of colouring matter.

Bleaching can be done by oxidative or reductive bleaching agent. The important

Oxidative bleaching agents are hydrogen peroxide, sodium or calcium hypochlorite

and sodium chlorite. The main reducing agents are Sodium hydrosulphite,

sulphoxylates, sodium bisulphites and thioureadioxide increases.


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The bleaching process must ensure:

A pure and permanent whiteness.

Level dyeing properties (There should be no variation in bleaching).

Three should not be any loss in tensile strength due to degradation of

cellulose.

Eco-Friendly bleaching should be preferred.

Hydrogen Peroxide is the most widely used bleaching agent.

Bleaching may be carried out using enzymatic bleaching agents. The most popular

and preferred bleaching agent is hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide bleaching

can be done by

i. Batch wise

ii. Semi-continuous

iii. Continuous

Batch wise bleaching can be carried out using jigger, winch or kier. In semi-

continuous bleaching, initially the fabric is padded through bleaching agent &

required chemicals and batched. Then the batching rolls steamed followed by

washing and neutralising. In case of continuous bleaching; padding, steaming and

washing operation is in continuous form.

3.9. Mercerizing:

In this process, the cellulosic materials/substance is treated with high concentration

of NaOH for short time and then washed. The main objectives of mercerisation are;

To Improve dimensional stability

To Increased dye uptake

To Improve strength

To Improve moisture regain

To improve lustre


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3.9.1. Types of Mercerization

Mercerization is widely used, and in the mercerization of different kinds of

cellulose products, including blended products, the machine used and the treatment

conditions must be selected in accordance with the type of fibre, the form that it is in

and its properties, and also in accordance with the aims and the timing of the

mercerization.

Types of mercerization according to the form of the product

a) Yarn mercerization

Batch: Hank mercerization, Cheese mercerization

Continuous: Single end mercerization, Tow mercerization, Warp mercerization

b) Knit Mercerization

Open mercerization

Closed mercerization (Round mercerization, tubular knit mercerization)

c) Cloth mercerization

Paddless chainless mercerization

Chain mercerization

Batch-up mercerization

The effect of mercerization can be tested by checking dyeing properties,

luster, strength, shrinkage of the material. However, the best method of evaluation of

textile material is Barium Activity Number. Barium activity number measures the

swelling of textile material.

3.10. Heat Setting:

The purpose of heat setting is to dimensionally stabilize fabrics containing

thermoplastic fibres. Polyester and nylon are the principal fibres involved. Blended

polyester/cotton fabrics are produced in large quantities. These fabrics may shrink,

or otherwise become distorted either during wet processing or in the consumer's

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hands. Heat setting is a way of reducing or eliminating these undesirable properties.

The process is relatively simple - pass the fabric through a heating zone for a time

and at a temperature that resets the thermoplastic fibre's morphology memory. The

new memory relieves the stresses and strains imparted to the fibre by the yarn

making and weaving processes, and makes stable the configuration it finds itself in

flat smooth fabric. This newly imparted memory allows the fibre to resist fabric

distorting forces and provides a way to recover from them. The time and temperature

needed for the heat treatment depend on fabric density and previous heat history of

the polyester. Time and temperature must exceed that imparted by previous heat

treatments. Usually 15 - 90 seconds at temperatures of 385 - 4150 F. will suffice.

The heat setting equipment can be hot air in a tenter frame, or surface contact heat

from hot cans. While the process is simple, careful control is required.

Heat setting reduces polyester's dye up take. Heat-set goods dye lighter and

slower than non heat-set good. For uniform shades, side to center, front to back and

beginning to end exposure to heat must be controlled and uniform, otherwise these

differences will show up in the dyed cloth. Heat-setting can be done either at the end

of wet processing or at the beginning. At either point, the goods must be free of

wrinkles and other distortions otherwise the distortions will be permanently set. Care

must be taken when heat-setting greige goods sized with polyvinyl alcohol. At high

temperatures, PVA will dehydrate, becoming discoloured and insoluble in water.

While greige heat-setting may be particularly beneficial when preparing easily

distorted fabrics, one may have to settle for less than the full heat-setting benefit in

order to still remove the size. Heat-setting harshen the hand and stiffens the fabric.

The condition is more prone to happen when contact heat is used. The fabric may

become flatter and develop an unwanted gloss or sheen

3.11. Dyeing:

The process of colouring fibres, yarns, or fabrics with either natural or

synthetic dyes is known as dyeing of textiles. Textiles are dyed using a wide range

of dyestuffs, techniques, and equipment. Dyes used by the textile industry are largely


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synthetic, typically derived from coal tar and petroleum-based intermediates. Dyes

are sold as powders, granules, pastes, and liquid dispersions.

Textiles can be coloured at any of several stages of the manufacturing process so

that the following colouring processes are possible:

Stock dyeing

Top dyeing: fibres are shaped in lightly twisted roving before dyeing

Tow dyeing: it consists in dyeing the mono-filament material (called tow)

produced during the manufacture of synthetic fibres

Yarn dyeing

Piece (e.g. woven, knitted and tufted cloths) dyeing

Ready-made goods (finished garments, carpet rugs, bathroom-sets, etc.).

3.11.1. Different Classes of Dyes

Different classes of dyes are applied on various types of textile materials

Class of dye Fibres/fabrics

Acid dye Nylon, wool

Basic dye Acrylic, jute

Direct dye Cotton, viscose

Reactive dye Cotton, viscose, wool, silk, nylon

Vat dye Cotton, viscose

Sulfur dye Cotton, viscose

Azoic dyes Cotton, viscose

Disperse dye Polyester, Nylon, acrylic, di-acetate,

tri-acetate

Pigments All fibres


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Dyes can be used on vegetable, animal or man-made fibres only if they have

affinity to them. Textile dyes include acid dyes, used mainly for dyeing wool, silk and

nylon and direct or substantive dyes, which have a strong affinity for cellulose fibres.

Mordant dyes require the addition of chemical substances, such as salts to give

them an affinity for the material being dyed. They are applied to cellulose fibres, wool

or silk after such materials have been treated with metal salts.

Sulfur dyes, used to dye cellulose, are inexpensive, but produce colours

lacking brilliance. Azoic dyes are insoluble pigments formed within the fibre by

padding, first with a soluble coupling compound and then with a diazotized base. Vat

dyes, insoluble in water, are converted into soluble colourless compounds by means

of alkaline sodium hydrosulfite. These colourless compounds are absorbed by the

cellulose, which are subsequently oxidized to an insoluble pigment. Disperse dyes

are suspensions of finely divided insoluble, organic pigments used to dye such

hydrophobic fibres as polyesters, nylon and cellulose acetates. Reactive dyes

combine directly with the fibre, resulting in excellent colourfastness. The first ranges

of reactive dyes for cellulose fibres were introduced in the mid-1950. Today, a wide

variety is available.

3.11.2. Methods of Dyeing

Similar to scouring and bleaching, dyeing of fabric is carried out by three

methods namely;

i. Batch dyeing: jigger, winch, jet, etc.

ii. Semi-continuous: pad batch, pad- roll -steam

iii. Continuous: pad-steam

Dyeing can be performed using continuous or batch processes. In

batch dyeing, a certain amount of textile substrate, usually 100 to 1,000 kilograms, is

loaded into a dyeing machine and brought to equilibrium, or near equilibrium, with a

solution containing the dye. Because the dyes have an affinity for the fibres, the dye

molecules leave the dye solution and enter the fibres over a period of minutes to

hours, depending on the type of dye and fabric used.


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Auxiliary chemicals and controlled dyebath conditions (mainly temperature)

accelerate and optimize the action. The dye is fixed in the fibre using heat and/or

chemicals, and the tinted textile substrate is washed to remove unfixed dyes and

chemicals. Common methods of a batch, or exhaust, dyeing include beam, beck, jet,

and jig processing. Pad dyeing can be performed by either batch or continuous

processes.

In continuous dyeing processes, textiles are fed continuously into a dye

range at speeds usually between 50 and 250 meters per minute. To be economical,

this may require the dyer to process 10,000 meters of textiles or more per colour,

although specialty ranges are now being designed to run as little as 2,000 meters

economically. Continuous dyeing processes typically consist of dye application, dye

fixation with chemicals or heat, and washing.

3.12. Printing:

Printing can be defined as the localized application of dye or pigment in a

thickened form to a substrate to generate a pattern or design. In the process of

printing colour designs are developed on fabrics by printing with dyes and pigments

in paste form with specially designed machines. Printing is used to apply colour only

on localized areas.

3.12.1. The Difference between Dyeing and Printing

In dyeing, only mono colour application can be done, whereas in printing, mono

or multi-colour application is possible.

In dyeing, dyes are applied in liquid form, whereas in printing, dyes are applied

with pastes.

In dyeing, temperature is used for better penetration, but in printing, temperature

is not used.

Water plays an important role in dyeing, but in printing, thickening agent plays an

important role.


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In dyeing, percentage shade is calculated on the weight of the material, but in

printing, percentage shade is calculated on the weight of the paste.

3.12.2. Print Paste Ingredients

i. Dyestuff or Pigments

ii. Thickeners

iii. Wetting Agents

iv. Dispersing Agents

v. Anti-Foaming Agents

vi. Fixation Accelerators

vii. Hydroscopic Agents

viii. Acids or Alkalis

ix. Oxidizing Agents or Reducing Agents

x. Miscellaneous

3.12.3. Printing styles

There are three styles of Printing:

a) Direct printing (which also includes digital and transfer printing)

b) Discharge printing

c) Resist printing.

Direct style of printing: In this type of printing dye is applied onto the fabric by

carved block, stencil, screen, engraved roller, etc. The colour is applied to specific

areas of a pretreated textile substrate, which can be white or pre-dyed.

Discharge style of printing: In this method the fabric is dyed and then printed with

a chemical that will destroy the colour in designed areas. Some time the base colour

is removed and another colour printed in its place.

Resist Style of printing: In this method bleached fabric is printed with a paste

containing resisting agent, dried and the fabric is dyed. Special dyeing technique is

used in order to avoid the spoiling of resist printed area.

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3.12.4. Methods of printing

a) Roller printing

b) Flat bed Screen printing

c) Rotary screen printing

d) Heat transfer printing

e) Block printing

f) Stencil printing

g) Digital printing

h) Special styles of printing – tie & dye, Batik printing, burnt out printing

3.13. Finishing

Textile Finishing covers an extremely wide range of activities which are performed

on textiles before they reach the final customer. The term finishing includes all the

mechanical and chemical processes employed commercially to improve the

acceptability of the product. Finishing processes might modify a fabric's final

appearance, make it softer, or improve elements of its performance. Whichever

process is done, textile finishing makes fabric more appealing to the consumer.

3.13.1. Objectives of Finishing

i. To improve appearance of the fabrics

ii. To meet up specific requirements of the fabrics to achieve the final goal.

iii. To increase the life time of durability of the fabric

3.13.2. Classification of textile finishes

Textile finishes are classified in different ways

Aesthetic finishes: This type of finishes make change or modify the appearance of

the fabric or hand/drape properties of the fabrics.

Functional finishes: This type of finishes changes the internal performance

properties of the fabrics.

Finishes also classifies s follows.


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Mechanical finishes: This type of finishes also called as dry finishes, which involves

specific physical treatment to the fabric surface to cause a change in fabric

appearance. Mechanical finishing is considered a dry operation even though

moisture and chemicals are often needed to successfully process the fabric.

Chemical finishes: This type of finishes usually applied to the fabric by padding

followed by curing or drying. Chemical finishing or „wet finishing‟ involves the addition

of chemicals to textiles to achieve a desired result. In chemical finishing, water is

used as the medium for applying the chemicals. Heat is used to drive off the water

and to activate the chemicals.

3.13.3. Different Mechanical finishes:

a) Calendaring: Compression of fabric between two heavy rollers to give a smooth

appearance to the surface of the fabric. Calendaring is a mechanical finishing

process typically used to produce special fabric effects, such as high luster,

smoothness, or even embossing.

b) Sanding, Napping and Shearing: In contrast to calendaring, sanding makes knit

or woven fabrics feel softer and appear more textured. Sanding can be used to make

the fabric surface resemble sueded leather. Typically, the fabric surface is subjected

to one or more rolls of abrasive material (usually sandpaper) moving at a much

higher surface speed than the fabric. In the napping process, typically used on

woven flannel and knit fleece, wire points are used to lift fibres from the surface of a

fabric. The shearing process uses a very sharp rotating cylinder with shearing blades

and a straight fixed blade to cut off surface fibres or yarn loops.

c) Decatising: This process is mainly carried out on wool by exploiting its elastic

properties in hot and wet conditions by the direct action of the steam on the fabric.

d) Sanforizing (pre-shrinking): The key to any compactor is the head where force

is applied to move parallel yarns closer together. More fabric must be fed in than is

taken off. A Sanforizer uses a thick rubber blanket running against a steam heated

cylinder as the compacting force.


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e) Setting and heat-setting: This is normally used for synthetic fabrics to avoid

undue shrinkage in subsequent processing.

3.13.4. Different Chemical Finishes:

a) Softening (handle modification): Wax emulsion or silicon emulsion are used as

softeners. Softening is required for more pleasant hand and better drapability

b) Stiffening: Some fabrics need to be made stiffer and crisper as per the end use.

Stiffening agents are applied to the cloth to increase the weight of the fabric and

improve the thickness. Stiffening agents like starches, natural gum and polyvinyl

acetate are used,

c) Water repellency: Water repellent are chemical finish that resist the penetration

of water into the fabric. Paraffin emulsions, silicones and fluoro-chemicals are used

as the water repellent agents.

d) Flame retardency: Flame retardant finishes provide textile with an important

performance characteristics that is it stopped the propagation of fibre when it comes

in contact with fire. Flame retardant finish is a surface finishes and coating that

inhibit, suppress, or delay the production of flames to prevent the spread of fire.

e) Wash-n-wear, durable press, anti-crease, wrinkle free finishes: Resin or

wrinkle free finish is widely used in textile industry to impart crease resistance to

cotton fabric and garments.

f) Soil release: A finish that increase the absorbency of a fabric, this finish allowed

stains to leave the fabric faster, increase the wicking action for greater comfort in

wear, makes fabric dry-cleanable without significant loss of soil release properties.

g) Antistatic finishes: Antistatic finish for synthetic textiles to avoid static charge

build up & give a natural feel.

h) Anti-pilling finishes: Pilling is an unpleasant phenomenon associated with spun

yarn fabrics especially when they contain synthetics. Anti-pilling finish reduces the

forming of pills on fabrics and knitted products made from yarns with synthetic-fibre

content. Anti-pilling finish is based on the use of chemical treatments which aim to


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suppress the ability of fibres to slacken and also to reduce the mechanical resistance

of synthetic fibre.

i) Anti-microbial finish: Antimicrobial means preventing or inhibits the growth of

microorganisms or microbes. The chemical which kills or inhibits the growth of

microorganisms / microbes is known as Anti-microbial Agent.

3.14. Quality Assurance Laboratory

The textile industry has a grave concern for maintaining high quality standards so it

establishes rigid systems of inspection before the fabric gets finally packed. It is

extremely essential to maintain a reputation of supplying fault free goods. Hence, the

fabric undergoes test for product quality at every major stage of processing. The

textile material is tested in an equipped laboratory and skilled technicians to maintain

product quality. The fabric is instantly rejected if it is not within the specification

limits. Modern quality control has been assisted by development of techniques and

machines for assessing fabric properties. The automatic testing devices has greatly

reduced testing time and cost.

3.15. Effluent Treatment Plant

The textile industry generates a lot of toxic effluent during the processing of the

fabric which has to be treated before its disposal the strict norms issued by the

pollution control boards of respective states to the textile processing industry has

helped to curb pollution and combat the menace quite effectively. The effluent

process is divided into following process. 1. Physical. 2. Chemical. 3. Biological. 4.

Tertiary.


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Chapter 4

BRIEF NOTE ON JIGGER MACHINE

The jigger machines have two main rollers which revolve on smooth bearings

and are attached to with a suitable driving mechanism which can be reversed when

required. The fabric is wound on one of the main rollers and fed from the other.

The fabric move from one roller to the other through the dye liquor trough located at

the lower part of the machine. There are various arrangement of guide rollers at the

bottom of liquor trough and during each passage the cloth passes around these

guide rollers

The jigger machine is one of the oldest types of machine for scouring,

bleaching and dyeing of woven fabric in full width form. The fabric passes from one

roller to other roller in the medium of dyes or bleaching chemicals at the bottom of

the machine. When all the fabric has passed through the bath, the direction is

reversed. Each passage is called an “end” Jigger process always involves an even

number of ends.

4.1. Importance of jigger machine:

The jigger is a short liquor dyeing machine for textile fabrics in open-width form.


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The small lots can be easily processed in jigger machine.

Most suitable for all kinds of shades.

Excellent colour fastness properties achieved in jigger.

Lower investment cost compare with continuous dyeing technique.

Suitable for all kind of process in open width, from pretreatment to finishing.

4.2. Different types of Jigger machine:

Textile Jigger Machine for woven fabrics,

Hydraulic Jigger Machine for dyed fabric,

Semi Automatic Dyeing Jigger for dyeing fabric,

Automatic Jigger Textile Machine for woven fabrics,

Semi & Jumbo Jigger Machine show how to dye fabric,

Mannul Jigger for for natural dyes

Open jigger dyeing machines: Working at atmospheric conditions. Fabric can be

dyed at 95oC or less temperature.

Closed jigger dyeing machines: In order to carry out dyeing at higher temperature

and avoid steam losses these machines are developed.

Jumbo jigger dyeing machine: In normal jigger about 100-150 kg of fabric can be

dyed. So to dye higher amount of fabric, jumbo jiggers are developed.

Modern Jumbo Jiggers: Modern machines such as jumbo jiggers have full

automation in drive, tension regulation and control , fabric speed and metering,

smooth and jerk less stop and start, counters for number of turns, gradual and

noiseless reversal, automatic temperature regulation and control etc.

4.3. Various processes carried out in Jigger machine:

Jigger machine is the oldest form of machines. It is versatile machine and many

textile wet processing operations can be carried out on this machine. Basically, the

fabric is processed in open width and it preferred for heavy fabric and crease


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sensitive fabrics. Following wet processes are possible on jigger dyeing machines.

Desizing

Scouring

Beaching

Dyeing

Washing

Finishing

Jigger dyeing machine which is suitable for woven fabric than knitted fabric

because jigger exert considerable lengthwise tension on the fabric. This is also

particularly suitable for cellulosic fibres because the natural dyes generally do not

exhaust well and the jig works with an exceedingly low liquor ratio. It is one of the

oldest dyeing machines for dyeing fabric. This machine is used for batch processing,

where „Exhaust dyeing‟ technique is used.

4.4. Advantages and Limitations of Jigger Dyeing Machine

4.4.1. Advantages of Jigger Dyeing Machine:

High speed dyeing machine.

Better dye penetration.

No crease mark in fabric.

Economical dyeing process.

Used for cotton fabrics specially woven fabric.

The cloth is dyed in open width form in textile industry.

Low liquor ratio leads to saving of large amount energy and water.

Used for scouring and bleaching for smaller batches of fabric.


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4.4.2. Limitations of Jigger Dyeing:

o Jiggers exert considerable lengthwise tension on the fabric and are more

suitable for the dyeing of woven than knitted fabrics.

o Uneven dyeing in fabric selvedge.

o Weak fabric may be damaged due to more tension.

o Dyeing room becomes dirty and hazard.

o Heat may be lost due to roller.

o Fabric is out of liquor is dyeing tank.

o Discontinuous Process.

o The low liquor ratio makes washing-off difficult.

o There is little mechanical action in a jig machine and it is less suitable where

vigorous scouring is required before dyeing.

o Moiré effects or water marks may arise on some acetate and nylon fabrics

because of pressure flattening the structure of the rolled fabric.

4.5. Woven fabrics which are conveniently dyed on Jigger:

Taffettas

Plain woven

Satins

Poplins

Ducks

Suiting and Shirting material.

Sheeting‟s, etc.

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Chapter 5

DETAILS OF JIGGER MACHINE PARTS

The jigger machines have two main rollers which revolve on smooth bearings

and are attached to with a suitable driving mechanism, which can be reversed when

required. The fabric is wound on one of the main rollers and fed from the other. The

fabric move from one roller to the other through the dye liquor trough located at the

lower part of the machine. There are various arrangement of guide rollers at the

bottom of liquor trough, and during each passage the cloth passes around these

guide rollers.

The concentrated dye liquor is usually introduced directly into the dyebath in

two equal portions, which are added just before commencing the first and second

ends. The liquor is agitated by the movement of the fabric through the dyebath.

Several horizontal spray pipes are fitted across the full width of the trough in order to

expedite fabric rinsing. Live steam injected into the bottom of the trough through a

perforated pipe across the width of the jig heats the liquor. Some modern jigs also

have heat exchangers for indirect heating.

Covering the top of the jig minimizes the heat loss to the atmosphere, keeps

the temperature uniform on all parts of the fabric and minimizes exposure of the

liquor and the cloth to air. Minimizing exposure to air is important when using sulphur

or vat dyes since these dyes can be oxidized by atmospheric oxygen.

A few meters of leading fabric, similar in construction to the cloth under

process, is stitched to each end of the cloth batch, to allow the entire length of the

fabric to pass through the dye bath during the dyeing process. When jig processing

is completed, the fabric is run onto an A-frame via a nip or suction device to remove

extraneous water during unloading.

5.1. The Description of Different Parts of Jigger Machine

5.1.1. The Drive System

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A standard mechanism for driving the draw rollers is based on friction gear

system. The motor (usually about 1.5 – 2 kw), through a variable V-belt pulley, drives

roller which runs between two friction discs. A change in tension displaces the roller

so alternating the gearing bet, the two discs and varying the drive on the rollers.

In some driving systems, each of the two main rollers has separate D.C.

motors. The transmission is through a level gear spherical rolling elements and

overload clutches. Another method for transmitting drive to the rollers involves the

use of hydraulics and recently this has been coupled with electronics controls.

5.1.2. Heating System

Heating is usually by steam (100- pressure, 300 kpa) through a perforated

pipe running the width of the machine at the bottom of the dyebath. The perorations

must be on the lower side of the pipe and must not impinge on the fabric. Closed coil

heating (using higher steam pressure) may be used but is generally slow than direct

steam injection. It does however offer better control at dyeing temperatures and

some jigs are supplied with a dual heating.

There are two heating System. One is direct heating system and another is

indirect heating system. The Direct steam injection for rapid heating up to near the

dyeing temperature and then closed coil heating for maintaining that temperature. In

indirect heating the heating coils with the circulation of hot thermic fluid can be used

with necessary controls.

5.1.3. Expanders

When running wet fabric from roll to roll there is always a tendency to form

lengthways creases which must be eliminated before winding onto the roll. Expander

bars are fitted so that their convex surface is in direct content with the fabric shortly

before winding onto the roll.


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5.1.4. Trough (Dye bath)

Dyeing trough has a special high efficiency design allowing constant and controlled

liquor ratio dyeing and high efficiency washing with minimum liquor content, Intended

liquor ratio is minimum 1:4.

The liquor capacity of a typical jigger capable of dyeing fabric up to 1.8 m

wide is 750 lit for which one drain valve is sufficient. Usually the pre-dissolved and

strained concentrated dye liquor is added directly to the dye bath and thoroughly

distributed throughout the bath. Some dyers prefer to split the concentrated dye

liquor into two equal portions and add half before the first dyeing and the reminder

before starting the second run. The liquor is agitated by the movement of the fabric

through the dye bath and mechanical liquor circulation systems are generally

unnecessary unless dye-addition tanks are fitted and in the case of very wide

machines or where temperature uniformity is critical.

On old Jigs, roll lengths of 500 or 1000 m were customary, but recent

developments have enabled rolls of up to 1 m. diameter to be accommodated

representing around 5000 mg light weight cloth. It is essential for all the fabric in te

roll to have the same width and for the fabric to be run-up very straight so that the

roll has sides perpendicular to its axis.

For loading the leading end of fabric on the roll is threaded under two free-

running rollers located at the bottom of the machine and then led upwards and

around the draw roller. When loading is completed the trailing end is then secured

around the second draw roller.

5.1.5. The Gear Box

The revolving action of the two main rollers is to be very accurately co-ordinated.

Since the cloth has to pass from one main roller to the other and since all attempts

are made to match the let off and take up speeds of the fabric, an effective gearing

system can actually keep the fabric tension to the absolute minimum.

5.1.6. Brake Assembly


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The purpose of the brake assembly is to control and regulate the speed at which the

cloth should pass on to the main rollers. It is provided with a freewheeling system

which actuates the braking action only when the cloth is passing onto the main

rollers and the system is free when the cloth is being taken away from the rollers.

5.1.7. Cast Iron Horns

The horns which are fixed on both the sides of the frame are used as resting points

for outside cloth rolls. There horns are usually fixed but will have a movable

execution whenever the steam saving hood is to be provided along with the

machine.

5.1.8. Squeezing Device

This device consists of a press roll, which can rest on either of the main rollers. The

pressure is usually created by springs located on both the ends. This roll exerts only

a light pressure and is made with of only when the cloth is being taken out of the Jig

after the completion of the dyeing or any other wet process.

5.1.9. Steam Saving Hood

This hood saves steam when the process is to be conducted at near boil conditions.

To avoid steam condensation drops on the fabric, a steam heated pipe is provide to

top inside the hood.

It is now standard practice to supply Jigs with top cover which should be hinged to

facilitate accessibility and fitted with rubber framed safety glass windows. The

advantages of using top covers are.

Maintaining the temperature on the fabric roll;

Minimizing the temperature differences on the roll; in an open Jig the edges

of the roll cool rapidly leading to a reduction in dye uptake (listing).

Minimizing exposure to air; this is of particular importance when applying vat

dyes in the reduced state.

Reducing the amount of heat consumed in maintaining the dyebath and

goods at the specified temperature.


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Reducing the loss of steam to atmosphere.

Top covers should be fitted with insulated handles and be designed internally

so that any condensed liquor rung to the side of the machine and back to the dye

bath. The cover should also be provided with a steam exhaust valve and many Jigs

are fitted with direct steam injection nozzles at the side of the machine to maintain a

high internal temperature.

For colour matching it is standard practice to stop the machine and take small

spls adjacent to a fabric join near the middle of the total length.

5.1.10. Take up and Let off rollers: These are two stainless steel rollers, running in

external bearings with mechanical seals to take up and let off the fabric rolls.

5.1.11. Pump for liquor circulation: Liquor circulation system consists of

centrifugal pump at 2 bar pressure, internal sieve, stainless steel piping, manual flow

control valve and deflector system for even liquor distribution.

5.2. Maintenance of Jigger Machine

Motor rpm: motor rpm should check to maintain the proper revolution as we

need.Proper movement of roller: every free roller should move freely as required.

Correct take up & let off: we have to look at the smooth take up of dyed fabric

andProper let off of grey fabric without excessive tension in dyeing.

Proper concentration of liquor: without even concentration of dyeing liquor

evenShade would not be achieved. Proper concentration of dye bath is necessary

toEnsure even and proper shade.

Temperature of bath: proper temperature of the dye bath should maintain

constantlyAnd should rise and lower evenly with the gradient as require.


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Chapter 6

WORKING OF JIGGER DYEING MACHINE

The dyeing process on jigger is regarded as a series of intermittent padding

operation followed by dwelling periods on the main roller, during which the dyeing

action and diffusion takes place.

In the dyeing on jigger machines the cloth revolves on two main rollers, The

open-width fabric passes from one roller through the dyebath at the bottom of the

machine and then onto a driven take-up roller on the other side. When all the fabric

has passed through the bath, the direction is reversed. Each passage is called an

end. Dyeing always involves an even number of ends. The dye bath has one or more

guide rollers , around which the cloth travels, and during this immersion achieves the

desired contact with the dye liquor. During this passage the fabric picks up adequate

quantity of dye liquor, excess of which is drained out but still a good quantity is held

in the fabric. During rotation of rollers this dye penetrates and diffuses into the fabric.

The real dyeing takes place not in the dye liquor but when the cloth is on the rollers,

since only a very small length of fabric is in the dye bath and major part is on the

rollers. Therefore the speed of cloth during immersion in dye liquor has a very little

effect on percentage of shade produced.

Some critical problems related to the conventional jigger dyeing machines

(which are minimized in the modern day machines). The major problems are side-to-

centre color variations, called listing, and lengthways color variations, called ending.

Initially, a large length of (50 – 150 kg) cloth is wound on the let off roller and

take up roller is then driven by the power. After one end is taken, the take up

becomes let off roller. These backward and forward movements of cloth through the

dye liquor absorb more and more dye.

In the modern jigger, automatic devices are fitted along with the timing switch

by using reversing will take place automatically.

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After loading the fabric, half quantity of dye liquor is added into trough. After

proper stirring, machine is run for one turn. After one turn or end, remaining half

quantity of dye solution is added. The dye solution may be added in more lots

especially for dyes having high affinity. As per class of dyes and percentage shade

sufficient numbers of ends are given to get optimum dyeing results. Normally, initial

dyeing is carried out in presence of dye solutions and then required chemicals are

added in order to fix the dyes. After dyeing, dye-bath is drained off and rinsed

thoroughly with water. Washing is followed by soaping or other after-treatments on

jigger machine only. In the present scenario, closed types of jiggers are used. The

main advantage is to prevent heat loss and chemical loses by evaporation. This type

of jigger is very important for dyeing vat, Sulphur etc.

6.1. A typical recipes for various process in jigger

6.1.1. Combined scouring & bleaching:

Hydrogen Peroxide (Bleaching agent) - 2-5%

Caustic soda (Scouring agent) - 1-2%

Wetting agent (Improve wetting tendency of fabric) - 0.1-0.5%

Sodium silicate (Peroxide stabilizer) - 1-3%

Sequestering agent (To reduce hardness of water) - 0.5%

6.1.2. Dyeing and washing:

Reactive dyes (Colouring agent) - 1- 4%

Wetting agent (Improve wetting tendency of fabric) - 0.5%

Sodium chloride (Exhausting agent) - 5%

Sodium carbonate (Fixing agent) - 1-2%

Soap (Removing unfixed dyes) - 0.5%


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6.1.3. Typical dyeing process: Dyeing of cotton with Hot brand reactive

dyes

Weight reactive dyes as per percentage shade & weight of material to be

dyed.

Paste the dyes with little amount of water

Pour warm water and dissolve the dyes completely

Divide the dye solution into two lots (parts)

Fill the trough of jigger with water as per liquor ratio (MLR)

Add half quantity of dye solution into dye bath (water in trough)

Stir the dye bath and mix the dye solution thoroughly

Start machine and run the fabric for one end/turn

Add remaining half quantity of dye solution into dye bath

Run the fabric for second end/turn

After second end heat the dye bath slowly and raise temperature to 90-95oC

Run the machine in dye solution for two more ends at 90-95oC.

Calculate and weigh the salt so that the final concentration of salt in dye bath

will be about 40-80 gm/l. Prepare salt solution (sodium chloride of sodium

sulphate) using liquor from dye bath.

Add half quantity of salt solution during one end and remaining half quantity

during next end.

Run machine in salt solution for 2-4 ends

Cut small piece of sample at the joint and fix with soda ash solution outside

the dye bath.

Wash the sample and check for matching with given sample (standard)


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If do not match, get the judgment and weigh the dyes as per requirements.

Again prepare dye solution as mentioned above. Add the dye solution over

two lots.

Calculate and weigh the soda ash so that the final concentration of soda ash

in dye bath will be about 10-15 gm/l. Prepare soda ash solution using liquor

from dye bath (to maintain the MLR).

After matching shade, add soda ash into dye bath over two ends

Run machine for more number of ends in soda (2- 6 ends, as per % shade)

Cut small piece of sample at the joint and match with standard sample

If do not match, final matching is done with required dye solution addition into

dye bath.

Drain the dye bath

Rinse the material thoroughly with water (2-4 ends)

Neutralize

Soaping at boiling with 2 gm/l soap solution (2 ends)

Hot rinsing (2 ends)

Cold rinsing (2 ends)

Unloading

6.1.4. Typical dyeing process: Dyeing of cotton with Vat dyes

Vat dyes are water insoluble. They have to be converted into water soluble prior to

dyeing. They are known for the excellent wash fastness properties. The dyeing with

vat dyes involves four steps

i. Conversion of water insoluble dye into water soluble dye (Reduction - Vatting)

ii. Dyeing of cotton


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iii. Conversion of water insoluble dye in fibre to insoluble parent dye (Oxidation)

iv. Soaping of vat dyed cotton

Step wise dyeing of cotton vat dyes on jigger is as follows.

Weight vat dyes as per percentage shade & weight of material to be dyed.

Dissolution of dyes is carried out by first pasting the dye with turkey red oil

(wetting agent) followed by pouring of alkali and reducing agent solution. This is

called vatting. It is done with following recipe

Vat dye X parts

Caustic soda 2X parts

Hydro 1X part

Water 20 liters

Temperature 50-60oC

Time 10-15 min.

Divide the dye solution into two lots (parts)

Fill the trough of jigger with water, 5-10 gm/l caustic soda and 5-10 m/l hydro

as per liquor ratio (MLR)

Add half quantity of reduced dye solution into dye bath

Stir the dye bath and mix the dye solution thoroughly

Start machine and run the fabric for one end/turn

Add remaining half quantity of dye solution into dye bath

Run the fabric for second end/turn

After second end heat the dye bath slowly and raise temperature to 50oC

Run the machine in dye solution for about 4-6 more ends at 50oC.


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Add about 20-30 gm/l (final concentration in dyebath) salt solution. Follow

the process of salt preparation and addition as given in reactive dyeing.

(Addition of salt is done in case of low affinity dyes)

Run machine in salt solution for 2-4 ends

Cut small piece of sample at the joint, oxidize, soap, dry and match with given

standard solution.

If do not match, get the judgment and weigh the dyes as per requirements.

Again prepare dye solution (vatting) as mentioned above. Add the dye solution over

two lots.

Precaution: Check the presence of hydro with vat yellow paper and alkali with

litmus paper during course of dyeing. If found insufficient, add the required quantity

of hydos or alkali (caustic soda).

After matching shade, Drain the dye bath

Rinse the material thoroughly with water (2 ends)

Neutralize with acetic acid ( 2 ends)

Soaping at boiling with 2 gm/l soap and 2 g/l soda ash (2-4 ends)

Hot rinsing (2 ends)

Cold rinsing (2 ends)

Unloading


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6.2. Pictures of Various parts in jigger dyeing machine:

Take up and Let off rollers

During machine running Unloading in jigger


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Spraying system Preparation tank & main panel

6.3. Operating Jigger machine: (Steps Involved)

Finding the exact dye powder weighing of dye powder

Mixing of required chemicals Transportation of chemical


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Filling of water in jigger machine adjusting fabric tension

While bleaching operation dyeing in Jigger


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Operating panel Unloading after dyeing

Understand and follow the instruction from lot card and programme book.

Ensure main power is switched ON then compressed air, steam and water valve

to be open.

Check the quality and lot number of the fabric before putting on the machine by

checking the label.

Transport the fabric to be run, to the inlet feeding unit of jigger machine using

hydraulic hand puller or electric truck.

Initially load 10-15 meters of leader fabric and clean all the roller properly.

Ensure the process to be done, scouring & bleaching or dyeing or washing.

Initially fill the water in the trough and clean the bottom of the trough thoroughly.

Accordingly prepare the chemical approved by shift in-charge and preparation of

chemicals to be done in front of the shift in-charge.

Start loading of the fabric in the jigger machine, while loading no crease and

proper loading is necessary. Observe the defect of the fabric while loading.

Set the important parameter in the machine:

Machine speed – 10-100 m/min

Fixed speed of loading and unloading – 60 m/min


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Max. batch diameter – 700 mm - 1100 mm

Max. temperature – 98oC

Fabric tension in practice – depends on fabric type

Set the No of ends according to the process type - 2 to 16 Nos.

Check for various process damages in the fabric like stains – dust, chemicals,

rust, handling stains, crease, water dropping, oil, grease, etc.

Check the fabric shade if dyeing process is carried out and whiteness index for

bleaching process before unloading. Ensure proper batching in the outlet without any

crease.

6.4. Cleaning in Jigger Machine

Remove regularly accumulated dust and dirt from the machine.

The inlet sensors and fabric guider are to be cleaned properly.

While loading and unloading clean the machine‟s surrounding area.

Transport the dyes and other chemicals safely in a proper way.

Collect all the waste and store them in designated place


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Chapter 7

PROCESS CONTROL PARAMETERS IN JIGGER DYEING

MACHINE

7.1. Fabric Preparation

This is very important process control parameter in order to get fault free dyeing.

Under this parameter, pH of core fabric, absorbency, whiteness, creases of the fabric

should be checked.

Requirements: pH of the fabric should be neutral, the drop of water should be

absorbed immediately before 5 seconds uniform whiteness, and fabric should be

crease free.

Corrective action: If the absorbency is not proper then rescouring is to be done. If

creases are there then the creases are removed by passing the fabric through

stenter machine.

7.2. Batching

The cloth must be wound on roller with coincident selvages (knife edge batching) i.e.

no part of the selvage should be coming out of the rolls. Uneven batching leads to

uneven selvages dyeing.

Improper batching creates a severe problem in vat dyeing. When a part of the

selvage comes out of the roll during faulty winding leuco vat dye present in the

exposed selvage gets oxidised and when it re-enters the dye solution this portion of

the selvage picks up more dye than the body of the fabric. As a result, the selvage is

dyed deeper than the body of the cloth. Check the proper working of expanders in

order to maintain even batching and crease free running of the fabric. Batch Size of

a particular lot depends on capacity of the machine. Do not overload the machine.

7.3. Stitching of End Cloth Fabric

Two end pieces of fabric (about 3-4 meters) are stitched at both the ends in order to

avoid the wastage of fabric taken for dyeing. Length and width of the end cloth needs


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to be checked. Colour of the end pieces cloth fabric should be compatible to the

dyes taken for dyeing.

7.4. MLR

For all the dyeing machine material to liquor ration is very important in to get

consistence dyeing results. For Jigger dyeing machine MLR varies from 1:1 to 1:5

depending on machine manufacturer and amount of fabric for dyeing. Maintain

constant liquor ratio to avoid batch to batch variations.

7.5. Recipe

The amount of dyes taken for dyeing is calculated according to the weight of the

fabric. Other textile auxiliaries may be added considering the amount of liquor taken

for dyeing. Recipe of dyeing varies from dye to dye. One has to select the standard

recipe of dyeing.

7.6. Colour Preparation

The standard dye preparation method depends on class of dye used for dyeing.

Normally dyes are pasted with little amount of water and then warm water is poured

to dissolve the dye completely. Then finally required volume is made by adding

water. Proper dissolution of dye may be checked by spotting on the filter paper.

Strain the colour through bolting cloth prior to dyeing.

Use proper dissolution method in case of vat and sulphur, give sufficient time for

dissolution.

7.7. Colour and Chemical Addition:

Colour and chemical addition in jigger dyeing should be in even installments and not

in odd installments. Use of splash board should be done during addition of any

chemical to the jigger dyeing machine. Proper stirring of the solution is carried out in

the trough after every addition. All solid chemicals must be added by pre-dissolving.

Concentration of chemicals should be decided as per the dyeing recipe.

7.8. pH of dye bath


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Check pH during dyeing as per the class of the dye. Give optimum dose of alkali and

acids in order to maintain the required pH.

7.9. Temperature

Temperature during dyeing is checked with the help of the thermometer. The

temperature should be as per the class of the dye and it maintained by regulating the

steam supply. Heat the solution during the end of the turn and not in between when

the fabric is running. Standard temperature is maintained as per class of dyes used.

This is important to get optimum dyeing results.

7.10. Addition of Colours for the Correction of Shade

Again addition of colour is done in even number of lots. Before addition, if required

dye solution may be partially drained off to maintain the liquor ratio.

7.11. After Treatment

To improve fastness properties after-treatments are given after dyeing. Some after-

treatments are given below.

In case sulphur dyeing, after oxidation sodium acetate and pine oil treatment is given

to avoid bronziness of shade and tendering of fabric.

For direct dye, dye-fixing treatment is given to improve washing fastness.

In case of disperse dyeing reduction clearing is given.


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Chapter 8

DEVELOPMENTS IN JIGGER DYEING MACHINES

Some critical problems related to the conventional jigger dyeing machines are

minimised in the modern jigger dyeing machines. The major problems are side-to-

centre color variations, called listing, and lengthways color variations, called ending.

Other problems like, temperature control from side-to-side and end-to-end of the roll;

tension control from end-to-end; constant speed control from end-to-end; prevention

of creases, prevention of air problems related to the conventional jigger dyeing

machines.

8.1. High Temperature Jigger Machine

Based on experience and developments in industry and controller technology,

the Thies-Jigger is developed. This machine is suitable for processing fabric at

atmospheric temperatures of up to 98°C and in high temperature processing up to

140°C. This Jigger is especially recommended for the treatment of crease sensitive,

permeable and non-permeable articles in open width form, offering optimum

flexibility for the finishing of all modern fibres and blends. Incorporating innovations in

step less tension and material speed control and with an economical dye trough

designed for uniform dyeing in short liquor ratio conditions.

An industrial PC, proven in the exhaust dyeing industry, including PLC and a

fabric rope monitoring system is used for the complete machine control, ensuring the

maintenance of optimum processing conditions.

These machines have been used for a long time to treat medium-size lots of

woven with an open-width exhaust dyeing process. The fabric moves while the liquor

stands still, except for the very latest machines, which are also equipped with a

circulation pump. The fabric pieces are sewn together tail-to-head, forming a sort of

“ribbon”. At the head and at the tail of the ribbon two cloths are added (4–5 m long)

to allow the regular dyeing of the whole pieces, also leaving the machine drawn-in


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once the dyeing process has come to an end. The assembled pieces are taken down

from a roll, pass through the liquor (they are kept in the correct position by means of

transport cylinders and a tension equaliser, which avoids the formation of wrinkles).

The fabric is then wound on a takeup roll until the dyeing process has ended. The

piece through speed and tensions are adjusted by special devices to avoid any

change in dimensional stability, above all when treating lightweight fabrics and/or

delicate fibres.

The maximum diameter of the roller can be 1,450 mm with a width of the

piece of cloth ranging between 1,400 and 3,600 mm. The piece through speed is

adjusted between 30 and 150 m/min. and kept constant during the whole operation.

Also the tension must be constant and it can be adjusted between 0 and 60 kg.

Since the passage time is very short, dyeing occurs above all on the fabric wound on

the rolls. The composition of the liquor absorbed must be as uniform as possible on

the whole width and length of the fabric piece; for big lots, many additions may be

necessary to avoid the so-called head-tail defects. Lightweight fabrics (viscose,

nylon) that are stretched excessively during the takeup step can show “shading”

defects. Jiggers work with a quite low liquor ratio (from 1:1 to 1:6).Together with

standard atmospheric systems, builders also offer HT jiggers inside autoclaves

working at high pressure. Jiggers are suitable for dyeing all type of fibres.


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Direct drive of the main rollers via frequency controlled three-phase motors

with brake drive current return (energy saving) 2. A dye trough design ensuring

minimum possible liquor ratio 3. Fabric rope monitoring control system for precise

calculation and control of the fabric speed and tension 4. Uniform dyeing conditions

in the dye trough, independent of the batch size 5. Water meter for controlled rinsing

6. Dosing of dyes and chemicals dependent on the fabric length passing through the

dye bath 7. Addition pressure pump for shading corrections and dosing 8. On the

HT-Jigger dosing under pressure possible 9. External pump and heat exchanger

ensure uniform liquor heating and circulation 10. Sidewise displacement of the main

batch roller 11. Analogue level for dyeing kier 12. Floor level track system* 13. Easy

maintenance Significant innovations in the process technology ensure modern

utilization

Integrated fabric transfer system with spreader for crease-free

loading/unloading of the fabric. 2. Centre driven frequency controlled motor drive for

loading/unloading of the fabric from and to an A-frame. 3. Function “Salt dissolving”

with electric stirrer and automatic brine transfer into the kier. 4. Self cleaning liquor

filter. 5. Chamber roof heating. 6. Spraying device in the dye trough for intensive

rinsing of the fabric. 7. Moisture extraction device used in the unloading process. 8.

Chamber roof cleaning spray. 9. Automation of the loading/unloading port.

Picture: Modernized High Temperature Jigger Machine


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The features which are very useful in improving the jigger processing results

can be summarized as indication of fabric speed. Indication of the direction of cloth

passages indication of the fabric tension on both the sides. Automatic stopping of the

machine when the predetermined number of passages is completed. Jerkless,

noiseless and gradual reversion of cloth passage. Automatic stoappage of mahine

fabric breakages arrangement of monorail and batch lifting and doffing over a battery

of jigger machine; automatic temperature control of the dye liquor. Spraying of dye

liquor on the fabric on both the sides.


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Chapter 9

FABRIC DEFECTS IN JIGGER DYEING

If proper precautions were not exercised, the following fabric dyeing faults

may occur. In order to avoid the faults some due precautions are also mentioned.

Dyeing Fault

Diagnosis Cure

Listing

1. High speed & speed variation (150 m/min i.e. 20 mints per cycle)

2. Temperature variation side to side

1. Constant speed & Medium speed (80-100 m/min i.e. 30-35 mints per cycle)

2. Control of temperature & proper winding of fabric through jigger main rollers

Tailing

1. High Dyes / Chemicals Concentration

2. Unknown disperse/reactive dyes properties profile

3. Different migration of different disperse and reactive dyes

4. pH Variation

5. Liquor level variation

6. Levelling issues

7. Temperature (8-10oC) variation during running of lot

8. High speed & speed variation (150 m/min i.e. 20 mints per cycle)

9. Extra length of fabric meters (more than the specified capacity of jig machine)

1. Dyes Dosing should be dosed in portions (400 to 400 meters fabrics )

2. Need to use Medium sublimation disperse dyes & medium substantive reactive dyes

3. Balance migration properties in trichromatic shades

4. Use of acidic buffer

5. Liquor level can be controlled by variable dosing

6. Use of dispersing / levelling agents

7. Speed should be lower (increment in dwell time)

8. Increase the dwell time (35-40 min per cycle) with constant lower speed

9. Shorten the length of fabric i.e. 20%


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Dark and light selvedges

1.Uneven batching in jigger m/c.

2.Prolong batching in jigger during vat dyeing.

1. Correct jigger batch. Batching shall be knife edged batching

2.Correct batch length in vat dyeing.

3.Adjust expander roller before padding.

Shade

Variation

1.Temperature variation with

width of the fabric or length of

the fabric

2.Improper dye dosing

3.Uneven tension on fabric

when end/cycle changes

4.Inconsistent speed of the

fabric

Therefore, it is advisable to use

closed jigger machine for

consistent temperature

throughout the dyeing process

and standardized dye doing

system.

Other problems are:

Temperature control from side-to-side and end-to-end of the roll

Tension control from end-to-end

Constant speed control from end-to-end

Prevention of creases

Prevention of air


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In General Problems in Dyeing with Dyeing of Cotton

Problem Possible Cause Solutions

Dye spots,

Dye stains,

patchy

dyeing

Poor pre-treatment, Proper pre-treatment,

Contaminants in the substrate,

water quality

good rinsing, use sequestering

agents

Incompatibility of dyebath

assistants

Use of compatible dyebath

assistants

High rate of dye strike on the

substrate

Optimum process control

Low liquor ratio Suitable Material to liquor ratio

More dense/compact yarn areas

appearing dark due to less

scattering of light

Good quality control of the

substrate

Improper rinsing/washing-off after

dyeing

Thoroughly rinsing/ washing-off

after dyeing

Dye aggregation Check the reasons of Dye

aggregation

Poor stability of dye dispersion Good dye dispersion stability

Optimum control of pH and

temperature

Poor

washing

fastness

Inadequate washing-off of

hydrolysed dye (in case of

reactive dyes)

Thoroughly washing off of dyed

goods.

Inadequate removal of loosely

retained dye (for direct dyes

Thoroughly washing off of dyed

goods

Inherent low fastness properties

of the dyes

Use of cationic fixing agents or

other fastness improving after-

treatment

Premature or over-oxidation of

the dye

Optimum oxidation

Poor

rubbing

fastness

Dyes of poor rubbing fastness

Use of dyes of good rubbing

fastness

Too high moisture in the test

material

Proper conditioning of the test

material

Improper use of finishing agents Proper use of finishing agents

Un-mercerized cotton Use of properly mercerized

cotton


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Incomplete diffusion and fixation Use of optimum dyeing

conditions

Improper washing-off Optimum washing-off

Poor colour

yield

Poor pre-treatment Good pre-treatment

Residual peroxide in the

substrate

No residual peroxide in the

substrate

Dye hydrolysis (only in case

of reactive dyes)

Careful storage of dyes

Use of freshly prepared dye

Solution, Optimum dyeing

conditions

Very low dye substantivity Use of dyes of good

substantivity

Too low concentration of

electrolyte

Optimum concentration of

electrolyte

Too low concentration of alkali Optimum concentration of alkali

Too low dye concentration Optimum dye concentration

Incomplete or over reduction of

dye (In case of Vat and Sulphur

dye)

Optimum use of reducing agents

Too high liquor ratio Optimum liquor ratio

Too short dyeing time Optimum dyeing time

Improper use of surfactants Optimum use of surfactants

Water hardness Use of soft water or

appropriate sequestering agents

Poor level

dyeing

Poor dye solubility Use of dyes of good solubility

High dye affinity Use of dyes of optimum affinity

Dyes of poor migration

Use of dyes of good migration

properties

High salt concentration Optimum concentration of salt

Rate of dyeing too high Optimum rate of dyeing

Rapid rate of rise of temperature Optimum rate of rise of

temperature

Rapid shift of dye bath pH Optimum pH control

Low liquor flow rate Optimum liquor flow rate

Low mechanical action Optimum mechanical action

Alkali added too soon Alkali added optimally

Too high dye concentration Optimum dye concentration

Too high electrolyte content Optimum electrolyte content

Too low temperature Optimum temperature


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Dye

aggregation

Lower dye solubility Good dye solubility

Water hardness Use of soft water or appropriate

Sequestering agents

Contamination of dyebath with

calcium, magnesium, chlorine or

heavy metals

3. Use of appropriate

sequestering or chelating agents

Improper use of dyebath

assistants, e.g. surfactants,

sequestering agents fixatives,

lubricating agents

Use of compatible dyebath

assistants

Poor

washing of

dyed goods

Dye substantivity is very high

Use of dyes of optimum

substantivity

Dyes of low diffusion coefficient Use of dyes of optimum diffusion

coefficient

Low temperature of the washing

liquor

Optimum temperature of the

washing liquor

High electrolyte concentration

in the washing bath

Use optimum conc. of salt

Thoroughly rinsing

Water hardness

Use of soft water or water

softening agents

Inadequate washing time Optimum washing time

Inadequate number of wash

cycles/wash baths

Optimum number of wash

cycles/wash baths

Low mechanical action

Optimum mechanical action

Physical

damage

Too long dyeing time (due to

corrective/repair procedures)

Right first time dyeing

Too high mechanical or

hydraulic action

Optimum mechanical or

hydraulic action

Too high temperature

(increases the sensitivity of the

material to physical damage)

Optimum temperature

Dull shades Incomplete reduction of dyes (Vat

and Sulphure Dyes)

Proper reduction of dye

Presence of heavy metals Use of suitable metal

complexing agents


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Fabric

Tendering

(Acid

Tendering)

(In case of

Sulphur

dyes only)

Inadequate washing

Lack of proper after-treatments

of the dyed fabric

Thorough washing and

neutralisation of the fabric after

Use of alkaline bath in the

final rinse

Use of sodium acetate and

soda ash for after-treatment

Bronziness

(In case of

Sulphur

dyes only)

Insufficient quantity of reducing

agent, sodium sulphide

Optimum quantity of sodium

sulphide

Poor strength of sodium

sulphide

Good quality control of

sodium sulphide

Too high concentration of salt Optimum concentration of salt

Too high concentration of alkali Optimum concentration of alkali

Too long exposure of dyed

goods to air before being after-

treated

No long exposure of dyed

goods to air before being after-

treated

Too short liquor ratio Optimum liquor ratio

Too high temperature during

dyeing

Optimum temperature during

dyeing

Water hardness

Use of soft water or appropriate

sequestering agents

Premature oxidation of

reduced dye

Excess quantity of sodium

Sulphide

Excessively heavy shade Use of dyes with high tinctorial

strength


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Chapter 10

INSTRUCTIONS DURING SHIFT CHANGE OVER

Taking charge of duties while starting of shift:

Come at least 10 - 15 minutes earlier to the work place.

Meet the previous shift operator and discuss regarding the issues faced by them

with respect to the quality or production or spare or safety or any other specific

instruction etc.

Understand the fabric being processed & process running on the machine.

Ensure technical details are mentioned on the job card & display in machine.

Check the next batch to be processed is ready near the machine.

Check the cleanliness of the machines & other work areas.

Question the previous shift operator for any deviation in the above and bring the

same to the knowledge of the shift superior.

Handing over charge at the end of shift:

Properly hand over the shift to the incoming operator.

Provide the details regarding fabric quality & the process running on the

machine.

Provide all relevant information regarding the stoppages or breakdown in the

machine, any damage to the material or machine.

Ensure the next lot to be processed is ready near the machine

Get clearance from the incoming counterpart before leaving the work spot.


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Report to the shift supervisor in case the next shift operator doesn't report for the

shift.

Report to the shift supervisor about the quality / production / safety issues/ any

other issue faced in the shift and leave the department only after getting

concurrence for the same from supervisor.

Collect the wastes from waste bags weigh them & transport to storage area.


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Chapter 11

IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH AND SAFETY

To minimize exposure to hazardous chemicals appropriate personal protective

equipment, such as Hand Gloves, Safety Glasses, Gum Boots, Masks, Head

cap, etc., should be used.

Never handle chemicals with bare hands

Training should be provided on handling of solvents and other harmful

chemicals, and how to deal with accidental spills, contact with skin and eyes, and

ingestion of chemicals.

Report any service malfunctions in the machine that cannot be rectified to the

supervisor.

Store materials and equipment at their designated places.

Minimize health and safety risks to self and others due to own actions.

Monitor the workplace and work processes for potential risks.

Do not carry any metallic parts during machine running as there are chances of

fire and damage to machine parts.

Take action based on instructions in the event of fire, emergencies or accidents,

participate in mock drills/ evacuation procedures organized at the workplace as

per organization procedures.

Hazardous waste must be disposed of properly in accordance with

manufacturer‟s guidelines (MSDS) and national policies.

Exit passageways and stair cases must never be blocked with obstacles and all

stairs should have hand rails.


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Employees should be given access to safe drinking water as well as a clean area

for meals.

Emergency exit doors should never be locked.

Proper lighting and ventilation need to be ensured and machinery must be well

maintained to avoid accidents.

Sufficient fire extinguishers should be made available and signs should be

placed in prominent places so that people are aware of their presence.

There should also be signs saying “No Food and Drink‟ in areas such as the

laboratory, store room and factory floor, and any other areas where it is not safe

to consume food.

Hazardous chemicals should be clearly marked in an appropriate language and

with clear symbols that people have to be trained to recognize and understand.

Sins should be placed near inflammable substances stating that it is not

permitted to smoke or have open fires.

Annexure 7- Course Content TCPRC06.pdf

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